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Jacqueline L. Reck |
Suzanne L. Lowensohn

Accounting for Governmental & Nonprofit Entities

Seventeenth Edition

Jacqueline L. Reck, Ph.D., CPA

James E. and C. Ellis Rooks Distinguished Professor in Accounting University of South Florida

Suzanne L. Lowensohn, Ph.D., CPA, CGMA Associate Professor of Accounting Colorado State University

ACCOUNTING FOR GOVERNMENTAL & NONPROFIT ENTITIES, SEVENTEENTH EDITION

Published by McGraw-Hill Education, 2 Penn Plaza, New York, NY 10121. Copyright © 2016 by McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America. Previous editions © 2013, 2010, and 2007. No part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a database or retrieval system, without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education, including, but not limited to, in any network or other electronic storage or transmission, or broadcast for distance learning.

Some ancillaries, including electronic and print components, may not be available to customers outside the United States.

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Reck, Jacqueline L.

Accounting for governmental & nonprofit entities / Jacqueline L. Reck, Ph.D., CPA, James E. and C. Ellis Rooks, Distinguished Professor in Accounting, University of South Florida, Suzanne L. Lowensohn, Ph.D., CPA, CGMA, Associate Professor of Accounting, Colorado State University. — Seventeenth Edition.

pages cm

ISBN 978-0-07-802582-2 (alk. paper) — ISBN 0-07-802582-6 (alk. paper) 1. Finance, Public—Accounting. 2. Nonprofit organizations— Accounting. 3. Nonprofit organizations—United States—Accounting. I. Lowensohn, Suzanne L. II. Title. III. Title: Accounting for governmental and nonprofit entities.

HJ9733.R43 2014 657'.825—dc23

2014043201

The Internet addresses listed in the text were accurate at the time of publication. The inclusion of a Web site does not indicate an endorsement by the authors or McGraw-Hill Education, and McGraw-Hill Education does not guarantee the accuracy of the information presented at these sites.

www.mhhe.com

DEDICATION TO EARL R. WILSON

Professors Jackie Reck and Suzanne Lowensohn dedicate the 17th edition of Accounting for Governmental & Nonprofit Entities to Professor Emeritus Earl R. Wilson. Professor Wilson served as an author of this textbook from the 9th edition (1992) through the 16th edition. As a result of Professor Wilson’s innovation and dedication, the textbook is recognized nationally and has been adopted by hundreds of institutions. When the GASB issued the financial reporting model standard in 1999, Professor Wilson convinced his co-authors that the dual-track approach used in the textbook would be a better pedagogical approach to teaching the two bases of accounting than teaching the conversion method that is presented as part of Chapter 9 of the textbook. We believe he was correct in advocating the approach that has been taken in the textbook, and to our knowledge we are the only textbook offering this approach to teaching the two accounting and reporting bases for the government reporting model.

Professor Wilson is also responsible for the Smithville_Bingham software that is offered with the textbook. He originally contracted a programmer to work with him in developing the Smithville electronic practice set. Later his work was brought ‘in-house’ at McGraw-Hill and has been moved to a Web-based platform making it more accessible and easier for students and instructors to use. Since the initial development of Smithville, we have added Bingham, and with the 16th edition we introduced a shortened version of Smithville. We will continue to provide and add to this valuable teaching tool that was first developed by Professor Wilson.

Professor Wilson is also responsible for Chapter 17, “Accounting and Reporting for the Federal Government.” He believed that a government and not-for-profit textbook was incomplete if it did not include information on the federal government. As a result, he researched and wrote the chapter on accounting and reporting for the federal government. We continue to believe this is an important chapter in our textbook.

Professor Wilson’s contributions to the textbook were based on his wealth of experience as a researcher, teacher, and his participation in the government community. Among his many accomplishments are the following:

• Professor Emeritus of Accountancy at the University of Missouri—Columbia.

• Academic fellow with the Governmental Accounting Standards Board (GASB).

• Member of the Governmental Accounting Standards Advisory Council, the U.S. Comptroller General’s Advisory Council on Governmental Auditing Standards, the American Institute of CPAs Government Accounting and Auditing Committee.

• President of the American Accounting Association Government and Nonprofit (AAA-GNP) Section.

• Author/co-author of numerous research articles in journals such as The Accounting Review; Journal of Accounting Research; Contemporary Accounting Research; Journal of Accounting and Public Policy; Journal of Accounting, Auditing, and Finance; Research in Governmental and Nonprofit Accounting; and Public Budgeting and Finance.

• Recipient of the enduring Lifetime Contribution Award from the AAA-GNP section.

• Recipient of the Cornelius Tierney/Ernst & Young Research Award from the Association of Government Accountants.

• Outstanding Teacher of the Year from the Kansas City MU Business Alumni Association; Outstanding Educator of the Year and Outstanding CPA in Government from the Missouri State CPA.

• Chair or committee member for more than 30 doctoral dissertations, many in the area of governmental accounting.

On a more personal note, Professors Reck and Lowensohn thank Professor Wilson for his guidance and patience as he taught us the “textbook process.” Originally, Professor Wilson intended the 15th edition to be his last with the textbook, but we persuaded him to stay for the 16th edition. Since he has been an Emeritus professor for a number of years, persuasion did not work on the 17th edition. Professor Wilson has decided that he is ready to “fully” retire and spend more time with his golf game. We hope he enjoys his well-deserved retirement!

About the Authors

Jacqueline L. Reck

Serves as the associate dean of financial management and academic affairs for the College of Business and is the James E. and C. Ellis Rooks Distinguished Professor in Accounting at the University of South Florida. She received a BS degree from North Dakota State University, BS and MAcc degrees from the University of South Florida, and her PhD from the University of Missouri–Columbia. She is a certified public accountant (Florida).

Dr. Reck worked for state government for several years before joining academia. Currently, she is active in several professional associations. In addition to teaching governmental and not-for-profit accounting, Dr. Reck serves on the Governmental Accounting Standards Advisory Council and frequently presents continuing professional education workshops and sessions. She has provided workshops on governmental and not-for-profit accounting for local accounting firms and the state auditor general’s staff. Dr. Reck has received several teaching and research awards and has chaired or served on several doctoral dissertation committees.

Dr. Reck has published articles in Contemporary Accounting Research; Journal of Accounting and Public Policy; Research in Governmental and Nonprofit Accounting; Journal of Public Budgeting, Accounting and Financial Management; and the Journal of Information Systems, among others. She joined as an author on the 14th edition.

Suzanne L. Lowensohn

Is an associate professor of Accounting at Colorado State University. She received a BS and a MAcc degree from the University of South Florida, and her PhD from the University of Miami. She is a certified public accountant (Florida) and a chartered global management accountant.

Dr. Lowensohn has served on the Governmental Accounting Standards Board Intangible Issues Task Force and Comprehensive Implementation Guide Advisory Committee, on the Government Finance Officers Association Special Review Executive Committee, on the Colorado Society of Certified Public Accountants Governmental Issues Committee, on the AICPA FARS Content Subcommittee, and as president of the Government and Nonprofit Section of the American Accounting Association. Prior to joining academia, she worked for KPMG and performed numerous governmental audits.

Professor Lowensohn has published articles in Journal of Accounting and Public Policy; Research in Governmental and Nonprofit Accounting; Accounting and the Public Interest; Journal of Accounting Literature; Issues in Accounting Education; and Behavioral Research in Accounting, among others. She joined as an author on the 16th edition.

Preface

For more than 60 years, Accounting for Governmental & Nonprofit Entities has been the leader in the market. It is a comprehensive governmental and not-for-profit accounting text written for students who will be auditing and working in public and notfor-profit sector entities. Originally published in 1951 and written by Professor R. M. Mikesell, this book—and the many subsequent editions revised by Professors Leon Hay, Earl Wilson, Susan Kattelus, Jacqueline Reck, and Suzanne Lowensohn—have given generations of instructors and students a comprehensive knowledge of the specialized accounting and financial reporting practices of governmental and not-for-profit organizations, as well as an understanding of how those organizations can better meet the information needs of a diverse set of financial statement users and decision makers. The vision of these original authors continues to be reflected in this 17th edition, and their strategy of providing a large and innovative set of instructional support materials prepared and tested in the classroom by the authors continues to be a guiding principle today. The current author team brings to this edition their extensive experience teaching government and not-for-profit courses as well as insights gained from their professional experience, scholarly writing, and professional activities. The result is a relevant and accurate text that includes the most effective instructional tools.

ORGANIZATION AND CONTENT

The 17th edition of Accounting for Governmental & Nonprofit Entities is separated into three parts: Part One covers state and local governments (Chapters 2 through 9), Part Two focuses on accountability for public funds (Chapters 10 through 12), and Part Three examines not-for-profit organizations (Chapters 13 through 16) and the federal government (Chapter 17). Chapter 1 continues to form a broad foundation for the more detailed material in Chapters 2 through 17. The order of the chapters is the same as the last edition. The chapters are ordered to facilitate a variety of courses and formats used by adopters of the text. For example, a course focused on state and local governments may cover Chapter 1 and Parts One and Two, while a course focused on not-for-profit organizations may cover Chapter 1 and Parts Two and Three. Part Two is a bridge between the public and not-for-profit sectors that includes accountability topics (e.g., financial analysis, auditing, and budgeting) applicable to all types of entities that receive public funds.

KEY CHANGES IN THIS EDITION

With the 17th edition, we are pleased to integrate McGraw-Hill’s Connect and LearnSmart educational technology systems. Connect is a digital teaching and learning platform for homework completion and review that helps improve student performance over a variety of critical outcomes while aiding instructor grading and assessment efficiency. LearnSmart is an adaptive study tool that helps identify specific topics and learning objectives individual students need to study.

As always, readers can count on this edition to include authoritative changes from the Governmental Accounting Standards Board, Financial Accounting Standards Board, Federal Accounting Standards Advisory Board, American Institute of Certified

Public Accountants, Office of Management and Budget, Internal Revenue Service, and Government Accountability Office. Update bulletins will be provided periodically on the text Web site as new authoritative statements are issued.

Since publication of the 16th edition, important changes affecting accounting, financial reporting, and auditing for governmental and not-for-profit organizations have occurred, which include:

• Governmental Accounting Standards Board concepts statements and standards (particularly Statements 67 and 68) have been issued, and these describe new financial reporting elements and alter certain financial statements.

• The Office of Management and Budget has issued streamlined guidance relative to accounting and auditing federal grant funds in the Uniform Administrative Requirements, Cost Principles, and Audit Requirements for Federal Awards.

• The American Institute of Certified Public Accountants has issued clarified auditing standards.

Each of the changes in this abbreviated list has been incorporated into the text. Several notable improvements have been made in this edition of the text. Chapter 3 includes new material on government budgets. Chapter 4 has been reorganized, so that interfund activities are covered after general governmental transactions have been introduced. Chapter 8 now illustrates external financial statements for an investment trust pool. Chapter 10 introduces Electronic Municipal Market Access (EMMA). Chapters 11 and 12 incorporate changes under the new OMB super circular. Chapters 15 and 16 have been reformatted to better identify differences between the accounting for governmental and nongovernmental not-for-profit organizations. Finally, all end-of-chapter material is now sequentially numbered to facilitate problem assignment, and the instructor’s manual identifies learning objectives and assessment areas associated with each end of chapter item.

This edition continues to feature two comprehensive and effective computerized practice sets, the City of Bingham and the City of Smithville. As with the prior edition, a short version of the City of Smithville practice set is available for those instructors who wish a less comprehensive case. Both practice sets are downloadable from the publisher’s Web site.

INNOVATIVE PEDAGOGY

For state and local government accounting, the authors have found that dual-track accounting is an effective approach in showing the juxtaposition of government-wide and fund financial statements in GASB’s integrated model of basic financial statements. It allows students to see that each transaction has an effect on the fund financial statements (that are designed to show fiscal compliance with the annual budget), on the government-wide financial statements (that demonstrate accountability for operational performance of the government as a whole), or both. This approach better serves students who will design and use accounting information systems, such as enterprise systems, to allow information to be captured once and used for several purposes. Accounting for federal agencies as well as nongovernmental, not-for-profit entities closely parallels this approach as traditional fund accounting may be appropriate for keeping track of resources with restricted purposes, but citizens and donors also need to see the larger picture provided by the entity as a whole. The dual-track approach is further described inside the front cover of this text.

Governments will continue to prepare fund-based statements throughout the year and convert to accrual-based government-wide statements at the end of the year until they invest in information systems that can deliver real-time information for decision making. We want students to think beyond being transaction-bookkeepers and aspire to design and use the systems that will make government-wide financial information available when managers and citizens need it. The City of Bingham and City of Smithville Continuous Computerized Problems are teaching tools that develop these skills and perspective. The authors feel so strongly that this general ledger software tool helps students understand the material that we again provide it with the text. Students have enthusiastically told us that they like “learning by doing” and that these continuous computerized problems helped them to understand the concepts in the book.

TARGET AUDIENCE

The text continues to be best suited for senior and graduate accounting majors who plan to sit for the certified public accountant (CPA) exam and then audit governmental or not-for-profit entities. Public administration and other students who plan to provide financial management or consulting services to government and not-for-profit entities report that the text provides a more comprehensive set of competencies than traditional public budgeting texts. Students in not-for-profit management education programs find that the coverage of accounting, financial reporting, auditing, taxation, and information systems for both governmental and not-for-profit entities provides the exposure they need to work across disciplines and sectors. Finally, students preparing for the certified government financial manager (CGFM) exam will also find Chapters 1 through 11 useful for Examination 2. We encourage all students who use this book to consider the challenges and rewards of careers in public service—in federal, state, and local governments as well as not-for-profit organizations.

SUPPLEMENT PACKAGE

The following ancillary materials are prepared by the authors to ensure consistency and accuracy and are available on the textbook’s Web site, www.mhhe.com/reck17e.

• Instructor’s Guide and Solutions Manual.

• PowerPoint lecture presentations.

• Test Bank (including a computerized version using EZ Test software).

• McGraw-Hill’s Connect online homework system and LearnSmart adaptive study tool.

• The City of Bingham and City of Smithville Continuous Computerized Problems––general ledger practice sets, downloadable from the publisher’s Web site.

• The City of Bingham and City of Smithville Instructor’s Version software, providing guidance for instructors, solution data files, and solution page image (.pdf) files for all required financial statements, schedules, and reports.

Students can also access the PowerPoint lecture presentations for each chapter at the Online Learning Center on the text’s Web site, www.mhhe.com/reck17e.

Acknowledgments

We are thankful for the encouragement, suggestions, and counsel provided by many instructors, professionals, and students in writing this book. They include the following professionals and educators who read portions of this book and previous editions in various forms and provided valuable comments and suggestions:

Kimball Adams

City of Largo, Florida

Terry D. Balkaran

Queens College

Kelli A. Bennett

City and County of Denver

Irfan Bora

Rutgers University

Barbara Chaney

University of Montana

Michael Crawford

Crawford & Associates

Ruth W. Epps

Virginia Commonwealth University

Mary Foelster

American Institute of Certified Public Accountants

Michael Givens

City of Jacksonville, Florida

Debra Gula

University of South Florida

Kristen Hockman

University of Missouri—Columbia

Larita Killian

IUPUI—Columbus Center

Barbara Lippincott

Tampa, Florida

Allen McConnell

University of Northern Colorado

G. Michael Miller

City of Jacksonville, Florida

Dean Mead

Governmental Accounting Standards Board

Joel Provenza

City of Jacksonville, Florida

Walter A. Robbins

University of Alabama

Gail Sanderson

Lebanon Valley College

Ken Schermann

Governmental Accounting Standards Board

Mark Sutter

El Paso, Texas

Christopher Tenn

Colorado State University

Relmond P. Van Daniker

Association of Government Accountants

Shunda Ware

Atlanta Technical College

Tammy Waymire

Northern Illinois University

We acknowledge permission to quote pronouncements and reproduce illustrations from the publications of the Governmental Accounting Standards Board, American Institute of Certified Public Accountants, and International City/County Management Association. Dr. Reck thanks her family for their support and dedicates her work to the memory of Albert for the inspiration he continues to provide. Dr. Lowensohn would like to express appreciation to her loving family—Tom, Grant, and Tara—for their support and patience and to her friend and colleague, Dr. Laurence Johnson, for his professional guidance.

Although we are extremely careful in checking the text and end-of-chapter material, it is possible that errors and ambiguities remain in this edition. As readers

x Acknowledgments

encounter such, we urge them to let us know, so that corrections can be made. We also invite every user of this edition who has suggestions or comments about the material in the chapters to share them with one of the authors, either by regular mail or e-mail. The authors will continue the service of issuing Update Bulletins to adopters of this text that describe changes after the book is in print. These bulletins can be downloaded from the text Web site at www.mhhe.com/reck17e.

Dr. Jacqueline L. Reck School of Accountancy University of South Florida 4202 East Fowler Avenue, BSN 3403 Tampa, FL 33620

jreck@usf.edu

Dr. Suzanne Lowensohn Colorado State University College of Business 257 Rockwell Hall Fort Collins, Colorado 80523-1271

Suzanne.Lowensohn@colostate.edu

Table of Contents

Preface vi

Chapter 1

Introduction to Accounting and Financial Reporting for Governmental and Not-forProfit Entities 1

Welcome to Governmental and Not-for-Profit Accounting 1

What Are Governmental and Not-for-Profit Organizations? 2

Distinguishing Characteristics of Governmental and Not-for-Profit Organizations 3

Sources of Financial Reporting Standards 4

Objectives of Financial Reporting 5

Overview of Financial Reporting for State and Local Governments, the Federal Government, and Not-for-Profit Organizations 7

Financial Reporting of State and Local Governments 7

Financial Reporting of the Federal Government 10

Financial Reporting of Not-for-Profit Organizations (NFPs) 11

Expanding the Scope of Accountability Reporting 12

Overview of Chapters 2 through 17 12

GASB Principles, Standards, and Financial Reporting 12

Accountability for Public Funds 13

Not-for-Profit Organizations and the Federal Government 13

A Caveat 13

Key Terms 14

Questions 14

Cases 15

Exercises and Problems 16

PART ONE

State and Local Governments 21

Chapter 2

Principles of Accounting and Financial

Reporting for State and Local Governments 23

Activities of Government 24

Financial Reporting Model 25

Elements and Measurement 25

Government-wide Financial Statements 27

Fund Financial Statements 29

Fund Reporting 31

Fund Categories 31

Classification of Fund Balances 35

Major Fund Reporting 36

Summary of Government-wide and Fund Characteristics 38

Appendix A: Illustrative Financial Statements for City and County of Denver, Colorado 40

Appendix B: Summary Statement of Governmental Accounting and Financial Reporting Principles 54

Key Terms 58

Selected References 59

Questions 59

Cases 59

Exercises and Problems 62

Chapter 3

Governmental Operating Statement Accounts; Budgetary Accounting 67

Classification and Reporting of Expenses and Revenues at the Government-wide Level 68

Reporting Direct and Indirect Expenses 68

Program Revenues and General Revenues 70

Reporting Special Items and Transfers 71

Structure and Characteristics of the General Fund and Other Governmental Funds 72

Governmental Fund Balance Sheet and Operating Statement Accounts 72

Reporting Budgeted and Actual Results 75

Terminology and Classification for Budgetary and Operating Statement Accounts 78

Classification of Appropriations and Expenditures 78

Classification of Estimated Revenues and Revenues 81

Budgetary Accounting 86

Recording the Budget 86

Budgetary Control of Revenues 87

Budgetary Control of Encumbrances and Expenditures 88

Accounting for Allotments 91

Concluding Remarks 92

Appendix A: Accounting Information Systems 92

Appendix B: Accounting for Public School Systems 94

Key Terms 98

Selected References 98

Questions 98

Cases 99

Exercises and Problems 102

Chapter 4

Accounting for Governmental Operating Activities—Illustrative Transactions and Financial Statements 111

Illustrative Case 112

Measurement Focus and Basis of Accounting 112

Dual-track Accounting Approach 114

Illustrative Journal Entries 115

Recording the Budget 115

Encumbrances and Purchasing Transactions 115

Payment of Liabilities 117

Payrolls and Payroll Taxes 118

Accounting for Property Taxes 120

Other Revenues 124

Tax Anticipation Notes 125

Forecasting Amount of Tax Anticipation

Borrowing 126

Repayment of Tax Anticipation Notes 126

Special Topics 127

Correction of Errors 127

Receipt of Goods Ordered in Prior Year 128

Revision of the General Fund Budget 129

Exchange Transactions with Proprietary Funds 130

Supplies Purchased from an Internal Service Fund 130

Services Provided by an Enterprise Fund 132

Adjusting Entries 133

Pre-Closing Trial Balance 135

Closing Entries 136

Reclassification of Fund Balances 137

General Fund Financial Statements 138

Special Revenue Funds 141

Accounting for Operating Grants 141

Financial Reporting 142

Interfund Activity 142

Intra- versus Inter-Activity Transactions (Governmentwide Level) 144

Permanent Funds 145

Budgetary Accounts 145

Illustrative Case 145

Appendix A: Concepts and Rules for Recognition of Revenues and Expenses (or Expenditures) 148

Appendix B: Interim Financial Reporting 151

Key Terms 152

Selected References 153

Questions 153

Cases 154

Exercises and Problems 156

Chapter 5

Accounting for General Capital Assets and Capital Projects 167

Accounting for General Capital Assets 168

Required Disclosures about Capital Assets 169

Classification of General Capital Assets 170

General Capital Assets Acquired under Capital Lease Agreements 174

Costs Incurred after Acquisition 176

Reduction of Cost or Asset Disposal 176

Asset Impairments and Insurance Recoveries 178

Service Concession Arrangements 178

Capital Projects Funds 179

Illustrative Transactions—Capital Projects Funds 180

Illustrative Financial Statements for a Capital Projects Fund 185

Alternative Treatment of Residual Equity or Deficits 186

Bond Premium, Discount, and Accrued Interest on Bonds Sold 186

Retained Percentages 188

Claims and Judgments Payable 189

Bond Anticipation Notes Payable and the Problem of Interest Expenditures 189

Investments 191

Multiple-Period and Multiple-Project Funds 191

Capital Projects Financed by Special Assessments 192

Financial Reporting for Capital Projects Funds 193

Key Terms 194

Selected References 194

Questions 194

Cases 195

Exercises and Problems 196

Chapter 6

Accounting for General Long-term Liabilities and Debt Service 205

General Long-term Liabilities 206

Accounting for Long-term Liabilities 206

Long-term Liability Disclosures 207

Debt Limit and Debt Margin 207

Overlapping Debt 211

Debt Service Funds 216

Number of Debt Service Funds 216

Use of General Fund to Account for Debt Service 217

Budgeting for Debt Service 217

Types of Serial Bonds 218

Debt Service Accounting for Term Bonds 224

Financial Reporting 228

Accounting for Bond Premiums and Accrued Interest 229

Valuation of Debt Service Fund Investments 231

Deposit and Investment Disclosures 232

Debt Service Accounting for Special Assessment Debt 233

Use of Debt Service Funds to Record Capital Lease Payments 235

Accounting for Debt Refunding 237

Advance Refunding of Debt 237

Other Long-term Liabilities 238

Compensated Absences 239

Pollution Remediation Obligations 239

Claims and Judgments 240

Key Terms 240

Selected References 240

Questions 240

Cases 241

Exercises and Problems 244

Chapter 7

Accounting for the Business-type Activities of State and Local Governments 253

Proprietary Funds 254

Assets Acquired under Lease Agreements 254

Financial Reporting Requirements 255

Internal Service Funds 257

Illustrative Case—Supplies Fund 258

Illustrative Statements Using Supplies Fund 263

External Financial Reporting of Internal Service Funds 265

Dissolution of an Internal Service Fund 266

Special Topics Associated with Internal Service Funds 266

Enterprise Funds 269

Water Utility Funds 270

Current and Accrued Assets 271

Restricted Assets 272

Utility Plant 272

Current Liabilities 273

Liabilities Payable from Restricted Assets 273

Long-term Liabilities 273

Net Position 274

Illustrative Case—Water Utility Fund 274

Illustrative Statements Using Water Utility Fund 280

External Financial Reporting of Enterprise Funds 282

Appendix: Special Topics in Accounting for the Business-type Activities of State and Local Governments 284

Key Terms 288

Selected References 288 Questions 288

Cases 288

Exercises and Problems 292

Chapter 8

Accounting for Fiduciary Activities—Agency and Trust Funds 303

Agency Funds 304

Agency Fund for Special Assessment Debt Service 304

Tax Agency Funds 305

“Pass-through” Agency Funds 311

Financial Reporting of Agency Funds 312

Trust Funds 312

Investment Pools 312

Creation of an Investment Pool 313

Operation of a Cash and Investment Pool 316

Withdrawal of Assets from the Pool 320

Closing Entry 321

Illustrative Financial Statements 322

Private-purpose Trust Funds 322

Pension Trust Funds 323

General Characteristics of Governmental

Pension Plans 324

Required Financial Reporting for Defined Benefit

Pension Plans 326

Illustrative Transactions for a Defined Benefit

Pension Plan 331

Employer’s Pension Accounting 334

Employer Recording and Reporting of Pension

Expenditure/Expense 336

Other Postemployment Benefits (OPEB) 336

Termination Benefits 337

Appendix: Managing Investments 337

Key Terms 338

Selected References 338

Questions 339

Cases 339

Exercises and Problems 340

Chapter

9

Financial Reporting of State and Local

Governments 351

Providing Useful Financial Reports 351

The Governmental Reporting Entity 352

Defining the Financial Reporting Entity 353

Component Units 354

Reporting by Other Government Organizations 357

Governmental Financial Reports 357

Need for Periodic Reports 358

Interim Financial Reports 358

Annual Financial Reports 359

Preparation of Basic Financial Statements 361

Fund Financial Statements 368

Required Reconciliations 369

Intra-entity Transactions 372

Other Financial Reporting Issues and Topics 372

Popular Reporting 373

Other Comprehensive Basis of Accounting (OCBOA) 374

International Accounting Standards 374

Appendix A: Converting Accounting Information from the Modified Accrual to the Accrual Basis of Accounting 375

Appendix B: Management’s Discussion and Analysis (MD&A)—City and County of Denver 379

Key Terms 390

Selected References 391

Questions 391

Cases 391

Exercises and Problems 397

PART TWO

Accountability for Public Funds 405

Chapter 10

Analysis of Governmental Financial Performance 407

The Need to Evaluate Financial Performance 407

Government Financial Performance Concepts 408

Financial Position and Financial Condition 409

Economic Condition 410

Internal Financial Trend Monitoring 410

Environmental Factors 412

Organizational Factors 415

Financial Factors 415

Analyzing Government-wide Financial Statements 418

Financial Position Ratios 418

Financial Performance Ratios 418

Financial Capability Ratios 418

Use of Benchmarks to Aid Interpretation 420

Sources of Governmental Financial Data 422

Electronic Municipal Market Access 423

Credit Analyst Models 424

Key Terms 425

Selected References 425 Questions 426

Cases 426

Exercises and Problems 431

Chapter 11

Auditing of Governmental and Not-forProfit Organizations 441

Financial Audits by Independent CPAs 442

Generally Accepted Auditing Standards 442

Format of the Audit Report 443

Types of Opinions 445

The Audit Process 446

Materiality for Government Audits 449

Required Supplementary and Other Information 449

Government Auditing Standards 450

Types of Audits and Engagements 450

GAGAS Financial Audits 452

Ethics and Independence 454

Single Audits 457

History of the Single Audit 457

Amendments to Single Audit Requirements 457

Determining Who Must Have a Single Audit 458

Single Audit Requirements 460

Selecting Programs for Audit 462

Reports Required for the Single Audit 464

Other Single Audit Requirements 466

Special Topics Related to Audits of Governments and Not-for-Profits 467

Single Audit Quality 467

The Impact of SOX 468

Auditing Guidance 469

Key Terms 469

Selected References 469

Questions 470

Cases 470

Exercises and Problems 474

Chapter

12

Budgeting and Performance Measurement 479

Objectives of Budgeting in the Public Sector 480

Compliance with Laws 480

Communicate Performance Effectiveness 481

Budgeting Approaches 483

Line-item Budgeting 483

Performance Budgeting 484

Program Budgeting 484

Entrepreneurial Budgeting 485

Budgeting Process in a State or Local Government 485

Budgeting Governmental Appropriations 485

Budgeting Governmental Revenues 488

Budgeting Capital Expenditures 489

Budgeting Cash Receipts 490

Budgeting Cash Disbursements 490 Integration of Planning, Budgeting, and Performance Measurement 493

Service Efforts and Accomplishments (SEA) 494

Managerial Tools to Improve Performance 498

Total Quality Management 498

Customer Relationship Management 498

Activity-based Costing 498

Balanced Scorecards 500

Conclusion 501

Appendix: Budget and Cost Issues in Grant Accounting 502

Key Terms 506

Selected References 507

Questions 507

Cases 508

Exercises and Problems 509

PART THREE

Accounting and Financial Reporting for Notfor-Profit Organizations and the Federal Government 521

Chapter 13

Accounting for Not-for-Profit Organizations 523

Defining the Not-for-Profit Sector 524

Determining Whether an NFP Organization Is Governmental 525

GAAP for Nongovernmental NFP Organizations 526

Financial Reporting 526

Statement of Financial Position 527

Statement of Activities 529

Statement of Cash Flows 530

Statement of Functional Expenses 530

Notes to the Financial Statements 533

Accounting for NFP Organizations 533

Revenues and Gains 533

Accounting for Expenses 539

Accounting for Assets 541

Consolidations and Combinations 543

Consolidations 543

Combinations 544

Illustrative Transactions—Voluntary Health and Welfare Organizations 544

End-of-the-Year Adjusting Journal Entries 549

End-of-the-Year Reclassification Journal Entries 550

End-of-the-Year Closing Journal Entries 551

Appendix: Optional Fund Accounting 557

Key Terms 558

Selected References 558

Questions 559

Cases 559

Exercises and Problems 563

Chapter 14

Not-for-Profit Organizations—Regulatory, Taxation, and Performance Issues 575

State Regulation 576

Not-for-Profit Incorporation Laws 577

Licenses to Solicit Contributions or for Other Purposes 577

Taxes 577

Lobbying and Political Activity 578

Federal Regulation 579

Tax-exempt Status 580

Annual Compliance Reporting 583

Unrelated Business Income Tax 584

Excessive Benefits Received by Officers 586

Reorganization and Dissolution 586

Governance 586

Incorporating Documents 587

Board Membership 587

Benchmarking and Performance Measures 588

Financial Performance Measures 588

Nonfinancial Performance Measures 591

Summary 592

Key Terms 592

Selected References 592

Questions 593

Cases 593

Exercises and Problems 595

Chapter 15

Accounting for Colleges and Universities 605

Accounting and Financial Reporting Standards 606

Private Colleges and Universities 607

Public Colleges and Universities 607

Reporting and Accounting Issues 611

Statement of Net Position or Financial Position 611

Operating Statements 614

Statement of Cash Flows 617

Segment Reporting 618

Illustrative Transactions for Private Colleges and Universities 618

Adjusting Entries 623

Closing Entries 624

Planned Giving 625

Endowments 625

Split-interest Agreements 626

Uniform Prudent Management of Institutional Funds Act 629

Other Accounting Issues 630

Performance Measures 630

Auditing Colleges and Universities 631

Federal Financial Assistance 631

Related Entities 632

Key Terms 632

Selected References 632

Questions 632

Cases 633

Exercises and Problems 637

Chapter 16

Accounting for Health Care

Organizations 647

GAAP for Health Care Providers 649

Reporting and Accounting Issues 649

Balance Sheet or Statement of Net Position 651

Operating Statement 653

Statement of Changes in Net Assets 658

Statement of Cash Flows 658

Illustrative Case for a Not-for-Profit Health Care

Organization 661

Other Health Care Issues 669

Related Entities 669

Auditing 669

Taxation and Regulatory Issues 669

Patient Protection and Affordability Act 670

Prepaid Health Care Plans 671

Continuing Care Retirement Communities 671

Financial and Operational Analysis 671

Conclusion 672

Key Terms 673

Selected References 673

Questions 673

Cases 674

Exercises and Problems 676

Chapter 17

Accounting and Reporting for the Federal Government 685

Federal Government Financial Management Structure 686

Comptroller General 688

Secretary of the Treasury 688

Director of the Office of Management and Budget 689

Director of the Congressional Budget Office 689

Generally Accepted Accounting Principles for the Federal Government 689

Hierarchy of Accounting Principles and Standards 690

Conceptual Framework 691

Objectives 691

Reporting Entity 692

Management’s Discussion and Analysis (MD&A) 692

Intended Audience 693

Elements and Recognition Criteria 693

Communicating Information 693

Measurement of Elements after Initial Recording 693 Funds Used in Federal Accounting 693

General Fund 694

Special Funds 694

Revolving Funds 694

Trust Funds 694

Deposit Funds 695

Required Financial Reporting—U.S. Governmentwide 695

Required Financial Reporting—Government Agencies 697

Agency Head Message 698

Management’s Discussion and Analysis 698

Annual Performance Reports (APR) 698

Annual Financial Statements (AFR) 698

Other Accompanying Information 708

Dual-track Accounting System 708

Illustrative Transactions and Entries 710

Adjusting Entries 716

Illustrative Financial Statements 717

Summary of Accounting and Reporting for Federal Government Agencies 721

Key Terms 722

Selected References 722

Questions 722 Cases 723

Exercises and Problems 724

Glossary 731

Governmental and Not-for-Profit Organizations 760 Index 765

City of Bingham and City of Smithville Continuous Computerized Problems

Note: To download the City of Bingham or City of Smithville computerized problem, visit the Student Edition of the Web site for this textbook: www.mhhe.com/reck17e.

A great way to understand the GASB financial reporting model is to be actively engaged in learning through these “hands-on” continuous problems for small governmental entities. The City of Bingham and City of Smithville web supplement is general ledger software in which students record transactions in the appropriate general journals of each city. Transaction analysis is the first and most important step in the accounting cycle of any organization. After journal entries have been recorded, the software conveniently posts changes to all accounts in general and to subsidiary ledgers. From this point, students can preview trial balances, export them to a Microsoft Excel file, and then prepare financial statements from those data. This instructional supplement substantially aids students’ learning by requiring them to decide whether each transaction has an effect on the fund financial statements, the government-wide financial statements, or both. The City of Bingham and City of Smithville are built on the dual-track approach described on the adjacent page. Students can apply the conceptual framework that connects the government-wide financial statements (that report on the flow of total economic resources of the government using the accrual basis of accounting) and the fund financial statements (that report on the flow of current financial resources using the modified accrual or near-cash basis of accounting).

STUDENTS

Several examples are provided here to show how the software facilitates learning. When a government sends out property tax bills for the year, this transaction is recorded in the General Fund general journal because it impacts the governmental funds statement of revenues, expenditures, and changes in fund balance and in the governmental activities general journal because it has an impact on the government-wide statement of activities. Within each practice set, you

can easily toggle among the journals for each fund and governmental activity. Drop-down menus make it easy to decide which revenue account should be increased or decreased, as the chart of accounts is embedded in the software. Journal entries must balance before one can proceed. When the government records its budget or encumbers items related to purchase orders, however, these journal entries affect only the governmental funds. Budgetary account titles are available for selection in the governmental funds general journals but not in the governmental activities general journal because funds, not governmental activities, capture information to show compliance with the short-term, legally approved budget. Conversely, depreciation expense of general capital assets is recorded only in the general journal of governmental activities because the accrual basis of accounting captures and matches the cost of using up the utility of capital assets with the time period in which the assets generate revenues.

INSTRUCTORS

This software can be used in several ways. You can project it each day as part of the classroom experience and discuss transactions that are keyed to the chapter under discussion. Depending on your objectives, you can require a small set of the transactions be recorded for each fund or governmental activity or you can assign either of the full problems as a semester-long case. Regardless of how you choose to use the cases, we recommend that students work on the City of Bingham or City of Smithville problem as they are studying the related chapter in the text and turn in each chapter as they go along. You may find that small student work groups provide an efficient way for students to learn from each other. We continue to be encouraged by our students’ positive reaction as they learn by doing the City of Bingham and City of Smithville Continuous Computerized Problems.

The Dual‐Track Accounting Approach

The GASB reporting model requires governmentwide, accrual-based financial statements to provide information that goes beyond the familiar fund accounting information. Analysts increasingly use government-wide “big picture” information in performance analysis, and some council members find that, relative to fund accounting information, accrual-based statements are better suited to demonstrate accountability for interperiod equity. For example, these statements provide the information necessary to explore critical questions such as, Has the government shifted the liability for current services to future generations? However, to date, governmental accounting software vendors have not provided governments with systems that can directly produce government-wide financial statements on the required accrual basis, particularly on an interim basis, such as monthly.

Beginning with the 12th edition of this text in 2001, the authors committed themselves to the importance of providing government-wide and fund accounting information by introducing a dual-track approach to recording governmental transactions. The dual-track approach captures both government-wide and fund accounting information at the same time an event is recognized, thereby allowing for the direct production of both government-wide and fund financial statements. As students will learn, some transactions affect the government-wide statements only (e.g., depreciation expense) and others affect the fund financial statements only (e.g., budgetary entries). However, the majority affect both types of statements, although in different ways (e.g., expensing versus capitalizing long-lived assets). The fund financial statements reflect a short-term measurement focus that is intended to assist statement users in assessing fiscal accountability ––how financial resources were raised and spent. The governmentwide financial statements reflect a medium- to longterm measurement focus intended to assist users in assessing operational accountability ––whether governmental services were efficiently and effectively provided. Both perspectives are important.

The dual-track approach helps students understand how two different sets of accounting records are used to collect financial data as transactions occur. One set of records collects information using the short-term measurement focus and near-cash basis of accounting traditionally used in governmental fund accounting. This set of records includes a chart of accounts, general journal, general ledger, trial balances, and financial statements for each fund. The other set of records collects the same underlying information using a long-term measurement focus similar to that used by business; that is, the accrual basis of accounting. The second set of records assists in preparing statements for governmental activities and business-type activities. Each time we illustrate or explain what, if any, effect a transaction will have on the fund and governmental activities record.

The text does illustrate the reclassification approach in Chapter 9 because that approach is used in practice by most governments. Governments that continue to release only fund financial information throughout the year and must then convert (or reclassify) the data to government-wide information for the purposes of the financial statement preparation and year-end audit are not as accountable or transparent as governments that make GAAP-based information available throughout the year.

Governments, even small ones, are complex entities and there is no easy approach to learning the external governmental financial model. But the authors believe that the dual-track approach is conceptually superior to the reclassification approach in that it gives students the tools to understand “why” and “how” financial statements are prepared and used. A greater conceptual understanding of governmental financial statements also makes it easier for students to understand the reclassification approach when it is encountered. The dual-track pedagogy can help students see the short- and longterm effects of the decisions made by government managers and oversight bodies from the perspective of all stakeholders.

Chapter One Introduction to Accounting and Financial Reporting for Governmental and Not‐for‐Profit Entities

Learning Objectives

After studying this chapter, you should be able to:

1-1 Identify and explain the characteristics that distinguish government and not-for-profit entities from for-profit entities.

1-2 Identify the authoritative bodies responsible for setting financial reporting standards for (1) state and local governments, (2) the federal government, and (3) not-for-profit organizations.

1-3 Contrast and compare the objectives of financial reporting for (1) state and local governments, (2) the federal government, and (3) not-for-profit organizations.

1-4 Explain the minimum requirements for general purpose external financial reporting for state and local governments and how they relate to comprehensive annual financial reports.

1-5 Identify and describe the required financial statements for the federal government and not-for-profit organizations.

WELCOME TO GOVERNMENTAL AND NOT-FOR-PROFIT ACCOUNTING

Welcome to the new world of accounting for governmental and not-for-profit organizations! Initially, you may find it challenging to understand the many new terms and concepts you will need to learn. Moreover, if you are like most readers, you will question at the outset why governmental and not-for-profit organizations use accounting and financial reporting practices that are different from those used by for-profit entities.

As you read this first chapter of the text, the reasons for the differences between governmental and not-for-profit accounting and for-profit accounting should become apparent. Specifically, government and not-for-profit organizations serve entirely different purposes in society than do business entities. Because such organizations are largely financed by taxpayers, donors, and others who do not expect benefits proportional to the resources they provide, management has a special duty to be accountable for how those resources are used in providing services. Thus, the need for managers to be accountable to citizens, creditors, oversight bodies, and others has played a central role in shaping the accounting and reporting practices of governmental and not-for-profit organizations.

This first chapter will give you a basic conceptual understanding of the unique characteristics of governmental and not-for-profit organizations and how their accounting and financial reporting concepts and practices differ from those of for-profit organizations. By the time you finish subsequent chapters assigned for your course, you should have an in-depth practical knowledge of government and not-for-profit accounting and financial reporting.

WHAT ARE GOVERNMENTAL AND NOT-FOR-PROFIT ORGANIZATIONS?

Governmental and not-for-profit organizations are vast in number and range of services provided. In the United States, governments exist at the federal, state, and local levels and serve a wide variety of functions. The most recent census of governments reports that there are 90,056 local governments, in addition to the federal government and 50 state governments. These 90,056 local governments consist of 3,031 counties, 19,519 municipalities, 16,360 towns and townships, 12,880 independent school districts, and 38,266 special district governments that derive their power from state governments.1 States, counties, municipalities (for example, cities, towns, and villages), and townships are general purpose governments—governments that provide a wide range of services to their residents (such as police and fire protection; sanitation; construction and maintenance of streets, roads, and bridges; and culture and recreation). Independent school districts, public colleges and universities, and special districts are special purpose governments—governments that provide only a single function or a limited number of functions (such as education, drainage and flood control, irrigation, soil and water conservation, fire protection, and water supply). Special purpose governments have the power to levy and collect taxes and to raise revenues from other sources as provided by state laws to finance the services they provide.

Not-for-profit organizations also exist in many forms and serve many different functions in society. These include private colleges and universities, various kinds of community service and health care organizations, certain libraries and museums, professional and trade associations, fraternal and social organizations, and religious organizations. Currently, there are nearly 2.3 million not-for-profit organizations in the U.S.2

1 U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, 2012 Census of Governments, Table 2, http:// www.census.gov/govs/cog2012/

2 The National Center for Charitable Statistics reports that there were 1.6 million registered not-for-profit organizations in the U.S. as of 2010 (Amy S. Blackwood, Katie L. Roeger, and Sarah L. Pettijohn, The Nonprofit Sector in Brief: Public Charities, Giving and Volunteering, 2012, Washington, D.C: Urban Institute Press, p. 1). Also reported by the National Center for Charitable Statistics were 325,421 religious congregations as of November 2013. (Urban Institute, National Center for Charitable Statistics Web site, http://nccs.urban.org/statistics/quickfacts.cfm).

DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERISTICS OF GOVERNMENTAL AND NOT-FOR-PROFIT ORGANIZATIONS

Governmental and not-for-profit organizations differ in important ways from business organizations. An understanding of how these organizations differ from business organizations is essential to understanding the unique accounting and financial reporting principles that have evolved for governmental and not-forprofit organizations.

In its Statement of Financial Accounting Concepts No. 4, the Financial Accounting Standards Board (FASB) noted the following characteristics that it felt distinguished governmental and not-for-profit entities from business organizations:

a. Receipts of significant amounts of resources from resource providers who do not expect to receive either repayment or economic benefits proportionate to the resources provided.

b. Operating purposes that are other than to provide goods or services at a profit or profit equivalent.

c. Absence of defined ownership interests that can be sold, transferred, or redeemed or that convey entitlement to a share of a residual distribution of resources in the event of liquidation of the organization.3

The Governmental Accounting Standards Board (GASB) distinguishes government entities in the United States from both not-for-profit and business entities by stressing that governments exist in an environment in which the power ultimately rests in the hands of the people. Voters delegate that power to public officials through the election process. The power is divided among the executive, legislative, and judicial branches of the government, so that the actions, financial and otherwise, of government executives are constrained by legislative actions, and executive and legislative actions are subject to judicial review. Further constraints are imposed on state and local governments by the federal government. In the United States higher levels of government encourage or dictate activities of lower level governments. Higher levels of government finance the activities (partially, at least) by an extensive system of intergovernmental grants and subsidies that require the lower levels to be accountable to the entity providing the resources, as well as to the citizenry. Revenues raised by each level of government come, ultimately, from taxpayers. Taxpayers are required to provide resources to governments even though they often have little choice about which government services they receive and the extent to which they receive them.4

This relative lack of taxpayer choice is also identified in a GASB white paper that notes that “most governments do not operate in a competitive marketplace, face

3 Financial Accounting Standards Board, Statement of Financial Accounting Concepts No. 4, “Objectives of Financial Reporting by Nonbusiness Organizations” (Norwalk, CT, 1980 as amended), par. 6. In 1985 the FASB replaced the term nonbusiness with the term not-for-profit. Other organizations use the term nonprofit as a synonym for not-for-profit. The term not-for-profit is predominantly used in this text.

4 Based on discussion in GASB Concepts Statement No. 1, pars. 14–18. Governmental Accounting Standards Board, Codification of Governmental Accounting and Financial Reporting Standards as of June 30, 2010 (Norwalk, CT, 2010), Appendix B.

virtually no threat of liquidation, and do not have equity owners.”5 The white paper further states:

Governmental accounting and financial reporting standards aim to address [the] need for public accountability information by helping stakeholders assess how public resources were acquired and either used during the period or are expected to be used. Such reporting also helps users to assess whether current resources were sufficient to meet current service costs (or whether some costs were shifted to future taxpayers) and whether the government’s ability to provide services improved or declined from the previous year.6

SOURCES OF FINANCIAL REPORTING STANDARDS

As shown in Illustration 1–1, Rule 203 of the American Institute of Certified Public Accountants (AICPA) Code of Professional Conduct formally designates the FASB, GASB, and FASAB as the authoritative bodies to establish generally accepted accounting principles (GAAP) for state and local governments, the federal government, and business organizations and nongovernmental not-for-profit organizations, respectively. In practice, the “authority to establish accounting principles” means the “authority to establish accounting and financial reporting standards.” In addition, for publicly held business organizations, FASB standards are officially recognized as authoritative by the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) (Financial Reporting Release No. 1, Section 101, and reaffirmed in its April 2003 Policy Statement). Authority to establish accounting and reporting standards for not-for-profit organizations is split between the FASB and the GASB because a sizable number of not-for-profit organizations are governmental in nature, particularly public colleges

ILLUSTRATION 1–1

Primary Sources of Accounting and Financial Reporting Standards for Businesses, Governments, and Not-for-Profit Organizations

Financial Accounting Foundation

Financial Accounting Standards Board (FASB)

Business (for-profit) organizations

Nongovernmental not-for-profit organizations

Governmental Accounting Standards Board (GASB)

State and local governmental organizations

Governmental not-for-profit organizations

• Comptroller General

• Director of the Office of Management and Budget

• Secretary of the Treasury

Federal Accounting Standards Advisory Board (FASAB)

Federal government and its agencies and departments

5 Governmental Accounting Standards Board, White Paper “Why Governmental Accounting and Financial Reporting Is—and Should Be—Different” (Norwalk, CT, 2013, revised), Executive Summary, p. ii.

6 Ibid.

and universities and government hospitals. The FASB is responsible for setting accounting and reporting standards for not-for-profit organizations that are independent of governments. Governmental not-for-profit organizations follow standards established by the GASB.

The GASB and the FASB are parallel bodies under the oversight of the Financial Accounting Foundation. The foundation appoints the members of the two boards and supports the boards’ operations. The federal Sarbanes-Oxley Act greatly enhanced financial support for the FASB by mandating an assessed fee on corporate security offerings. The Dodd-Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act (2010) required the establishment of an accounting support fee to fund the GASB. In February 2012 the Financial Industry Regulatory Authority (FINRA) established such a fee.7

Because of the method of support and the lack of ties to any single organization or government, the GASB and the FASB are referred to as “independent standardssetting boards in the private sector.” Before the creation of the GASB and the FASB, financial reporting standards were set by groups sponsored by professional organizations: The forerunners of the GASB (formed in 1984) were the National Council on Governmental Accounting (1973–84), the National Committee on Governmental Accounting (1948–73), and the National Committee on Municipal Accounting (1934–41). The forerunners of the FASB (formed in 1973) were the Accounting Principles Board (1959–73) and the Committee on Accounting Procedure (1938–59) of the American Institute of Certified Public Accountants.

Federal statutes assign responsibility for establishing and maintaining a sound financial structure for the federal government to three officials: the Comptroller General, the Director of the Office of Management and Budget, and the Secretary of the Treasury. In 1990, these three officials created the Federal Accounting Standards Advisory Board (FASAB) to recommend accounting principles and standards for the federal government and its agencies. It is understood that, to the maximum extent possible, federal accounting and financial reporting standards should be consistent with those established by the GASB and, where applicable, by the FASB.

OBJECTIVES OF FINANCIAL REPORTING

GASB Concepts Statement No. 1, “Objectives of Financial Reporting,” states that “ Accountability is the cornerstone of all financial reporting in government. . . . Accountability requires governments to answer to the citizenry—to justify the raising of public resources and the purposes for which they are used.”8 The board elaborated:

Governmental accountability is based on the belief that the citizenry has a “right to know,” a right to receive openly declared facts that may lead to public debate by the citizens and their elected representatives. Financial reporting plays a major role in fulfilling government’s duty to be publicly accountable in a democratic society.9

Illustration 1–2 shows several ways that state and local government financial reporting is used in making economic, social, and political decisions and assessing accountability. Closely related to the concept of accountability as the cornerstone of

7 Financial Industry Regulatory Authority, Regulatory Notice 13–17, “GASB Accounting Support Fee,” April 2013.

8 GASB, Codification, Appendix B, Concepts Statement No. 1, par. 56.

9 Ibid.

ILLUSTRATION 1–2

Comparison of Financial Reporting Objectives—State and Local Governments, Federal Government, and Not-for-Profit Organizations

State and Local Governmentsa

Financial reporting is used in making economic, social, and political decisions and in assessing accountability primarily by:

• Comparing actual financial results with the legally adopted budget.

• Assessing financial condition and results of operations.

• Assisting in determining compliance with finance-related laws, rules, and regulations.

• Assisting in evaluating efficiency and effectiveness.

aSource: GASB Concepts Statement No. 1, par. 32.

Federal Governmentb

Financial reporting should help to achieve accountability and is intended to assist report users in evaluating:

• Budgetary integrity.

• Operating performance.

• Stewardship.

• Adequacy of systems and controls.

bSource: FASAB Statement of Federal Accounting Concepts No. 1, par. 134.

cSource: FASB Concepts Statement No. 4, pp. 13–15.

Not-for-Profit Organizationsc

Financial reporting should provide information useful in:

• Making resource allocation decisions.

• Assessing services and ability to provide services.

• Assessing management stewardship and performance.

• Assessing economic resources, obligations, net resources, and changes in them.

governmental financial reporting is the concept the GASB refers to as interperiod equity. This concept and its importance are explained as follows:

The Board believes that interperiod equity is a significant part of accountability and is fundamental to public administration. It therefore needs to be considered when establishing financial reporting objectives. In short, financial reporting should help users assess whether current-year revenues are sufficient to pay for services provided that year and whether future taxpayers will be required to assume burdens for services previously provided. (Emphasis added.)10

Accountability is also the foundation for the financial reporting objectives the FASAB has established for the federal government. The FASAB’s Statement of Accounting and Reporting Concepts Statement No. 1 identifies four objectives of federal financial reporting (see Illustration 1–2) focused on evaluating budgetary integrity, operating performance, stewardship, and adequacy of systems and controls.

Unlike the FASB and the GASB, which focus their standards on external financial reporting, the FASAB and its sponsors in the federal government are concerned with both internal and external financial reporting. Accordingly, the FASAB has identified four major groups of users of federal financial reports: citizens, Congress, executives, and program managers. Given the broad role the FASAB has been assigned, its standards focus on cost accounting and service efforts and accomplishment measures, as well as on financial accounting and reporting.

Financial reports of not-for-profit organizations—voluntary health and welfare organizations, private colleges and universities, private health care institutions, religious organizations, and others—have similar uses. However, as Illustration 1–2 shows, the reporting objectives for not-for-profit organizations emphasize decision usefulness over financial accountability needs. The FASB Statement of Financial Accounting Concepts No. 4 indicates that not-for-profit and business enterprises are similar in many ways and thus the emphasis on decision usefulness in reporting objectives.

10 Ibid., par. 61.

Note that the objectives of financial reporting for governments and not-for-profit entities stress the need for the public to understand and evaluate the financial activities and management of these organizations. Readers will recognize the impact on their lives, and on their bank accounts, of the activities of the layers of government they are obligated to support and of the not-for-profit organizations they voluntarily support. Since each of us is significantly affected, it is important that we be able to read intelligently the financial reports of governmental and not-for-profit organizations. In order to make informed decisions as citizens, taxpayers, creditors, and donors, readers should make the effort to learn the accounting and financial reporting standards developed by the authoritative bodies. The standards are further explained and illustrated throughout the remainder of the text.

OVERVIEW OF FINANCIAL REPORTING FOR STATE AND LOCAL GOVERNMENTS, THE FEDERAL GOVERNMENT, AND NOT-FOR-PROFIT ORGANIZATIONS

Financial Reporting of State and Local Governments

Like the FASB, the GASB continues to develop concepts statements that communicate the framework within which the Board strives to establish consistent financial reporting standards for entities within its jurisdiction. The GASB, as well as the FASB, is concerned with establishing standards for financial reporting to external users— those who lack the authority to prescribe the information they want and who must rely on the information management communicates to them. The Board does not intend to set standards for reporting to managers and administrators or others deemed to have the ability to enforce their demands for information.

General Purpose External Financial Reporting

Illustration 1–3 displays the minimum requirements for general purpose external financial reporting under the governmental financial reporting model specified by

ILLUSTRATION 1–3

Minimum Requirements for General Purpose External Financial Reporting

Management’s discussion and analysis

Government-wide financial statements

Source: GASB Codification, Sec. 2200.103.

Fund financial statements

Notes to the financial statements

Required supplementary information (other than MD&A)

Basis of accounting

the GASB 11 Central to the model is the management’s discussion and analysis (MD&A). The MD&A is required supplementary information (RSI) designed to communicate in narrative, easily readable form the purpose of the basic financial statements and the government’s current financial position and results of financial activities compared with those of the prior year.

As shown in Illustration 1–3, the GASB prescribes two categories of basic financial statements, government-wide and fund. Government-wide financial statements are intended to provide an aggregated overview of a government’s net position and changes in net position. You will notice that the GASB uses the term net position rather than the FASB term net assets; however, the terms are substantially the same. The government-wide financial statements report on the government as a whole and assist in assessing operational accountability—whether the government has used its resources efficiently and effectively in meeting operating objectives. The GASB concluded that reporting on operational accountability is best achieved by using essentially the same basis of accounting and measurement focus used by business organizations: the accrual basis and flow of economic resources measurement focus.

Fund financial statements, the other category of basic financial statements, provide more detailed financial information about the government. Certain funds, referred to as governmental funds, focus on the short-term flow of current financial resources rather than on the flow of economic resources. 12 The focus on current financial resources makes it easier for users assessing fiscal accountability, which relates to ensuring the government is complying with rules and regulations related to the use of financial resources. Because of the short-term focus, governmental funds use a modified accrual basis of accounting rather than the a c crual basis. Under modified accrual, revenues are recognized in the period they are measurable and available for spending and expenditures (not expenses) are recognized when they create an obligation to be paid from current financial resources. The characteristics and roles of the government-wide and fund financial statements are summarized in Illustration 1–4.

and business-type activities) and those of proprietary funds and fiduciary funds

Accrual basis (revenues and expenses Modified accrual basis (revenues are are recognized when exchange of recognized when resources are economic resources occurs or per measurable and available for current GASB recognition rules for nonexchange spending; expenditures are recognized transactions, such as taxes, when an obligation to spend current contributions, and grants) financial resources is incurred)

11 GASB Codification, Sec. 2200.102.

12 The definition of fund is given in Chapter 2. For now, you can view a fund as a separate set of accounts used to account for resources segregated for particular purposes.

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"Tanssittaman!" huudahti tyttö ja oikasipa itsensä suoraksi, "oivallista! oikeinko todella?"

"Todella, niin!"

"Sepäs hauskaa!" liehakoi tyttö, "saadaan tanssia!" Kun perunat olivat istutetut ja päivällinen syöty, hankkivat miehet talkoosen Mäkirantaan. Kuokat tahkottiin teräviksi ja rattoisalla mielellä läksivät miehet kohti järven rantaa.

Mutta pellolla rallatteli ilomielinen Miina, hän vartosi vaan hetkeä, jolloin olisi aika tanssiin lähteä. Koko elämäkin oli hänestä iloa ja tanssia vaan. Hän tahtoi lentää, tahtoi leijailla niinkuin kevätperhonen. Mutta tämä suunnaton ilo ei ollut täydelleen puhdas, hänen sydämmeensä oli luikahtanut paljon huonoja oikkuja, paljon turhaa kevytmielisyyttä. Se tarvitsi puhdistusta, uudistamista, ennenkuin hänen luonteensa jalot puolet pääsivät näkymään.

Järvellä soutelivat miehet, jutellen tuonnoisesta sanomalehtikirjoituksesta.

"Minä en tosiaankaan siitä pidä", sanoi Pekka, "minun mielestäni kuvataan siinä me köyhät kansalaiset liian raaoiksi, vallan ihan tiedottomiksi eläimiksi!"

"Samaa mieltä olen minä", virkkoi Kalle, "tosin on onnen helmalapsen, joka kylläisesti herkkuja nautittuaan nousee ylös päivällissijaltaan, pehmeällä sohvalta, tosin on, sanon minä, tällaisen helppo kirjoittaa: 'tyydy osaasi ja pysyköön suutari lestissään!' Tällainen herra on joskus matkoillaan nähnyt työmiehen asunnon, jossa ei kaikki ollut juuri siistiä ja puhdasta, nähnyt työmiehen itsensä alakuloisena istuvan, tietämättä mistä saisi leivän palan, ja hän on tuota miestä vertaillut itseensä ja tullut siihen päätökseen, että hän ainakin sen verran on tuota miestä parempi, kuin tuokin eläintä! Kotia tultuaan puhuu ja kirjoittaa hän halveksivasti tuosta roska kansasta ja sen raa'asta kielestä; mutta eipä hänellä ole neuvoa, eikä järkeä, ei tahtoa eikä voimaa toimimaan rahtustakaan tuon kansan hyödyksi, jonka niukkoja elinvoimia hän imee herrastellakseen?"

"Lausutpa liiaksi kovia sanoja herroista", muistutti Mikko.

"Niin kyllä, mutta minä en puhukkaan kaikista, minä tiedän, että on eteviä oppineita miehiä, jotka eivät säästä varojansa ja voimiansa toimiessaan kansan hyväksi, jotka eivät halveksi halpaa työmiestä eikä sivistymätöntä metsätorpparia, vaan antavat hänellekin ihmisarvon. Tällaiset miehet ansaitsevat kunnioitustamme ja kiitostamme! Mutta paljon on äsken mainitun herran kaltaisia, jotka eivät tunne eikä tahdo tuntea kansaansa tai sen tarpeita, mutta joita kuitenkin puhutellaan: korkeasukuinen, armollinen herra!"

"Kalle puhuu ihan oikein", sanoi Pekka, "ja kylläpä se poika tietää; hän on niin paljon oppinut!"

"Minäkö oppinut," sanoi Kalle, "enhän minä ole oppinut mitään! Lukemalla olen tosin tullut tuntemaan yhtä ja toista, jota en muuten voisi aavistaakkaan, hm! Jospa olisin edes päivänkään istunut koulunpenkillä opetusta nauttimassa, saattaisi olla toista!"

Olipa siinä melua ja liikettä kantoisella aholla Mäkirannan torpan lähellä; jäykät tervakannot saivat siirtyä ikuisilla olosijoiltaan, kun kymmenet vahvat kädet tarttuivat juurivekaroihin. Olipa siinä liikettä, ääntä ja puhetta; siinä kuokat vilkkaasti vilkkuivat, kirveet paukkuivat, kanget kalisivat ja turpeet ilmassa lentelivät. Kaikki olivat rattoisalla mielellä, mutta selvällä päällä, sillä viinaa, tuota petollista ilolientä, ei Taavetti kärsinyt katsellakkaan.

Illan tullessa oli aika palasta käännetty turpeet nurin ja kannot siirretty roukkioihin. Mutta jopa rupesi miestenkin into lauhtumaan, sillä olipa työ jäseniin koskeva. Taavetti silloin muistutti, että on aika lakata työstä ja alkaa toisenlaista huvia.

Käytiin nyt sisälle huoneesen, jossa puhtaaksi pestylle pöydälle oli illallinen laitettu. Istuttiin syömään maittava ateria, aina välimmiten maistellen vahtoovaa kaljaa haarikasta. Mutta olipa tuo kalja laitettu niin voimakkaaksi, että se nosti punan poikain poskille, kenties vähän keskusteluakin vilkastutti.

Aterian päätyttyä otti Puumalan Antti viulunsa esille, kierteli sen tappeja ja rumputteli kieliä, mutta sormet kanaljat olivat kangistuneet kuokan varressa, eivätkä tahtoneet ollenkaan viulun kieliin sopia. Hetkisen hierottua norjenivat ne toki hieman ja pian heltisi sieltä jotain valssitahdin tapaista. Ensinnä ei näyttänyt ketään tanssi haluttavan; pelimanni, nuori poika, soitteli soittamistaan, huviksensa.

Viimein nousi Mäen Pekka ylös tuolillaan: "luulen", sanoi hän, "että vartoovat isäntää alkamaan; mennäämpäs!" sanoi hän, tarttuen Taavetin kaulukseen.

Pian tuli liikettä permannolle, ja parastansa alkoi pelimannikin koettaa. Jopa kävi märäksi nuorten miesten otsa, ja ankara oli töminä ja jyske. Ilmaantui jo tyttöjäkin pihalle, seisoen ahtaassa piirissä seinän vieruksella. Rohkeimmat pojista kävivät heitä puhuttelemaan ja sisälle vaatimaan. Vähitellen astui yksi ja toinen huoneesen, ja kuului tuossa puhetta ja hiljaista nauruakin. Kuitenkin tyttöin ujous ja teeskentely kohta katosivat ja ilo oli yleinen. Sitä myöten kuin yö kului, kasvoi tanssin into ja leikkipuheet kävivät rohkeammaksi; kaikki turhamainen kursailu katosi kokonaan.

Näin tanssittiin ja käytiin vilvottelemaan kauniisen kevätilmaan, jossa metsästä kuului laulurastaan viserrys ja kevätlintujen vilkas soitto.

Tyttöjen poskilla heloittaa hieno puna, heidän keijaillessaan reippaitten nuorukaisten sivulla. Saipa tässä sijaa myöskin joku hellempi tunne ja salaperäinen sana. Vaan kaikista hilpeimpänä, iloisimpana ja ihailtavimpana, tanssi Mäen Pekan ruusuposkinen Miina. Koko elämä näytti häneltä jääneen unhotuksiin; posket hehkuivat, silmät säikkyivät ilosta; hän oli entistä iloisempi, entistä vallattomampi, ja ihastuksissaan katselivat häntä nuorukaiset, joka miellytti tyttöä suuresti. Metsämaan Erkki, nuori, kaunis poika oli eritoten ihastunut Mäen Pekan nuoreen tyttäreen ja monta lempeätä sanaa oli jo Miina häneltä kuullut, monta tanssia jo hänen kanssaan tanssinut. Mutta sepä yksin Miinaa harmitti, kun tuo Kalle, hänen paras ystävänsä, hänen rakastettunsa, istui vaan hiljaisena, miettiväisen näköisenä loukossa. Tosin oli hän sielläkin kauniimpi ja

etevämpi kaikkia muita, mutta miks'ei hän ilakoinut ja tanssinut hänen kanssaan, puhunut hänelle, miten muutkin? ainoastaan joku silmäys, miksi oli hän semmoinen?

Mutta iskipä tytön mieleen kevytmielinen kuje: hän päätti oikein suurimmalla hellyydellä seurustella Metsämaan nuoren Erkin kanssa. Tottapa tuo vaikuttanee Kalleen jotakin, koska hän sentään minua rakastaa. Erkki, joka muutenkin oli Miinaan ylenmäärin ihastunut, hurmaantui kokonaan tytön käytöksestä ja pian rupesi tanssivien joukosta kuulumaan kuiskeita ja naurun tirskumisia. Kuului noita salaisia kuiskeita Kallenkin korviin ja ne koskivat hieman hänen sydämmeensä. Hän rupesi tarkemmin silmillään seuraamaan rakastettuaan; sen huomasi Miina, ja se huvitti häntä yhä enemmin.

Ei tiennyt Miina, miten vaarallista on leikkiä tunteitten kanssa, varsinkin tällä ijällä, jolloin sydän on hellä ja tulinen. Hän päätti Kallesta itsensä mukaan, vaan siinä erehtyi hän. Hän jatkoi vaan ajattelematonta leikkiänsä, kunnes se leikki alkoi häntä todella viehättää ja hän unhotti kaikki, oman itsensäkin, rakkautensa, kujeensa ja käytöksensä.

Silloin Kalle kenenkään huomaamatta pujahti ulos. Siellä istui hän mättäälle ja hänen sydämmensä tykki kovasti. Hän tunsi sydämmensä saaneen ankaran loukkauksen ja koetti sitä rauhoittaa, mutta turha vaiva! Ikäänkuin unessa näki hän, miten ovesta käsikädessä astui ulos Erkki ja Miina, näki heidän istuvan hirren tyvelle, näkipä muutakin: Miinan istuvan Erkin sylissä!

Siinä kylliksi: ikäänkuin vimmattu juoksi Kalle rantaan, lykkäsi veneen vesille ja souti kuin hullu vimmattu, huolimatta minne. Hän ei ajatellut mitään, ei tiennyt mitä tahtoi, tunsi vaan sydämmensä loukatuksi juuria myöten ja sen ankarasti lykkivän ja riehuvan.

Vesi veneen kokassa kuohui kuin koski, mutta soutajan mielestä kulki se tavattoman hiljaa, ja kovemmin ponnisti hän voimiaan. Vene töyttäisi kiveen, mutta hän pakotti sen menemään ylitse; palanen heltisi veneen pohjasta ja vene rupesi vuotamaan. Vähätpä tuosta, vuotakoon! Vasta kun vene oli vettä täynnä, huomasi hän vaaran. Annanko veneeni mennä pohjaan ja menen itse perässä? ajatteli hän. Kenties olisi tuo parasta? Mutta ei, sitä surua en tahdo tehdä vanhemmilleni; tahdon uhallakin elää, olkoon elämäni kummoinen tahansa! Hän souti vielä hetkisen, vene täyttyi vedellä ja upposi, mutta hän ui rannalle. Väsyneenä ankarista ponnistuksista vaipui Kalle rannalle päästyään hermotonna maahan. Tuuli keinutteli venettä järven selällä.

Toinnuttuaan tunsi Kalle itsensä kylmäksi, läpimäräksi ja jäsenensä hermottomiksi. Illalliset tapahtumat palasivat hänen muistiinsa ja saivat hänen sydämmensä rajummin tykkimään. Muisti hän vielä toisenkin kevät-aamun, ihanan, niinkuin tämäkin; multa silloin oli hän onnellinen, onnellisin ihminen kuolevaisista!

Ei hän tuntenut enää väsymystä jäsenissään, kiivaasti hypähti hän ylös. "Mitä teen," huudahti hän, "lähdenkö avaraan mailinaan, hakemaan lievitystä sydämmelleni? Mutta turha vaiva on tuokin. Enhän voi omaa itseäni paeta! Tänne jään, täällä on sentään niin paljo lohdutusta, niin paljo rakkautta ja lempeä! Työhön käyn, ahkeraan työhön: siitä olen ennenkin löytänyt lohdutusta!"

Huomaamattansa meni Miina liian pitkälle ajattelemattomassa leikissään; sen havaitsi hän vasta istuissansa pihalla Erkin sylissä ja kuullessaan hiljaisen äänen kuiskaavan korvaansa: "Miina, rakastatko todella minua?" Silloin kavahti hän äkkiä ylös ja huudahti hiljaisesti. Hänen silmänsä kääntyivät järvelle: hän näki miten

nuorukainen siellä kiivaasti souti; syynkin siihen tiesi hän, ja mailma musteni hänen silmissään. Hän juoksi rannalle, huuteli Kallea takaisin, huuteli, kunnes joku pilkallisesti muistutti: "Mitä tuossa turhia huutelet, johan Kalle nyt on kotonaankin, näethän hänen siellä, ja jos tahdot, kyllä minäkin sinut järven poikki soudan!" Silloin havaitsi Miina tässä olevan liikoja kuultelijoita ja kiireesti juoksi hän polulle, joka pitkin rantaa kierteli kotia kohden.

Tieto siitä, että Kalle häntä rakasti, oli aina ollut Miinan suurin ilo. Hän itse rakasti tulisesti, tulisemmin kuin luulikaan. Hän piti Kallea erinomaisena, jalona ja viisaana miehenä ja kunnioitti häntä; mutta sittenkin olisi hän tahtonut Kallea yhtä iloiseksi veitikaksi kuin hänkin, tai oikeammin, hän ei tiennyt mitä oikeastaan tahtoi. Hän tahtoi vaan toisinaan tehdä Kallelle pientä kiusaa, ilveillä hänen kanssaan, hiukan huviksensa, se viehätti tytön mieltä. Mutta nyt oli hän ohjannut koko onnellisuutensa väärälle tolalle, tehnyt rakkautensa leikin asiaksi. Hän tiesi mitä hänen käytöksensä Kalleen vaikutti.

Pitihän heidän yhdessä kotia palata, vaan nyt souti Kalle yksin ja hän tiesi minkätähden! Hän istui järven rannalle sammaltaneelle kivelle ja itki siinä iloisen yön jälkeen, itki toivottomuuden itkua! Tyyneenä lepäsi järven pinta hänen edessään. Kuinka se saattoi olla niin rauhallinen? Rauhallinen saattaisi hänkin olla, jos ei niin kevytmielisellä tavalla olisi hänen tunteitaan loukannut! Muisti hän toisenkin kevätaamun, silloin oli hän onnellisin kuolevaisista; samoin saattaisi hän nytkin olla, mutta onnestaan teki hän pilkkaa.

Aurinko kultasi jo säteillään järven pintaa, luonto alkoi herätä toimintaansa, mutta Miina vaan yhä istui kivellä. "Oi minua onnetonta! huokaili hän. Kallen, lempeän, jalon ystäväni olen ijäksi menettänyt. Miten nyt voin häntä lähestyä, hänelle puhua? Oi, Kalle, kehno oli tyttösi, kehno raukka!"

Miinan kotia tullessa oli Pekka vaimoineen jo valveilla. Pekka askaroitsi pihassa auraansa parannellen! Puoleksi leikillä, puoleksi todenteolla alkoi hän torua tytärtään, tämän riivatusta yöreijuimisesta, sivumennen kysäisten: "vastako Kallekin tuli!"

Vaan tyttö vaaleni ja rupesi itkemään

"No mitä nyt", huudahti Pekka, "mikä sinulle nyt tuli? Onko onnettomuuksia tapahtunut? Helkkarin tuutissa, onko ketään järveen pudonnut?"

"Ei, ei mitään vahinkoa, isä," vastasi tyttö, "minun on muuten vaan paha olla, muuten vaan!"

"No mutta mikä riivattu sinun sitte on? Semmoista niistä tanssista! Kyllä sinne mennään ilolla ja riemulla, mutta tullaan itku silmissä takaisin. Mitä pitää minun tästä ajatteleman?"

Tulipa nyt äitikin ulos ja torat alkoi uudestaan, mutta ne loppui pian, sillä tyttö oli nyt ääneti, surullisesti vaan maata silmäillen.

Miina kävi taas entisiin askareihinsa, läksi lehmiä lypsämään kiulu kädessä; mutta entinen vilkkaus oli kadonnut, valjenneet iloiset laulut, surullisena, levottomana käyskeli ennen niin iloinen laulaja.

"Oi joska kerrankin voisin Kallea tavata!" huokasi hän, "vaan ei, niin huonosti olen itseni käyttänyt!"

Pekka, kun näki tyttärensä noin kummallisena, tuli levottomaksi: "mitähän nyt sentäänkin lie tapahtunut?" ajatteli hän. "Kenties saan naapurin Kallelta tarkempia tietoja."

Näissä mietteissä lähti hän kävelemään naapuria kohti ja näki Kallen raivaamassa uutta peltoa kiviseen mäkeen. Likemmäksi

päästyään näki hän, miten Kalle vimman kiivaudella nosteli kiviä ja kantoja. Taas oli hän juuri nostamaisillaan suuria kiveä. Silloin astui Pekkakin lähemmäksi: "No, no Kalle", hän sanoi, "ei saa nostaa noin vimmatusti; anna kun minäkin vähän autan, hyvää tekee hyttysenkin voima!"

Vastauksen sijaan lensi kivi ylös kuopasta. "Tuo nyt on karhu mieheksi!" mumisi Pekka. "Isä on kyllä vahva mies, mutta poika, sehän on oikea jättiläinen!"

Pekka tuossa jutteli yhtä ja toista, kyseli kaikenlaista, mutta sai aivan lyhyitä vastauksia. Pian väsyi hän tuommoisiin "on, ei, ja, ei mitään erinomaista", ja läksi kotiansa, mumisten mennessään: "pahuksen poika, väkevä kuin karhu, mutta enpä häntä tuommoisena ole ennen nähnyt, mikä nyt mahtaa nuoria vaivata?"

Elettiinpä siitä eteenkin päin Ruuhkajärven takana, mutta eipä aivan niinkuin ennen. Vielä olivat naapurukset hyviä ystäviä, vielä kävivät he useasti toistensa luona iltaa viettämässä, mutta sittenkin olivat olot muuttuneet. Ei enää kaikunut metsä Miinan iloisista lauluista, eikä hänen heleä naurunsa kedoilla kajahdellut. Huvitusten halu oli Miinalta kadonnut, hän oli muuttunut hiljaiseksi, surevaksi tytöksi. Useasti tahtoi hän tavata Kallea, puhua hänen kanssansa, mutta silloin muisti hän tapauksen Mäkirannassa. Ei, ajatteli hän, minä en ikänä voi Kallen kanssa puhua, ja hän itki entistä katkerammin.

"Mikä sinua tyttöni vaivaa?" kysyi Pekka tyttäreltään, melkein jokainen päivä; toisinaan puhui hän leikkiä, toisinaan torui, tuommoista itkusilmäistä hutilusta, mutta ei hän sillä muuta voittanut, kuin että Miina rupesi itkemään. Pekka raappasi korvansa taustaa ja meni naapuriin ihmettelemään, mikä hänen tytärtään vaivasi.

Kalle teki työtä niinkuin ennenkin, mutta vieläkin suuremmalla kiivaudella, hän luki niinkuin ennenkin, mutta entistä enemmin. Usein ei häntä kotona nähty päiväkausiin; silloin oleskeli hän metsässä, valitsi sieltä jonkun jylhän paikan, istui mättäälle, luki ja mietiskeli. Päivä päivältä tuli Kallen mieli synkkää synkemmäksi; kolkko mitättömyyden tunne vallitsi hänen sydämmessään, kaikki elämän toiveet olivat häneltä kadonneet. Synkkämielisyys olikin Kallen luonteen vika, se vaivasi häntä jo aikaisimmasta nuoruudesta asti; mutta olipa yksi ilon ja toivon säde, joka aina ylläpiti hänen iloista puoltansa. Lapsuuden ystävä, kasvikumppani oli se, jonka edestä hän tahtoi toimia ja työskennellä, jota hän rakasti niin tulisesti. Hänen rakkautensa ei ollut mikään hetken houraus, vaan vuosikausien kululla kehittynyt taipumus; hän näki rakastetussaan vikoja, mutta ei hän sillä toivonut häntä toisenlaiseksi, vaan rakasti häntä sellaisenaan.

Mutta tuolla Mäkirannassa menivät kaikki hänen toiveensa yhdellä iskulla; siellä näki hän rakastettunsa, sen, jonka hän itseänsä uskoi rakastavan, toisen sylissä! Siinä kaikki, Kalle ei tahtonut koettaakkaan tuota rakastettua toiselta ryöstää. Sen sijaan hän koetti unhottaa, mutta ei voinut; yhä uudestaan palasi mieleen rakastetun kuva ja hän tunsi itsensä niin onnettomaksi, elämänsä niin turhaksi, mitättömäksi.

* * * * *

Kesä kaunoinen kului ilman mitään erinomaisia tapauksia. Runsaan sadon korjasivat takamaan torpparit tänäkin suvena ja huoletonna toimeentulostaan saattoivat he katsoa tulevaisuuteen.

Kuitenkin peittivät huolenpilvet näitä seutuja ja erittäinkin Mikon asuntoa. Kerttu, rakastettu emäntä oli sairas, melkeinpä vuoteen

omana, ja se tuotti surua koko tälle seudulle, sillä olipa Kerttu koko paikkakunnan hyvä hengetär. Surulla näkivät ystävät miten hän vaalenemistaan vaaleni ja tuli heikommaksi, vallankin oli Mikko surullinen, hän tunsi Kertussa kadottavansa ikäänkuin osan omasta sydämmestään.

Kovemmin ehkä vielä koski Kertun sairaus hänen poikaansa Kalleen. Jos vielä kadotan äitini, ajatteli Kalle, mitä minulle sitte enää jää, jota rakastaisin! Niin, isäni tosin, multa hän on jäykkä, voimakas mies, hän ei tarvitse tukea. Kalle oli ikäänkuin kadottanut osan entisestä luonteestaan, hänen toimeliaisuutensa ja kiivas työhalunsa oli kadonnut; suurimmaksi osaksi uinaili hän metsässä pyssyinensä, Lukuintokin oli laimentunut; tosin luki hän vielä useasti, mutta ei samalla innolla kuin ennen; metsässä kävellessään hän usein otti kirjan esille, istui mättäälle lukemaan; mutta pian vaipui hän syviin mietteisin, kirja luikui polvelta ja sai usein jäädä siihen paikkaan moneksi päiväksi.

Toisinaan istui Kalle kotona, katsellen rakasta äitiään ja silloin useasti ilmestyi kyynelpisara nuorukaisen silmään. Surulla katseli äitikin miehevää poikaansa, katseli noita surullisia, kelmenneitä kasvoja: "Oi, Kalle, oletko tehnyt jotakin pahaa, joka painaa sydäntäsi, vai miksi olet noin surullinen? kysyi hän.

"Mikään pahe ei tuntoani paina", sanoi Kalle, "on vaan joukko turhaksi käyneitä toiveita, muuten lienee synkkämielisyyteni jonkinlaista sairautta. Mutta kyllä se menee ohitse!" vakuutteli Kalle, koettain iloisesti puhua.

Kerran syksypuoleen oli Kalle taas tapansa mukaisella metsästysretkellä, istui miettiväisenä maassa makaavan hongan tyvelle, jonka ylitse kulki pienoinen jalkapolku. Tuossa noin

istuessaan näki Kalle Metsämaan Erikin tulevan polkua myöten takamaan torpilta päin. Kalle oli useasti ennenkin nähnyt Erkin näillä seuduin kävelevän ja kyllä hän tiesi mitä varten. Tunsipa Kalle veren suonissaan virtaavan tavallista tuimemmin; hän oli kyllä jo tottunut siihen ajatukseen, että Miina häneltä oli mennyt; mutta kuitenkin muistutti Erkin näkeminen häntä entisistä toiveistaan.

Tuolla Mäkirannassa oli Metsämaan Erkki rakastunut hilpeäluontoiseen Miinaan, ja Miinan käytöksestä hän päätti, että Miinakin häntä rakasti. Ihastuneena ilmoitti hän kohta tytölle tunteensa, mutta nähtyään, minkä vaikutuksen se ilmoitus teki, jäi hän kuin kivettyneenä seisomaan. Erkki aavisti kyllä toiveensa Miinan suhteen turhiksi, mutta sittenkään ei voinut hän Miinan kuvaa mielestään irroittaa, eikä kokonaan kaikkea toivoaan kadottaa. Usein suuntasi Erkki askeleitaan Ruuhkajärven taa, saadakseen siellä joskus kohdata rakastettuansa, mutta turha oli tuo toivo, Miina pakeni häntä kuin kummitusta. Äkäisellä mielellä palasi Erkki noilta retkiltään, mutta yhä kuitenkin toivoen.

Sattuipa Pekkakin huomaamaan, miten hänen tyttärensä karttoi

Erkkiä. Mitä tämä on? ajatteli hän; lieneekö tuo mies jollakin tavalla syyllinen tyttäreni kummalliseen surumielisyyteen? Useasti näki Pekka Erkin kiertelevän lähiseuduilla tulemata sisään: "Mitä tuo mies oikeastaan meinaa", mumisi Pekka, "mutta tulkooskin kerta vielä, niin minä hänen pois ajan!"

Ja äsken kerrottuna päivänä pani Pekka uhkauksensa toimeen, Erkki kun taas tuossa likiseuduilla käveli. "Mitä sinä siellä peltokedolla ehtimiseen loirailet, tule sisälle, niinkuin kunnon mies ainakin."

"Saatanhan siltä olla kunnon mies, vaikka ulkonakin kävelen; eihän nämät kannokot luullakseni siitä pahene!"

"Ei, tietysti ei! Mutta kunnon miehen ei sovi, niinkuin minkä kyöpelin, juoksennella ihmisien asunnoilla yöaikana; hi hi hi, kaiketi yöjalkasissa? Turha vaiva tuokin, poikaseni; olen havainnut, ettei sinusta täällä tykätä!"

Vihasta tulistuneena läksi Erkki kiireesti pois, Pekka oli osannut arkaan kohtaan.

"Ahaa, joko sattui, sanoi Tuovilan Tuomo, kun ämmäänsä seipäällä löi.

Kyllä kai hän suuttui, mutta suuttukoon", nauroi Pekka palatessaan.

Metsässä kulki Erkki suuttuneena, purki vihaansa kiviä ja kantoja vastaan, potkien niitä raivoissaan. "Olis nyt tuo Kalle jumpeli tuossa, niin minä hänen nytistäisin niinkuin tuon lahon kannon, niin väkevä kuin onkin, hän eikä kukaan muu on siihen syynä, kun niinä saan tämmöisellä mielellä palata, saakeli soikoon!" ja vihastuneena löi Erkki käsiään yhteen.

Tämänlaisessa mielentilassa kohtasi Erkki Kallen. Kahta tuimemmin kuohahti hänen verensä, ja kiihkossaan tahtoi hän saada riidan alkuun.

"Mitäs siinä istua jökötät, kun Lassin Liisa Ulposen riihen portaalla? Onko määrä puhua niinkuin Hyrkin Matin pukilla, koska jo leuka vaappaa?" sanoi Erkki pilkallisesti.

"Saanenhan istua missä tahdon, ja tuollainen puhetapa ei mielestäni ole ollenkaan kaunista", sanoi Kalle tyynenä.

"Ja kuka sanoo, että sen pitäisi olla kaunista, multa semmoiselle miehelle uskallan puhua mitä tahdon! Vai luuletko että pelkään?"

Kallen posket tulistuivat. "Nähtävästi haet riitaa, ja aivan syyttä. Varo kuitenkin ett'ei tuo päättyisi omaksi tappioksesi!" sanoi hän.

"Tuhannen tulimaista! minä olen tällä hetkellä vimmattu! En pelkää minä tuommoista kirja-patruunaa! Tuossa saat", sanoi Erkki lyöden Kallea korvalle.

Tässä oli Kallen mielestä jo liikaa: vakavasti, vaikka suuttuneena tarttui hän Erkin olkapäihin ja painoi hänen maahan niinkuin kärpäsen.

"Varo ett'et toista kertaa kohtele minua tuolla tavalla!" sanoi Kalle, ja heitti Erkin vähän matkan päähän polulle, otti pyssynsä ja läksi päätään kääntämättä astuskelemaan kotiansa kohden.

Kallen vakava puhe ja maltillinen käytös sai Erkin ajattelemaan sopimatonta tekoaan. "Hän olisi minun voinut rutistaa kuoliaaksi niinkuin rotan, mutta sitä ei hän kumminkaan tehnyt. Hän on parempi mies kuin minä! Mutta tälle seudulle en jää; täällä muistuttaa kaikki hänestä, jonka kerran luulin minua rakastavan ja jota rakastan yhtä tulisesti kuin kukaan muu! Miksi antausinkaan noihin suloisiin houreisin? Miksi vasten tietoani säilytin toiveita sydämmessäni, viimein tuli niistä kumminkin loppu?"

Tämän päivän perästä ei Erkkiä näillä seuduin näkynyt. "Menen mailmalle", oli hän lähteissään sanonut.

Mitähän tuokin tietää, ajatteli Kalle kotia käydessään; millä tavalla lienenkään Erkkiä loukannut, kun hän minua noin kohteli?

Kummallista!

Talvi tuli. Suru lisääntyi Alamaan torpassa, Kerttu makasi sairaana ja näytti pian muuttavan pois mailman taistelutantereelta. Useasti kävi Pekka vaimoinensa sairasta katsomassa, kävipä toisinaan Miinakin, mutta ujona kuten vieras.

Eräänä talvipäivänä läksivät miehet vähäksi aikaa yhtenä metsälle, Kerttu kun sanoi kyllä yksin viihtyvänsä. Tulipa silloin oven suuhun nuori kaunis tyttönen. Mäen Miina se oli, vaikka paljon muuttuneena. Surumielisyys loisti noista ennen niin vilkkaista ilomielisistä kasvoista; ne olivat saaneet vakavan, ajattelevan muodon.

Kauan katseli sairas ovensuussa seisovaa tyttöä, katseli hellin silmäyksin. Hän näki noista kasvoista entisen hilpeyden kadonneen, mutta miksi? sitä ei hän täydelleen voinut arvata.

"Tule tänne likemmäksi, tyttöseni", sanoi sairas lempeästi, "tule että saamme jotakin puhua ennenkuin kuolen?"

Hiljaa kävi Miina istumaan sairaan vuoteen laidalle, kyyneleitä herui hänelle silmiin ja hän kätki kasvonsa käsillään.

Sairas laski kuihtuneen kätensä tytön olalle. "Tyttöseni," sanoi hän, "sano minulle, mikä sinua vaivaa; sinä olet niin surullinen ja kelmeä. Jos se on salaisuus, usko se jo pian poismuuttavalle ystävällesi. Sano, tyttöni, se huojentaa sydäntä."

"Olen pettänyt sen, jota rakastin, olen tehnyt lempeni leikin asiaksi", sanoi tyttö itkien.

"Ja miten tämä on tapahtunut?"

Miina kertoeli miten hän oli menetellyt tuolla Mäkirannassa ja mitä siitä seurasi, ja sairas kuulteli tuota hymyilevin huulin.

"Hyvä", sanoi hän, "pahasti tosin teit, tehdessäsi tunteesi leikin asiaksi, mutta ole huoleta. Kalle rakastaa sinua vielä, tämä suru on ehkä vaan ollut onneksesi."

"Kalleko rakastaa minua? sitä en uskalla toivoa!"

"Toivo vaan! Jos Jumala suo, voitte vielä olla onnelliset. Jumala sinua siunatkoon! Oletpas vielä hyvä tyttö, ja minäkin olen onnellinen!"

Kalle rakastaa sinua vielä! ne sanat soivat Miinan korvissa yhtenään; tuulen huminakin kuului kuiskaavan: Kalle rakastaa sinua vielä, ja hän itki, hän nauroi.

On selkeä pakkas-päivä tammikuun keskipaikoilla. Aurinko tekee nousuaan, lähettääksensä muutamia himmeitä säteitä talviseen kylmään. Ruuhkajärven autiota jäätä kulkee kolme hevosta rekinensä, hiljaista kulkua, vaikka vinkuukin kylmä vihuri.

Etummaisessa reessä on musta ruumiskirstu, peitetty lakanalla; hevosta ohjaa nuori, vakava mies. Ei huomaa ajaja vihurin vinkumista eikä ilman kylmyyttä; näyttää hänellä olevan muutakin miettimistä. Reen perässä astelee surullinen leski; tässä saattaa hän hautaan sitä, jota enin on rakastanut; ihmekkö jos kasvonsa värähtelevät, jos kyynelkin tahtoo silmiä kostuttaa.

Tässä saatetaan Kerttua, helläsydämmistä emäntää Ruuhkajärven takaa, haudan pimeään lepoon, hiljaista vaatimatonta naista, joka kesken ikäänsä pois temmattiin elämän taistelutantereelta. Pieni, alhainen oli vainajan vaikutusala, lavealle ei hänen toimintansa

ulottunut, mutta omassa pienessä piirissään oli hän sulouden ja lemmen henkenä ja ystävät tunsivat kadottaneensa paljon.

Kalle, vainajan ainoa lapsi, ohjaa hevosta ja katselee yhä vaan yhteen kohtaan. Hän tuntee nyt elämänsä niin tyhjäksi, niin yksinäiseksi. Kallen ystäväpiiri oli pieni, hän ei käynyt seuroissa, ja jos hän joskus tulikin johonkin semmoiseen, ei hän niistä saanut mitään huvia; kuului niin paljo siivottomia puheita ja muuta törkeyttä, että hän niistä lähti pois synkkämielisenä. Tuosta seurasi, että Kalle oli kuin yksin mailmassa ja eli melkein itsekseen.

Kuinka monta kertaa olikaan vainajan lempeä katse ja hellä sana lohduttanut Kallen synkkää mieltä! Nyt oli hänkin poissa! Viimeisinä päivinään oli hän, tuo vainaja, sanonut: "Miina rakastaa sinua, sinua on hän aina rakastanut, eikä ketään toista. Hän vaan erehtyi leikissään ja suree erehdystään!" Ja nämät sanat soivat Kallen sydämmessä hiljaisin vienoin sävelin, ne herättivät siellä uutta eloa ja virkeyttä.

Saman päivän illalla oli jommoinenkin joukko lähiseudun väkeä kokoontunut Alamaan torpalle, syömään illallista vainajan muistoksi. Mikään herrakas pitoateria ei tämä ollut, mitään passareita, mitään etevämpää kokkia ei täällä häärinyt; Mäen Maija oli aterian parhaansa mukaan laittanut.

Pöydässä istuissa kohtasi Kallen silmät vastapäätä istuvan Miinan ujon silmäyksen. Ja Kalle katseli noita kasvoja taas pitkän ajan perästä ja hänen sydämmensä tykytti rajusti. Oliko tuo vaalea surullisen näköinen tyttönen todellakin hänen lapsuutensa ystävä, veitikkamainen Miina? Hän erehtyi ja suree erehdystään, soi taas Kallen korvissa. Lusikka putosi hänen kädestään, hän otti sen ylös, mutta syömisestä ei enään mitään tullut.

Miina ei syönyt, ei häntä maittanut. Eipä hän voinut pöydälle katsoakkaan. Muuttuneita aikoja!

Veisattiin virsi, juotiin kahvia, jotkut väkevämpääkin. Sitte lähti kukin kotiansa. Niin olivat hautajaiset päättyneet.

Kuolleet lepäävät, elävät käyvät askareihinsa, odottamaan vuoroansa; joku vielä säilyttää muistoja pois muuttaneesta, vaan pian se hänelläkin unhottuu. Se on ihmisen osa mailmassa.

On lauantai-ilta kesäkuun koskipaikoilla. Lumi on sulanut, jäät järvistä lähteneet. Kevään lempeä tuuli puhaltaa Ruuhkajärven selältä, nostellen vienoja laineita sen pinnalle; länteen laskeva aurinko kultaa viimeisillä säteillään rannan kuusia ja lehteen puhkeavia koivuja.

Järven rannalla seisoo Kalle, vanha tuttavamme, katsellen Ruuhkajärven hiljaisia laineita. Hän on tehnyt veneen ja sen juuri valmiiksi saanut. Se olisi nyt vesille pantava, mutta eipä sen tekijä näytä sitä muistavankaan. Haaveillen katselee hän vaan, miten laine ajaa toista rantaa kohden ja aurinko vuoren taa laskee. Oli tuossa rannalla toinenkin vene, vanha oli se jo, siihen pysähtyi hetkiseksi Kallen katse. Tuon veneen pohjassa oli paikka, siinä oli läpi ollut ja Kalle muisti, milloin se oli siihen tullut. Ja muistoja niin suloisia, niin katkeria kietoutui tuon vanhan aluksen ympärille, ja ne muistot saivat nuorukaisen rinnan tuimasti aaltoilemaan.

Kalle istui veneensä reunalle. Olen tehnyt tuon ajatteli hän katsellen venettään, soudellakseni tuolla järven pinnalla — yksin! Ei ole minulla, kuka kanssani iloitsisi töistäni, kuka kanssani vesille lähtisi.

Nuorukainen tunsi itsensä niin yksinäiseksi ja se tunne saattoi hänen surulliseksi. Poissa oli äidin hellä naisellinen katsanto ja lempeä puhe, lakannut tyttösen livertelevä laulu ja leikkipuheet. Huoaten tarttui hän veneen laitaan ja molisten luisui vankka alus vesille. Siinä se loikoili, sievä vene, airoinensa kaikkinensa, soutajakin istui veneessä, mutta eipä haluttanut häntä vesille lähteä, aluksessaan istui hän miettiväisenä. Ikävä on yksin vesille lähtö.

Tuossa noin istuessaan näki Kalle nuoren naisen kävelevän järven rannalla. Hänen sydämmensä sykähti; olihan tuo Miina, nuoruuden rakastettu ystävä!

Kuinka usein olen hänen kanssaan soudellut tällä järvellä, miksi en nytkin saattaisi? ajatteli Kalle. Ehk'ei hän tulisikkaan, ehkäpä tulee! risteili hänen riehuvassa mielessään.

"Hyvää iltaa, Miina". tules nyt soutelemaan uudella veneellä!” sanoi Kalle viimein. Tyttö jäi seisomaan kuin jähmettynyt Mitä tämä oli? pyysikö Kalle häntä todellakin veneesen? menisikö hän, voisiko hän mennä? Mutta kävipä Miina sentään rannalle, ja siinä seisoi hän alaspäin katsellen, sydän tykytti ankarasti; ei hän voinut sanaa sanoa, eikä astua jalkaansa veneesen.

Kalle asetteli istuinta veneesen, hän oli innostunut. Ei muistanut hän enää, mitä ennen oli tapahtunut; hän tahtoi alkaa uutta elämää, uudistaa entisen tuttavuuden, palata lapsuutensa ihaniin aikoihin.

"Istuppas tuohon, Miina, mennään koettamaan, miten se luisuu!" lausuili

Kalle ihastuneena.

Miina istui, tuskin tietäen missä hän istui; mutta iloisia hurmaavia tunteita tunsi hän sydämmessään. Vene kulki hiljalleen järven pinnalla, lempeät laineet sitä tuudittelivat, kevätlinnut lauloivat iltalaulujaan rannalla. Suloinen ilta!

"Laula nyt, Miina, joku venelaulu, tämän laivani kunniaksi", sanoi Kalle, "sinä laulelit ennen aina niin — mutta nyt…"

Tyttö ei voinut enää hillitä tunteitaan, hänen piti jotakin sanoa, mutta sanat takertuivat itkuun.

"Miksi itket? Mikä sinua vaivaa, menisitkö rannalle?" hätäili Kalle.

"Ei, minä tahtoisin aina olla täällä, sinun seurassasi. Oi Kalle, älä minusta päätä mitään ylön pahaa!"

Kallen mieleen palasi muistoja kuluneilta ajoilta; muisti hän tuon tytön kerran sanoneen: "oi Kalle, älä suutu minuun, luontoni on paha, semmoinen."

"Miina rakastaa sinua, eikä olekkaan koskaan toista rakastanut", muisti hän äitivainaansa sanoneen.

"Miina mikä sinua vaivaa?" kysyi hän liikutettuna.

"Kerran tein leikkiä tunteitteni kanssa, uskottelin että rakastan toista; sen teki kevytmielisyyteni, ja tulinen rakkauteni sinuun. Oi Kalle! sinun rakkauttasi en ansaitse, mutta minä pyydän: pidä minua lapsuuden ystävänä, sillä minä en voi elää kokonaan sinun seurattasi."

Näin puhui Miina itkien, mutta Kalle sulki itkevän tytön syliinsä: "kuinka saatoinkaan sinusta niin väärin päättää, pitihän minun tuntea

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