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ConsolidatedMainworkIncorporatingSecondSupplement

VolumeI-GeneralPrinciples

Part1-Introduction

Chapter1-Introductory

Section1.-SourcesofEnglishContractLaw

Contractlaw

1-001

AsSirJosephChittyobserved,thelawaffectingcommercecanbeseenbothin“thelawofnations [and]thosemunicipalinstitutionsofourowncountry,whichareofapublicandgeneralnature,and whichformthebasisofthatcommercialintercoursewhichtakesplacebetweenindividuals”andinthe law“whichrelatestocommerceitself,strictlysocalled,ascontradistinguishedfromthosemeasures ofstatepolicybywhichitissecuredandprotected”. 1 Inthemodernlaw,itremainsusefulto distinguishbetweenlawswhichcreatethelegalenvironmentwithinwhichpartiesconcludetheir contract(whichmaybroadlybetermedmarketregulation)andlawswhichrelatespecificallytothe conclusionofcontracts,theirterms,therelativerightsandobligationswhichtheycreateandthe remedieswhichariseonbreach(contractlawinthenarrowandusualsense).Thepresentworkis principallyconcernedwithcontractlawinthisusualsense,butonoccasionthewiderregulatory frameworkisconsidered,particularlywherethetwosetsofregulationarecloselyrelated. 2

Thedifferentsourcesofcontractlaw 1-002

Englishcontractlawinthisusualsensepossessesfourlegalsources:commonlaw,statute, internationalconventionandEUlaw. 3

1 SirJ.Chitty, ATreatiseontheLawsofCommerceandManufacturesandtheContractsrelating thereto Strahan,London,1stedn(1824),Vol.III,p.5.Thisworkprecededthefirsteditionofthe presentworkbySirJosephChitty(theyounger,died1838)whichwaspublishedin1826.

2 SeeespeciallyasregardsconsumercontractsonwhichseeVol.II,Ch.38andespecially paras38-127—38-129(enforcementofconsumerinformationrequirements);38-145—38-191 (unfaircommercialpracticesandconsumerrightstoredress);38-323—38-333and 38-387—38-394(enforcementoflawonunfaircontractterms)andseeWhittaker(2017)133 L.Q.R.47esp.at66–72.SeealsoVol.II,paras38-002etseq.(consumercredit(para.39-005)) andparas34-215etseq.(banking).

3 OnthesourcesofEnglishlawmoregenerallyseeJ.Bell,“TheSourcesofLaw”inA.Burrows (ed.)EnglishPrivateLaw,2ndedn(2007)Ch.1.

ConsolidatedMainworkIncorporatingSecondSupplement

VolumeI-GeneralPrinciples

Part1-Introduction

Chapter1-Introductory

Section1.-SourcesofEnglishContractLaw (a)-TheCommonLawofContract

Thecommonlaw’sdominanceofthegenerallaw 1-003

Writingin1879SirWilliamAnsonobserved:

“Thelawofcontractsofarasitsgeneralprinciplesareconcernedhasbeenhappilyfree fromlegislativeinterference:itistheproductofthevigorouscommonsenseofEnglish judges.” 4

Thecommonlaw(includingequityforthispurpose)stillprovidesthefundamentalrulesgoverningall aspectsofthelawapplicabletocontractsgenerally:Englishlawhasnotadoptedacontractlawcode nora“ContractAct”. 5 Asaresult,thecommonlawgovernsthenatureanddefinitionofacontract (includingtherequirementofconsideration 6);thegroundsofvitiationofcontracts(mistake, misrepresentation,duressandundueinfluence 7);thecontentsofcontracts(theincorporationand constructionofexpresstermsandthefindingofimpliedterms) 8;thegeneralframeworktreating illegalcontractsandagoodnumberoftheirexamples 9;performanceandthegroundsofdischargeof contractualobligations 10;theeffectsofcontractsonthirdparties(privityofcontract) 11 andthe remediesavailableforbreachofcontract. 12 Withinthiswidercommonlawpicture,equityhashada fairlyrestrainedimpact,thoughitmaybeseeninthedoctrineofundueinfluence 13 andinexamples ofwiderreliefonthegroundofunconscionability, 14 hassuppliedtheimportant(iffairlyrestricted) remediesofspecificperformanceandinjunction, 15 andhasallowedpromissoryandproprietary estoppeltoqualifythedoctrineofconsiderationand(sometimes)legislativerequirementsofformality. 16

Rulesgoverningspecificcontracts

1-004

Thereisamuchgreaterdiversityinrelationtothemodernsignificanceofthecommonlawasregards therulesgoverningspecificcontractsascontrastedwiththelawgoverningcontractsingeneral.In somecontexts,thecommonlaw(sometimessupportedorcorrectedbyequity)stilldominatesthelaw governingtherelationshipsbetweenthecontractingparties 17:thisistrue,interalia,ofcontractsof agency, 18 contractsofinsurance 19 andcontractsofsuretyship, 20 eventhougheveninthese examplesthelawissometimessupplementedorcorrectedbylegislation.Aswillbeseen,inother typesofcontract,theroleofthecommonlawhasbecomemuchdiminished,withlegislation(whether nationalorEuropeaninorigin)becomingincreasinglysignificant,especiallyasregardstheregulation oftheconsequencesofconcludingacontract.Finally,insometypesofcontract,theregulationofthe parties’relationshipremainsallbutentirelyinthehandsofthepartiesthemselves,whomayforthis

purposeusestandardcontractterms,whethertheirownoronesdrawnfromindustrypractice. 21

4 PrinciplesoftheEnglishLawofContractandofAgencyinrelationtoContract,1stedn(1879), Preface.

5 Othercommonlawsystemshavechosendifferentpaths,e.g.theIndianContractActof1873 whosefirstdraftwaswrittenbySirFrederickPollock.Inthe1960sandearly1970sworkon draftinganEnglishcontractcodewasundertakenbytheEnglishandScottishLaw Commissions,butwaslaterabandoned:seeLawCom.No.1(1965)6;LawCom.No.4(1966) 7;LawCom.No.50(1972)3.AdraftwaspublishedbyMcGregor, AContractCodeDrawnup onBehalfoftheEnglishLawCommission (1993).SeeCartwright(2009)17Eur.Rev.Private law155,168–169.Themodernpositionofconsumercontractlawismorearguableasrecent legislationhasreframedagooddealofthelaw:seebelow,para.1-008andVol.II,Ch.38.See, however,Burrows, ARestatementoftheEnglishLawofContract (2016),whoseaim(p.x)is“to providethebestinterpretationofthepresentEnglishlawofcontract”.

6 Below,para.1-014,andseeChs2and4.

7 Below,Chs3,6,7and8respectively.

8 Below,Chs13and14respectively.

9 Below,Ch.16.

10 Below,Chs21(Performance);22(Dischargebyagreement);23(Dischargebyfrustration);24 (Dischargebybreach)and25(Othermodesofdischarge).

11 Below,Ch.18.

12 Below,Chs26(Damages)and27(Specificperformanceandinjunction).

13 Below,para.8-057.

14 Below,para.8-130.

15 Below,Ch.27.

16 Below,paras4-086etseq.,5-041etseq.

17 Here,thereisanimplicitdistinctionbetweenthelawgoverningthecontractitselfandthelaw governingthemarketcontextinwhichthecontractismade:seeabove,para.1-001.For example,the business ofinsuranceishighlyregulatedbylegislation,eventhoughthelaw governingthepartiestocontractsofinsuranceremainsdominatedbythecommonlaw.

18 SeeVol.II,Ch.31.

19 SeeVol.II,Ch.42.Inthecaseofinsurance,thispositionhasbeenqualifiedbyrecentlegislation: ConsumerInsurance(DisclosureandRepresentations)Act2012andInsuranceAct2015,on whichseeVol.II,paras42-031—42-032,42-046etseq.

20 SeeVol.II,Ch.45.

21 See,inparticular,asregardsconstructioncontracts:Vol.II,paras37-019—37-023.

ConsolidatedMainworkIncorporatingSecondSupplement

VolumeI-GeneralPrinciples

Part1-Introduction

Chapter1-Introductory

Section1.-SourcesofEnglishContractLaw (b)-Statute

Increasingimportanceofstatute

1-005

Statutehasbecomeincreasinglyimportantinsettingthelawgoverningcontracts,bothinitsbroad senseoftheregulationofmarketsandinthenarrowersenseofthelawgoverningtherelativerights andobligationsofthepartiesandofthirdparties. 22 Thishasmanifesteditselfintwoprincipalways.

Generallaw

1-006

Someimportantaspectsofthegenerallawofcontracthavebeensubjecttochangebystatute,the legislationtypicallyqualifyingorsupplementingtheexistingcommonlawpositionratherthan reformingorrecastingaparticularaspectofcontractlawsystematically.Thiscanbeseenasregards thecontrolofexemptionclausesandcertainrelatedclassesofunfairterms, 23 thelawof misrepresentation, 24 thelawgoverningthecapacityofminors 25 andpersonslackingthemental capacitytocontract 26,andtheconsequencesoffrustration. 27 EventheContracts(RightsforThird Parties)Act1999merelycreatesanew(ifbroadandimportant)exceptiontothecommonlaw doctrineofprivityofcontract. 28

Specificcontracts

1-007

Statutehasbeenmuchmoreimportantintheregulationofspecificcontracts.Anoldexamplemaybe foundintheStatuteofFraudsof1677,whichimposedvariousrequirementsofformonparticular typesofcontract,andwhiletheStatuteitselfsurvivesonlyasregardscontractsofguarantee, 29 its provisionshavehadanimportanteffectontheclassificationofcontracts.Therewerevariousstatutes governingaspectsofinsurancecontracts 30 andbillsofsale 31 intheeighteenthandnineteenth centuriesand,inthelastquarterofthelatter,aseriesofstatuteswhichsoughtto“codify”thelaw governingparticulartypesofcontract,asinthecaseofbillsofexchange, 32 contractsofpartnership 33 andcontractsforthesaleofgoods. 34 Inthecourseofthetwentiethcentury,importantlegislationwas introducedgoverning,interalia,contractsoftenancy, 35 contractsofemployment 36 andcontractsof consumercredit. 37

Consumercontracts

1-008

Consumercontractshavelongbeentheobjectoflegislativeintervention,withspecialrules governingexemptionclauses, 38 unfaircontracttermsmoregenerally 39 andaspectsofparticular typesofconsumercontract(suchasconsumercredit, 40 saleofgoods, 41 packageholidaycontracts 42 ortimesharecontracts 43).Therehavealsobeeninformationrequirementsforcontractsconcludedin certaincircumstances(notably“doorstepselling” 44 and“distancecontracts” 45),withaccompanying short-livedrightsofcancellationfortheconsumer.Earlierlegislationwasscatteredacrossaseriesof legislativeinstruments(someprimarylegislation,somesecondary)andformedpartofand/or overlappedwithprotectiveruleswhichcouldapplyotherthanforthebenefitofconsumers. 46 Moreover,thekeydefinitionsofthepersonprotected(theconsumer)andtheotherpartytothe contract(thepartyactinginthecourseofbusiness)differedbetweenthevariouslegislative instruments. 47 However,recentlegislationhassoughttoaddresstheproblemsofinconsistency betweenconsumerprotectionlegislationandhasalsosoughttomarkaclearseparationbetween legislationgoverningconsumercontractsandlegislationgoverningcontractsmoregenerally.The centralpillarofthisnewlegislativeframeworkistheConsumerRightsAct2015,whosemost importantprovisionsprovideforasetofstatutorytermsgoverningconsumer“goodscontracts”, “digitalcontentcontracts”and“servicescontracts”(withsetsofspecialremediesfortheirbreach)and whichalsoprovideforthecontrolofunfairterms. 48 Atthesametime,the2015Actamendsearlier, moregeneral,legislation(notablytheMisrepresentationAct1967,theUnfairContractTermsAct 1977andtheSaleofGoodsAct1979)sothatitsprovisionsdonotapplywheretheprovisionsofthe 2015Actapply. 49 Moreover,otherlegislationhasreshapedandextendedearlierlegislativecontrols soastoplace most oftheinformationdutiesontradersinasinglesetofstatutoryregulations 50 and tocreatenewrightstoredressforcertainunfaircommercialpracticescommittedbyatrader. 51 The overallresultisthecreationofadistinctanddistinctivebodyofstatutorylawgoverning“consumer contracts”paralleling(butseparatedfrom)thelawapplicablemoregenerally,whetherstatutoryor commonlaw 52 .Havingsaidthat,however,thisbodyofconsumercontractlawbynomeans providesacompletelegislativeregimegoverningconsumercontracts.First,agooddealoflegislation specificallygoverningconsumercontractsremainsoutsidethefourmainrelevantlegislative instruments, 53 includingtheveryimportantConsumerCreditAct1974 54 andlegislationgoverning consumerinsurancecontracts. 55 Secondly,evenforthosetypesofcontractwheretheConsumer RightsAct2015providesnewdiscreterules(notablysaleofgoods),widergenerallegislationstill appliestoissues not regulatedbythosenewrules. 56 And,thirdly,manyissuesarisingbetween partiestoaconsumercontract(orawould-beconsumercontract)arenotgovernedbylegislationat allandwherethisisthecasethecommonlawrules(whetherapplicabletocontractsgenerallyorto specifictypesofcontract)apply.Thenewpatternsoflegislationgoverningconsumercontractsare thesubjectofCh.38inVol.IIofthepresentwork.

22 Above,para.1-001andseeBurrows(2012)128L.Q.R.232.

23 UnfairContractTermsAct1977andseebelow,paras15-066etseq.

24 MisrepresentationAct1967andseebelow,paras7-074—7-085;7-104—7-110;7-111—7-113; 7-146—7-150.

25 Minors’ContractsAct1987andseebelow,paras9-061—9-064.

26 MentalCapacityAct2005s.7andseepara.9-096.

27 LawReform(FrustratedContracts)Act1943andseebelow,paras23-074—23-077.

28 Contracts(RightsforThirdParties)Act1999andseebelow,paras18-090—18-125.

29 SeeVol.II,paras45-042—45-061.Itsprovisionsgoverningcontractsforthesaleorother dispositionofaninterestinlandwerereplacedbys.40oftheLawofPropertyAct1925,itself replacedbys.2oftheLawofProperty(MiscellaneousProvisions)Act1989,onwhichsee below,paras5-010etseq.The1677Act’sprovisiongoverningcontractsforthesaleofgoods (s.17)werefinallyabolishedbytheLawReform(EnforcementofContracts)Act1954s.4 (repealingSaleofGoodsAct1893s.4).

LifeAssuranceAct1774,onwhichseeVol.II,paras42-010,42-014.

31 BillsofSaleAct1878(lateramended).

32 BillsofExchangeAct1882,seeVol.II,para.34-006.

33 PartnershipAct1890.

34 SaleofGoodsAct1893replacedbytheSaleofGoodsAct1979onwhichseeVol.II,paras 44-001etseq.

35 e.g.LandlordandTenantAct1954.

36 Notably,EmploymentofChildrenAct;SexDiscriminationAct1975;EmploymentProtectionAct 1975;EqualPayAct1970;RaceRelationsAct1976.Thelawofdiscriminationwasbrought togetherintheEqualityAct2010.SeeVol.II,Ch.40.

37 ConsumerCreditAct1974(asamendedbytheConsumerCreditAct2006):seeVol.II,paras 39-007etseq.

38 UnfairContractTermsAct1977s.3–5,6(2)and7(2),12(asenacted)onwhichseebelow, paras15-066etseq.

39 UnfairTermsinConsumerContractsRegulations1999(SI1999/2083)onwhichseeVol.II, paras38-201etseq.

40 SeeConsumerCreditAct1974andVol.II,Ch.39.

41 Seenotably,SaleofGoodsAct1979Pt5AasinsertedbySaleandSupplyofGoodsto ConsumersRegulations2002(SI2002/3045)onwhichseeVol.II,paras38-405etseq.

42 ThePackageTravel,PackageHolidaysandPackageToursRegulations1992(SI1992/3288) onwhichseeVol.II,paras38-132—38-135.

43 Timeshare,HolidayProducts,ResaleandExchangeContractsRegulations2010(SI 2010/2960)(replacingearlierprovisions)onwhichseeVol.II,paras38-136—38-142.

44 ConsumerProtection(CancellationofContractsConcludedAwayfromBusinessPremises) Regulations1987(SI1987/2117).

45 ConsumerProtection(DistanceSelling)Regulations2000(SI2000/2334);FinancialServices (DistanceMarketing)Regulations2004(SI2004/2095)(onwhichseeVol.II,para.38-131).

46 ThiswasnotablythecaseasregardstheMisrepresentationAct1967andtheUnfairContract TermsAct1977.

47 Akeyexamplewasthedefinitionofaperson“dealingasconsumer”withinthemeaningofthe UnfairContractTermsAct1977and“consumer”withinthemeaningoftheUnfairTermsin ConsumerContractsRegulations1999:seebelow,paras15-073—15-078andVol.II,paras 38-028etseq.

48 SeeVol.II,paras38-334—38-394,38-399—38-547.TheConsumerRightsAct2015Pts1and 2werebroughtintoforceonOctober1,2015:seeVol.II,paras38-197and38-335.

49 Forthedetailsseebelow,paras15-064etseq.andVol.II,paras38-336—38-344and 38-436—38-442.

50 ConsumerContracts(Information,CancellationandAdditionalCharges)Regulations2013(SI 2013/3134)onwhichseeVol.II,paras38-055etseq.

51 ConsumerProtection(Amendment)Regulations2014(SI2014/870)inserting,notably,newPt 4AConsumers’RightstoRedressinConsumerProtectionfromUnfairTradingRegulations 2008(SI2008/1277),onwhichseeVol.II,paras38-145etseq.

52 OnthedistinctivefeaturesofmodernconsumercontractlawseeWhittaker(2017)133L.Q.R. 47.

53 ConsumerProtectionfromUnfairTradingRegulations2008;ConsumerContracts(Information, CancellationandAdditionalCharges)Regulations2013;ConsumerRightsAct2015.

54 SeeVol.II,Ch.39.

55 ConsumerInsurance(DisclosureandRepresentations)Act2012;InsuranceAct2015andsee Vol.II,paras42-033etseq.

56 SeeVol.II,paras38-437—38-442.

57 Vol.II,Ch.38.

ChittyonContracts32ndEd.

ConsolidatedMainworkIncorporatingSecondSupplement

VolumeI-GeneralPrinciples

Part1-Introduction

Chapter1-Introductory

Section1.-SourcesofEnglishContractLaw (c)-InternationalConvention

Generally 1-009

TheUKhassignedandratifiedanumberofinternationalconventionswhichhaverequireditto introduceintoEnglishlawbystatutesetsofuniformrulesgoverningaspectsofcertaintypesof contract.Thiscanbeseeninthecaseofinternationalcarriageofgoodsandpassengersbysea, 58 internationalcarriagebyair 59 andinternationalcarriagebyland. 60 WhilethereisanUnitedNations ConventiononContractsfortheinternationalsaleofgoods,theUKhasyettoratifyit. 61

EuropeanConventiononHumanRights

1-010

The“bringinghome”ofthemajorityofrightsprotectedbytheEuropeanConventiononHumanRights anditsprotocolsbytheHumanRightsAct1998possessesimplicationsforcontractlaw,whichwillbe discussedlaterinthepresentchapter. 62

58 SeenotablyHagueRulesandHague-VisbyRules(goods)introducedintoEnglishlawbythe CarriageofGoodsbySeaAct1971(onwhichseebelow,para.15-134);AthensConvention relatingtotheCarriageofPassengersandtheirLuggagebySea1974(onwhichseeVol.II, para.36-064).

59 Vol.II,Ch.35commencingwiththeWarsawConventiononInternationalCarriagebyAirof 1929.

60 Vol.II,para.36-003,paras36-079etseq.

61 SeeVol.II,para.44-014.

62 Below,paras1-057—1-094.

ConsolidatedMainworkIncorporatingSecondSupplement

VolumeI-GeneralPrinciples

Part1-Introduction

Chapter1-Introductory

Section1.-SourcesofEnglishContractLaw

VariouselementsofEUlawhaveaffectedtheconclusionandtheregulationofcontractsbyEnglish law.AsregardstheTreatiesthemselves,oneprominentareaisthelawofcompetition,whichhas bothageneralimpactontheenvironmentwithinwhichcontractsaremadeandwhichholdscertain categoriesofcontractorcontracttermunlawful. 63 EUlegislation(principallyintheformof directives)hasalsoregulatedaspectsofanumberoftypesofcontract.Consumercontractshave beenanimportantobjectofattention,withdirectivesrequiringrulescontrollingthefairnessofmostof theirstandardterms,rulesgoverningaspectsofcontractsmadeincertaincircumstances(aswith “distancecontracts”or“off-premisescontracts”)andofcertaintypes(saleofgoods,consumercredit, time-share,andpackageholidays). 64 Outsidetheconsumercontext,directiveshaverequired rulesgoverningcommercialagencycontracts 65 andparticularaspectsofcommercialcontractsin general(notably,asregardslatepaymentofcommercialdebts). 66 Thepublicprocurement directiveshavehadamajorimpactontheprocessofpubliccontracting 67 ;andaseriesof employmentdirectiveshavecreatedorreshapedrightsofemployeesinanumberofways. 68 EU lawinstrumentshavealsoanimportantimpactoninternationaljurisdictionandapplicablelawinthe areaofcontractlaw. 69 Thiscatalogueillustrates,however,thatEUlegislationharmonising contractlawhashithertoremainedpiecemeal,targetingparticularsituationsorparticularaspectsof therulesgoverningcontracts.

Towardsa“EuropeanContractLaw”? 1-012

Bythelate1990s,therewasgrowingacademicinterestinthedevelopmentofamoregeneral “Europeancontractlaw”kindledinpartbytheLandoCommission’sPrinciplesofEuropeanContract Law(asetoflegalpropositionsrelatingtotheconclusion,content,performanceandnon-performance ofcontractsagreedbyagroupofEuropeanlegalscholars 70 )andinpartbygrowingcriticismof the“incoherence”oftheECcontractlawacquiswhichforcontinentalcivillawyersinparticular contrastssharplywiththeformalcompletenessoftheirnationalprivatelawcodifications. 71 EncouragedbytheconclusionsofthemeetingoftheEuropeanCouncilatTamperein1999 72 and

in2001theEuropeanCommissionissuedthefirstofaseriesofcommunicationswhichcalledfora debateastotheproperwayofaddressingthesecriticismsofEuropeancontractlawandwhich soughttoencouragemeansofdevelopingitsusefulnessfortheinternalmarket. 74 In2008,further academicworkwaspublishedwhichproposed,interalia,adraft“CommonFrameofReference”for Europeancontractlaw. 75 Therehavebeentwoexpressionsofthesediscussions. 76 First, somedirectivesoftheconsumeracquishavebeenrevisedand,ofthese,somemadethesubjectof “fullharmonisation”(meaningthatMemberStatesarenotpermittedtomaintainorenactlegislation whichis more protectiveofconsumers). 77 Secondly,theEuropeanCommissionproposedamore general optional “CommonEuropeanSalesLaw”. 78

TheProposedCommonEuropeanSalesLaw(CESL) 79 1-013

In2011theCommissionproposedtheenactmentofanEUregulationwhichwouldhave establishedtheavailabilityofaCommonEuropeanSalesLawforpartiestochoosetogovern cross-bordercontractsforthesaleofgoods,supplyof“digitalcontent”andrelatedservices. 80 TheProposaldefined“cross-bordercontracts”distinctlyforcontractsbetweentraders(“iftheparties havetheirhabitualresidenceindifferentcountriesofwhichatleastoneisaMemberState” 81 ) andcontractsbetweenatraderandaconsumer(whichforconsumersreplaceshabitualresidence with“theaddressindicatedbytheconsumer,thedeliveryaddressforgoodsorthebillingaddress”).

TheProposalrestrictedtheavailabilityoftheCESLtothecasewhereoneofthepartiesisa traderandtheotheraconsumerandtothecasewherebothpartiesaretraders,butatleastoneisa smallormedium-sizedenterprise(SME),acategorywhichtheProposaldefines. 83 TheCESLset outtwobroadcategoriesofrules:rulesofgeneralcontractlawgoverningtheconclusion,validity, contentsandinterpretationofcontracts,damagesforbreachandinterest,restitutiononinvalidityof contract,andprescriptionofrights(PtsItoIII,VItoVIIICESLrespectively)andrulesgoverningthe obligationsandremediespertainingtotheparticulartypesofcontractstowhichCESLmayapply(Pts IVandPtVCESL).Theseruleswereprefacedbythesettingofthree“generalprinciples”:freedomof contract;“goodfaithandfairdealing”;andco-operationintheperformanceofobligations. 84 Withinitsscope,theCESLwasintendedtocreateauniformlaw,distinctfromnationallaws,asit providedthat:

“[w]herethepartieshavevalidlyagreedtousetheCommonEuropeanSalesLawfora contract,onlytheCommonEuropeanSalesLawshallgovernthemattersaddressedin itsrules.” 85

Thedefinitionofthescope(andthereforetheexclusiveregulationreservedfortheCESL)was furtheredintwoways.First,therecitalstotheProposalexplainedthatcertainissuesareoutsideits scope. 86 Secondly,theCESLprovidedthatitwas“tobeinterpretedautonomouslyandin accordancewithitsobjectivesandtheprinciplesunderlyingit” 87 andthat

“[i]ssueswithinthescopeoftheCommonEuropeanSalesLawbutnotexpresslysettled byitaretobesettledinaccordancewiththeobjectivesandtheprinciplesunderlyingit andallitsprovisions,withoutrecoursetothenationallawthatwouldbeapplicableinthe absenceofanagreementtousetheCommonEuropeanSalesLawortoanyotherlaw.”

However,theproposalmetwithconsiderablecriticismandopposition,includingchallengestoits competenceundertheTreaty,andinDecember2014itwaswithdrawn,thoughtheCommission announceditsintentionofbringingforwardamodifiedproposal“tounleashthepotentialof e-commerceinthedigitalSingleMarket”. 89 Moreover,despitethewithdrawaloftheearlier proposal,thesubstantiveprovisionsofthedraftCommonEuropeanSaleslawitself(particularlythose intendedtogoverncontractsgenerally)remainofinterestastheymaybeseenasreflectingan emerging“commonEuropeanlawofcontract”.Thismaybesignificantforthedraftingoffuturemore particularEUlegislation, 90 andmayalsobeusedforthedevelopmentofautonomous interpretationsofundefinedconceptsinpresentorfutureEUlegislationintheareaofcontracts. 91 Itsprovisions—andespeciallyitsthreegeneralprinciples 92 —arealsolikelytobeseenasabasis fortheEuropeanCourtofJustice’sidentificationanddevelopmentof“generalprinciplesofcivillaw”. 93 63

Notably,asbeingan“agreementbetweenundertakings…whichmayaffecttradebetween MemberStatesandwhich[has]as[its]objectoreffecttheprevention,restrictionordistortionof competitionwithintheinternalmarket”:art.101TFEU(exart.81EC).Onthislaw,seegenerally Vol.II,Ch.43,especiallyparas43-004etseq.

Directive93/13/EECofApril5,1993onunfairtermsinconsumercontracts[1993]O.J. L95/29(seeVol.II,paras38-199—38-200);Directive97/7/EContheprotectionofconsumersin respectofdistancecontracts[1997]O.J.L144/19;Directive85/577/EECtoprotectthe consumerinrespectofcontractsnegotiatedawayfrombusinesspremises[1985]O.J.L372/31 (thelattertwoofwhichwererevokedandreplacedbyDirective2011/83/EUonconsumerrights [2011]O.J.L304/64)(seeVol.II,paras38-056—38-061);Directive99/44/EConcertainaspects ofthesaleofconsumergoodsandassociatedguarantees[1999]O.J.L171/7(seeVol.II,paras 38-400—38-402);Directive2002/65/ECconcerningthedistancemarketingofconsumer financialservices[2002]O.J.L271/16(seeVol.II,para.38-131);Directive2005/29/EC concerningunfairbusiness-to-consumercommercialpracticesintheinternalmarket[2005]O.J. L149/22(seeVol.II,paras38-147—38-152);Directive2008/48/EConcreditagreementsfor consumersandrepealingCouncilDirective87/102/EEC[2008]O.J.L133/66below,Vol.II, para.39-011;Directive2008/122/EContheprotectionofconsumersinrespectofcertain aspectsoftimeshare,long-termholidayproduct,resaleandexchangecontracts[2009]O.J. L33/30(seeVol.II,para.38-136);Directive90/314/EECofJune13,1990onpackagetravel, packageholidaysandpackagetours[1990]O.J.L158/59(itselfrepealedandreplacedby Directive(EU)2015/2302onpackagetravelandlinkedtravelarrangements[2015]O.J.L326/1 asfromJuly1,2018(arts28and29))(seeVol.II,para.38-136);Regulation(EC)261/2004 establishingcommonrulesoncompensationandassistancetopassengersintheeventof deniedboardingandofcancellationorlongdelayofflights[2004]O.J.L46/1(seeVol.II,paras 35-071—35-073);Directive2014/17/EUoncreditagreementsforconsumersrelatingto residentialimmovableproperty[2014]O.J.L2014/34onwhichseeVol.II,paras39-003and 39-531.

65 CouncilDirective86/653/EEConthecoordinationofthelawsoftheMemberStatesrelating toself-employedcommercialagents[1986]O.J.L382/17:seeVol.II,paras31-017—31-020.

66 Directive2011/7/EUoncombatinglatepaymentincommercialtransactions[2011]O.J.L48/1 (replacingDirective2000/35/EConcombatinglatepaymentincommercialtransactions).The 2011DirectiveisimplementedinUKlawbytheLatePaymentofCommercialDebts(Interest) Act1998asamendedbytheLatePaymentofCommercialDebtsRegulations2013(SI 2013/395)onwhichseebelow,paras26-232—26-235.

In2004thesewereplacedintothe“Legislativepackage”:Directive2004/18/ECofthe EuropeanParliamentandoftheCouncilofMarch31,2004ontheco-ordinationofprocedures fortheawardofpublicworkscontracts,publicsupplycontractsandpublicservicecontracts [2004]O.J.L134/114;Directive2004/17/ECoftheEuropeanParliamentandoftheCouncilof March31,2004co-ordinatingtheprocurementproceduresofentitiesoperatinginthewater, energy,transportandpostalservicessectors[2004]O.J.L134/1.Thetwo2004directiveswere repealedandreplacedasfromApril18,2016byDirective2014/24/EUonpublicprocurement andrepealingDirective2004/18/EC[2014]O.J.L94/65(seeesp.art.91)andDirective 2014/25/EUonprocurementbyentitiesoperatinginthewater,energy,transportandpostal servicessectorsandrepealingDirective2004/17/EC[2014]O.J.L94/243(seeesp.art.107), whichweresupplementedbyDirective2014/23/EUontheawardofconcessioncontracts [2014]O.J.L94/1.Ontheseseebelow,paras11-051—11-052.

68 SeeVol.II,Ch.40especiallyparas40-039,40-112,40-136,40-155,40-156,40-172,40-179 and40-245.

69 Regulation44/2001onjurisdictionandtherecognitionandenforcementofjudgmentsincivil andcommercialmatters[2001]O.J.L12/1(the“BrusselsIRegulation”),especiallyarts5(1) (specialjurisdictionin“mattersrelatingtoacontract”),8–14(mattersrelatingtoinsurance), 15–17(jurisdictionoverconsumercontracts),18–21(jurisdictionoverindividualcontractsof employment),23(jurisdictionagreements).TheBrusselsIRegulationisitselfreplacedasfrom January10,2015byRegulation(EU)1215/2012ofDecember12,2012onjurisdictionandthe recognitionandenforcementofjudgmentsincivilandcommercialmatters(recast)(“the BrusselsIbisRegulation”);Regulation593/2008onthelawapplicabletocontractualobligations (“RomeI”)[2008]O.J.L177/6,onwhichseebelow,paras30-129etseq.

70 Formally,the“CommissiononEuropeanContractLaw”,butoftennamedafterProfessorO. Landowhochairedit.TheyarepublishedasLandoandBeale, PrinciplesofEuropeanContract Law PartsIandII(1999);Lando,Clive,PrümandZimmermann, PrinciplesofEuropean ContractLaw PartIII(2003).

71 e.g.Roth(2002)10ERPL761.

72 PresidencyConclusions,TampereEuropeanCouncilOctober15and16,1999,SI1999/800.

73 EPResolutionB5–0228,0229–0230/2000,p.326atpoint28(March16,2000),[2000]O.J. C377/323(followingearlierresolutionsin1989and1994whichexplicitlyconcernedthe possibilityofacodificationofsubstantiveprivatelaw).

74 CommunicationfromtheCommissiontotheCouncilandtheEuropeanParliamenton EuropeanContractLawCom(2001)398final;CommunicationfromtheCommissiontothe EuropeanParliamentandtheCouncil,“AmorecoherentEuropeanContractLaw,AnAction Plan”Com(2003)68final;EuropeanContractLawandtherevisionoftheacquis:theway forwardCom(2004)651final;EUCommission,GreenPaperfromtheCommissiononpolicy optionforprogresstowardsaEuropeanContractLawforconsumersandbusinesses COM(2010)348final.

75 Principles,DefinitionsandModelRulesofEuropeanPrivateLaw,DraftCommonFrameof Reference(DCFR)preparedbytheStudyGroupforaEuropeanCivilCodeandtheResearch GrouponECPrivateLaw(AcquisGroup)(2010),sixvolumes.

76 SeefurtherWhittaker(2007)EuropeanReviewofContractLaw381;Whittaker(2009)125 L.Q.R.616.

77 Notably,Directive2011/83/EUonconsumerrights(above,n.63).

ProposalforaRegulationonaCommonEuropeanSalesLaw,Com(2011)635final.(“CESL Proposal”).

79 Ontheideaofan“optionalinstrument”forEuropeancontractlawbeforetheCESLProposal, seeH.Schulte-Nölke(2007)ERCL332especiallyat348–349;Cartwright(2011)7ERCL335. OntheproposalitselfseeTheLawCommissionandScottishLawCommission,Advicetothe UKGovernment,AnOptionalCommonEuropeanSalesLaw:AdvantagesandProblems (November2011)availableat http://lawcommission.justice.gov.uk.Whittaker(2012)75M.L.R. 578;DannemannandVogenauer, TheCommonEuropeanSalesLawinContext,Interactions withEnglishandGermanlaw (2013).

80 CESLProposalart.1.Thefirstpartoftheproposedregulationsetsouttheframeworkofthe newscheme(herereferredtoas“CESLProposal”);theCESLitselfiscontainedinAnnexIand isseparatelynumbered(“CESLProposal,AnnexI”).

81 CESLProposalart.4(2).

82 CESLProposalart.4(3).

CESLProposalart.7.

CESLProposalAnnexIarts1–3respectively.

CESLProposalart.11.

86 Notably,CESLProposal,recitals27–28.IssuesoutsidethescopeoftheCESLwouldbe governedbythelawapplicableasidentifiedbytheprivateinternationallawrulesoftheforum.

87 CESLProposalAnnexIart.4(1).

88 CESLProposalAnnexIart.4(2).

EuropeanCommission,Annex2totheCommissionWorkProgramme2015Com(2014)910 final,p.12.SeealsotheCommunicationfromtheCommission,ADigitalSingleMarketStrategy forEurope,2015COM(2015)192final,pp.4-5.Thisstrategyhasled,interalia,toaProposal foraDirectiveoftheEuropeanParliamentandoftheCounciloncertainaspectsconcerning contractsfortheonlineandotherdistancesalesofgoodsCOM(2015)635finalandaProposal foraDirectiveoftheEuropeanParliamentandoftheCounciloncertainaspectsconcerning contractsforthesupplyofdigitalcontentCOM(2015)634.

90 cf.theexplicitborrowingbyDirective2011/7/EUoncombatinglatepaymentincommercial transactions[2011]O.J.L48/1,art.7(1)(a)(asexplainedbyrecital28)of“goodfaithandfair dealing”fromtheDCFR(whichwasanimportantprecursortotheCESL,above,n.74).

Seee.g.(beforeissuingtheProposal)A.G.Trstenjak’sreferencetoart.167(3)CESLinthe contextofthe1993Directivein BancoEspañoldeCrédito,SAvCalderónCamino(C-618/10) para.42.cf. Masdar(UK)LtdvECCommission(T–333/03)[2007]2AllE.R.261 wherethe CourtofFirstInstanceacceptedreferencetotheworkofthe StudyGrouponaEuropeanCivil Code inordertodevelopaEUlawofrestitutionforunjustifiedenrichmentunderart.288 (formerly215)EC; HamiltonvVolksbankFildereG(412/06) A.G.PoiresMaturoat[24] (referringtotimelimitsfortheexerciseofarightasbeinga“principlecommontothelawsofthe MemberStates”andcitingthepossiblefutureDCFR).OnthesepredecessorsoftheCESL,see above,n.74.

93 Whittaker, TheFutureofEuropeanContractLaw,EssaysinHonourofEwoudHondius (2007),333;Weatherill(2010)6EuropeanReviewofContractLaw74;Hesselink, The InvolvementofEULawinPrivateLawRelationships (2012).e.g. HamiltonvVolksbankFilder eG(C-412/06)[2008]E.C.R.I–2383 atpara.42; MessnervKrüger(C-489/07)[2009]I–07315 para.26; E.FrizGmbHvCarstenvonderHeyden(C-215/08)[2010]E.C.R.I–2947,paras48, 49.

ConsolidatedMainworkIncorporatingSecondSupplement

VolumeI-GeneralPrinciples

Part1-Introduction

Chapter1-Introductory

Section1.-SourcesofEnglishContractLaw (d)-EULaw

(ii)-UnitedKingdom’sExitfromtheEU(“Brexit”)

Anoteon“Brexit” 1-013A

AfteranationalreferendumheldonJune23,2016atwhichamajorityvotedinfavouroftheUK leavingtheEU,theUKConservativeGovernmentformedonJuly16,2016declareditsintentionto endtheUK’smembershipoftheEU(“Brexit”)andonMarch29,2017thePrimeMinister,theRight Hon.MrsTheresaMayMP,setinmotiontheprocessofdoingsounderart.50oftheTreatyofthe EuropeanUnion(TEU). 94 TheConservativeGovernmentsetoutitsintentionsastothepositionof existingEUlawintheUKintwowhitepapers, TheUnitedKingdom’sexitfromandnewpartnership withtheEuropeanUnion 95 and LegislatingfortheUnitedKingdom’swithdrawalfromthe EuropeanUnion 96

EuropeanUnion(Withdrawal)Bill2017

1-013B

AfterageneralelectionheldonJune8,2017,theConservativeGovernmentearlierformedbyMrs Mayremainedingovernment.OnJuly13,2017theEuropeanUnion(Withdrawal)Bill(“the2017Bill” or“theBill”)receiveditsfirstreadingintheHouseofCommons,itssecondreadingbeingheldon September7and11,2017 97 ;the2017BillisaccompaniedbyExplanatoryNotes(“Explanatory Notesto2017Bill”).ForthepurposesofthelikelyimpactofBrexitonEnglishcontractlaw,the followingpointsarisefromthetermsoftheBillaspresentlydrafted.

ThegeneralpreservationoftheUK’sEUlegislativeacquis 1-013C

TheBillwouldrepealtheEuropeanCommunitiesAct1972on“exitday”, 98 definedas“such dayasaMinisteroftheCrownmayberegulationsappoint”, 99 butclearlyintendedtobetheday onwhichtheUKleavestheEU.Despitethisrepeal,theBillwouldinprincipleretaintheEU legislative acquis aspartofUKlaw.First,inprinciple“EU-deriveddomesticlegislation,asithaseffectin domesticlawimmediatelybeforeexitday,continuestohaveeffectindomesticlawonandafterexit day”. 100 ThisprovisionwouldpreservemuchoftheUKlegislationgoverningcontractlaw,which

hasbeenenactedassecondarylegislationundertheEuropeanCommunitiesAct1972,asinthe caseoftheConsumerContracts(Information,CancellationandAdditionalCharges)Regulations 2013 101 andtheTimeshareRegulations2010 102 inthefieldofconsumercontractsorthe CommercialAgents(CouncilDirective)Regulations1993inthefieldofcommercialagency. 103 Secondly,“[d]irectEUlegislation,sofarasoperativeimmediatelybeforeexitday,formspartof domesticlawonorafterexitday”. 104 SuchdirectEUlegislationincludesEUregulations 105 andwouldthereforeconcernsuchinstrumentsaffectingcontractlawastheBrusselsIbisRegulation 106 ortheRomeIRegulation 107 intheareaofprivateinternationallaw,andtheDenied BoardingRegulationintheareaofconsumerprotection 108 Thirdly,the2017Billcontains provisionforthepreservationofUKprimarylegislationenactedforthepurposeofimplementingEU obligations(suchastheConsumerRightsAct2015 109 )orsecondarylegislationwiththesame purposebutmadeunderstatutorypowersotherthanthosecontainedins.2(2)ofthe1972Act. 110

Takentogether,theselawsarereferredtoas“retainedEUlaw”bytheBill. 111 Thereare,however, twotypesofqualificationsontheresultingpreservationinUKlawoftheEUlegislativeacquisasthe Billitselfsetsoutcertainexceptionsforthispurpose,andalsoprovidesforthelateramendmentor repealoflegislation(primaryorsecondary)whosesourceisinEUlegislationeitherbysecondary legislationmadebyaMinisteroftheCrownorbyadevolvedauthority(suchastheScottish Ministers),thisbeingreferredtoas“dealingwithdeficienciesarisingfromwithdrawal”. 112

FurtherissuesarisingfromBrexit

1-013D

Threefurtherissuesinparticularshouldbenoted.First,the2017Billmakesprovisiontoensure thatanyremainingEUrightsandobligationswhicharenotpreservedinthewayjustexplained 113 continuetoberecognisedandavailableindomesticlawaftertheUKleavestheEUandtheseinclude directlyeffectiverightscontainedintheEuropeanTreatiesthemselves. 114 Secondly,onleaving theEU,the2017BillwouldendthegeneralsupremacyofEUlaw,butthiswouldtakeeffectonly prospectivelyinthesensethatanyconflictbetweentwopre-exitlaws(oneEU-derived,onenot) wouldberesolvedinfavouroftheEU-derivedlaw. 115 Thirdly,provisionismadeforthefuture authoritativeinterpretationoftheUKlegislationwhosesourceisEUlegislationbeforeandafterthe UKhaslefttheEU(“exitday”).Forthispurposeadistinctionisdrawnbetweenthecase-lawof,or principleslaiddownby,theCourtofJusticeoftheEU before and after theUK’sleavingtheEU.As regardstheformer,“retainedEUlaw” 116 isinprincipletobeinterpreted“inaccordancewithany retainedcaselawandanyretainedgeneralprinciplesofEUlaw, 117 and,havingregard(among otherthings)tothelimits,immediatelybeforeexitday,ofEUcompetences”. 118 However,theBill thenprovidesthat“theSupremeCourtisnotboundbyanyretainedEUcaselaw” 119 andthen explainsthat“[i]ndecidingwhethertodepartfromanyretainedEUcaselaw,theSupremeCourt… mustapplythesametestasitwouldapplyindecidingwhethertodepartfromitsowncaselaw”. 120

AstheGovernment’ssecondwhitepaperearlierforesaw,thiswouldthereforetreat“retainedEU caselaw”as“normallybinding”butitwouldallowtheSupremeCourttodepartfromit“whenit appearsrighttodoso”. 121 AsregardsthepositionofEUcaselawandprinciples after theUKhas lefttheEU,theBillprovidesthat“[a]courtortribunal…isnotboundbyanyprincipleslaiddown,or anydecisionsmade,onorafterexitdaybytheEuropeanCourt” 122 andaddsthat“[a]courtor tribunalneednothaveregardtoanythingdoneonorafterexitdaybytheEuropeanCourt,another EUentityortheEUbutmaydosoifitconsidersitappropriatetodoso”. 123 Thispositionwould thereforemeanthatUKcourtswouldnotberequiredevento consider caselawoftheCourtof

Justicemadeafterexitday,thoughtheymaydosoiftheyconsideritappropriate. 124 Inthis respect,thepositionwoulddifferfromthedutyofUKcourtsundertheHumanRightsAct1998s.2(1) ofwhichprovidesthatindeterminingaquestionwhichhasariseninconnectionwitharightunderthe EuropeanConventiononHumanRightsacourt“musttakeintoaccountany…judgment,decision, declarationoradvisoryopinionoftheEuropeanCourtofHumanRights”.

Presentposition

1-013E

However,untiltheUKleavestheEU(whethertwoyearsafterMarch29,2017whenthePrime MinistergavetheEUnoticeunderart.50TEUoratsomelaterdatewiththeagreementofthe EuropeanCouncil),theUKremainsafullmemberoftheEUandthestatusofEUlawremainsthe sameasithasbeensincetheUK’sbecomingaMemberStatein1972andtheenactmentofthe EuropeanCommunitiesAct. 125 ThetextofthisSupplementcontinues,therefore,tobewrittenon thepremisethattheUKisaMemberoftheEUandthatthestatusofEUlawintheUKremainsthe sameuntilsuchtimeastheEuropeanUnion(Withdrawal)Billisenacted,theUKleavestheEUanda MinisteroftheCrownthereforedesignates“exitday”aspresentlyforeseenbytheBill.

94 ThePrimeMinister’sauthoritytodosowasgivenbytheEuropeanUnion(Notificationof Withdrawal)Act2017s.1.

95 DepartmentforExitingtheEuropeanUnion,Cm.9417(February2017).

96 DepartmentforExitingtheEuropeanUnion,Cm.9446(March2017).

97 See http://services.parliament.uk/bills/2017-19/europeanunionwithdrawal.html

98 EuropeanUnion(Withdrawal)Bill2017(“2017Bill”)cl.1.

99 2017Billcl.14(1)“exitday”,itselfreferringtocl.14(2)asregardsthetimeofday.

100

2017Billcl.2(1).Clause2(2)defines“EU-deriveddomesticlegislation”toinclude,in particular,anyenactmentmadeunders.2(2)oftheEuropeanCommunitiesAct1972.The exceptionstothisgeneralpositionaresetoutbycl.5andSch.1.

101

102

103

SI2013/3134implementingDirective2011/83/EUonconsumerrights[2011]O.J.L304/64on whichseeMainWork,Vol.I,paras38-057etseq.

Timeshare,HolidayProducts,ResaleandExchangeContractsRegulations2010(SI 2010/2960)implementingDirective2008/122/EContheprotectionofconsumersinrespectof certainaspectsoftimeshare,long-termholidayproduct,resaleandexchangecontracts[2009] O.J.L33/30,onwhichseeVol.II,paras38-136—38-142.

SI1993/3053implementingDirective86/653ontheco-ordinationofthelawsoftheMember Statesrelatingtoself-employedcommercialagents[1986]O.J.L382/17,onwhichseeMain Work,Vol.II,paras31-017—31-020.

104 2017Billcl.3(1).

106

107

108

109

Regulation(EU)1215/2012ofDecember12,2012onjurisdictionandtherecognitionand enforcementofjudgmentsincivilandcommercialmatters(recast)[2012]O.J.L351/1.

Regulation593/2008onthelawapplicabletocontractualobligations(“RomeI”)[2008]O.J. L177/6,onwhichseeMainWork,Vol.I,paras30-129etseq.

Regulation(EC)261/2004establishingcommonrulesoncompensationandassistanceto passengersintheeventofdeniedboardingandofcancellationorlongdelayofflights[2004] O.J.L46/1onwhichseeMainWork,Vol.II,paras35-071—35-073.

The2015ActimplementsDirective1999/44/EConcertainaspectsofthesaleofconsumer goodsandassociatedguarantees[1999]O.J.L171/12(principallyinPt1,Ch.2oftheAct);the Directive93/13/EECofApril5,1993onunfairtermsinconsumercontracts[1993]O.J.L95/29 (principallyinPt2oftheAct)andcertainaspectsofDirective2011/83/EUonconsumerrights [2011]O.J.L304/64(ss.11(4)–(6),12;ss.36(3)–(4)and37;ands.50(3)–(4)oftheAct).Onthis seeMainWork,Vol.II,paras38-345etseq.and38-402,38-431etseq.

110

111

112

2017Billcl.2(2)andseeExplanatoryMemorandumpara.74,whichgivesasanexample domestichealthandsafetylawimplementingEUobligationsmadeunderpowersintheHealth andSafetyatWorketc.Act1974ratherthantheEuropeanCommunitiesAct1972.

2017Billcl.6(7)defining“retainedEUlaw”byreferenceto“anythingwhich,onorafterexit day,continuestobe,orformspartof,domesticlawbyvirtueof”cls2,3,4or6(3)or(6)ofthe Bill,“asthatbodyoflawisaddedtoorotherwisemodifiedbyorunder[theBill]orbyother domesticlawfromtimetotime”.

2017Billheadingofcl.7andSch.2Pt1;Cm.9446(March2017)paras1.14–1.16.andCh.3. Thedefinitionof“devolvedauthority”iscontainedincl.14(1)ofthe2017Bill.

113 Above,para.1-013C.

114

2017Billcl.4andExplanatoryNotesto2017Bill,paras87etseq.

115 2017Billcl.5;Cm9446(March2017)paras2.19–2.20.

116 Seeabove,n.92.

117 Definedintermsoftemporaloriginbycl.6(7)ofthe2017Billasthosewhicharemadeorlaid downimmediatelybeforeexitday:cl.6(7)“retainedEUcaselaw”and“retainedgeneral principlesofEUlaw”.

118 2017Billcl.6(3).

119 2017Billcl.6(4)(a).Furtherprovisionismadeasregardsthe(Scottish)HighCourtof Justiciary.

120 2017Billcl.6(5).

121 Cm9446(March2017)para.2.16quotingtheHouseofLordsPracticeStatement(Judicial

Precedent)of1966,[1966]1W.L.R.1234;andseealsoExplanatoryNotesto2017Bill, para.107.

122 2017Billcl.6(1)(a).

123 2017Billcl.6(2).

124 ExplanatoryNotesto2017Bill,paras103-104.

125 ThisfollowsfromtheremaininginforceoftheEuropeanCommunitiesAct1972andis acknowledgedbyCm.9446(March2017)para.1.10.

ConsolidatedMainworkIncorporatingSecondSupplement

VolumeI-GeneralPrinciples

Part1-Introduction

Chapter1-Introductory

Section2.-DefinitionsofContract

Competingdefinitionsofcontract

1-014

Therearetwomaincompetingdefinitionsofacontractinthecommonlaw. 126 Thefirst,whichwas adoptedbythe26theditionofthiswork,definesacontractasapromiseorsetofpromiseswhichthe lawwillenforce. 127 Thecompetingview,whichwastakenbythe2ndeditionofthiswork, 128 isthata “contractisanagreementgivingrisetoobligationswhichareenforcedorrecognisedbylaw”. 129

Therearetwomainargumentsinfavourofthedefinitionofcontractintermsofpromise.First,the ideaofcontractsasbeingbasedonagreementwasintroducedintoEnglishlegaldiscussionsonlyin thenineteenthcentury,inparticularundertheinfluenceofPothier, TreatiseonObligations 130 and doesnotaccordwiththerawmaterialofthecommonlaw,inparticularinrelationtotherequirement ofconsideration. 131 ForEnglishlawdoesnotingeneralenforcegratuitouspromises,theelementof non-gratuitybeingexpressedtechnicallybytherequirementthatsomeconsiderationmustmovefrom thepromiseeandinlaytermsthatitenforcesbargainsratherthanagreements. 132 Moreover,itisin relationtotherequirementofconsiderationthatmodernusagemostreadilyreliesonthelanguageof promise:whatisrequiredisconsiderationforaparty’s promise,notconsiderationfortheparties’ agreement 133 Finally,oneofthejustificationsfortheenforcementofcontractsissaidtolieinthe moralobligationofapartytoperformhispromise. 134

Difficultieswith“contractaspromise”

1-015

However,analysisofcontractsintermsofanenforceablepromiseorsetsofenforceablepromises isnotentirelysatisfactory.First,outsidethecontextofconsideration,ingeneralneithercourtsnor partiestocontractsdescribetherelationshipswhichtheycreateintermsofpromises,butratherin termsofagreements,andforthecourtsthisisclearestinthecontextoftherulesastoofferand acceptancewhichwhensatisfiedformthatagreement. 135 Moreover,aswillbedescribedlater,the doctrineofconsiderationtowhichthe“promisetheory”issocloselyrelated,issomewhatundersiege: fromthelegislature,sincetheenactmentoftheContracts(RightsofThirdParties)Act1999has limiteditstraditionaldomain, 136 andfromthecourts,notablyinthedecisionin WilliamsvRoffeyBros &Nicholls(Contractors)Ltd 137 Secondly,definitionofcontractsintermsofsetsofpromisesdoes notgivefullforcetotheinterrelationshipoftheobligationsofthepartieswhichexistsinmany contracts, 138 aninterrelationshipwhichcanbeseenparticularlyintheavailabilityoftheremedyof terminationforsubstantialfailureinperformance,bywhichaninjuredpartymayterminatehisown obligationsbyreasonofthefailureoftheotherpartytoperformhissideofthebargain. 139

Difficultieswith“contractasagreement”

1-016

However,anunderstandingofmoderncontractsasagreementsdoesnotfiteasilywithtwo recognisedtypesofcontract.First,inthecaseofaunilateralcontract 140 whereApromisestodo somethingifBdoessomethingelse,theperformancebyBoftheconditionisenoughforAtobe bound.Here,analysisintermsofdoingsomethingofvalueinreturnforapromisefitsmorenaturally thandoestheconstructionofanacceptancebyB’sperformanceoftheconditionofA’spromise. 141 Secondly,promisescontainedindeeds 142 areenforceablebythepersoninwhosefavourtheyare made,whetherornotthatpersonisawareofthem 143 andsowhileadeedmaygivecontractualforce toanagreement,agreementisunnecessaryfortheenforcementofthepromiseswhichitcontains. And,forPollock,writingin1885,thepositionofcontractsundersealmadeitdifficultforhimtoaccept that“proposalandacceptance[form]partofthegeneralconceptionofcontract”. 144 Forotherwriters, however,ithasledinsteadtoadenialthatthebindingforceofapromiseinadeeddependson contractatall. 145 Certainly,althoughitistruethattheactiontoenforcepromisesmadeunder seal,theactionofcovenant,wastraditionallyclassifiedasarisingexcontractu, 146 thisclassification cannotbetreatedasconclusiveastowhetherpromisesindeedsshouldbeconsideredcontractual, giventhatatthetimeotheractionswhichareclearlynotsoconsideredwerealsoincludedwithinthis category(notably,actionsformoneyhadandreceived,whichwouldnowbeunderstoodas restitutionary 147 andactionsfordetinuewhosefunctionbeforetheirabolitionwasclearlyproprietary). 148

Actualagreementnotrequired 1-017

Moreover,eventhoughitistruethattheexistenceofanagreementisinthevastmajorityofcasesa conditionfortheexistenceofacontractnotcontainedinadeed,thisstatementoughttobetreated withsomecaution.First,theexistenceofanagreementisnotanissuemerelyoffact,tobefoundby apsychologicalinvestigationofthepartiesatthetimeofitsallegedorigin:Englishlawtakesan “objective”ratherthana“subjective”viewoftheexistenceofagreement 149 andsoitsstartingpointis themanifestationofmutualassentbytwoormorepersonstooneanother 150:

“Agreementisnotamentalstatebutanact,and,asanact,isamatterofinferencefrom conduct.Thepartiesaretobejudged,notbywhatisintheirminds,butbywhatthey havesaidorwrittenordone.” 151

Furthermore,forreasonsofcommercialconvenience,thecommonlawregulateswhatistobetreated asamanifestationofassentcapableofgivingrisetoacontractinitsrulesrelatingtoofferand acceptance. 152 Forexample,apostedacceptanceofanofferissaidtoconcludeacontracton posting,ratherthanoncommunicationtotheofferor,andsoanacceptancelostinthepostwillbind theofferor. 153 Similarly,ifAsendsanoffertoBbypost,andthenchangeshismindandsendsa letterrevokinghisoffer,butBpostsanacceptanceoftheofferafterApostedhisletterofrevocation, butbeforeBreceivedit,theremaybeacontract,thoughthepartieswereneveradidem. 154 Another exampleofcommonlawregulationofwhatconstitutesanagreementmaybefoundinthegeneral rulethatsilenceinanoffereecannotbetreatedasacceptance. 155 Andithasbeenheldthatthe traditionalanalysisinbattleofformscaseswillnotbedisplacedunlessitisshownthatitwasthe parties’commonintention(asobjectivelyconstruedfromtheirwordsorconduct)thatsomeother termswereintendedtoprevail. 156

Agreementandconsiderationnotsufficient 1-018

Secondly,thepresenceofanagreementsupportedbyconsiderationisnotalwayssufficientto establishtheexistenceofacontract.Thisisnotablythecasewherethepartiesagreein

circumstancesinwhichitisconsideredinappropriateforthelawtoimposelegalobligations,for example,inasocialordomesticcontext,andisjustifiedonthebasisthatthepartiescannotbe consideredtohaveintendedtocreatealegalrelationship. 157 However,thecourtshaveusedthe requirementthatthepartiesmustpossessanintentiontocreatelegalrelationstoexcludeothertypes ofnongratuitousagreementfromthedomainofcontract. 158 Furthermore,evenifatransactionfulfils thesethreeconditionsofagreement,considerationandanintentiontocreatelegalrelations,itmay bedefeatedbythepresenceofotherfactorssuchastheabsenceofaparticularform, 159 mistake, 160 misrepresentation, 161 duress, 162 undueinfluence, 163 incapacity 164 orillegality. 165 Someofthese factorswillrenderthecontractvoid, 166 othersvoidable, 167 andothersstillwillrenderitunenforceable againstoneorbothcontractingparties. 168

Enforcementofagreementsunderotherrules

1-019

Thirdly,eventhoughcontractsareingeneraltobedefinedasagreements,thisdoesnotmeanthatall enforceableagreements(orenforceablepromises)arecontracts.Thisisparticularlynoticeablein relationtopromissoryandproprietaryestoppelandconstructivetrust.Inthecaseofpromissory estoppel,AmaybepreventedfromgoingbackonapromisenottorelyonhislegalrightsagainstB, subjecttotheconditionthatBhasreliedonA’spromise(possibly,toB’sdetriment). 169 Bdoesnot needtofurnishconsiderationforA’spromiseforittobeenforceableunderthisdoctrineandalthough therequirementofreliancebyBsuggestssomeelementofacceptanceonthelatter’spartofthe benefitofthepromise,thereisnoneedforthistobecommunicatedtoorknownbyA. 170 The doctrinesofproprietaryestoppelandconstructivetrustmayalsoenforcepromisesoragreements, eventhoughtheseelementsformmerelypartofthefactualcircumstanceswhichattracttheir application.Forexample,in CrabbvArunDC, 171 AmadeanassurancetoBthatitwouldgrantaright ofwaytoBoveritslandtoandfromB’slandandBactedinrelianceonthisassurance.B’sclaimfor adeclarationthathewasentitledtotherightofaccesssucceededbywayofestoppel,eventhough apparentlyBcouldnothaveestablishedtheexistenceofacontractonthegroundofitsuncertainty. 172 Sotoo,aswillbeseen,constructivetrust,andpossiblyalsoproprietaryestoppel,canbeusedby thecourtstogivesomelegaleffecttoagreementsforthesaleorotherdispositionofaninterestin landwhichdonotconstitutecontractsforlackoftheproperform. 173 Ontheotherhand,sometimes constructivetrustisusednotsoastoallowanagreementnotcountingasacontracttobeenforced betweenitspartiesbutrathersoastoallowittoaffectthepositionofthirdparties.Forexample,in BinionsvEvans, 174 AhadbeengivenpermissionbyBtooccupyacottageonB’slandfortherestof herlife.BsoldthelandtoCexpresslysubjecttoA’stenancyofthecottage,butafewmonthslaterC gaveAnoticetoquit.ItwasacceptedbythemajorityoftheCourtofAppeal 175 thattheagreement betweenAandBhadcontractualforce,butforLordDenning,M.R.inthecircumstancesofthecaseit wouldalsogiverisetoaconstructivetrustsoastobindC. 176

EUlawdefinitionsofcontract

1-020

Thedefinitionswhichwehavesofardiscussedhavebeenthosewhichhavearisenfromanalysisof thecommonlaw,equitableandstatutorymaterialnativetoEnglishlaworthelegalsystemswhich havedevelopedfromit.However,asearliernoted, 177 legislationoftheEUhasnowhadavery considerableeffectonthelawgoverningEnglishcontracts.Intheseareas,therelevantEUlegislation oftenmakestheapplicationoflegislationcontingentontheexistenceofacontract,butthequestion ariseswhetherthisnotionshouldbeinterpretedaccordingtotheunderstandingofthevarious MemberStatelawsorinsteadonthebasisofan“autonomous”definitiontobeformulatedbythe CourtofJusticeoftheEU.Itissubmittedthatthereisnotlikelytobeanysingleanswertobegivento thisquestionandthatdifferentanswersmaybegivenaccordingtothecontextofthelegislationin question,theseturningonavarietyofconsiderations,butparticularlyonthedegreeofjuristic integrationwhichtheCourtofJusticethinksdesirableandpracticableinthatcontext.However,where theCourtofJusticeconsidersitrighttotakeanautonomousviewof“contract”forthepurposesofEU legislation,itmaywelltakeasitsstarting-pointthedefinitionofcontractsetoutintheProposed RegulationonaCommonEuropeanSalesLaw,whichdefines“contract”as“anagreementintended

togiverisetoobligationsorotherlegaleffects”. 178 Itistobenoticed,inparticular,thatthisdefinition makesnorequirementofreciprocityorprovisionofvaluesuchasisfoundinthedoctrineof considerationwiththeresultthat,inprinciple,purelygratuitousagreementscouldfallwithinitsscope. 179 Thefollowingparagraphsconsidertheapproachtodefinitionsof“contract”followingexistingcase lawoftheEuropeanCourt.

EUprivateinternationallaw

1-021

TheCourtofJusticeitselfhashadoccasiontoholdthataEuropeanand“autonomous”viewshould betakenoftheunderstandingofwhatconstitutesacontractualasopposedtoanextra-contractual actionforthepurposesofjurisdictionalrulesundertheBrusselsConvention(nowbroughtwithinEU lawastheBrusselsIbisRegulation), 180 andthishasmeantthatanactionclassifiedinone MemberState(France)ascontractualhasbeenheldextra-contractualforthesepurposes. 181 The EuropeanCourtdecidedthat:

“…thephrase‘mattersrelatingtoacontract’withinthemeaningofArticle5(1)ofthe Conventionshouldnotbeunderstoodtocoverasituationwherethereisnoobligation freelyenteredintobyonepartytoanother.Whereasub-buyerofgoodswhicharebought fromanintermediatesellerbringsanactionagainstamanufacturerfordamagesonthe solegroundthatthegoodsarenotinconformity,itisimportanttoobservethatthereisno contractuallinkbetweenthesub-buyerandthemanufacturerbecausethelatterhasnot undertakenacontractualobligationofanykindtotheformer.” 182

AsregardstheEUinstrumentsgoverningapplicablelaw,theRomeIIRegulationonthelaw applicabletonon-contractualobligationsspecifiesthat“theconceptofnon-contractualobligation” mustbeunderstoodasan“autonomousconcept” 183 andincludescertainareasoflaw(notably, “productliability”andprecontractualliability(“culpaincontrahendo”))whichinsomenationallawsfall withincontractandsometimesoutsideit. 184 ThescopeoftheRomeIRegulation(replacingtheearlier RomeConvention)onthelawapplicableto contractual obligationsistobeinterpretedinaway consistentwiththeearlierRomeIIRegulation. 185 Forthispurpose,theCourtofJusticeoftheEUhas heldthat“theconceptof‘contractualobligation’[undertheRomeIRegulation]designatesalegal obligationfreelyconsentedtobyonepersontowardsanother”.

186

Europeandefinitionof“worker”

1-022

Astothevariouslegislativeprovisionsgoverningcontractsofemploymentandcontractsunderwhich “workers”act,clearlytheirconcernisnotwith“contract”,butratherwith“employmentcontract”or “worker”,butinthisrespectsomeoftheEUlegislationclearlyinvitesthecourtsoftheMemberStates torefertoaconceptionofcontractdrawnfromtheirownlegalsystem,whileotherprovisionshave attractedaEuropeanconception.So,forexample,Directive91/533whichmakescertain requirementsastotheinformationtobegivenbyemployerstotheiremployeesastotheconditionsof employmentexpresslyprovidesthatitshallapply“toeverypaidemployeehavingacontractor employmentrelationshipdefinedbythelawinforceinaMemberState”. 187 Ontheotherhand,the EuropeanCourtofJusticemadeclearasearlyas1964that“worker”forthepurposesoftheprinciple offreedomofmovementofworkerscontainedinart.48(laterart.39)oftheECTreaty(nowart.45 TFEU)mustbegivenaEuropeanunderstanding 188 thefleshingoutofthisbeingthematterfora seriesofsubsequentjudgments. 189

“Consumercontract”

Finally,whileitisclearthatcertainaspectsofthenotionof“consumercontract”forthepurposesof theDirectiveonUnfairTermsinConsumerContracts1993 190 aretobeinterpreted“autonomously”,it islessclearwhetherthenotionof“contract”itselfwillalsobesointerpretedbytheCourtofJusticeof theEUorwillinsteadfalltobegovernedbythelegislationorcaselawoftheMemberStates. 191 Ifit wereinterpretedautonomously,thenthesignificanceof“contract”maywelldifferfromthatgivenby Englishlaw,notablyasregardsthelatter’srequirementofconsideration,arequirementwhichisnot sharedbytheotherMemberStatesexcepttheRepublicofIreland.Furthermore,incomingtoaview astowhatconstitutes“acontract”forthispurpose,theCourtofJusticeislikelytobeinspiredbythe definitionalreadynotedintheProposalforaRegulationonacommonEuropeansaleslaw. 192

“Contract”inEUpublicprocurementlaw 1-024

TheCourtofJusticehasadoptedanautonomousEuropeanviewof“contract”forthepurposesof thepublicprocurementdirectives.In TeckalSrlvComunediViano 193 theCourtrecognisedthatthe conclusionofanagreementbyapublicauthorityandacompanywhich,althoughaseparateentity,is insubstanceadepartmentoftheauthorityfallsoutsidetherequirementsofthesedirectives. 194 AccordingtotheCourt:

“Astowhetherthereisacontract,thenationalcourtmustdeterminewhethertherehas beenanagreementbetweentwoseparatepersons.

Inthatregard,…itis,inprinciple,sufficientifthecontractwasconcludedbetween,on theonehand,alocalauthorityand,ontheother,apersonlegallydistinctfromthatlocal authority.Thepositioncanbeotherwiseonlyinthecasewherethelocalauthority exercisesoverthepersonconcernedacontrolwhichissimilartothatwhichitexercises overitsowndepartmentsand,atthesametime,thatpersoncarriesouttheessentialpart ofitsactivitieswiththecontrollinglocalauthorityorauthorities.” 195

AsA.G.Stix-Hacklobservedinthe TREALeunaCase,“in Teckal thecourt…narrowedtheconcept of“contract”byinterpretingitteleologically”. 196 SubsequentcaselawintheEuropeanCourt(as reviewedbytheSupremeCourtin RiskManagementPartnersLtdvBrentLBC)makesclearthatthe “Teckal exception”doesnot“dependonthemeaningtobegiventoparticularwordsorphrasesinthe Directive,suchasthosetobefoundinthedefinitionof‘publiccontracts’”,butratheronfundamental policiespursuedbothbytheprocurementdirectivesandbytheECTreatyitself. 197

126 Thissentencewasreferredtowithapparentapprovalin EngelvJointCommitteeforParking andTrafficRegulationOutsideLondon[2013]I.C.R.1086,[2013]I.R.L.R.787 at[6].

127 ChittyonContracts,26thedn(1989),Vol.I,para.1;Pollock, PrinciplesofContract,13thedn (1950),p.1;cf.Pollock, PrinciplesofContractatLawandinEquity,1stedn(1876),p.5.The AmericanLawInstitute’sRestatementofContracts,2ndedn,para.1,adoptssubstantiallythe samedefinition.

128 Chitty, APracticalTreatiseontheLawofContracts (1834),pp.1–2.

129 Peel, TreitelonTheLawofContract 14thedn(2015),para.1–001.cf.Burrows, A RestatementoftheEnglishLawofContract (2016),para.2whichdefines“contract”asan

agreementthatislegallybindingbecauseitissupportedbyconsiderationormadebydeed, certainandcomplete,madewiththeintentiontocreatelegalrelations,andcomplieswithany formalrequirementneededfortheagreementtobelegallybinding;andseethecommentaryat pp.44–55.

130 Pothier, TreatiseonObligations (trans.Evans,1806)andseeSimpson(1975)91L.Q.R.247, 257–262;Atiyah, TheRiseandFallofFreedomofContract (1979),p.399;Gordley, The PhilosophicalOriginsofModernContractDoctrine (1991),Ch.6.

131 cf.Nicholas, TheFrenchLawofContract,2ndedn(1992),p.144.

132 AccordingtotheRestatementofContractsatpara.3,abargainisanagreement,wherebytwo ormorepersonsexchangepromises,orexchangeapromiseforaperformance.However,the word“bargain”isseldomusedinanytechnicalsenseinthelawofcontract:Atiyah, Essayson Contract (1986),Essay8,p.207;andseeEisenberg(1982)95H.L.R.741.Itissometimessaid thattherequirementofconsiderationmeansthatcontractsare exchanges.Thissuggestssome elementofreciprocitybetweenthepartiestothecontractandwhilethisisoftenthecase,a promisebyAtodoworkforBcansupportapromisebyCofpaymentforit:seebelow, para.4-005.AccordingtoGordleyabove,n.97atpp.137–139,thesystematisationofthe doctrineofconsiderationtookplaceatthesametimeastheacceptanceofciviliantheoriesof contractandwasintendedtoactasacontroldeviceontheambitofcontract.

133 Seebelow,para.4-001.

134 Goodhart, EnglishLawandtheMoralLaw (1953),p.101;Fried, ContractasPromise (1983); Harris(1983)3Int.Rev.Law&Econ.69;Burrows(1985)C.L.P.141.cf.Atiyah(1978)94 L.Q.R.193;Promises,MoralsandLaw(1981);EssaysonContract(1986),Essays2and6; Raz, Law,MoralityandSociety (1977),Ch.12;Smith, ContractTheory (2004),Chs2–4.

135 Seebelow,Ch.2.

136 AndseeTheLawCommission,PrivityofContract:ContractsfortheBenefitofThirdParties, LawCom.No.242(1996),para.6.8andbelow,Ch.18.

137 WilliamsvRoffeyBrosNicholls(Contractors)Ltd[1991]1Q.B.1 andseebelow,para.4-069. Seealso MWBBusinessExchangeCentresLtdvRockAdvertisingLtd[2016]EWCACiv553, [2017]Q.B.604 (appealtoSCpending)onwhichseebelow,para.4-119A.

138 cf.Atiyah, AnIntroductiontotheLawofContract,5thedn(1995),pp.38–39.

139 Seebelow,paras24-035—24-048.Thisisnottosaythattheavailabilityofthisremedycannot beexpressedintermsofindependentordependentpromises,buttheterm“promise”hereis usedsynonymouslywiththatofobligationandcanapplytoobligationsimposedonacontractor bylaw,whicharenotamatterof“promise”atall.Thus,abuyerofgoodscanterminatethe contract,andtherebyextinguishhisownobligationtopaytheprice,forbreachofthetermthat theyareofsatisfactoryquality,atermimposedbys.14oftheSaleofGoodsAct1979onsellers sellinggoodsinthecourseofbusiness,andseeVol.II,paras44-066and44-093.

140 Seebelow,para.1-107.

141 Thereissomedoubtastowhetheranoffereeofaunilateraloffermustbeawareofthatofferon performanceoftheconditionforacontracttoarise:seebelow,para.2-040.Iftheoffereeneed notbesoaware,thennoagreementcanbeconstructedfromperformanceofthecondition.Itis clearthattheoffereeofaunilateralofferdoesnotingeneralhavetocommunicatehis acceptancetotheofferorbeforehefulfillstheconditionandthecontractarises: Carlillv CarbolicSmokeBallCo[1893]1Q.B.256,andseebelow,para.2-046.

142 AftertheabolitionbytheLawofProperty(MiscellaneousProvisions)Act1989s.1(1)ofthe requirementofsealingforthevalidityofdeedsmadebyindividuals,itismoreappropriateto refertopromisesindeedsratherthantheformer“promisesunderseal”:seebelow,paras

1-114etseq.

143 XenosvWickham(1866)L.R.2H.L.296,312; MacedovStroud[1922]2A.C.330

144 Pollock, PrinciplesofContractatLawandinEquity,4thedn(1885),p.9andcf.p.5.

145 Peel, TreitelonTheLawofContract,14thedn(2015),para.3–170.cf.Burrows, A RestatementoftheEnglishLawofContract (2016),paras2and8(1),commentaryon pp.63–64,whichincludesagreementssupportedbyadeedwithinitsdefinitionofcontract,but distinguishesdeedswhichcontainagreementsandthosewhichdonot(deedspoll).

146 Bacon, ANewAbridgmentoftheLaw,7thedn(1832),Vol.I,p.55includeddebt,detinue, account,covenant,assumpsit,quantummeruit,quantumvalebatandannuityinhistreatmentof actionsexcontractu.cf.ChittyandChitty, ATreatiseonthePartiestoActionsandonPleading, 6thedn(1836),pp.98–125.

147 Seebelow,para.29-006;Birks, AnIntroductiontotheLawofRestitution (1985),pp.29–39.

148 Technically,detinueprotectedtheplaintiff’srighttopossessionofpersonalproperty.Forfurther discussionoftheclassificationofactionsatcommonlaw,seebelow,para.1-146.Detinuewas abolishedbytheTorts(InterferencewithGoods)Act1977s.2.

149 Howarth(1984)100L.Q.R.265and528;Vorster(1987)103L.Q.R.274;Goddard(1987)7L.S. 263;deMoor(1990)106L.Q.R.632andsee TheHannahBlumenthal[1983]1A.C.854; The LeonidasD.[1985]1W.L.R.925;Beatson(1986)102L.Q.R.19;Atiyah(1986)102L.Q.R.363 andbelow,para.2-002.

150 RestatementofContractsatpara.3.

151 Furmston, Cheshire,FifootandFurmston’sLawofContract,15thedn(2007),p.38.

152 Seebelow,paras2-003etseq.

153 HouseholdFireInsuranceCovGrant(1879)3Ex.D.216,overruling BritishandAmerican TelegraphCoLtdvColson(1871)L.R.6Ex.108.Seebelow,paras2-047etseq.

154 ByrnevVanTienhoven(1880)5C.P.D.344;below,para.2-094.

155 FelthousevBindley(1862)11C.B.(N.S.)869,affirmed(1863)1N.R.401 andseebelow,paras 2-068etseq.

156 TekdataInterconnectionsLtdvAmplenolLtd[2009]EWCACiv1209,[2010]1Lloyd’sRep.357 especiallyat[11],[21],[25]and[30].

157 Seebelow,paras2-177—2-184.

158 Seebelow,paras2-188—2-193.

159 Seebelow,Ch.5.

160 Seebelow,Chs3and6.

161 Seebelow,Ch.7.

162 Seebelow,paras8-003—8-056.

163 Seebelow,paras8-057—8-129.

164 Seebelow,Chs9and10.

165 Seebelow,Ch.16.

166 Seebelow,para.1-108.

167 Seebelow,para.1-110.

168 Seebelow,para.1-112.

169 Seebelow,paras4-130etseq.

170 Seebelow,para.4-094.

171 [1976]Ch.179 andseebelow,para.4-143.

172 [1976]Ch.179,195 andseebelow,para.4-143.

173 Below,paras5-040—5-049discussing CobbevYeoman’sRowManagementLtd[2008]UKHL 55,[2008]1W.L.R.1752 and ThornervMajor[2009]UKHL18,[2009]1W.L.R.776

174 [1972]Ch.359.

175 [1972]Ch.359 at367,371.

176 [1972]Ch.359 at367–368.MegawandStephensonL.JJ.preferredtoprotectA’spositionby holdinghertobeatenantforlifewithinthemeaningoftheSettledLandAct1925.

177 Above,para.1-011.

178 ProposalforaRegulationoftheEuropeanParliamentandoftheCouncilonaCommon EuropeanSales,LawCom(2011)635finalart.2(a).OntheProposal,seeabove,para.1-013.

179 ThisisconfirmedbytheinclusionwithinthosecontractsforwhichtheCommonEuropeanSales Lawwouldbeavailableof“contractsforthesupplyofdigitalcontent…irrespectiveofwhether thedigitalcontentissuppliedinexchangeforthepaymentofaprice”:ProposalCom(2011)635 final,art.5(b).

180 KalfelisvSchröder(C-189/87)[1988]E.C.R.5565 especiallyat5577(A.G.Darmon),5585; ÖFAB,ÖstergötlandsFastigheterABvKoot(C-147/12)July18,2013 atpara.33; Brogsitterv FabricationdeMontresNormandesEURL(C-548/12)March13,2014 atpara.18; ERGO InsuranceSEvIfP&CInsuranceAS(JoinedCasesC-359/14andC-475/14)January21,2016 atpara.43; KolassavBarclaysBankPlc(C-375/13)January28,2015 atpara.43; Granarolo SpAvAmbrosiEmmiFranceSA(C-196/15)July14,2016 atpara.19.TheBrusselsConvention wasreplacedasfromMarch1,2002bytheCouncilRegulation44/2001onjurisdictionandthe recognitionandenforcementofjudgmentsincivilandcommercialmatters[2001]O.J.L012/1 (“BrusselsIRegulation”),whichisitselfreplacedasfromJanuary10,2015byRegulation(EU) 1215/2012of12December2012onjurisdictionandtherecognitionandenforcementof judgmentsincivilandcommercialmatters(recast)(“theBrusselsIbisRegulation”).Andsee below,para.1-199.

181 JakobHandte&CoGmbHvSociétéTraitementsMécano-chimiquesdesSurfaces(TMCS) (C-26/91)[1993]I.L.Pr.5 andseebelow,para.1-199.

182 [1993]I.L.Pr.5 at22.

183 Regulation864/2007oftheEuropeanParliamentandoftheCouncillawapplicableto noncontractualobligations(“RomeIIRegulation”)[2007]O.J.L199/40recital11.

184 RomeIIRegulationarts5and12respectively.

185 Regulation(EC)593/2008onthelawapplicabletocontractualobligations(“RomeI”)[2008] O.J.L177/6recital7.Seebelow,Ch.30andespeciallypara.30-133.

186 ERGOInsuranceSEvIfP&CInsuranceAS(JoinedCasesC-359/14andC-475/14)January 21,2016 para.44; VereinfürKonsumenteninformationvAmazonEUSàrl(C-191/15)July28, 2016 esp.atpara.60(actionforcessationofuseofunfaircontracttermsfallsunderRomeIIas concerninganon-contractualobligation,thoughtheassessmentofthetermsfallsunderRomeI asconcerningacontractualobligationfollowingthenatureofthesetermswhetherthisarisesin anactionforcessationorinanindividualactionbetweenatraderandaconsumer); Committeri vClubMediterraneeSA[2016]EWHC1510(QB) at[45]–[48].

187 Directive91/533onanemployer’sobligationtoinformemployeesoftheconditionsapplicable tothecontractoremploymentrelationship[1991]O.J.L288/32art.1(1).Similarly,Framework AgreementonPart-timeWorkcl.2(1)“[t]hisAgreementappliestopart-timeworkerswhohave anemploymentcontractoremploymentrelationshipasdefinedbythelaw,collectiveagreement orpracticeinforceineachMemberState”,AnnextoDirective97/81/ECconcerningthe FrameworkAgreementonpart-timeworkconcludedbyUNICE,CEEPandtheETUC[1998] O.J.L14/9.

188 Hoekstra(néeUnger)vBestuurderBedrijfsverenigingvoorDetailhandelenAmbachten (C-75/63)[1964]E.C.R.177

189 SeeCraiganddeBúrca, EULaw,6thedn(2015),Ch.21.

190 SeeVol.II,paras38-199—38-200.

191 Whittaker(2000)116L.Q.R.95andseeVol.II,paras38-014,38-210—38-211.cf.theposition undertheConsumerRightsDirective2011art.6(5),onwhichseeVol.II,paras38-059—38-061.

192 Above,para.1-020.

193 C-107/98[1999]E.C.R.I-8121

194 Atthetime,CouncilDirective1992/50/EECrelatingtotheco-ordinationofproceduresforthe awardofpublicservicecontracts;Directive93/36/EECofJune14,1993co-ordinating proceduresfortheawardofpublicsupplycontracts.

195 C-107/98[1999]E.C.R.I-8121 atparas49and50.

196 StadtHalle&RPLRecyclingparkLochauGmbHvArbeitsgemeinschaftThermischeRestabfall undEnergierverwertungsanlage(C-26/03)[2005]E.C.R.I-1 at[52].

197 RiskManagementPartnersLtdvBrentLBC[2011]UKSC7,[2011]2A.C.34 at[22],per LordHopeofCraigheadD.P.S.C.andseefurther [2011]UKSC7 at[38].Theconclusionof publiccontractsbetweenentitiesinthepublicsector(whichformsthecontextofthiscase-law) hasbeenthesubjectofregulationbythePublicContractsDirective2014:Directive2014/24/EU onpublicprocurementandrepealingDirective2004/18/EC[2014]O.J.L94/65art.12and recitals31and32.

ConsolidatedMainworkIncorporatingSecondSupplement

VolumeI-GeneralPrinciples

Part1-Introduction

Chapter1-Introductory

Section3.-FundamentalPrinciplesofContractLaw

1-025

ThereareanumberofnormsoftheEnglishlawofcontractofagenerality,pervasivenessand importancetohaveattractedthedesignationofprinciple,thoughsuchadesignationdoesnothavea technicallegalsignificance.Anumberoflegalnormscouldbeadvancedasincludedwithinsucha categoryofprinciple,includingtheprincipleofprivityofcontract, 198 theprincipleof“objectivity”in agreement, 199 andprinciplesofcontractualinterpretation. 200 However,twolinkedprinciplesremainof fundamentalimportance,viztheprinciplesoffreedomofcontractandofthebindingforceofcontract. 201 Bythesetwoprinciples,Englishlawhasexpresseditsattachmenttoageneralvisionofcontract asthefreeexpressionofthechoicesofthepartieswhichwillthenbegiveneffectbythelaw. However,whilethemodernlawstilltakestheseprinciplesasthestarting-pointofitsapproachto contracts,italsorecognisesahostofqualificationsonthem,somerecognisedatcommonlawand somecreatedbylegislation. 202 Moreover,somecommentatorshavearguedthatthesevarious qualificationsshouldnotbeseenmerelyastheexpressionofparticularreasonsorconsiderationsof policyspecialtotheircontext,butshouldinsteadbeseenasthemselvesreflectingafurther,central principle,sometimesputintermsofaprincipleofgoodfaithincontractoraprincipleofcontractual fairness. 203 EUlawalsorecognisestheimportanceoffreedomofcontractandthebindingforceof contracts,but,unlikeEnglishcommonlaw,alsoappearstobemovingtowardstherecognitionofa principleofgoodfaithor“goodfaithandfairdealing”. 204

198 Seebelow,Ch.18,para.18-003.

199 Seebelow,para.2-002.

200 Seebelow,paras13-041etseq.andespecially InvestorsCompensationSchemeLtdvWest BromwichBuildingSocietyLtd[1998]1W.L.R.896 at912–913,perLordHoffmann.

201 Seebelow,paras1-026—1-035,1-036—1-038.

202 Seebelow,paras1-027,1-031etseq.

203 Seebelow,paras1-039etseq.

204 Below,paras1-042—1-043.

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The Project Gutenberg eBook of A naturalist in Madagascar

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Title: A naturalist in Madagascar

Author: James Sibree

Release date: August 8, 2022 [eBook #68708]

Language: English

Original publication: United States: J. B. Lippincott, 1915

Credits: Peter Becker, John Campbell and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images generously made available by The Internet Archive) *** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A NATURALIST IN MADAGASCAR ***

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The stone is levered into position closing the opening. A deep fosse or ditch surrounding the village completes its fortification. The man in front is carrying two packages secured to a pole in the usual manner of the country

O V G C S

A N AT U R A L I S T

I N M A D A G A S C A R

A Record of Observation Experiences and Impressions made during a period of over Fifty Years’

Intimate Association with the Natives and Study of the Animal & Vegetable Life of the Island BY

JAMES SIBREE,

F.R.G.S.

Membre de l’Academie Malgache

AUTHOR OF “THE GREAT AFRICAN ISLAND,” “MADAGASCAR ORNITHOLOGY,” &c., &c., &c.

WITH 52 ILLUSTRATIONS & 3 MAPS

PHILADELPHIA

J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY

LONDON: SEELEY, SERVICE & CO LTD 1915

Dedicated

WITH MUCH AFFECTION TO

MY DEAR WIFE

MY CONSTANT COMPANION IN MADAGASCAR AND FAITHFUL HELPER IN ALL MY WORK FOR FORTYFOUR YEARS

PREFACE

THE title of this book may perhaps be considered by some as too ambitious, and may provoke comparison with others somewhat similar in name, but with whose distinguished authors I have no claim at all to compete.

I have no tales to tell of hair-breadth escapes from savage beasts, no shooting of “big game,” no stalking of elephant or rhinoceros, of “hippo” or giraffe. We have indeed no big game in Madagascar. The most dangerous sport in its woods is hunting the wild boar; the largest carnivore to be met with is the fierce little fòsa, and the crocodile is the most dangerous reptile.

But I ask the courteous reader to wander with me into the wonderful and mysterious forests, and to observe the gentle lemurs in their home, as they leap from tree to tree, or take refuge in the thickets of bamboo; to come out in the dusk and watch the aye-aye as he stealthily glides along the branches, obtaining his insect food under the bark of the trees; to listen to the song of numerous birds, and to note their habits and curious ways; to hear the legends and folk-tales in which the Malagasy have preserved the wisdom of their ancestors with regard to the feathered denizens of the woods and plains, and to admire the luxuriant vegetation of the forests, and the trees and plants, the ferns and flowers, and even the grasses, which are to be found in every part of the island.

I invite those who may read these pages to look with me at the little rodents and insect-eaters which abound in and near the woods; to mark the changing chameleons which are found here in such variety; to watch the insects which gambol in the sunshine, or hide in the long grass, or sport on the streams. If such unexciting pleasures as these can interest my readers, I can promise that there is in

Madagascar enough and to spare to delight the eye and to charm the imagination.

I confess that I am one of those who take much more delight in silently watching the birds and their pretty ways in some quiet nook in the woods, than in shooting them to add a specimen to a museum; and that I feel somewhat of a pang in catching even a butterfly, and would much rather observe its lovely colours in life, as it unfolds them to the sunshine, than study it impaled on a pin in a cabinet. No doubt collections are necessary, but I have never cared to make them myself.

Nothing is here recorded but facts which have come under my own observation or as related by friends and others whose authority is unquestionable. And while my main object is to convey a vivid and true impression of the animal and vegetable life of Madagascar, I have also given many sketches of what is curious and interesting in the habits and customs of the Malagasy people, among whom I have travelled repeatedly, and with whom I have lived for many years. I have no pretensions to be a scientific naturalist or botanist, I have only been a careful observer of the beautiful and wonderful things that I have seen and I have constantly noted down what many others have observed, and have here included information which they have given in the following pages.

I have long wished that someone far more competent than myself would write a popular book upon the natural history and botany of this great island; but as I have not yet heard of any such, I venture with some diffidence to add this book to the large amount of literature already existing about Madagascar, but none of it exactly filling this place. For many years I edited, together with my late friend and colleague, the Rev. R. Baron, the numbers of The Antanànarìvo Annual, a publication which was “a record of information on the topography and natural productions of Madagascar, and the customs, traditions, language and religious beliefs of its people,” and for which I was always on the look-out for facts of all kinds bearing on the above-mentioned subjects. But as this magazine was not known to the general public, and was confined to a very limited circle of readers, I have not hesitated to draw freely on the contents of its

twenty-four numbers, as I am confident that a great deal of the information there contained is worthy of a much wider circulation than it had in the pages of the Annual.

Finally, as preachers say, although this book is written by a missionary, it is not “a missionary book”; not, certainly, because I undervalue missionary work, in which, after nearly fifty years’ acquaintance with it, and taking an active part in it, I believe with all my heart and soul, but because that aspect of Madagascar has already been so fully treated. Books written by the Revs. W. Ellis, Dr Mullens, Mr Prout, Dr Matthews, Mr Houlder, myself and others, give all that is necessary to understand the wonderful history of Christianity in this island. Despite what globe-trotting critics may say, as well as colonists who seem to consider that all coloured peoples may be exploited for their own benefit, mission work, apart from its simply obeying the last commands of our Lord, is the great civilising, educational and benevolent influence in the world, deny it who can! But in this book I want to show that Madagascar is full of interest in other directions, and that the wonderful things that live and grow here are hardly less worthy of study than those events which have attracted the attention of Christian and benevolent people for nearly a hundred years past.

The author thanks very sincerely his friends, Mr John Parrett, Monsieur Henri Noyer, and Razaka, for their freely accorded permission to reproduce many photographs taken by them and used to illustrate this book. And his grateful thanks are also due to his old friend, the Rev. J. Peill, for the care he has taken in going through the proof sheets, especially in seeing that all Madagascar words are correctly given.

Two or three chapters of this book cover, to some extent, the same ground as those treated of in another book on Madagascar by the author, published some years ago by Mr Fisher Unwin. The author here acknowledges, with many thanks, Mr Fisher Unwin’s kindness in giving full permission to produce these, which are, however, rewritten and largely added to.

J. S.

NOTE. Throughout this book Malagasy words are accented on the syllables which should be emphasised, and if it is borne in mind that the vowels a, e and i have as nearly as possible the same sound as in French or Italian, and that o is exactly like our English o in do, to and move, and that the consonants do not differ much in sound from those in English, except that g is always hard, s always a sibilant and not like z, and j is like dj there will be no difficulty in pronouncing Malagasy words with a fair amount of accuracy

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTORY

Natural History of the Island—Still Little Known—Roads and Railway—We travel by Old-Fashioned Modes—Great Size and Extent of Madagascar

CHAPTER II

TAMATAVE AND FIRST IMPRESSIONS OF THE COUNTRY

“The Bullocker” Landing at Tamatave Meet with New Friends Landing our Luggage Bullocks and Bullock Ships Native Houses Strange Articles of Food A Bed on a Counter First Ride in a Filanjàna At the Fort The Governor and his “Get-Up” A Rough-and-Ready Canteen

CHAPTER III

FROM COAST TO CAPITAL: ALONG THE SEASHORE

Travelling in Madagascar Absence of Roads “General Forest and General Fever” Pleasures and Penalties of Travel Start for the Interior My Private Carriage Night at Hivòndrona Native Canoes Gigantic Arums Crows and Egrets Malagasy Cattle Curious Crabs Shells of the Shore Coast Lagoons Lovely Scenery Pandanus and Tangèna Trees Pumice from Krakatoa Sea and River Fishes Prawns and Sharks Hospitable Natives Trees, Fruits and Flowers “The Churchyard of Foreigners” Unpleasant Style of Cemetery “The Hole of Serpents” Killing a Boa-constrictor—The White-fronted Lemur—Andòvorànto—How the Aye-Aye was caught—What he is like—And where he lives—A Damp Journey

CHAPTER IV

FROM COAST TO CAPITAL: ANDÒVORÀNTO TO MID-FOREST

A Canoe Voyage Crocodiles and their Ways River Scenery Traveller’s Tree Which is also “The Builder’s Tree” Maròmby Coffee Plantation Orange Grove We stick in the Mud Difficulties of Road Rànomafàna and its Hot Springs Lace-leaf Plant Native Granaries Endurance of Bearers Native Traders Appearance of the People Native Music and Instruments Bamboos Ampàsimbé Cloth Weaving Native Looms Rofìapalms—“A Night with the Rats”—Hard Travelling—Béfòrona—The Two Forest Belts—The Highest Mountains—Forest of Alamazaotra —Villages on Route—The Blow-Gun

CHAPTER V

FROM COAST TO CAPITAL: ALAMAZAOTRA TO ANTANÀNARÌVO

“Weeping-place of Bullocks” “Great Princess” Rock Grandeur of the Vegetation Scarcity of Flowers Orchids, Bamboos, and Pendent Lichens Apparent Paucity of Animal Life Remarkable Fauna of Madagascar Geological Theories thereon Lemurs

The Ankay Plain An Ancient Lake Mòramànga River Mangòro Grand Prospect from Ifòdy The Tàkatra and Its Nest Hova Houses Insect Life Angàvo Rock Upper Forest Treeless Aspect of Imèrina Granite Rocks Ambàtomànga And its big House Grass Burning First View of Capital Its Size and Situation Hova Villages A Cloud of Locusts Reach Antanànarìvo

CHAPTER VI

THE CHANGING MONTHS IN IMÈRINA: CLIMATE, VEGETATION AND LIVING CREATURES OF THE INTERIOR

The Seasons in Madagascar Their Significant Names Prospect from Summit of Antanànarìvo Great Rice-plain An Inundation of the Same Springtime: September and October Rice-planting and Rice-fields—Trees and Foliage—Common Fruits—“Burning the Downs”—Birds—Hawks and Kestrels—Summer: November to February Thunderstorms and Tropical Rains Lightning and its Freaks Effects of Rain on Roads Rainfall Hail Magnificent Lightning Effects Malagasy New Year

CHAPTER VII

SPRING AND SUMMER

Native Calendar Conspicuous Flowers Aloes and Agaves

Uniformity of Length of Days Native Words and Phrases for Divisions of Time And for Natural Phenomena Hova Houses Wooden and Clay Their Arrangement And Furniture “The Sacred Corner” Solitary Wasps Their Victims The Cell-builders The Burrowers Wild Flowers

CHAPTER VIII

THE CHANGING MONTHS IN IMÈRINA: CLIMATE, VEGETATION, AND LIVING CREATURES OF THE INTERIOR

Autumn: March and April Rice Harvest The Cardinal-Bird The Egret and the Crow Harvest Thanksgiving Services Rice, the Malagasy Staff of Life—Queer “Relishes to Rice”—Fish—Waterbeetles—A Dangerous Adventure with One—Dragonflies—Useful Sedges and Rushes Mist Effects on Winter Mornings Spiders’ Webs The “Fosse-Crosser” Spider Silk from it Silk-worm Moths And Other Moths The “King” Butterfly Grasshoppers and Insect Life on the Grass The Dog-Locust Gigantic Earthworms Winter: May to August Winter the Dry Season

CHAPTER IX

AUTUMN AND WINTER

Old Towns Ancient and Modern Tombs Memorial Stones Great Markets Imèrina Villages Their Elaborate Defences Native Houses Houses of Nobles Hova Children Their Dress and Games Village Churches And Schools A School Examination Aspects of Nightly Sky Epidemics in Cold Season Vegetation

CHAPTER X

AT THE FOREST SANATORIUM

A Holiday at Ankèramadìnika The Upper Forest Belt The Flora of Madagascar Troubles and Joys of a Collector A Silken Bag Ants and their Nests In Trees and Burrows Caterpillars and Winter Sleep Butterflies’ Eggs Snakes, Lizards and Chameleons—An Arboreal Lizard—Effects of Terror—Some Extraordinary Chameleons—The River-Hog—Sun-birds

CHAPTER XI

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FOREST SCENES

140 Forest Scenes and Sounds—The Goat-sucker—Owls—Flowers

and Berries Palms and other Trees The Bamboo-palm Climbing Plants Mosses, Lichens and Fungi Their Beautiful Colours Honey The Madagascar Bee Its Habits and its Enemies Forest People The Bétròsy Tribe A Wild-Man-of-theWoods A Cyclone in the Forest A Night of Peril

CHAPTER XII

RAMBLES IN THE UPPER FOREST

150 Forest Parts Lost in the Woods Native Proverbs and Dread of the Forest Waterfalls A Brilliant Frog Frogs and their Croaking A Nest-building Frog Protective Resemblances and Mimicry Beetles—Brilliant Bugs—Memorial Mounds—Iron Smelting— Feather Bellows—Depths of the Ravines—Forest Leeches—Ferns

Dyes, Gums and Resins Candle-nut Tree Medicinal Trees and Plants Useful Timber Trees Superstitions about the Forest Marvellous Creatures The Ball Insect Millipedes and Centipedes Scorpions

CHAPTER XIII

FAUNA

The Red-spot Spider Various and Curious Spiders Protective Resemblances among them Trap-door Spiders The Centetidæ Malagasy Hedgehogs The Lemurs The Propitheques The Red Lemur Pensile Weaver-bird The Bee-eater The Coua Cuckoos The Glory and Mystery of the Forests A Night in the Forest

CHAPTER XIV

ROUND ANTSIHÀNAKA

Object of the Journey My Companions The Antsihànaka Province Origin of the People Anjozòrobé “Travellers’ Bungalow” A Sunday there “Our Black Chaplain” The “Stone Gateway” Ankay Plain Ants and Serpents Hair-dressing and Ornaments Tòaka Drinking Rice Culture Fragrant Grasses The Glory of the Grass—Their Height—Capital of the Province— We interview the Governor—Flowers of Oratory—The Market— Fruits and Fertility—A Circuit of the Province—Burial Memorials— Herds of Oxen Horns as Symbols Malagasy Use of Oxen A Sihànaka House Mats and Mat-making Water-fowl Their Immense Numbers Teal and Ducks The Fen Country Physical

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Features of Antsihànaka The Great Plain Ampàrafàravòla Hymn-singing Sihànaka Bearers “Wild-Hog’s Spear” Grass Dinner with the Lieutenant-Governor “How is the Gun?” Volcanic Action Awkward Bridges Fighting an Ox Occupations of the People Cattle-tending Rice Culture Fishing Buds

CHAPTER XV

LAKE SCENERY

The Alaotra Lake Lake Scenery A Damp Resting-place Shortened Oratory We cross the Lake An Ancient and Immense Lake The Crocodile Mythical Water-creatures A Pleasant Meeting—“Manypoles” Village—A Sihànaka Funeral—Treatment of Widows—A Village in the Swamp—Unlucky Days and Taboos— Madagascar Grasses We turn Homewards

CHAPTER XVI

LAKE ITÀSY

Old Volcanoes Lake Itàsy Distant Views of it Legends as to its Formation Flamingoes Water-hens Jacanas Other Birds Antsìrabé Hot Springs Extinct Hippopotami Gigantic Birds Enormous Eggs

CHAPTER XVII

VOLCANIC DISTRICT

Crater Lake of Andraikìba Crater Lake of Trìtrìva Colour of Water Remarkable Appearance of Lake Legends about it Its Depth View from Crater Walls Ankàratra Mountain Lava Outflows An Underground River Extinct Lemuroid Animals Graveyard of an Ancient Fauna The Palæontology And Geology of Madagascar Volcanic Phenomena The Madagascar Volcanic Belt Earthquakes A Glimpse of the Past Animal Life of the Island

CHAPTER XVIII

SOUTHWARDS TO BÉTSILÉO AND THE SOUTH-EAST COAST

Why I went South How to secure your Bearers The Old Style of Travelling Route to Fianàrantsòa Scenery Elaborate Rice Culture—Bétsiléo Ornament and Art—Burial Memorials—We leave for the Unknown—A Bridal Obligation—Mountains and Rocks— Parakeets and Parrots—A Dangerous Bridge—Ant-hills—The

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Malagasy Hades Brotherhood by Blood Bétsiléo Houses “The Travelling Foreigners in their Tent” A Tanàla Forest Waterfalls A Tanàla House Female Adornment

CHAPTER XIX

IVÒHITRÒSA

Ivòhitròsa Native Dress a Grand Waterfall Wild Raspberries

The Ring-tailed Lemur The Mouse-Lemur A Heathen Congregation Unlucky Days Month Names The Zàhitra Raft

A Village Belle and her “Get-up” The Cardamom Plant Beads, Charms and Arms Bamboos and Pandanus A Forest Altar Rafts and Canoes—Crocodiles—Their Bird Friends—Ordeal by Crocodile—Elegant Coiffure—A Curious Congregation—

Ambòhipèno Fort We reach the Sea Gigantic Arums Seashells Pulpit Decoration Butterflies Protective Structure in a Certain Species An Arab Colony Arabic Manuscripts Frigatebirds and Tropic-birds Other Sea-birds

CHAPTER XX

AMONG THE SOUTH-EASTERN PEOPLES

Hova Conquest of and Cruelties to the Coast Tribes The Traveller’s Tree and its Fruits A Hova Fort Ball Head-dressing Rice-fields Volcanic Phenomena Vòavòntaka Fruit A Welldunged Village Water from the Traveller’s Tree We are stopped on our Way A Native Distillery Taisàka Mat Clothing Bark Cloth Native Houses and their Arrangement Secondary Rocks Ankàrana Fort A Hospitable Reception A Noisy Feast “A Fine Old Malagasy Gentleman” A Hearty “Set-Off” Primitive Spoons and Dishes Burial Memorials

CHAPTER XXI

THE SOUTH-EASTERN PEOPLES

A Built Boat In the Bush A Canoe Voyage Canoe Songs The Angræcum Orchids Pandanus and Atàfa Trees Coast Lagoons —A Native Dance—A Wheeled Vehicle—Lost in the Woods—A Fatiguing Sunday—Dolphins and Whales—Forest Scenery—A Tanàla Funeral—Silence of the Woods—The Sound of the Cicada Mammalian Life Hedgehogs and Rats Why are Birds comparatively so few? Insect Life in the Forest A Stick-Insect Protective Resemblances The Curious Broad-bill Bird Minute

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Animal Life in a River Plant Ambòhimànga in the Forest A Tanàla Chieftainess River-fording and Craft We reach the Interior Highland Bétsiléo Tombs Return to Antanànarìvo

CHAPTER XXII

TO SÀKALÀVA LAND AND THE NORTH-WEST

North-West Route to the Coast River Embankments Mission Stations A Lady Bricklayer In a Fosse with the Cattle An Airy Church on a Stormy Night A Strange Chameleon The “Short” Mosquitoes Ant-hills and Serpents A Sacred Tree Andrìba Hill and Fort An Evening Bath and a Hasty Breakfast Parakeets, Hoopoes, and Bee-eaters—The Ikòpa Valley—Granite Boulders—

Mèvatanàna: a Birdcage Town—We form an Exhibition for the Natives Our Canoes Crocodiles Shrikes and Fly-catchers

Tamarind-trees Camping Out The “Agy” Stinging Creeper River Scenery Fan-palms Scaly Reptiles and Beautiful Birds

Fruit-eating and Other Bats Secondary Rocks Sparse

Population The Sàkalàva Tribes A Vile-smelling Tree

CHAPTER XXIII

TO THE NORTH-WEST COAST

Tortoises Gigantic Tortoises of Aldabra Island Park-like Scenery

The Fierce Little Fòsa Small Carnivora Beautiful Woods

“Many Crocodiles” Town A Curious Pulpit A Hot Night A Voyage in a Dhow Close Quarters on its Deck An Arab Dhow and its Rig Bèmbatòka Bay Mojangà An Arab and Indian Town

An Ancient Arab Colony Baobab-trees Valuable Timber Trees

The Fishing Eagle Turtles and Turtle-catching Herons The North-West Coast A Fishing Fish Oysters and Octopus Nòsibé and Old Volcanoes Our Last Glimpses of Madagascar

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