ExtractsfromLyell’sLetters22
Italicsareoriginal.Explanatorynotesinsquarebracketsbyauthor.
ToMurchison Naples:Jan.15,1829
MydearMurchison, Iwilltellyoufairlythatitisatpresentofnosmall consequencetometogetarespectablesumformyvolume – notonlyto coverextraexpensesforpresentandfutureprojectedcampaigns My workisinpartwritten,andallplanned ... itwillendeavourtoestablishthe principleofreasoning inthescience;andallmygeologywillcomeinas illustrationofmyviewsofthoseprinciples,andasevidencestrengthening thesystemnecessarilyarisingoutoftheadmissionofsuchprinciples, which,asyouknow,areneithermoreorlessthanthat nocauseswhatever havefromtheearliesttimetowhichwecanlookback,tothepresent,ever acted,butthose nowacting; andthattheyneveractedwithdifferent degreesofenergyfromthatwhichtheynowexert.ImustgotoGermany andlearnGermangeologyandthelanguage ... IfIcanbutearnthe wherewithtocarryonthewar,orratherits extraordinary costs,depend uponitIwillwastenotimeinbookmakingforlucre’ssake.
ToHisSister Rome:Jan.21,1829
MydearMarianne, Longman[apublisher]haspaiddown500guineas [roughlyequivalentto500poundssterling]toMr.UreofDublinfora popularworkongeology,justcomingout[ANewSystemofGeology].It istoprovetheHebrewcosmogony,andthatweoughtalltobeburntin Smithfield[asiteinLondonusedforexecutionofhereticsinearlier times].Somuchthebetter.Ihavegotarodforthefanatics,froma quarterwheretheyexpectitnot.ThelastPopedidpositivelydareto convokeacongregationand reverse allthathispredecessorshaddone againstGalileo,andtherewasonlyaminorityofoneagainst.Howthese thingsaresolittleknowninParisandLondon,heavenknows.
ToDr.Fleming June10,1829
MydearSir- ... Bucklandwassoamazinglyannoyedatmyhavingsuch ananti-diluvialistpaperread[attheGeologicalSociety],thathegot ConybearetowriteacontroversialessayontheValleyoftheThames,in whichhedrewacomparisonbetweenthetheoryoftheFluvialists,ashe termsus,andtheDiluvialists,as(Godbepraised)theycall themselves. ... ButyoumustknowthatBucklandandConybeare, distinctlyadmitthreeuniversaldeluges,andmanycatastrophes,asthey callthem,besides!Butmoreofthiswhenwemeet.
events.5,6 Theseobservationssuggestedthatnaturewasnotuniform initsintensityinthegeologicpast.Geologistswhosawtheimportanceofrevolutionsandintense,rapidtransformationsintherock recordcametobeknownascatastrophists(atermthatwasprobably regardedasanoverstatementbymanyexpertsofthetime).Catastrophistssawthatthegeologicrecordwasnotuniformorcyclicas LyellandhispredecessorsHuttonandPlayfairhadargued.7 Lyell insistedthat,onaverage,internalprocesses(e.g.,earthquakesand volcanoes)andsurficialprocesses(e.g.,rivers,tidalcurrents,andclimate)wereofthesameintensitygloballyinthegeologicpastasthey aretoday.2 Healsoappliedthisuniformityprincipletotheorganic realm,andherejectedtheFrenchbotanistJeanLamarck’s(1774–1829) proposedtheoryofbiologicalinheritance,alsoknownastransformationofthespecies.Lyell’sseminalbookisessentiallyasummaryof alltheknownfactsaboutgeologicalprocessesthatoperatedonthe surfaceoftheEarththroughoutrecordedhumanhistory(thepastfew thousandyears),andassertsthattheseprocessesalonearesufficient toexplainthepastgeologicrecordgoingbackmillionsofyears; catastrophiceventsorrevolutionswerenotrequired.Remarkably, withtheexceptionofpartsofthethirdvolume,thereisverylittle actualgeologyin Principles.Itsmainemphasisisonthehistorical record.
ThesecondcontroversyatthistimewasthatoftheNeptunists (whosechiefproponentwasAbrahamWerner,togetherwithhisstudents)andthatofthePlutonists(whosechiefproponentwasJames Hutton,(popularizedbyJohnPlayfair).TheNeptuniststhoughtall rockswereprecipitatedfromaglobalocean,includingigneousrocks. ThePlutonists,ontheotherhand,recognizedigneousrocksforwhat theywere,namely,derivedfrommagma.Thetwocontroversiesare somewhatintertwined:uniformitariansweregenerallyPlutonists, andcatastrophistsweregenerallyNeptunists.ThatNeptunistswere alsocatastrophistsishardlysurprisingsincetheyrequiredaglobal menstruum,orprimevaloceanfromwhichallrockswereprecipitated,andthisoceanadvancedandrecededgloballymorethanonce
Table1.1 Principalnineteenth-centuryplayers
Name LifespanTraining U/C
Agein 1830*
Hutton,James1726–1797Medicine U –
Werner,Abraham1749–1817Mining/mineralogyC –
Cuvier,Georges1769–1832NaturalhistoryC61
Smith,William1769–1839Surveyor ?61
Buckland,William1784–1856Theology C46
Sedgwick,Adam1785–1873Theology/mathC45
Conybeare,William1787–1857Theology C43
Murchison,Roderick1792–1871Military C38
Lyell,Charles1797–1875Law U33
Agassiz,Louis1807–1873Medicine C23
Darwin,Charles1809–1882Medicine/theologyU21
Note: U:uniformitarian;C:catastrophist;*theyear Principles was first published.
duringmajorEarthrevolutions.Thatuniformitariansweregenerally alsoPlutonistsissomethingofahistoricalaccidentreflectingthefact thatHuttonsawigneousactivityascausingrejuvenationofthelandscapeafterbeingdenudedbyuniformerosionalprocessesoperating today.8 TheNeptunism–Plutonismcontroversyisaddressedinmore detailinChapter4inthecontextoftheoriginofigneousrocks.
Thepurposeofthischapteristointroducethereadertothe mainplayersactiveinthesedebatesbyprovidingabriefbiographical sketchforeachauthorfollowedbysomecommentsontheirhistorical role;someoftheseauthorswillbeencounteredagaininsubsequent chapters.Table1.1summarizestheplayerschronologically,inorder oftheirdateofbirth.Duetospaceconstraints,thelistishighly selective.
Theireducationaltrainingandtheirageatthetime Principles was firstpublishedisalsoshown,inordertoprovidesomehistorical context.Whethertheywereuniformitariansorcatastrophistsisalso noted.Thenineteenthcenturywasoneofthemostscientifically
activecenturiesforthenascentdisciplinesofgeologyandpaleontology.The firstthreeauthors(Hutton,Werner,andCuvier)largely belongtothelateeighteenthcentury,buttheirviewshadastrong influenceonnineteenth-centurydebatesandremainimportantto thisday.
JamesHutton(1726–1797). JamesHuttonwasborninEdinburgh,andhisfather,awealthymerchant,diedwhenhewasthree.9 Heinheritedpropertyandenoughwealththathedidnothavetoearn aliving.HeenteredtheUniversityofEdinburghin1740tostudythe humanities;hereenteredtheuniversityagainin1744tostudymedicine.HespenttwoyearsinParisbeginningin1747,wherehe developedhisinterestinchemistryandgeology.HereceivedamedicaldegreefromtheUniversityofLeidenintheNetherlandsin1749, butheneverpracticedmedicine.In1750heretiredtoEdinburgh wherehetookupfarmingonhisinheritedpropertysoutheastofthe city.Healsoengagedwithafriendinasuccessfulbusinessinvolving themanufactureofammoniumchloride(referredtoas salammoniac atthetime),whichwasusedinindustrialprocessesandprobably addedtohiswealth.In1754hetraveledwidelyinnorthernEurope tostudyfarmingmethods,andalsodevelopedhisincreasinginterest ingeology.Afterfourteenyearsoffarming,hemovedtoEdinburghin 1768whereitappearsheundertookexperimentsinchemistryand alsocollectedfossils.(Atthetimethewordfossilincludedboth mineralsandorganicremains.)Hebecameanactivememberinwhat wouldbecometheRoyalSocietyofEdinburghin1783.Hewasfriends withmembersoftheScottishEnlightenment,includingthepolitical economistAdamSmith,thechemistJosephBlack(whodiscovered CO2),JamesWatt(ofsteamenginefame),JamesHall(whodidsomeof the firstexperimentsingeology),andthemathematicianwhowould eventuallybecomehisbiographer,JohnPlayfair.
Huttonpresentedhispaper ConcerningtheSystemsofthe Earth totheGeologicalSocietyin1785,whichwasthenpublished in1788as TheoryoftheEarth.8 Thispaperalsoformedvolumeoneof histwo-volume TheoryoftheEarth,withProofsandIllustrations,
publishedin1795.9 BecauseofHutton’sobtuseprose(StevenJay Gould,evolutionarybiologistandhistorian,saidhewasa “lousy” writer),10 thisbookreceivedlittleattentionexceptfromopponents whosupportedAbrahamWerner’sviews.Hutton’sviewswerepopularizedbyhisfriendJohnPlayfairin IllustrationsoftheHuttonian TheoryoftheEarth, publishedinreadableprosein1802,after Hutton’sdeath.7
Atthebeginningofhis1788paper,Huttonviewedtheglobeasa machineconstructedonchemicalandphysicalprincipleswiththe purposetosupportanimalsandhumans.Herecognizedthesolid earth,theseas,andtheatmosphereasbeinginterconnected: “itisin themannerinwhichtheseconstituentbodiesareadjustedtoone anotherandthelawsofactionbywhichtheyaremaintainedintheir properqualitiesandrespectivedepartmentsthatformthetheoryof themachinewearenowtoexamine.”8 ThisstatementisaremarkablymodernformofwhatisnowtermedEarthSystemScience,a perspectivethatemphasizestheinterdisciplinarynatureoftheEarth Sciences.11 OnlyvonHumboldtinhis Cosmos (1856)camecloseto suchamodernposition.12
Huttonisbestknown,however,asthechiefproponentofthe PlutonistorVulcanistschool,wherebydenudation(erosion)eventuallyreducesthecontinentstosealevelandoceansedimentsare rejuvenatedbackontothecontinentsbyigneousactivityatdepth, butexactlyhowigneousactivitycausedrejuvenationwasnotventuredinto.9 Howfossiliferousoceanicsedimentswereloftedonto mountaintopspersistedasthesinglemostimportantgeological puzzlewellintothelatetwentiethcentury(seeChapter5).
Huttonrecognizedtheimportanceofunconformitiesasreflectingdeformationandfoldingofsedimentsfollowedbyerosionand reneweddepositioninacyclicfashion(Figure1.1).Hutton’soverall viewwasthattheEarth’shistorywascyclic(orrepetitious)rather thanhistorical(orprogressive),andforthisviewhehasbeencriticized.10 IndefenseofHutton,itshouldbepointedoutthatthegeologictimescalehadnotyetbeenestablishedatthetimehewas
Hutton’sunconformityonArranIsland,westernScotland. DevonianOldRedSandstonedippingmoderatelytotherightoverlies steeplydippingDalradian(late-Precambrian)schist.Huttonvisited thesitein1787.
writing,sotheideathatgeologywouldbecomeahistoricalscience didnotyetexist.Huttonalsorecognizedgraniteasanintrusive igneousrock,commonlyyoungerthanthesurroundingrocks.13 At thetime,igneousrockswerecalled “primitive” rocksbytheNeptunistsandthoughttobetheoldestrocksofall.
ThemostquotedsentencefromHutton’sworkisthelastsentenceofhis1788paper: “Thereisnovestigeofabeginningandno prospectofanend.” Thiswasinterpretedtoimplytherewasno creation,whichdrewaccusationsofatheismfromcolleagues.14 Possibly,forinsuranceagainstsuchattacks,Huttonpepperedhistext withstatementssuchas “DevineWisdom” and “workofinfinite powerandwisdom.” HavingspenttwoyearsinParis,thereligious viewsofHutton,althoughnotknown,mayhavebeensimilartohis moreirreligiousEnlightenmentcolleaguesonthecontinent.
AbrahamWerner(1749–1817). BorninSaxony,ineasternGermany,toafamilywithalonghistoryinmining,AbrahamWerner
receivedhis firstformaleducationfromhisfatherwhoencouragedhis interestinmineralogy.16 Afterschooling,hetookapositioninhis father’sironfoundry.Hedecidedtostudymineralogyandminingasa careerattheminingschoolofFreiburg,andthenwentontoLeipzig University,wherehealsostudiedlaw.In1774,hepublishedapaper entitled “OntheExternalCharacteristicsofFossils,” apaperentirely focusedonmineralogyratherthanbiologicalfossilsasthewordwould cometobedefined.In1775,hewasofferedapositionasateacher attheSchoolofMinesatFreibergwhereheremainedformorethan fortyyears.Wernerwasmethodicalandorderly,buthedidnottake towriting.Infact,hepublishedlessashegotolder – hisideasand subsequentfamewerespreadchieflybywordofmouthofhis students.16,17
Wernerwasverypopularasateacherandeventuallyhedrew studentsfromacrossEuropetostudyhis “geognosy,” ashecalled geology.HisfamousstudentsincludeRobertJameson(1774–1854), latertobecomeprofessoratEdinburgh;thepolymathexplorerAlexandervonHumboldt(1769–1859);andLeopoldvonBuch(1774–1853), theAlpinegeologist.WernerandhisstudentswerethechiefproponentsoftheNeptunistschool,inwhichallrockswerethoughttobe derivedfromaprimevalglobaloceanthroughchemicalprecipitation (e.g.,salt,gypsum,andlimestone)orphysicalprecipitation(e.g.,shales, sandstones,andgraywackes),includingtheigneousrocks(basaltand granite)aswell.Eventually,evenmanyofhisownstudentssawthat Werner’sNeptunismwasinvalidonaglobalscale,andtheygradually acceptedthePlutonistschoolconceptthatigneousrocksformedfrom moltenrocks(fusion),asHuttonhadlongmaintained.ArchibaldGeike notedinhis1905bookthatWernermadeimportantcontributions tomineralogy,buthewas “disastroustothehigherinterestsof geology.”17 Lyellwasequallyunimpressed,sayinginhis Principles: “Werner’stheorywasoriginal,butitwasextremelyerroneous.” On theotherhand,aglowingreviewofWerner’slegacycanbefoundinthe CompleteDictionaryofScientificBiography.15 TheNeptunist–PlutonistcontroversyisoutlinedinmoredetailinChapter4.
GeorgesCuvier(1769–1832). BorninFrance,Cuvierwasone ofEurope’ smostinfl uentialscientistsofhisdayinthe fi eldsof zoology,paleontology,andgeology.18 HeheldthechairofcomparativeanatomyattheFrenchNationalMuseumofNaturalHistory, Paris.Historically,hewasonthelosingsideoftwoimportanteighteenth-andnineteenth-centurycontroversies:thetransformationof onespeciestoanother( fi rstchampionedbyLamarckandlaterby Darwin)andhiscatastrophistviewofgeologicbiohistory.18 He developedthe fi eldsofcomparativeanatomyandbiologicalclassificationandiscreditedwiththe fi rstreportonextinctions.Hisability toidentifydifferentspeciesfromfossilboneswasunmatchedin Europe.Hisstudiesofmodernorganismsandoffossilsledhimto concludethatmanyfossilspeciesrepresentedancientlifeandwere extinct.Forexample,herecognized,throughdetailedanatomical comparison,thattheIndianandAfricanelephantsweredifferent species,andthatthebonesofthesemodernelephantsweredifferent fromthefossilbonesofthewoollymammothandmastodons,which werebothextinct.Extinctionatthetimewasthoughttobeimpossiblebecause “ AlmightyWisdom” wouldnotpermitorganismsthat hadbeendivinelycreatedtodieout.Humanfossilshadnotyetbeen recognizedinthediluvial(glacial)sedimentstoCuvier’ ssatisfaction, soinhisview,extinctionswerenotattributabletohuntingby mankind.Whetherthewoollymammothbecameextinctduring thePleistoceneepochduetooverhuntingorclimatechangeisstill debatedtoday. 19 HisrecognitionofextinctionsledhimtoacatastrophistviewofEarth’ sbiohistory.
Cuvierwasmainlya “cabinet” scientistwhobuiltaworld-class collectionofmuseumspecimens,buthewaslessawareoftherapid developmentstakingplaceingeologyatthetime,particularlyin stratigraphyandtheworkofWilliamSmith(1769–1839)inEngland.17 Heaugmentedhismuseumcollectionbyasking “savantsandamateurs”18 tosubmitfossilspecimenstohim,andinreturnhewould identifythem,whichproducedatremendousresponsefromtheinternationalcommunity.HisimportantworkwithAlexandreBrongniart,
hiscolleagueattheParismuseum,ontheParisbasinsedimentsand theirfossilswasoneofhisfew field-basedpublications.20
Hismostimportantwork Recherchessurlesossemensfossiles (ResearchesonFossilBones)waspublishedinfourvolumesin1812. The firstvolume,whichwaswrittenlast,isknownas DiscoursPréliminaire andwaswrittenforageneralaudienceasaprefacetothe subsequentandmoreacademicvolumes,andbecameaverypopular booktranslatedintoseveralEuropeanlanguages.21 Herecognized severaldifferentextinctionevents(“revolutions” inEarthhistory), buthethoughtthemostrecentextinctioneventoccurredabout 6,000yearsagoandcorrespondedtotheso-calleddiluvialdeposits (nowknowntobeglacialinorigin),associatedatthetimewiththe biblical flood.Thereisnoevidence,however,inhis Discours thathe wasabiblicalliteralist,whichinanycasewouldhavebeenhighly unusualforaFrenchEnlightenmentscientist.Heemphasizedthat processesoperatingtodaywereinsufficienttocausehis “Earthrevolutions,” whichwasclearlyaswipeatHuttonandPlayfairbeforehim, bothofwhomhereferencedinhis Discours.Cuvierdiedafewyears afterLyell’s Principles werepublished.
Cuvierwasagiftedwriterandillustrator,andahighlyorganized scientist.Lyell,aftervisitingCuvierathisParismuseum,inaletterto hissisterMarianne,marveledatCuvier’sefficientorganizationand workhabits,notingthatwhenCuvierwasworkingonamanuscript heplacedallreferencesonthattopicinasingleroomsothathehad everythingathand.22
LyellalsonotesthatCuvier’sassistants “save himeverymechanicallabor, findreferencesetcetera,arerarely admittedtohisstudy,receiveordersandspeaknot.” (seeBox1.1)
AccordingtoLyell,Cuvier’slibrarywasalsoperfectlyordered accordingtozoologicalsubject.Cuvier’sintellectualheftgavesubstantialweighttothecatastrophistschoolofthought,especiallywith regardtospeciesextinctions.
WilliamSmith(1769–1839). WilliamSmithwasborninthe villageofChurchill,Oxfordshire,insoutheastEngland.Hisfather, whodiedwhenWilliamwasseven,wasthevillageblacksmith.23
Williamattendedthevillageschool,wherehelearnedtoreadand write,untiltheageofeleven.Attheageofeighteen,hereceivedajob offerasanassistanttoalandsurveyor,whichgavehimtheopportunitytotravelaroundthecountry.Hebecameinterestedinthelocal strataandtheirfossilsindifferentareas.Hebecameinvolvedin surveyingfortheSomersetCoalCanalin1795andwasemployedby thecanalcompanyfrom1794to1799.ThisallowedSmithtoexamine strataoverthecourseofthecanalroute.By1796herecognizedthat lithologicallysimilarstratacontainedthesamefossilassemblage,and hebeganmakingcoloredgeologicalmapsoflocalareasinvolving TriassicandJurassicrocks.In1804heleasedahouseinLondonwhere hedisplayedhisfossilcollectionarrangedaccordingtoage.This collectionwasexaminedbymembersofthenewlyformedGeological Societyin1808.
In1815heproducedhiscoloredmapofEnglandandWales(and partsofScotland),whichwasthe firstgeologicmapofanentire country,coveringanareaof65,000squaremiles(104,000squarekilometers).Themapwasalsolarge,measuring2.6mby1.8m.(8.5ftby 5.9ft).Hesoldabout370copiesat fiveguineaseach(about fivepounds sterling),butbecauseofproductioncosts(eachwascoloredbyhand), hemadelittlemoney.Abusinessventureinvolvingthequarryingof buildingstonewasafailure,andheranuplargedebts.Hesoldhis fossilcollectiontotheBritishMuseumforamodestsum.Hecontinuedtotravelwhereverhisland-surveyingjobsandcivil-engineering projectstookhim.AdamSedgwick(seeinthischapter),presidentof theGeologicalSociety,awardedSmiththe firstWollastonmedalin 1831,theSociety’shighestaward.Thegovernmentprovidedhima modestannuityofonehundredpoundssterlinginrecognitionofhis servicestothecountryforproducinghis1815map,whichhadimportanteconomicandpracticalimplications.Smithdiedattheageof seventywhiletraveling.The200thanniversaryofhismapwascelebratedin2015byanarticlein Nature magazine.24
WilliamBuckland(1784
1856). BorninDevonshire,England, WilliamBucklandappearstohavebeeninterestedinnaturalhistory
–
fromanearlyage.25 HestudiedtheologyatChrist’sCollege,Oxford, andwasordainedin1809.AtOxford,hemetothersinterestedin geologyandfossils,includingWilliamConybeare(seeinthischapter). From1808to1815,hemadegeologicalexcursionsinEnglandand alsotoEurope.HewaselectedreaderinmineralogyatOxfordin 1813,andalsobecameafellowoftheGeologicalSocietyofLondon. HewaspresidentoftheGeologicalSociety1824–1825,andthen again1840–1841.
AtreatiseongeologyandmineralogybyBuckland,sponsored byawealthypatron(EarlBridgewater),publishedin1837,wasentitled TheBridgewaterTreatisesonthePower,WisdomandGoodness ofGodasManifestedintheCreation.26 The finalsectionofvolume onewasentitled, “GeologicalProofofaDeity,” whereBuckland arguedthattheorderseeningeologyisproofoftheexistenceofone “SupremeCreator.”26 Thetreatiseneverthelessrepresentsamajor contributiontogeologyandpaleontology,andwasaccompaniedby manyexcellentillustrations(Figure1.2).Althoughheheldcreationist views,Bucklandmaynothavebeenabiblicalliteralist,atleastnotin hislateryears.Inhispresidentialaddressof1841(atage fifty-seven), heacceptedtheevidenceinScotlandandtheAlps,presentedtohim inthe fieldbyLouisAgassiz(seeinthischapter),thatsocalled diluvialsedimentsweredepositedbyiceratherthanthebiblical flood.27 Bucklandwasforty-sixyearsoldwhen Principles was first published(Table1.1).
AdamSedgwick(1785–1873). BorninYorkshireassonofa clergyman,SedgwickstudiedtheologyandmathematicsatCambridge.28 HestayedonatCambridgeasatutoraftergraduation;he wasordainedin1817,andhebecameprofessorofgeologyatCambridgein1818attheageofthirty-three.Hebeganhisgeological researchintheLakeDistrictofnorthernEnglandin1822,wherehe metandbefriendedthepoetWilliamWordsworth.Conybeareand Phillips’s GeologyofEnglandandWales waspublishedinthesame year,andSedgwicklikelyhadacopyofthisbook.His firstjourney withRoderickMurchinson(seeinthischapter)wastoScotlandin
. AsmallpartofPlateIfromWilliamBuckland ’ s GeologyandMineralogyConsideredwithReferencetoNaturalTheology (1837).ThegeologiccrosssectionisanidealizedsectionthroughtheEarth ’ scrustshowinggraniteatdepthoverlainbyprimary, secondary,andtertiarystratatogetherwithextinctvolcanoesandactivevolcanoes.Animalsandplantsbasedonthefossilrecordare shownabove.
Source: Buckland,W.1837. TheBridgewaterTreatisesonthePower,WisdomandGoodnessofGodasManifestedinCreation.TreatiseVI.Geology andMineralogyConsideredwithReferencetoNaturalTheology (2vols.).Pickering,London.
1826,acollaborationthatlastedtenyearsuntiltheirfalloutoverthe Silurian-Cambriancontroversy(seeChapter2).Sedgwickbecame presidentoftheGeologicalSocietyfrom1829to1831.
SedgwickwasastrongcriticofLyell’suniformitarianism,27and hewasalsohostiletoDarwin’s OriginoftheSpecies (1859),whichhe labeledas “unflinchingmaterialism.”29 Muchearlier(1831),SedgwickandDarwinwereinthe fieldtogetherinnorthernWaleswith SedgwickactingasmentortotheyoungerDarwin.Sedgwickasked Darwintotraceacourseparalleltohisandtobringbackrock samples.Darwinnoted, “Ihavelittledoubtthathedidthisformy good,asIwastooignoranttohaveaidedhim.”30 Thiswasbefore DarwinsailedontheBeagle,anditmayhavebeenhisintroduction togeology.
Speakingonthedoctrineofuniformityinhissecond(1831) addresstotheSociety,Sedgwick,referringtoLyell’s Principles,states: “Wemustbanish apriori reasoningfromthethresholdofourargumentandthelanguageoftheorycanneverfallfromourlipswithany graceor fitness,unlessitappearasthesimpleenumerationofthose generalfacts,withwhichbyobservationalone,wehaveatlength becomeaquainted.”28 Hefurtherpointedoutthatthesubtitleof Lyell’sbook(“[b]einganattempttoexplaintheformerchangesof theEarth’ssurfacebyreferencetocausesnowinoperation”)isitself an apriori assumption.(Apriori assumptionsarethosethatareselfevidentandrequirenosubstantiation).Lyell’sassumptioninhissubtitlewasthatgeologicprocesseswerethesameinthepastastheyare today.ItisclearinaletterfromLyell,muchlaterin1837,toa reviewerofthesecondeditionofhisbookthatLyellmisunderstood themeaningoftheterm apriori.Today,Lyellmightbedefendedby sayinghisinitialassumptionofuniformitywassimplyaworking hypothesis.Sedgwick’sinvectivetoLyellgivessomeinsightinto howthesepioneersofgeologyweretryingtobuildascientificbasis foranascentscience,asciencethatwasstillinthe “cradle.”
InsummarizingthepublicationsoftheSocietyfortheprevious yearinhis1831address,Sedgwickpointedoutgeologicsituations
wherelargedislocationshavejuxtaposedstronglycontortedformationsagainsthorizontalstrata,concludingthatthesesituationsindicatednotslowevents,but “violenteventsofshortduration.”28 The ReverendSedgwick,althoughacatastrophist,wasnoscripturalgeologist,andinhis firstannualaddresstotheSociety(1830),herevieweda newbookbytheIrishmanAndrewUre, ANewSystemofGeology, whichattemptedtoreconcilegeologywiththebiblicalaccountof Earth’sorigins.31 Hisreviewofthebookwasveryharsh.Hepointed outgrossandelementaryerrorsoffactandevenplagiarism,leaving nodoubthehadnotimeforsuch “monumentsoffolly.” Fromhis researchinWalesinthe1830s,Sedgwickisresponsibleforourcurrent Cambriansystem(seeChapter2).
WilliamConybeare(1787–1857). BorninLondon,hewasthe sonoftheReverendWilliamConybeareandwaseducatedatWestminsterschoolatOxford.32 Hemarriedin1814atagetwenty-seven, servedasvicarinDevonshirein1836,andbecameadeanin1845.He wasanearlymemberoftheGeologicalSocietyofLondon(1811),and waselectedafellowoftheGeologicalSocietyin1832.Hewasaclose associateofWilliamBucklandwithonlythreeyearsseparatingthem inage;bothwereschooledatOxfordandbothwereclergymen.
Hismostimportantgeologicalworkis OutlinesoftheGeology ofEnglandandWales (ConybeareandPhillips,1822),whichisa detaileddescriptionofgeologicformationsdowntotheCarboniferous andincludesageologicalmapofEnglandandWaleswithselected cross-sectionsofhighlyfoldedregions(Figure1.3).Phillipswasthe publisherandmostofthegeologicworkisattributedtoConybeare.33 Unconventionally,thebookbeginswithdescriptionsoftheyoungest strata first – alluvialandunderlyingdiluvialdepositsofsandand gravel,thelatterwidelyinterpretedtorepresenttheuniversalNoachianDeluge,orbiblical flood(seelettersfromLyellinBox1.1).Part oftheintroductionto Outlines triedtoreconcilethebiblicalaccount ofthe floodwiththestratigraphicrecord;itentertainedthatthe lengthofdaysofcreationintheBiblemayhavebeenmetaphorical, ratherthanlastingtwenty-fourliteralhours.Conybeareaskedwhether
. Partofacross-sectionfromtheIrishSeainCumberlandtotheNorthSeainDurhamshowingfoldedCarboniferousstrata fromFigure3ofConybeareandPhillips,
OutlinesoftheGeologyofEnglandandWales ,1822.Mountainlimestoneoccursinthecoreof theanticlineandthecoalmeasuresoutcropinthecoreofthesynclines.Millstonegritandlimestoneandshaleunderliethecoal measures.TheOldRedSandstone(Devonian)underliesthemountainlimestoneandwasthoughttobepartoftheCarboniferous system.Originalhorizontalscale:10milestoaninch;originalverticalscale:400feetto1/8inch,correspondingtoavertical exaggerationof16.5.
OutlinesoftheGeologyofEnglandandWales .Phillips,London.
Source: Conybeare,W.andPhillips,W.1822.
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Päivällisen jälkeen loiottiin kalliolla ja luettiin Kiven Veljeksistä parhaita paikkoja. Julistettiin tarinakilpailu, johon kaikki saisivat ottaa osaa, ja yhdessä arvosteltaisiin tulokset.
Jallun tarina julistettiin voittaneeksi kilpailun ja tästä hyvästynyt
Jallu lupasi laittaa oikein suussa sulavan illallisen.
Illalla saivat Jaakko ja Mikko laskea pitkän siiman ja pohtia uudelleen suunnitelmaansa kepposta.
— Mitäs, jos vene menisi niin kauaksi, etteivät sitä pojat tavoita ja jäädään niin neuvoin kaikki saareen, sanoi Jaakko.
— No ei se mitään. Kylläpähän tulevat hakemaan, kun ei kotiin kuulu ja ahvenia ongitaan muonaksi, sanoi Mikko.
— Niinpä sitten olkoon päätetty, julisti Jaakko. — Ennen uintia jätetään venhe hyvin vähän kiinni kallion laitaan, ja toinen käy sitten sopivassa tilaisuudessa irroittamassa sen ja antamassa sille alkuvauhtia.
Yöksi rakensivat pojat kalliolle hongan pölkyistä nuotion, ja tyveniä vesiä katsellen ja käen kukuntaa kuunnellen nukuttiin.
Aamupäivä meni pitkäsiimaa kokiessa, ja kun se antoi runsaan saaliin, suoritettiin intiaanitanssi kalliolla kalastuksen kunniaksi. Sopisi ylpeillä äideille ja siskoille hyvin onnistuneesta kalaretkestä.
Eilen toimittamatta jäänyt tervaaminen suoritettiin nyt hehkuvassa auringon paahteessa, kun terva oli ensin padassa lämmitetty.
— Hii, miten se kutittaa ihoa, sanoi Mikko.
— Kas, miten hyvin se menee nahkaan, ihaili Jaakko ja Jallu. Olisipa nyt kelvannut näyttää ihoaan kotijoukoille.
— Nyt on parasta hiukan liotella ihoaan, koskapa sitä niin hirveästi kuumottaa, sanoi Jallu. — Murjaanit järveen!
Jaakon ja Mikon sydän takoi kiivaammin, mutta koetettiin olla huolettoman näköisiä kaikesta. Tuuli oli hyvä ja mantereeseen päin lähtisi vene viilettämään, ja kun se oli toisella puolella saarta, kuin poikien majapaikka, eivät Lassi ja Jallu tietäisi mitään, ennenkuin venhe olisi jo kaukana.
Kevyt venhe jo viiletti kaukana, kun Lassi sen huomasi.
— Voi turkkilainen, kun venhe on karannut! huudahti hän, — Kuka peikkolainen sen kytki niin huonosti.
— No voi sun saksan sakilainen! kivahti Jallukin, ja pojat hokivat sitä samaa kuin toisetkin.
— Lähtään uimaan ja otetaan se kiinni, sanoi Jallu ja alkoi jo vedellä voimakkain ottein selälle.
— Ei sitä tavoita enää minkäänlainen uimari, julisti Lassi. — Nyt on vain otettava selvää, kuka venheen on kytkenyt niin huonosti, että se pääsi karkaamaan. Ja sen minä sanon, että sen ilkimyksen korvat kuumenevat.
Tutkittiin asiata ja tulos oli Lassille masentava. Hän oli viimeksi käynyt veneellä viemässä rantarisuun lisää männynhavuja.
— No koska minä olen joutunut syylliseksi, niin jokainen teistä saa livauttaa minua korvalle, mutta tehkää se kepeällä kädellä, koskapa teitä on niin kovin monta rankaisijaa.
— Täysi satsi Lassille, ei siinä auta puolustelu, huusi Jallu.
— Mikä mies se semmoinen on, joka pyrkii syntejään pakoon. Korvat tänne!
— Ei muuta kuin pieni livaus vain, oli Mikon ja Jaakon mielipiteenä. — Onhan tässä otettava huomioon lieventävät asianhaarat.
Ja sen sijaan kuin Jallu antoi navakan tillikan Lassille, hipaisivat toiset pojat Lassin korvalehteä hieman vain sormen päillään.
Lassilla oli kiivas luonto, jota hän ei osannut vielä kylliksi hillitä, ja nyt se kuohahti siitä, että Jallu tahtoi kovempaa rangaistusta hänelle kuin toiset.
— Sinä olet sakin jukuripää ja sinua on pehmitettävä, sanoi hän, ja pian kieriskelivät pojat kalliolla ja kanervikossa ankarassa sylirysyssä.
— Tämän piti nyt tulla meidän tähtemme, sanoi Jaakko.
— Ei se pahaa tee Jallulle pieni kuranssaus, sanoi Mikko. — Mitäs ei tyytynyt toisten päätökseen.
Kun nujellus lakkasi, katseltiin mustelmia ja naarmuja, joita oli saatu kanervikossa.
— Tunnustatko saaneesi hassausta ansiosta? kysyi Lassi Jallulta.
— Kyl-lä. Samallahan sitä sait sinäkin, mutta sinun kauemmin tervassa ollut pintasi kesti risujen raapaisuja paremmin kuin minun, sanoi Jallu.
— Mutta mitäs tästä. Pääasia on se, että nyt olemme kuin hiiret loukussa. Sinne meni vielä meidän riitatoverien vaatteet. Kuka käskikin meidän niitä venheeseen riisumaan. Se oli noloa, se…
— Nyt on jo vene rannalla, sanoi Jaakko, joka oli sen kulkua seurannut.
— Ja pysyy siellä. Saamme odottaa, kunnes tulevat sydän kurkussa meitä katselemaan, arveli Mikko.
— Katsotaanpa, mitä meille jäi, sanoi Lassi.
— Pata jäi ja onget, kahvipannu ja sokerit meni veneen mukana, ilmoitti Jaakko, joka oli jo tehnyt tutkimuksen.
— Jäiköhän lierotuohinen edes?
— On jäänyt varmasti. Pistin sen kallion koloon, sanoi Jallu. Mitäs muuta kuin onkimaan ja ahvenia pataan.
— Tulikin pahuuksenmoinen nälkä siinä tappeluksessa, sanoi Lassi.
— Eihän vain liene siinä nujakassa aapeluksemme, Seitsemät Veljekset, hävinnyt? kysyi Jallu.
— Minä nostin kirjan puuhun, sanoi Jaakko.
Päivä paistoi ja kallio poltteli jalkapohjia. Veneen menetys ei surettanut liioin. Ainahan keinoja löytyi, kunhan vain aurinko paistoi ja ruoka riitti. Ja sitä taas sai, kun vain heitti siiman kalliolta veteen. Ahvenet hyppivät ihan maan ja veden rajassa.
* * * * *
Jallu oli mennyt veljensä kanssa puita noutamaan nuotioon ja Lassi kyykötti kallion reunalla odotellen ahventa onkeen. Jaakko oli onkineen vähän matkan päässä. Hän nauroi.
— Mitä hörötät? kysyi Lassi.
— Sitä, kun sinulla ei ole vaatteita ja saat yöllä paahtaa itseäsi kuin neekeri nuotiossa.
— Täälläpä ei ensi yötä ollakaan, sanoi Lassi.
— Mikäs auttaa?
— Sepähän nähdään.
Lassi oli löytänyt saaresta muutamia kuivia hirsiä, joista saisi lautan, kun olisi millä se sitoa kokoon. Sitä hän nyt mietti siinä seuratessaan kylläistä ahventa, joka repi syöttiä, mutta ei haukannut sitä rohkeammin.
Olisipa vain köyttä, jolla solmiaisi puut yhteen ja sitten vielä purje. Poikien paidoista ja housuista ei sitä taitaisi saada kokoon.
— Mustikoita, hei pojat! kuului toisten huuto metsästä.
Pojat jättivät onkensa ja juoksivat viidakkoon. Mustikat olivat kesän ensimmäisiä heille ja halulla käytiin niihin käsiksi. Siinä
vierähtivät tunnit huomaamatta ja päivä alkoi olla illoillaan, kun pojat palasivat kalliolle. Koetettiin onkia, mutta ahven ei syönyt enää.
— Oikeastaan me emme mitään päivällistä tarvitsekaan, kun jokaisen maaru on mustikoita täysi, arveli Jallu.
— Mutta kotiin paluuta meidän olisi pohdittava ankarasti, sanoi Lassi.
— Minulla olisi hyvä keino, mutta siinä on yksi niksi.
— Mikä, sanohan?
— Ei ole köyttä. Saaren rannalla on ainakin kahdeksan vankkaa hirttä, ja niistä me voisimme laittaa lautan, kun olisi vain nuoraa.
— Sitä me saamme Koivunvesoista vaikka kuinka… voimme niillä kyllä sitoa lautan kokoon, sanoi Mikko ja kimpaisi metsään vitsaksia noutamaan.
— No nyt ei siis puutu muuta kuin kiireesti lautan tekoon, sanoi Lassi. — Sattui vielä niin mainiosti, että puut ovat mantereen puoleisella rannalla. Ei muuta kuin heti purjetta laskemaan.
Puut olivat raskaita ja vaivoin saatiin ne vieritetyksi veteen. Kun lautta oli valmis, aleni jo aurinkokin kaukaisen rannan taakse ja tuuli laimeni.
— Näyttää siltä, että yöksi tulee aivan tyyni, mutta voimmehan soutaa lauttaa maihin, sanoi Jallu.
— Tahi odottaa aamua, jolloin tuuli kantaa meitä soutamattakin, arveli Lassi.
— Millä me soudamme, kun ei ole airoja. Ja sitäpaitsi me palellumme lautalle, kun ei ole vaatteita, sanoi Jallu. Parasta, kun viritämme nuotion ja odotamme aamua.
— Mutta minulla on niin turkkilaisen nälkä, eikä ole enää leipääkään, sanoi Lassi. — Kyllä me lämmintä saamme, kun melomme oikein vahvasti seipäillä.
Mikko oli taas kähminyt verkkomökille ja toi nyt sieltä vanhan sarkapalton, joka kai oli Lassin ja Jaakon isältä joskus sinne jäänyt kalamatkoilla oltaessa. Toinenkin, vielä kuluneempi vanha takki löytyi ja Mikko palasi meluten saaliineen.
— Nyt ei ole enää muusta puutetta kuin tuulesta, riemuittiin.
Sitä odotellen tehtiin nuotio ja jokainen sai nyt koettaa parastaan tärinäin kertomisessa, että aika paremmin kuluisi.
Lassi oli huomannut eteläisellä ilmanrannalla pilven kasvavan ja piti sitä silmällä. Kohta alkoikin haapa kalliolla hiljaa humista ja veden pintaan syntyi tummia juovia. Pilvikin etelän taivaalla kasvoi kasvamistaan ja siellä välähti joskus salama.
— Tuliko lautta hyvin kiinni? kysyi Lassi pojilta.
— Tuli varmasti.
Pian alkoivat laineet lipattaa kallion laitaan ja pojat tunsivat selvästi tuulen kiihtyvän.
Nyt lautta irti ja mars matkalle! komensi Lassi. — Tulee pian sade ja silloin ei ole täällä kovinkaan hauskat olot.
Lautta kannatti hyvin. Melottiin tuulen avuksi sauvoimilla, ja lautta eteni rannasta paremmin kuin olisi osattu odottaakaan.
— Tämäpä on suurenmoista! kehasivat pojat. Sarkaviitasta laitettiin vielä purje, ja se lisäsi vauhtia. Jallu sai väliin lainata Lassille takkiressuaan ja onneksi oli tuulikin lämmintä ja se kiihtyi joka hetki. Laineet keinuttelivat jo lauttaa, niin että oli varottava siltä syvyyteen suistumasta.
Ukkonenkin jyrähteli jo ja salamat valaisivat tummentuvaa taivasta. Vakavina katselivat pojat mantereen rantaa ja vuoroin taakseen, jossa taivas yhä synkkeni. Ulappa kuohui jo valkopäälaineissa ja poikien täytyi laskeutua polvilleen lautalle pysyäkseen sillä. Sitäpaitsi täytyi Lassin ja Jallun meloa voimiensa takaa estääkseen kylmää, joka tahtoi väkisinkin puistatella ruumista.
Jyrisi yhä ankarammin, ja Mikko alkoi vetistellä, mutta ei sanonut mitään. Häntä vaivasi se, että oli näin aiheuttanut Jaakon kanssa heille kaikille yhteisen kärsimyksen. Olisi jo pitänyt tunnustaa, mutta Mikko pelkäsi, että hänet heitettäisiin Jaakon kanssa uimaan.
Jaakko oli kovin kalpea. Hän ei miettinyt muuta, kuin että rannalle päästyä on heti tunnustettava asia pojille, vaikkakin he kuinkakin peittoaisivat. Ei mitenkään voisi jättää tunnustamatta. Ja nyt kun sen tekisi, olisi kuranssauskin ehkä lievempi, kun pojat olivat väsyneitä.
Ranta oli enää vain noin puolen kilometrin päässä, kun jyrähti entisiä ankarammin ja sadepilvi puhkesi. Vettä tuli, niin että romisi.
Pojat luulivat nyt jo voivansa loppumatkan uidakin hätätilassa ja se antoi jälleen varmuuden tunnetta.
— Jopa nyt aivan kaatamalla sataa, sanoi Jallu ja vilu tärisytti pojan leukoja.
— Antaa tulla vain!
— No kyllä minun puolesta vaikka seipäitä. Siinä tämä poika kestää, missä toinenkin, kehaisi Jallu.
Lautta alkoi kolista rantakivillä ja odottamatta sen kokonaan rannalle ajautumista pojat kahlasivat maalle. Ei siitä ollutkaan pitkä matka veneelle, joka oli heiltä karannut. Se vedettiin kiireesti maalle ja sitten hurjaa juoksua kotiin. Vaahtopäälaineissa ei viitsitty enää lähteä venhettä, soutamaan.
Vasta puolitiessä kotimatkaa huomasivat pojat, että heidän vaatteensa olivat unohtuneet venheeseen.
— Jääkööt!
Peräkkäin paineltiin rantaa pitkin ja pellon poikki oikaistiin suoraan saunaan.
Se oli illalla lämminnyt ja kiuas pohisi vielä, kun sitä vesitti.
— Hei pojat! Nyt otetaan oikein mustalaisen löylyt sen retken kunniaksi!
Jaakko ja Mikko tekivät tunnustusta. Kovin heitä vapisutti.
— Sitä jo ajattelinkin, sanoi Lassi. — Kylläpä siitä vielä nahkanne kuumenee.
— Mutta rankaisu pitää toimittaa ihmisiksi, tokaisi Mikko. — Mitäs kiusasitte minua saaressa.
Lassi mietti, että vähällä taitavat pojat siitä päästä, kun kerran hyvin oli seikkailusta selvitty. Ja olihan ollut oikeastaan hauskakin se lauttakyyti. Seikkailua!
Saunan ovi avattiin ja äidin pää pisti oviaukosta esiin.
— Ovatpahan toki vielä hengissä, sanoi hän. — Minä olen jo ollut niin levoton teidän tähtenne. Tulkaa sitten lapsikullat syömään, kun joudutte.
Lassin olisi tehnyt mieli selvittää matkansa seikkailu äidille, mutta se jäi seuraavaan päivään. Nyt nautittiin löylystä, joka teki kovin hyvää tervaiselle iholle.
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