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Human and Divine Being
A Study on the Theological Anthropology of Edith Stein
Donald Wallenfang
foreword by John C. Cavadini
HUMAN AND DIVINE BEING
A Study on the Theological Anthropology of Edith Stein
Veritas 23
Copyright © 2017 Donald Wallenfang. All rights reserved. Except for brief quotations in critical publications or reviews, no part of this book may be reproduced in any manner without prior written permission from the publisher. Write: Permissions, Wipf and Stock Publishers, 199 W. 8th Ave., Suite 3, Eugene, OR 97401.
Cascade Books
An Imprint of Wipf and Stock Publishers 199 W. 8th Ave., Suite 3 Eugene, OR 97401 www.wipfandstock.com
PAPERBACK ISBN: 978-1-4982-9336-5
HARDCOVER ISBN: 978-1-4982-9338-9
EBOOK ISBN: 978-1-4982-9337-2
Cataloguing-in-Publication data:
Names: Wallenfang, Donald. | Cavadini, John C., foreword.
Title: Human and divine being : a study on the theological anthropology of Edith Stein / Donald Wallenfang ; foreword by John C. Cavadini.
Description: Eugene, OR : Cascade Books, 2017 | Series: Veritas 23 | Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: ISBN 978-1-4982-9336-5 (paperback) | ISBN 978-1-4982-9338-9 (hardcover) | ISBN 978-1-4982-9337-2 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Stein, Edith, Saint, 1891–1942. | Theological anthropology Christianity. | Philosophical theology.
Classification: BT701.3 .W35 2017 (print) | BT701.3 .W35 (ebook)
Manufactured in the U.S.A. 03/25/17
Table of Contents
Title Page
Foreword
Acknowledgments
Introduction
Chapter 1: On Human Vocation
I. The Revelatory Dialectic of Potency–Act
II. Creaturely Existence as Intersubjective Becoming
III. Universal Human Vocation: Awakening to Eternal Being
Chapter 2: Spiritual Being
I. Contemporary Polemics in Pneumatology
II. Kreuzeswissenschaft: The Science of the Cross
III. The Pneumatological Matrix of Edith Stein
IV. Conclusion
Chapter 3: The Soul as the Form of the Body
I. The Possibility of the Human Soul
II. Aristotle’s Four Kinds of Causality
a. Material Causality
b. Efficient Causality
c. Formal Causality
d. Final Causality
e. Summary of the Four Kinds of Causality
III. Actuality, Potentiality, and Logos
IV. Toward an Ontology of Spirit
V. The Rational Soul and Its Redemption
VI. Conclusion
Chapter 4: The Soul as Inner Life and as Substantial Image of God the Father
I. Conscious Spiritual Being
II. Getting at the Heart of the Matter
III. The Substance of Spiritual Being
IV. The Analogy of Material Being
V. The Analogy of Divine Being
VI. Conclusion
Chapter 5: The Soul as Spiritual Vessel
I. Entrée into Divine Love
II. The Meaning of Self-Surrender
III. Afterlife of the Soul and Union with God
a. Death
b. The Hypostatic Union of Christ
c. The Hypostatic Union of the Soul with God
IV. Conclusion
Chapter 6: The Antinomy of Material Being
I. Clarification of Terms
II. Ontology of Matter
III. The Human Body and the Possibility of Its Regeneration
Chapter 7: Empathy and the Other
I. The Paradox of Alterity: An Ode to Otherness
II. The Essence of Empathy
1. “Acts in which foreign experience is comprehended”
2. “An act which is primordial as present experience though non-primordial in content”
3. “An experience of our own announcing another one”
4. “The basis of intersubjective experience [that] becomes the condition of possible knowledge of the existing outer world”
III. The Individual Soul and the Other
a. The Soul in Relation to the Other (l’Autre) in General
b. The Soul in Relation to the Personal Other (l’Autrui)
c. The Soul in Relation to the Voice of the Other within the Self: Conscience
IV. Conclusion
Chapter 8: The Logic of the Cross
I. Edith and the Cross
II. The Dark Night of Solitude
III. The Cruciform Pattern of the Cross
a. Alterity
b. Humility
c. Love
IV. Conclusion
Epilogue: An Addendum to Suffering Bibliography
VERITAS
Series Introduction
“ . . . the truth will set you free” (John 8:32)
In much contemporary discourse, Pilate’s question has been taken to mark the absolute boundary of human thought. Beyond this boundary, it is often suggested, is an intellectual hinterland into which we must not venture. This terrain is an agnosticism of thought: because truth cannot be possessed, it must not be spoken. Thus, it is argued that the defenders of “truth” in our day are often traffickers in ideology, merchants of counterfeits, or anti-liberal. They are, because it is somewhat taken for granted that Nietzsche’s word is final: truth is the domain of tyranny.
Is this indeed the case, or might another vision of truth offer itself? The ancient Greeks named the love of wisdom as philia, or friendship. The one who would become wise, they argued, would be a “friend of truth.” For both philosophy and theology might be conceived as schools in the friendship of truth, as a kind of relation. For like friendship, truth is as much discovered as it is made. If truth is then so elusive, if its domain is terra incognita, perhaps this is because it arrives to us unannounced as gift, as a person, and not some thing.
The aim of the Veritas book series is to publish incisive and original current scholarly work that inhabits “the between” and “the beyond” of theology and philosophy. These volumes will all share a common aspiration to transcend the institutional divorce in which these two disciplines often find themselves, and to engage questions of pressing concern to both philosophers and theologians in such a way as to reinvigorate both disciplines with a kind of interdisciplinary desire, often so absent in contemporary academe. In a word, these volumes represent collective efforts in the befriending of truth, doing so beyond the simulacra of pretend tolerance, the violent, yet insipid reasoning of liberalism that asks with Pilate, “What is truth?” expecting a consensus of noncommitment; one that encourages the commodification of the mind, now sedated by the civil service of career, ministered by the frightened patrons of position.
The series will therefore consist of two “wings”: (1) original monographs; and (2) essay collections on a range of topics in theology and philosophy. The latter will principally be the products of the annual conferences of the Centre of Theology and Philosophy (www.theologyphilosophycentre .co.uk).
Conor Cunningham and Eric Austin Lee, Series Editors
To my father, John Michael Wallenfang (1947–2003), and my mother, Linda Jo Wallenfang (1948–2013)
“At the father’s death, he will seem not dead, for he leaves after him one like himself, whom he looked upon through life with joy, and in death, without regret.”
Sirach 30:4–5 (NABRE)
“Indeed, we had accepted within ourselves the sentence of death, that we might trust not in ourselves but in God who raises the dead.”
2 Corinthians 1:9 (NAB)
And to the Sundarams, especially Sathish Andrew, witness to hope and determined determination
Ricorda questa sera, perché sarà l’inizio dell’eternità. Dante Alighieri
The hand of the Lord came upon me, and he led me out in the spirit of the Lord and set me in the center of the broad valley. It was filled with bones. He made me walk among them in every direction. So many lay on the surface of the valley! How dry they were! He asked me: Son of man, can these bones come back to life? “Lord God,” I answered, “you alone know that.” Then he said to me: Prophesy over these bones, and say to them: Dry bones, hear the word of the Lord! Thus says the Lord God to these bones: Listen! I will make breath enter you so you may come to life. I will put sinews on you, make flesh grow over you, cover you with skin, and put breath into you so you may come to life. Then you shall know that I am the Lord. I prophesied as I had been commanded.
EZEKIEL 37:1–7 (NABRE)
Foreword
I
AM PLEASED AND HONORED to be asked to write a foreword for this magnificent book by a young scholar. Donald Wallenfang warns us at the outset that “Stein’s masterpieces in philosophical theology are rigorous and dense,” and that “it is a great feat just to read through one of them in its entirety,” and I would add, in English, let alone in German, because some of Stein’s most important works have not yet been translated into English. A true introduction to the thought of Edith Stein could not do it honor unless it was to some degree in its own right “rigorous and dense.” Indeed, Wallenfang has “sifted carefully” through Stein’s works, all of them, to produce a synthesis that, let the reader be forewarned then, is surely properly described as “rigorous and dense”! But the careful reader will find herself amply repaid for her efforts in sustained attention. And the book is designed, at any rate, to be read in manageable chunks of short chapters in order to encourage the reader and to assist her in mastering its contents. For all of its difficulty, it also manages to mirror faithfully one of the other salient features of Edith Stein’s work no matter how abstruse the way in which it is nevertheless suffused with a warmth that glows from every page.
The rigor of this book, and of Edith Stein’s philosophical/theological anthropology, which is the subject of this book, gives it the feeling of alterity, of “otherness,” to adopt one of Stein’s favorite expressions from her earliest work on empathy. In turn, its alterity is itself a function at least, I believe I have learned this from the book of the banality with which most of us, steeped in a reductionist culture, greet the central question of Human and Divine Being, “What does it mean to be human?” with a complacency of the obvious. Whatever it does mean, we know from the outset of cultural presupposition that it is culturally constructed without remainder, because, whatever it means, there is, before and behind and under these cultural constructions, nothing but matter and energy and natural law. For even those of us who are believers have a hard time, for example, imagining spirit as actually something. And, as Stein in Wallenfang’s re-voicing shows, we therefore have a hard time imagining even matter as something. For being something implies form, and if there is truly form, and not the simulacrum of form that a purely natural-law description of reality provides, then there is something higher than matter that allows matter to also be something instead of a random association of entities that have no name but what we arbitrarily attach to it and which therefore can generate nothing with
a name except that which we arbitrarily attach to it (“construct”).
The seemingly irreducible alterity of this book, and of Edith Stein’s peculiar combination, or mitigation, of phenomenology with metaphysics, as Wallenfang displays it to us, makes it something like a great work of fantasy. If you read J. R. R. Tolkien’s The Lord of the Rings (which I hasten to add is not mentioned in Wallenfang’s book), for example, you find yourself in a fictional world with its own unique geography and logic, its own languages and peoples, mythic creatures, and history. Because it is a work of fantasy, and because that is agreed upon between reader and author from the beginning, the reader accepts its alterity as something postulated if not believed. But in accepting these terms, literally in accepting the new language(s) and logic of the fictional world, one finds, after one has thoroughly lived in the new world, that one has actually accepted an enhanced way of speaking and thinking about one’s own world, which in turn becomes re-enchanted, the locus of a kind of fantasy-come-true.
In the case of Edith Stein, and of Wallenfang’s book as a distillation of her thought, it is as though we have a work of fantasy to approach. It is cast as “fantasy” by those of us, all of us, who, even if believers, almost unconsciously accept a reductionist worldview, we who live in the Twilight of the Idols where we know that the philosophers are the greatest web-spinners of all, who have by abstraction “arrive[d] at their stupendous concept, ‘God.’” And thus “that which is last, thinnest, and emptiest,” the “last smoke of evaporating reality,” is placed “first, as the cause, as ens realissimum, ”1 that which is absolutely most real. To enter the world where spirit is real, where spirit is something, and therefore where matter is real, is something, is to enter a world that has been constructed as fantasy for us by Nietzsche and all the prophets of suspicion who have, as his heirs, deconstructed metaphysical language describing it as a fictional language who have, like Nietzsche, asked with incredulity, “Why did mankind have to take seriously the brain afflictions of sick web-spinners?” But Donald Wallenfang beguiles us, by his carefully disciplined step-by-step process, into accepting terms of agreement analogous to those between the fantasy author and her reader, and we are led, little by little, into learning (what seems) a fantasy language, feeling our way to using it, and discovering, in so doing, that we have actually taken it into our own world and that our own world is re-enchanted as a fantasy-too-good-to-be-true-come-true. We learn that we had lost a knack for precise language in describing various grades of reality because we did not believe these distinctions were true. Wallenfang helps us recover this language for ourselves and makes us realize how impoverished we are without it.
We learn that “spiritual being is not just a negative verbal placeholder for the so-called opposite of material being” something vague and fictional but that “the term signifies the fullness, plentitude, and perfection of being as that which gives itself to the point of fecund abandonment” (159). We are given language to have confidence that this is so. We learn here that self-giving does not exist in the penumbra of a placeholder in the universe, a placeholder for that which is really real, matter, but that self-giving is what is really real. But, surprisingly, we learn that this in turn means that “the term ‘matter’” is not used by Stein “as a meaningless conceptual placeholder” either, but instead, that what physicists call matter, that is, atomic matter, is always already “formed matter.” “The hydrogen atom, for example, is an instance of formed matter.” We discover that there would be no matter, as we commonly understand the term, if “form” had not preceded it and brought it into being, as something. In a brilliant tour de force of reversal, Wallenfang enables us to see how Stein gives us the language for seeing how the theory of evolution, far from displaying evidence of random change, shows us the impossibility of reductionism, if you have the language to analyze and describe it properly: “The theory of evolution presupposes a formal impetus toward life, organization and order. Whether that uncreated impetus is called ‘nature’ or ‘god(s)’ is a matter of semantics.” “However,” he continues, “philosophically and theologically speaking, if one wishes to use ‘nature’ as a substitute for ‘god(s)’ within a postmodern metanarrative of material reductionism, let’s at least come clean about the matter. Nature as such did not ‘give birth’ to itself. Even its own etymology suggests otherwise, for nascor means ‘to be born’ and that which is born is born of something other than itself.” By this route we arrive back at “pure spiritual being, itself immutable and the logical condition for the possibility of material being and its diversification” (168).
At this point, the theologian may be wondering if in this fantasy world that we are learning to recognize as our own world, the philosophical vocabulary has rendered the theological otiose and has voided revelation of its unique contribution. Such a worry is unfounded, we learn, because as Stein elaborates the case, the origin of matter in an act of creation is something that philosophy is incapable of grasping: “For Stein, natural reason is not able to comprehend the very act of creation” (159). This is because the act of creation is an act of free self-giving that reveals what is “really real” in the first place. In fact, it is an act of grace that is only revealed in its fullest dimensions in the sacrifice of Christ on the cross, a pure gift, a gift so purely gift that it could never be anticipated,
deserved, merited, or controlled: “Christ’s vicarious offering of himself unto death on a cross of wood expresses divine grace to a degree that even surpasses the divine act of creation from nothing” (197). Wallenfang masterfully entices us, step by step, into the fantasy world, or so it will seem to the “wise” of 1 Corinthians 1:18–19, which is all of us, of the cross, and to be more precise, the world rendered intelligible by the “science of the cross.” “By taking . . . careful and convicting steps, we have brought the paradigm of the cross into the light of comprehension, if only by attempting to peer momentarily into its dark luminosity and to heed its saturating meaning and power.” (218) We must, in passing, note the beauty of expression here!
Having beguiled us this far, Wallenfang may be allowed to continue: “It must be said that one cannot help trembling in approaching the topic of the cross. Yet it is the cross that reveals both what it is to be fully human and what it is to be less than human” (218). Wallenfang brilliantly shows how Edith Stein’s “science of the cross” is the key to her whole enterprise, and, not as a principle of selfgiving, or a concept of the fullness of meaning, but as an act, a concrete deed, not that which is the “last, the thinnest, and the emptiest” because the highest conceptual abstraction, but this one concrete act that “reached its climax in the hour of Jesus’s passion when he handed himself over, ‘becoming obedient to death, even death on a cross’ (Phil 2:8).” In another beautiful sentence, Wallenfang notes, “In other words, God has nothing left to give to his Bride, the Church. All has been given her without remainder. This is the definitive meaning of the cross” (210). Far from an abstraction, the cross remains open as an irreducible invitation to faith. If faith is granted, then understanding can come. It can come with all of the philosophical language intended to guarantee that this act of divine self-giving can be glorified, can be seen as that which really reveals the most really real, that which enables us to understand even matter as real, as God-touched, because it, too, is ultimately a function of unmerited gift; it is itself a dim reflection of the primal self-giving life of God and a reminder, in its own small way, that the suffering which life calls us to is the way in which we make room for the other in our lives, even as God “made room” for matter and everything that is “formed” through it or in relation to it in His. And so we may confidently take our place in the universe of empathetic, loving communion that God intended all along.
The book ends with an original poem about the death of a Carmelite nun and the suffering it entailed. We know from the book, recapitulated in this poem, that this suffering was not meaningless. We know from the poem that the book it
recapitulates was all along more poetry than prose. We were enticed all along into reading an extended prose poem as the intelligible structure of a momentary peering, a saturating meaning and power, that will always surpass, and thereby guarantee, intelligibility everywhere and always to those who will be enticed, and believe.
It is with profound appreciation that I pass this book on, offering it to the attention of the careful reader, who will, I guarantee, find herself in capable, empathetic hands.
John C. Cavadini
Director of the McGrath Institute for Church Life
Professor of Theology
The University of Notre Dame
December 23, 2016
1. Twilight of the Idols, as translated by Walter Kaufmann.
Acknowledgments
DIFFICULT AS IT IS to acknowledge certain people who have had a direct influence on the making of this book, with the risk of failing to mention some, I nevertheless would like to thank those who come to mind most immediately. First, I reference the acknowledgments section of my book Dialectical Anatomy of the Eucharist: An Étude in Phenomenology (2017), as it is fitting to recognize all of those mentioned there once again. More to the point of the present book, however, I will focus my gratitude on those circles of scholars related in a particular way to the contents herein.
To my fellow Stein scholars in the Edith Stein Circle, thank you for your encouragement and solidarity in approaching Stein’s work with zeal, rigor, and innovation. May we continue to substantiate the cause for Edith Stein to be named a “Doctor of the Church.” The following colleagues deserve special mention, especially as related to the 2013 Edith Stein Circle conference at King’s University College in London, Ontario, and to the 2015 International Stein Conference at the University of Vienna and the Pontifical Institute of Benedict XVI, Heiligenkreuz: Mette Lebech, Hanna-Barbara Gerl-Falkovitz, Francesco Alfieri, Christof Betschart, Roberto Maria Perastu, Rathan Almeida, Michele Kueter Petersen, Robert McNamara, René Raschke, Rosalia Caruso, Claudia Mariéle Wulf, Haddy Bello, Bernardo Álvarez Gutiérrez, Feliciana Merino Escalera, Haydn Gurmin, Antonio Calcagno, John Sullivan, Jacob Torbeck, Walter Redmond, Anna Maria Pezzella, Angela Ales Bello, Marian Maskulak, Pamela Fitzpatrick, Thomas Gricoski, Michael Andrews, Leonard and Joyce Avrech Berkman, Ken Casey, Eduardo González Di Pierro, Joachim Feldes, Kathleen Haney, Harm Klueting, Jennie Latta, Judith Parsons, Juan Francisco Pinilla Aguilera, Marianne Sawicki, Sarah Borden Sharkey, Gloria Zúñiga y Postigo, Laura Beer, Paulina Monjaraz Fuentes, Patricia Morrison, and Suzanne Batzdorff. Again, I thank all of my colleagues from St. Norbert College, Loyola University Chicago, and Walsh University. Your friendship and inspiration are life-giving.
To my new publishing family at Wipf and Stock, especially Charlie Collier, Conor Cunningham, Eric Austin Lee, and Matt Wimer, thank you for welcoming my book for publication with Cascade Books in the Veritas series, and for all of your expertise lent throughout the editing process. Thank you, also, for letting
me be myself as an author and for affording a venue through which to pursue the truth without ideological obstruction. To Jacob Martin, Calvin Jaffarian, and Chris Graham, thank you for your expertise, insight, and assiduity throughout the editing and design process. To the five anonymous readers of this book, thank you for your frankness, your attention to detail, and your honest feedback, which has worked to sharpen the manuscript to its present form. All remaining deficiencies and shortcomings are, of course, my own. Thank you to the Secular Discalced Carmelites of the Akron/Cleveland Community of the Holy Family. May this book be an ongoing conversation partner for our spiritual itinerary toward the summit of Mount Carmel: Zelo zelatus sum pro Domino Deo exercituum.
Thank you to the following publishers for granting permission to reprint portions of the following texts:
Some material from chapter 1 appeared previously as “Awaken, O Spirit: The Vocation of Becoming in the Work of Edith Stein,” Logos: A Journal of Catholic Thought and Culture 15 (2012) 57–74.
Some material from chapter 2 appeared previously as “Geisteswissenschaft: Edith Stein’s Phenomenological Sketch of the Essence of Spirit,” in Intersubjectivity, Humanity, Being: Edith Stein’s Phenomenology and Christian Philosophy, edited by Mette Lebech and John Haydn Gurmin (Oxford: P. Lang, 2015) 499–524.
Some material from chapter 4 appeared previously as “The Heart of the Matter: Edith Stein on the Substance of the Soul,” Logos: A Journal of Catholic Thought and Culture 17 (2014) 118–42.
Some material from chapters 3–5 appeared previously as “Soul Power: Edith Stein’s Meta-Phenomenological Construction of the Human Soul,” in Edith Stein: Women, Social-Political Philosophy, Metaphysics and Public History; New Approaches and Applications, edited by Antonio Calcagno (Cham: Springer, 2015) 167–80.
Finally, to my wife, Megan Joanna, and our awesome children, Ellen Agnes, Aubin Augustine, Tobias Xavier, Callum Ignatius, Simeon Irenaeus, and Oliver Isidore, you inspire me with every breath, thought and heartbeat. You have taught me the art of love and the meaning of being human in relation to eternal being. I love you!
Introduction
WHAT IS IT TO be human? How are human beings different from other types of being in the universe? What are the integral parts that make up the human being? How can we approach the makeup of human being in a responsible and interdisciplinary way? Such questions are vitally important for all times, and today is no exception. How we answer these questions determines how we treat each other and how we live our lives. This book is a careful study on the theological anthropology of twentieth-century saint Edith Stein (1891–1942), as relevant for today’s context of twenty-first-century postmodern skepticism and disenchantment.2 Theological anthropology refers to a branch of study that concentrates on understanding what it is to be human in relation to God. To omit the adjective “theological” would reduce the assessment of the human being from the start and would curtail the scientific possibilities of being in general. Theological anthropology at the very least puts forth the question of God while asking the question of the human. This approach is intellectually responsible and open to possibility because the question of God is the question of the infinite, that is, the question of infinite mystery. Without the question of God, we risk interpreting the human being as unrelated to infinite mystery. This is a very dangerous interpretation indeed. In her February 20, 1917, letter to Roman Ingarden, at the tender age of twenty-five, five years prior to her conversion to the Catholic faith, Stein writes: “I find that many people will cut corners (to totally avoid the religious experience) though it is impossible to conclude a teaching on person without going into the God question, and it is impossible to understand history . . . It is the question that interests me.”3 Emerging from her atheistic slumber, Stein refused to close herself off to the fullness of human experience and reflection. She confessed that personhood is bound to the question of God: the enigma of human personhood is rooted in the mystery of the personal God. History’s meaningfulness prevails as long as it is interpreted according to its golden thread, the unifying logos, in which remembrance and parousia are joined as one. Future hope depends on the past redeemed. Today, more than ever, we must conduct a renewed project in theological anthropology in order to ascertain the truth and meaning of what it is to be human. This task takes place at the intersection of philosophy and theology, for it is these disciplines that are able to marshal the most fundamental
levels of questioning in a holistic way. If a young person’s education, for instance, is deprived of the disciplines of philosophy and theology, s/he will develop a distorted understanding of human personhood and will attempt to find meaning in life with the most fertile sources of meaning vacant to the mind. Therefore it is necessary to continue to recapitulate the sources of theological anthropology by using the most up-to-date methods and structures of thought.4
This book seeks to present a holistic theological anthropology for today by elucidating the work of Edith Stein. She thought through the layers of what it is to be human in an exhaustive way, and her written works are an ample testament to the intellectual heights to which she soared. Her two great works, Potency and Act (completed in 1931 but first published in German in 1998) and Finite and Eternal Being (completed in 1937 but first published in German in 1950), especially probe the wonder and mystery of human being in relation to divine being. Stein combines two methods in particular within her work: phenomenology and metaphysics.5 These two methods remain the most essential for a study in theological anthropology. They open the vistas of truth-seeking in response to the question, what is it to be human? In radical dialectical tension, phenomenology and metaphysics work together to throw further light on the meaning of being, on the givenness of experience, and on the vocation to authentic ethical action.
Phenomenology intends to be a purely descriptive method of investigation. The main question it asks is, what gives? Yes, it’s as simple as that. It concentrates on the phenomenon that gives itself to human consciousness. Without determining the parameters of the phenomenon’s giving ahead of time, phenomenological perception awaits the arrival of whatever gives itself by bracketing out any presuppositions or inclinations that would set limits on what may give itself and how it may give itself. It intentionally brackets and sets aside the so-called “natural attitude” that “is indeed simultaneous with the practical person.”6 A solely pragmatic approach to life rules out mystery as a hindrance to practical goals (unless, of course, mystery sells). For phenomenology, however, it is the natural attitude that must be leveraged in order to behold the intrinsic mystery of life and the unexpected givenness of all that gives. Angela Ales Bello writes that “a phenomenological analysis can never be considered complete once and for all. We are pushed to start anew over and over again [immer wieder] in the attempt to find a definitive structure, even though the quest produces imperfect results. This entails approaches that come close to the phenomenon of the interiority of the human being, make evident valid aspects and structures
but never exhaust consciousness itself.”7 The nature of phenomenology is always open-ended and embarks on an infinite hermeneutic of that which gives itself to conscious perception.8 Phenomenology is never done describing. Phenomenology generates layers of interpretation encircling each and every experienced phenomenon. Neither phenomena nor consciousness ever is exhausted in phenomenology’s description of their interplay. Phenomenology, much further than psychology, is that discipline that is able to conduct a scientific investigation of the inner life of the person as it accesses and analyzes the abundance of meanings that go before and behind every experience.
Into the twenty-first century, Jean-Luc Marion (1946–), in his phenomenology of givenness, has extended in the most precise way the scope of phenomenology from the trajectory set by Edmund Husserl (1859–1938) (with whom Stein studied) and Martin Heidegger (1889–1976). Emmanuel Levinas (1906–95), who greatly influenced the work of Marion, is a key phenomenologist to understand also. He makes a compelling case to set ethics as first philosophy rather than privileging ontology or even givenness. Both Marion and Levinas are helpful figures to comprehend while studying the work of Stein in order to sort out retrospectively her use of the term givenness and her penchant for otherness, empathy and ethics. However, more directly influential for Stein were her teacher, Edmund Husserl, the father of phenomenology, and Thomas Aquinas (1225–74), the angelic metaphysician. Husserl and Aquinas leave the most significant impression on Stein and her original dialectical method of blending phenomenology and metaphysics.9
Metaphysics, for its part, examines that which is inherently necessary for all that is. It delves into the question of being by ordering the first principles for thought and the causal matrix of existence. For example, the first principle of theoretical reason is the principle of non-contradiction. Without this a priori gauge for reasoning, one thing could not be distinguished from another. Another first principle deals with causality: every effect has a prior cause. Without the coherence of causality there would be no science worthy of the name. In addition to establishing first principles for knowledge, metaphysics offers an arsenal of vocabulary to decipher accurately the meaning of being.10 Some examples of these terms are being, substance, accidents, essence/nature, genus, species, cause, matter, form, potency and act. The last two terms, potency and act, play a key role in the work of Stein. They serve as the foundational hermeneutic for inquiring into the meaning of being and into the truth and meaning of what it is
to be human. Such terms will be unpacked substantially throughout the course of this book.
It should be stated at the outset that Stein’s masterpieces in philosophical theology are rigorous and dense. It is a great feat just to read through one of them in its entirety. That is why I found it necessary to attempt to sift carefully through the works of Stein and put forth a summative analysis of her anatomical conception of the human being body, soul, and spirit. Much rumination on her texts, as well as on the secondary literature surrounding her texts, was required in order to synthesize the primary elements of her lifelong project in theological anthropology. In a 1928 letter to her Benedictine friend, Callista Kopf, Stein writes, “That it is possible to worship God by doing scholarly research is something I learned, actually, only when I was busy with [the translation of] St. Thomas [Aquinas’s Quaestiones de Veritate from Latin into German].”11 And this, too, I have experienced in doing scholarly research on the work of Edith Stein. It often happens that scholarship becomes a form of prayer and worship of God. It is impossible to study a scholar’s work without simultaneously becoming acquainted with the person behind the work. As many Stein scholars note, it is impossible to study Stein’s philosophical and theological works without becoming acquainted with the soul of the woman behind the words.12 With Potency and Act published as recently as 2009 in English, for instance, the time has come to apply the depth of Stein’s work urgently to twenty-first-century problems. Lately there has been a burgeoning of scholarship on the work of Stein, including several international societies devoted to studying her work, such as The International Association for the Study of the Philosophy of Edith Stein, founded in 2009. Through such organizations and the efforts to translate Stein’s work, her intellectual insights are becoming more and more accessible for scholars on an international scope. The aim of this project is to advance not only the intellectual genius of Stein, but to advance the cause of the dignity of the human person throughout the world for years to come.13
Among Stein’s notable works on theological anthropology, two books have yet to appear in English translation: Der Aufbau der menschlichen Person: Vorlesungen zur philosophischen Anthropologie (The structure of the human person: Lectures on philosophical anthropology) and Was ist der Mensch? Theologische Anthropologie (What is the human? Theological anthropology). Written in 1932–33 during the time she worked as a lecturer at the German Institute for Scientific Pedagogy in Münster, these two works focus their lens on understanding the essence of the human person for the sake of authentic human
education. The former text is, as its title indicates, an exclusively philosophical analysis of the human person, especially through the grammar of metaphysics.14 This work represents a project in philosophical anthropology primarily, and so is not informed by Church doctrines as is Stein’s culminating work, Finite and Eternal Being. Only eight pages that make up the final chapter, entitled “Pipeline from the Philosophical to the Theological Contemplation of the Human,” enter into explicit discussion with theology, minus the few pages that speak of eternal spiritual being as divine.
The latter text, Was ist der Mensch?, turns its attention to Catholic doctrine on the human person in order to illuminate more extensively the meaning of being human. It is an unfinished work and contains no less than 792 references, almost all taken from magisterial doctrinal formulations spanning the history of the Catholic Church. The text is comprised of Stein’s careful elucidation of ecclesial doctrine as it has accumulated and developed over the centuries. Much of the text consists of direct citations of papal and conciliar documents, as well as material from Plato, Augustine, Thomas, Bonaventure, and Duns Scotus. The work is Stein’s fervent attempt to piece together the meaning, nature and vocation of the human person as revealed through the incarnate Person of Christ and the truth about his identity as disclosed through Church teaching.15 In the foreword to Was ist der Mensch?, Stein writes that “this book aims to highlight the image of the human, as contained in our [Catholic] doctrine of faith. According to the scientific parlance of our day, one would tend to name it a dogmatic anthropology. The task has imposed itself upon me in my efforts to arrive at the foundation of education. That each educational science and educational work is guided by an idea of the human and decisively determined by it, no one will deny.”16 Stein found it essential to discover the nature of human personhood in order to form a solid pedagogical foundation. As one understands the nature of the human person, so one teaches accordingly. In other words, theological anthropology is the most fundamental task for education, even though it is a preliminary one. Within Stein’s view, the question of divine revelation and what it has to say to us is integral to understanding ourselves as human beings.17 Any anthropology that lacks inquiry into divinity and into potential sources of divine revelation will fall short of interpreting human being accurately and adequately.
Der Aufbau der menschlichen Person and Was ist der Mensch? deal explicitly with theological anthropology; however, in comparison with Stein’s capstone
work, Finite and Eternal Being, they are only preludes. This is why Human and Divine Being references the former works in passing but will concentrate its analysis on Finite and Eternal Being (completed in 1937), as well as Potency and Act (completed in 1931), as the two most mature and comprehensive works of Stein. Some Stein scholars within the international community focus their research on Stein’s early work, including On the Problem of Empathy (written in 1916), Philosophy of Psychology and the Humanities (written in 1918–19), and An Investigation Concerning the State (written in 1921). These scholars tend to specialize in philosophy (rather than theology) and narrow their phenomenological research strictly to Husserl and the Göttingen Circle, and maybe go as far as early Heidegger. This is early phenomenology and, indeed, an important epoch in the history of philosophy. However, the work of Stein cannot be categorized only as early phenomenology or only as philosophy. In her mature work, Stein can be seen opening explicitly more and more to theological horizons. In fact, in her September 22, 1921, letter to Roman Ingarden, in direct reference to Philosophy of Psychology and the Humanities and An Investigation Concerning the State, she writes, “I doubt that there will be any more communication with me about my works. They are from 1918 and 1919. As a matter of fact, there is hardly anything in them I want to change. They are to me about like the old skin a snake casts off. I really do not want to look at them again.”18 It is clear from Stein’s own words that she had moved on to something other than the concerns and scope of her early strictly philosophical works. Her philosophical knowledge was opening onto new vistas of theological and mystical knowledge.
Even though Der Aufbau der menschlichen Person and Was ist der Mensch? were composed a decade after her conversion to the Catholic faith in 1922, they must be situated as prolegomena to her mature opus, Finite and Eternal Being, which she wrote out of her state of intense prayerful contemplation as a Discalced Carmelite nun. What she says in Der Aufbau der menschlichen Person and in Was ist der Mensch?, she says in Finite and Eternal Being, but better. Furthermore, the phenomenological movement did not stop with Husserl or with early Heidegger. It has continued to evolve and to be informed by new and innovative voices such as those of Maurice Merleau-Ponty (1908–61), Emmanuel Levinas (1906–95), Michel Henry (1922–2002), Paul Ricoeur (1913–2005), Jacques Derrida (1930–2004), Jean-Luc Marion (1946–), JeanLouis Chrétien (1952–), et al. While this litany of more recent phenomenologists attests to the method’s pregnant evolution on the soil of France in particular,
these developments cannot be neglected in any discussion of phenomenology today. Yes, the danger of anachronism lingers in inviting such voices into conversation with Stein, but it is necessary to follow the progressive trajectory of phenomenology leading up to the present day and its effective application in the field of theology. Human and Divine Being situates Stein along this trajectory so as not to curtail the history of phenomenology or to suggest that the hermeneutic structures of Husserl alone constitute phenomenology. Stein certainly is to be grouped along with those recent phenomenologists known for their signature turn to theology and theological phenomena within their work.19
There is no question that Human and Divine Being engages in a serious polemic with the prevalent postmodern worldview, and accompanying ideologies, to be characterized as practical atheism born from material reductionism.20 Understanding existence this way reduces the human person to a random instance of atomic matter and energy that just so happens to recognize his own existence and search for his reason for being. This worldview has spawned some of the most tragic communist regimes in human history and continues to justify and reinforce systemic dehumanizing practices in economics, biotechnology, health care, and education. By disqualifying the possibility of divinity, this worldview at the same time disqualifies the possibility of collective human flourishing. It precipitates a dog-eat-dog world according to its “survival of the fittest” and “natural selection” mantras. It neglects the complete truth about human and divine being by obliterating the possibility of transcendence. It scoffs at any reference to the supernatural and insists that nature is a selfconstituting, self-contained, self-referential, self-replicating matrix of matter in motion, and that is all. Altogether, its godlessness is matched only by its eclipse of the human person.
Commenting on Stein’s Philosophy of Psychology and the Humanities, Angela Ales Bello writes that “in her polemic, especially with the positivist claim to outline a theory that gives all the conditions of possibility of a science in such a way that with the identification of a part of its structure we can proceed by extension to grasp the totality of future events, E. Stein hits upon different objectives.”21 The aforementioned worldview of practical atheism operates under the pretense that it is omniscient concerning all the conditions of not only its own possibilities, but concerning all the conditions of possibility in general and even those pertaining to the future. It commits the fatal flaw of granting that which is partial and provisional eternal status. It fails to recognize that possibility and open inquiry is what originally gave birth to all scientific
enterprises and thereby has “exchanged the truth of God for a lie and revered and worshiped the creature rather than the creator.”22 For God is the condition for the condition of possibility and the impossibility of impossibility. Along with Stein, Human and Divine Being advocates the truth about being that is clearly evident to the intellect because “ever since the creation of the world, [God’s] invisible attributes of eternal power and divinity have been able to be understood and perceived in what he has made.”23 Human and Divine Being attends to that which is in order to contemplate that which Is.
The title, Human and Divine Being, was chosen in reference to the title of Stein’s work Finite and Eternal Being. Human and Divine Being highlights the finite attributes of human being and the eternal attributes of divine being. Instead of offering an index of all being and beings, Human and Divine Being steers its attention toward human being in light of divine being. Most especially, it undertakes to recuperate the ontological veracity of the human soul in relation to the broader categories of spiritual being and material being.24 Stein’s work is determined to be the centrifugal center of this project in theological anthropology within today’s skeptical (if not cynical) postmodern context. Human and Divine Being intends to renew the mystery of human being and personhood as perceived along the backdrop of divine mystery.
This book is organized according to the primary themes of Stein’s oeuvre. Chapter 1 begins with a discussion of universal human vocation and the crucial potency-act hermeneutic that Stein develops to explain the makeup of human personhood. Chapter 2 describes the essence of spiritual being as the foundation of all being and the most fitting analogue for divine being. At the heart of the book are three chapters devoted to pedagogy on the human soul. The human soul is the locus of Stein’s entire literary corpus as well as the centerpiece of Carmelite spirituality.25 Comprehending the human soul is argued to be the most pressing task for theological anthropology today. If the human soul a concept found in all of the great religious traditions throughout the world is not taken seriously when asking what it is to be human, then we will end up with inhuman conclusions to our most decisive ethical questions. After establishing the fact of the human soul, the book turns to examine material being in relation to spiritual being, showing the contrast and complementarity between the two. The penultimate chapter is dedicated to Stein’s dissertation work on empathy. Empathy is a dynamically important concept for theological anthropology as it goes beyond the “whatness” of the individual human being by inquiring into the
intersubjectivity between persons. Finally, the book crescendoes with its last chapter dedicated to the logic of the cross as the most lucid pathway for understanding the transformation, or spiritualization, of being within the drama of cosmic redemption. It is argued that the science of the cross is the code that unlocks the enigmatic and paradoxical meaning of human being.
An observant reader may wonder why Emmanuel Levinas appears so often in a book dedicated to the work of Edith Stein. The reason is that I regard Stein and Levinas to be within the same genus of thought: theological anthropology oriented toward the ethical. Their shared Jewish heritage is ethical through and through. There is no question about this. Neither thinker elevates method, aesthetics, the question of being, or even the sense of the sacred, over and above solicitude for the other. Love and responsibility for the other is always the point. The fact that Heidegger does not figure prominently in either philosopher’s work is additional evidence that neither Stein nor Levinas was enthralled with the manifestation of Being (Sein) from an egocentric point of view. To the contrary, for both, the question of being is always at the service of care for the other who faces me. This point is virtually self-evident given the hagiography that surrounds both of them in the wake of their courageous lives. Moreover, this is the reason I insist on beginning this book with a consideration of human vocation as an entrée into ontology and not the other way around. To know the nature of human being is to heed the call to responsibility for the other. Empathy takes a back seat to this call according to the call’s radical alterity and its inability to be mastered or to be manipulated. This is why the chapter on empathy appears as penultimate in sequence. Had Stein lived twenty to forty years longer on this side of eternity, she would have become a Levinasian without a doubt. In fact, she lived “ethics as first philosophy” in her flesh, all the way until August 9, 1942.
The Second Vatican Council contends that “in reality it is only in the mystery of the Word made flesh that the mystery of humanity truly becomes clear.”26 Similarly, the source and inspiration for Stein’s project in theological anthropology is Jesus of Nazareth, Jesus the Christ. It is Jesus, above all, who reveals the true face of humanity to a world of human beings striving authentically to humanize one another. Without the enlightenment of Christ (explicitly or implicitly), the human person remains locked inside an opaque cell of agnosticism, subject to a host of ideological manipulations and unwarranted self-interests. True human freedom promotes the freedom of all persons the coexistence of freedoms that is won to the degree that human solidarity and
responsibility become the touchstone of daily behavior. Paul of Tarsus writes, “For freedom Christ set us free; so stand firm and do not submit again to the yoke of slavery” (Gal 5:1 NAB). It is Christ who has won freedom for all of humanity, liberating us from the bondage of ignorance, falsehood, sin and death. May this book, symbolically prepared on the Feast of the Exaltation of the Holy Cross, serve to promote the life, dignity and freedom of all human beings without exception or partiality.
Donald Lee Wallenfang, OCDS / Emmanuel Mary of the Cross Feast of the Exaltation of the Holy Cross
September 14, 2016
2 Though Stein eventually would take the religious name, Teresa Benedicta of the Cross, upon entering the Carmelite monastery in Cologne in 1933, she will be referred to as Edith Stein for the sake of consistency throughout this book.
3. Stein, Letters to Roman Ingarden, 49–50 (letter of February 20, 1917).
4. Even a project in philosophical anthropology, in the end, misses the mark without the inclusion of theology See Beckmann-Zöller, “Edith Stein’s Theory of the Person,” 61: “Philosophical anthropology is incomplete because it can only claim ontologically and theologically that the finite refers to the infinite.” This is to say that, without recourse to the idea of God the Infinite and divine revelation as a source for insight and knowledge, our various anthropologies remain only in effigy.
5. In Stein’s day, as Husserl’s new method of phenomenology was gaining a following rather rapidly, debates arose (in which Stein was embroiled at the time) around the question of whether phenomenology tended toward realism or idealism. Since such categories can be limiting by their reductionist and polemic character, suffice it to say that Stein’s brand of phenomenology moved toward the realist side of the debate. See, for example, Beckmann-Zöller, “Edith Stein’s Theory of the Person,” 55: “In order to gain knowledge about the individuality of the human being even about the difference between the sexes Stein uses the realist phenomenological method.” Also, see GerlFalkovitz’s introduction to Stein, Letters to Roman Ingarden, especially 13.
6. Stein, Letters to Roman Ingarden, 111 (letter of June 24, 1918).
7. Ales Bello, “Edmund Husserl and Edith Stein,” 148.
8. For the notion of an infinite hermeneutic, especially that associated with “saturated phenomena,” see Marion, Being Given, 211, 229: “Generalizing, I will say that it is fitting to admit phenomena of n + 1 horizons, as it was necessary to admit spaces of n + 1 dimensions whose properties saturate the imagination. Here bedazzlement paves the
way for an infinite hermeneutic . . . The plurality of horizons practically forbids constituting the historical event into one object and demands substituting an endless hermeneutic in time; the narration is doubled by a narration of the narrations. More: in this hermeneutic labor, the proliferation of horizons implies also the proliferation of the sciences used, as well as of the literary genres”; and Marion, In Excess, 126–27: “The face of the other person requires in this way an infinite hermeneutic, equivalent to the ‘progress toward the infinite’ of morality in Kant . . . The face of the other person compels me to believe in my own eternity, like a need of reason or, what comes back to the same thing, as the condition of its infinite hermeneutic.”
9. For a helpful work on understanding the similarities and differences between Husserl and Aquinas, see Stein’s creative imaginary dialogue between them, “Husserl and Aquinas: A Comparison,” in Stein, Knowledge and Faith, 1–63
10. Regarding the pointed difference between phenomenology and metaphysics as methods, see Stein’s remark to Roman Ingarden in her letter of August 1, 1923 <1922>, in Stein, Letters to Roman Ingarden, 201: “I am in reasonable agreement with you regarding what you write about the shortcomings of the phenomenological method. I notice something similar when I am occasionally with people who have training in Scholasticism. It has the precise, thoroughly formed set of concepts that we [phenomenologists] are missing. What we are missing, of course, is immediate contact with things, the breath of life for us, because our conceptual apparatus so easily closes us off to the acceptance of something new.”
11. Stein, Self-Portrait in Letters, 54.
12. See Ales Bello, Edith Stein, 5: “Every time I go to write about Edith Stein I feel torn between two opposing needs: to disseminate her thoughts and to have restraint to do so as not to violate the secret of her soul In fact, in telling the ‘story’ of this character it is not possible to separate the intellectual contribution from the existential and spiritual vicissitudes which accompany it” (“Ogni volta che mi accingo a scrivere su Edith Stein mi sento combattuta fra due opposte esigenze, quella di divulgare il suo pensiero e quella di avere ritegno a farlo per non violare il ‘segreto’ della sua anima. Infatti nel ‘raccontare’ questo personaggio non è possibile separare il contributo intellettuale dalla vicenda esistenziale e spirituale che l’accompagna”; translation my own); Baseheart, Person in the World, x, 30: speaking of the title of her own book, Baseheart writes, “The title, Person in the World, refers to Stein’s person and to her philosophy. Neither can be considered in isolation . . . [Stein’s] reading and philosophizing proceed beyond the natural attitude and the ‘givenness’ of primordial experience to phenomenological analyses of person and community Her investigations are scientific and holistic, embracing a study of human being in all its interconnections. They are directed toward revealing the person’s essential qualities of head and heart and the activities of thinking, feeling, and loving in the context of the universal and of the individual. In so doing, her own experience of persons and personhood and her own personality emerge in a way that gives access to abstract conclusions in a context of concrete human experience an important aim of
phenomenology”; MacIntyre, Edith Stein, 1: “What is important about philosophy is the way in which a life informed by the activities of philosophical enquiry and guided by its conclusions will be significantly different from the life of someone in other respects like the philosopher, but untouched by philosophy”; and in Stein’s own words: “At the moment, I face the decision of converting to Catholicism. I have not written to you about what led me to this. Actually, it is very difficult to say and I certainly cannot write about it. In any case, in recent years, I have lived very much more than I have philosophized. My works are all expressions of what has occupied me in life because the way I am now, I just have to reflect over it all” (Letters to Roman Ingarden, 192, letter of October 15, 1921).
13. As will be demonstrated through the course of this book, human dignity rests ultimately upon the fact that human beings are created in the imago Dei Tracing this foundational doctrine through the whole of Stein’s work will reinforce the etiology of value that itself is based on the fundamental value of human dignity emerging from a holistic theological anthropology. See Lebech, On the Problem of Human Dignity, 164: “That human dignity is a fundamental value founded on the real human being, hence means that the human being is valued not because of something else (e.g. some higher value), but because of itself, and in turn is the reason why many other things are valued.”
14. See Betschart, Unwiederholbares Gottessiegel, 200–201: “The Christian concept of the human in Aufbau der menschlichen Person is placed within a phenomenologicalmetaphysical perspective and goes as far as possible with natural cognitive abilities so that the mysteries of faith are considered only at the edge within the investigation” (“Das christliche Menschenbild im Aufbau der menschlichen Person wird in einer phänomenologisch-metaphysischen Perspektive und soweit als möglich mit natürlichen Erkenntnismitteln erarbeitet, so dass die Glaubensgeheimnisse nur am Rand in die Untersuchung eingehen”; translation my own).
15. See ibid., 222: in Was ist der Mensch?, Stein “presents the various statements of faith in this manner: The human is a creature of God, a unity of body and soul, in which the spiritual soul is the form of the human body (WIM 6)” (“präsentiert die verschiedenen Glaubensaussagen in dieser Hinsicht: Der Mensch ist ein Geschöpf Gottes, eine Einheit aus Leib und Seele, wobei die geistige Seele die Form des menschlichen Körpers sei (WIM 6)”; translation my own).
16. Stein, Was ist der Mensch?, 3 (“Dieses Buch hat zum Ziel, das Bild des Menschen herauszustellen, das in unserer Glaubenslehre enthalten ist. Nach dem wissenschaftlichen Sprachgebrauch unserer Tage würde man das, was beabsichtigt ist, eine dogmatische Anthropologie nennen Die Aufgabe hat sich mir bei meinen Bemühungen um eine Grundlegung der Pädagogik aufgedrängt Daß jede Erziehungswissenschaft und Erziehungsarbeit von einer Idee des Menschen geleitet und entscheidend bestimmt ist, wird niemand leugnen”; translation my own).
17. See Stein, Letters to Roman Ingarden, 196–97, 240, 269 (letters of December 13,
1921; November 28, 1926; and February 10, 1928, respectively): “What goes beyond the strict phenomenological sense is not so easy to accommodate. It is not just a design. We could call it speculation if we set aside bad memories and think of the original meaning of the word I believe that this is the entrance to metaphysical questions, and certainly each philosopher in his heart is, fundamentally, a metaphysician, either explicitly or implicitly. For the one, the metaphysics is clear; for the other, it is expressed between the lines. Each great philosopher has his own and does not claim that it has to be accessible to everyone. It is very closely related, and in a legitimate manner, to faith. What Mrs. Conrad sees can probably only be seen by someone who either stands completely in the Christian world or, if not standing directly in it, is convinced of its reality . . . My position on metaphysics is not what you suspect. That is, I believe we can only build a metaphysic on a philosophy that is as critical as it is possible to be critical, of course, also toward its own system and on a positive doctrine (that is, supported by revelation) . . . I am convinced not only according to religion but also according to philosophy there are things that lie beyond the limits of the natural possibility of knowledge Philosophy, understood as a science of pure, natural knowledge, as you without doubt conceive it, can just recognize this as its limits. However, then it is philosophically consistent to respect the limits and absurd to want to bring out something on the other side of the limits with purely philosophical means.”
18. Stein, Letters to Roman Ingarden, 191.
19. For more on the so-called theological turn in phenomenology, see Janicaud, Phenomenology and the “Theological Turn”.
20. For helpful treatments of the polemics between Christian faith and material reductionism, see McGrath, Passionate Intellect; McGrath, Why God Won’t Go Away; McGrath, Surprised by Meaning; McGrath, Twilight of Atheism; McGrath, Dawkins’ God; Cunningham, Darwin’s Pious Idea; Spitzer, New Proofs for the Existence of God; Barr, Modern Physics and Ancient Faith; Cavadini, “The Anatomy of Wonder.”
21. Ales Bello, Fenomenologia dell’essere umano, 114 (“In polemica soprattutto con la pretesa positivistica di delineare una teoria che dia tutte le condizioni di possibilità di una scienza in modo tale che dalla individuazione di una parte e della sua struttura si possa procedeere per estensione a cogliere la totalità degli avvenimenti futuri, E. Stein colpisce diversi obbiettivi”; translation my own).
22 Rom 1:25 (NAB)
23. Rom 1:20 (NAB).
24. In commenting on the human soul in her December 10, 1918, letter to Roman Ingarden, Stein writes, “Also, what you say about me is totally appropriate. Certainly I love reality but not reality per se. Rather, I love a quite definite reality, the human soul: of the individual and of the people What you call idealizing is perhaps more related to the fact that I am very indifferent to everything material and, therefore, I always run the risk of underestimating it. I love the ideal for its own sake for I am also strongly inclined to
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Mayor F. I. Sutton and J. E. Forrest, of Kingston, are out in quest of bear in the vicinity of Stonington Creek, and hope to bag one or more of the intruders.
Pushing Buttons President’s Job.
Pushing buttons is one of President Wilson’s jobs. Nothing of big national interest is properly “opened” except by the president. The latest request was for him to press a button at the White House officially opening the new Houston, Texas, ship canal. In a like manner the president the other day opened the new union passenger station at Kansas City, Mo.
The cost of clearing a line for one official flash, involving the suspension of service over thousands of miles of wire, and the attention of scores of men, is borne by any telegraph company over whose line it goes. There is a tacit understanding between the telegraph companies and the White House that the wire service will be free for all events of sufficient importance to merit the president’s attention.
The greatest button-pushing event in the history of the White House was the president’s flash which blew up the Gamboa Dike in the Panama Canal and allowed the water to enter the big ditch for the first time.
The next big event of this kind will be the opening of the Panama-Pacific Exposition, at San Francisco, next year.
Several days before the date of the official opening the telegraph offices at points along the route selected for the flash will be notified that at a certain hour, on a certain day, the president will open the exposition. About thirty minutes before the time set the Washington office will “cut in” a wire from the White House and attach it to one of a certain number of wires assigned for exclusive service between Washington and Chicago. It is the custom to rig two circuits out of Washington, to prevent possible accidents or mistakes that would delay the message.
Chicago is notified that wires, say No. 119 and No. 104, Washington and Chicago, will be used for the flash. During the full half hour prior to the sending of the flash these wires are kept absolutely clear of messages, except the signals of the wire chiefs, who are rigging the circuit. “Repeaters” are placed at frequent intervals along the route. The “repeaters” are simply instruments used to add further energy to the circuit at different points. They do not really repeat the president’s flash. The initial impulse given at Washington carries straight through to the coast.
When the Chicago office learns that Washington is using wires 119 and 104, these wires are promptly hooked up with other wires through to Omaha, Neb., or Ogden, Utah, and the word passes along the line. The
Ogden operator finishes the circuit and San Francisco is advised to make ready for the flash.
At precisely the time named the president steps to a button in the White House offices, gives it a push, and the exposition opens.
It is the special nature of the flash that wears on the nerves of the telegraph men. If a presidential message should go wrong, they would account it a big blot upon their records. As soon as the flash has gone through the circuit is dismantled and the telegraph traffic flows on.
Four-room Dwelling Hacked from Rock.
James Homer, of Inez, Ky., is building, or rather making, one of the strangest houses ever heard, told of in this section of the country. He has undertaken to pick and hack a four-room dwelling place out of a solid rock, which is seventy-five feet high and projects out of the mountainside some forty or fifty feet. Homer claims he will have it finished by 1916. He said, in a recent interview:
“Some people may think I am crazy, but I am perfectly sane. This is a vast undertaking, but I consider nothing is impossible to the man that has a will. ‘Where there’s a will there’s a way,’ you know.
“I think this will be an ideal home for my wife and four children, and when I have it finished I am going to give a house party, one that will be a surprise, indeed, to the people of Rockcastle Creek, for this will be the only house of the kind that I ever heard of, and probably the only one that any of my neighbors have ever seen.”
Gives His Life for Science.
G. R. Mines, a professor of physiology at McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, met death mysteriously in his laboratory at the university. Just what caused his death is not known, but Principal William Peterson believes Professor Mines, in the course of experiments upon himself in his chosen branch of physiology, dealing chiefly with the phenomena of the heart action and respiration, lost his life through the apparatus which was attached to his body getting out of order in some unknown manner.
Wireless an Aid to Science.
Actual difference in time between Washington, D. C., and Paris, France, has been established by the recent series of exchanges of wireless telegraph signals between the big naval wireless station at Arlington and the French government station at Eiffel Tower.
The results of the tests are hailed by scientists as a distinct step forward toward errorless calculation of time and distances. It is approximately 4,000 miles from Washington to Paris and the greatest distance over which previous tests of a like nature has been made was 600 miles.
England Training 1,250,000 Soldiers.
All England is talking of the stirring address which Lord Kitchener, the war secretary, made at the Lord Mayor’s banquet, in which he combined high praise for the army now in the field and appearing for war, with an appeal for further recruits to carry the arms of Britain to success.
Lord Kitchener said:
“The British empire is now fighting for its very existence. I want every citizen to understand this cardinal fact, for only from a clear conception of the vast importance of the issue at stake can there come that great national and moral impulse without which governments and war ministries and even armies and navies can do but little.
“We have numerous advantages of resources, men, and material, and that wonderful spirit of ours which has never understood the meaning of defeat. All these are great assets, but must be used judiciously and effectively.
“I have no complaint whatever to make about the response to my appeals for men. The progress of the military training of those already enlisted is remarkable, but I shall want more men and still more until the enemy is crushed. Armies cannot be called together as if with a magician’s wand. In the process of their formation there may have been discomforts and inconveniences in some cases—even downright suffering. I cannot promise that these conditions will wholly cease, but I can give you every assurance that they have already greatly diminished, and everything that administrative energy can do to bring them to an end assuredly will be done.
“The men who have come forward must remember that they are enduring for their country’s sake just as their comrades are in the shell-torn trenches. The introduction of elaborate destructive machinery with which our enemies had so amply and carefully supplied themselves has been the subject of much eulogy on the part of military critics, but it must be remembered that in the matter of preparation those who fix beforehand the date of war have a considerable advantage over their neighbors.
“So far as we are concerned, we are clearly open to no similar suspicion.
“Our losses in the trenches have been severe, but such casualties are far from deterring the British nation from seeing the matter through. They will act rather as an incentive to British manhood to prepare themselves to take the places of those who have fallen.”
In paying tribute to the leadership of Sir John French, commander of the British expeditionary force, and his generals, and to the high efficiency and courage of the army, the war minister said:
“I think that it has now been conceded that the British army has proved itself to be not so contemptible an engine of war as some were disposed to consider it.” He concluded:
“Although our thoughts are constantly directed toward the troops at the front and the great tasks they have in hand, it is well to remember that the enemy will have to reckon with the forces of the great Dominion, the vanguard of which we already have welcomed in this country, in the very fine body of men forming the contingents from Canada and Newfoundland, while from Australia, New Zealand, and other parts are coming in quick succession soldiers to fight for the imperial cause. And, besides all these, there are training in this country more than one and a quarter million of men eagerly waiting for a call to bear their part in the great struggle.”
Ridding Country of Cattle Plague.
How did the foot-and-mouth disease start its epidemic in America?
The answers to questions like this are always lost in mystery. But at the great Chicago stockyards, closed for the first time since 1865, the story is told that at Niles, Mich., where the plague first broke out a few weeks ago, there is a tannery which imports hides. It imported a sizable consignment of water buffalo hides, so the story runs, and imported them via Italy. They
came packed in Italian straw. They were unpacked and the straw carelessly thrown to one side.
A Polish farmer in the vicinity, with the sound thrift of the Old World, saw this straw, and inquired about its eventual use. He was told he could have it if he would haul it away. He hauled it. He fed it to his little herd of cattle.
But the cattle, instead of waxing fat and prospering, began to grow thin. They developed a fever. They put their heads down and began to lick their hoofs. The local veterinary authorities had their attention directed to the case. The government came in, and the foot-and-mouth disease was officially declared extant in the United States.
The foot-and-mouth disease, which has caused a quarantine on live stock in so many States, is violently contagious among animals. It is characterized by sensitive sores on the tongue, palate, and hoofs of the animals. The sores become red and raw within a very short time, and cause the disease to spread rapidly to other cattle. Government experts have declared that the only way to stamp out the disease is to destroy all animals affected.
In the world-famous Union stockyards of Chicago infected cattle were killed in great droves, regardless of value, and were buried in quicklime to prevent any possible spread of the disease. Similar methods have been followed by cattle raisers of States where the quarantine is in force. The work of cleaning up and disinfecting the Chicago stockyards progressed rapidly. The only sign of excitement coincident with the shutting down of the yards was a shotgun onslaught on the hundreds of thousands of pigeons ordered killed by the State and government authorities. They were doomed as disease-germ carriers. The work of driving the rats from the yards was started. Poison fumes were sprayed into the holes and crevices in the brick pavements in those pens in which the work of cleaning and disinfecting had been completed.
In all the vast acreage of cattle pens, ordinarily marked by tossing horns and eddies of sheep and swine, there was little life save where men handling the disinfecting machine waged battle against the germ of the costly malady. The twenty-five miles of streets and alleys within the inclosures were wintry in appearance, snow white with the lime spread over them.
The resumption of slaughtering at the Chicago yards will not mean the restoration of business to its normal volume because the business in stockers and feeders will be affected. Two of the greatest cattle-producing States, Illinois and Iowa, are under the government ban because of the presence of the foot-and-mouth contagion. When Delaware was put under quarantine it was the thirteenth State in the list. By special order of the United States department of agriculture, Canada was included in the quarantine area. No evidence of foot-and-mouth disease had been discovered in the Dominion, but it was learned that infected cars had been sent over the border and the order was issued to prevent their return.
The government authorities took steps to prevent the disease from getting a foothold in the ranges and grazing sections of the West. “The government will kill all infected animals,” said Secretary of Agriculture Houston. “It will stop all movement of infected cattle from infected areas, and will do everything to localize the epidemic.”
That the foot-and-mouth disease cannot be transmitted to human beings by eating the flesh of diseased animals, but can be contracted by drinking unboiled milk or butter made from the milk of an infected cow, is the statement made by doctors who have studied the disease.
Fate Calls Upon a Modern Valjean.
This is a story of a few sheets of legal cap paper faded and yellow with age, a modern Jean Valjean, whose quarter of a century of peace and industry may end in a black cloud of misery and death, and a passionate crime in which brother slays brother.
Unlike Victor Hugo’s celebrated character, this modern Valjean has not mounted the rostrum of justice to proclaim his guilt and true self before the wide world, but, to the contrary, the man accused refuses to acknowledge the alleged facts and criminating evidence that the hand of the law spreads before him.
Recently carpenters moving an old desk in the district attorney’s office in Pittsburgh, Pa., accidentally broke open a locker, from which tumbled a number of dusty papers. Among them were the verdict and minutes of a coroner’s inquest and an indictment for murder. The papers recalled the crime of almost a quarter of a century ago.
In 1892, Joseph Gantt and his brother Frank were ex-convicts. Both had served their time, reformed, gone to work, and were living with their parents in Pittsburgh.
On the day before the murder, just twenty-two years ago, Frank Gantt was picked up by the police on the strength of his former record.
At the dinner table the following night, Joseph accused Frank of returning to his old ways of crime and bringing more disgrace on their aged parents. The charge resulted in an argument. The table was upset as both men jumped to their feet. The lamp was dashed to the floor and the room was in darkness.
When lights were restored, Frank was dead on the floor from a knife wound and Joseph was gone.
The story was told at the coroner’s inquest. Sisters and brothers were brought before the grand jury, and an indictment was returned.
Then Fate smiled on the man who wished to reform, tucked the papers in an out-of-the-way corner of the district attorney’s desk, and left them a score of years until her smile faded.
When Assistant District Attorney John Dunn brought the papers to the office of the county detective department in Pittsburgh, Detective E. E. Clark was interrogating Miss Ethel Reese in regard to another case. The girl is not as old as the musty papers.
“Ever hear of Joe Gantt?” asked Dunn.
“Not that I remember,” replied the detective.
“I have,” spoke up the girl. “He’s my uncle. His name is Clark now, and he lives in Chicago. Why?”
“Oh, nothing,” said Dunn, as he walked out of the office, making notes on his cuff.
Dunn and Detective Edeburn came to Chicago. With the assistance of Captain Halpin, of the detective bureau, and two other Chicago detectives, they began to hunt for “Clark.” They located the man. His arrest followed. Then Miss Reese arrived in Chicago with Detective Clark.
“That’s Uncle Joe,” she said, when she confronted “Clark” in Captain Halpin’s office. “He came back to Pittsburgh to visit us last spring. Why is he arrested?”
“He is wanted for the murder of your Uncle Frank,” replied the captain. The girl fainted.
Meanwhile, the man—whether Clark, Gantt, or Ghent, as the Pittsburgh newspaper twenty-two years ago called him—is silent except to insist that he is Frank J. Clark and not Gantt. He refuses to recognize the girl.
During the last twenty-two years the man says he has lived “clean.” He worked all over the country. He served his country against Spain in ’98. He fought at Santiago as a member of the Fifth Mississippi Volunteers—known as “the Immunes,” because all the men in it were immune to tropical fevers.
Last of all, Gantt married and settled down in a little home at 2128 West Harrison Street. He has been working as a structural ironworker.
His wife is a deaf mute—the man himself is now approaching the sixtyyear mark—and the smile of the kindly Fate has faded.
Ocean-to-ocean Auto Travel.
With the exception of such slight improvements as may be made during the winter months, the principal transcontinental routes are now in approximately the shape they will be at the beginning of the heavy travel to the Pacific Coast Exposition early next year.
Late reports to the American Automobile Association from all quarters indicate that the road improvements on the principal cross-country lines during 1914 have been underestimated. This is particularly the case on the western end of the “Northwest Trail.”
The cities, counties, and towns on the line of the Lincoln Highway in the Far West have also made very great improvements. The “All-Southern Route” as a whole has been greatly improved during 1914, and will not present very serious difficulties to tourists who decide to go leisurely across that way in 1915.
Maps and specific information can be had by addressing A. A. A. headquarters, Riggs Building, Washington, D. C.
Indian Waif-king to Assemble Tribe.
He is king of the remnant of a great race now scattered to the winds— David Seattle, of the Snohomish tribe. Lean as a wolf was the king, and
footsore with far travels, when he entered the office of the Seattle Star, asking that paper to help him in locating his widely dispersed tribesfolk.
Until a few moons ago he did not know he was king, this stolid Indian lad, who had been placed in St. Joseph’s School, in Tacoma, when a baby. He did not remember when he came or who brought him there. On the register he is simply “David Seattle.” No hint of royal inheritance appeared to mar his democratic playing and boyish quarreling with school companions. Assertions of kinship would only have served to call down upon him the wrath of his playmates, and who were certain that royalty rode on magnificent chargers and was heralded with blaring trumpets.
Charlie David Seattle, only living son of Chief Seattle I., waits for death. He is very old, and his work is done.
There came to him not long ago in Snohomish an Indian of another tribe. “I met one of your people in Seattle,” he confided. “His name is like yours —David Seattle.”
The old man, strangely excited, came to the city and found David.
“Where,” he asked, “were you born? And who was your father?”
“I do not know,” said the young Indian. “I was put in St. Joseph’s School when a baby.” And he told the old patriarch all he knew, which was little enough, though it served.
“It was I who put you there,” said Charlie David Seattle. “Your father was dead some time before. I took you from your dead mother’s arms. You are the oldest son of the oldest son of Chief Seattle. You are the head of the Snohomish people.”
It was thus plain David Seattle learned he was a king.
Chief David Seattle has been visiting as many of his people as he has been able to locate. Sometimes he bought railroad tickets. At other times he stole rides on freight trains. And often he walked. He went to Oregon, wandering east of the Cascades, journeying to remote corners of the Olympic Peninsula. Finally he reached the northern end of British Columbia. Wherever he heard of Snohomish Indians there he went.
“There are,” he said, “two thousand three hundred of my people left. Of these I have visited two thousand. They were glad to see me.”
That is why he appealed to the white man’s newspaper—to help him find the other three hundred.
The Nick Carter Stories
ISSUED EVERY SATURDAY BEAUTIFUL COLORED COVERS
When it comes to detective stories worth while, the Nick Carter Stories contain the only ones that should be considered. They are not overdrawn tales of bloodshed. They rather show the working of one of the finest minds ever conceived by a writer. The name of Nick Carter is familiar all over the world, for the stories of his adventures may be read in twenty languages. No other stories have withstood the severe test of time so well as those contained in the Nick Carter Stories. It proves conclusively that they are the best. We give herewith a list of some of the back numbers in print. You can have your news dealer order them, or they will be sent direct by the publishers to any address upon receipt of the price in money or postage stamps.
692—Doctor Quartz Again.
693—The Famous Case of Doctor Quartz.
694—The Chemical Clue.
695—The Prison Cipher.
696—A Pupil of Doctor Quartz.
697—The Midnight Visitor.
698—The Master Crook’s Match.
699—The Man Who Vanished.
700—The Garnet Gauntlet.
701—The Silver Hair Mystery.
702—The Cloak of Guilt.
703—A Battle for a Million.
704—Written in Red.
707—Rogues of the Air.
709—The Bolt from the Blue.
710—The Stockbridge Affair.
711—A Secret from the Past.
712—Playing the Last Hand.
713—A Slick Article.
714—The Taxicab Riddle.
715—The Knife Thrower.
717—The Master Rogue’s Alibi.
719—The Dead Letter.
720—The Allerton Millions.
728—The Mummy’s Head.
729—The Statue Clue.
730—The Torn Card.
731—Under Desperation’s Spur.
732—The Connecting Link.
733—The Abduction Syndicate.
736—The Toils of a Siren.
737—The Mark of a Circle.
738—A Plot Within a Plot.
739—The Dead Accomplice.
741—The Green Scarab.
743—A Shot in the Dark.
746—The Secret Entrance.
747—The Cavern Mystery.
748—The Disappearing Fortune.
749—A Voice from the Past.
752—The Spider’s Web.
753—The Man With a Crutch.
754—The Rajah’s Regalia.
755—Saved from Death.
756—The Man Inside.
757—Out for Vengeance.
758—The Poisons of Exili.
759—The Antique Vial.
760—The House of Slumber.
761—A Double Identity.
762—“The Mocker’s” Stratagem.
763—The Man that Came Back.
764—The Tracks in the Snow.
765—The Babbington Case.
766—The Masters of Millions.
767—The Blue Stain.
768—The Lost Clew.
770—The Turn of a Card.
771—A Message in the Dust.
772—A Royal Flush.
774—The Great Buddha Beryl.
775—The Vanishing Heiress.
776—The Unfinished Letter.
777—A Difficult Trail.
778—A Six-word Puzzle.
782—A Woman’s Stratagem.
783—The Cliff Castle Affair.
784—A Prisoner of the Tomb.
785—A Resourceful Foe.
786—The Heir of Dr. Quartz.
787—Dr. Quartz, the Second.
789—The Great Hotel Tragedies.
790—Zanoni, the Witch.
791—A Vengeful Sorceress.
794—Doctor Quartz’s Last Play.
795—Zanoni, the Transfigured.
796—The Lure of Gold.
797—The Man With a Chest.
798—A Shadowed Life.
799—The Secret Agent.
800—A Plot for a Crown.
801—The Red Button.
802—Up Against It.
803—The Gold Certificate.
804—Jack Wise’s Hurry Call.
805—Nick Carter’s Ocean Chase.
806—Nick Carter and the Broken Dagger.
807—Nick Carter’s Advertisement.
808—The Kregoff Necklace.
809—The Footprints on the Rug.
810—The Copper Cylinder.
811—Nick Carter and the Nihilists.
812—Nick Carter and the Convict Gang.
813—Nick Carter and the Guilty Governor.
814—The Triangled Coin.
815—Ninety-nine—and One.
816—Coin Number 77.
817—In the Canadian Wilds.
818—The Niagara Smugglers.
819—The Man Hunt.
NEW SERIES
NICK CARTER STORIES
1—The Man from Nowhere.
2—The Face at the Window.
3—A Fight for a Million.
4—Nick Carter’s Land Office.
5—Nick Carter and the Professor.
6—Nick Carter as a Mill Hand.
7—A Single Clew.
8—The Emerald Snake.
9—The Currie Outfit.
10—Nick Carter and the Kidnapped Heiress.
11—Nick Carter Strikes Oil.
12—Nick Carter’s Hunt for a Treasure.
13—A Mystery of the Highway.
14—The Silent Passenger.
15—Jack Dreen’s Secret.
16—Nick Carter’s Pipe Line Case.
17—Nick Carter and the Gold Thieves.
18—Nick Carter’s Auto Chase.
19—The Corrigan Inheritance.
20—The Keen Eye of Denton.
21—The Spider’s Parlor.
22—Nick Carter’s Quick Guess.
23—Nick Carter and the Murderess.
24—Nick Carter and the Pay Car.
25—The Stolen Antique.
26—The Crook League.
27—An English Cracksman.
28—Nick Carter’s Still Hunt.
29—Nick Carter’s Electric Shock.
30—Nick Carter and the Stolen Duchess.
31—The Purple Spot.
32—The Stolen Groom.
33—The Inverted Cross.
34—Nick Carter and Keno McCall.
35—Nick Carter’s Death Trap.
36—Nick Carter’s Siamese Puzzle.
37—The Man Outside.
38—The Death Chamber.
39—The Wind and the Wire.
40—Nick Carter’s Three Cornered Chase.
41—Dazaar, the Arch-Fiend.
42—The Queen of the Seven.
43—Crossed Wires.
44—A Crimson Clew.
45—The Third Man.
46—The Sign of the Dagger.
47—The Devil Worshipers.
48—The Cross of Daggers.
49—At Risk of Life.
50—The Deeper Game.
51—The Code Message.
52—The Last of the Seven.
53—Ten-Ichi, the Wonderful.
54—The Secret Order of Associated Crooks.
55—The Golden Hair Clew.
56—Back From the Dead.
57—Through Dark Ways.
58—When Aces Were Trumps.
59—The Gambler’s Last Hand.
60—The Murder at Linden Fells.
61—A Game for Millions.
62—Under Cover.
63—The Last Call.
64—Mercedes Danton’s Double.
65—The Millionaire’s Nemesis.
66—A Princess of the Underworld.
67—The Crook’s Blind.
68—The Fatal Hour.
69—Blood Money.
70—A Queen of Her Kind.
71—Isabel Benton’s Trump Card.
72—A Princess of Hades.
73—A Prince of Plotters.
74—The Crook’s Double.
75—For Life and Honor.
76—A Compact With Dazaar.
77—In the Shadow of Dazaar.
78—The Crime of a Money King.
79—Birds of Prey.
80—The Unknown Dead.
81—The Severed Hand.
82—The Terrible Game of Millions.
83—A Dead Man’s Power.
84—The Secrets of an Old House.
85—The Wolf Within.
86—The Yellow Coupon.
87—In the Toils.
88—The Stolen Radium.
89—A Crime in Paradise.
90—Behind Prison Bars.
91—The Blind Man’s Daughter.
92—On the Brink of Ruin.
93—Letter of Fire.
94—The $100,000 Kiss.
95—Outlaws of the Militia.
96—The Opium-Runners.
97—In Record Time.
98—The Wag-Nuk Clew.
99—The Middle Link.
100—The Crystal Maze.
101—A New Serpent in Eden.
102—The Auburn Sensation.
103—A Dying Chance.
104—The Gargoni Girdle.
105—Twice in Jeopardy.
106—The Ghost Launch.
107—Up in the Air.
108—The Girl Prisoner.
109—The Red Plague.
110—The Arson Trust.
111—The King of the Firebugs.
112—“Lifter’s” of the Lofts.
113—French Jimmie and His Forty Thieves.
114—The Death Plot.
115—The Evil Formula.
116—The Blue Button.
Dated December 5th, 1914.
117—The Deadly Parallel.
Dated December 12th, 1914.
118—The Vivisectionists.
Dated December 19th, 1914.
119—The Stolen Brain.
Dated December 26th, 1914.
120—An Uncanny Revenge.
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STREET & SMITH, Publishers, 79-89 Seventh Ave., NEW YORK CITY
*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK NICK CARTER STORIES NO. 121, JANUARY 2, 1915: THE CALL OF DEATH; OR, NICK
CARTER'S CLEVER ASSISTANT
***
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