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THE RISE OF BIG GOVERNMENT

Americans tend to believe that their country is very different from Europe. Yet over the past half century they have imported and embraced the most transformative social idea of modern Scandinavia: egalitarianism. Today, the United States is more like Sweden than it is different, dedicated to economic redistribution and to vigorously defending its big government. What price, morally and economically, are today’s Americans willing to pay to preserve their egalitarian welfare state? Are they willing to turn life into a fiscal cost item? Will they sacrifice their children’s future prosperity to defend their entitlements?

The Rise of Big Government: How Egalitarianism Conquered America pursues the answer to these questions by going back to the ideological origins of the modern, egalitarian welfare state. Specifically, the book asks why this idea has been able to set such deep roots in the United States, a country that is often perceived as fundamentally different when it comes to the role of government in the economy. It is shown that there are more similarities than differences between the welfare state in the United States and its Swedish “template.”

This book is essential reading for anyone interested in understanding how the egalitarian ideology conquered the United States, and who seeks to gain a deeper understanding of its strength, its resiliency, and the problems it faces in the future.

Sven R. Larson is an American political economist and policy analyst. His research, which is published in peer-review journals and by free-market think tanks, covers fiscal policy, the welfare state and the application of economic freedom. He is the author of Industrial Poverty (Gower, 2014) about the role of the welfare state in the European economic crisis.

Economics in the Real World

For a full list of titles in this ser ies, please visit www routledge com/Economics-in-the-Real-World/book-ser ies/ERW

1 Education Is Not an App

The Future of Univer sity Teaching in the Inter net Age

Jonathan A. Por itz, Jonathan Rees

2 The Pr ivileges of Wealth

Rising Inequality and the Growing Racial Divide

Rober t B Williams

3 Neuroliberalism

Behavioural Gover nment in the Twenty Fir st Centur y

Mark Whitehead, Rhys Jones, Rac hel Lilley, Jessica Pykett, and Rac hel Howell

4 The Rise of Big Gover nment

How Egalitar ianism Conquered Amer ica

Sven R. Larson

THE RISE OF BIG GOVERNMENT

How Egalitarianism Conquered America

Fir st published 2018 by Routledge

2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN

and by Routledge 711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017

Routledge is an impr int of the Taylor & Francis Group, an infor ma business

© 2018 Sven R Lar son

The r ight of Sven R. Lar son to be identified as author of this work has been asser ted by him in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyr ight, Designs and Patents Act 1988

All r ights reser ved No par t of this book may be repr inted or reproduced or utilised in any for m or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any infor mation storage or retr ieval system, without per mission in wr iting from the publisher s

Trademark notice: Product or cor porate names may be trademarks or reg istered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infr inge

Br itish Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the Br itish Librar y

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Lar son, Sven R , 1965- author

Title: The r ise of big gover nment : how egalitar ianism conquered Amer ica / Sven R Lar son

Descr iption: Fir st Edition. | New York : Routledge, 2018. | Ser ies: Economics in the real world ; 4 | Includes bibliog raphical references and index

Identifier s: LCCN 2017020820 | ISBN 978-1-138-29698-5 (hardback) | ISBN 978-1-138-29699-2 (pbk ) | ISBN 978-1-315-09957-6 (ebook)

Subjects: LCSH: United States–Economic policy | United States–Social policy | Equality–United States | Fiscal policy–United States | Budget deficits–United States. | United States–Politics and gover nment–21st centur y

Classification: LCC HC106 84 L37 2018 | DDC 330 973–dc23 LC record available at https://lccn loc gov/2017020820

ISBN: 978-1-138-29698-5 (hbk)

ISBN: 978-1-138-29699-2 (pbk)

ISBN: 978-1-315-09957-6 (ebk)

Typeset in Bembo by FiSH Books Ltd, Enfield

To Chr istina, my dear wife, my best fr iend, and my one and only love

Income distr ibution has the for m of a pyramid with a broad basis and a nar rowing top. In a democracy with effective univer sal suffrage, this is one of the explanations why we are steadily proceeding in the direction of gover nment control and direction Even the conser vative and liberal par ties will have to become the vehicles for this development, or else disappear from the political scene

1958

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This book would not have been possible were it not for Swedish economist Sven Grassman. As a lowly underg raduate student major ing in economics, I found a tr ue mentor in him and his fearless quest to g ive economic research a pur pose To him, the dismal science was not just an eclectic exercise in math and cor relative statistics It was a method, a comprehensive toolkit, for making people’s lives better Sadly, he passed away 25 year s ago, long before I had lear ned to put his teachings to work. He would probably not ag ree with ever ything in this book – perhaps he would cr iticize most of it – but it is thanks to his example as an economist, as a public-policy scholar, and as a man of high moral stature, that I have been able to pur sue the research that laid the g roundwork for this book

I am also deeply indebted to James Galbraith, who was kind enough to review an early manuscr ipt of this book Cur rently the Lloyd Bentsen Chair in Gover nment and Business Relations at the Lyndon B Johnson School of Gover nment of the Univer sity of Texas, Austin, Galbraith is an author ity on the subject covered in this book. Anyone interested in economic redistr ibution, egalitar ianism and the welf are state must study Galbraith’s decades-long scholar ship

I am sure Galbraith will, as Grassman would, find reasons to cr iticize my arguments and conclusions There is nothing wrong with that A book like this one is not wr itten in pur suit of points of ag reement It is wr itten to add to an ongoing conver sation that hopefully, at some point, will influence public policy. Only an infor med, civilized and pur poseful conver sation can do that.

I would also like to thank Michael Tanner, Senior Fellow of the Cato Institute, whose prolific and tireless research continues to inspire me In the pur suit of the ideas that went into this book, I have also benefited from conver sations with Cynthia Lummis, Steve Moore, Dan Mitchell, Ronny Noren, and Eva Schliephake Fidalgo. I also g reatly appreciate comments on a paper I presented at the World Interdisciplinar y Network for Institutional Research in Boston in September 2016,

x Acknowledgments

and comments from an anonymous referee on another paper, published in December 2016 by the Jour nal of Gover nance and Regulation. Last but definitely not least, I want to thank my wife Chr istina, who is blessed with endless patience with my absent-mindedness

1 THE PROBLEM

In 2014, when I published Industr ial Pover ty, my ambition was to explain that the European economic cr isis was more complex, and more systemic in nature, than conventional economic wisdom would suggest I pointed to several macroeconomic f actor s that seemed to conspire in br ing ing the European economy to a halt My thesis was that this systemic stagnation had systemic causes, and that the welf are state was the main or ig in of those causes

In the three year s that have passed since then, Europe’s macroeconomic ailment has continued, with the perennial Greek cr isis as its masthead. My conclusions from then, namely that a large welf are state has negative systemic effects on the economy, have again been ver ified by a couple more year s of suppressed pr ivate consumption, anemic GDP g rowth and the redundancy of up to one fifth of the young workforce

As much as it is impor tant to under stand the economics of the stagnation in the European economy, it cannot explain why politicians would choose to continue policies that, from a dispassionate economic viewpoint, either do not work as intended or have outr ight destr uctive consequences Since it can be demonstrated that the welf are state plays a big role in creating Europe’s economic quagmire, the inescapable question is: why would elected officials in so many countr ies not take the appropr iate measures to roll back the welf are state?

This book is an attempt to answer that question, but not as a documentalist endeavor. The pur pose is not to present evidence of the actual line of thinking of individual politicians. The scope of this book is instead to show how the ideology behind the welf are state was tur ned into political practice, how it can conquer an economy – and how its inherent flaws, which brought about Europe’s economic stagnation, represent a genuine threat to the future of ever y nation that chooses to cling to the welf are state.

These problems do not only apply to Europe, but are highly relevant to the

2 The problem

United States as well. In f act, there is a prevailing opinion among Amer icans in general, and to a large deg ree among scholar s, policy exper ts and politicians, that Europe’s problems are ir relevant to the United States. After all, the argument often goes, we do not have a European welf are state

Yes, we do The Amer ican welf are state has much more in common with its European peer s than what sets them apar t In f act, the welf are state that emerged in the United States as a result of President Johnson’s War on Pover ty can trace its ideolog ical roots with direct lineage back to the Swedish welf are state, which is often – and r ightly so – held up as the most radical of them all. In both ideolog ical architecture, economic execution and macroeconomic effect, the Amer ican welf are state has more in common with the Swedish welf are state than it has with, e g , the Br itish one

The similar ities between the Swedish and Amer ican welf are states also mean that the ailments that character ize the for mer are highly relevant to – and to some deg ree already present in – the latter. Without a thorough under standing of the common ideolog ical roots between the two, it is extremely difficult to fully g rasp the nature, and the consequences of , those similar ities

It is easy to dismiss the shared egalitar ian roots of the Swedish and Amer ican welf are states as simple rhetor ic After all, in Januar y 2017 President Tr ump took office and immediately began working on a rollback of many policies from his predecessor. Under standably, a consensus emerged across political dividing lines that Amer ica was no longer heading down the welf are state downslope. Quite the contrar y: conser vatism was now back in charge In the dust of Hillar y Clinton’s loss, Democrats were shocked at how voter s continued to abandon them, adding a pivotal presidential election loss to the par ty’s decline in the states and Republican major ities in Cong ress

On the other side of the aisle, joyous Always-Tr umper s overcame their differences with Never-Tr umper s and shook hands. They quickly ag reed that with Cong ress behind him, the Donald is going to make Amer ica g reat again – whatever that means – and that the Tr ump presidency is going to be a conser vative victor y lap

Superficially, both sides were r ight Secretar y Clinton, openly committed to new entitlement prog rams and higher taxes, was no doubt a representative for a traditional prog ressive political agenda. From an equally superficial viewpoint, Mr. Tr ump comes across as a traditional conser vative, suggesting that the cheer s and jeer s from the November election were cor rect

However, when Tr ump is put in his proper context, his victor y is no longer the defeat of egalitar ianism, and it is cer tainly not the beg inning of the end of the Amer ican welf are state To the chag r in of Tr ump voter s, and to the reassurance of distraught Clinton and Sander s backer s, conser vatism is not back in charge. Donald Tr ump will not challenge the political victor ies that egalitar ians have scored since the War on Pover ty

The left, whether they call themselves liberals, prog ressives or social democrats, can rest assure that their ideolog ical common g round, also known as egalitar ianism,

will continue to define the Amer ican future, just as it has dominated the past several decades.

In shor t: egalitar ianism, the ideology that was impor ted to Amer ica from Sweden to create a platfor m for the War on Pover ty, will not go away any time soon On the contrar y, it will prevail; its political practice, the welf are state, will sur vive both the Tr ump presidency and the Republican Cong ressional major ity

Neither President Tr ump nor any influential member of the GOP in Cong ress has the ambition to substantially refor m the entitlement prog rams that consume more than two thirds of the federal budget. Social Secur ity, Medicare, Medicaid, TANF, SNAP, WIC, housing subsidies, and many more prog rams will continue to exist, dispense benefits and require tax dollar s to pay for them

If anything, Republicans in Cong ress will work with President Tr ump to tr y to make the welf are state more fiscally sustainable

Simply put: there is no ideolog ical challenge to the welf are state in Amer ican politics today, nor is there any challenge in the foreseeable future.

For this reason, it is fundamentally impor tant that Amer icans of all ideolog ical backg rounds put aside their f alse notions that this countr y is too different from Sweden, and Europe in general, to be immunized against the systemic ailments of the welf are state

Recognition of the cross-Atlantic similar ities comes with an assignment: to under stand in detail that if the welf are state is going to sur vive for the foreseeable future, its proponents must address its ser ious moral and macroeconomic challenges

The problems of the federal debt and the long-ter m dr ift toward macroeconomic stagnation are ser ious enough to jeopardize the welf are state’s future In addition, it f aces a shar p moral challenge from within itself , a challenge that has increasingly put the welf are state at odds with core values of our civilization.

There is limited under standing of these problems among conser vatives, pr imar ily the economic problems. So f ar, though, the left appear s unwilling to even recognize the existence of these problems, which begs two questions:

• If left unsolved, will the problems inherent to the welf are state g row ser ious enough to be the henchman of egalitar ianism itself? In other words: will the left pull the car pet out from under neath its own histor ic political victor y by simply looking the other way?

• If Amer ica’s egalitar ians are unwilling to step up to the plate and save the welf are state, is it not log ical to br ing the entire egalitar ian project to an end, roll back entitlements and retur n responsibilities for welf are, education, health care and income secur ity back to the pr ivate sector?

This book will not – and cannot – answer the fir st question. Only those who belong to the egalitar ian camp can do so What this book can do, though, is provide a detailed analysis of the systemic problems that are built into the welf are state In response, conser vatives and egalitar ians can choose to either apply sustainable

4 The problem

solutions to these problems, or they can organize a peaceful transition from the welf are state to a genuinely free-market economy with a state str ictly limited to its core functions.

Either of these two solutions is better than the alter native: a per iod of disorderly collapse of the welf are state, hurling us into social and economic tur moil where the future will, at best, be fundamentally uncer tain

2 WHERE IT ALL STARTED

The welf are state was not built over night It is the brainchild of a decades-long advance of egalitar ian ideas in Europe, from where it was impor ted to the United States The welf are state has fundamentally redesigned society and the economy, changed cultural and social values and affected the daily lives of almost ever y one of us.

Politically, the welf are state is the biggest victor y ever for the Amer ican left. It redistr ibutes tr illions of dollar s from the r ich to the poor, from the wealthy to the middle class On a daily basis, it tur ns the ideology and the values of egalitar ianism into economic reality In the shape of entitlements, taxes and regulations, it has fundamentally redrawn the architecture of Amer ica

Its presence in our society and our economy is so overwhelming, and so entrenched, that no Republican – not even a devout liber tar ian like Senator Rand Paul – utter s a word about doing away with the welf are state. No conser vative in Cong ress has proposed that the United States retur ns to a pre-egalitar ian era

Par t of the reason is, undoubtedly, that up to half of all Amer icans get some sor t of benefit from gover nment The benefits are often generous: in 35 states, tax-paid prog rams such as SNAP, WIC, TANF, Medicaid and housing subsidies make life so comfor table that it does not pay to take a minimum-wage job. 1

Another reason for the lack of challenge to the welf are state is its sheer size. Almost three quar ter s of federal expenditures are directly or indirectly used for entitlements In 2015, that meant $2 6 tr illion to health care, income secur ity, education, social ser vices, housing and other items for people who, gover nment said, were entitled to a higher standard of living than they could afford on their own Any refor ms to such an enor mous amount of gover nment spending would require a ver y hefty investment by member s of Cong ress and other s in crafting leg islation and endur ing the political battle that could cer tainly be expected.

6 Where it all started

There is also a third reason why conser vatives plead no contest on the welf are state. The ideolog ical pur pose of the welf are state is economic redistr ibution. Its goal, in tur n, is to reduce and eventually eliminate differences in standard of living between Amer icans This egalitar ian end goal has defined the welf are state since President Lyndon Johnson’s State of the Union speech declared the War on Pover ty

At the time, conser vatives were unprepared for – and under-educated on – the ideolog ical, economic and political force of egalitar ianism Frankly, they never saw what was coming and have never really caught up to a point where they have been able to forcefully, comprehensively and successfully produce a counter-alter native to egalitar ianism

The welf are state’s entrenched presence, sheer size and ideolog ical fer vor explain why President Johnson became the fir st tr uly egalitar ian president, but also why other s who have followed him in the Oval Office have allowed his egalitar ian project to continue. A case in point is conser vative icon Ronald Reagan, who as president was a bigger fr iend of the welf are state than most other s: on his watch, spending on economic redistr ibution increased by 6.7 percent per year.

President Bush Jr spearheaded the most radical expansion of Medicare in the histor y of the prog ram He did so with passionate suppor t from a Republican Cong ressional major ity

Over the decades, Republicans have successfully competed with Democrats over being the best stewards of the Amer ican welf are state. Like Democrats, Republicans defend Social Secur ity and Medicare; if they br ing up any cr iticism, it is concentrated in fiscal sustainability concer ns They take the same attitude to all the prog rams that were created under President Johnson’s War on Pover ty; tax cuts, a Republican staple, are never coupled with str uctural reductions in gover nment spending The only pur pose of those cuts, therefore, is to increase economic g rowth and thereby expand the tax base for the welf are state. A stronger economy helps per petuate entitlement funding.

Nothing will change with Donald Tr ump ’ s presidency. He and Cong ressional Republicans may twist and tweak prog rams, but overall they will keep and continue to fund the welf are state just like Cong ress and the executive branch have done uninter r uptedly since Lyndon Johnson’s Economic Oppor tunity Act became law in 1964.

Redefining the purpose of government

That year was a water shed mark in Amer ican political histor y Up until then, the share of federal spending that was focused on helping the poor had been guided by the economic, social and cultural her itage from the founding of the Republic Social policies were guided by, for lack of a better ter m, social conser vatism. That all changed with the 1964 Economic Oppor tunity Act, which marked the beg inning of a new era From that point on, social policies were guided not by pr inciples of limited gover nment, but by egalitar ianism The political spotlight tur ned from alleviation of pover ty to economic redistr ibution

The effects of this ideolog ical shift did not mater ialize abr uptly, but became g radually visible as the War on Pover ty expanded entitlement prog rams and reached broader layer s of the Amer ican people. To the left, it was a victor y of political g radualism that slowly but relentlessly gained univer sal acceptance

There was opposition to the egalitar ian project, but it g radually withered from the political mainstream 2 Over time, Republicans de f acto sur rendered – and egalitar ians won

However, their victor y is not one of moral, social or economic super ior ity. Their victor y was as much a case of ideolog ical over-reach, a case of not being careful enough about what to wish for, as it was a matter of conser vative f ailure to under stand the tr ue nature of the welf are state When cr iticizing the welf are state, and the War on Pover ty, they explicitly point to the rate of pover ty: since a larger share of the Amer ican population lives in pover ty today than when the War was declared in 1964, cr itics claim that the welf are state has f ailed. 3

This cr iticism would have been cor rect if pover ty reduction was the r ight metr ic for evaluating the egalitar ian political project. Yet egalitar ianism does not operate by those metr ics; the rate of pover ty is ir relevant What matter s to the egalitar ian is instead the reduction of economic differences between citizens; in its absolute for m, egalitar ianism is an argument for the complete eradication of any differences between citizens in ter ms of income, consumption and wealth.

These metr ics are to be taken literally. The idea that ever y man and woman should ear n the same amount of money, regardless of profession and perfor mance, is not just a theor y, but a guiding pr inciple for egalitar ian policy

As a political practice, egalitar ianism is ever y bit as radical as it may sound The pur suit of absolute egalitar ianism takes revolutionar y propor tions, eventually alter ing ever y aspect of our economic system, from the meaning of proper ty r ights to the pur pose of the free market.

In order to transfor m a society and its economy according to their pr inciples, egalitar ians build entitlement prog rams. At fir st appearance, these prog rams appear to be innocuous and ideolog ically har mless After all, they provide select g roups of needy citizens with cash or in-kind benefits Is it not what social conser vatives have always done, too?

The difference between egalitar ianism and social conser vatism is that the latter used pover ty alleviation as a means to preser ve and improve a society where individual income was – and should be – the result of individual effor t and pur suit of oppor tunity Therefore, entitlement prog rams are constr ucted to provide a passive safety net, available only as a last resor t for those to whom no other means of subsistence is available

Egalitar ianism, on the other hand, replaces the social conser vative’s absolute pover ty concept with a relative one. Pover ty is no longer a defined minimum of existence, but a life at a standard that is relative to the economic perfor mance of society as a whole The immediate, and transfor mative, consequence of this new pover ty definition is that entitlement prog rams now have a new pur pose Where their job was previously temporar y and contingent upon a population living at the

8 Where it all

subsistence level, they are now a per manent, integ ral par t of gover nment. In f act, under the relative pover ty concept they become more relevant as society g rows more prosperous: as median income r ises, so does the threshold for pover ty. With the increase in the pover ty threshold, the share of the population defined as poor will also increase – quite the contrar y effect from what one would see under the socially conser vative absolute-pover ty definition

This effect of the relative pover ty concept is no accident On the contrar y, the egalitar ian pover ty concept deliberately redefines the pur pose of gover nment spending: increasingly, fiscal policy dr ifts away from an economy with limited gover nment The main pur pose is now income redistr ibution; over time, all other policy goals take the back seat to redistr ibution

Taken together, the ideolog ical, institutional and policy elements of the welf are state constitute the egalitar ian project As intended, this project has redefined the social and economic organization of moder n industr ial societies. Its success lies in its entirety; conser vative cr itics remain fragmented in their cr iticism of the egalitar ian project, focusing on the er roneous metr ics of pover ty, on the volume of spending, or on the negative effects of high and prog ressive taxes needed to pay for the redistr ibutive welf are state

It is almost unheard of that conser vatives challenge egalitar ianism systemically Outside of ideolog ical challenges in Rober t Nozick’s stellar tradition, cr iticism of the egalitar ian project is predominantly concentrated on elements of the gover nment budget. 4

This does not mean conser vatives have been ineffective or without influence in the egalitar ian era They have made a considerable difference, especially in ter ms of tax policy Under the banner of supply-side economics, conser vatives led the charge against the extreme taxes that President Reagan inher ited from President Car ter. The tax cuts that Reagan signed into law boosted revenue by means of stronger g rowth;5 similar policies had similar effects – though in smaller propor tions – under the Bush Jr. administration.

However, the conser vative practice of supply-side economics has actually epitomized their sur render before the welf are state While the success of the tax refor ms has been claimed as evidence of the strength of free-market and supplyside economics, at no point did conser vatives use that success to challenge the egalitar ian project per se. In f act, the success of supply-side economics gave the welf are state new fiscal life; in its absence, the Amer ican welf are state would, already in the late 1980s, have f allen into the same economic problems that led several European countr ies down the road of auster ity and stagnation

The f act that the United States has avoided encounter s with European-style auster ity does not mean that we won’t have such encounter s in the future On the contrar y they are increasingly likely, pr imar ily because our welf are state is based on the same egalitar ian pr inciples that define Europe’s welf are states. The Amer ican and European welf are states differ in deg ree – not in kind – and in ter ms of the pace of advancement

The cross-Atlantic similar ities also mean that the problems f acing the Amer ican

welf are state are essentially similar to those that Europe’s welf are states have been dealing with in increments since the 1980s. These problems …

• A long-ter m decline in economic g rowth;

• Str uctural budget deficits; and

• Policies guided by ethical pr inciples that subordinate the individual to the interests of the collective;

are ser ious enough that, if left unaddressed, will destroy the ver y foundation upon which the welf are state is built In f act, with egalitar ianism as the prevailing ideology of our time, there is a for midable weight of responsibility on the shoulder s of egalitar ians to solve these problems – or else the welf are state’s ailments will eventually eradicate prosper ity from the Wester n world for the foreseeable future

By histor ic standards, these problems have surf aced relatively recently. The fir st 30–40 year s of the European welf are state’s evolution were not character ized by slow g rowth and chronic deficits. Those problems emerged, on a broad scale, dur ing or after the 1970s, yet it is not difficult to link them back to the welf are state itself

The same is tr ue for the welf are state’s increasingly ser ious ethical problems

In f act, the welf are state car r ies within itself the seeds of its own ailment. To see why, it is necessar y to review the histor ic advancement of egalitar ianism and its welf are-state practice.

Egalitarianism arrives in America

The founding of the Amer ican welf are state is a matter of dispute in the literature Some have placed its ideolog ical roots in the late nineteenth centur y,6 while other s locate it in the Franklin Roosevelt presidency. Falling into the latter categor y, Walter Trattner, for mer professor of histor y at the Univer sity of Wisconsin, points to the Social Secur ity Act of 1935 as a milestone in building the Amer ican welf are state 7 His account of the welf are state’s histor y is one of an evolutionar y process, from ancient ideas of char ity in Jewish and Chr istian theolog ical practice to gover nment-provided care for the poor in the early twentieth centur y.

However, Trattner distinguishes between two eras of welf are, separated by the line between the nineteenth and twentieth centur ies. He does this while character izing the Reagan presidency as an era of “ war on the welf are state ” To President Reagan, the 1800s was the “golden era ” of individualism, free enter pr ise and laissez-f aire (Trattner 1999, p 406):

This nostalg ic view of the past and obsession with self-sufficiency precluded the President from under standing not only the problems f aced by the victims of systemic oppression but the plight of millions of other s as well who were working but who could not suppor t themselves and their f amilies on their meager ear nings Where

10 Where it all

While it may be possible that President Reagan harbored deep animosity toward the welf are state (although Trattner does not provide any evidence) his fiscal policy sends a different message. Dur ing his White House tenure, Reagan signed budgets that expanded entitlement spending by, on average, 6 7 percent per year in cur rent pr ices

In other words, President Reagan did not rever se Amer ica’s trend of a g rowing welf are state The f act of the matter is that there has never been any such rever sal: the only changes that have taken place to the Amer ican welf are state is in the pace of its expansion. Overall, it is a continuing project with widespread suppor t in both liberal and conser vative circles.

The welf are state’s widespread suppor t would be easy to under stand if Trattner were cor rect in his argument that the welf are state is a long continuum of expanding gover nment His image is one of a centur ies-long trend of gover nment increasingly taking on more responsibilities for the poor, the destitute and the downtrodden. Over time, the caretaker role has expanded as the standard of living has increased and more resources have become available for redistr ibution.

If this continuum were tr ue, it would mean that statism would transcend ideolog ies, and the welf are state as it were known to Chancellor Bismarck in late nineteenth-centur y Pr ussia would differ only in size from the Swedish welf are state as it stood a centur y later

The problem is that this statist continuum does not exist. The welf are state that Bismarck pur sued was not the same welf are state that Swedish economist Gunnar Myrdal and his sociolog ist wife Alva envisioned in their 1934 book The Demographic Cr isis The welf are state that Lord Bever idge outlined in his repor t of 1946 to the Br itish Parliament was different in kind from the welf are state that spr ung from President Lyndon Johnson’s 1964 State of the Union speech

The f allacy in the centur ies-long lineage argument is that it does not distinguish between a welf are state built on conser vative pr inciples, and one that rests on an egalitar ian foundation. Bismarck, like Lord Bever idge and the author s of the English Elizabethan Pover ty Law of 1601, all had the ambition to alleviate suffer ing among the poor Similarly, the proliferation of unemployment insurance in the United States dur ing the Great Depression was motivated by compassionate conser vatism

By contrast, Mr and Mr s Myrdal, who in their book of 1934 outlined the architecture of the Swedish welf are state, sought not to alleviate pover ty but to establish a system of per manent economic redistr ibution. The goal was not to provide for a per son in case he fell into pover ty; the goal was to g ive working people, with steady jobs, steady income and a generally stable life, more money and more resources to spend than they made on working 8

President Johnson concur red He did not wage his War on Pover ty to alleviate pover ty, not even to eradicate it (even though that was his battle cr y), but to sever the ties between a man ’ s ear nings and his standard of living. If he ear ned “less,” he would be provided with more by gover nment; if he ear ned “ more, ” gover nment would take a dispropor tionate share of his income for the pur poses of redistr ibution

Behind the ambitions of the Myrdals and of President Johnson lay the ideolog ical pr inciple of egalitar ianism, the goal of which is to minimize – and in

Where it all started 11

its absolute for m eradicate – economic differences between any two randomly selected citizens. This is an inherent goal, desirable in itself to those who embrace egalitar ianism.

It is impor tant not to under-estimate the significance of a shift in welf are-state policy from its socially conser vative base to one of egalitar ianism Under social conser vatism, welf are prog rams – and thereby the size of gover nment – are naturally limited: the ambition with gover nment spending is to raise the absolute standard of living of the poor. The object of compar ison, in other words the metr ics for success of welf are policy, is whether or not the poor have more resources as a result of welf are policy, compared to how they would live otherwise

At no point does it matter to the social conser vative how the rest of the population is doing

By contrast, under egalitar ianism the absolute standard of living of the poor is ir relevant. Here, the metr ics of success for welf are policy is to what deg ree it reduces the difference in standard of living between the poor and the non-poor.

Put simply, yet accurately, the choice is between:

• The poor making $1 per day and the r ich making $2 per day; and

• The poor making $10 per day and the r ich making $40 per day,

social conser vatism endor ses the latter while egalitar ianism prescr ibes the for mer. By fundamentally rewr iting the pur pose of gover nment spending, egalitar ianism marks a new era for gover nment, and for our Wester n civilization Where the socially conser vative welf are state was a limited assignment, the moder n, egalitar ian welf are state is an open-ended commitment to g rowth in gover nment For the United States, that open-ended commitment began in 1964 when President Lyndon Johnson explained (emphasis added):9

Unfor tunately, many Amer icans live on the outskir ts of hope – some because of their pover ty, and some because of their color, and all too many because of both Our task is to help replace their despair with oppor tunity This administration today, here and now, declares unconditional war on poverty in Amer ica I urge this Cong ress and all Amer icans to join with me in that effor t … our joint Federal-local effor t must pur sue pover ty, pur sue it wherever it exists – in city slums and small towns, in sharecropper shacks or in mig rant worker camps, on Indian Reser vations, among whites as well as Neg roes, among the young as well as the aged, in the boom towns and in the depressed areas Our aim is not only to relieve the symptom of poverty, but to cure it and, above all, to prevent it

He also presented his policy ar senal:

• Special help to ver y under-developed areas such as Appalachia;

• Work prog rams for the young and “moder nized” unemployment benefits for adults;

12 Where it all started

• Big expansion of the food-stamp prog ram (today known as Supplemental Nutr itional Assistance Prog ram);

• A major expansion of the minimum-wage law;

• Federal money for schools in impover ished areas;

• An urban renewal prog ram aiming for “ a decent home for ever y Amer ican f amily”;

• More librar ies, hospitals and nur sing homes; and

• Health insurance for “ our older citizens financed by ever y worker and his employer under Social Secur ity … without cost to the Treasur y. ”

The last point gave us Medicare President Johnson also signed Medicaid into law, making both prog rams essential to the War on Pover ty

As these and other entitlement prog rams went into effect, federal spending began following a new path forward, namely that of economic redistr ibution. New metr ics were applied to the success of entitlement spending, metr ics that had nothing to do with the officially stated goal of eliminating pover ty.

Many cr itics of the War on Pover ty have yet to under stand that cr iticizing the War based on a trend in the pover ty rate is a moot point to egalitar ians Never theless, the following data is often used by conser vatives and other opponents of egalitar ianism:

Of all Americans Poverty trend

FIGURE 2.1 Percent of population at below 100 percent of FPL

Source: Census Bureau

Where it all started 13

James Bar tholomew, a Br itish wr iter and fellow of the Institute for Economic Aff air s and the Adam Smith Institute, uses this ver y trend in Amer ican pover ty to declare the War on Pover ty a f ailure.10

Other s have concur red:

• Rachel Sheffield, wr iting for the Daily Signal in Januar y 2016, held up built-in mechanisms in welf are prog rams, such as weak work requirements and strong mar r iage penalties, as reasons why the War has per petuated, not ended, pover ty.

• In a September 2014 commentar y for the Her itage Foundation, Rober t Rector pointed out that the sum of all welf are aid in the United States in 2013 was “five times what was needed to eliminate all pover ty” in the countr y

• In March 2014 Louis Woodhill, contr ibutor to the Forbes Magazine, declared the War on Pover ty a “catastrophe”

• In Apr il 2012 Michael Tanner estimated that nearly $1 tr illion is being spent ever y year on fighting pover ty in the United States, with no success in sight.

In 1998 The New York Times sent a repor ter to Appalachia, the reg ion specifically mentioned by President Johnson in the Declaration of War The Times descr ibed a reg ion that, in ter ms of socio-economic status, had barely changed at all since 1964

Not all cr itics of the War on Pover ty are as quick to declare it a f ailure. A more measured conclusion, reflecting the need for more complex metr ics than the pover ty rate, is presented in Cato Institute Senior Fellow Michael Tanner’s 2014 evaluation of the first 50 years of the War Tanner and his co-author, Cato Research Associate Charles Hughes, acknowledge that the War on Pover ty has indeed alleviated the mater ial depr ivations of life in pover ty However, they explain, the benefits from the War on Pover ty pr imar ily helped those who were already leading a socio-economically stable life, not those whose lives were burdened by other problems: 11

Moreover, other f actor s like the passage of the Civil Rights Act, the expansion of economic oppor tunities to Afr ican Amer icans and women, increased pr ivate char ity, and general economic g rowth may all have played a role in whatever pover ty reduction occur red

They conclude that “the prog rams [the War on Pover ty] spawned have long since reached a point of diminishing retur ns. ”

Under standing the War on Pover ty as an open-ended fiscal commitment helps explain the unending expansion of its entitlement prog rams The food-stamp prog ram is a good example, with significant increase in enrollment since the prog ram was refor med and placed under the Food and Consumer Ser vice in 1969 The agency is now known as the the Food and Nutr ition Ser vice and the foodstamp prog ram has been renamed the Supplemental Nutr itional Assistance Prog ram (SNAP) In 2015 it distr ibuted $74 billion wor th of benefits to 45 million people

A compar ison of SNAP enrollment and the pover ty rate reveals that the goal behind this prog ram is not ending pover ty, but economic redistr ibution:

14 Where it all started

FIGURE 2 2 Pover ty rate: SNAP enrollment rate

Source: Census Bureau; Depar tment of Ag r iculture, Food and Nutr ition Ser vice

Today, there are as many Amer icans on food stamps as there are Amer icans living in pover ty, yet the prog ram is alive and well

The same thing is tr ue for Medicaid In the 25 year s from 1989 to 2014 the number of poor Amer icans increased by 15.8 million. Dur ing the same time the enrollment in Medicaid increased by a stagger ing 40.9 million.

Less than half of that increase, 19 million to be exact, was due to President Obama’s Affordable Care Act But what is really interesting here is that ever y one of the four last presidents has signed budgets increasing Medicaid enrollment more than the increase in pover ty (see Figure 2 3)

The key to under standing the egalitar ian pur pose behind SNAP and Medicaid is in the definition of pover ty.

Relative poverty: the key to the egalitarian transformation of America

Histor ically, the United States relied on an absolute pover ty concept, which defines pover ty independently of the general standard of living in a society.12 Pr ior to the invention of the relative pover ty concept, federal welf are prog rams had been specifically designed to relieve absolute pover ty While those prog rams expanded

Where it all started 15 –8,000,000 –6,000,000 –4,000,000 –2,000,000 0 2,000,000 4,000,000 6,000,000 8,000,000 10,000,000 12,000,000 14,000,000 16,000,000 18,000,000 20,000,000 22,000,000 24,000,000 26,000,000 28,000,000 30,000,000

Enrollment change Medicaid Enrollment change SNAP Change in the number of poor

FIGURE 2 3 Change in pover ty and in medicaid and SNAP enrollment

Source: Census Bureau; USDA Food and Nutr ition Ser vice

radically in the wake of the Great Depression,13 the pur pose, and the definition of entitlements in the prog rams, were all intended to make an absolute level of pover ty as palatable as possible

So long as gover nment was concer ned with providing relief from absolute pover ty, its task was limited in ter ms of spending per poor per son. In a manner of speaking, ever y per son who met the absolute-pover ty measurement would be handed a basket of food, be g ranted subsistence shelter and a spar se supply of clothes He would be g ranted access to a minimum, life-saving supply of health care and whatever else he needed to sur vive

Regardless of one ’ s moral reaction to this concept, it impor tant to under stand its practical implications. By putting a limit on the commitment of gover nment resources, the absolute pover ty concept necessitates pr ivate char ities, whether affiliated with churches or entirely secular, and the rest of the volunteer community to provide the bulk of help to those in need

Because of its natural limitation of gover nment and its encouragement of pr ivate char ity, the absolute pover ty concept is compatible with both traditional, minimal-state liber tar ianism and socially compassionate conser vatism.

Egalitar ianism was the one ideology that the absolute pover ty concept was incompatible with Log ically, it was replaced with a concept that emphasized

Bush Sr.ClintonBush Jr.Obama

economic redistr ibution: in 1963, a new concept saw the light of day. Developed by Social Secur ity Administration economist Mollie Or shansky,14 the relative pover ty concept defines a per son as poor relative to the standard of living that other, better-off people enjoy

President Johnson’s working g roup that created the War on Pover ty were quick to pick up on Or shansky’s new, relative pover ty concept It is not clear whether their motivation was entirely ideolog ical, or if it appealed to them because it removed the cap on gover nment spending. The impor tant effect of the concept was that people’s status as entitled to gover nment money now depended on a simple percentage number : if the income threshold for pover ty is defined as 60 percent of median household income (the definition cur rently used by the European Union) then as median household income increases in actual dollar s, so does the pover ty threshold As the pover ty threshold r ises, gover nment must automatically spend more money on entitlements for the pur poses of economic redistr ibution.

Relative pover ty allows gover nment to guarantee that the differences between the incomes of the poor and the incomes of other s (or at least median-income households) will not change over time This is the egalitar ian essence in the relative definition of pover ty

B y l i n k i n g p ove r t y t o m e d i a n i n c o m e, P re s i d e n t Jo h n s o n ’ s E c o n o

i c Oppor tunity Act marked the establishment of egalitar ianism as the official ideology of the United States gover nment. Since then, egalitar ian thinking has guided the evolution of entitlement prog rams under the Amer ican welf are state The foodstamp prog ram is a good example In 1964, when President Johnson signed the Food Stamp Act to make the prog ram per manent, he also reconfigured the prog ram so that its benefits would no longer be absolute The basket of food that people could buy on food stamps evolved over time by means of the Cost of Living Adjustment (COLA) instr ument, which protects the purchasing power of food stamps against inflation.

Because of annual COLAs, the food-stamp budget remains in constant relation to the standard that an average-income f amily enjoys This keep-up-with-theJoneses effect of the relative-pover ty concept is reinforced by the income elig ibility requirements of the prog ram.

It has also been applied in entitlement prog rams created after the launch of the War on Pover ty. Among those, the largest and probably best known prog ram is the cash-redistr ibuting Ear ned Income Tax Credit Owing to its design, its entire pur pose is to redistr ibute income; as it does, though, it also comes to represent one of the deeply rooted, inherent problems that burden the welf are state and, ultimately, pose a threat to its long-ter m sur vival

The Earned Income Tax Credit

Simply put, the War on Pover ty marked the star t of the remaking of the United States from a free-market capitalist countr y to an egalitar ian welf are state It marked

Where it all started 17

the phase-out of an era with str ictly limited gover nment, individual liber ty, and unabr idged proper ty r ights. In its place emerged an era where the balance between proper ty r ights and entitlements was rever sed. Philosophically, the r ight of the entitled, which is tight under absolute pover ty, becomes open-ended under relative pover ty The economic equivalent of this is a shift from natural limitations of gover nment to an open-ended gover nment spending commitment

The philosophical shift manifests itself in a shift in the balance of r ights between the taxpayer and the entitlement consumer. Under absolute pover ty the taxpayer’s r ight to keep his money super sedes the r ight of the entitled to receive entitlements. Under relative pover ty the balance is altered, ranking the entitlement recipient’s r ight to his money above the r ight of the taxpayer not to par t with his money

Egalitar ianism is strongly reflected in the Ear ned Income Tax Credit (EITC), which is about a decade younger than Lyndon Johnson’s War on Pover ty Created in the 1970s, it is clearly the product of the same egalitar ian ideology as the War on Pover ty: its benefits var y between elig ible per sons depending on their income and f amily size. Just like the relative-pover ty concept, the EITC is redistr ibutive both in theor y and in practice It also demonstrates how egalitar ian thinking is not limited to entitlement prog rams, but also defines the design of the per sonal federal income tax system

Over time, the EITC has become one of the most impor tant entitlement prog rams in the federal budget. At $66.7 billion (2015), it costs almost as much as SNAP. 15 Its redistr ibutive effects are clearly visible, with the benefits var ying based on income and f amily size The largest credit anyone can qualify for is $6,242 per year, but par t of the real redistr ibutive effect on people’s income is in the amount of the credit relative to people’s incomes

In accordance with the pur pose of income redistr ibution, the EITC g ives more the less a per son ear ns. Below is how the tax credit changes the income of a f amily of four, mar r ied, filing jointly.16

For the lowest income g roups in Table 2.1, those making $20–$30,000 per year, the EITC is so big that they actually end up with more cash in their hand than their pre-tax income For the upper-income g roups, the EITC drops dramatically, leaving them with less money in their pockets than their pre-tax income.

TABLE 2 1 EITC impact

18 Where it all started

The EITC amplifies the redistr ibution effect already built into the federal per sonal income tax code. In 2013 households within the top 10 percent of incomes paid 69.8 percent of all per sonal federal income taxes.17 At the other end of the income ladder, 28 million Amer icans shared the $67 billion g iven out by the EITC As a result, they paid a minimum of federal income taxes, or none at all 18 In f act, as Table 2 1 shows, the EITC tur ns some people into negative taxpayer s as they get a bigger tax refund than the taxes they paid

The sole pur pose of the EITC is income redistr ibution, making it a perfect example of egalitar ianism in practice. At the same time, it also represents one of the problems that are built into the welf are state and egalitar ian political practice

Suppose the parent, in a f amily of four, ear ns $30,000 and is offered a promotion with a $5,000 raise As Table 2 1 shows, his adjusted income, in other words income after federal income taxes and the EITC they qualify for, increases by $3,197 The tax effect, $1,803, is 36 percent.

All other things being equal, if this couple made twice as much and got a $5,000 raise, their marg inal-income tax rate would only be 15 percent. To pay a marg inal tax higher than 36 percent they would, by 2016 tax rates, have to make $467,000

This effective marg inal income tax is high enough to discourage many beneficiar ies of the EITC from accepting a promotion or putting in extra hour s at work As more entitlement prog rams are added to the picture, the effective marg inal tax rate r ises rapidly, and with it, so does the threshold that discourages people from pur suing income-raising career moves.

Disincentives toward work-dr iven income improvements negatively affect labor supply, especially with higher skills and productivity This uncontrover sial f act should be open to discussion, not only among cr itics of the egalitar ian project but fir st and foremost among its proponents and defender s After all, a long-ter m trend of weak economic g rowth is like a slowly prog ressing venom to the welf are state; any f actor s that contr ibute to a slowdown in g rowth should be of g reat concer n to all egalitar ians.

That is not the case, though On the contrar y, disregard for the problems with slow economic g rowth is in f act widespread among the left A good example is Senator Ber nie Sander s, whose bid for the Democratic presidential ticket in 2016 catapulted him straight into the limelight of national politics. On more than one occasion he made himself the voice of the sur pr isingly well-received viewpoint that economic equality matter s more than economic g rowth.

Egalitar ians should think twice on this matter Concer n for economic g rowth is not just something that free-market economists like to talk about As the next chapter explains, prominent economists whose contr ibutions to the advancement of egalitar ianism have gone down in histor y, were well aware that the egalitar ian project – the welf are state – would not sur vive over time unless suppor ted by strong economic g rowth.

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— Sitä kenraali Löfbergkin sanoo. Mutta kaikki eivät ole yhtä voimakkaat luonteeltaan ja rohkeat kuin neiti Fährling.

— Ei siihen tarvita kuin hiukan hyvää tahtoa ja rakkautta. Mutta sitä ei jokaisella ole.

Hertta vaipui mietteihinsä. Olihan hänkin tuollaista työalaa haaveillut, eikä mikään olisi häntä lähtemästäkään estänyt. Ei kukaan häntä täällä tarvinnut eikä kaivannut. Ja kuitenkin hän epäröi, eikä voinut lopullista päätöstä tehdä. Puuttuiko häneltä ehkä rohkeutta, vai eikö hänen harrastuksensa asiaan olisi ollut todellinen?

— Te näytätte niin väsyneeltä, neiti Ek. Te olette liian ahkera ja innokas työssänne.

— En minä ole väsynyt. Harvoin olen tuntenut sellaista työintoa kuin nyt. Mutta tämä työ ei yksin tyydytä minua, vaikka nuo tunnit kenraali Löfbergin luona ovatkin minulle oikeita juhlahetkiä. Minä tahtoisin vieläkin tuntuvammin tarttua työhön.

— Mutta onhan teillä kotinnekin. Tarvitaanhan sielläkin teidän voimianne.

— Oi, älkää puhuko minulle kodistani. Minä olen siellä enemmän yksin kuin ulkona maailmassa, jossa ainakin joskus voi tavata ymmärtävän sielun.

— Ajatelkaa kotia, sanoi Hertta hetken kuluttua, — ilman mitään lämmittävää tunnetta, ilman äidin ohjaavaa kättä. Kun minä katselen noita nuoria tyttöjä, niin minun käy heitä niin äärettömän kateeksi.

Heille elämä aina hymyilee, jota vastoin minulle — mitä iloa minulla voisi olla — —

— Te olette katkera, neiti Ek. Ettekö usko että moni on saanut viettää vieläkin valottomampaa nuoruutta kuin te? On saanut taistella toimeentulonsa puolesta, ja saanut kärsiä hairahdusten vuoksi, joihin itse on ollut aivan syytön.

— Uskon sen kyllä. Mutta sen sijaan voi lohdutus olla kahta kalliimpi, kun sen vihdoin on saanut. Onhan esimerkiksi teilläkin Elli, joka pienellä kädellään poistaa kaikki teidän huolenne.

— Te olette niin ivallinen. Jos te tietäisitte mikä rakkaus on, niin te myös puhuisitte toisin.

— Rakkausko? Se on utukuva, jota kaikki ihmiset ajavat takaa, mutta saavutettuaan sen, se haihtuu heiltä käsiin.

— Te herätätte ihmetystäni, neiti Ek.

— Ihmetyttääkö se teitä, että nuorelta naiselta elämä jo on ehtinyt riistää kaikki unelmat? Uneksinhan minäkin kerran, mutta siitä on jo niin pitkä aika. Sanokaa itse, tohtori Hammar, mitä jää jäljelle, jos ihminen kadottaa kaiken sen, mikä hänelle on ollut kallista ja pyhää?

Ja juuri sen tähden, etten usko persoonalliseen onneen, tahtoisin saada jotain muuta, joka täyttäisi tyhjyyden omassa itsessäni, tahtoisin antaa ja uhrata jotain kansalleni.

— Mutta ilman rakkautta te ette voi mitään saada aikaan.

Soitto salissa oli la'annut. Useita nuoria tyttöjä astui huoneesen. Heidän poskensa hohtivat ja viuhkoillaan he löyhyttelivät itseään. He kerääntyivät Elsan ympärille ja hyväilivät häntä.

— Voi Elsa kulta, kuinka hieno hän on, ja kuinka hyvin hän tanssii. Luulisi ilmassa lentävänsä.

Elsa naurahti.

— Serkkuniko? No, tanssiihan hän.

— Ja sen sinä sanot noin välinpitämättömästi, vaikka hän on niin fiksu.

Elsa nojautui vallattomasti nojatuolin selkämystä vasten ja heilutteli kenkänsä kärkeä.

— Kuinka kaunis sinä olet, Elsa. Etkö todellakaan ole kähertänyt hiuksiasi? Sinullahan on oikea glooria otsasi ympärillä.

Elsa kohautti vain olkapäitään.

— Tiedättehän tytöt, etten käherrä, ääni oli hiukan kopea. — Ei, mennään takaisin saliin; nyt aloitamme masurkan.

Elsa kiiruhti masurkka-askelin toisten edellä saliin.

— Ettekö tahdo tulla tanssimaan, kysyi Antti Hertalta, joka oli jäänyt paikoilleen istumaan.

— Kiitos, ei minua haluta.

Antti läksi tyttöjen jäljessä salin ovelle ja jäi katsomaan toisten tanssia.

Elli tanssi luutnantti Tauben kanssa. Hän tanssi hyvin, se oli Antin myönnettävä ja jonkunlaisella mielihyvällä hän seurasi Ellin sulavia liikkeitä. Taube ei vaan ollut hänelle mieleen. Hänen katseensa oli

liian lämmin ja lähentelevä ja Ellikin silmäsi häneen niin kirkkaasti. Mutta Antti poisti nuo ajatukset heti paikalla, olihan Elli niin ystävällinen ja herttainen kaikille.

Niin, hän rakasti Elliä, tuota hentoa, suloista lasta, joka oli päivänpaistetta varten syntynyt. Hän tasoittaisi hänen tiensä, niin ettei hänen koskaan tarvitsisi mitään kärsiä, eikä tulla katkeraksi, niinkuin Hertta. Hertta parka! Hänen silmänsä olivat syvät ja surulliset, niiden katsetta ei helposti unohtanut. Mutta miksi hän oli katkera ja tyly ja miksi hän puhui niin ivallisesti Antin suhteesta Elliin? Olisiko hän huomannut sen, mitä Antti ei itsekkään käsittänyt, ei ajatellut, ainoastaan joskus hämärästi tunsi… Ei, hän oli vain niin hermostunut ja väsynyt tänä iltana. — — —

Luutnantti Taube vei Ellin sivuhuoneesen istumaan. Matala sohva oli suurien kasvien peitossa ja himmeä kattolamppu antoi huoneelle salaperäisen leiman. Luutnantti Taube kohotti viinilasia.

— Maljanne, neiti Elli, meidän uudistetun tuttavuutemme malja! Tiedättekö kuinka hyvin nuo kiharat teitä pukevat, teidän ei pidä koskaan niistä luopua.

Elli leikitteli viuhkallansa.

— Sanokaa, ettei se ole totta, mitä teistä kerrotaan, eihän se voi olla mahdollista, että te olisitte kihloissa! Ja kenenkä kanssa sitten? Vakavan kirjatoukan. Ei hän teille sovi.

Elli säpsähti. Hän oli kokonaan unohtanut Antin, hän ei ollut kertaakaan muistanut häntä koko iltana. Hän oli antanut itseään sokaista, tanssi oli noussut hänelle päähän ja viini kiihoitti hänen vertansa.

— Antakaa minun mennä. Elli nousi istualtaan. — Mitä muut sanoisivat jos he tietäisivät että olen kahden teidän kanssanne, erillään kaikista toisista.

— Eivät he sano mitään, pikku Elli, tehän olette kihloissa.

Elli riuhtaisi kätensä irti, jota luutnantti Taube koetti pidättää. — —

Budoarista kuului vilkasta keskustelua. Rouva Löfberg istui mukavassa korituolissa ja sohvassa, talon emännän rinnalla, rouva Illman. Senaattori Taube ja kenraali Löfberg juttelivat ikkunan ääressä.

— Tiesinhän minä sen edeltäpäin, sanoi rouva Illman kiihkeästi, heidän kanssaan ei koskaan tule toimeen. He tekeytyvät puolueettomiksi, mutta ovat itse asiassa punaisempia kuin koskaan ennen.

Rouva Illmanin kiihkeä ääni veti herrojen huomion puoleensa. He vetivät tuolinsa lähemmäksi rouvia ja kenraali Löfberg sanoi naureskellen:

— Luulenpa että rouvat ovat törmänneet yhteen. Onko sula sovinto rikottu?

— Minä en ainakaan enää tahdo olla heidän kanssansa tekemisissä, sanoi rouva Illman yhä kiihtyvällä äänellä.

Rouva Löfberg oli iltamatoimikuntaan pyytänyt muutamia ruotsinmielisiä naisia, hän oli toivonut voivansa panna toimeen iltaman, johon molemmat puolueet ottaisivat osaa. Mutta aie oli mennyt myttyyn. Jo ensi kokouksessa oli erimielisyyttä syntynyt ja

molemmat puolueet olivat pitäneet puoliansa. Olihan niitäkin, jotka olivat koettaneet sovittaa, mutta se ei onnistunut, kun riita lopulta muuttui persoonalliseksi. Rouva Tauben ehdoituksesta oli päätetty pitää kaksi iltamaa, kumpikin puolue eriksensä.

— Onhan se vain eduksi, puolusteli rouva Taube. — Tungos on siten vähempi ja tunnelma kodikkaampi. Se, joka haluaa, voi sitä paitsi ottaa osaa molempiin.

— Ihmeellistä se vaan on, ettemme voi sovinnossa elää, sanoi rouva Löfberg. — Eikö ole yhdentekevää, mitä esitetään milläkin kielellä, kun vaan molemmat pääsevät oikeuksiinsa.

— Onko se yhdentekevää, intoili rouva Illman, — jos koko ohjelma on ruotsinkielinen, paitsi mahdollisesti jotakuta suomalaista lausuntokappaletta. Niin, niin, minä tunnen nuo rouvat, suoraan sanoen, he halveksivat meitä ja meidän kieltämme.

Keskustelu kävi ruotsiksi niinkuin tavallisestikin suomenmielisten rouvain keskuudessa.

— Arvoisat rouvat ovat osittain itse syypäät tuohon halveksumiseen, sanoi kenraali Löfberg. — Jos te itse käyttäisitte kansan kieltä, niin voisitte myöskin vaatia, että muutkin pitäisivät sitä arvossa.

— Kun lapsuudestaan asti on tottunut käyttämään ruotsia, niin on niin vaikea luopua siitä tavasta, sanoi rouva Löfberg.

— Ei siihen tarvita kuin lujaa tahtoa ja rakkautta. Mutta oma mukavuus on aina jokaista lähinnä.

Rouvat näyttivät hiukan noloilta. Ei kukaan sanonut mitään.

Rouva Taube huomasi Hertan, joka oli pysähtynyt oven suuhun.

Hän viittasi hänet luoksensa ja puheli puoliääneen hänen kanssansa.

— Se on siis sovittu, hän sanoi, — sinä tulet minun kanssani tuon miehen luo. Hän näytti niin rehelliseltä. Tahtoisin mielelläni häntä auttaa.

Rouva Taube nousi ylös ja pyysi vieraitaan siirtymään ruokasaliin.

Senaattori Taube tarjosi käsivartensa rouva Löfbergille. Soitto salissa oli tauonnut. Leveät ovet, jotka yhdistivät salin ja ruokasalin yhdeksi huoneeksi, olivat avautuneet ja pöydältä loistivat sähkön kirkkaassa valossa korkeat kristallimaljakot ja kiiltävät hopeat.

V.Puoliyö oli jo kulunut, kun Hertta astui kotiinsa. Kotiportilla hän näki tulta isänsä ikkunasta. Isä oli siis vielä ylhäällä, ja jos hän ei erehtynyt, niin istui Väisänen hänen toverinansa pöydän toisessa päässä.

Hän koetti hiipiä huoneesensa niin hiljaa kuin mahdollista, mutta Väisänen kuuli eteisen oven avautuvan.

— Hertta neiti tulee kotiin, hän sanoi astuen eteiseen ja tarjosi kätensä tutunomaisesti. — Oliko hauska tanssiaisissa?

— Hertta, kuului kapteenin ääni.

Hertta astui sisään. Tupakan savusta huone oli aivan harmaana ja ilma tuntui painostavalta.

— Istuhan tänne, tyttöseni, me juuri puhelimme sinusta. Saitko paljon tanssia?

— En tanssinut yhtään.

— Merkillinen tyttö, kapteeni kääntyi Väisäsen puoleen, — ei häntä huvita mikään, mikä muita nuoria. Mitä jos lähettäisimme

hänet ulos maailmaan huvittelemaan?

Hertta, joka oli kuunnellut vain puolella korvalla, säpsähti äkkiä. Mistä tuo huolenpito nyt johtui, eihän isä ennen ollut kysellyt hänen huvejansa. Hän aikoi lähteä huoneesensa, mutta kapteeni pidätti häntä.

— Älä lähde, meillä on sinun kanssasi hiukan puhuttavaa. Olen ajatellut että saat uudella vuodella lähteä ulkomaille, herra Väisänen on ystävällisesti lupautunut matkatoveriksi. Voit lähteä Sveitsiin tai Pariisiin, minne mielemmin vain haluat.

Hertta katsoi yhä enenevällä hämmästyksellä isäänsä.

— En minä halua minnekään, en ainakaan ulkomaille. Ja herra Väisäsenkö seurassa?

— No, hyvä lapsi, mitä kummaa siinä on. Hän on minun läheinen ystäväni, ja hän lähtee sinne joka tapauksessa.

Väisänen oli koko ajan ollut ääneti, mutta terävillä silmillään hän seurasi pienintäkin ilmeen vivahdusta Hertan kasvoissa. Hän näytti niin itsetietoiselta ja varmalta omasta asiastansa.

Hertta ei tiennyt mitä sanoa.

— Isä, on jo niin myöhäistä, ja minua väsyttää. Voimmehan keskustella siitä toiste. Hyvää yötä.

Hän ojensi kätensä Väisäselle, joka tarttui kiihkeästi siihen ja suuteli sitä. Puna kohosi Hertan poskille, suun ympärille ilmaantui jäykkä piirre ja nyökäyttäen päätä isälleen hän poistui huoneesta.

— Sinä pysyt siis sanassasi, Väisänen, kysyi kapteeni Hertan mentyä.

— Pysyn tietenkin, sillä ehdolla kuin jo mainitsin. Koetan järjestää asiani toisella tavalla.

— Mutta jos Hertta ei suostu. Hän on niin omapäinen ja pakoittaa en voi.

— Siitä sinun on huoli pidettävä. Kyllä hän suostuu, jos oikein asian selität. Eihän hän voi tahtoa sinun perikatoasi.

Huonot ajat olivat vaikuttaneet kapteeninkin raha-asioihin. Hän oli kerännyt itselleen vähäisen omaisuuden ja asettuessaan kaupunkiin, hän oli ostanut itselleen talon. Väisäsen kehoituksesta hän oli hankkinut osakkeita "Vesa" yhtiössä, joka hyvänä raha-aikana oli perustettu halkojen vientiä varten Pietariin. Yritys oli ollut erittäin lupaava ja kapteeni oli ottanut suuremman lainankin, voidakseen lunastaa kaikki hänelle tarjona olleet osakkaat. Mutta huono aika oli tullut juuri silloin kun yhtiöstä toivottiin suuria osinkoja. Kapteeni oli pulassaan kääntynyt Väisäsen puoleen ja Väisänen oli hänelle lainannut rahoja, joskin korkealla korolla.

Väisänen oli jo edeltäpäin nähnyt mikä vaara kapteenia uhkasi. Mutta tuo rahapula oli hänelle vain mieleen. Hän toivoi itse siitä hyötyvänsä, hän halusi saada omaksensa kapteenin talon, joka asemansa puolesta oli aivan erinomainen. Mielikuvituksessaan hän oli jo nähnyt viisikerroksisen kivitalon kohoavan entisen sijalle ja kuvitellut itseään sen omistajana.

Hän oli tarjoutunut ostamaan taloa, kun kapteeni oli kireitä aikoja valitellut. Mutta kauppahinnasta he eivät voineet sopia. Silloin oli

Väisäsen mieleen juolahtanut toinen tuuma. Hän päätti naida Hertan, olihan hän sievä tyttö, joskin hiukan kopea, ja talon hän saisi aivan kaupantekijäisiksi. Samalla Hertta aukaisisi hänelle tien korkeampiin piireihin, ainoa mikä häneltä nykyisessä asemassaan vielä puuttui.

Ja saadakseen aikeensa onnistumaan, hän oli mielestään keksinyt erinomaisen keinon. Hän pyysi kapteenilta Herttaa vaimoksensa.

Hän sanoi rakastavansa häntä ja katselleensa häntä jo kauan.

Mutta kapteeni oli nauranut hänen aikeillensa, eikä ottanut niitä todeksi. Silloin Väisäsen kelloon tuli toinen ääni. Hän sanoi välttämättä tarvitsevansa rahoja ja pyysi kapteenin määrä-ajan kuluttua maksamaan hänelle velkansa takaisin.

Kapteenin epätoivo ja tuska ei liikuttanut Väisästä vähintäkään. Hän oli sen jo edeltäpäin arvannut, mutta hänellä oli valtit käsissänsä. Ja yhä julkeammaksi hän kävi vaatimuksessansa.

Kapteeni oli vihdoin luvannut puhua Hertan kanssa ja koettaa välittää asiaa. Tosin hän olisi toivonut Hertalle toisellaisen miehen, olihan Hertta saanut hyvän kasvatuksen, hän olisi kelvannut vaikka kuinka hienosukuiselle herralle. Mutta olihan Väisänenkin kelpo mies, kyllä hän vaimonsa jaksaisi elättää. Ja mitä kauemmin hän asiata tuumi, sitä edullisemmaksi se hänestä muuttui. Ja vihdoin hän tuli niin sokaistuksi, että hän mielestään ajatteli vain tyttärensä onnea päättäessään kehoittaa häntä suostumaan.

VI.

Oli kirkas ja kaunis aamupäivä. Rouva Taube istui reessä muhkeaan turkkiinsa kääriytyneenä. Hertta Ek oli hänen rinnallaan. Kulkuset kilisivät ja kepeästi reki kiiti katua pitkin.

He eivät vaihtaneet montakaan sanaa, he nauttivat vain raittiista ilmasta, joka tulvimalla tulvi heidän keuhkoihinsa.

Reen nopea kulku hiljeni heidän tullessaan pitkälle sillalle. Sillan molemmin puolin avautui sileä jääkenttä, toisella puolella pojat luistelivat, toisella jää oli vielä heikkoa ja sillan alla kulki virta mustana ja kahlehtimatta. Kaupungin vanhalta tullilta he kääntyivät oikeanpuoliselle viertotielle, jonka sivukäytävällä liikkui taaja kansanjoukko. Ne olivat tehtaan työntekijöitä kaikki, jotka läksivät ruokatunnillensa kotiin.

— Miten kalpeat ja laihat nuo ihmisraukat ovat, sanoi Hertta katsellen heitä myötätuntoisuudella. — Kyllä heissä tuntuvat raskaan työn jäljet.

— Katsohan tuota naistakin, sanoi rouva Taube, osoittaen nuorta vaimoa vanhan miehen rinnalla, — kuinka välinpitämättömältä ja väsähtäneeltä hän näyttää. Ja tuo nuori mies, joka on ennenaikojaan

tullut köyryselkäiseksi. Kyllä ruumiillinen, raskas työ tekee ihmiset vanhoiksi.

Hertta ei voinut kääntää katsettaan tuosta pitkästä jonosta. Hän näki joukossa lapsia, jotka näyttivät pysähtyneen kesken kasvamistaan. Kädet ja jalat olivat suhteettoman suuret ja kasvot olivat vanhenneet ennenkuin nuoruuden tuoreus oli niihin ehtinyt.

Tosin heiltä ei leipä puuttunut. Olihan heillä kullakin työnsä ja ansionsa. Mutta puuttuihan heiltä sittenkin kaikki muu. Kaikki se mitä hän ja niin monet muut hänen kanssansa olivat tottuneet pitämään elämän välttämättömyytenä. Kaikki se, mikä kevensi väsynyttä mieltä ja sulostutti elämän.

Tie kääntyi nyt vasemmalle leveältä viertotieltä. Talot kapean ja epätasaisen tien molemmin puolin olivat matalat ja ränstyneet. Ikkunoissa ei ollut kaihtimia ja pihoilla vallitsi epäjärjestys ja siivottomuus. Se oli köyhimmän työväestön asuinpaikka.

Rouva Taube ja Hertta astuivat ulos reestä ja käskivät ajurin odottaa.

Repaleisia lapsia kokoontui portille ja katsoa tuijottivat tulijoihin.

Rouva Taube puhutteli erästä poikaa ja kysyi työmies Puolakkaa. Poika ei vastannut mitään.

He astuivat portista sisään. Pihanpuolella oli kaksi ovea, portaat olivat jäiset ja liukkaat. He kolkuttivat ensimäistä ovea. Kun ei vastausta kuulunut, avasivat he oven. Takan ääressä seisoi keskiikäinen nainen hämmentämässä pataa. Rouva Taube uudisti kysymyksensä.

Nainen katsahti tulijoihin. Hänen katseensa siveli rouva Tauben lämmintä, komeaa turkkia ja pysähtyi uutuuttaan kiiltäviin päällyskenkiin. Vaimo pudisti päätänsä.

— Puolakka? Olisiko se perheellinen mies?

Ja nopeasti hän alkoi kertoa kuka missäkin huoneessa asui.

— Tässä vastapäätä, porstuan toisella puolella asuu vanha pariskunta. Vaimo on sokea ja mies käy kaupitsemassa harjoja. Heitäkö rouva hakee? Huonosti he elävät, kyllä olisivat avun tarpeessa. Heidän vieressään asuu nuori pariskunta; mies on muurari; viikolla hän putosi alas telineiltä, ehkä rouva on kuullut, seisoihan se lehdissä. He veivät hänet klinikkaan. Vaimo parka on viimeisillään, tietäähän sen millainen elämä silloin on. Ja tuolla toisella puolella — — —

Vaimo puhui lakkaamatta, antamatta itseään häiritä. Hän tunsi kaikki koko talossa ja monet naapuritalotkin, itse hän oli leski ja piti nuoria miehiä ruuassa ja kortteerissa. Ajat olivat kalliit ja rahat tiukalla, mutta elihän sitä sentään päivästä toiseen.

Vaimon katse ei miellyttänyt Herttaa. Se ei ollut suora ja avonainen.

Ja suun ympärillä oli omituinen piirre; puoleksi hymyä, puoleksi tuskaa.

— Rouva on hyvä vaan ja menee tuohon toiseen rappuun, kyllä siellä pitäisi olla mies, joka vast'ikään tuli maalta työn hakuun. Mutta turha hänen oli tulla, ei täällä työtä kaikille riitä.

He läksivät pois hyvillänsä kun pääsivät erilleen tuosta suulaasta eukosta. Toisista portaista he löysivätkin miehen, joka oli juuri ulosmenossa, mutta tavatessaan naiset, hän pyysi heitä astumaan sisään.

Huone oli melkein tyhjä. Ikkunan luona pieni pöytä ja sen edessä horjuva tuoli. Nurkassa vuode, jossa joku lepäsi rääsyjen alla.

— Tulin puhumaan teidän kanssanne, rouva Taube pysähtyi keskelle lattiaa. — Te voitte saada halonhakkuuta meillä toistaiseksi, kunnes saatte sopivampaa työtä. Koetan hankkia teille halonhakkuuta muualtakin. Ja tässä olisi teille takki, ettehän te noissa ryysyissä voi olla. Mutta oletteko te raitis mies? Rouva Tauben katse kiintyi viinapulloon, joka seisoi ikkunalla.

— En minä, hyvä rouva, juo, mistä sitä viinaan rahaa saisi, kun ei ole leipäänkään. Jos minä edes olisin yksin kärsimässä, mutta vaimo ja lapset, joilla ei ole mitään. Se on isännän, tuo pullo tuossa.

— Ei sekään juo, kuului naisen valittava ääni vuoteesta. — Mutta kun minä en kykene ruokaa keittämään, niin pitäähän hänen saada jotakin lämmittävää kuivan kannikan lisäksi.

— Mikä teitä vaivaa? Rouva Taube astui lähemmäksi.

— Siitä saakka kun sain tämän pienen, vaimo näytti likaista kääröä vieressänsä, — olen ollut kovin heikko. En kykene mihinkään. Ja lapsikin on kipeä, se huutaa yöt päivät.

Rouva Taube katseli pientä kääröä. Se oli parin kuukauden vanha poikalapsi, mutta niin laiha ja heikko, että olisi voinut luulla sitä parin

viikon vanhaksi. Pää ja kasvot olivat ruvessa, ilkeän ihotaudin vallassa.

— Teidän pitäisi saada lapsenne sairashuoneesen, sanoi rouva Taube.

— Kukapa sen sinne toimittaa. Kuka köyhän lasta säälii? Ei kukaan muu kuin Jumala. Hän sen aikanaan korjaa.

— Koetan tehdä minkä voin, sanoi rouva Taube.

— Ja te, Puolakka, te tulette huomenna työhön. Tuumimme sitten jotain lastennekin puolesta.

Rouva Taube ja Hertta läksivät pois. Ummehtunut ilma huoneessa kävi aivan sietämättömäksi. He ajoivat samaa tietä takaisin, kuin olivat tulleetkin.

— Eikö tohtori Hammar voisi toimittaa tuota lapsiraukkaa sairaalaan, sanoi Hertta. — Hän on parasta aikaa lasten-osastolla.

— Aioin juuri neuvotella hänen kanssansa. Jotain apua on heille hankittava.

Heidän tullessaan keskikaupungille, oli kaupungin hienosto juuri kävelyllään. Naiset käyskentelivät katukäytävällä turkkireunuksisissa sirkkeleissään. Hattuhöyhenet huojuivat tuulenhengessä ja suut hymyilivät. Kenoselkäiset upseerit kilisyttivät kannuksiansa, ja nuorten virkamiesten kepit heiluivat huolettomasti ilmassa. Olihan vihdoinkin kirkas talvipäivä, puut helmeilivät härmässä ja turkinkaulukset suojelivat arkoja korvalehtiä pakkaselta.

VII.

— Saammeko tänään päivällistä, Eva? kysyi kenraali Löfberg astuessaan ruokasaliin ja katsoessaan kelloa.

Rouva Löfberg näytti tuskaantuneelta. Hänellä oli juuri ollut ompeluseura koolla ja hän kääri kokoon töitä, jotka olivat levällään pöydällä.

— Aivan heti, sanoi hän kärsimättömästi. — Mutta voinko minä sille mitään, jos päivällinen viivähtääkin. Itsehän sinä olet pannut nämät hommat niskoilleni.

— Enhän minä sinua moiti, Eva. Kenraali hyväili rouvaansa. — Neiti Ek tulee vain heti paikalla ja minulla on työtä hänen kanssansa.

— Nuo iankaikkiset hätäaputoimet! Ne ovat mullistaneet koko kotimme, ei täällä enää muusta puhuta, eikä muuta ajatella. Joka askeleeni kolahtaa hätäaputoimiin. Minä olen niin väsynyt ja kyllästynyt.

— Mutta etkö myönnä, että olemme saaneet paljon aikaan? Ensiksikin vilja- ja vaatelähetykset moneen eri kuntaan. Ja sitten työkoulut, turvakodit ja keittiöt. Ja yhä useampia aiomme perustaa.

Olen varma siitä, etteivät nuo toimenpiteet ole turhat. Tänäänkin sain kirjeen Vaaralammelta. He kiittävät siitä avusta, jonka kunta on saanut ja varsinkin sisar Cecilian työ on ollut siellä siunausta tuottava. Ja mitä sanot neiti Fährlingistä, joka omilla varoillaan on perustanut turvakodin 20 lapselle? Keskuskomitea on pyytänyt häntä laajentamaan kotia niin suureksi, että siinä olisi tilaa 40 lapselle.

Uudet turvatit tietysti keskuskomitea kustantaa.

— Neiti Fährling on aina ollut hiukan omituinen.

— Onko se omituista, jos hän tekee suurempia uhrauksia, kuin mihin meidän sivistyneet naiset tavallisesti ovat tottuneet?

— En todellakaan ymmärrä mitä sinä meiltä vielä vaatisit. Viikkokausiin emme ole tehneet muuta kuin juosseet talosta taloon rahoja keräämässä ja ommelleet vaatteita kerjäläiskakaroille. Olisi meillä parempaakin tekemistä ollut.

— Tosiaankin, mitä tekemistä teillä on! Käytte huveissa ja tanssiaisissa ja vaivaatte päätänne viimeisillä muodeilla! Rahoja te osaatte tuhlata, mutta mitään hyödyllistä te ette tee. Mutta minä sanon, siitä on loppu tehtävä. Sinulla ei ole oikeutta käydä silkissä ja sametissa, kun kansalta puuttuu leipäkin. Sinun täytyy oppia säästämään ja ajattelemaan muitakin kuin vaan omaa itseäsi.

Kenraali oli kiihkoissaan. Rouva Löfberg ei ollut tottunut näkemään miestään sellaisessa mielentilassa ja hän seisoi siinä aivan hämmästyneenä, tietämättä mitä sanoa. Hänen tavalliset aseensa, pilkallinen hymy ja ivalliset sanat, olivat kadottaneet voimansa. Hän tunsi jotain nyyhkytyksen tapaista kurkussansa, hän, tuo kopea rouva, joka oli melkein kyyneleet unohtanut, turvautui nenäliinaansa ja painoi sen kosteita silmiään vasten.

Kenraali astui hänen luoksensa huomatessaan hänen liikutuksensa.

— Eva, suo anteeksi kiivauteni. Äänen sävy oli lempeä.

Rouva Löfberg tunsi jälleen seisovansa lujalla pohjalla.

— Mitäpä sinä välittäisit meidän tarpeistamme, kun vain saat rakkaille talonpojillesi hyvät päivät.

Hänen säännöllisistä nuorekkaista kasvoistaan oli pieninkin liikutuksen jälki kadonnut.

Kenraali Löfberg kohotti olkapäitään ja hänen kasvonsa synkistyivät uudelleen.

— Siinä sitä taas ollaan. Sinä et ole koskaan voinut ymmärtää minua ja minun harrastuksiani. Etkä sinä ole koskaan tahtonutkaan minua ymmärtää.

Kenraali Löfberg läksi huoneesta ja sulki oven jäljessään. — —

Hertta istui kenraali Löfbergin työhuoneessa työnsä ääressä. Hän kirjoitti muistiin mille paikkakunnalle edellisellä viikolla oli viljaa lähetetty. Kuntia oli toistakymmentä ja hehtomäärä nousi varsin korkealle.

Antti Hammar oli astunut sisään ja kumartui Hertan olkapään yli silmäillen kirjaan.

— Mikä siunattu asia että rautatierahti on maksuton, hän sanoi. — Kuinka suuret summat muuten kuljetukseen menisi.

— Maksaa se sittenkin, kun ei rautateitse pääse perille saakka.

Antti tunsi Hertan hengityksen sivelevän poskeansa. Hän käänsi katseensa Herttaan, mutta tämä ei sitä huomannut. Hän katsoi vain suoraan alas työhönsä.

Antti kävi istumaan pöydän ääreen.

— Minulla on teille hyviä uutisia, neiti Ek. Pieni turvattinne on nyt lastensairaalassa.

Hertta katsoi ylös työstään.

— Entäs äiti?

— Kyllä hän pian parantuu, ei hänellä mitään varsinaista vikaa ole. Mutta mies kuuluu juopottelevan.

Hertta ojensi Antille paperin.

— Tuossa on kirje neiti Fährlingiltä.

— Onko hän käynyt Soimäellä perustamassa turvakotia?

— Ei, ei vielä. Jos saamme täältä sopivan johtajan, niin hänen ei tarvitsekkaan lähteä.

Soimäeltä oli tullut pyyntö toimikunnalle turvakodin ja kansankeittiön perustamisesta ja toimikunta oli päättänyt täyttää heidän toivomuksensa. Sopivaa henkilöä ei kuitenkaan vielä ollut ilmaantunut sinne lähtemään.

— Tiedättekö mitä, sanoi Antti äkkiä, — nyt minä tiedän kuka sinne lähtee. Te sinne lähdette.

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