skull
General architecture of the skull
The skeleton of the head is the skull. It is formed by a number of separate bones, almost all of which meet each other at linear fibrous joints—the sutures. Sutures are narrow gaps between adjacent bones, filled with dense fibrous tissue in early life. Bony fusion across the fibrous tissue begins after 30 years of age. The mandible (bone of the lower jaw) articulates with the skull at a synovial joint—the temporomandibular joint—the only movable joint in the skull. The skull without the mandible is the cranium. For descriptive purposes, the cranium is divided into the neurocranium and viscerocranium. The neurocranium surrounds the brain and its coverings (meninges) and increases in depth from anterior to posterior. The viscerocranium is the facial skeleton and lies inferior to the shallow, anterior part of the neurocranium.
A number of bony foramina are present in the skull, especially at the base. These give passage to nerves and vessels entering and leaving the skull. You should note the positions of these foramina and relate it to the structures which pass through them as you proceed with the study of the head, neck, and brain.
External features of the skull
Frontal or anterior view of the skull
Examine the frontal or anterior aspect of the skull and identify the bones seen in this view. They are the frontal bone, ethmoid, lacrimal bone, maxilla, zygomatic bone, nasal bone, and mandible [Fig. 3.1A].
The bone of the forehead is the frontal bone. It consists of right and left halves which usually fuse together early in life. From the top of the head, the frontal bone curves antero-inferiorly to the superior margins of the orbits and the root of the nose. It also forms portions of the roof of the orbits (the sockets for the eyeballs), the roof of the nasal cavities, and the nasal septum between the two nasal cavities. The frontal eminence is the most prominent and convex part of the frontal bone.
The main elements of the facial skeleton are the right and left maxillae. The body of each maxilla lies below the orbit, lateral to the nasal cavity. It has the shape of a three-sided pyramid and contains the maxillary air sinus. The body has (1) an anterolateral or anterior surface; (2) a posterolateral or infratemporal surface; and (3) a superior or orbital surface. The base is directed medially and forms the lateral wall of the nasal cavity. The apex points laterally and is overlapped by the zygomatic bone (cheek bone). The anterior surface projects on the face; the posterolateral surface forms the anterior wall of the infratemporal fossa, and the superior surface forms the floor of the orbit.
The curved alveolar process of the maxilla projects down from the body of the maxilla and bears the sockets for the upper teeth. Medial to the orbit, the maxilla articulates directly with the frontal bone through the frontal process of the maxilla. This process forms the lower part of the medial margin of the orbit. It articulates anteriorly with the nasal bone and posteriorly with the lacrimal bone. The lacrimal bone articulates posteriorly with the orbital plate of the ethmoid to form the greater part of the medial wall of the orbit. [Further details of the bony orbit are described in Chapter 11.]
Supra-orbital notch
Parietal bone
Greater wing of sphenoid
Zygomatic bone
Angle of mandible Maxilla
Mental foramen
Sagittal suture
Mandible, ramus
Frontal bone (A ) (B)
Frontal process of maxilla
Nasal bone
Lacrimal bone and groove
Supra-orbital foramen
Frontozygomatic suture
Zygomaticofacial foramen
Infra-orbital foramen
Nasal septum and anterior nasal spine
Lambdoid suture
Nasal septum
Mandible, angle
Mandible, body
3.1 (A) Anterior view of the skull. The alveolar bone has been worn away from the roots of the anterior teeth in the mandible. (B) Plain X-ray of the skull—anteroposterior view. E = ethmoid air sinus. F = frontal air sinus. M = maxillary air sinus. N = nasal cavity. O = orbit. (A nose pin is seen on the right side.)
The zygomatic bone forms the prominence of the cheek and articulates with the apex of the maxilla. The frontal process of the zygomatic bone extends upwards along the lateral margin of the orbit to meet the zygomatic process of the frontal bone. It forms the lateral wall of the orbit with the
greater wing of the sphenoid bone. The zygomatic bone between the orbit and anterior surface of the maxilla forms the lateral half of the inferior orbital margin.
The anterior nasal aperture lies in the midline and is pear-shaped. The inferior and lateral margins
Fig.
of the aperture are formed by the maxilla. The superior margin is formed by the two nasal bones, which articulate with each other in the midline. The bony nasal septum seen between the two nasal cavities is formed partly by the perpendicular plate of ethmoid bone. The ethmoid bone also forms parts of the lateral wall of the nasal cavities. Inferior to the nasal aperture, the two maxillae are firmly united in the median plane by the articulation of the alveolar processes.
The bone of the lower jaw is the mandible Identify the horizontal body of the mandible which bears the alveolar sockets for the lower teeth. The lower border of the body extends laterally to the angle of the mandible. The two halves of the mandible are fused together in the adult at the symphysis menti. The mental foramen lies about 4 cm lateral to the midline between the alveolar border and the lower border of the mandible. In the living, it is felt as a slight depression. Fig. 3.1B is a plain radiograph of the skull, anteroposterior view.
Superior view of the skull
The vault of the skull is formed by the frontal bone in front, the two parietal bones laterally, and the occipital bone at the back. The frontal bones have been described in the anterior view. The two parietal bones articulate anteriorly with the frontal bone at the coronal suture, and with each other in the midline at the sagittal suture From the sagittal suture, the parietal bones arch downwards and laterally and form the greatest and widest part of the dome of the skull. Paired parietal foramina are seen on either side of the sagittal suture. Posteriorly, the parietal bones articulate with the squamous part of the occipital bone, at the lambdoid suture. The parietal eminence is the most convex and prominent part of the parietal bone [Fig. 3.2].
The meeting point of the coronal and sagittal sutures is the bregma. It represents the position of the anterior fontanelle in the infant. The meeting point of the sagittal and lambdoid sutures is the lambda. It represents the position of the posterior fontanelle in the infant [Fig. 3.2].
Posterior view of the skull
Most of the posterior aspect of the skull is made up of the parietal and occipital bones, with a small contribution from the temporal bone. The parietal
Frontal bone
Coronal suture
Bregma
Parietal bone
Sagittal suture
Parietal foramen (for emissary vein)
Lambda
Lambdoid suture
Occipital bone
Fig. 3.2 Superior view of the skull. © tarapong srichaiyos/ Shutterstock.com.
bones make up the superior and lateral aspects. The upper part of the squamous part of the occipital bone lies in the interval between the diverging posterior margins of the parietal bones. The posterior aspect of the mastoid process of the temporal bone is seen inferolaterally. In the lambdoid suture, small bones called sutural bones or wormian bones are often present [Fig. 3.3].
The external occipital protuberance is a midline projection seen at the lower part of the posterior view. On either side, bony linear elevations—the superior nuchal lines—extend laterally from the external occipital protuberance. Parallel and approximately 1 cm superior to the superior nuchal lines are faint bony ridges—the highest nuchal lines.
At the lower end, the lambdoid suture is continuous with the parietomastoid suture between the parietal bone and the mastoid process, and with the occipitomastoid suture between the occipital bone and the mastoid process [Figs. 3.3, 3.4A].
Lateral view of the skull
Start your study of the lateral view of the skull by identifying the parts of the frontal, parietal, occipital, maxilla, and zygomatic bones described in the anterior and superior views [Fig. 3.4A]. Review the zygomatico-frontal suture on the lateral wall of the orbit, and the coronal, lambdoid, parietomastoid, and occipitomastoid sutures.
The temporal process of the zygomatic bone forms the broad, anterior part of the zygomatic
Sagittal suture
Parietal foramen
Lambdoidal suture
Interparietal bone
Squamosal suture
Parietomastoid suture
Occipitomastoid suture
Mastoid foramen
Mastoid notch
Styloid process
Ext. occipital crest
Ext. occipital protuberance
arch lateral to, and below, the orbit. It joins the zygomatic process of the temporal bone to complete the arch.
The greater wing of the sphenoid forms the lateral wall of the skull behind the orbit. It articulates anteriorly with the frontal and zygomatic bones, superiorly with the frontal and parietal bones, and posteriorly with the squamous part of the temporal bone. The ‘H’-shaped area where the frontal, parietal, temporal, and sphenoid bones meet is called the pterion
Various parts of the temporal bone are seen on the lateral surface. The squamous part of the temporal bone lies below the inferior margin of the parietal bone. Anteriorly, it articulates with the greater wing of the sphenoid. Superiorly and posteriorly, it articulates with the parietal bone, at the squamosal suture. The zygomatic process of the temporal bone arises from the postero-inferior aspect of the squamous part. It turns forwards to join the temporal process of the zygomatic bone, to form the zygomatic arch. At the root of the zygomatic process of the temporal bone is the tubercle, which is immediately anterior to the head of the mandible when the mouth is shut, but above it when the mouth is open.
Below the root of the zygomatic process, the inferior surface of the squamous part has a large notch—the mandibular fossa—for articulation with the head of the mandible. Behind the mandibular fossa is the tympanic part of the temporal bone, which forms the anterior, inferior, and
Parietal foramen
Parietal bone
Bregma
Sutural bones
Temporal bone
Occipital bone
Mastoid bone
Sup. nuchal line
Inf. nuchal line
lower part of the posterior wall of a bony canal— the external acoustic meatus. Anteriorly, the tympanic part of the temporal bone meets the squamous part in the posterior wall of the mandibular fossa at the squamotympanic fissure. Posteriorly, the tympanic part of the temporal bone fuses with the mastoid process. Also seen in this view is the styloid process of the temporal bone, projecting downwards and forwards from the base of the skull [Fig. 3.5].
The supramastoid crest is a blunt ridge which begins immediately above the external acoustic meatus and curves posterosuperiorly. It is continuous superiorly with the superior and inferior temporal lines which curve forwards, marking the upper limit of the temporal region. (The temporal fossa is limited above by the superior temporal line and below by the zygomatic arch [Fig. 3.4A].)
Below the zygomatic arch is the ramus of the mandible—a wide, flat plate of bone which extends superiorly from the posterior part of the body. It ends superiorly in the condylar and coronoid processes of the mandible. The condylar process projects upwards from the posterior margin of the ramus and forms the neck and head of the mandible [Fig. 3.4A]. Fig. 3.4B is a lateral radiograph of the skull.
Disarticulate the mandible to get a fuller appreciation of the lateral view of the cranium.
Behind the maxilla, two plates of bone—the medial and lateral pterygoid plates or
Fig. 3.3 Posterior view of the skull. Note the presence of the sutural bone and the large interparietal bone.
Frontal bone
Greater wing of sphenoid
Frontozygomatic suture
Frontal process of maxilla
Lacrimal groove
Zygomatic bone and zygomaticofacial foramen
Anterior nasal spine
Maxilla
Mandible, coronoid process
Mental foramen
Coronal suture
Temporal bone squamous part
Temporal lines
Parietal
Squamosal suture
Zygomatic arch
External acoustic meatus
Lambdoid suture
Parietomastoid suture
Temporal bone, mastoid process
Temporal bone, tympanic part
Mandible, condylar process
Mandible, ramus
Mandible, body
laminae—extend downwards and forwards from the base of the sphenoid bone. Inferiorly, the anterior border of the pterygoid plates articulates with the maxilla. Superiorly, the two pterygoid laminae are separated from the maxilla by a narrow fissure—the pterygomaxillary fissure. The region lateral to the lateral pterygoid lamina is
the infratemporal fossa [Fig. 3.5]. (The medial pterygoid plate is not seen in the lateral view.)
Inferior view of the skull
The inferior surface of the skull is described after disarticulating the mandible. It extends from the upper central incisors anteriorly to the external
(A )
Fig. 3.4 (A) Lateral view of the skull. (B) Lateral radiograph of the skull. F = frontal sinus. M = maxillary sinus. Man = mandible. Max = maxilla. O = orbit. P = pituitary fossa. Ph = pharynx. S = sphenoid sinus. Yellow arrow = coronal suture. Red arrow = lambdoid suture.
Pterion
The skull
Pterygomaxillary fissure
Maxilla Sphenoid, greater wing
occipital protuberance posteriorly. It is important to appreciate that the posterior two-thirds of the skull overlie, and are continuous with, the structures in the neck [Figs. 3.6, 3.7].
From the upper margins of the alveolar processes, the palatine processes of the maxilla extend horizontally inwards to meet in the midline. Posteriorly, the palatine processes of the maxilla articulate with the horizontal plates of the palatine bone to complete the hard palate. As such, the
Greater palatine foramen
Infratemporal crest
Foramen lacerum Sphenoid, greater wing
Carotid canal and mandibular fossa
Stylomastoid foramen
Occiput , jugular process
Occipital condyle
Temporal bone, squamous part
Temporal bone, tympanic part
Temporal bone, styloid process
Sphenoid, lateral pterygoid plate
anterior two-thirds of the bony palate are formed by the palatine processes of the maxillae, and the posterior one-third by the horizontal plates of the palatine bones. The hard palate separates the nasal cavities from the oral cavity. Lying lateral to the hard palate, and separated from it by the alveolar arch, are the maxillae and zygomatic bones.
Posterior to the hard palate, and close to the midline, is the pharyngeal part of the base of the skull. It is formed by the body of the sphenoid
Maxilla , palatine process
Palatine, horizontal plate
Foramen ovale
Foramen spinosum
Groove for auditory tube
External acoustic meatus
Jugular foramen
Mastoid foramina
Pharyngeal tubercle on occiput , basilar part
Foramen magnum
External occipital protuberance and superior nuchal line
external surface of the base of the skull. Two molar teeth are missing on the left of the picture, one and a half on the right.
Fig. 3.5 Lateral view of the cranium. (The mandible and zygomatic arch have been removed.)
Incisive canal
Fig. 3.6 The
Lateral pterygoid plate
Auditory tube
Buccinator
Pterygoid hamulus
Medial pterygoid plate
Superior constrictor of pharynx
Internal carotid A.
Internal jugular V.
Vagus V.
Hypoglossal N.
(which is overlapped by the vomer) and the basilar part of the occipital bone. A small midline prominence on the basilar part of the occipital bone, 1 cm anterior to the foramen magnum, is the pharyngeal tubercle. About 1.5 cm from the midline, the two pterygoid processes descend from the body of the sphenoid. Each pterygoid process is formed by a medial and lateral pterygoid plate, which are fused together anteriorly, but separated from each other by the pterygoid fossa posteriorly. Inferiorly, the posterior margin of the medial pterygoid plate curves laterally as the pterygoid hamulus [Fig. 3.7].
Lateral to the lateral pterygoid plate lies the greater wing of the sphenoid. Traced laterally, this plate of bone turns sharply at the infratemporal crest to continue on the lateral surface of the skull. Laterally and posteriorly, the greater wing of the sphenoid articulates with the squamous and petrous parts of the temporal bone. The spine of the sphenoid is a small, sharp bony projection at the posterolateral angle of the greater wing.
A number of important foramina are seen in this region. On the greater wing of the sphenoid are the foramen ovale and foramen spinosum. The foramen lacerum lies at the apex of the petrous part of the temporal bone and is bounded by that bone, the basilar part of the occiput, and the body of the sphenoid. On the inferior aspect of the petrous part of the temporal bone is the carotid canal. The stylomastoid foramen lies between the styloid and mastoid processes of the temporal bone [Fig. 3.6]. The bony part of the auditory tube lies in the groove between the greater wing of the sphenoid and the petrous temporal bone [Fig. 3.7].
Between the infratemporal crest on the greater wing of the sphenoid and the lateral pterygoid lamina is the infratemporal fossa.
Posterior to the pharyngeal area on the base of the skull is the area for attachment to the pre- and post-vertebral muscles of the neck. Identify the large foramen magnum which lies in this region [Fig. 3.6]. The foramen magnum is oval and is longer than it is wide. The anterolateral margin of
Fig. 3.7 External surface of the base of the skull to show the position of the superior constrictor, buccinator, and auditory tube.
the foramen magnum has an oval, curved articular facet—the occipital condyle. The occipital condyles articulate with the superior articular facets of the first cervical vertebra—the atlas [see Fig. 2.5]. Lateral to the condyle is the jugular process of the occipital bone, which articulates with the temporal bone to form the jugular foramen. The jugular foramen lies immediately posterior to the carotid canal. The hypoglossal canal for the twelfth cranial nerve lies immediately above the occipital condyles.
Posterior to the foramen magnum, the greater part of the inferior surface of the cranium is formed by the occipital bone. This surface is roughened by the attachment of the muscles of the back of the neck. This area is divided transversely by an ill-defined inferior nuchal line and is limited posteriorly by the external occipital protuberance in the midline and the superior nuchal line which extends laterally from it [Fig. 3.6].
Internal features of the skull
Internal features of the vault
The cranial vault or calvaria is oval in shape. The internal surface is deeply concave and is made up of the squamous part of the frontal bone in front, the two parietal bones behind it, and the squamous
part of the occipital bone behind. Note the coronal suture between the frontal and parietal bones, the sagittal suture between the two parietal bones, and the lambdoid suture between the occipital and parietal bones [Fig. 3.8].
Internal features of the base of the cranial cavity
The inferior aspect of the cranial cavity supports the brain. It is divided into three distinct fossae— the anterior, middle, and posterior cranial fossae [Fig. 3.9].
Anterior cranial fossa
The floor of the anterior cranial fossa is formed by the orbital plates of the frontal bone which project posteriorly above the orbit. They are separated from each other by the cribriform plate of the ethmoid bone which lie in the roof of the nasal cavities. In the midline, a bony ridge—the crista galli—projects upwards between the two anterior cranial fossae. A small foramen—the foramen caecum—lies anterior to the crista galli and transmits an emissary vein. Posteriorly, the anterior cranial fossa is formed by the body of the sphenoid in the midline, and the two lesser wings of the sphenoid laterally. The ethmoid and orbital plates of the frontal bone articulate with the sphenoid to complete the floor of the anterior cranial fossa.
Frontal crest
Frontal bone
Groove for superior sagittal sinus
Coronal suture
Parietal bone
Diploë
Groove for branches of middle meningeal vessels
Groove for superior sagittal sinus
Sagittal suture
Lambdoid suture
Occipital bone
Fig. 3.8 Internal surface of the calvaria.
Frontal sinus (air)
Diploic spaces
Optic canal
Foramen ovale
Foramen spinosum
Groove for greater petrosal nerve
Foramen lacerum
Jugular foramen (hidden)
Internal acoustic meatus
Hypophysial fossa
Crista galli
Cribriform plate of ethmoid
Orbital plate of frontal bone
Body of sphenoid
Lesser wing of sphenoid
Anterior clinoid process
Posterior clinoid process
Grooves for middle meningeal veins on greater wing of sphenoid
Temporal bone, squamous part
Temporal bone, petrous part
Groove for superior petrosal sinus
Groove for sigmoid sinus
Parietal bone
Groove for transverse sinus
Groove for inferior petrosal sinus
Hypoglossal canal, position of
Internal occipital Protuberance
Each lesser wing of the sphenoid has a free curved posterior margin which forms the posterior limit of the anterior cranial fossa and ends medially in an anterior clinoid process. The anterior clinoid process lies immediately lateral to the optic canal. Laterally, the tip of each lesser wing fuses with the corresponding greater wing of the sphenoid bone. Between the greater and lesser wings of the sphenoid is the superior orbital fissure
Middle cranial fossa
In the midline, the floor of the middle cranial fossa is narrow and formed by the body of the sphenoid. The central part of the body is hollowed out to form the hypophysial fossa which lodges the pituitary gland [Fig. 3.4B]. The hypophysial fossa is limited posteriorly by a rectangular plate of bone—the dorsum sellae. The superolateral corners of the dorsum sellae project upwards as the posterior clinoid processes. Anteriorly, the fossa is limited by the tuberculum sellae, with the horizontal sulcus chiasmatis in front of it. On each side, the sulcus leads into an optic canal, which transmits the corresponding optic nerve and ophthalmic artery.
The lateral part of the middle cranial fossa is made up mainly of the greater wing of the sphenoid. Each greater wing is roughly rectangular in shape and projects laterally from the body. The anterior part of the greater wing has an upturned portion which articulates superiorly with the lesser wing of the sphenoid and the inferior margins of the frontal and parietal bones. The foramen rotundum is present on the greater wing of the sphenoid, close to the body, near the medial end of the superior orbital fissure. More posteriorly are the foramen ovale and the foramen spinosum. The anterior surface of the petrous part of the temporal bone forms the posterior part of the floor of the middle cranial fossa.
The apex of the petrous temporal bone is directed towards the body of the sphenoid. The foramen lacerum lies between the apex of the petrous temporal bone and the body of the sphenoid [Fig. 3.9].
Posterior cranial fossa
The posterior cranial fossa is large and deep. In the midline, it is made up of the posterior surface of the dorsum sellae in front, followed by the posterior surface of the body of the sphenoid, the
Fig. 3.9 Internal surface of the base of the skull.
basilar part of the occipital bone, and the squamous part of the occipital bone. The foramen magnum separates the basilar and squamous parts of the occipital bone. The sloping cranial surface of the median parts of the sphenoid and occipital bones are together known as the clivus.
The lateral margin of the basilar part of the occipital bone is separated from the petrous part of the temporal bone by the petro-occipital fissure.
The jugular foramen is a large opening situated at the posterior end of this petro-occipital suture.
The hypoglossal canal lies medial to the jugular foramen, immediately above the anteromedial margin of the foramen magnum. The posterior surface of the petrous part of the temporal bone forms the anterior limit of the posterior cranial fossa laterally. The internal acoustic meatus is present on this surface. The medial surface of the mastoid part
of the temporal bone forms the lateral wall of the posterior cranial fossa. The squamous part of the occipital bone forms a large part of the floor of the posterior cranial fossa. In the midline, a linear elevation—the internal occipital crest—extends backwards from the foramen magnum and ends in a bony prominence—the internal occipital protuberance. Extending laterally from the internal occipital prominence to the mastoid angle of the parietal bone is a groove for the transverse sinus. At the lateral end, the groove for the transverse sinus continues with the groove for the sigmoid sinus on the petrous temporal bone. Four shallow fossae are present—two below the groove for the transverse sinus, and two above it [Fig. 3.9].
See Clinical Applications 3.1 and 3.2 for the practical implications of the anatomy discussed in this chapter.
CLINICAL APPLICATION 3.1 Anterior fontanelle
The fontanelles are fibrous, membranous gaps between the bones of the vault of the cranium. They are present in the infant and are found at the four angles of the parietal bone where ossification is not yet complete. The anterior fontanelle is the largest. It is diamond-shaped and situated at the junction of the sagittal and coronal sutures. It usually closes by 18 months of age.
Palpation of the anterior fontanelle is an important clinical examination in the infant. A tense, bulging fontanelle may indicate raised intracranial pressures due to meningitis or obstruction to flow of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). A sunken fontanelle is a sign of dehydration. Delayed closure of the anterior fontanelle commonly occurs in achondroplasia, rickets, and hypothyroidism.
CLINICAL APPLICATION 3.2 Fracture of mandible
A 24-year-old male presented with multiple facial lacerations, following a road traffic accident. Examination revealed severe pain and swelling of the lower jaw, intra-oral bleeding, and an inability to open the mouth. Examination revealed deformity of the lower jaw and loss of sensation over the lower lip.
Study question 1: what is the likely diagnosis? (Answer: fracture of the mandible.)
Study question 2: which are the common sites of fracture of the mandible? (Answer: the mandible is the most common facial bone to be fractured in facial trauma. The second is the maxilla. Common sites of fracture of the mandible include: the coronoid process and the body and angle of the mandible. Fractures involving the coronoid process cause swelling over the temporomandibular joint, severe limitation
of mouth opening, and deviation of the jaw to the affected side on opening the mouth.)
Study question 3: why is there loss of sensation of the lower lip? (Answer: injury to the mental branch of the inferior alveolar nerve causes paraesthesiae or loss of sensation over the lower lip [Chapter 4].)
Study question 4: how are fractures of the mandible treated? (Answer: the aim of fracture reduction is functional alignment of bone fragments and restoration of normal occlusion. This can be achieved by reduction, followed by immobilization. Reduction and alignment of fractured segments can be done using surgical incisions of the oral mucosa (open reduction) or simple manipulation without any incision (closed reduction). Immobilization can be achieved with the help of plates and screws or wires.)
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Some were condemned for dishonesty and appropriation of the public treasure. Others, among them the son of Al-Mansur, and another Abdallah, who was of royal lineage and noted for his avarice, fled to the Christian court for protection. Garcia Fernandez, Count of Castile, entertained the son of the minister, until the presence of a great Moslem army admonished him that the privilege of asylum must yield to political necessity. As soon as the misguided youth fell into the hands of his father he was beheaded. Then, with exquisite cruelty, Al-Mansur devised a scheme of retaliation, which, in spite of its malice, was singularly appropriate. He determined to inflict upon the Count of Castile himself all the pangs resulting from paternal disappointment and filial ingratitude. He instigated Sancho, the son of Garcia, to form a party and drive his father from power. The nobility unanimously declared for Sancho; a Mussulman force sustained his pretensions; Al-Mansur seized Clunia and San Estevan as his share of the spoil; and Garcia, having been wounded and made captive in a skirmish, died soon afterwards in the hands of the Saracens. The perfidy of Sancho was rewarded with the government of Castile, which he held as a feudatory of the Khalif.
The fugitive King, Bermudo, whose usurpation had been attended with a series of misfortunes, and whose dominions had, with the exception of a contracted region of which Astorga was the centre, been divided between his rebellious vassals and the Moors, in defiance of the menaces of Al-Mansur, still continued to afford protection to Abdallah, the only survivor of the principal conspirators. The approach of the Mussulman troops and the seizure and sack of Astorga, convinced the obstinate monarch of the expediency of submission. Abdallah was surrendered, taken to Cordova, placed upon a camel, and conducted through the streets of that city, preceded by heralds who proclaimed him a traitor to his sovereign and an apostate to his faith. His life was spared, but he was tortured during the entire administration of Al-Mansur by being kept in daily fear of execution; a fate which he endeavored to avert by the most humiliating expressions of contrition, and by exhibitions of grovelling servility which, so far from exciting the pity of the minister, only increased his contempt.
A new and implacable adversary, and one whose position placed her beyond the reach of the minister’s vengeance, now arose to defy his power. The Sultana Aurora—who united to her amorous susceptibilities all the obstinacy and vindictiveness of the Basques, to which race she belonged—had for many years entertained the closest relations with the favorite whose fortunes she had founded, and whose success she had so zealously promoted. Their intimacy, even during the lifetime of Al-Hakem, had been the scandal of the capital. But the lady, like many of her sex, was inconstant, and other lovers, including the kadi Ibn-al-Salim, also stood high in her favor As soon as Al-Mansur no longer required her services to advance his interests, he had the imprudence to neglect his haughty mistress. Deeply piqued, she began to meditate revenge. Her social rank, the inviolability of her person, and her residence in the palace gave her advantages which she was not slow to improve. With all the fiery energy of her nature she represented to the Khalif the degradation of the position he had been compelled to assume, and urged him to assert his rights as a sovereign. Hischem, who had hitherto evinced no dissatisfaction with his condition, was roused from his lethargy. Under his mother’s dictation, he made a formal demand on the minister for the prerogatives which the latter had usurped. The viceroy of Africa, Ziri-Ibn-Atia, instigated by the agents of the Sultana, rose in rebellion, and proclaimed himself the supporter of the laws of the empire and the champion of its injured monarch. The ingenuity of Aurora provided her partisans with an abundant supply of money. The vaults of the palace of Medina-al-Zahrâ, where was the national treasury, contained six million pieces of gold. They were deposited in earthenware jars, sealed with wax and impressed with the royal signet. The astute princess removed a hundred of the jars, whose contents amounted to the sum of eighty thousand dinars, broke the seals, covered the gold with honey, drugs, and syrups, and, having attached to each an appropriate label, caused them to be conveyed by her slaves to a palace in the city, whence they were, without delay, transported to Africa. The rage of Al-Mansur on finding himself thus outwitted by a woman was extreme, but it availed him nothing. He could not venture to offer violence or even reproaches to the mother of his sovereign whose servant he was in name. The
trend of recent events suggested that Hischem might have consented that the money be employed for the recovery of his imperial dignity. Desirous of obtaining the sanction of law in a matter of such vital importance, Al-Mansur called the great officers of state together. To them he represented that the women of the harem were plundering the treasury, and requested permission to remove the gold from the palace. This was readily granted; but when the officers exhibited their warrant, they were refused admission to the vaults, on the plea that the Khalif had not authorized the removal of the treasure. Foiled once more, the minister—whose genius, fertile in expedients and undaunted by reverses, never once despaired of success—devised a plan whose audacity would have appalled a less determined mortal. Perfectly familiar with all the approaches to the palace, he penetrated by a secret passage to the apartments of the Khalif. His unexpected appearance and menacing aspect terrified the imbecile prince, who protested that he had no desire to thwart the designs of the minister, and, without hesitation, signed an order for the removal of the gold. The politic Al-Mansur, at the same time, extorted from him an edict by which he unreservedly renounced, in favor of the hajib, all practical control of the government of the empire. This explicit and indisputable confirmation of the authority of the latter at once legalized every act which he had already committed in a public capacity. In a measure, it invested his person with the sanctity that appertained to his master, and rendered all liable to the penalty of treason whose intemperate language or whose violence should be directed against the authorized representative of absolute sovereignty.
An enterprise of surpassing difficulty and danger, and one which the bravest of the Ommeyade khalifs had never ventured to undertake, was now planned by the greatest statesman and warrior of his age. The shrine of St. James of Compostella was one of the most renowned for wealth and sanctity in Christendom. In the marvels which had attended its foundation, in the fame of its miracles, in the number and potency of its sacred relics, in the touching interest attaching to its legends, it scarcely yielded to the sacred traditions of the Eternal City. A countless multitude of pilgrims from every country where the name of the Saviour was revered had
for generations deposited their oblations upon its altars. The modest chapel which had marked the site of the apostle’s grave soon after its discovery during the reign of the pious Alfonso had been replaced by a stately cathedral of marble, decorated with all the rude magnificence of which the decadent art of the age was capable. A numerous priesthood, the splendor of whose appointments and the luxury of whose lives indicated a dispensation with the vow of poverty, ministered to the wants of the pilgrims, and acknowledged, with affected gratitude and humility, the bestowal of their donations and the performance of their vows.
The reverence entertained by the Spanish Christians for the sepulchre of St. James far exceeded that with which the most fanatic Mussulman regarded the Prophet’s tomb at Medina. Already, industriously propagated by monkish imposture and popular credulity, wondrous tales were whispered of the appearance of the apostle on a milk-white steed at the head of the Christian squadrons, an infallible harbinger of victory, and a delusion of ominous import to the Saracen intruders in the Peninsula. History affords no parallel to the momentous effects produced by the adoption of this frivolous legend. The circumstances of its origin, which contemptuously violated every probability of time or place; its universal acceptance by individuals of every rank in life; its subsequent extension to the distant lands of an unknown world; the blind and unquestioning faith with which the impossible miracles of its subject were received, offer an eloquent commentary on the boundless influence of the Catholic hierarchy and the debased superstition of the age.
The destruction of the church of Santiago was now the aim of AlMansur The depressing influence of such a signal triumph over the adversaries of Islam, it was thought with much reason, would be incalculable. The immunity enjoyed by the Christian sanctuary of Spain was attributed by its votaries to the protection afforded by the body of the saint, far more than to the natural difficulties which an enemy must surmount to reach his shrine. Even could an invasion occur and the desecration of the cathedral be threatened, it was firmly believed that the miraculous intervention of Heaven—more marked even than that which deterred the Romans from rebuilding
the temple of Jerusalem—would avert such a calamity from one of the holiest places of the Christian world. The removal of these impressions, by demonstrating the incapacity of St. James to defend his own relics, must certainly weaken the faith of the multitude in his ability to protect the lives of others. The prestige derived from the interposition of supernatural influence would be seriously impaired. The menacing spectre of the patron of Spain would no longer inspire the fanaticism of his followers to strike terror into the Saracen armies. These conclusions of Al-Mansur, while founded on reason, in the end proved fallacious. The superstitious veneration, which, confirmed by blind ignorance and credulity for centuries, now exercised its power over an entire people, was too deeply rooted to be more than temporarily affected by the most glaring sacrilege.
The campaign was carefully planned. Every precaution was taken to provide against any possibility of failure. Marching westward, the several divisions of Moslem cavalry assembled at Coria. At Oporto they were joined by the fleet, in which the infantry had already embarked. A number of Christian vassals, attended by their retainers, responded to the summons of their suzerain, and lent their reluctant aid to the injury of their faith and the destruction of their countrymen. The Douro was crossed upon a bridge constructed of ships. Roads were cut through rocky and precipitous mountains. Broad estuaries and rivers were forded. The country, which had long suffered from repeated forays, was depopulated, and could offer no resistance. When the mountains of Galicia appeared in the distance, the resolution of the Christian allies faltered. Some of the counts entered into a secret correspondence with the enemy. Their designs were betrayed, and a number of Leonese nobles underwent the extreme penalty of treason. This salutary example insured the wavering loyalty of their companions, who henceforth found it expedient to conceal their real sentiments under an appearance of obedience and alacrity.
The region now traversed by the Moslems had hitherto been safe from their inroads. This circumstance, the sacred character of the territory, and the wealth of the clergy had attracted to the vicinity of Santiago a large and busy population. Ecclesiastical establishments
abounded. Along the hill-sides were countless hermitages, shrines, and chapels. Almost every valley was occupied by a monastery or a convent. The lands susceptible of cultivation were tilled by slaves or dependents of the religious houses, whose condition differed little from that of hereditary servitude. The mansions of the prelates of high rank exhibited a palatial magnificence, and were not infrequently tenanted by occupants of the softer sex, whose charms of face and figure indicated an appreciation of female beauty hardly to be expected from their pious companions.
The utter demoralization of the Christian kingdoms through domestic feuds and incessant warfare, added to the terror inspired by the name of Al-Mansur, precluded the possibility of effectual resistance. The inhabitants, taking with them their portable property and the bones of their saints and kings, fled to the mountains or to islands off the sea-coast. Santiago was completely deserted. The invaders obtained a rich booty from the shrines of innumerable chapels and monasteries. Every building in the city, including the famous cathedral, was razed to the ground. The latter was constructed of marble and granite. Its plan and decoration exhibited the corrupt taste and barbaric splendor inherited from the Visigoths, whose faults of design had been aggravated by the native rudeness of the Galician architects. In front of the high altar stood the statue of the saint, carved by the pious but unpractised hand of a Gothic sculptor, and enclosed in a shrine of massy silver. Every portion of it except the face was painted or profusely gilded. One hand clasped a Bible, the other was raised aloft in the attitude of benediction. The kisses of innumerable pilgrims had almost obliterated the coarse and grotesque features of the image. By its side were disposed the emblems of the vagrant apostle, the staff, the calabash, the scallop shells. Its head was partially enveloped with a hood identical in shape with that worn by every pilgrim and glittering with jewels.
The statue and the tomb of the apostle escaped desecration, through the policy of Al-Mansur, who feared to exasperate his allies, already shocked by the sacrilegious deeds of their infidel companions in arms. This forbearance of the Moslem general was afterwards distorted by the clergy into a stupendous miracle. The
Mauritanian cavalry plundered the neighboring settlements and intercepted many parties of fugitives, including not a few ecclesiastics, whose faith in the supernatural virtues of the image and the relics of the saint vanished quickly before the gleaming lances of the Saracen cavalry.
The return of the army to Cordova was signalized by a military demonstration that rivalled the pomp of a Roman triumph. In the rear of the troops, chained together by fifties, thousands of Christian captives, laden with the spoils and trophies of victory, trudged painfully along. Some carried the sacrilegious plunder of many a venerated shrine. Others supported upon their shoulders the ponderous gates of the city of Santiago. Others, again, sank under the weight of the bells of the cathedral, into whose molten mass, as yet unformed, pious devotees of either sex had cast their treasure and their jewels; whose clangor had solemnized the installation of many a prelate and the sepulture of many a saint; had aroused the enthusiasm and the devotion of pilgrims of every clime; had, until this fatal hour, been heard in a land believed to be exempt from the outrages of the infidel, but were now destined to be exhibited in his greatest temple as tokens of the supremacy attained by the most implacable foe of Christianity. In the addition to the Great Mosque, then building under the direction of Al-Mansur, these souvenirs of the most memorable campaign undertaken by the arms of the Western Khalifate were deposited, amidst the frenzied acclamations of the people. The gates were used to form a portion of the ceiling, and from them, sustained by chains of bronze, the great bells were hung inverted, to be utilized as lamps during the ceremonies of the numerous festivals prescribed by the Moslem ritual.
The career of the Mauritanian rebel Zira-Ibn-Atia, whom the prodigality of the Sultana Aurora had enabled to assert his independence, under pretext of liberating the Khalif, was not of long duration. The first army sent over by Al-Mansur to chastise his insolence met with disaster. The second, commanded by his own son, Abd-al-Melik-al-Modhaffer, vanquished the forces of Zira after a desperate struggle. The latter, with the loss of his possessions, was
also stripped of his power, and died soon after of wounds received in battle.
Early in the spring of the year 1002 the indefatigable Al-Mansur again invaded the territory of the Christians. This time his hostility was directed against the shrine of St. Emilian, the patron saint of Castile, whose church was in the village of Canales. The town, the chapel, and the convents, with all their paraphernalia of priestly imposture and superstition, were destroyed. But the renowned commander, whose prowess had so long sustained the reputation of the Moslem arms, had fought his last campaign. A painful malady, whose cause was unknown, and whose symptoms baffled the skill of the best physicians of Cordova, had some months before attacked him. The exposure and excitement of this expedition increased its violence. The illustrious sufferer became so weak that he was forced to travel in a litter. It was evident from his emaciated form and incessant agony that he was fast approaching his end. At MedinaCeli the army halted. Its general could proceed no farther. A universal feeling of sorrow arose as the sad tidings of the condition of the dying chieftain spread throughout the camp.
The memory of the turbulent populace of the capital, and the consciousness that it had required all the energy of his determined character to triumph over his domestic enemies, embittered the last moments of Al-Mansur. He dreaded the inauguration of anarchy and the resultant partition of the khalifate. He was only too well acquainted with the instability of the vast and magnificent fabric of greatness which his genius had reared. With a view to preserve as long as possible for his sons the power he was unable to legally transmit, he directed Abd-al-Melik to hasten at once to Cordova and assume command of the garrison. To his second son, Abd-alRahman, he transferred his authority over the army. Many wise injunctions were imparted by their dying parent to these two young officers, whose military character had been formed under his own eye during many eventful campaigns. The elder, who was not an unworthy descendant of so great a sire, profited largely by his opportunities. The younger, unequal to the task of government, was
destined to realize the worst expectations his acquaintances had formed of his erratic and licentious nature.
His instructions ended, the strength of Al-Mansur gave way, and he received with calm resignation the inexorable summons of the Angel of Death. For years he had entertained a presentiment that he should end his days at the head of his army, perhaps in the heat of battle. It was not only his hope, but he made it the subject of his daily petitions, that Allah would vouchsafe to him the glorious privilege of dying in war against the infidel, thereby to merit the recompense of martyrdom. In expectation of a favorable answer to his prayers, the arrangements for his burial were always ready. His shroud was invariably included among the effects of his camp equipage. It was of linen made from flax grown on his paternal estate at Torrox and woven by the hands of his own daughters. His conscience told him that the material thus produced and prepared was not tainted with the bloody reminiscences that popular report insinuated too often attached to his other possessions. The provident statesman, whose aspirations were not confined to matters terrestrial, and carrying into his relations with Allah the same prudence which had distinguished his earthly career, neglected no precaution to insure his salvation. A well-known text of the Koran declares that he who appears before the Almighty with the dust of the Holy War upon his feet shall be exempt from the tortures of eternal fire. To secure this advantage on the Day of Judgment, Al-Mansur carried with him in all his campaigns a silver casket of elegant design, into which, every evening when the army halted, his attendants carefully collected the dust which had accumulated upon his garments during the day. Enveloped in the shroud prepared for so many years, and sprinkled with this holy dust, the body of the great Moslem general was laid at rest in the city of Medina-Celi.
The character of Mohammed-Ibn-Amir-Al-Mansur has already been partially delineated in these pages. In it both good and evil were unsparingly mingled. Beyond measure shrewd, politic, audacious, and resolute, he was an adept in instigating others to the commission of discreditable acts by which he profited, while his instruments alone endured the odium attaching to them. By the
irresistible force of intellect he had risen from obscurity to the enjoyment of imperial power. No act of wanton cruelty ever polluted his administration. Yet such was his firmness and the fear in which he was held that no sedition during his ascendency disturbed the peace of the khalifate. His conduct on all occasions where his personal interests were not immediately concerned was, for the most part, guided by the principles of equity. His own son was sacrificed to the maintenance of public order. The deeds of violence and tyranny for which he was so grossly abused were the results of political necessity,—measures suggested by the pressing exigencies of the occasion, and dictated by the instinct of self-preservation. Born in a comparatively humble rank of life, his matrimonial alliances were sought by princes. The daughters of Bermudo, King of the Asturias, and Sancho, King of Navarre, were inmates of his harem. Despite his talents as a statesman and his long series of military triumphs, his popularity was superficial, and his position was maintained with difficulty. He was everywhere designated by the significant and opprobrious nickname of “The Fox.” His old literary associates envied and maligned him. The courtiers were jealous of his rapidly acquired fame, and sedulously depreciated his abilities. The eunuchs justly attributed to his agency the impairment of their political fortunes, and held him in detestation as the relentless enemy of their caste. The aristocracy sneered at his pretensions and privately denounced him as an insolent parvenu. The fanatical populace repeated his alleged atheistic speeches with pious horror, a feeling which even his ostentatious charity and apparently strict observance of the duties of a faithful Mussulman could not counteract. Inconsistent with the encouragement of literature, as the narrow policy which delivered the scientific works of the library of AlHakem to the tender mercies of ignorant bigots would seem to indicate, Al-Mansur was, nevertheless, a munificent patron of letters. His house was so frequented by men of genius and literary proclivities that it was compared to an academy He often visited the University, listened to the lectures of the teachers, and rewarded the proficiency of the students. By his express orders the recitations were not suspended either at his entrance or his departure. Many of the most accomplished scholars of the East and West continued
under his auspices, as they had done under those of Al-Hakem, to adorn the court, and to delight with their learning the critical and fastidious society of Cordova. A special fund, appropriated from the public treasury, was assigned for the support of these distinguished guests of the State. Famous grammarians, poets, and historians, who found this a lucrative field for the exercise of their talents, took up their residence in the capital. The reputations of the physicians and surgeons of Andalusia, now greater than ever, had long since spread to the remotest borders of Europe. Whenever Al-Mansur undertook an expedition, there followed in his train a number of bards and chroniclers, who could without delay record his achievements, and celebrate in the most stirring and pathetic strains of which the poesy of the Desert was capable the valor, the generosity, the piety, of the renowned champion of the Moslem faith. Forty-one of the most accomplished literary men of the empire accompanied the army for this purpose during the Catalonian campaign.
The enlargement of the Mosque, whose size was doubled by the additions of Al-Mansur, was undertaken quite as much to restore his failing credit with the ministers of religion as to accommodate the vast and increasing crowds which on Fridays assembled in the House of God. The land required for the extension was paid for at twice the valuation, already sufficiently exorbitant, estimated by the owners themselves. In the garden of an old woman, whose premises it was absolutely necessary for the architect to secure, stood a magnificent palm. At first she obstinately refused to sell her property, but after repeated solicitations she consented to exchange it for another residence in whose grounds was a tree of equal size and beauty. But even amidst the tropical vegetation of the environs of Cordova such a condition was not easily complied with. At length, in the vicinity of Medina-al-Zahrâ, an estate which possessed the desired requisite was procured at a fabulous price.
In imitation of his predecessors the khalifs, Al-Mansur performed for weeks the duties of a common laborer on the foundation and the superstructure of the Mosque. This addition, still intact, constructed of coarse materials and unsymmetrical in form, is readily
distinguishable from the rest of the interior, whose sweeping horseshoe arches and exquisite decorations are models of grace and beauty. So meritorious was this work considered by the Mussulman theologians, that they declared that its accomplishment alone was sufficient to obtain for its author a seat in Paradise.
The energy of Al-Mansur was far from being consumed in military expeditions and the pursuit of glory. In the frequent intervals of peace his efforts were largely directed to improving the condition of his subjects, the highest and most noble title to distinction to which a ruler can aspire. He reformed the abuses which had crept into the administration of justice. He checked the peculations which were exhausting the treasury, by the institution of a rigid system of accounts and the severe punishment of dishonest officials. He sternly rebuked the intolerance of zealots who attempted to establish, without his sanction, a policy of persecution for opinions which they considered heretical. With his advent to power, the malignant influence of the eunuchs was no longer felt in the precincts of the court, and the uneasy genius of this pernicious class was diverted from the tortuous paths of political intrigue to the harmless and pleasing occupations of literature and art. He improved the breed of horses by the importation of the purest blood of Arabia. There was scarcely a river in Andalusia which could not boast of a bridge either built or repaired by the orders of the able and tireless minister. New highways were opened. Old ones were widened and extended. By these wise acts of public utility not only was the march of troops facilitated, but the trade of country and city was prodigiously increased, with a corresponding diminution of the price of provisions, whose abundance and cheapness materially benefited all classes of the population. The best commentary on his transcendent abilities is found in the fact that the empire which he had ruled with such glory and success perished with him. His majestic personality dominated everything. In the history of Islam no similar example of universally recognized individual superiority has ever been recorded. This extraordinary genius seemed impregnable to the temptations which usually assail the favorites of fortune. He was addicted to none of those unnatural vices whose practice defiled the characters of even the greatest of the Ommeyades. His harem
was maintained rather as an accessory to his dignity than as an instrument of his pleasures. His amour with Aurora, which had provoked the sarcastic jests of the populace, had been from first to last a mere matter of policy. The passion of the Sultana he had deliberately used as the instrument of his ambition; when it had served his purpose it was as deliberately cast aside. With every opportunity for the accumulation of untold wealth, Al-Mansur acquired no more than was necessary to sustain the pomp incident to his exalted rank. Avarice had no place in his nature. His own treasure as well as that of the government he freely dispensed in charitable donations. The slightest act of extortion committed by one of his subordinates was met with chastisement that barely left the offender with life. No one who had merited his gratitude was ever forgotten in the distribution of official honors. No one whose insolence had at any time provoked his indignation went unpunished. In the accomplishment of his ambition, he persistently ignored the most obvious principles of morality. In his administration of petty offices of the inferior magistracy and of the highest employments of the state alike, he ordinarily observed the rules of the most impartial justice. After every victory gained by his arms he liberated hundreds of slaves.
A delusive appearance of moderation is suggested by the conduct of Al-Mansur, when we reflect that he denied himself the more than regal prestige which attached to the name of Commander of the Faithful. There is no doubt, however, that he ardently coveted that distinction. The possession of the substance of power did not satisfy his lofty aspirations. He arrogated to himself the remaining titles of the Khalif, as he had already appropriated the latter’s prerogatives. He substituted his own seal for that of the injured Hischem. He boldly assumed the right to appoint his son to the office of prime minister, the very employment from which he himself derived his entire authority. The brilliancy of his achievements, the extent of his renown, the autocratic exertion of his power, had awed and dazzled his subjects, but had not secured their attachment. The masses openly applauded and secretly detested him. The various nations composing the population of Moorish Spain, while mutually hostile in many respects, were firmly united in their reverence for the
inalienable rights of the crown. The religious character which invested the Khalif deepened and intensified this feeling. The sagacity of Al-Mansur did not suffer him to be deluded with the idea that he could violate with impunity the most sacred opinions and prejudices of the people. Moreover, an ancient tradition, universally believed, declared that a change of the dynasty portended the speedy destruction of the khalifate. The man who in defiance of these ideas could attempt open usurpation was a public enemy, something worse, if possible, than a traitor. For these cogent reasons, therefore, Al-Mansur did not seize the royal office, which, had he been able to assume it, might perhaps have retained the succession in his own family. As it was, he weakened the veneration entertained for the principle of legitimacy, without acquiring for his descendants any permanent advantage in return for the sacrifice. No one realized these facts so thoroughly as himself. The future of the empire engrossed his thoughts. It presented itself to his mind amidst the deliberations of the Divan, in the literary discussions of the University, in the manœuvres on the field of battle. It disturbed his slumbers. It embittered his dying moments. The mortal torture he endured from the reflection that by his agency the integrity of the khalifate had been irretrievably impaired, and that he could not transmit the inheritance of his glory, was almost as intense as any he could have experienced through remorse for crimes perpetrated in the pursuit of his unrighteous ambition.
The history of the campaigns of Al-Mansur differs materially from that of the military enterprises of his predecessors. Heretofore, in all important wars, the Christians were the aggressors. But under the minister of Hischem the Moslems always led the attack. Other rulers had negotiated treaties either prompted by victory or compelled by defeat. In twenty-five years he never made terms with the infidel. His success became habitual, and infused a just confidence into his own followers, while in a corresponding degree it disheartened the enemy. Almost for the first time in the annals of Islam the peremptory injunction of the Koran was fulfilled to the letter. The effects of one campaign were not repaired before the calamities of another were at hand. The frontier to the Christian states receded. The great cities of Zamora, Leon, Astorga, Barcelona, Pampeluna, Santiago were
levelled with the dust. Cathedrals and monasteries were plundered of wealth bestowed by pious sovereigns and generations of grateful devotees. The incomes of the priesthood ceased on account of the devastation of their estates. With the ruin of the religious houses and the impoverishment of their occupants, the Christian worship declined. The prestige of the ecclesiastical order was weakened, and over an extensive region once abounding with churches and convents scarcely a reminiscence of Christianity survived. By the successive desecration of the two holiest shrines in Europe, the faith of the multitude in the boasted efficacy of relics, in the celestial intercession of saints, and even in the value of religion itself, was seriously shaken. The misfortunes of the clergy—who still, however, retained a portion of their ancient discipline—reacted on the other divisions of society, already sufficiently demoralized. The monarch and the nobles evinced a disposition to resist the insolent demands of the priesthood, and have been, in consequence, anathematized by prelates and defamed by chroniclers. The king seized without ceremony the property of his subjects. The barons plundered the royal estates, and cast lots for the serfs and the flocks which they had appropriated. In less than twenty years the Christians lost all they had gained in the previous three hundred. Even the defiles of their mountains were occupied by Moorish garrisons, and the Asturian peasant was compelled to purchase the uncertain privilege of procuring his own sustenance by the surrender of the larger share of the results of his labor. Such were the effects of the policy of AlMansur on the two rival nations of the Peninsula, a policy whose benefits perished with the author, but whose evils were destined to be augmented and perpetuated through a long period of national misfortune and disorder.
Berber immigration, encouraged by the conspicuous favor enjoyed by the African divisions of the army, as well as by the rich rewards of successful warfare, and which was fated to inflict such disasters upon the dismembered monarchy, increased beyond precedent during the administration of Al-Mansur. Entire tribes passed the Strait to share the tempting spoil of the Holy War There was no room for these ferocious soldiers in the crowded cities. Even in the country, so thickly populated, space could hardly be found for
their encampments. Their tents were pitched in the pastures and on the slopes of the sierra. Their fierce aspect appalled all who beheld them. Their costumes and their arms were strange and foreign. Ignorant of Arabic, the guttural accents of their Mauritanian dialect grated upon the ears of the polished Andalusian. In times of the greatest victories, when the people were intoxicated with success, there were discerning men who dreaded the ascendency of such dangerous allies. It was, however, the inexhaustible supply of African recruits which secured the unbroken series of triumphs that signalized the career of Al-Mansur Their numbers were overwhelming. In a review held before an expedition into the North, six hundred thousand troops were mustered in the plain of Cordova.
The news of the death of the potent minister was received by the majority of the inhabitants of the capital with a feeling of exultation. With the multitude, his eminent services could not atone for the obscurity of his birth or the splendor of his fortune. The animosities of contending sects, the jealousies of competing tradesmen, the envy of the masses towards the powerful, the disdain of the wealthy for the poor, were forgotten in the common desire to humiliate the family of the great chieftain through whose genius the Moslem empire had enjoyed such an extraordinary measure of prosperity and fame. An insurrection broke out. The mob, surrounding the palace, demanded that the Khalif in person should assume the direction of affairs. But the latter, who now, more than ever, felt his incompetency to govern, again voluntarily renounced the rights of sovereignty The tumult increased; the garrison was called out, and Al-Modhaffer signalized his accession as hajib by the massacre of several hundred citizens. This example of severity was not soon forgotten; the spirit of revolt was crushed, and Al-Mansur, who on his death-bed had foreseen the occurrence of a similar catastrophe, thus averted by his prophetic wisdom a rebellion, which, unchecked, must have been productive of appalling consequences. The prince, Al-Modhaffer, inherited in no small degree the military talents and capacity for civil affairs possessed by his father, whose maxims he in the main adopted. Few details exist relative to his administration, which, however, was eminently popular and successful. The expeditions he made into the Christian territory were not attended
with the brilliant results which characterized the exploits of his father Neither profit nor glory could be derived from the invasion of a desert and the chase of bands of wandering robbers. These forays, however, served the useful purpose of intimidation, and impeded the recovery of the Christian power. Relieved from the prodigality and great military expenses incurred by the aggressive policy of AlMansur, the inexhaustible resources of the Peninsula were permitted to develop to the utmost. Commerce, manufactures, agriculture, flourished to a degree heretofore unknown. The rule of Al-Modhaffer is regretfully alluded to by subsequent writers as coincident with the golden age of Moslem annals.
After a reign of seven years, Al-Modhaffer died, under circumstances which raised a strong suspicion of poison. By a previous arrangement, which popular rumor suggested as the motive of his death, his office was transferred to his brother, Abd-alRahman. The latter was the offspring of a Christian princess, the daughter of Sancho, King of Navarre. By his vices and his blasphemy he had incurred the dislike of the people and provoked the execration of the theologians. The former, in memory of his infidel grandfather, fastened upon him the diminutive “Sanchol,” an epithet of contempt. The latter recounted with indignant horror his immoderate indulgence in wine and his open ridicule of the sacred ceremonies of Islam. Aware of his unpopularity, Abd-al-Rahman nevertheless continued to outrage public sentiment, and made no attempt to gain the attachment of his subjects or to conciliate his ecclesiastical adversaries. He even had the audacity to ask of Hischem his investiture and acknowledgment as heir presumptive to the throne. The Khalif was prevailed upon, partly by sophistry, partly by threats, to comply with this extravagant and impolitic demand, and an edict was drawn up in due form and published, proclaiming the detested Sanchol heir to the titles and the authority of the illustrious dynasty of the Ommeyades.
No measure could have been devised by his most bitter enemy so fatal to the aspirations of its promoter as this concession wrung from a reluctant and persecuted sovereign. It was alike an insult to religion and to loyalty. It attacked the sacred character of the
Successor of the Prophet, while attempting to abrogate the prerogatives which, in the eye of the devoted subject, were inseparable from the condition of sovereignty. Sanchol further increased the prevailing discontent by compelling the soldiers to discard the helmet for the turban, an innovation which, appropriating a distinctive portion of the attire of theologians, was generally regarded as a flagrant act of sacrilege.
Careless of public opinion, and confident of the stability of his power, Sanchol began to entertain aspirations to military distinction. He led an expedition into the Asturias, the results of which were not flattering to his vanity. The mountain defiles, filled with snow, impeded his progress, and the scarcity of provisions, which he had neglected to provide in sufficient quantities, finally compelled him to retreat. In the mean time Cordova was in revolt. A band of conspirators headed by Mohammed, a great-grandson of Abd-alRahman III., surprised the citadel. The unfortunate Hischem, the puppet of every faction, was compelled to abdicate. The religious fanatics and the populace hailed the change of government with extravagant expressions of joy, a feeling by no means shared by the wealthy and intelligent, who anticipated with undisguised concern the destructive tyranny of a succession of military adventurers.
The first act of Mohammed was the seizure of Zahira. The stronghold of the Amirides was entered and sacked by an infuriated rabble. For four days the beautiful palace founded by Al-Mansur was at the mercy of the revolutionists and outlaws of the capital. The long rows of villas, which, embosomed in shady groves of palm- and orange-trees, stretched away to the Guadalquivir, were visited with the same destruction. Everything portable, even to the woodwork, was removed. No estimate could be made of the plunder secured by the mob, who ransacked every apartment; but the soldiers of Mohammed delivered to their master two million one hundred thousand pieces of silver and a million five hundred thousand pieces of gold. The torch was then applied and the entire suburb was reduced to ashes. The stones were gradually appropriated for the construction of other buildings, and in a few years the memory as
well as the ruins of the seat of the Amirides had completely vanished.
When the intelligence of these events was transmitted to Sanchol at Toledo, he set out at once with his army for Cordova. The march had scarcely begun before he experienced the full extent of his unpopularity, which heretofore he had refused to believe. His force was diminished daily by desertions. Many of the soldiers who remained refused to obey their officers. At a short distance from the capital, the Berbers, on whom he placed his main reliance, left the camp at midnight, and morning found the commander with a slender retinue, whose number did not equal that of his ordinary body-guard.
Notwithstanding these ominous indications, the infatuation of Sanchol, who fancied that the people of Cordova would, by the mere effect of his presence, be induced to return to their allegiance, urged him on to his ruin. He was seized by the troops of Mohammed, beheaded, his body clothed in rags and nailed to a stake, and then placed with the head—which was impaled on a pike—in one of the most public quarters of the city. With the death of Sanchol, the rule of the Amirides, who, in a subordinate capacity, had for a generation exercised despotic power, and whose policy was destined to visit upon their countrymen a long series of misfortunes, terminated forever.
The pernicious effects of the practical usurpation of Al-Mansur now became apparent. The ambition of every aspiring partisan was encouraged by the example of that gifted leader whose extraordinary talents had raised him to such a height of affluence and renown.
Mohammed was no sooner fairly seated upon the throne, when the populace again began to murmur. The excitement of revolution, once enjoyed, was too pleasant to be abandoned for the severe restraints of law and social order And in reality only too much cause existed for popular dissatisfaction. The new sovereign was cruel, rapacious, dissolute. He took the heads of rebellious vassals sent him by his generals, had them cleansed, and the skulls—in which flowers had been planted—arranged in fantastic designs in the garden of his palace. His drunken and licentious orgies were the reproach of the court. He alienated the theologians, who soon
discovered that they had made a bad exchange for even the dissipated and impious Sanchol. He persecuted the Berbers, who had inherited the vices and the unpopularity of the eunuchs, but who for a quarter of a century had been the support of the monarchy. To avoid the possible restoration of Hischem, he publicly announced his death, substituted for his corpse that of a Christian killed for the occasion, and who bore a striking likeness to the Khalif, and celebrated his obsequies with all the magnificence due to departed royalty. The performance of the rites of Mussulman burial over the body of an infidel was, in the eyes of every true believer, a deed of unparalleled infamy. The unpopularity of Mohammed increased daily. A sedition broke out headed by Hischem, a grandson of Abd-alRahman III., who boldly demanded the crown of his kinsman. The usurper pretended to accede, and secretly despatched emissaries to incite the Berbers to plunder the capital. The scheme was successful; at the first appearance of these detested foreigners in the market-place, the tradesmen arose in a body and, aided by the royal body-guard, drove the Africans from the city. The pretender was taken in the confusion attending the skirmish and immediately executed.
His place was filled by Suleyman, another prince of the Ommeyade line. Negotiations were entered into with the Count of Castile, who, in consideration of the surrender of certain territory, agreed to furnish a large contingent of men and horses. As soon as their organization was effected, the Berbers marched on the capital. A battle was fought on the plain of Cantich, but the disorderly rabble of Cordova were unable to resist the fierce onset of the African cavalry, and ten thousand of the partisans of Mohammed fell by the sword or perished in the Guadalquivir. Mohammed then liberated Hischem, whose supposed corpse he had buried, resigned his dignity, and proclaimed the son of Al-Hakem sovereign of Spain. But the ruse had no effect. The Cordovans admitted the Berbers, and Suleyman occupied the palace of the khalifs.
Henceforth the story of the Peninsula is one of anarchy and ruin. Every province, every hamlet, was a prey to the hatred of contending parties intensified by the daily infliction of mutual outrages. Christian
