Routledge History of World Philosophies
For a full list of titles in this series, please visit: www.routledge.com/Routledge-History-of-World-Philosophies/bookseries/SE0243
Other titles in the series:
Routledge History of Indian Philosophy
EditedbyPurushottamaBilimoria
Routledge History of Chinese Philosophy
EditedbyBoMou
Routledge History of Jewish Philosophy
EditedbyDanielH.FrankandOliverLeaman
Routledge History of Islamic Philosophy
EditedbySeyyedHosseinNasrandOliverLeaman
ROUTLEDGE HISTORY OF WORLD PHILOSOPHIES
HISTORY OF INDIAN PHILOSOPHY
Editor-in-Chief: Purushottama Bilimoria
Associate Editors: J. N. Mohanty, Amy
Rayner, John Powers, Stephen Phillips, RichardKing, andChristopher Key Chapple
First published 2018 by Routledge
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Library ofCongress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Bilimoria, Purushottama, editor.
Title: The Routledge history of Indian philosophy / [edited by] Purushottama Bilimoria.
Description: 1 [edition]. | New York : Routledge, 2017. | Series: Routledge history of world philosophies | Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2017023453 (print) | LCCN 2017033543 (ebook) | ISBN 9781315666792 (E-book) | ISBN 9780415309769 (hardback : alk. paper)
Subjects: LCSH: Philosophy, Indic–History. | Philosophy–India–History.
Classification: LCC B131 (ebook) | LCC B131 .R67 2017 (print) | DDC 181/.4–dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2017023453
ISBN: 978-0-415-30976-9 (hbk)
ISBN: 978-1-315-66679-2 (ebk)
Typeset in Goudy Old Style
By Out of House Publishing
Thisvolumeisdedicatedinmemoryof:
BimalK.Matilal,KyabjeChodenRinpoche,WilhelmHalbfass,Daya Krishna,K.T.Pandurangi,R.Balasubramanian,UnebeToshiya, NathmalTatia,PamelaSueAnderson,PeterKakol,Sibajiban Bhattacharyyya,andVenerableThubtenKunsang(HenriLopez)
Notesoncontributors
Preface
I Knowledge, context, concepts
1 Interpretations or interventions? Indian philosophy in the global cosmopolis
2 Methodology in Indian philosophy
3 Pramāṇaepistemology: origins and developments
4 Buddhist hermeneutics JohnPowers
5 Process philosophy and phenomenology of time in Buddhism HariShankarPrasad
6 Philosophy and religion in India JessicaFrazier
7 Indian skepticism
8 Self in Indian philosophy: questions, answers, issues
9 Contents of consciousness: perception
Upaniṣads BrianBlack
Sāṃkhya MikelBurley 14 The diverse traditions of Sāṃkhya KnutA.Jacobsen
Mīmāṃsā ElisaFreschi
16 The categories in Vaiśeṣika: known and named ShashiPrabhaKumar
Nyāya StephenPhillips 18 The Nyāya on inference and fallacies
J.L.Shaw
19 Embodied connectionism: Nyāya philosophy of mind DouglasL.Berger
20 A phenomenological reading of the Nyāya critique of the no-self view: Udayana and the phenomenal separateness of self
ChakravarthiRam-Prasad
21 Udayana’s theory of extrinsic validity in his theistic monograph
TaiseiShida
22 Early Vedānta
AndrewJ.Nicholson
23 Advaita Vedānta of Śaṅkara
ThomasA.Forsthoefel
24 Avidyā: the hard problem in Advaita Vedānta
StephenKaplan
25 Viśiṣṭādvaita Vedānta
ChristopherBartley
26 An overview of classical Yoga philosophy as a philosophy of embodied self-awareness
AnaLauraFunesMaderey
27 A reassessment of classical Yoga philosophy
IanWhicher
IIb Philosophical traditions
28 Indian Yogācāra Buddhism: a historical perspective
WilliamS.Waldron
29 Early Mahāyāna
PeterGilks
30 Abhidharma
JosephWalser
31 Nāgārjuna
JayL.Garfield
32 Nāgārjuna’s early Madhyamaka: “deconstruction” and moderation
DouglasL.Berger
33 A spectrum of metaphysical positions concerning the existence or non-existence of a self: Nyāya, Śaiva Siddhānta, Mīmāṃsā, Jainism and Buddhism
AlexWatson
34 Svātantrika Madhyamaka metaphysics: Bhāvaviveka’s conception of reality
SonamThakchoe
35 The two truths in Madhyamaka: Jñānagarbha
SonamThakchoe
36 Vajrayāna Buddhism
JosephLoizzo,editedbyAmyRayner
IIc Philosophical traditions
37 Hermeneutics: Hindu, Buddhist, and Jaina
ArthurDudney
38 Basic Jaina epistemology
JayandraSoni
39 Anekāntavāda, Nayavāda, and Syādvāda: the history and significance of the Jaina doctrines of relativity
JefferyD.Long
40 Jaina ethics and moral philosophy
ChristopherKeyChapple
41 Tantra and Kashmiri Śaivism
DavidPeterLawrence
42 Looking beyond the Darśanas: Tantric knowledge systems and Indian philosophy
JasonSchwartz
43 The epistemology of classical Hindu Law
DonaldR.Davis,Jr .
44 Abhinavagupta
LoriliaiBiernacki
45 Cognition and language: Buddhist criticism of Bhartṛhari’s thesis
ToshiyaUnebe
46 Alaṃkārkaśāstra as a philosophical discipline
DavidMellins
47 Indian philosophy of music
WilliamJ.Jackson
III Engaging and encounters: modern and postmodern
48 Islamic modernism in India
MuhammadKamal
49 Gur-Sikh dharam
BalbinderSinghBhogal
50 Buddhist ethics
DamienKeown
51 Process Buddhism: ethics and social engagement
PeterPaulKakol,editedbyAmyRayner
52 Indian and European philosophy
ThomasB.Ellis
53 Modern philosophy in India
A.Raghuramaraju
54 Gandhi’s truth: debating Bilgrami
BinduPuri
55 Understanding Indian philosophical traditions
Anna-PyaSjödin
56 G. R. Malkani
SharadDeshpande
57 Postmodern approaches
CarlOlson
58 Philosophy in an age of postcolonialism
JosephPrabhu
Glossaryofsanskritterms
Index
Contributors
Christopher Bartley teaches philosophy at the University of Liverpool. His publications include An Introduction to Indian Philosophy: Hindu and Buddhist Thought (2013); “Hinduism,” in Death and Dying (2013); and the entry on Radhakrishnan in EncyclopediaofHinduism(2013).
Douglas L. Berger is an Associate Professor of Indian and Chinese Philosophical Traditions and Cross-Cultural Hermeneutics at Southern Illinois University, Carbondale. He is chief editor of the University of Hawai’i book series Dimensions of Asian Spirituality and former president of the Society of Asian and Comparative Philosophy. He is the author of numerous articles as well as two books, TheVeilofMāyā:Schopenhauer’sSystemandEarlyIndian Thought (2004) and Encounters of Mind: Luminosity and PersonhoodinIndianandChineseThought(2015).
Purushottama Bilimoria is Honorary Professor of Philosophy and Comparative Studies at Deakin University and Senior Fellow with the University of Melbourne, Australia. He is also Visiting Professor at the University of California, Berkeley, where he has been Chancellor’s Scholar. He has been a Fellow at Harvard and Oxford (All Souls and OCHS). He serves as Distinguished Teaching Fellow and Doctoral Faculty at the Center for Dharma Studies in the Graduate Theological Union, Berkeley, as well as Editor- in- Chief of two journals, Sophia and the International Journal of Dharma Studies. His research and publications are on classical Indian philosophy, emotions, aesthetics, comparative ethics, continental
philosophy, comparative philosophy of religion, diaspora, bioethics, secularity and customary law.
Balbinder Singh Bhogal joined Hofstra University in 2007, and currently holds the Sardarni Kuljit Kaur Bindra Chair in Sikh Studies. Previously, he has been a professor at the University of Derby, UK, James Madison University, Virginia, and York University, Toronto. His Ph.D. was titled “Nonduality and Skilful Means in the Hymns of Guru Nanak: Hermeneutics of the Word” (School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London, 2001). His primary research interests are South Asian religions and cultures, specializing in the Sikh tradition, particularly the Guru Granth Sahib, its philosophy and exegesis.
Loriliai Biernacki is Associate Professor at the University of Colorado at Boulder. Her research interests include Hinduism, ethics, gender, and the interface between religion and science. Her first book, Renowned Goddess of Desire (2007), won the Kayden Award in 2008. She is co-editor of God’s Body: Panentheism across World Religious Traditions (2013), and is currently working on a study on Abhinavagupta, wonder, and ideas of the body.
Brian Black is Lecturer in Religious Studies in the Department of Politics, Philosophy and Religion at Lancaster University, UK. He is the author of The Character of the Self in Ancient India:Priests, Kings,andWomen intheEarlyUpaniṣads(2007); co-editor (with Simon Brodbeck) of Gender and Narrative in the Mahābhārata (2007); and co-editor (with Laurie Patton) of the book series Dialogues in South Asian Traditions: Religion, Philosophy, Literature and History.
Mikel Burley is Associate Professor of Religion and Philosophy at the University of Leeds, UK. His books include Rebirth and the StreamofLife:APhilosophicalStudyofReincarnation,Karmaand
Ethics (2016); Contemplating Religious Forms of Life: Wittgenstein and D. Z. Phillips (2012); Classical Sāṃkhya and Yoga: An Indian Metaphysics of Experience (2007); and HaṭhaYoga: Its Context, Theory and Practice (2000). He compiled the annotated bibliography on “Sāṃkhya and Philosophical Yoga” for OxfordBibliographiesOnline(2013) and is co-editor of Language, EthicsandAnimalLife:WittgensteinandBeyond(2012).
Monima Chadha is a Senior Lecturer in Philosophy at Monash University, Australia. In 2013 she was awarded the Contemplative Studies Fellowship by the Mind and Life Institute and Templeton Foundation, USA. Her principal research area is the cross-cultural philosophy of mind, specifically the classical Indian and contemporary Western philosophy of mind.
Nirmalya N. Chakraborty is Associate Professor in Philosophy at Rabindra Bharati University, Kolkata. He was a Commonwealth Fellow at the University of Glasgow and served as the Member Secretary of the Indian Council of Philosophical Research, New Delhi. Chakraborty is the author of PursuitofMeaning(2004) and In Defense of Intrinsic Value of Nature (2004). He has edited Empiricism and Two Dogmas (2006) and Perspectives on Radhakrishnan(2011).
Christopher Key Chapple is Doshi Professor of Indic and Comparative Theology and founding director of the Master of Arts in Yoga Studies at Loyola Marymount University, Los Angeles. His published books include KarmaandCreativity(1986), Nonviolence toAnimals,Earth,andSelfinAsianTraditions(1993), Reconciling Yogas (2003), Yoga andtheLuminous(2008), and several edited volumes on religion and ecology. He serves on the advisory boards for the Forum on Religion and Ecology (Yale), the Ahimsa Center (Pomona), and the Jaina Studies Centre (London). He
edits the journal Worldviews: Global Religions, Culture, and Ecology.
Christian Coseru is an Associate Professor of Philosophy in the Department of Philosophy at the College of Charleston, working in the fields of philosophy of mind, phenomenology, and crosscultural philosophy, especially Indian and Buddhist philosophy in dialogue with Western philosophy and cognitive science. He is the author of Perceiving Reality: Consciousness, Intentionality, and Cognition in Buddhist Philosophy (2012) and is currently working on a book manuscript on the intersections between perceptual and affective consciousness, tentatively entitled Sense, SelfAwareness, and Sensibility. Previously Christian taught in the Centre for Asian Societies and Histories at the Australian National University.
Donald R. Davis, Jr. is Associate Professor of Sanskrit and Indic Religions in the Department of Asian Studies at the University of Texas at Austin. He has published TheBoundariesofHinduLaw: Tradition,Custom,andPolitics inMedievalKerala(2004) and The SpiritofHinduLaw(2010).
Sharad Deshpande is former Professor of Philosophy at University of Pune. Currently a Tagore Fellow at the Indian Institute of Advanced Study, Shimla. His publications include The Philosophy ofG. R. Malkani(ed.), 200Years ofKant(ed.), and Theoriesand Forms in Indian Aesthetic Tradition (co-ed.). He has been a visiting fellow at various universities in India and the UK.
Arthur Dudney is currently a Leverhulme Early Career Fellow at the University of Cambridge. His research considers philological discourse (literary criticism and associated disciplines) in Persia during the Mughal period, with a particular interest in how Persian philology shaped Urdu and Hindi. He was formerly a Mellon Postdoctoral Fellow at Oxford University. He received his Ph.D.
from Columbia University’s Department of Middle Eastern, South Asian, and African Studies (MESAAS) in 2013, and an AB in Classics from Princeton University in 2005.
Thomas B. Ellis (Ph.D., University of Pennsylvania) is an Associate Professor in the Department of Philosophy and Religion at Appalachian State University, North Carolina, USA. He is the author of On the Death of the Pilgrim: The Postcolonial HermeneuticsofJaravaLalMehta. Ellis has also published articles in the journals International Journal of Hindu Studies, Journal of Vaishnava Studies, Method and Theory in the Study of Religion, and the JournaloftheAmericanAcademyofReligion.
Thomas A. Forsthoefel, Ph.D., is a Professor of Religious Studies at Mercyhurst University, USA, specializing in Indian philosophy and religion. He has written, edited, or co-edited four books: Knowing beyond Knowledge, a study of the cognitive dimension of religious experience in Hindu non-dualism; Gurus in America, an edited volume which considers the social and philosophical negotiations of late twentieth-century Hindu spiritual leadership in America; Soulsong: Seeking Holiness, Coming Home, a crosscultural exploration of holiness and human flourishing; and The DalaiLama:EssentialWritings.
Jessica Frazier is Lecturer in Religious Studies at the University of Kent, UK, managing editor of the JournalofHinduStudies, and a Fellow of the Oxford Centre for Hindu Studies. She is the author of The ContinuumCompanion to Hindu Studies; Reality, Religion and Passion: Indian and Western Approaches in Hans-Georg Gadamer and Rūpa Gosvāmi; numerous chapters on Hindu philosophies and arts; and is editor of Thinking Inside the Box: TheConceptofCategoriesinIndianPhilosophy.
Elisa Freschi has published on Mīmāṃsā and on its interactions with other systems. After her Duty, Language and Exegesis in
Prābhākara Mīmāṃsā (2012), she co-authored Rule-Extension Strategies in Ancient India: Śrautasūtra, Mīmāṃsā and Grammar (2013) and edited The Re-Use of Texts in Indian Philosophy (2014).
Jay L. Garfield is Kwan Im Thong Hood Cho Professor of Humanities and Head of Studies in Philosophy at Yale-NUS College, Professor of Philosophy at the National University of Singapore, Recurrent Visiting Professor of Philosophy at Yale University, Doris Silbert Professor in the Humanities and Professor of Philosophy at Smith College, Professor of Philosophy at Melbourne University, and Adjunct Professor of Philosophy at the Central University of Tibetan Studies. He earned his Ph.D. in Philosophy at the University of Pittsburgh. Professor Garfield teaches and pursues research in the philosophy of mind, foundations of cognitive science, logic, philosophy of language, Buddhist philosophy, cross-cultural hermeneutics, theoretical and applied ethics, and epistemology.
Raghunath Ghosh is Professor of Philosophy at the University of North Bengal. He has published fourteen books. Ghosh is a widely travelled lecturer and researcher. He was a recipient of Best Book Award and a National Visiting Professorship from the Indian Council of Philosophical Research, New Delhi.
Peter Gilks completed his Ph.D. in Buddhist Studies at the Australian National University in 2011. He now is an Assistant Professor in the Entertainment Management Department at IShou University in Taiwan, where he teaches among other things Asian popular culture, creative thinking, and the social impact of science and technology. His research interests include popular culture, narratology, Buddhism, and the Chinese language.
William J. Jackson is Professor Emeritus at Indiana UniversityPurdue University at Indianapolis. He has published books about
South Indian religious culture, including Tyagaraja:Life andLyrics (1992), Songs of Three Great South Indian Saints (1998), and Vijayanagara Visions (2007). He has also written Tyagaraja and the Renewal of Tradition (1994) and Vijayanagara Voices (2005). He is the author of Heaven’sFractalNet:RetrievingLostVisionsin theHumanities(2004) and TheWisdomofGenerosity(2008).
Knut A. Jacobsen is Professor in the Study of Religions at the University of Bergen, Norway. His most recent publications include: Modern Indian Culture and Society (2009), Sikhs in Europe: Migration, Identities and Representations (2011, with Kristina Myrvold), and Sikhs across Borders: Transnational Practices among European Sikhs (2012, with Kristina Myrvold), and Yoga Powers: Extraordinary Capacities Attained through Meditation and Concentration (2012). Jacobsen is the founding editor-in-chief of the six-volume Brill’s Encyclopaedia ofHinduism (2009–2014).
Peter Paul Kakol lived in the Australian state of Victoria. Raised a Catholic, he began early to question his faith, leading to an interest in philosophy and world religions. Christianity and Buddhism fascinated him the most. But the only religion in which he could truly believe was one of his own creation. Hence he began to develop a blend of Process philosophy and Buddhism. This culminated in his doctoral dissertation at Deakin University in Geelong, Australia. A year before his death from cancer, Peter Kakol completed his Ph.D. He passed away in 2002, aged 34. His thesis was turned into a book by his brother Richard Kakol and mentor Purushottama Bilimoria, and published as Emptiness and Becoming: Integrating Mādhyamika Buddhism and Process Philosophy(2009), with a Foreword by Robert Neville.
Muhammad Kamal is currently a Senior Lecturer at the University of Melbourne, Australia. He has written extensively on topics in
Western and Muslim philosophy. He is the author of MullaSadra’s TransecendentPhilosophy(2006) and FromEssencetoBeing:The Philosophy of Mulla Sadra and Martin Heidegger (2010), and translator into Kurdish of a number of philosophical text including Aristotle’s Metaphysics, Heidegger’s Being and Time, and Sartre’s BeingandNothingness.
Stephen Kaplan is Professor of Religious Studies at Manhattan College, New York, USA. Many of his publications, which include two books and numerous articles, have been comparative in nature, engaging the neurosciences and employing holography as a heuristic tool. He is currently working on a new book entitled AdvaitaVedāntaandtheNeurosciences:Reductionism,NotYetor NoLonger.
Damien Keown is Emeritus Professor of Buddhist Ethics at Goldsmiths College, University of London. His main research interests are theoretical and applied aspects of Buddhist ethics. He is the author of The Nature of Buddhist Ethics (2001), Buddhism and Bioethics (2001), Buddhism: A Very Short Introduction (2000), Buddhist Ethics: A Very Short Introduction (2006), and the Oxford Dictionary of Buddhism (2003). In 1994 he founded the JournalofBuddhistEthicswith Charles S. Prebish, with whom he also co-founded the Routledge Critical Studies in Buddhism series.
ShashiPrabha Kumar is currently the Vice-Chancellor of Sanchi University of Buddhist-Indic Studies, Bhopal, India. Her major publications are: Sanskrit Studies, vol. 3 (2014), Classical Vaiśeṣika in Indian Philosophy: On Knowing and What Is to Be Known (2013), and Vaiśeṣika Darśana mein Padārtha Nirūpaṇa, 2nd ed. (2013).
David Peter Lawrence is a Professor in the Department of Philosophy and Religion at the University of North Dakota. He
specializes in nondual Kashmiri Śaivism and related areas of Hindu and Buddhist philosophy and religion. His publications include Rediscovering God with Transcendental Argument: A Contemporary Interpretation of Nondual Kashmiri Śaiva Philosophy (1999) and The Teachings of the Odd-Eyed One: A Study and Translation of the Virūpākṣapañcāśikā with the CommentaryofVidyācakravartin(2008).
Michael P. Levine is Professor of Philosophy at the University of Western Australia. He has taught at the University of Pennsylvania, Swarthmore College, the University of Virginia, and in Moscow as a Fulbright Fellow. His publications include Prospects for an Ethics of Architecture (co-authored with Bill Taylor), Thinking through Film (with Damian Cox), Politics Most Unusual (with Damian Cox and Saul Newman), Integrity and the Fragile Self (with Damian Cox and Marguerite La Caze), EngineeringandWar:Ethics,Institutions,Alternatives(with Ethan Blue and Dean Nieusma), and TheAnalyticFreud:Philosophyand Psychoanalysis (ed.). He is currently a Senior Fellow at Durham University’s Institute of Advanced Study, writing a book with Bill Taylor on catastrophe and the built environment
Joseph (Joe) Loizzo, M.D., Ph.D., is a psychiatrist and Buddhist scholar with over thirty years’ experience studying the beneficial effects of meditation on healing and learning. He is Assistant Professor of Clinical Psychiatry in Integrative Medicine at Weill Cornell Medical College and an adjunct Assistant Professor of Religion at the Columbia Center for Buddhist Studies at Columbia University. Dr. Loizzo has published numerous scientific articles and scholarly chapters on Indo-Tibetan mind and health science and mind–body methods in medicine and psychiatry. These include: five articles on meditation in the AnnalsoftheNewYork Academy of Sciences; his translation study, Nagarjuna’s Reason Sixty with Candrakirti’s Commentary; his book Sustainable
Happiness: The Mind Science of Well-Being, Altruism, and Inspiration published by Routledge; and an edited volume of essays, Advances in Contemplative Psychotherapy: Accelerating Transformation, forthcoming from Routledge.
Jeffery D. Long is Professor of Religion and Asian Studies at Elizabethtown College in Elizabethtown, Pennsylvania, where he has taught since receiving his Ph.D. from the University of Chicago Divinity School (2000). He is the author of A Vision for Hinduism: Beyond Hindu Nationalism (2007), Jainism: An Introduction(2009), the HistoricalDictionaryofHinduism(2011), and the forthcoming Indian Philosophy: An Introduction and IndianPhilosophy:TheEssentialReadings.
Ana Laura Funes Maderey is an assistant professor in philosophy at Eastern Connecticut University, USA, and she taught for Master of Arts Yoga Studies at Loyola Marymount University. Her PhD in Comparative Philosophy is from the University of Hawai’i: ‘The Subtle Layers of Bodily Awareness: An Approach from Indian Philosophy’. She is editing and contributor to Thinking with the Yoga-Sūtra of Patañjali, translation and interpretation. NY: Lexington Books, 2018 (forthcoming).
David Mellins is a scholar of Sanskrit poetics, poetry, and classical Indian semantic philosophies. He received his Ph.D. from Columbia University and has taught at Columbia, Rutgers, and Yale universities. His research topics include Jayadeva’s Candrāloka, Mammaṭa’s Kāvyaprakāśa, the Nyāyasūtra and its associated commentaries, Sanskrit benedictory verses, and the deification of speech in South Asia.
Andrew J. Nicholson is Associate Professor at Stony Brook University. His first book, Unifying Hinduism: Philosophy and Identity inIndianIntellectualHistory, received the award for Best First Book in the History of Religions from the American Academy
of Religion in 2011. His second book, LordŚiva’sSong:TheĪśvara Gītā, was published in 2014. Professor Nicholson’s research interests include the Vedānta, Sāṃkhya, Pātañjala, and Pāśupata philosophical traditions, the history of yoga, and the reception history of Asian philosophy in nineteenth- and twentieth-century Europe.
Carl Olson teaches at Allegheny College, USA. Besides numerous essays in journals, books, and encyclopedias, he has published seventeen books on subjects such as Hinduism, Buddhism, comparative philosophy, and method and theory in the study of religion. His most recent books include The Allure of Decadent Thinking: Religious Studies and the Challenge of Postmodernism and Indian Asceticism: Power, Violence, and Play, both published by Oxford University Press. Professor Olson has been appointed to the following positions: holder of the National Endowment for the Humanities Chair, 1991–1994; Holder of the Teacher-Scholar Chair in the Humanities, 2000–2003; Visiting Fellowship at Clare Hall, University of Cambridge, 2002; and elected Life Member of Clare Hall, University of Cambridge, 2002.
Stephen Phillips is Professor of Philosophy and Asian Studies at the University of Texas at Austin and has been Visiting Professor of Philosophy at the University of Hawai’i, Manoa, and Jadavpur University, Kolkata. He is the author of seven books, including Yoga, Karma, and Rebirth and Classical Indian Epistemology. Phillips is perhaps best known for his first-time translations of late classical Sanskrit philosophic texts, including the fourteenthcentury Tattva-cintā-maṇi(“Jewel of Reflection on the Truth about Epistemology”).
John Powers is a Research Professor in the Alfred Deakin Institute for Citizenship and Globalisation at Deakin University and a Fellow of the Australian Academy of Humanities. He is the author of
sixteen books, including The Buddha Party: How the People’s RepublicofChinaWorkstoDefineandControlTibetanBuddhism (2017), Dignāga’s Investigation of the Percept: A Philosophical Legacy in IndiaandTibet(with Douglas Duckworth, David Eckel, Jay Garfield, Sonam Thakchoe, and Yeshes Thabkhas; 2017), and A Bull of a Man: Images of Masculinity, Sex, and the Body in IndianBuddhism(2009).
Joseph Prabhu is Professor of Philosophy and Religion at California State University, Los Angeles. He is both a scholar and a peace activist. He has edited The Intercultural Challenge of Raimon Panikkar (1996) and co-edited the two-volume Indian Ethics: ClassicalTraditionsandContemporaryChallenges(Ashgate, 2007; Springer and Oxford University Press, India, 2016). He has authored Raimon Panikkar as a Modern Spiritual Master (2016). He served on the Board of Trustees and the Executive Committee of the Council of a Parliament of the World’s Religions from 2005 to 2011. He also serves on a panel of experts advising the UN High Commission for Human Rights and the International Security Forum based in Geneva. He has lectured and taught at more than seventy universities around the world. In 2015 Joseph was a Visiting Fellow at the Oxford Centre for Hindu Studies and a Visiting Professor at the University of Oxford. In 2016, California State University, Los Angeles, honored him with an annual endowed lecture series in his name, called the Joseph Prabhu Fund for Interfaith Peace and Justice.
Hari Shankar Prasad is Professor of Philosophy, University of Delhi. He is presently working on the project: “Consciousness and Time in Buddhism: A Phenomenological Perspective.” His major independent book is TheCentrality ofEthicsinBuddhism(2007). His edited books include: EssaysonTimeinBuddhism(1992) and TimeinIndianPhilosophy(1992).
Bindu Puri teaches in the Department of Philosophy, University of Delhi. She is interested in political philosophy, moral philosophy, and modern Indian philosophy. Bindu is the author of Gandhiand the Moral Life, has edited Mahatma Gandhi and his Contemporaries, co-edited Reason, Morality and Beauty: Essays on the Philosophy of Immanuel Kant and Terror, Peace and Universalism: Essays on the Philosophy of Immanuel Kant. Her most recent publication is “Finding Reasons for Being Reasonable: Interrogating Rawls” (Sophia, 2014).
A. Raghuramaraju teaches philosophy at the University of Hyderabad. He is series editor of Porugununchi Teluguloki: Charcha Kosam, Vimarsha Kosam. This series published by Emesco, Vijayawada, is meant to translate 100 books from other languages into Telugu. His publications include: Philosophy and India:Ancestors,OutsidersandPredecessors(2013), Ramchandra Gandhi: The Man and his Philosophy (ed., 2013), Modernity in Indian Social Theory (2011), Enduring Colonialism: Classical Presences and Modern Absences in Indian Philosophy (2009), Debating Gandhi: A Reader (ed., 2006), and Debates in Indian Philosophy:Classical,ColonialandContemporary(2006).
Chakravarthi Ram-Prasad is Professor of Comparative Religion and Philosophy at Lancaster University, UK. He is the author of over fifty papers. His books include Knowledge and Liberation in Classical Indian Thought (2000), Advaita Epistemology and Metaphysics(2001), EasternPhilosophy(2005), IndianPhilosophy and the Consequences of Knowledge (2007), and Divine Self, Human Self: The Philosophy of Being in Two Gītā Commentaries (2013).
Jason Schwartz is a Ph.D. candidate at the University of California, Santa Barbara. His dissertation research examines the juridical, institutional, and social structures of the Tantric knowledge
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de ciudadano general no le queda ya otra cosa que el nombre de la ciudad de Roma. Esta nueva organización de que tratamos no hubo seguramente de ponerse en práctica, por lo general, de una manera rigurosa; sobre todo, parece que quedaron fuera de la unión municipa las antiguas familias nobles, tanto patricias como plebeyas, que no provenían de ningún municipio, e igualmente se conservaron algunas otras excepciones personales. Pero que el nuevo derecho de ciudadano romano era en realidad el derecho político del ciudadano, lo demuestra la circunstancia de que el mismo podía ir unido, tanto con e derecho indígena de una comunidad de ciudadanos, como con el de una comunidad de no ciudadanos: también la composición de las tribus tuvo ahora seguramente un carácter exclusivamente personal La exclusividad propia del derecho de ciudadano de Roma se aplicó también al derecho indígena; nadie podía ser a la vez ciudadano de Capua y de Puzol, o de Capua y de Atenas; pero el ateniense pudo ahora ya adquirir el derecho de ciudadano romano sin perder por eso su derecho de ciudadano ateniense. Por tanto, luego que por efecto de la distribución de la ciudadanía que originariamente residía en un solo punto, en numerosos organismos locales intermedios diseminados por toda la península itálica, la organización primitiva, que negaba toda independencia a las partes del Estado, vino a parar al extremo contrario, y la comunidad de Roma, o mejor dicho, la comunidad del Reino empezó a esta constituida por un cierto número de comunidades sometidas a régimen de ciudad, presentose el problema de ordena convenientemente las relaciones que deberían guardar entre sí la autonomía de la comunidad del Reino y la de las particulares comunidades de ciudad; o lo que es igual, puesto que al verificarse esta transformación fue también fijada indefectiblemente la centralización de hecho y de derecho del poder político, se hizo preciso determinar la cantidad de derechos que de los pertenecientes a la antigua autonomía de las ciudades confederadas podían dejarse a las nuevas ciudades del Reino. Lo cual dio origen al nuevo derecho municipal, esto es, al derecho de la ciudad dentro del Estado. Los derechos que al poder central correspondían frente a las ciudades confederadas, no solamente no fueron disminuidos, sino que se aumentaron: para las relaciones exteriores no se conocía la existencia de otro Estado que la del Reino unitario, no la de ninguna particula
ciudad; y si la legislación general del Reino se había inmiscuido ya antes, por vía de excepción, en el derecho de las ciudades (pág. 103) ahora este fenómeno se convirtió en regular, corriente e indiscutible. E derecho de celebrar pactos federales y las altas atribuciones que tuvieron las comunidades confederadas en materia militar debieron desaparecer; los municipios de ciudadanos no tuvieron facultades para celebrar alianzas con Roma, y el ciudadano del Reino, reclutado militarmente en Palestrina, no fue ya un soldado palestrino, sino romano. También desapareció el derecho privativo de las ciudades por lo menos en general. El precepto jurídico romano, hasta ahora no aceptado por las ciudades latinas, por virtud del cual los esponsales no producían acción, se hizo extensivo a estas cuando entraron a forma parte de la ciudadanía romana. Es probable que continuaran existiendo como estatutos locales algunas disposiciones que se apartaran de las reglas generales legales; sin embargo, lo que parece tuvo predominio fue la nivelación. Los municipios de ciudadanos perdieron también en lo esencial la alta jurisdicción que habían conservado las ciudades confederadas, y sus habitantes se vieron obligados, por regla general, a comparecer y hacer valer sus derechos ante los magistrados romanos; sin embargo, la competencia crimina que las ciudades tenían les fue respetada en una gran extensión, y po otra parte, es probable que para los asuntos civiles o privados de menor importancia y para los urgentes, sobre todo para aquellos cuyo conocimiento no se encomendaba en las antiguas comunidades de ciudadanos romanos al pretor de Roma, sino a su vicario o representante local, se mantuviera en la ocasión presente la jurisdicción municipal. En todo caso, al municipio de ciudadanos se le conservaron ciertos elementos esenciales de su anterior autonomía, y a los que nunca los habían tenido se le concedieron ahora. El derecho de ser persona jurídica, que según la concepción primitiva de Roma no correspondía sino al Estado mismo, la capacidad de poseer bienes y la de recibir herencias y manumitir esclavos los tuvieron y ejercitaron también los municipios de ciudadanos. Los cuales tuvieron asimismo sus magistrados, sus Consejos y sus Cuerpos consultivos, sus Comicios para las elecciones y para legislar, su caja común, y po consiguiente la autonomía administrativa y financiera, si bien las atribuciones de la magistratura y las de los Comicios fueron
grandemente mermadas, como se desprende de lo que dejamos dicho.
Resulta, pues, que la forma que el Estado unitario, compuesto de ciudadanos de igual derecho, adquirió medio siglo antes de que la libertad romana llegara a su ocaso, solo se aplicó en un principio a Italia, y a esta hubo de limitarse en lo esencial, por cuanto e fundamento de toda perfecta unión política, la comunión de lengua y costumbres, en Italia es donde ahora hubo de tener desarrollo completo. Pero el sistema era también aplicable al territorio ultramarino, y poco a poco fue trasponiendo los límites de la península A principios del siglo III de J. C., las ciudades de derecho latino y de derecho peregrino de todo el Reino se hallaban convertidas en municipios de ciudadanos, con lo que la confederación de ciudades en su sentido más amplio, dio lugar al derecho de ciudadano de Reino. Fuera de la ciudadanía del Reino no quedaron de ahora en adelante más que los gentiles no organizados bajo el régimen de ciudad y no pertenecientes al Reino bajo la forma de la confederación o de la autonomía tolerada, los príncipes de los sarracenos y de los godos, los sátrapas de Armenia, las tribus de los confines africanos y los extranjeros residentes en las Galias y en Italia.