RE-IMAGING FUTURE OF VERTICAL FARMING-USING MODULAR DESIGN AS THE SUSTAINABLE SOLUTION

RUL 574 DISSERTATION 2016 / 2017

RE-IMAGING FUTURE OF VERTICAL FARMING:

USING MODULAR DESIGN AS THE SUSTAINABLE SOLUTION by NG WIL SZEN SB/775/15

Supervised by

AR.TAN BEE EU

SCHOOL OF HOUSING, BUILDING & PLANNING (HBP) UNIVERSITI SAINS MALAYSIA (USM)

Proposal submitted in fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Bachelor of Science on

22TH JUNE 2017

RUL 574: Dissertation

Re-imaging Future of Vertical Farming:

Using Modular Design as the Sustainable Solution

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT This thesis become a reality with the kind support and help of many individuals. I would like to extend my sincere thanks to all of them.

Foremost, I want to offer this endeavour to our GOD Almighty for the wisdom he bestowed upon me, the strength, peace of my mind and good health in order to finish this research.

I must express my utmost gratitude to my supervisor, Ar. Tan Bee Eu, for her constant guidance, encouragement and advice she has provided throughout my time as her student. Her enthusiasm and faith in me is the reason why I am able to finish this task. I have been extremely lucky to have a supervisor who cared so much about my work, and who responded to my questions and queries so promptly.

I would like to express my special gratitude and thanks to the RUL574 Coordinator, Assoc. Prof. Ar. Dr. Sharifah Fairuz Syed Fadzil for imparting her

knowledge and expertise in writing a research paper.

To the industry professionals I interviewed, I would like to thank them for their openness, generosity and warm welcome. I also want to thank the staff of the vertical farms for their willingness and enthusiasm to participate in this study. Thank you for your time and patience.

The completion of this work would have been difficult if it were not for the love and support of my family and friends. Thank you for being genuinely interested in what I have been doing, and for the constant encouragement.

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RUL 574: Dissertation

Re-imaging Future of Vertical Farming:

Using Modular Design as the Sustainable Solution

TABLE OF CONTENTS Acknowledgement ................................................................................................... i Table of Contents ................................................................................................... ii List of tables ........................................................................................................ viii List of figures ........................................................................................................ ix Abstract ................................................................................................................xiv Abstrak ..................................................................................................................xv 1|

Introduction .................................................................................................1

1.1

Background Study ......................................................................................1

1.2

Problem Statement......................................................................................5

1.3

Research Objectives....................................................................................7

1.4

Research Questions.....................................................................................7

1.5

Scope and Limitation ..................................................................................8

1.5.1

Architecture Setting .............................................................................8 Types of Modular Architecture Application ...............................8 Level of Modularity ...................................................................9

1.5.2

Vertical Farming..................................................................................9

1.6

Significance of Research...........................................................................11

1.7

Research Approach and Method ...............................................................11 ii

RUL 574: Dissertation

Re-imaging Future of Vertical Farming:

Using Modular Design as the Sustainable Solution

1.8

Overview ..................................................................................................12

1.9

Organization of Thesis ..............................................................................13

2|

Literature Review......................................................................................15

2.1

Vertical Farm............................................................................................15

2.1.1

Introduction .......................................................................................15

2.1.2

The Evolution of Vertical Farming ....................................................16

2.1.3

Building Structure of Vertical Farm ...................................................25 Building-based Vertical Farms .................................................25 Shipping-Container Vertical Farm............................................27 Futuristic High-Rise Vertical Farm ..........................................27

2.1.4

Growing System in Vertical Farm ......................................................31 Hydroponics.............................................................................32 Aeroponic ................................................................................33 Aquaponics ..............................................................................34

2.1.5

Typologies of Crop Cultivation Modules ...........................................35 A-Frame Trellis........................................................................35 Stacked Beds............................................................................37 Stack Drums ............................................................................39 Columnar Systems ...................................................................41

2.1.6

Advantages of Vertical Farming ........................................................43 iii

RUL 574: Dissertation

Re-imaging Future of Vertical Farming:

Using Modular Design as the Sustainable Solution

Increase Year-round Crop Production ......................................43 Protection from Weather Disasters ...........................................43 Water Conservation and Recycling ..........................................44 Sustainable Environments for Urban Areas ..............................44 Ecosystem Restoration .............................................................45 Energy Conservation and Production .......................................45 2.1.7

Problems and Barriers in Vertical Farming ........................................46 Economics ...............................................................................46 Energy consumption ................................................................47 The need to balance capital outlay ............................................48

2.1.8 2.2

List of Commercial Vertical Farm .....................................................48

Modular Architecture ................................................................................50

2.2.1

The Origin of Modular Architecture ..................................................51

2.2.2

Modular Architecture versus Integral Architecture .............................60

2.2.3

Types of Modular Architectures.........................................................63 Slot Modular Architecture ........................................................63 Bus Modular Architecture ........................................................64 Sectional Modular Architecture ................................................65

2.2.4

Advantages and Disadvantages of Modular Architecture ...................65 Speed of Construction/ Faster Return on Investment ................66 iv

RUL 574: Dissertation

Re-imaging Future of Vertical Farming:

Using Modular Design as the Sustainable Solution

Flexibility ................................................................................66 Reduction Cost.........................................................................66 2.2.5

The Challenge of Modularity .............................................................68

2.2.6

Practice of Modular Design on Particular Building Typology ............68 Permanent Modular Educational Building ................................69 Modular Student Dormitory .....................................................71

2.3

Modular Design Within Existing Commercial Vertical Farms ...................72

2.3.1

Modularity in Growing System ..........................................................72 ZipFarm™ by Bright Agrotech ................................................73

2.3.2

Modularity in Building Structure .......................................................76 Container Farm by Freight Farm ..............................................77

2.4 3|

Research Gap............................................................................................79 Research Setup and Methodology ............................................................80

3.1

Overview ..................................................................................................80

3.2

Research Approach ...................................................................................81

3.3

Research Methodology .............................................................................83

3.3.1

Data sampling ....................................................................................83

3.3.2

Data Collection ..................................................................................83 Indirect Observation .................................................................84 Semi Structured Interviews ......................................................85 v

RUL 574: Dissertation

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Re-imaging Future of Vertical Farming:

Using Modular Design as the Sustainable Solution

Data Collection and Discussion .................................................................87

4.1

Overview ..................................................................................................87

4.2

Case Studies .............................................................................................87

4.2.1

Case Study 1: Sky Greens, Lim Chu Kang, Singapore .......................88 Introduction .............................................................................88 Observation Study....................................................................90 Semi Structured Interview ........................................................95

4.2.2

Case Study 2: Vertical Harvest in Jackson, Wyoming, United States .98 Introduction .............................................................................98 Observation Study....................................................................99 Semi Structured Interview ...................................................... 104

4.2.3 4.3

Analysis and Discussion .................................................................. 106

Semi-structured Interviews with Industry Professionals .......................... 110

4.3.1

Interview with Dato Seri Lim Chong Keat ....................................... 110 Interviewee Background ........................................................ 111 Paraphrased Interview ............................................................ 112 Analysis and Discussion......................................................... 117

4.3.2

Interview with Mr. Loo .................................................................... 118 Interviewee Background ........................................................ 118 Paraphrased Interview ............................................................ 119 vi

RUL 574: Dissertation

Re-imaging Future of Vertical Farming:

Using Modular Design as the Sustainable Solution

Analysis and Discussion......................................................... 125 5|

Prototype of Vertical Farming 2.0 .......................................................... 127

5.1

Introduction ............................................................................................ 127

5.2

Design Prototype .................................................................................... 128

5.2.1

Hydroponic module ......................................................................... 128

5.2.2

Segmented Platform......................................................................... 129

5.2.3

Swirls .............................................................................................. 129

5.2.4

Communal Farm .............................................................................. 130

5.2.5

Sectional Illustration ........................................................................ 130

5.2.6

Arrangement of Segmented Platform ............................................... 131

6|

Conclusion and Recommendation .......................................................... 132

6.1

Overview ................................................................................................ 132

6.2

Summary and Main Conclusions............................................................. 132

6.2.1

Developments and Findings Relating to Research Objective 1 ......... 132

6.2.2

Developments and Findings Relating to Research Objective 2 ......... 133

6.2.3

Developments and Findings Relating to Research Objective 3 ......... 134

6.3

Limitations of Study ............................................................................... 134

6.4

Recommendations for Further Research.................................................. 135

7|

References ................................................................................................ 138

8|

Appendices ............................................................................................... 142 vii

RUL 574: Dissertation

Re-imaging Future of Vertical Farming:

Using Modular Design as the Sustainable Solution

LIST OF TABLES Table 1 : Existing Commercial Scale Vertical Farms...............................................49 Table 2: Integral/Modular Comparisons ..................................................................61 Table 3 : Component Process Flexibility ................................................................. 62 Table 4 : Comparison of traditional and modular construction.................................67 Table 5: Qualitative vs Quantitative ........................................................................82 Table 7 : Comparison of vertical and traditional farming ......................................... 89 Table 8: Strength and Weakness of Sky Greens ...................................................... 95 Table 9: Comparison between two case studies ..................................................... 106

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RUL 574: Dissertation

Re-imaging Future of Vertical Farming:

Using Modular Design as the Sustainable Solution

LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1.1 : Illustration on arable land. ......................................................................1 Figure 1.2 : Vertical Farm Project .............................................................................2 Figure 1.3 : Visualisation of High-Rise Commercial Vertical Farm ...........................4 Figure 2.1 : Availability of Arable Land..................................................................16 Figure 2.2 : Sir Francis Bacon ................................................................................. 17 Figure 2.3 : Steel constucted choice lots. Life Magazine. 1909. ............................... 18 Figure 2.4 : “Vertical farm� illustration by Yarek Waszul .......................................18 Figure 2.5 : Le Corbusier ........................................................................................ 19 Figure 2.6 : Immeubles-Villas ................................................................................. 20 Figure 2.7 : William Frederick Gericke ...................................................................20 Figure 2.8 : High rise of Homes by SITE ................................................................21 Figure 2.9 : Kenneth Yeong ....................................................................................22 Figure 2.10 : How building should look by Ken Yeang ...........................................22 Figure 2.11 : Dickson Despommier ......................................................................... 24 Figure 2.12: The Vertical Farm by Weber Thompson.............................................. 24 Figure 2.13 : A Go-Gro, Sky Greens, Singapore ..................................................... 25 Figure 2.14 : Vertical Harvest, Jackson, Wyoming. Photo: Vertical Harvest ........... 26 Figure 2.15 : Sky Greens, Singapore .......................................................................26 ix

RUL 574: Dissertation

Re-imaging Future of Vertical Farming:

Using Modular Design as the Sustainable Solution

Figure 2.16 : Interior of Freight Farm Shipping-Container Vertical Farm ................ 27 Figure 2.17 : Urban Epicenter, NYC by Jungmin Nam............................................28 Figure 2.18: Despommier’s design of a vertical farm .............................................. 29 Figure 2.19 : EDITT Tower, Singapore by Ken Yeang & TR Hamzah Architects ...30 Figure 2.20 : Vertical farming, from utopia to a business model .............................. 31 Figure 2.21 : Hydroponic graphic............................................................................ 32 Figure 2.22 : Aeroponic graphic. .............................................................................33 Figure 2.23 : Aquaponic graphic. ............................................................................ 34 Figure 2.24 : The basic A-Frame “trellis” module ...................................................36 Figure 2.25: Space efficiency of the A-Frame design ..............................................36 Figure 2.26: An example of an A-Frame hydroponic system ................................... 37 Figure 2.27: Stacked Beds Module .......................................................................... 38 Figure 2.28 : Space efficiency of the stacked bed design .........................................38 Figure 2.29: TerraSphere’s indoor farm, Vancouver, British Columbia ...................39 Figure 2.30 : Stack Drum Module ........................................................................... 40 Figure 2.31 : Space efficiency of the stacked drum design....................................... 40 Figure 2.32 : Omega Garden Stack Drum................................................................ 41 Figure 2.33: Columnar System Module ................................................................... 42 Figure 2.34 : Space efficiency of the columnar design.............................................42 Figure 2.35 : Modular design .................................................................................. 50 x

RUL 574: Dissertation

Re-imaging Future of Vertical Farming:

Using Modular Design as the Sustainable Solution

Figure 2.36 : Modular rice mats (tatami) in Japanese architecture ........................... 51 Figure 2.37 : Modulor Man by Le Corbusier ...........................................................52 Figure 2.38: Royal Palace in Polonnaruwa [ancient Sri Lanka] ............................... 53 Figure 2.39 : Renkioi Hospital ................................................................................ 54 Figure 2.40 : Renkioi Hospital Drawings. ...............................................................54 Figure 2.41: Modular House ...................................................................................55 Figure 2.42 : Modular Diner ................................................................................... 56 Figure 2.43: Field Office Trailers ............................................................................ 56 Figure 2.44: Modular School................................................................................... 57 Figure 2.45 : Habitat 67 by Canadian architect, Moshe Safdie’s. .............................58 Figure 2.46: Assembly of the Hilton Hotel in San Antonia, TX ............................... 59 Figure 2.47: Model and construction of the Walt Disney’s Polynesian Resort ......... 59 Figure 2.48 : Modular houses in Australia ...............................................................60 Figure 2.49: Integral Architecture-Trailer................................................................ 62 Figure 2.50: Modular Architecture-Trailer .............................................................. 62 Figure 2.51: Slot-Trailer Architecture ..................................................................... 63 Figure 2.52: Bus-Trailer Architecture ..................................................................... 64 Figure 2.53: Sectional-Trailer Architecture .............................................................65 Figure 2.54: The sky™ High Performance Modular Classroom Building ................ 69 Figure 2.55 : High Tech High Chula Vista .............................................................. 70 xi

RUL 574: Dissertation

Re-imaging Future of Vertical Farming:

Using Modular Design as the Sustainable Solution

Figure 2.56: World's Tallest Modular Apartment Tower .........................................71 Figure 2.57 : The interior layout of ZipGrow tower arrangement ............................ 73 Figure 2.58:The functional components of ZipFarm module ...................................74 Figure 2.59: Light Rack with its lighting hanging system ........................................75 Figure 2.60:The ZipGrow Towers ........................................................................... 75 Figure 2.61: The one complete solution of ZipFarm module ................................... 76 Figure 2.62: Leafy Green Machine .......................................................................... 77 Figure 2.63: The interior of Leafy Green Machine .................................................. 78 Figure 4.1 : Exterior of Sky Greens Pte Ltd.............................................................88 Figure 4.2 : A-Go-Gro Tower Module .................................................................... 90 Figure 4.3: The 5-story height of A-Go-Gro module ...............................................91 Figure 4.4 : Structure of Sky Greens’ vegetable tray ...............................................93 Figure 4.5 : Sky Greens’ A-Go-Gro System ............................................................94 Figure 4.6 : Sky Greens’ vertical farm structure in Lim Chu Kang ..........................94 Figure 4.7 : Exterior rendering of Vertical Harvest .................................................. 98 Figure 4.8 : Rendered Longitudinal and Cross-Section of Vertical Harvest ........... 100 Figure 4.9 : First floor plan of Vertical Harvest ..................................................... 101 Figure 4.10: Second floor plan of Vertical Harvest ................................................ 102 Figure 4.11 : Third floor plan of Vertical Harvest ................................................. 103 Figure 4.12: Exploded View of Vertical Harvest ................................................... 104 xii

RUL 574: Dissertation

Re-imaging Future of Vertical Farming:

Using Modular Design as the Sustainable Solution

Figure 4.13 : A picture with Dato Seri at his workplace......................................... 111 Figure 4.14 : With Uncle Loo and this Vertical Farm aquaponic module. .............. 118 Figure 4.15 : Dwarf Nai Bai .................................................................................. 122 Figure 4.16 : Uncle’s Loo Vertical Farm Aquaponic Module ................................ 126

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Re-imaging Future of Vertical Farming:

Using Modular Design as the Sustainable Solution

ABSTRACT It is predicted that the world population will reach 9 billion by 2050, of which 70% will live in urban areas which is more than half of the world population for the first time in history. Considering humanity’s current population is already effectively degrading the ecological conditions we require to thrive, it appears the only way to avoid both a global ecological tragedy and widespread famine in the next century is to significantly transform the way cities and agriculture utilize natural resources.

One solution to this problem is vertical farming, growing food inside and on high-rise buildings. These buildings will be nowhere but in the heart of the cities. If implemented successfully, they can help in urban renewal, continuous production of safe and varied food supply throughout the year. Not only this, there are many more advantages of vertical farming. Crops grown in these high rises will not be affected by vagaries of weather such as drought, flood, pests etc. Crops will be grown organically without the use of any fertilizer, herbicide and pesticide. There are many more direct and indirect benefits of it.

The intention of this dissertation is to explore and reimaging the potential future of agriculture production using modular design in architecture as a new sustainable approach in vertical farm.

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RUL 574: Dissertation

Re-imaging Future of Vertical Farming:

Using Modular Design as the Sustainable Solution

ABSTRAK Untuk pertama kalinya dalam sejarah, Pertubuhan Bangsa-Bangsa bersatu telah meramalkan bahawa jumlah penduduk dunia akan mencecah 9 bilion pada tahun 2050 dan 70% daripada jumlah tersebut akan menetap di kawasan bandar. Memandangkan jumlah penduduk dunia semasa sudah cukup untuk memberi kesan yang buruk kepada keadaan ekologi semasa yang sangat penting bagi umat manusia untuk berkembang maju, ternyata satu-satunya cara untuk mengelakkan masalah tersebut adalah dengan mengubah cara penggunaan sumber-sumber asli.dalam perbandaran dan pertanian.

Satu penyelesaian kepada masalah ini adalah pertanian menegak, iaitu menanam makanan di dalam atau pada bumbung bangunan. Bangunan-bangunan ini akan ditempatkan ditengah-tengah pusat bandar dan menjadi sumber bekalan makanan untuk pendudk bandar. Jika dilaksanakan dengan jayanya, bangunan seperti ini akan membawa sumbangan yang besar dalam pembaharuan bandar, pengeluaran berterusan bekalan makanan yang selamat dan membekalkan pelbagai jenis makanan organik untuk sepanjang tahun. Di samping itu, pertanian secara menegak tidak akan terjejas oleh ragam cuaca seperti kemarau, banjir, perosak dan lain-lain. Tanaman akan ditanam secara organik tanpa menggunakan apa-apa baja, racun herba dan racun perosak. Akhirnya, pertanian secara menegak sedikit sebanyak memberi banyak faedah yang secara langsung dan tidak langsung.

Tujuan utama kajian ini adalah untuk pengimejan semula dan menerokai potensi pengeluaran pertanian masa depan dengan menggunakan reka bentuk modular dalam seni bina sebagai pendekatan mampan baru dalam pertanian menegak. xv

RUL 574: Dissertation

Re-imaging Future of Vertical Farming:

1| 1.1

Using Modular Design as the Sustainable Solution

INTRODUCTION

Background Study

Today over 800 million hectares is committed to agriculture, which is about 38% of the total landmass of Earth. In the coming 50 years, the human population is expected to rise at least 8.6 billion, requiring an additional of 10 hectares to feed them using the current technologies (Department of Economic and Social Affairs, 2014). By 2050, the quantity of arable land is no longer available. Thus, optimistic solution to above dilemma need to be discovered to obtain an abundant and varied food supply without disturbing the few remaining functional ecosystems. The concept which could realize the general strategy for productivity improvement within agriculture is vertical farming (Despommier, 2010).

Figure 1.1 : Illustration on arable land.

(Source: Despommier, D. D. (2010). Retrieved from: http://www.verticalfarm.com/)

Vertical farming can be defined as the practice of producing food in the urban center inside of a skyscraper, used warehouse, or shipping container in vertically stacked layers where different floors playing different purposes, like one for staple 1

RUL 574: Dissertation

Re-imaging Future of Vertical Farming:

Using Modular Design as the Sustainable Solution

crops and the others for varies of vegetables ("Glossary for Vertical Farming," 2016).

Hydroponics concept is mostly applicable in vertical farming concept depends of the farming method (Fischetti, 2008). The concept of supplying food in cities is not a new one as the history of urban agriculture goes back to many ancient civilizations.

(Besthorn, 2013) has examined the history of urban agriculture and reviewed the promise that vertical farming holds for communities with food security problems.

(Kurasek, 2009) has provided some architectural designs of how the concept may be developed. Sivamani, Bae, and Cho (2013) have examined the viability of smart technology in agriculture and the promise that it may hold for vertical farming.

Figure 1.2 : Vertical Farm Project

(Source: Kurasek, B. (2009). Retrieved from: http://www.matewing.net/)

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RUL 574: Dissertation

Re-imaging Future of Vertical Farming:

Using Modular Design as the Sustainable Solution

While much has been published on the subject of urban agriculture and more recently on the conceptual potential of vertical farming, limited evidence has been published on the viability of vertical farming. The large scale vertical farming is still remaining theoretical for the time being. This happens due to the prohibitively high cost on many aspects when most vertical farm concepts and designs are mainly based on those for conventional buildings. When architects aren’t farmers, some serious design flaws slip into their vertical farm concepts (Bramfield, 2016). In order to make vertical farming achievable, there is a need to consider total energy consumption. The commercial viability of vertical farming in the long run would be highly dependent on the ability to balance capital outlay against profitable crop sales at competitive wholesale market prices (Griffiths, 2014).

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RUL 574: Dissertation

Re-imaging Future of Vertical Farming:

Using Modular Design as the Sustainable Solution

Figure 1.3 : Visualisation of High-Rise Commercial Vertical Farm (Retrieved from: http://www.inhabitat.com)

The intention here is to re-imaging vertical farm and to prove that an application of modular architecture in vertical farm design as a sustainable solution to help turning the visionary vertical farm into reality. Furthermore, modular design is not something new in the construction world but it goes back over a hundred years where it started gaining popularity very early in the 20th century. Wildman (2000) stated that modular design was used to control costs during the great depression in the mid 1930 in United State of America. Frank Lloyd Wright developed what he termed Usonian homes 4

RUL 574: Dissertation

Re-imaging Future of Vertical Farming:

Using Modular Design as the Sustainable Solution

which they were built from inexpensive and modular concrete blocks. These prefabricated modular blocks could be combined in a variety of ways to create unique buildings, which could be built efficiently and inexpensively (Cohen, 2014). On the other side, although most vertical farm proposals are depicted as futuristic, high-tech, ultra-modern skyscrapers in the urban landscape, they have never been materialized in the real world due to their hefty construction cost, maintenance and energy consumption. Modularity can be an approach to solve this issue where standardization in construction and augmentation is applied to optimize cost effectiveness and explicability.

1.2

Problem Statement

There is a global issue with food production. Every year trillions of dollars are lost in crops around the world. Multiple factors affecting this issue, from infestation of insects and plant diseases, and more recently, droughts and flooding, extreme temperatures, soil erosion and desertification. Those circumstances have become more commonplace, have been escalated, and happen concurrently because of the effects of climate change and poor management of the natural resources by mankind. Also, a growing population is putting more and more burden on the natural ecosystem in order to satisfy its growing needs as well. More people mean more mouths to be fed. In a finite world, the population cannot continue to grow indefinitely. The amount of arable land is limited, and even if all the available land on earth were used to increase the food production, other issues would occur including increased erosion, increased use of limited fresh water and wildlife would suffer due to limited space.

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RUL 574: Dissertation

Re-imaging Future of Vertical Farming:

Using Modular Design as the Sustainable Solution

In the year 2001, Despommier firstly came out with concept of vertical farming to overcome this worldwide problem. The concept of farming vertically within a building has excited many parties like architects, scientists and politicians around the globe to continue research and explore its existence. However, none was actually built. Vertical farming is still largely theoretical due to the high capital cost to construct and its uncertainty towards the return on investment (ROI). Author’s finding estimated a 30story building, with a footprint of a full city block of 5 acres. So, for a 5-acre footprint building with 30 stories, it will be a 607,028m2 building. Take Kuala Lumpur city for an instance, cost per m2 for an office building over 10 stories would be about RM1573 in construction costs alone, according to data from JUBM and Langdon Seah Construction Cost Handbook.

That means, if this were just an office building the cost range could be RM 955 million.

Taking into account the advanced systems that would need to be included in the building design to accommodate plant and animal life, as well as the renewable energy you mentioned, the cost might be an additional RM500/m 2, totaling in excess of RM 1.2 billion. Obviously, these are just order of magnitude type numbers, and doesn’t take into account the specific costs for each type of chamber that would be required (fruits, vegetables and grains), and design concerns for adding structural support for wind turbines. As Despommier (2001) said, “Every new idea will cost a lot to create, witness the cell phone and plasma screen TV, but as more of them become constructed and their cost will go down.” Hence, this dissertation wish to bring contribution to the vertical farming and study on the implementation of modular design on vertical farming architecturally. While present studies indicate the sustainable ways to design for commercial vertical farm, yet the application of modular design on Despommier 6

RUL 574: Dissertation

Re-imaging Future of Vertical Farming:

Using Modular Design as the Sustainable Solution

concept of vertical farm has not been fully explored, particularly in its feasibility and efficiency. The questions raised in this regard will be addressed under Research Questions.

1.3

Research Objectives

There is a need within the urbanization era for a study to be done that looks at the correlation between architectural design and vertical agriculture as whole. In line with this study, the specific objectives are as follow: (a) To determine the feasibility and efficiency of modular architecture in vertical farm. (b) To compare the feasibility in conventional approach and modular approach in architectural design as sustainable solution in vertical farm. (c) To investigate the implementation of the modular design to the vertical farm.

1.4

Research Questions

At the basis of this study, the research questions are: (a) What is the challenges of modular architecture in vertical farm? (b) How significant is the difference between conventional approach and modular approach in architectural design aspect in term of feasibility and efficiency of vertical farm? (c) What are the possibilities of including modular architecture in vertical farming design?

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RUL 574: Dissertation

1.5

Re-imaging Future of Vertical Farming:

Using Modular Design as the Sustainable Solution

Scope and Limitation

The main aim of this research is to complete a study on the modularity in design as a sustainable solution in designing vertical farm so as to discover if this approach can be an alternative to solve the issues that forbids vertical farming to be achievable especially in Malaysia context. Those issues are from the aspect of feasibility and efficiency.

Due to the time constraint of carrying out this study, there are certain limitations to the extensity to which this study can go. For the intents and purposes of this research, the scope will be further defined into the following areas: 1.5.1 Architecture Setting There are many ways of categorizing architecture. Architecture can be either modular or integral. In reality, fully modular or fully integral architecture is rare and almost all architecture is somewhere in between. The field of study in architectural setting will be limited to integral and modular in design for comparison purpose and to what extend can the modularity be achieved in vertical farm. For this research the architecture setting will be regarded in the scope of commercial scale vertical farm, whereby the research approach and method will be guided by the following parameters: Types of Modular Architecture Application Ulrich’s concept of modularity is also defined as product architecture. Modular design can be precisely categorise into 3 type, namely: 8

RUL 574: Dissertation

Re-imaging Future of Vertical Farming:

Using Modular Design as the Sustainable Solution

(a) Slot-Each component has a different coupling so cannot be interchanged. (b) Bus-Common element which all components can connect to. (c) Sectional-All interfaces are the same type in a form of set of blocks.

Level of Modularity By measuring the scale on how far the modular design can be applied wholly through the building. From the modularity slider analysis, the ratio of integral to modular of a design can be identified and thus, its feasibility and efficiency can be rated. For the time being, the distinctive level of modularity application is either on the cultivation modules or the building structure which houses the modules.

1.5.2 Vertical Farming The vertical farms as aforementioned are differed by their typology. Urban Agriculture Integration Typology was developed by the Association for Vertical Farming to categories Urban Agriculture projects from around the world. For this research, the typology of vertical farm will be guided by the following parameters.

The intention is to scale down the scope of study as well as to make a fair comparison case study. a. Organization type Grower Produces food in or around cities. b. Organization size Small Medium Enterprise 9

RUL 574: Dissertation

Re-imaging Future of Vertical Farming:

Using Modular Design as the Sustainable Solution

More than one location or structure. 6+ employees. c. Integration Holistic The food production components are integrated at concept stage of the building design. d. Placement Interior Inside of a building. e. Exposure Enclosed Protected from the elements, but still uses sunlight as primary source of lighting and heating. f. Growing medium Hydroponic Growing plants using mineral nutrient solutions, in water, without soil. g.

Production Purpose Grow to wholesale Commercial greenhouse or warehouse

To prove that modular design as a sustainable solution to re-image vertical farming, certain aspects are taken into the consideration as the marking point. These aspects include the feasibility and efficiency in term of cost and energy.

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RUL 574: Dissertation

1.6

Re-imaging Future of Vertical Farming:

Using Modular Design as the Sustainable Solution

Significance of Research

The results of this research aim to take a step towards understanding the significance of integrating modular system in enhancing the performance of vertical farming, and how this approach can offer an insight to incite innovation in architecture. The hopes of spurring modularity however are currently viewed as a demonstration in principle, with a purpose is to verify that modular architecture has the potential of being used to create a new image for vertical farm in the coming future.

Moreover, modular buildings are argued to have many advantages over conventional buildings. Investors and entrepreneur of vertical farm will be able to gain a faster return of investment due to its higher speed of construction.

In the context of Malaysia, the expected outcomes of this study are anticipated to benefit the design community by offering designers a foundation to develop a more comprehensive building design when it comes to vertical farm. Up to now, Malaysia is slightly behind the trend of vertical farm while it has already been a worldwide phenomenon. Contribution to the design practice and education in this regard will hopefully provide a vision for Malaysia to have its first ever vertical farm where the return of investment and its energy efficiency as well as capital cost is guaranteed.

1.7

Research Approach and Method

This thesis is conducted by:

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RUL 574: Dissertation

Re-imaging Future of Vertical Farming:

Using Modular Design as the Sustainable Solution

Modular Design as a Sustainable Solution to Vertical Farming Research Objective Literature Review Modular Architecture

v Vertical Farming

Modular Design in VF

Methodology Qualitative Case Studies

Indirect Observation

Interview

Data Collection & Analysis Discussion Conclusion

1.8

Overview

In designing vertical farm, it is essential to understand the concept of vertical farming first. Even though vertical farming has been lauded as an environmentally-friendly, more efficient farming method than traditional outdoor farming, much research and 12

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knowledge are required to be pursued before involving into it. So many approaches can be used varying depends on the purposes of applying the system. Vertical farming also can be practiced in many methods as well, from small scale agriculture to large scale agriculture, from hydroponic to aquaponic. This fantastic yet innovative farming concept might gain much attention from the investors, architects and researchers around the globe but little do they know that are already many failures attempting to build a vertical farm. Fortunately, many of the failures in vertical farming are due to their lack of survey, research and knowledge in vertical farm.

Modularity is one idea which can bring contribution to the rise of vertical farm.

Modular design provides uniformity of growing space, hardware and environmental control as well as interchangeability of units. Such design method can help to improve the efficiency of vertical farm in term of energy usage and the expenses cost.

It is important to study and understand the application of modular design in vertical farming. This idea is fundamental aspect towards a productive yet practical vertical farming especially on its feasibility and efficiency. By helping to transform vertical farming concept into reality, it could have a real impact on ending hunger.

1.9

Organization of Thesis

This thesis is comprised of five parts. Chapter 1 introduces the theory of modularity in architecture design and vertical farming which lead to the application of modular design as the sustainable solution in vertical farming as addressed in the thesis title.

The problem setting leads up to the research questions of this research. Chapter 2, which is separated into three parts, explores the theoretical writings from philosophy and architectural theory on modular design and vertical farming. This chapter

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examines the validity of the thesis idea to form a point of reference for later chapters.

In chapter 3, the research setup and the research methods applied in this study are discussed. Some of the choices made in this are guided by the theoretical framework discussed in the previous two chapters. In chapter 4, a detailed description of the modular design and its individual application in creating a sustainable solution in vertical farming is provided. This includes an analysis of the modularity design within vertical farm in the different cases, supported by the theoretical framework from chapter 2 and based on the gathered material from the case studies. Through the notion of scale in architecture, the link between modular design and vertical farming in architecture is studied. In chapter 5, the author goes back to the research questions and draw conclusions based on all previous chapters. By the end of the thesis, the general understanding of vertical farm and modular architecture shall be delivered and the feasibility of the modular design in vertical farming will be proven.

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2| 2.1

LITERATURE REVIEW

Vertical Farm

2.1.1 Introduction Prime agricultural land can be scarce and expensive. With worldwide population growth, the demand for both more food and more land to grow food is ever increasing.

But some entrepreneurs and farmers are beginning to look up, not out, for space to grow more food. One solution to our need for more space might be found in the abandoned warehouses in our cities, new buildings built on environmentally damaged lands, and even in used shipping containers from ocean transports (Birkby, 2016). Vertical farming is the practice of producing food in vertically stacked layers, such as in a skyscraper, used warehouse, or shipping container. The modern ideas of vertical farming use indoor farming techniques and controlled-environment agriculture (CEA) technology, where all environmental factors can be controlled.

These facilities utilize artificial control of light, environmental control and fertigation. Some vertical farms use techniques similar to greenhouses, where natural sunlight can be augmented with artificial lighting and metal reflectors (Hix, 1974; Pati & Abelar, 2015)

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Figure 2.1 : Availability of Arable Land

(Source: Yasmin Rahman (2012) Retrieved from: https://www.mdrxa.wordpress.com)

2.1.2 The Evolution of Vertical Farming The concept of vertical farming (VF) nowadays is very different as the first intents or ideas of this concept. Nowadays, defenders of VF argue that, ““by allowing traditional outdoor farms to revert to a natural state and reducing the energy costs needed to transport foods to consumers, vertical farms could significantly alleviate climate change produced by excess atmospheric carbon. Critics have noted that the costs of the additional energy needed for artificial lighting, heating and other vertical farming operations would outweigh the benefit of the building’s close proximity to the areas of consumption.”(Monbiot, 2010; Nelson, 2007)

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Year

Timeline

1627

Sir Francis Bacon was the first to introduced the theory of hydroponic gardening and farming methods. He established the idea of growing terrestrial plants without soil in his book Sylva Sylvarum (Saylor, 2013).

Figure 2.2 : Sir Francis Bacon

1909

(Retrieved from: https://www.thefamouspeople.com)

Earliest drawing of a vertical farm by Life Magazine depicting an open-air building of vertically stacked stories of homes cultivating food for consumption (Jurkiewicz).

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Figure 2.3 : Steel constucted choice lots. Life Magazine. 1909.

(Retrieved from: https:// http://www.citymetric.com)

Figure 2.4 : “Vertical farm� illustration by Yarek Waszul for Toronto Life magazine (Source: Graff, 2011)

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1915

Re-imaging Future of Vertical Farming:

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Gilbert Ellis Bailey, the American geologist introduced a method of underground farming contingent on the use of explosives. He also coined the term “vertical farming” in his book, “Vertical Farming”.

Such explosives enable the farmers to farm deeper, while increasing area and securing larger crops. Bailey focused on less land as it was more profitable to double the depth than double the area (Globacorp, 2013).

1922

Architect Le Corbusier,” developed Immeubles-Villas, consisting of five-story blocks into which one hundred singular apartments are stacked on top of one another (Cohen, 2014).

Figure 2.5 : Le Corbusier

(Retrieved from: https://www.alchetron.com)

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Figure 2.6 : Immeubles-Villas

1937

(Retrieved from: https://www.cargocollective.com)

William Frederick Gericke coined the term “hydroponics,” the process of growing plants in sand, gravel, or liquid, with added nutrients but without soil combining “hydro” meaning water, and “ponos” meaning labor (Jones, 2013).

Figure 2.7 : William Frederick Gericke

(Retrieved from: https://www.wikipedia.com)

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1940

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During the Pacific during World War II, hydroponic systems were used where US troops cultivated fresh lettuce and tomatoes on barren islands (Jones, 2013).

1972

Theoretical project by SITE, a multi-story matrix that can accommodate a vertical community of private houses, clustered into distinct village-like communities on each floor (SITE, 2013).

Figure 2.8 : High rise of Homes by SITE

1989

(Retrieved from: https://www.caroun.com)

Architect Kenneth Yeang envisioned mixed-use buildings that move seamlessly with green space in which plant life can be cultivated within open air, vegetated architecture. The main characteristic exposed by Ken Yeang is that plants should grow in the open air instead of hermetically sealed mass produced agriculture. Without 21

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climate control or artificial lights to improve the productivity. The mixed-used skyscrapers were proposed as a communal planting space where building habitants could grow their own food (Mulder, 2011). This option requires less initial investment compared to the following options presented in this chapter.

Figure 2.9 : Kenneth Yeong

(Retrieved from: https://www.greenroofs.com)

Figure 2.10 : How building should look by Ken Yeang

1999

(Retrieved from: https://www.treehugger.com)

Dickson Despommier, a professor of environmental health sciences and microbiology at Columbia University in New York City, reinvented vertical farming and promotes the mass cultivation of

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plant and animal life for commercial purposes in skyscrapers. He suggested that vertical farms will be sited in urban centers, providing sustainable production of a secure and diverse food supply (Despommier, 2013).

He also emphasizes that the cultivation of plant and animal life within skyscrapers will produce less embedded energy and toxicity than plant and animal life produced on natural landscapes. The Vertical Farm concept as proposed by Despommier is a skyscraper structure where plants and animals could grow 24 hours a day 365 days a year in a hermetically sealed environment where herbicides and insecticides are not necessary to guarantee the production. The renewable technology allows to produce big quantities of food without a big energy consumption taking in consideration the savings in transportation. Solar panels and wind turbines would produce enough energy to be energetically independent. A rainwater harvesting system could reduce the amount of water demand by vertical farms.

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Figure 2.11 : Dickson Despommier

(Retrieved from: http://www.urbanagricultureinitiative.com)

Figure 2.12: The Vertical Farm by Weber Thompson

2012

(Retrieved from: https://www.treehugger.com)

The world's first commercial vertical farm building, Sky Greens was opened in Singapore. Due to its ideal tropical climate and limited arable land, Vertical farming is one of the best solution to the problem. The dependency of this country on imported food is very high and to overcome this issue, Sky Greens produce more than 0.5 tons of vegetables per day. The main goal of the company is to reach the 2 tones daily in the coming years.

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Figure 2.13 : A Go-Gro, Sky Greens, Singapore

(Retrieved from: http://www.keywordsuggests.com)

2.1.3 Building Structure of Vertical Farm Vertical farming systems can be further classified by the type of structure that houses the growing system.

Building-based Vertical Farms Building-based vertical farms are often housed in abandoned buildings in cities, such as Chicago’s“The Plant” vertical farm that was constructed in an old porkpacking plant. New building construction is also used in vertical farms, such as the new multistory vertical farm being attached to an existing parking lot structure in downtown Jackson Hole, Wyoming. In tropical climate context, Sky Greens is one of the most successful building-based vertical farm with greenhouse-like 25

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transparent structures which allows the penetration of daylighting as the light source for the vegetables.

Figure 2.14 : Vertical Harvest, Jackson, Wyoming. Photo: Vertical Harvest (Retrieved from: https://www.verticalharvestjackson.com)

Figure 2.15 : Sky Greens, Singapore

(Retrieved from: https://www.futurereadysingapore.com)

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Shipping-Container Vertical Farm Shipping-container vertical farm is an increasingly popular option. These vertical farms use 40-foot shipping containers, normally in service carrying goods around the world. Shipping containers are being refurbished by several companies into selfcontained vertical farms, complete with LED lights, drip-irrigation systems, and vertically stacked shelves for starting and growing a variety of plants. These selfcontained units have computer controlled growth management systems that allow users to monitor all systems remotely from a smart phone or computer. Three of the leading companies producing shipping-container vertical farms are Freight Farms, CropBox, Modulor Farm and Growtainers.

Figure 2.16 : Interior of Freight Farm Shipping-Container Vertical Farm (Retrieved from: http://www.freightfarms.com)

Futuristic High-Rise Vertical Farm A commercial high-rise vertical farm where staple crops could be grown in an environmental-friendly environment on different levels that exist today only in

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futuristic designs and on optimistic websites. As interpreted by Dickson Despommier (2009), these vertical farm skyscrapers will feed the urban populations that surround them, eliminating the need for long-distance transport. It can also supply enough food within an 18-story tower to feed a small city of 50,000.

However, such 'vertical farm' has never been built. There are two types of high-rise vertical farm as proposed by a green architect and an emeritus professor of microbiology.

Figure 2.17 : Urban Epicenter, NYC by Jungmin Nam (Retrieved from: http://www.worldarchitecture.org)

Despommier's skyscrapers Vertical farming according to Despommier thus discounts the value of natural landscape in exchange for the idea of "skyscraper as spaceship."(Despommier, 2010) Plant life is mass-produced within hermetically sealed, artificial environments that have little to do with the outside world. In this sense, they could be built anywhere regardless of the context (Despommier, 2009). Although climate control, lighting, and 28

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other costs of maintenance have been posited as potentially stifling to bringing this concept to fruition, advocates have countered that an important feature of future vertical farms will be the integration of renewable energy technology, be it solar panels, wind turbines, water capture systems, and probably some combination of the three.

The vertical farm is designed to be sustainable, and to enable nearby inhabitants to work at the farm.

Figure 2.18: Despommier’s design of a vertical farm (Retrieved from: https:// http://www.esquire.com)

Mixed-use skyscrapers Mixed-use skyscrapers were proposed and built by architect Ken Yeang, a Malaysian architect, ecologist and author known for his signature eco-architecture and eco29

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masterplans. He proposes that instead of hermetically sealed mass-produced agriculture, plant life should be cultivated within open air, mixed-use skyscrapers for climate control and consumption. This version of vertical farming is based upon personal or community use rather than the wholesale production and distribution plant life that aspires to feed an entire city. It thus requires less of an initial investment than Despommier's "vertical farm".

Figure 2.19 : EDITT Tower, Singapore by Ken Yeang & TR Hamzah Architects (Source: Ken Yeang (2008). Retrieved from: https://www.archidialog.com)

After explaining the revolution of vertical farm and its building structure typology, an illustration is needed to further distinguish the difference in various type of vertical farm. Figure 2.20 shows the graph of reviewed projects using a utopia to reality scale which also aimed at distinguishing the level of diversity of the building program.

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Figure 2.20 : Vertical farming, from utopia to a business model – recent developments (Source: New’rban View, 2015)

2.1.4 Growing System in Vertical Farm Vertical farming come in various shapes and sizes, from basic 2-level or wallmounted systems to expansive warehouses of a few stories tall. However, every single vertical farm utilise one of three soil-free systems for supplying nutrients to plants. The following details explains these three growing systems.

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Hydroponics

Figure 2.21 : Hydroponic graphic.

(Retrieved from: NCAT, 2016)

Hydroponics includes growing plants in nutrient solutions which are soil-free. It is the predominant growing system in vertical farms. The plant roots are submerged in the nutrient solution, which is frequently monitored and circulated to ensure that the correct chemical composition is maintained(Birkby, 2016). Hydroponics is water efficient because the plants absorb the water they need while recycling the unused back to the reservoir causing no water losses(Heredia, 2014). One of the first and most successful demonstrations of hydroponic farming came from Sky Greens, Singapore. It supplies 7% of the total vegetable available in Singapore’s market.

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Aeroponic

Figure 2.22 : Aeroponic graphic.

(Retrieved from: NCAT, 2016)

The National Aeronautical and Space Administration (NASA) is responsible for developing this innovative indoor growing technique. In the 1990s, NASA was interested in finding efficient ways to grow plants in space and coined the term “aeroponic”, defined as “growing plants in an air/mist environment with no soil and very little water”.

Aeroponic systems are still an anomaly in the vertical farming world, but they are attracting significant interest. An aeroponic system is by far the most efficient plantgrowing system for vertical farms, using up to 90% less water than even the most efficient hydroponic systems. Plants grown in these aeroponic systems have also been shown to uptake more minerals and vitamins, making the plants healthier and potentially more nutritious. AeroFarms, the leading aeroponic vertical farming company in the United States, is currently building the largest vertical farm in the nation in New Jersey.

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Aquaponics

Figure 2.23 : Aquaponic graphic.

(Retrieved from: NCAT, 2016)

An aquaponic system takes the hydroponic system one step further, combining plants and fish in the same ecosystem. Fish are grown in indoor ponds, producing nutrient-rich waste that is used as a feed source for the plants in the vertical farm.

The plants, in turn, filter and purify the wastewater, which is recycled to the fish ponds. Although aquaponics is used in smaller-scale vertical farming systems, most commercial vertical farm systems focus on producing only a few fast-growing vegetable crops and don’t include an aquaponics component. This simplifies the economics and production issues and maximizes efficiency. However, new standardized aquaponic systems may help make this closed-cycle system more popular.

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2.1.5 Typologies of Crop Cultivation Modules The light-weight farming system allows plants to grow on vertically-orientation growing modules. As with any technology still below its infancy, the efficiency and practicality of vertical-oriented farming system will likely to be enhanced in near future. Presently there are four basic typologies applicable to in-door crop cultivation on a commercial scale.

A-Frame Trellis The A-Frame “trellis� design was the first successfully hydroponic system to develop a vertical orientation. Basically, this design consists of PVC pipes configured either vertically or horizontally to form a triangular extrusion of its footprint which is angled to the light sources, thus increasing the available growing surface without meaningfully reducing the access of light. The primary advantage of this module design is its simplicity, as it achieves a high degree of space efficiency while utilising technology that has been established in the hydroponic industry for decades (Graff, 2011). This growing system is then adopted and refined

by Sky Greens vertical farm, Singapore with its patented water pulleys system which take advantage of gravity to rotate the vegetable racks for fair distribution of sunlight and nutrient.

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Figure 2.24 : The basic A-Frame “trellis� module (Retrieved from: Graff, 2011)

Figure 2.25: Space efficiency of the A-Frame design (Retrieved from: Graff, 2011)

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Figure 2.26: An example of an A-Frame hydroponic system - New South Wales, Australia.

(Source: Graff, 2011)

Stacked Beds Quite similar to the A-frame design, the ‘stacked beds” composition is extremely forthright in concept and technology. The design is merely a stacking of definitive in-line pipe beds. This system has continued to be the system of choice for most commercial vertical farm as it can allow more space for cultivation. Much like the complication of stratifying floors in a vertical farm, the design’s stacked configuration does not allow sunlight to penetrate each layer, making artificial lighting is a necessity (Graff, 2011). Hence, this growing system used up a huge portion of overall energy consumption for lighting. The best commercial case of stacked bed approach is the design used by TerraSphere Systems, which has implemented systems with five tiers of growing surface within a 3-meter floor to ceiling height.

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Figure 2.27: Stacked Beds Module (Source: Graff, 2011)

Figure 2.28 : Space efficiency of the stacked bed design (Source: Graff, 2011)

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Figure 2.29: TerraSphere’s indoor farm, Vancouver, British Columbia (Source: Graff, 2011)

Stack Drums Despite the fact that stack drum is the least common commercial cultivation module among the four typologies, the drum design likely offers the most promising eventual fate of indoor agriculture. It compromises of growing plants within the interior of a drum structure located around a central artificial light source, resulting in a phenomenally low space and energy use per unit of production. The first publicized example of this design emerged in the late 1970s from the Environmental Research Laboratory at the University of Arizona. The most popular variant today is produced by Omega Garden, which features a mechanism that rotates the drum through a tray containing nutrient solution.

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Figure 2.30 : Stack Drum Module (Source: Graff, 2011)

Figure 2.31 : Space efficiency of the stacked drum design (Source: Graff, 2011)

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Figure 2.32 : Omega Garden Stack Drum

(Retrieved from: https://www.verticalfarm.altervista.org)

Columnar Systems The latest variant of vertical cultivation module to emerge is the columnar design popularized by the English horticultural company Valcant. Their design, VertiCrop, consists of a series of stacked trays arranged in a staggered pattern to increase light penetration. The “columns� are then cycled along a conveyor track to a central machine that delivers nutrient solution and removes the trays for harvesting. The design boasts the highest space efficiency among the sun-fed hydroponic systems available today, however, it is also the most limited in accommodating different plant varieties.

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Figure 2.33: Columnar System Module (Source: Graff, 2011)

Figure 2.34 : Space efficiency of the columnar design (Source: Graff, 2011)

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2.1.6 Advantages of Vertical Farming Vertical farms are being developed firsthand providing some important information about their functionality and sustainability. The numerous advantages of the vertical farms by are still balancing the disadvantages of the initial investments. The following pages are dedicated to analyze the different advantages of the vertical farms.

Increase Year-round Crop Production Traditional farming has the limitation of the seasons and most of them produce only once a year. Vertical farming could be possible to grow plants in all seasons which multiply the productivity of the farmed surface. Despommier (2009) stands that the productivity factor could be around 5 times higher in comparison to the traditional systems. In some crops, like strawberries, the factor could be as high as 30.

Expressed in ratio, this means that 1 high-rise farm is equal to 480 traditional horizontal farms.

Protection from Weather Disasters Crops grown in traditional outdoor farming suffer from the often suboptimal, and sometimes extreme, nature of geological and meteorological events such as undesirable temperatures or rainfall amounts, monsoons, hailstorms, tornadoes, flooding, wildfires, and severe droughts. Minister of Agriculture and Agro-Based Industry stated that the flashflood in 2015 cost the Malaysia 299 million of ringgit

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in lost crops, with even more devastating losses in topsoil. “Changes in rain patterns and temperature could diminish India’s agricultural output by 30 percent by the end of the century.” (Michael Pollan, 2009). The protection of crops from weather is increasingly important as global climate change occurs. In vertical farm, the crops will be grown under controlled environment, hence they will be safe from extreme weather occurences such as droughts and floods.

Water Conservation and Recycling According to Despommier (2009), the vertical farming technology includes hydroponics which uses 70 percent lesser water than normal agriculture.

Aeroponics will also be used which consumes 70 percent less water compared to hydroponics. Urban wastes like black water will be composted, recycled and used for farming inside the building. Sewage sludge will be converted to topsoil and processed for the extraction of water for agricultural use or drinking water.

Sustainable Environments for Urban Areas Placing vertical farms at the city centers also means a rupture between city and farmlands. Vertical farms would bring a great concentration of plants into cities.

These plants would absorb carbon dioxide produced by automobile emissions and give off oxygen in return (Despommier, 2009). Vertical farms could have multiple purposes beside growing plants. A farmer’s market can be integrated in vertical farm, as well as restaurants and research lab. Also, Vertical farms could be integrated with offices and housing as whole to create a greener environment for the user.

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Ecosystem Restoration Each unit of area in a vertical farm could allow up to 20 units of area of outdoor farmland to return to its natural state (Despommier, 2009). If vertical farming in urban centres becomes the norm, then one anticipated long-term benefit would be the gradual repair of many of the world’s damaged ecosystems through the systematic abandonment of farmland. In temperate and tropical zones, the regrowth of hardwood forests could play a significant role in carbon sequestration and may help reverse current trends in global climate change.

Energy Conservation and Production The energy production is probably one of the key elements to understand and to guarantee the viability of vertical farms. Selling of the crops in the same building in which they are grown will significantly reduce the consumption of fuel that is used in transporting the crops to the consumers.

The energy independence of vertical farms could be achieved from efficient technology system but also energy produced by the combustion of biogas made from the organic waste of the vertical farm (non-edible parts of plants and animals).

This gas is generally composed of 65% methane along with other gases. By equipping a 30 stories vertical farm with wind turbines, solar panels and biogas digester, it is capable of generating 56 million kwh electricity and only consume 26 kwh of it.

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2.1.7 Problems and Barriers in Vertical Farming Some think that expensive urban real estate in many cities may rule out vertical farms although by using abandoned warehouses or environmentally contaminated sites is used. And the high electricity usage to run lighting and heating/cooling in a vertical farm impacts the economics.

The reason that vertical farms are not being built by the millions already is that it is a completely new industry, meaning that there’s still a lot of uncertainty about the return on investment (ROI). In spite of the perceived advantages of vertical farms, some agricultural experts are skeptical that the costs and benefits will pencil out. At the moment, there’s the need for more proven vertical farms, knowledge & research, experts, investments, innovative business plans, engineering solutions and architecture that integrates food productions into new and existing infrastructure. The technical limiting factor for plants VF’s is still energy costs related to lighting and HVAC but these are being overcome rapidly as more investors and entrepreneurs get involved. Furthermore, vertical farm concepts and designs are mainly based on those for conventional buildings, making vertical farms prohibitively costly.

Economics One of the biggest obstacles that vertical farm has to overcome is the economical side. These buildings are too expensive when the high technology is required, the terrains in a city center, etc. It is translated to an enormous start-up costs that without the help of the administration are impossible to effort. The maintenance of vertical farm is also a huge issue. The extra cost of lighting (even using LED 46

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systems) especially the energy required to control the vertical farm controlled environment possessed a much higher cost compared to the transportation costs that can be saved. “The initial building costs will be easily over $100 million, for a 60 hectares’ vertical farm. Office occupancy costs can be very high in major cities, with cities such as Tokyo, Moscow, Mumbai, Dubai, Milan, Zurich, and Sao Paulo ranging from $1850 to $880 per square meter, respectively.� (Pocket World in Figures, The Economist, 2011 ed. pg. 64) Energy consumption The energy issue is also a big obstacle for vertical farms. To grow different species of crops during the whole year through vertical farming, there is a necessary to supplementary artificial light because of the different inclination of the sunlight depending on the seasons. Bruce Bugbee (2009), a crop physiologist at Utah State University, believes that the power demands of vertical farming will be too high and uncompetitive with traditional farms which using only free natural light. The scientist and climate change activist George Monbiot (2010) calculated that the cost of providing enough supplementary light to grow the grain fora single loaf would be almost $10 (although his calculation has not considered LED growing lights, which are somewhat more efficient - around 1/2 to 1/5 of the cost). Heating the entire building could be very expensive and energetically not sustainable. Even using biofuels energy from the organic debris is not enough to supply the needs of a Vertical Farm. To address this problem, The Plant in Chicago is building an anaerobic digester into the building. This will allow the farm to operate off the

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energy grid. Moreover, the anaerobic digester will recycle waste from nearby businesses that would otherwise go into landfills.

The need to balance capital outlay The need to balance capital outlay against profitable crop sales at competitive wholesale market prices is critical to success, as commercial viability must go hand in hand with all the other benefits. This challenge is highlighted in the issue of artificial lighting, where the benefits of LED lighting are clear in terms of energy usage and productivity, but need to be balanced alongside higher capital outlay compared to conventional horticultural lighting (Griffiths, 2014).

2.1.8 List of Commercial Vertical Farm As population continues to grow exponentially and the Earth’s natural resources continue to be depleted, vertical farm has started to gain more attention from the vertical farmers as well as architects. To date, there were a number of successful commercial-scale vertical farming striving for more sustainable, healthier agricultural production. Table 1 shows a number of successful commercial scale vertical farms around the globe.

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New Three- story building

Hydroponic

Stacked Bed

Undisclosed

Undisclosed

Structure

Growing System

Crop Cultivation Module

Growing Area

Crop Production

Annual Yield (tons per acre)

Undisclosed

Rural Development Authority

Name

(no. of cropcycles compared to conventional

Suwon, South Korea

Location

3900 kg

Undisclosed

37 m2

ZipGrow Towers

Hydroponic

Shipping Container

Modular Farm

Canada

Brampton,

900 tons

100 times

2,323 m2

Stacked Bed

Hydroponic

(Warehouse)

Reused building

Mirai

Miyagi, Japan

450 tons

4 times

418 m2

Stacked Bed

Hydroponic

Greenhouse

Vertical Harvest

Wyoming, United States

500 tons

15 times

8300 m2

Stacked Bed

Aquaponic

(Warehouse)

Reused building

FarmedHere

Illinois, United States

300 tons

10 times

3650 m2

A Go-Gro Tower

Hydroponic

Greenhouse

Skygreens,

Singapore

1000 tons

130 times

650 m2

Stacked Bed

Aeroponic

(Warehouse)

Reused building

Aerofarms,

New Jersey, USA

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Table 1 : Existing Commercial Scale Vertical Farms

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2.2 Modular Architecture

Using Modular Design as the Sustainable Solution

Figure 2.35 : Modular design (Retrieved from: http://www.archicentral.com)

Modularity is a very general set of principles for managing complexity. Modular design or “modularity in design� is a design approach that subdivides a complex system into discrete pieces called modules or skids that can be independently created and then communicate with one another only through standardized interfaces within a standardized architecture. A modular system is characterized by functional partitioning into discrete scalable and reusable modules, rigorous use of well-defined modular interfaces and making use of industry standards for interfaces. Such idea is not new in the literature of technological design (Simon, 1962; Alexander,1964), even if, as some claim (Baldwin and Clark, 1997), modularity is becoming more important today because of the increased complexity of modern technology.

Some of the benefits of modular design are flexibility in design and reduction in costs.

Examples of modular systems are modular buildings, solar panels, wind turbines and so on. Modular design combines the advantages of standardization with those of

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customization. A downside to modularity is that low quality modular systems are not optimized for performance.

Modularity in design can be seen in certain buildings. Modular buildings generally consist of universal modules that are manufactured in a factory and then shipped to a build site where they are assembled into a variety of arrangements (Wickell, 2017).

Modular buildings can be added to or reduced in size by adding or removing certain components. This can be done without altering larger portions of the building. Modular buildings can also undergo changes in functionality using the same process of adding or removing components.

2.2.1 The Origin of Modular Architecture

Figure 2.36 : Modular rice mats (tatami) in Japanese architecture (Retrieved from: http://www.naisou.anber-japan.com)

Historically, in classical architecture, the diameter of a column was used as basis for a number of modules. In Japanese architecture, room sizes were determined by combinations of rice mats which were 90 cm x 180cm. Ghyka’s work on the golden 51

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section was one of the sources of the Modular, but his work, in general, was used by other architects, such as Le Corbusier’s rival Lurcat. Lurcat proposed his own range of proportions related to the work of builders as much as to that of designers.

Proportions and modules thus became a central issue in the post-war French reconstruction, as architects struggled to maintain their status amid changing procedures in building production(Cohen, 2014).

Figure 2.37 : Modulor Man by Le Corbusier

(Retrieved from: https://www.s-media-cache-ak0.pinimg.com)

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Years Buildings 12th Sri Lanka century A.D. Famous architect, Ashley de Vos, confirms that ancient Sri Lankans had very sophisticated architecture and a tremendous understanding of structural mechanics. He has suggested ancient Kings of Sri Lanka erected the first prefab buildings in the world over 2000 years ag (Report on Medical Care, 1855)o (Hansy, 2013)

Figure 2.38: Royal Palace in Polonnaruwa [ancient Sri Lanka]

(Source: Industry Insight (2014). Retrieved from: http://www.jandelhomes.com)

1800s

World’s First Modular Hospital A prefabricated hospital built with woods in Renkioi, Turkey, was commissioned and built within 5 months, including innovations in sanitation, ventilation and even a flush toilet. Renkioi Hospital had a short life. It received its first casualties in October 1855, was closed in July 53

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1856. But even for such short-used institutions, it was feted as a great success. (Report on Medical Care, 1855)

Figure 2.39 : Renkioi Hospital

(Retrieved from: http://www.jandelhomes.com)

Figure 2.40 : Renkioi Hospital Drawings.

1900s

(Retrieved from: http://www.jandelhomes.com)

Modular Home Building

Factory-built and premade houses date back to the 1900’s, companies such as Sears Roebuck sold pre-fabricated homes through catalogues, delivered on trains. These early houses were inexpensive for the time 54

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and started the way for the even better quality and more modern prefabricated homes we have today. (The History of Modular Home Building, 2013)

Figure 2.41: Modular House

1920s

(Retrieved from: https://www.blog.etsy.com)

Prefabricated Diner

Diners were usually prefabricated in factories (like mobile homes) and delivered to the restaurant site. As a result, many early diners were typically small and narrow, because they had to fit onto a rail car or truck for delivery to the restaurant site. Some of these diners have been

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expanded over the years through additions onto the prefabricated structure (Karl, 2006).

Figure 2.42 : Modular Diner

1950s

(Retrieved from: https://en.wikipedia.org)

Field Office Trailers

Field office trailers started to gain popularity among the construction field whereby it offers mobile and portable workplace.

Figure 2.43: Field Office Trailers

(Retrieved from: http://www.modular.org)

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1960s

Re-imaging Future of Vertical Farming:

Using Modular Design as the Sustainable Solution

The increasing demand for school places across OECD countries during the post-war period through to the 1980s saw “standardisation” in at least two forms as part of the remedy. y. One was the creation of standard school plans and another, the development of industrialised buildings systems, particularly in the 1960s and 1970s (“Standardised design” for schools, 2011).

Figure 2.44: Modular School

(Retrieved from: http://www.modular.org)

Completed in 1967, Habitat 67 was constructed from 354 identical and completely prefabricated modules (referred to as “boxes”) stacked in various combinations and connected by steel cables. The apartments vary in shape and size, since they are formed by a group of one to four of the 600 square-foot “boxes” in different configurations. (Merin, 2013)

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Figure 2.45 : Habitat 67 by Canadian architect, Moshe Safdie’s.

(Retrieved from: http://www.archdaily.com)

Built in 1968, the 500-room deluxe hotel was designed, completed and occupied in an unprecedented period of 202 working days. Of the Palacio del Rio's 21 stories, the first four were built of conventional, reinforced concrete for support facilities. From the fifth floor to the 20th, modules were stacked and connected by welding of steel embedment. The hotel's room modules were pre-cast from light-weight structural concrete. (21Story Modular Hotel Raised The Roof for Texas World Fair in 1968, n.d.)

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Figure 2.46: Assembly of the Hilton Hotel in San Antonia, TX (Retrieved from: http://www.modular.org)

1970s

Disney’s Polynesian Resort and Disney’s Contemporary Resort were designed by Walt Disney Imagineering. Each was built with a unique process called “unitized modular construction.” Once the central elevator shaft went up, crews assembled 13 steel-trussed A-frames around it, forming a 150-foot-high skeleton. Rooms were slid into the building frames by crane, like dresser drawers. (Brady, 2011)

Figure 2.47: Model and construction of the Walt Disney’s Polynesian Resort in Orlando, FL (Retrieved from: https://disneyparks.disney.go.com)

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2.2.2 Modular Architecture versus Integral Architecture

Figure 2.48 : Modular houses in Australia

(Source: Industry Insight (2014). Retrieved from: http://www.seous.com)

There are many methods of categorizing architecture. Architecture can be either modular or integral. In reality, fully modular or fully integral architecture is rare and almost all architecture is somewhere in between.

On one hand, modular architecture has functionally de-coupled interfaces between components. In practice, this often leads to architecture that is one, where the functional elements in the building are mapped one-to-one to the components of the design. However, an integral architecture is the opposite of modular architecture.

Integral architecture has coupled interfaces between components. It tends to have more complex (not one-to-one) mapping from functional elements in the function structure to the components of the design (Holtta, 2005) 60

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Table 2: Integral/Modular Comparisons (Source: MacDuffie, 2000)

Modular

Chunks maybe integral inside but are independent

from

each

functionally and physically

other

Standard, pre-designed interfaces can

be used that can remain the same even if internal characteristics change

Integral

Chunks maybe integral inside and interdependent among each other

Interfaces are tailored to the chunks and are dependent on functional behavior

Modules can be specialized to their

Chunks are tailored to their application

function

requiring changes to other chunks

individual contributions to overall and

interchangeably

can

be

used

and cannot be interchanged without

Unpredictability of module choice

Overall design can be optimized for a

accommodate possible mismatches

implementation

requires over-design elsewhere to

predictable

set

of

functions

and

Standard interfaces are physically

Interfaces can be integral to the chunk,

waste other design resources such as

“strong”

separate from the module and thus

space or weight; interfaces are “weak”

saving space or weight; interfaces are

Interface management, if planned

Interface management occurs entirely

production

aimed at flexibility after design

properly, can provide flexibility during

Business performance may be favored

during design and is frozen; it is not

Technical performance may be favored

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Table 3 : Component Process Flexibility

Figure 2.49: Integral Architecture-Trailer

 High variety not economically feasible; would require high

fixed costs (e.g. tooling), high

Low

set-up costs, large order lead times. and/or high inventory costs.

Figure 2.50: Modular ArchitectureTrailer

 Variety

achieved

by

combinatorial assembly from relatively

few

types.

component

 Can assemble to order from component inventories

 Minimum order lead time

dictated by final assembly

 Variety can be achieved without

relatively high inventory costs by fabricating components to order.

High

 Minimum

order

lead

times

time

and

final

dictated by both component fabrication

assembly time.

 Infinite variety is possible.

process

 May fabricate components to

order as well as assemble to order.

 May

choose

component

to

carry

inventories

minimize order lead time.

to

 Infinite variety is possible when

components

fabricated to order.

Integral

are

Modular (Source: Aguwa, 2010)

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2.2.3 Types of Modular Architectures Modular architectures are divided into three subtypes: slot, bus and sectional. Because each of the three sub-types is modular, each embodies a one-to-one mapping between functional elements and components, and the component interfaces are de-coupled; the differences among these sub-types lie in the way the component interactions are organized. (Ulrich K, 1993) Slot Modular Architecture

Figure 2.51: Slot-Trailer Architecture (Retrieved from: Ulrich, 1993)

Each of the interfaces between components in a slot architecture is of a different type from the others, so that the various components in the product cannot be interchanged.

An automobile radio is an example of a component in a slot architecture. The radio implements exactly one function and is de-coupled from surrounding components, but its interface is different from any of the other components in the vehicle (e.g. radios and speedometers have different types of interfaces to the instrument panel). (Ulrich K, 1993) 63

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Bus Modular Architecture

Figure 2.52: Bus-Trailer Architecture (Retrieved from: Ulrich, 1993)

In a bus architecture, there is a common bus to which the other physical components connect via the same type of interface. A common example of a component in a bus architecture would be an expansion card for a personal computer. Non-electronic products can also be built around a bus architecture. Track lighting, shelving systems with rails and adjustable roof racks for automobiles all embody a bus architecture.

The bus is not necessarily linear. (Ulrich K, 1993)

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Sectional Modular Architecture

Figure 2.53: Sectional-Trailer Architecture (Retrieved from: Ulrich, 1993)

In a sectional architecture, all interfaces are of the same type and there is no single element to which all the other components attach. The assembly is built up by connecting the components to each other via identical interfaces. Many piping systems adhere to a sectional architecture, as do sectional sofas, office partitions and some computer systems. (Ulrich K, 1993) 2.2.4 Advantages and Disadvantages of Modular Architecture During recent decades, many researchers have been studying the advantages of modular design. It is obvious that some of its advantages and disadvantages depend on the type of modular system. However, there is a common denominator across all kinds of modular design—so most of their advantages hold true across classifications with varying effectiveness. Modular buildings are argued to have advantages over conventional buildings, for a variety of reasons.

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Speed of Construction/ Faster Return on Investment Modular construction allows for the building and the site work to be completed simultaneously. According to some materials, this can reduce the overall completion schedule by as much as 50%. The building units can be rented out and generate income faster, and the carrying cost are lower (Smereczynsky, 2015).

Elementary buildings can be constructed in as little as 60 to 90 days and the risk of weather delays is minimized.

Flexibility One can continually add to a modular building, including creating high rises. (“High-rise housing going modular�. Retrieved 10 January 2017) Modular buildings can easily be expanded, reduced, reconfigured or even relocated to meet changing needs.

Reduction Cost Tatum et al [1987] state that lower project costs can result from using modular construction. In some cases, a reduction of capital costs by up to 20% is possible [Shelley, 1990]. Hesler [1990] states that "in-depth studies have shown that modular power plants show capital cost savings of 20%or more and schedule savings approaching 40%." Shelley D990] states that most modular construction experts would agree that modular construction can save between 5%and 10% of the total cost for most projects. " Examples of reduced costs through modular construction include the following: 66

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John Brown of John Brown Engineers & Constructors, Inc. stated that savings of at least 7% of the total contract amount was obtained by using modular construction methods rather than conventional methods for over 40% of the process facilities for the Sullom Voe Oil Terminal in the Shetland Islands (Parkinson et al, 1982); Tatum et al (1987) state that it has been estimated that “the modular engineering concept can save up to 10% of the total cost of a facility, cut onsite labor 25 %, and reduce the plot (working) area 10% to 50%;” Hesler (1990) states that “despite its relatively high cost for the initial design, savings in other areas can make the technique a cost effective design strategy.”

Table 4 : Comparison of traditional and modular construction in terms of capital cost (as percentage of the total cost).

Elements of construction

External works and service connections Foundations and sub-structure Framework and floors

Modular units (fully fitted out)

Traditional (%)

Modular (%)

7

6

9

10

---

9

---

50

Internal fitments

12

incl. in units

External cladding

15

10

Mechanical and electrical services

15

5

Site preliminaries, etc.

15

5

Roof structure and roofing Communal areas, access, stairs and lifts Drainage and rainwater

5

8

4

100

3

8

4

100

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2.2.5 The Challenge of Modularity Modularity means using the same module in multiple configurations enabling a large variety of designs without using many component types. This modularity brings several advantages such as reduced capital requirements and economies. Modularity is especially advantageous when the scale and scope of the project are relatively large.

In such cases, it is a practical and economic option. Through modularity, you can achieve various designs, while achieving low-cost for development, as well as, cost saving in design and construction. Thus, you find that modularity is pushing out the productivity frontier in design creation (McCluskey, 2000).

On the contrary, modularity may lead to excess cost due to over-design, inefficient performance, and too many common modules may result in loss of design identity. A major challenge in studying modularity is the variance in those experiences.

2.2.6 Practice of Modular Design on Particular Building Typology Modular construction comprises prefabricated room-sized volumetric units that are normally fully fitted out in manufacture and are installed on-site as load-bearing “building blocks.�(Lawson, Ogden, & Bergin, 2012). The current range of applications of modular construction is in cellular-type buildings such as hotels, student residences, military accommodations, and social housing, where the module size is compatible with manufacturing and transportation requirements. The current application of modular construction of all types is reviewed in a recent Steel Construction Institute publication (Lawson, 2007).

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Permanent Modular Educational Building

Figure 2.54: The sky™ High Performance Modular Classroom Building (Retrieved from: http://www.openpr.com)

The sky™ designed and developed by Silver Creek’s in‐house design team with a strict focus on providing a flexible high performance learning environment. Rather than develop a “one‐size‐fits‐all” building system, Silver Creek elaborated on the design to present numerous options that allow for a fully customizable building solution which can be tailored to meet the exact needs and budget of each project site. The sky™ features two unique and contemporary floor plans which can be combined with a staggering number of interior and exterior finish options to provide a high quality, cost‐effective permanent modular classroom solution that can be easily integrated onto any campus.

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Figure 2.55 : High Tech High Chula Vista

(Retrieved from: http://www.modular.org)

High Tech High Chula Vista is a LEEDÂŽ candidate project registered under the USGBC with the certification goal of Gold. An application was also submitted to the Collaborative for High Performance Schools (CHPS) program. A total of eight buildings consisting of 59 modules (32,807 sq. ft.) are visually tied together with a steel canopy. The canopy, along with a storefront door system between the buildings, effectively adds 12,645 square feet of passively-ventilated space to the project. By building modular, High Tech High was able to start classes at least ten months earlier than conventional construction.

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Modular Student Dormitory

Figure 2.56: World's Tallest Modular Apartment Tower (Retrieved from: http://www.modular.org/)

Atlantic Yards Complex is a 25-story student dormitory that made up of 805 modules and was built in 27 weeks. This is yet the world's tallest modular building. In architectural terms, the challenges of converting the build from traditional to modular were mostly related to the planning issues, which required structural changes in the design. None of those changes were critical to the overall aesthetic of the buildings, and were successfully incorporated within the scheme to the satisfaction of the occupants. This project shows that modular system is an affordable and fast solution for multi-story accelerated building yet proves that pre-engineered solutions have a promised future in the construction industry.

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2.3

Re-imaging Future of Vertical Farming:

Using Modular Design as the Sustainable Solution

Modular Design Within Existing Commercial Vertical Farms

Modularity holds the potential of promoting many benefits to improvise the feasibility and efficiency of vertical farm. One of it is the flexible layout and compact construction which allows vertical farm it to be easily constructed, dismantled, and replicated. With the rising of many commercial scale vertical farm nowadays, the implication of modular design is very likely to be found and level of modularity is varied from one farm to another. There are two level of modular design approach applied in these vertical farms.

2.3.1 Modularity in Growing System An ideal modular growing system can be adjusted to fit any building just right. It should also have functionally de-coupled interfaces between components whereby any defect components can be switched easily without interrupting the whole growing system. Basically, the growing system should come as a whole solution which covers all the essential requirement for plants to grow. Zip Farm and A GoGro is currently the most popular approach use in vertical farming industry.

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ZipFarm™ by Bright Agrotech

Figure 2.57 : The interior layout of ZipGrow tower arrangement (Retrieved from: https://www.brightagrotech.com)

Bright Agrotech is the leader of high density, practical, and productive vertical farming equipment. They offer a variety of products and services that stack the deck for small farmers wanting to grow more food with fewer resources using appropriate growing techniques and technology. Their flagship product, the ZipGrow Tower, is a core component of many of the systems used by today’s most innovative farmers, from indoor hydroponic warehouse farms, to vertical

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aquaponic greenhouses, and even a variety of high density container farms like Freight Farms and Modular Farms.

i)

ii)

iii)

Figure 2.58:The functional components of ZipFarm module (Retrieved from: https://www.brightagrotech.com/)

The ZipFarm module can be functionally de-coupled into discrete components as shown in Figure 2.56. They are namely Light Rack, Zip Rack to combine as a whole to form one whole solution.

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Figure 2.59: Light Rack with its lighting hanging system (Retrieved from: https://www.brightagrotech.com/)

i.

The function of Light Rack is to hold the lighting system firmly whereby sufficient lighting can be supplied to the crop. The Light Rack can manage to hold up to 36 LED spotlight per side.

Figure 2.60:The ZipGrow Towers

(Retrieved from: https://www.brightagrotech.com/)

ii.

ZipGrow Towers are modern farming tools helping growers around the world grow more leafy greens and herbs in less space. The Zip Rack comes in two

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sizes namely 5-foot and 7-foot long. The internal of the tower housing is placed with matrix media insert where the sibling plants will be transferred in and grow until they are ready to be harvested.

Figure 2.61: The one complete solution of ZipFarm module (Retrieved from: https://www.brightagrotech.com/)

iii.

With the modular design applied within, the interchangeability of component can be achieved easily. Besides Light Rack and Zip Tower, the Zip Farm is also attached with components like pump, grow lights, and irrigation system.

2.3.2 Modularity in Building Structure For the time being, vertical farm which utilises modular design in its building structure system is the shipping container farm. For the rest of the existing commercial-scale

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vertical farm resides under simple structure such as greenhouse or used building such as warehouse.

Container Farm by Freight Farm

Figure 2.62: Leafy Green Machine

(Retrieved from: https://www.freightfarms.com)

Freight Farms is a company that transfigure shipping containers into a farm for the purpose of creating year-round agriculture in any environment. The company mission is to empower local food production through design and technology, enabling the public to "grow food anywhere". Freight Farms has become the leader in modern agriculture and a pioneer of agriculture technology.

The company was founded by Jon Friedman and Brad McNamara after a successful Kickstarter campaign to build the prototype of what is now known as the Leafy Green Machine. (Cohan, 2013) The Leafy Green Machine is a portable and modular farm that can be stacked and shipped like shipping containers.

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Figure 2.63: The interior of Leafy Green Machine (Retrieved from: https:// www.hortidaily.com)

Produce quality is not affected by weather. Growing conditions can be precisely controlled. Light is provided by LEDs, saving energy versus other lighting methods.

Overall, Freight Farms claims that individual containers require 30,000 kWh of electricity annually to run. Factors such as water, air quality and temperature can be monitored and adjusted from a smartphone. By growing things locally, they eliminate the cost of shipping food a long distance.

The containers have designated spaces for different stages of plant growth, including a seedling and germination area for 2,500 plants and 256 vertical towers for the growth of over 4,500 mature plants. Stacking containers make it possible to create high density and high yield farms. 2015 LGM models started at US$76,000 (RM 328,358).

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2.4

Re-imaging Future of Vertical Farming:

Using Modular Design as the Sustainable Solution

Research Gap

This study is exploratory given the limited research and writing on the relationship of modular architecture and vertical farming, especially in Malaysia context, where this type of integration is relatively novel and yet to be embarked upon. As previously mentioned, preceding studies mainly focus on the exploration of modular design in particular, rather than a holistic integration of the modularity and vertical farming. This research aims to integrate modular design into vertical farming that will ultimately enhance the efficiency and feasibility in term of economics and energy consumption.

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3 | RESEARCH SETUP AND METHODOLOGY 3.1

Overview

This chapter discusses the basis of methodology used in this dissertation as it focuses to explore the potential of modular design as the sustainable method to designing vertical farm. Primary research of case study of vertical farm methodology was adopted in this dissertation. This approach can be defined as a methodology involving observation study and a body of knowledge that is based on interview. This study rationalizes the sampling strategies and the research methodology of Case Study 1: Sky Greens Vertical Farm at Lim Chu Kang, Singapore, and Case Study 2: Vertical Harvest at Wyoming, United States. Data was collected using two qualitative research methods: semi-structured interviews and indirect observation. This chapter will describe the qualitative analysis techniques which were used for analysing the data and discusses on issues related to the validity, reliability and generalisation of the results.

The case study research helps to justify and analyses the similarities, differences and patterns across two vertical farms that share a common purpose. Since high rise vertical farm is still under its theoretical stage, the case study will focus on existing commercial scale vertical farm.

Semi-structured Interviews with Industry Professional such as a renowned architect yet a botanist and a vertical urban farmer will be the secondary research to contribute to this dissertation.

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3.2

Re-imaging Future of Vertical Farming:

Using Modular Design as the Sustainable Solution

Research Approach

Comparative case studies research methodology was applied for this research. A case study is defined as an in-depth examination, often undertaken over time, of a single case while comparative case studies cover two or more cases in a way that produces more generalizable knowledge about causal questions. It involves the analysis and synthesis of the similarities, differences and patterns across two or more cases that share a common focus or goal in a way that produces knowledge that is easier to generalize about causal questions (Goodrick, 2014). Comparative case studies may be selected when it is not feasible to undertake an experimental design or when there is a need to understand and explain how features within the context influence the success of programme or policy initiatives. Following the theoretical framework delineated in chapter 1, conducting case studies offers a valuable approach for use in theory development, as well as valuable in tailoring interventions to support the achievement of intended outcomes.

Research data can be obtained either qualitatively or quantitatively. The choice between the two methods depends on their suitability in answering prior established research questions (Bryman, 2006). Qualitative research is a bottom-up method that is more subjective where more emphasis is put more on establishing a social meaning between the researcher, the environment and the topic at hand. This research method relies heavily on meanings, concepts, symbols, definitions and generally any information that is descriptive for input (Berg, 2001). Thus, data is collected through interviews, observations, reflections and field notes. Interviews are usually used as a means to gather data which forms through understanding the meanings to the responses

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given to questions. Qualitative research often yields data that is in writing but objects and images can be used to supplement its findings.

Quantitative research on the other hand is a top-down approach more suited to test hypothesis or theories that one can initially formulate through qualitative research.

Data is collected in large numbers and is done randomly through psychometric techniques. With a large pool of data, statistics are established and are used as a means to produce an understanding of the topic at hand and is used to empirically validate hypotheses (Lisa, 2008).

Table 5: Qualitative vs Quantitative (Source: Minchiello et al., 1990)

Conceptual

Qualitative

Concerned

understanding behaviour

with

from

human

informant’s perspective

Methodological

the

participant observation and interviews

Data analysed by themes

language of the informant

phenomena

a

fixed

measurable reality

and

Data are analysed through

numerical comparisons and statistical inferences

statistical analyses

informants

reported

facts about social

Data are reported through

from descriptions by

are

Concerned with discovering

Assumes

Data are collected through

Data

Quantitative

in

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An inductive approach is regarded in this dissertation for the analysis of its data.

Inductive reasoning is also referred to as a “bottom up� approach where it begins with specific observations and measure before detecting patterns and regularities, formulating hypotheses and developing conclusions. According to Gabriel (2013), inductive approach is the concerned with the generation of new theory emerging from the data and usually uses research questions to narrow the scope of the study. Inductive approaches are generally associated with qualitative research and the aim is usually concerned with the generation of new theory emerging from the data. Going a stage further than the theory, data is then collected to test it to verify the hypothesis.

3.3

Research Methodology

3.3.1 Data sampling For the sampling concepts on the case study research, two number of cases are chosen from a multiple precedence study research shown in Table 6: Existing Commercial Scale Vertical Farms from chapter 2, Literature Review. The two cases of vertical farm with different location is studied and compared. The two major differe

nt

demographics for this research are: the location and the farming approach each vertical farm used. For the interview, the target group will be the generally professional whose expertise is related to farming.

3.3.2 Data Collection Collection of data is achieved through case study and interviews. For case study, there are two major different demographics: conventional design approach and 83

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modular design approach. The different characteristic on the subject matter is required to yield a more informed understanding on their efficiency in term of energy used, cost saving, and the crops productivity. The case study targets the existing vertical farming with similar typology given by the Association of Vertical Farming.

In this dissertation, the efficiency of vertical farming will be judged through their repetitive modular units and their performance. The data collected from case study will be compared and analyzed.

The semi-structured interview targets architect and urban farmer for a professional opinion on the subject. There will be recording on the conversation and the information given that contributes the thesis idea will be paraphrased and written in the thesis. The data collected will be matched to the result of the comparative study of the two case studies.

Indirect Observation In addition to the later methods of data collection, the research also included indirect observation as a useful means of gathering information. Indirect observation is a useful data collection tool that provides the opportunity to document the record of past behaviour to deduce what happened at the recent time. This activity includes two approaches: structured and unstructured.

For this research, an unstructured observation is used. An unstructured observation is usually without actual areas of interest where information is collected randomly and is later sorted out. The experience of this activity was furthered enhanced by the assistance of subject matter experts of each case study. Unstructured observation was carried out to determine the statistical data such as building structure, faรงade material, 84

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level of modularity applied and any factor that is related. This method is also used for capturing observations on unanticipated activities. The use of field notes was highly applicable for this activity.

Semi Structured Interviews A total of 4 interviews were conducted with professionals of architecture and agriculture. The total number of respondents to interview was reached heuristically until a level of understand was reached. The questions as shown in the Appendix were identified and used in the interviews. However, the interviews were also done candidly with frequent two-way communication where the author allows the interviewees to ask questions to generate thought. All the interviews were done in English. The interviewees were chosen for their relevance to the conceptual questions rather than their representativeness. Participants were sought through searching for sites that were relevant to the study. This demographic includes architect and urban farmers.

For this activity, the process started off by designing the interview framework which includes topics for the discussion. Once a set of questions were established, the interview framework was brought to the attention of author’s supervisors who agreed to having mock interviews in order to assist the author familiarize oneself with intent of the questions and amend redundancies. This is then followed by seeking and interviewing the aforementioned demographic with questions outlined in the framework. Notes were taken during the interview, elaborated upon after them and compiled into mini reports. Analysis of the information was then conducted per interview and then compared to one another to come to a wholesome understanding.

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Research Methodology Data Sampling Qualitative Interview

Case Study

Indirect Observation

Data Collection & Analysis Descriptive Discussion Conclusion 3.4 Data Analysis The analysis of data was done through a top-down method where the case study for this study were given initial focus. From there, the data from interviews will be used to support the data gained from the comparative case study. With these established, the data gathered was summarized statistically and intrinsically to be furthered grouped together. This approach was done with an efficiency that allowed important aspects of the data to be looked over prior to searching for its answers in the pool of information. Establishing a baseline of intent had also allowed collected information to be singled out to be compartmentalized into bigger topics 86

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4| 4.1

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DATA COLLECTION AND DISCUSSION

Overview

This chapter will first present the three methods of investigation conducted to corroborate the validity of the framework mentioned in the previous chapter, followed by a discussion of the results in light of the study’s research questions, literature review, and conceptual framework.

4.2

Case Studies

The following case studies examine two successful vertical farm, the Sky Greens (Magazine) and Vertical Harvest (United States). Both of them farm perceives an unique way in cultivating crop. By providing a variety of urban contexts, scales, technologies, and modes of production and level of modularity, this project seeks to become a productive catalogue of adapting modular system for urban agriculture.

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4.2.1 Case Study 1: Sky Greens, Lim Chu Kang, Singapore Introduction

Figure 4.1 : Exterior of Sky Greens Pte Ltd

Singapore may be the most important country in the world for vertical farming right now. It has welcomed its first commercial vertical farm, a vegetable skyscraper powered by hydraulics, called Sky Greens. Sky Greens opened on October 12, 2012 and claims to be the first economically viable vertical farm in the world. The vertical farm churns out five to ten times as many vegetables than what could be produced in the same amount of land used in traditional farming.

Sky Greens started as a 3.2-acre-collection of 100 three-story height A-Go-Gro towers housing racks of Chinese cabbages, bak choi, and other leafy green vegetables. As of September 2017, it has grown to 2000 towers. Using green urban solutions to achieve production of safe, fresh and delicious vegetables, using minimal land, water and energy resources. Sky Greens is the innovation hub of its 88

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holding company, Sky Urban Solutions Holding Pte Ltd, where continuous innovation in next generation of urban agriculture solutions take place.

Table 6 : Comparison of vertical and traditional farming

Variables

Traditional Farming

Vertical Farming

Water Consumption

400 litres per kilogram

95 percent less

Yield per day for 25,000

10,000 heads of lettuce

100 times more

Not applicable

40 watts per hour per day

square feet farm* Electricity consumption

*Source: “5 Ways Vertical Farms Are Changing the Way We Grow Food vertical farm in the U.S.�, by L.Chow, 2015, March 10, EcoWatch, http://ecowatch.com/2015/03/10/vertical-farmsgrow-food/.

Sky Urban Solutions is a Singapore-based company that operates commercial vertical farms. Founded by Jack in 2011, the company developed a commercial vertical-farming system. Within a short span of three years, the company now occupies 3.65 hectares of farmland in Lim Chu Kang, housing more than 1,000 vertical-farming towers (Straits Times, 2015; Singapore Magazine, 2015). It has a pilot project in Bangkok and businesses in Hainan in China (IE Singapore, 2014).

In 2014, talks on expansion had started in other parts of China (Tianjin, Beijing, Fujian, and Xian) and in other parts of the world (New York, Puerto Rico, and the Middle East).

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Observation Study Sky Green has a patented vertical farming system which comes as a whole solution.

Its patented vertical farming system consists of rotating tiers of growing troughs mounted on a A-shape aluminium frame. The frame can be as high as 9 meter tall with 38 tiers of growing troughs, which can accommodate the different growing media of soil or hydroponics. The troughs rotate around the aluminium frame to ensure that the plants receive uniform sunlight, irrigation and nutrients as they pass through different points in the structure.

Figure 4.2 : A-Go-Gro Tower Module

High Yield-When compare with traditional monolayer farms, the Sky Greens patented vertical farming system intensifies land use and can result in at least 10 times more yield per unit land area.

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High quality-The structures are housed in a controlled environment which enables stringent control of input materials to bring about food supply, food safety, food security and food quality assurances.

Figure 4.3: The 5-story height of A-Go-Gro module

High flexibility-Made of aluminium and steel, the modular structures are robust and yet highly customisable and scalable. Structures can be tailor-made to suit different crops, growing media and natural conditions, even allowing cultivation on originally non-arable lands Low energy usage-With the harnessing of natural sunlight, there is no need for artificial lighting. Rotation is powered by a unique patented hydraulic water-driven system which utilises the momentum of flowing water and gravity to rotate the 91

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troughs. Only 40W electricity (equivalent to one light bulb) is needed to power one 9m tall tower.

Low water usage-With the plants irrigated and fertilised using a flooding method, there is no need for a sprinkler system thereby eliminating electricity wastage, as well as water wastage due to run-offs. Only 0.5 litres of water is required to rotate the 1.7 ton vertical structure. The water is contained in a enclosed underground reservoir system and is recycled and reused.

Low maintenance-Being housed in a protected environment ensures that the system can be relatively maintenance-free and have low manpower dependency. The rotating troughs and intensified plant to plot ratio also mean high manpower efficiency.

The A-Go-Gro system utilizes the hydroponic technique of revolving trays of vegetables around an aluminum tower which is six to nine meters tall, occupying 5.5 square meters of floor space (Magazine, 2015). It can carry a maximum of 38 trays of vegetables.

The A-Go-Gro system is designed with resource conservation in mind. The A-Go Gro towers are constructed using easily-available aluminum. Each tower occupies 5.5 meters of floor space to produce 50 kilograms to 100 kilograms of vegetables for every 28-day growing cycle, yielding almost one ton a year (Magazine, 2015).

The system is capable of extracting energy from nature. The A-Go-Gro towers are kept in a greenhouse environment to save energy consumption of artificial lighting such as LED lights. Each tower is installed with a water-pulley system powered by

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flowing water and gravity to rotate the vegetable trays. In this way, each vegetable tray has access to nutrients every eight hours and receives 30 minutes of strong sunlight every day (IE Singapore, 2014).

The vegetable trays contain seedlings that are wrapped in potting mix with pieces of gauze and supported by perforated Styrofoam boards (see Figure 1). A pulley system powered by water hydraulics rotated the vegetable trays in Ferris-wheel motion so that the upper trays can receive sunlight whilst the lower trays access nutrients from a water bath. Figure 2 shows the A-Go-Gro System.

Figure 4.4 : Structure of Sky Greens’ vegetable tray (Retrieved from: Meng, 2015)

The towers are housed in buildings with translucent plastic roofs and walls to create a greenhouse environment (see Figure 3). By 2015, Sky Greens had installed 1,000 AGo-Gro towers in its Lim Chu Kang premise, producing two and a half tons to five tons of vegetables annually (Straits Times, 2015).

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Figure 4.5 : Sky Greens’ A-Go-Gro System (Retrieved from: Meng, 2015)

Figure 4.6 : Sky Greens’ vertical farm structure in Lim Chu Kang (Retrieved from: Meng, 2015)

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Table 7: Strength and Weakness of Sky Greens Strength

Weakness

 Currently the one and only fully

functional and working model of vertical farming

 Production of pure and organic vegetables and crops

 Initial cost of construction and price of

vegetables slightly higher than which is available in market.

 Displacement of agricultural societies, potential loss or displacement of traditional farming jobs

 Reduction on dependency upon import of vegetables and food from other internationals.

 Novelty for countries where farm land are quite scarse

Semi Structured Interview A semi-structured interview was conducted with Respondent A, founder and CEO of Sky Urban Solutions (Sky Greens) with 8 years of working experience as a vertical farmer in the industry. Listed below are the highlights from the interview: Question 1 What does your business do?

Our 3.65ha farm here in Lim Chu Kang is a research and production facility. We approach research in two ways: as a solutions provider through our vertical farming system, and by conducting research on the crops.

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We constantly look at our processes and the input materials for the plants because the nutrients that the plants take in will have an impact on their taste. We also provide our vertical farming towers and know-how to overseas clients, such as a farm in Hainan, China, which acquired 192 towers from us.

Question 2 How to do you think about the cost efficiency of Sky Greens?

Many vertical farms are indoors, which means they need to use a lot of energy for LED lighting for the plants, ventilating the area and controlling the humidity level.

The running cost to do these is high.

Here, we use 0.3kw, because we make use of natural light, and we use the pump that pumps water to the plants to drive our rotating vertical farming towers.

It is powered by a gravity-powered water wheel and a closed loop hydraulic system action, hence additional energy is not required. All these will translate to savings for the consumers. Due to the simple but efficient design, our system is comparatively cheaper to construct than most vertical farming concepts in the market.

Question 3 How about the productivity of the crops?

We have an increased efficiency. We estimate that it is somewhere between 5 and 10 times more productive per unit of area compared to traditional farms in Singapore. Our product has also earned a higher price point than competing

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imports (currently 5-10% more expensive than local greens, a significantly lower percentage than the 40% cost discrepancy of his 2009 prototype).

Question 4 How much energy does each tower consume to maximize crop yield?

A-Go-Gro towers produce more and even use less energy. The efficient design optimizes

natural

light

usage

and

Sky

Greens

only

spent

an

estimated $360/month ($3/tower) on electricity for its original 100 towers. We also lowers input costs by recycling water and nutrients.

Question 5 How do you intend to grow your operations in Singapore in the next 12 months?

We have 1,000 vertical farming towers now, and we are building more. At full capacity of nearly 2,000 vertical farming towers next year, we will be able to produce five tonnes to 10 tonnes of vegetables a day, depending on the varieties we grow.

Question 6 How does it feel moving from engineering and construction to the agriculture business?

To me, it is not very different. Previously, I built houses for people to live in, now I build "houses" for plants. They key difference is that it is probably less stressful to deal with plants.

Question 7 Who do you supply your vegetables to in Singapore?

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We started supplying vegetables to supermarket chain FairPrice in 2012. We supply about five types of vegetables to FairPrice. They include the popular nai bai or milk cabbage, spinach, chye sim, kangkung and lettuce.

4.2.2 Case Study 2: Vertical Harvest in Jackson, Wyoming, United States Introduction

Figure 4.7 : Exterior rendering of Vertical Harvest (Retrieved from: https://prughrealestate.com)

Known for its skiing and beautiful scenery, Jackson, Wyoming, experiences harsh winters in which temperatures remain below freezing for weeks at a time. In other words, conditions in Jackson are not ideal for agriculture. A vertical greenhouse is designed for the locals to enjoy high-quality local produce. Vertical Harvest will be a three-story, 13,500-square-foot hydroponic greenhouse. It is designed by E/Ye Design 98

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and utilizes a 30 by 150-foot plot of unused city land that sits next to a parking lot in Jackson, Wyoming.

Observation Study Through an efficient building design, and the use of hydroponic farming techniques, the 418 m2 footprint will have 1672 m2 of growing area. Within this area, the farm will produce over 16,783kg of greens, 1,996 kg of herbs, and 19,958 kg of tomatoes.

The hydroponic greenhouse will operate year-round and grow as much produce annually as would come from five acres of traditional agriculture. Ninety-five percent of Vertical Harvest's eventual production is already under pre-purchase agreements with local restaurants and grocery stores.

The three greenhouses are stacked on top of another. Each of the separate levels will grow different crops, with the first two floors looking more like traditional, single-level greenhouses. The top and tallest level will be akin to the other existing vertical farms. It will use rotating carousels to move the plants, effectively adding a fourth floor. It is unique in that it combines these two approaches to vertical farming.

The hydroponic growing method re-circulated the water in the system and uses 90 percent less water than traditional farming and requires no soil which offer the benefits of efficient, high-yield, local, year-round food production.

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Figure 4.8 : Rendered Longitudinal and Cross-Section of Vertical Harvest (Retrieved from: Robinson, 2012)

The 46-meter-long greenhouse facade of the building optimizes the potential for natural light, which both improves photosynthesis and cuts down on energy costs for the facility. There will be times when artificial light is required. —for instance, it is impossible to grow tomatoes during a frozen winter on natural light alone—and so grow lights will be installed in order to ensure that the farm meets production goals.

Vertical Harvest has a climate and site specific design, which will withstand extreme temperatures. It has been designed to easily maintain an internal temperature of 67°F with a design temperature of -30°F. Although the grow lights will require a certain amount of energy, Vertical Harvest still constitutes net energy savings over imported produce, and while HPS (High 100

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Pressure Sodium) bulbs will be used for the tomatoes, LEDs will be utilized for the “lettuce varietals, microgreen and propagation areas.�

First Floor: The ground floor of Vertical Harvest is dedicated to hydroponic demonstrations and educational programs. Despite the classroom nature of this area, produce will continue to be grown and sold. A central atrium is accessed here from which the public can experience each level of the greenhouse. Also, this first floor will house a small retail space on the premises where the community can buy food grown in Vertical Harvest.

Figure 4.9 : First floor plan of Vertical Harvest (Retrieved from: Robinson, 2012)

Second Floor: Lettuce and herbs will be grown in revolving conveyor gutter systems that span from the first to second floor, as well as in the living wall in the 101

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public central atrium. These rotating gutters provide even distribution of artificial grow lights and natural daylight as well as bringing the product straight to the employee for seeding and harvesting. Microgreens, which add colour, texture and flavour to gourmet salads, soups, sandwiches and other dishes will be grown on tray tables. These microgreens have been pre-sold to Jackson restaurants. Strawberries will be grown in stackable hydroponic pots to be sold in the on-site market.

Figure 4.10: Second floor plan of Vertical Harvest (Retrieved from: Robinson, 2012)

Third Floor: The third floor of Vertical Harvest will be dedicated to growing varieties of tomatoes. These plants will be rotated using a system called interplanting to ensure that we can deliver tomatoes all year round with limited variations in yields from week to week. One of the primary goals of the greenhouse 102

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is to achieve economic sustainability and according to our market analysis providing quality tomatoes all year round will go a will go a long way towards achieving this. 70% of the tomatoes are already committed to area restaurants.

Figure 4.11 : Third floor plan of Vertical Harvest (Retrieved from: Robinson, 2012)

Vertical carousel rack systems in the three-story greenhouse allow for optimal light exposure and easy harvesting.

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Figure 4.12: Exploded View of Vertical Harvest (Retrieved from: http://www.inhabitat.com)

Semi Structured Interview A semi-structured interview was conducted with Nona Yehia, the architect of Vertical Harvest. Listed below are the highlights from the interview: Question 1 What prompted you to start Vertical Harvest?

I never set out to be a vertical farmer. I’m an architect by trade, and I believe in the power of architecture to build community. I’ve always pushed the boundaries in design, I’ve always been engaged.

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When we came to Jackson Hole, we were very committed to building whereas in New York, and we entered lots of competitions. In 2008, the economy tanked and it was kind of incredible — in those moments that’s where innovation and new thought can happen, when there are a lot of constraints. There wasn’t much building going on at the time, so I started getting involved in community projects. I helped conceptualize a park in the middle of town and I fundraised for the project; I started building more connections outside of the world of architecture.

Question 2 Tell me a bit more about your process in designing the greenhouse.

Early on we were able to connect with a Danish engineer who is on the forefront of hydroponics. The Dutch have been perfecting this method of farming for generations.

They have a lot of land but limited sunlight, and they’ve been using greenhouses to supplement traditional agriculture for centuries. They saw Vertical Harvest as an opportunity to enter into the American market. I get calls all the time from people who want to replicate this project; none of the manufacturers have embarked on a project like this before.

At its core, Vertical Harvest is a machine for producing food; it operates as a complete ecosystem. Our greenhouse model functions as three greenhouses stacked on top of each other. Each floor has its own microclimate. We have tomatoes and fruit on the top floor and lettuce on the second floor. While most greenhouses are mono crops, we use a mechanical carousel to rotate crops—it’s like a like dry cleaning carousel on its side— and spans the entire 30’ of the building. The carousel was one of our biggest pieces of innovation and reduces the amount of LED we would otherwise need; it balances natural and artificial light, and it also brings the plants right to the employees for harvesting and transportation. There are only two mobile systems operating in the world.

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Question 3 How much produce does the greenhouse currently produce?

Essentially, we’re growing five acres worth of vegetables on 1/10th of an acre. Vertical Harvest is an example of how architecture can respond to community needs while serving a local population. The ultimate goal is that our model can be scaled and replicated by other communities around the globe. It’s pretty unique, and that’s what keeps us all very passionate.

4.2.3 Analysis and Discussion Table 8: Comparison between two case studies Sky Greens Growing area

Vertical Harvest

36,500 m2

(Footprint/Growing

418 m2

Area)

1,672 m2 365,000 m2 10 times more yield per unit land

4 times more yield per unit land

Region Climate

Tropical

Semi-arid and continental

Location type

Inside the city limits

Peri-domestic

Building Structure

Standalone Greenhouse

Building Facade

Translucent plastic sheet facade

No. of Floor

1

3

Structure Height

Five stories tall

Three stories tall

area

area

Semi-automated Greenhouse attached to Existing Parking Garage Transparent glass facade

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Economic Model Distribution Urban Context

Application of Modular Approach

Re-imaging Future of Vertical Farming:

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For-profit farm, food-related business incubator, grant funded

For-profit farm with non-profit educational arm, grant funded

Industrial

Industrial

Local grocery stores and Supermarket Growing System Building structure

Local Restaurants, Grocery Stores and Hospital Growing System

Modularity Level

High

Low

Growing Systems

Hydroponic

Hydroponic

A-Frame Trellis

A-Frame Trellis

Crop Cultivation Modules Modification

Hydraulic Water-Driven A-GoGro Tower system

Components of the Cultivation Module

Vegetable trays A-shape Aluminium Frame Water Sprinkler Patented Water Pulley System Water Tank Generator

Light Source

Natural lighting

Growing Condition

Controlled-environment

Type of Crop Yield

Energy Consumption

Milk Cabbage (Nai Bai) Choy Sum Xiao Bai Cai (Sawi) Chinese Cabbage Lettuce Amaranth (Bayam) Chinese Broccoli (Kai Lan) Water spinach (Kang Kung) Spinach

Vertical Revolving Conveyor Gutter System Vertical Rotating Carousels System Carousels Hinged Aluminum Gutter Artificial Grow Lights Conveyor Belt Pulley System

Natural lighting and artificial lights

Controlled-environment Tomato Strawberry Microgreen Lettuce Herbs

29,200 kWh/year

339,000 kWh/year

Employees

38 people

15 people

Capital Cost

RM 80,329,625 (SGD 26 million)

RM9,673,875(USD 2,250,000)

Low-cost specialization, differentiation, and diversification are common business models of urban farms in developed countries. These two models differ greatly in scale and climate. Sky Greens is very much larger in footprint and total produce if were to

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compare with Vertical Harvest. The common urban context seemed to have to have a large impact and influence on the community models and farming models used. With a population of 5.5 million people, Singapore imports 90 percent of its total food consumption from over 30 countries. Hence, this has given Sky Greens the opportunity to become biggest distributor of leafy vegetables in Singapore. On the other hand, the extreme condition in Wyoming make it difficult to farm conventionally hence Vertical Harvest is proposed to supply food to the locals of the small town.

Both vertical farm is appropriated in greenhouse-like structure. Sky Greens is a standalone greenhouse whereas vertical Harvest is a greenhouse attached to a parking lot. Greenhouse promises a more economical plan for started compared to full enclosed indoor farm. The construction of greenhouse structure reduces the manufacturing time and will drastically reduce cost thanks to its modular and pre-fabricated columns.

These vertical farms are kept in a greenhouse environment to save energy consumption of artificial lighting such as LED lights as well to control the indoor environment.

Modular approach can be found on both vertical farm. In Sky Greens case, the modular approach is very well applied on growing system and building structure. The patented hydraulic driven A-Go-Gro tower can be assembled and dismantled easily due to its application of Ulrich concept of slot-trailer architecture. The interface of the vegetable tray, the water pulley system and irrigation system is of different type from the others.

This allows the interchangeability of components when there is any defect. The design also promotes the flexibility of layout as the towers can be easily move from one place to another. The towers are arranged based on the type of produce. As for the building structure, Sky Greens uses modular and pre-fabricated columns is used for structural support which will also reduce manufacturing time and will drastically reduce cost.

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As for Vertical Harvest, the growing system is found to be more integral than modular.

The crop cultivation modules are specially designed for a specific space. For an instance, the revolving conveyor belt on the first and second floor is specifically designed to be placed close to the faรงade. Yet, every floor has a specific functional space causing any layout alteration will be impossible to achieved. The division of level into 3 stories of different height brings limitation to the layout and circulation flexibility. The building structure of Vertical Harvest is based on a special engineered greenhouse with strong insulation to withstand the harsh climate outside and enable the control of the indoor environment. The approach of Sky Greens cannot be possibly applied in this situation. The building facade with heating pipes fixtures and growing light screen making it difficult to implement modular approach.

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4.3

Re-imaging Future of Vertical Farming:

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Semi-structured Interviews with Industry Professionals

In addition to the urban farmers of the selected case study vertical farm, interviews were also conducted with industry professionals to gauge their knowledge and familiarity of designing with the consideration of modularity in vertical farm. A total of 2 respondents were interviewed, with 1 being professional architect and 1 urban farmer. Below includes a brief introduction of each industry professional, followed by interview.

4.3.1 Interview with Dato Seri Lim Chong Keat The purpose of this interview is to gain wisdom on the topic of modular in design and vertical farm from Dato Seri Lim Chong Keat, who is a renowned architect of many significant buildings as well as botanist who had discovered many new species.

His passion and years of experiences on architecture and botanical research can contribute a big insight on the outcome of this thesis.

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Interviewee Background

Figure 4.13 : A picture with Dato Seri at his workplace.

Dato Seri Lim Chong Keat is a very significant architect in post-independent Singapore’s architectural history. Educated at the University of Manchester and MIT, Dato Seri Lim Chong Keat was the principal architect behind many of the most significant buildings such as the Singapore Conference Hall and Trade Union House, Malaysia Singapore Airlines, Jurong Town Hall Building, Penang Komtar Building and Auditorium and its Geodesic Dome, (Dewan Tunku) and the Shah Alam Town Council Auditorium. After retiring in 1995, he became a full-time botanical researcher, maintaining a conservation garden, Balik Pulau, in Penang.

Dato Seri who describes himself as being on "the cutting edge of botanical research", has published a botanical journal, Folia Malaysiana, for 15 years, and once chaired Malaysia's forestry research institution. A self-taught botanist, he estimates that he has discovered about 40 palms and gingers, his area of specialisation.

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Paraphrased Interview Question 1 What is Dato’s opinion about the idea of vertical farm. What do you see the possible problems and issues within?

It is a generalization to say that the world’s arable land is running out. To be apart from following the international trend, we first need to divide the world into zones according to the climates and needs where the importance of VF is tested. To further the study, we shall focus on the context of Malaysia and measured the feasibility of vertical farm locally. Vertical farming at this level of time should be implementing on rooftop and balcony of the high rises where these places gain the most sunlight but resides no one.

Still, there are proximate to a dense resident group. The only problem about VF is the enormous costs. Most Vertical Farm concepts and designs are mainly based on those for conventional buildings, making vertical farms, prohibitively costly.

Question 2 The current trend of implying IBS system or prefabricated modular design in Malaysia is applied in many public buildings such as school and hospital. In my opinion, this method can help to accelerate growth and development of the vertical farming industry despite using the conventional method to construct them. From your point of view Dato, how do you think that the modularity design can contribute to the feasibility of VF? To accelerate growth and development of the vertical farming industry, standardization can be an alternative. I have a friend at Singapore who has been involving in vertical farming uses their self-invented tower module and system to 112

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cultivate plants and the results turned out well. When everything is conformed to a standard such as system, procedures and farming modules, management as well as design can be improved drastically. Just like the conventional farming, the crops are cultivated by segregating the crop species to ease the farmer on the farming method.

Vertical farm should be minimally structured, modular & prefabricated to reduce the excessive cost. As of minimally structured, it reduces load-bearing equipment, services, materials as well as total weight, making it easier to be constructed and less labored is required. On the other hand, modular bears the most contribution in vertical farm design. The reasons for that is modularity allows uniformity of growing space, hardware and environmental control, allowing the vertical farm to be easier to managed which leads to the increase in efficiency and productivity. Modular system also encourages the interchangeability of units. It allows easier building and scaling when maintaining the farm. When a farm is made up of modules, the scaling unit size is smaller, which makes it easier to grow farms incrementally with less cost.

Question 3 If Dato notice, the dream of vertical farming is gaining momentum despite many unanswered questions about its feasibility. Fanciful skyscrapers depicted in countless architectural renderings of vertical farms have never materialized in the real world. These are some examples of vertical farm rendering I found online.

How does Dato think about these designs and does aesthetical value really matters in designing vertical farm?

These architectural renderings are supposed to be interesting. But in actual fact, it does not have any consideration about insulation and the allocation of green wall. The green walls are supposed to be allocated based on the sun projection but they are all been

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applied as decoration or a wallpaper. This kind of commercialisation will not work when it comes to building a productive yet efficient vertical farm. All these renderings may be part of gimmickry and exhibitionism to fascinate the juries during competition but the sad truth is that this concept rendering, though more feasible than most, is just not realistic. After looking at these renderings, the first impression that comes to user’s mind is “Wow, how interesting!”, secondly “How boring” and lastly “How illogical”.

Chances are none of these fanciful, futuristic vertical farms will be built, as they’re not considering the reality of farming on a commercial scale. As the famous saying of Mies Van de Rohe goes, “I do not want to be interesting, I want to be good.” In light of realising the vertical farm, we have to be as practical as possibly since the main challenges of vertical farming is its economic rationale.

Question 4 As far as I know, modular is when the functional elements are implemented by multiple chunks or a chunk may implement many functions while in integral, each physical chunk implemented one or a few elements in their entirely. I have this intention to design a minimally structured, prefabricated and modular system but I am not sure how it is done and I wish to find out more. So, I wish to discover what is the best optimum height, width of the pots and the number of plants I can fit in a row, and the type of species I can stack up and the ideal condition to grow healthy plants. I wish that you can give me some insight on this idea to be implemented in vertical farm based on your experience as a botanist.

There is no specific answer to the method of cultivating crops. The specific requirement for cultivation plant can be varies based on its species if maximum yield is the main requirement. From my experience, any plants or typical local vegetables 114

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can grow easily as long as water and sunlight is provided. However, the outcome will not be consistent to every crop planted. We also need to investigate the system used to cultivate the plants as there are so many ways of farming vertically. See for yourself the commercial vertical farm around the globe and how they do their farming and you will discover the suitable farming method you are seeking for as there is no perfect solution for this.

Question 5 This question is about understanding the outcome of vertical farming. So, I wish to find out the factors that help to increase the productivity of vertical farm. But in your case, Dato, as a botanist and an architect, if you were to design a building for plants, what do you think is the main design factor in designing building for plants?

Firstly, the efficiency and productivity of the space use. Unlike the typical buildings, the most evident advantage of vertical plane production is that it maximizes space use.

This involves not only using space above the traditional horizontal plane, but utilizes the entire volume of space, from the floor up.

Secondly, the layout of the vertical farm. A vertical plane growing setup should be able to allow workers to access any row they need without the requirement of bulky equipment. Aisle widths should be measured based on the requirement to simply accommodate multiple workers at once. Since the farm workers process accounts for much of the cost of production, the layout design can determine the number of labor required. The vertical farm layout design must be able to make compliance processes

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and safeguards easier to create and maintain, as all processes can be applied in a very targeted way.

Question 6 What are the design challenges being unique to vertical farm design apart from designing typical building?

While vertical farms are becoming popular like you said, cost of space in metropolitan areas remains a limitation. This means that we need an extremely efficient process to compete economically with the food production from traditional farms. This challenge is very much influence by your vertical farm design. It need to be as efficient as possible, allows a good circulation for vertical farmers to process the goods, making sure the plants are in their best state, fast growth rate and yet maximise the annual production yield is high within a given confined space. Next is cost of lighting. Lights should be accounts for around 30% of overall operational costs, and is therefore a major concern for the vertical farming industry. In tropical climate, the abundancy of sunlight should be well taken advantage of so the lighting cost can be reduced. In order to achieve that, you will need to create a greenhouse-like design to allow sunlight penetration and at the same time enable to control the environment.

Question 7 Singapore is currently known for its vertical farm, SkyGreens which covers part of the leafty vegetable market. They have achieved a quite impressive result. Do you think that vertical farming could be a good business opportunity in Malaysia?

Malaysia still have plenty of land to farm but the current conventional methods have contributed to a great imbalance in the ecosystem. I believe that Vertical Farm would 116

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significantly reduce the strain on the environment and gradually improve our ecosystem in Malaysia. However, the idea of vertical farm maybe not be materialised so far in Malaysia due to the limitation of prohibitively high initial cost compared to conventional farming. Malaysia is not the same as Singapore, where the population is so high and they mostly rely on imported food. This is why Sky Greens is a success despite its high capital cost. For the time being, vertical farm is best to be applied in less ulitised spaces such as rooftop and balcony which are commonly neglected although these areas welcome the high exposure of sunlight. If I were to suggest a site for vertical farming in Penang, Rifle Range and Macallum Street will be the ideal spot.

Vertical farming should also be made in the middle of the low-cost housing blocks providing close proximity to the locals and make fully application to the unused space.

Graveyard could also be the substitute for the Rifle Range area.

Analysis and Discussion Based on the information obtained from the interview with Dato Seri Lim Chong Keat, it is concluded that vertical farm industry is still at a stagnant point in Malaysia at present. Due to the availability of ample land for agriculture, it will be hard to seek for funding from government or NGO to establish a vertical farm. Moreover, the investment involves a huge sum of money and environment factor is not the main concern yet. However, modular approach does stand a chance in reviving this industry.

Most of the benefits of this approach contributes to the feasibility and efficiency of the farm. Modularity shall be applied wisely based on the design factor in designing buildings for plants. Efficiency of space use and layout arrangement shall be planned before implementing the modular concept. In addition, site context such as sun 117

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projection need to be considered seriously to fully utilize the natural resources to reduce the cost of lighting as it consumes a huge portion of the total energy consumption. Gimmickry and exhibitionism are the things that should be avoided in architecture, not mentioning vertical farm. In light of the farming method, there is no universal solution in cultivating healthy crops. Method of farming can be varying depends on the plant species. The main objective is to provide sufficient sunlight and nutrient in order for them to grow.

4.3.2 Interview with Mr. Loo Interviewee Background

Figure 4.14 : With Uncle Loo and this Vertical Farm aquaponic module.

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Philip Loo Ping Look or Uncle Loo is an urban farmer who used to plant and sell sweet potato leaf the traditional way. In 2014, he found a pioneer aquaponist in Taiwan, the founder of AVATA and learnt from her. Today, he and his brother are the first to build the vertical aquaponics urban farm in Penang. It is the first such commercial farm right in the city in Malaysia. His team hope to continue innovate effective and sustainable planting systems which empower everyone to grow their own fresh and healthy food all around the world. He then decided to pursue his dream by doing vertical farming.

He is currently the participant in Malaysian Global Innovation & Creativity Centre Startup Program (MaGIC). He also managed to secure a grant from Cradle Fund Sdn Bhd (Cradle), an agency under the Ministry of Finance, Malaysia (MOF). He has some 3 years of experience in vertical farm. Currently, he is working on another invention which applies aquaponics, hydroponics and aeroponic to form an integrated system.

Uncle Loo’s current farm is located along Jalan Tun Sardon, Balik Pulau, Pulau Pinang.

Paraphrased Interview Question 1 Modularity in architecture design explores how a vertical farm can be built in a much efficient and cost saving way.

How do you think the modularity design and vertical farming are linked to improve the efficiency of vertical farm?

To understand the efficiency of the vertical farm, we first have to understand the difference between designing indoor vertical farm and outdoor vertical farm. The relationship between these two approach is not interchangeable. For outdoor aspect, the sun is used as light source and no cost is associated with climate control such as 119

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HVAC and lighting but there is limited number of harvests per year as the harvest season is controlled by the regional climate. In our case, tropical climate has a longer sun period and it allows more leafy vegetables to be yielded. On the other side, artificial lighting and controlled environment which is applied in indoor vertical farming requires high energy consumption but promise a maximum number of harvests per year. Hence, to apply modularity within, the module for outdoor should be focusing more on how the water can be saved while for indoor, how the lighting can be distributed to maximize the outcome and reduced to energy consumed. To apply modular design in vertical farm, the components used need to be a complete solution.

This means that the modular system must be able to sustain the growth of the crop from its germinating stage to harvesting stage. The water, nutrient and light source wise also need to be included in the system so that every crop receives the same amount of needs. The problem with integrated design is that the vertical farm module can be very expensive. To avoid the long return of investment, the design has to be user friendly, not complicated and commercial sable and be assembled easily. If a minor part of the module is broke, it should be able to replace and function well again.

Modular design should have this characteristic when it comes to efficiency.

Question 2 In architecture aspect, aesthetical value is traditionally emphasized in designing vertical farm as published in many conceptual proposals.

Do you think that there is other factor contributes to the design of a space in a vertical farm?

When architects aren’t farmers, some serious design flaws slip into their vertical farm concepts. It is easy for designers to copy ideas without further research. Designing a

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building for crops is very different from designing a conventional building. In order to design a feasible vertical farm, practicality need to be taken into account. Cost and maintenance are parts of the practicality. For an instance, green wall is the current trend where architect will apply on most of their design. However little do they know that green wall can be very expensive to maintain. Hence, from the design perspective, practicality, cost and maintenance are the factors that contribute to the design in vertical farm.

Question 3 To what extent can a modular design can be implemented in vertical farm?

Depends on the overall concept and design. For example, if you are designing a vertical farm that is manually operated, then technically or theoretically it should be at a standing height level. Anything that is more than standing height it is not user friendly anymore. If it is 10 feet height, you will have problem reaching it or even harvest it and hence becoming a design issue. The cost will be ridiculously high when it starts to involve scissor lift to get to job done. However, if the vertical farm is designed in an automated environment, it is a different proposition all together. The level or technique of automation with determine what is the height that it can go. For as example the Atrellis in Singapore, it can be up to a few stories height. That is their design technique and how the environment that operate that thing. Location, market, commercial sable and practicality identifies the extend of the modularity can go. It also depends on the design, location, investor appetite and market as well. I always see vertical farming as a solution, not a standard application. Unlike conventional farm which is already so stable and mature where only a few factors need to be taken care of, vertical farming is a new thing and there are a lot more factors need to be considered. While on the

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perspective of aquaponics vertical farm, you don’t have much success. The mutual symbiosis between the fish and the plant as the natural cycle requires time for the plant to grow but promise a more organic produce.

Question 4

Figure 4.15 : Dwarf Nai Bai

What are the strategies that enable modular design to contribute to the feasibility and efficiency of vertical farm?

Being a designer, the strategy to design for farm A and B can be totally different due to their requirement based. First of all, the requirement is very crucial in designing vertical farm. Based on the requirement, then you will be able to apply the principle and concept in designing vertical farm. It can be an extreme in designing a 400 acres’ vertical farm and a 3000 square feet vertical farm. Secondly, cost of the building must be reasonable. You can design something that is superb high technology but ends up that the client is not able to pay that kind of cost, then the design is not going to work.

Thirdly, knowledge. How much you know about the variety and flexibility and 122

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different approach in designing the verticals can guarantees the feasibility as well as efficiency in your vertical farm design. For the past 3 years of involvement in the field of agriculture, I still have so much of uncertain when it comes to designing vertical farm. But these strategies will definitely guide you to the right path.

Question 5 What would you say are the main design elements that affect the productivity of a vertical farm?

First of all, it is the technology that you are using, then the logistic of it, and last its product cycle. Product cycle can be referred from two perspectives. First is from the equipment used and secondly is the production cycle of the crops. Production cycle of crops is the process for the crops from its sibling stage to harvesting stage to marketing stage. All these things need to be taken into consideration in your design. In order to design an efficient vertical farm, it is important to understand the production flow too.

For instance, the selected species of yielding crops in vertical farm should be consistent as if any changing of crops species can affect the whole production flow of the VF. To make an efficient design is tough. Designing a VF is not like designing machine to make bread. The requirement is defined in bread making scenario. Although VF may seem like the purpose is defined, but the thing is every plant has different requirement.

That’s why most of the VF are monotonous. Without requirement given, it is hard to achieve the highest level of efficiency.

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Question 6 What are the most common mistakes that are made in the design of vertical farm?

Firstly, is the misunderstanding of client requirement. When we are talking about designing, we are talking about the relationship between the provider and the client.

Very often we misunderstand what the client want, and then we give them what they think they want. Secondly is the insufficient of experience in designing VF. An experience designer will actually consider a lot more different factor compared to a less experience designer in the same solution. Hence, VF design is a solution-based design. The outcome can be totally different based on experience and exposure not mentioning the efficiency level that can be achieved. Thirdly, preliminary study is not correct. As the preliminary study determines the requirement which determines your design, an error in preliminary study can devastate the whole design of VF. Question 7 What design challenges are unique to vertical farm design?

Basically, layout is unique yet crucial part when it comes to designing vertical farm.

When you talk about vertical, you want to design an efficient vertical system, you need to leverage on gravity feed. This is a very important factor. If you lose the gravity advantage, then you are not being able to design an efficient VF. And that is particularly important in aquaponic based system. The other thing is space optimization. So, whether you need to optimize the space or the operation. These are 2 contradict thing factors.

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Analysis and Discussion Based on the information obtained from the interview with Uncle Loo, it is concluded that modular architecture does contribute in the efficiency of vertical farm. However, the level of modularity greatly depends on what aspects of the project are most important to the owner. For indoor VF, many aspects need to be focus as it implicates on the lighting and HVAC. For outdoor VF in tropical climate, the VF modules can be standalone and only connected to the generator to allow the mechanism to work.

The VF aquaponic module by Uncle Loo are made up of a few minor parts with attached to form a module. Hence, any defect can be fixed by switching the segments without moving the whole module making the system more efficiency. The design of the module as well is user-friendly as the maximum height is slighting above standing height. Anything above that height is consider as impractical and external assistant is required.

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Figure 4.16 : Uncle’s Loo Vertical Farm Aquaponic Module

Modular in design will usually cost more up front. However, it promises speed in which modularity is completed and allows additional revenue from early operations.

These savings can make up the difference in cost between integral and modular approach.

From an energy perspective, the results indicate that a modularity-considered vertical farming is more feasible compared to the conventional vertical farm. Modularity promotes consistency of operational procedures. This helps to controlled the energy consumed by each of the growing system in vertical farm.

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PROTOTYPE OF VERTICAL FARMING 2.0

The design prototype depicted is the author’s idea on designing the vertical farm in a modular way. To strengthen the outcome of the study, a high-rise vertical farm prototype is designed with the implementation of modularity.

5.1

Introduction

If Malaysia were to follow in the footsteps of other cities or nations, there should be an existing prototype as benchmark to follow. The Vertical Farm depicted is a prototype of vertical farm which develops modular design to produce healthy and nutritious fresh foods.

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5.2

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Design Prototype

Disclosed are modular and stackable cultivation systems and growth segmented platform, and purpose built structures including the systems and platform that are adaptable for crop cultivation and find use for methods of agricultural growth using hydroponic growing system.

5.2.1 Hydroponic module

Hydroponics module are designed for modularity and organized into efficient swirls.

The building is designed around these swirls to minimize growing area.3 farming towers module consisted of 66 vegetables tray. Can yield up to 528 plants. The hydraulic driven D-trellis is designed with one in inclined surface facing the sunlight source.The towers arranged in a hierarchy order to make sure every tower receive enough lighting.

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5.2.2 Segmented Platform

The segment is the modular platform to allocated the module. The segment is precast in the factory and can be coupled and de-coupled with other segments. Each segment includes 45m2 green area for crop cultivation.

5.2.3 Swirls

The swirl is made up by interlocking the segments to form a complete circle. Each swirl consists of 32 segments. The ramp on each segment after the interlocking will form a circular ramp for the public to access while the green space will be in a staggered order to create distinction between them.

The floor to floor design of the building is tailored to the height of the growing modules, the depth of the building services, and the optimization of daylighting into the building.

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5.2.4 Communal Farm

The communal farm is formed by the connection of 6 swirls, namely 3 farming swirl and 3 pedestrian swirls. The swirls will be connected via beam to the shear wall of the main core.

5.2.5 Sectional Illustration

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The floor to floor design of the building is tailored to the height of the growing modules, the depth of the building services, and the optimization of daylighting into the building.

5.2.6 Arrangement of Segmented Platform

The structural design concept maximizes growing space with a clean and simple structural system which is highly flexible and adaptable to changes in the hydroponic process.

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CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

Overview

The results of this study help to highlight the potential opportunities that may be associated with the design of vertical farms, paired with modular system design. The resulting data confirms that it is possible to enhance the efficiency of vertical farming by applying the modularity in the design of vertical farm, thus supporting that modular approach is a sustainable solution to develop vertical farm in the future.

6.2

Summary and Main Conclusions

At the start of the study, three main research objectives were identified.

1. To determine the feasibility and efficiency of modular architecture in vertical farm.

2. To compare the feasibility in conventional approach and modular approach in architectural design as sustainable solution.

3. To investigate the implementation of the modular design to the vertical farm.

Referring back to these objectives, the methods used to approach them and the main points of conclusion that can be drawn from the research are summarized.

6.2.1 Developments and Findings Relating to Research Objective 1 A close examination of the researches conducted by architects and designers throughout time has displayed the irrefutable role that architecture plays within a building design be it for human use or agriculture purpose. Extending beyond the modular architecture, empirical investigation has now identified that the application of

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modularity has already been applied in existing vertical farm but only at the level of growing system. By far the only vertical farm which applies modular building structure is the shipping container vertical farm namely Freight Farm and Modular Farm. In regards to support the idea of employing modular architecture in vertical farm, the thorough literature review in chapter 2 as well as the case studies in chapter 4 has affirmed the functional role that modular architecture is able to serve in improving the efficiency and feasibility of vertical farm.

6.2.2 Developments and Findings Relating to Research Objective 2 Financial infeasibility still remains the main challenge for the vertical farm to overcome. From the time of Despommier’s skyscraper research in 1999, architects and designers have been trying to promote vertical farming but to no avail. This is due to the perception of users that this is not worthwhile to practice as food that is imported or transported from elsewhere is cheaper and takes less effort on their part. Another supporting reason is that most vertical farm concepts and designs are mainly based on those for conventional buildings, making them exorbitantly costly.

Modular buildings are argued to have advantages over conventional buildings.

Modular architecture pretty much guarantees uniformity of growing space, hardware, environmental control, allows consistency of operational procedures, promotes interchangeability of units, acquiesce the use of varies growing systems and yet grant the development of turn-key operations in the aspect of vertical farm if were compared to conventional approach. All this benefits will enhance the productivity and efficiency of vertical farm and hence assisting in solving the financial dilemma.

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6.2.3 Developments and Findings Relating to Research Objective 3 Since the Despommier concept of vertical farming does not appear to be forthcoming any time soon, the study on modularity practise applies on the existing commercial vertical farm. The findings in chapter 4 spectacle that the application on vertical farm is currently in practise but the level of modularity remains at the growing system stage, where it assists the cultivation of crop. From the case studies, we can perceive that Sky Greens vertical farm consists of a number of repetitive A-Go-Gro module where all the crop is cultivated on it. A-Go-Gro tower module consist of a few components namely the vegetable tray, aluminium frame, water sprinkler and the patented water pulley system.

6.3

Limitations of Study

Certain unavoidable limitations must be considered when interpreting the results of this study. First, because of the time limit, this research was conducted only on the nearest vertical farm which is located in our neighbor country, Singapore. Fortunately, Sky Greens is currently a world recognized vertical farm and the data accumulated is informative. However, to generalize the result of the larger scope, case study on the foreign commercial vertical farm shall be done and comparative study shall be made to compare and identify their level of modularity and efficiency of vertical farm.

Second, the data was collected through a convenience sampling approach in Malaysia where vertical farming industry is still undeveloped. There are still many uncertainty on the environmental potential of vertical farm to be implemented in Malaysia. Thus, the generalizability of the findings might be questionable. Third, although the semistructured interview was adopted from the literature review and other empirical studies, 134

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it might not have constructed the context perfectly. The question directed to the interviewees are not specific enough due to the author’s limited knowledge in farming.

Though the validity and reliability of the present study was established, the question can still be further refined by taking into consideration the types of crop yielded and annual yield.

6.4

Recommendations for Further Research

Given the mentioned limitations, the present study has made important contributions to the literature on Re-imaging Future of Vertical Farming: Using Modular Design as the Sustainable Solution. It is the future solution to append modularity to the building structure of vertical farm. However, further investigations and experimentations could be conducted to truly understand the complexity of the modular architecture and its application in vertical farm design. An area of future research would be to do a techno economic study of the concept as well as a cost benefit analysis of vertical farming from an energy and produce perspective.

In the final analysis, many are unquestionably still sceptical about the viability of the concept. Nevertheless, the author remains a firm believer of vertical farming.

Subsequently, with the involvement and availability of refined agricultural technology and the implementation of modular design, vertical farming will be as common as the everyday market and become part of the urban fabric, especially in mixed-use developments.

In the future, as technology matures, these farms will play a more important role as they can clean the air, act as a carbon sink, and may even be significant urban social spaces. It is important to establish proper teams from various fields to come together

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in this venture as global food production becomes one of the world’s biggest issues in this and the next generation. It is vital that preparation shall be made to face this food shortage sooner than later as the irreversible effects on the biosphere are threatening the entire existence of life on the planet Earth.(Bramfield, 2016 ;Wildman)

Aquaponic Increasing research on aquaponics Aeroponics Coupling fish with vegetables (i.e. aquaponics) is an increasing trend. In a nutshell, fish water, once ammonia is transformed into nitrogen thanks to bacteria, is used to feed plants, regenerated and used potentially back into the fish tank. It benefits to both fishes and veggies. Nevertheless, fish species grown and vegetables produced have to be somewhat “compatible”. Water consumption to produce 1kg of fish in aquaculture is reduced from 100 cubic meters (open water breeding) to 7 cubic meters18 in aquaponic systems. The fish species called Tilapia is for now the main one produced as it is a fast growing, presents an interesting feed conversion to weight and is a robust fish. Nevertheless, in some region (and although Tilapia is a worldwide market), this fish is not that much consummated (e.g.France). This may slow the aquaponics move from research to operations. Aquaponists are working on the expansion of the model to new species, such as rainbow trout (e.g. Bioaqua farm in the UK), but they need lower water temperature and are more fragile than Tilapia. Most urban hydroponic greenhouse projects in Europe are actually aquaponics’ ones.

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Aquaponists do tend to be implemented by scientists or entrepreneurs coming from the aquaculture world who may value water as a “by-product” to grow vegetables and recycle it. It might be a reason why vegetables’ production metrics and performance in these aquaponic projects seem still below pure hydroponics ones. Nevertheless, we can probably assume that going forward the performance gap will be bridged through cross fertilization and techniques being replicated.

This category triggers specific building issues as the fish production side of the business is very structure heavy, (about 800kg / sqm for fish tanks), and requires structural reinforcements, should fish production be implemented on rooftops, while pure hydroponics greenhouse are closer to 40 - 100kg / sqm. This is probably one of the reason why aquaponics also develops into former industrial buildings where the robustness of the structure does not trigger weight issues. In these projects, they have to use artificial lighting techniques to grow vegetables (see thereafter).

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8|

APPENDICES

Appendix 1: Semi Structured Interview Questions RUL 574: DISSERTATION

Re-imaging Future of Vertical Farming:

Using Modular Design as the Sustainable Solution

by Ng Wil Szen (SB/775/15)

INTERVIEW QUESTIONS

INTERVIEW I: Architect/Botanist

Name: ________________________________ Age: _______ Years of experience: ________

Establishment: _________________________ Years of working: __________

1. Modularity in architecture design explores how a vertical farm can be built in a much efficient and cost saving way. How do you think the modularity design and vertical farming are linked to improve the efficiency of vertical farm?

2. The current trend of implying IBS system or prefabricated modular design in Malaysia is applied in many public buildings such as school and hospital. In my opinion, this

method can help to accelerate growth and development of the vertical farming industry despite using the conventional method to construct them. From your point of view

Dato, how do you think that the modularity design can contribute to the feasibility of VF?

3. If Dato notice, the dream of vertical farming is gaining momentum despite many

unanswered questions about its feasibility. Fanciful skyscrapers depicted in countless architectural renderings of vertical farms have never materialized in the real world.

These are some examples of vertical farm rendering I found online. How does Dato

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think about these designs and does aesthetical value really matters in designing vertical farm?

4. As far as I know, modular is when the functional elements are implemented by

multiple chunks or a chunk may implement many functions while in integral, each physical chunk implemented one or a few elements in their entirely. I have this

intention to design a minimally structured, prefabricated and modular system but I am not sure how it is done and I wish to find out more. So, I wish to discover what is the

best optimum height, width of the pots and the number of plants I can fit in a row, and the type of species I can stack up and the ideal condition to grow healthy plants. I wish that you can give me some insight on this idea to be implemented in vertical farm based on your experience as a botanist.

5. This question is about understanding the outcome of vertical farming. So, I wish to

find out the factors that help to increase the productivity of vertical farm. But in your case, Dato, as a botanist and an architect, if you were to design a building for plants, what do you think is the main design factor in designing building for plants?

Who are affected? (Back-of-house/servers/administration?) In what way?

6. What are the design challenges being unique to vertical farm design apart from designing typical building?

7. Singapore is currently known for its vertical farm, Sky Greens which covers part of

the leafy vegetable market. They have achieved a quite impressive result. Do you think that vertical farming could be a good business opportunity in Malaysia?

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RUL 574: DISSERTATION

Re-imaging Future of Vertical Farming:

Using Modular Design as the Sustainable Solution

by Ng Wil Szen (SB/775/15)

INTERVIEW QUESTIONS

INTERVIEW I: Urban Famer

Name: ________________________________ Age: _______ Years of experience: ________

Establishment: _________________________ Years of working: __________

1. Modularity in architecture design explores how a vertical farm can be built in a much efficient and cost saving way. How do you think the modularity design and vertical farming are linked to improve the efficiency of vertical farm?

2. In architecture aspect, aesthetical value is traditionally emphasized in designing

vertical farm as published in many conceptual proposals. Do you think that there is other factor contributes to the design of a space in a vertical farm?

3. To what extent do you think can a modular design can be implemented in vertical farm?

4. What are the strategies that enable modular design to contribute to the feasibility and efficiency of vertical farm?

5. What would you say are the main design elements that affect the productivity of a vertical farm?

6. What are the most common mistakes that are made in the design of vertical farm?

7. What design challenges are unique to vertical farm design?

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Appendix 2: Vertical Harvest Architectural Drawings

Ground Floor Plan attached with Existing Car Park

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Detail Floor Plans of Vertical Harvest 146

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Section Y-Y

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Using Modular Design as the Sustainable Solution

Section X-X 148