A Concise Introduction to Linguistics, 6e Bruce Rowe, Diane Levine (Answer Key All Chapters, 100% Or by StudyGuide

A Concise Introduction to Linguistics, 6e Bruce Rowe, Diane Levine (Answer Key All Chapters, 100% Original Verified, A+ Grade) Chapter 1 Answers to exercises: End-of-chapter exercises 1. It could be argued that the main function of communication is to create a change in the communicator’s behaviors. There are, of course, a large number of more specific functions, depending on the species communicating and the specific circumstances. 2. Among other characteristics, all communications systems have a sender, a receiver, a channel (or channels) of communication, a code, and feedback possibilities. 3. All living things communicate. Language is one type of communication—one that most linguistics would say is unique to humans. 4. Linguistic competence is all of the knowledge of a language’s grammar and lexicon that an individual has stored in the brain. Most of this knowledge is subconscious. 5. The sender is an organism that transmits a message (which is information) to a receiver who gets the message. A code is made up of units that are arranged in a specific way. To encode a message means to put those units into the proper pattern (for language, this would be called the grammar of the language). To decode a message means to ideally react to the message in the way it conforms in some way to the innate or learned purpose of the message. The channel of communication is the medium through which a message is transmitted. Communication is not simply a linear process. The receiver can become the sender by responding to the initial sender and sending their own message. The new receiver can than become the sender again, and so on. In other words, there can be feedback and feedback loops in communication. There can also be interference (noise) on the channel of communication that reduces the efficiency of the message. With animals that learn a portion of their code (as opposed to it being completely innate), there can be individual differences in how the message is sent and received. With humans, a person’s personality and their cultural background affect how a message is encoded and decoded, and therefore its meaning. 6. A lexicon is composed of all of the meaningful units of a language. A personal lexicon is all of the vocabulary stored in the brain. A grammar is the set of rules used to combine the lexical items in a standard way. The lexicon is composed of meaningful units. The grammar is the code (pattern) used to arrange those units. 7. Language, for most linguists, is a uniquely human cognitive system used to produce and understand precise meaningful utterances. Speech is an audible delivery system for language. Other delivery systems for language are signing and writing. 8. Humans can communicate through language using speech, writing, or sign language. 9. The terms verbal and vocal are not synonymous. To communicate verbally means to communicate using language. To communicate vocally means to communicate with sound (such as speech). 10. Although some researchers believe that some birds, such as Alex, can be taught some elements of language (in the broad sense of what language is defined to be), most researchers consider birds to be mimicking—that is, repeating what they hear without understanding. 11. Productivity is the ability to communicate about something that one has not communicated about before, and to react appropriately to a communicative act that one has not received before. A scout bee, finding food in a new location, will do a “dance” with the information about this new site of nectar, and other bees will go to the nectar. © 2021 Author Information Classification: General

This is productivity in its broad sense. Yet, as far as we know, bees cannot communicate in a productive away about things other than nectar. Hypothetically, humans can be productive about any topic. 12. See Table 1-1 in the book. 13. Bird calls tend to be short and acoustically simple, and each is about a specific and different thing. Some birdcalls are not species specific. Bird songs tend to be long (some are very long), acoustically complex, and mostly used to attract a mate. Bird songs are species specific. 14. The Clever Hans effect refers to subtle, mostly subconscious, cueing of a nonhuman or human subject. 15. Note: The question asks students to construct a chart. Since the charts would vary greatly, we decided to give some basic facts in a non-chart fashion. 16. Most linguists would not agree that apes can learn language. Some might agree that they can learn a little bit of language-type behavior in the broadest sense of the word language. But, no matter how long an ape is in an ape-language program (Washoe was in such a program for almost 42 years), its vocabulary does not approach the size and diversity of a young child’s. A child learns their language (or languages) informally from the social environment. An ape has to be formally and continually taught and rewarded for its “linguistic-type” behavior. Very few apes have learned anything that might be called grammar. When claims are made that an ape has learned a grammatical rule, it is a simple rule. Apes seldom get past using two signs in one communicative act. In other words, they do not learn to make constructions that might be called clauses or sentences. The apes make mistakes by using the wrong sign a significant number of times, even when they have used the sign for years. A child seldom makes these types of mistake. A child would not call a pen a chair once the child had thoroughly learned what those words refer to; an ape might use the wrong sign for something it had learned over and over again. See the book for more on this.

Chapter 2 Answers to exercises Exercise 1 1. a. [b] b. [m] c. [ʔ] d. [v] e. [d] f. [č] g. [l] h. [g] i. [k] j. [ð] 2. a. Examples would be [b], [p], [s], and many others. b. [k] is used to represent the sound that is represented by the letter c for the most part. c. These are obvious, and examples would be [ð], [š], and [ʔ]. 3. Every one sounds different. Consonants are shown in Table 2-1 based on the average place and manner of articulation. Two sounds perceived as being the same can be produced in somewhat different ways and at somewhat different places. 4. a. [g] b. [v] c. [h] d. [r] e. [p] f. [š] g. [s] h. [č] i. [θ] j. [z] k. [y] l. [p] m. [m] n. [b] o. [f] p. [d] q. [k] r. [ǰ] s. [l] t. [n] u. [t] © 2021 Author Information Classification: General

v. [ð] w. [w] x. [š] 5. a. [z] b. [v] c. [d] d. [p] e. [t] f. [g] g. [m] h. [n] i. [ŋ] j. [k] k. [f] l. [ð] m. [s] n. [z] o. [θ] p. [l] q. [č] r. [k] s. [b] t. [r] u. [č] 6. a. b. c. d. e. f. g. h. i. j. k. l.

[ǰ] [h] [ž] [ð] [w] [ŋ] [š] [ŋ] [θ] [θ], [ŋ] [č] [θ]

c. d. e. f. g. h. i. j. k. l.

passed --circle around ss and circle around ed which is a [t] who critique—circle around que philosophy—circle around both ph combinations bride teethe—circle around ee and th or just eth mechanic—circle around ch which is [k] comb hiccough—circle around cc; if second [k] is not pronounced, circle around ou and circle around gh knight

2. Linguists use the phonetic alphabet as opposed to standard orthography because each symbol in the phonetic alphabet is pronounced only one way, whereas a letter of the alphabet can be pronounced in many ways. So, the phonetic alphabet is unambiguous and consistent, whereas spelling is not. Also, the International Phonetic Alphabet is no single country’s orthographic alphabet, so it is politically neutral, thus reducing ethnocentric barriers that might prevent it from being used internationally. 3. Yes, [ŋ] and [ž] do not occur in the initial position. 4. Yes, [y], [ʍ], [h] and [ʔ] do not occur in the final position. Exercise 3 1. a. [i] b. [ə] c. [a] d. [æ] e. See Figure 2-3. Only vowels in the boxed area are rounded; all others are not. 2. a. b. c. d. e. f. g. h. i. j. k. l.

[a] [æ] [o] [e] [ʌ] [ɔ] [i] [ʊ] [u] [ɛ] [ɪ] [i]

3. These answers will vary.

4. a. b. c. d. e. f. g. h. i. j. k. l.

[ɔy] [ay] [aw] [aw] [aw] [ɔy] [aw] [ay] [ay] [ɔy] [ay] [aw]

5. Answers will vary. 6. Tense vowels are produced with more tension and more constriction of the vocal tract than lax vowels; tense vowels are usually of longer duration than lax vowels. 7. [i] and [e] are nonrounded vowels and [y] is produced without lip rounding; [u] and [o] are rounded vowels and [w] is produced with lip rounding. Exercise 4 1. Answers to this and to questions 2 and 3 will vary with each student. 4. a. hád b. lámb c. hot ród d. hót rod e. bláckbírd f. bird g. greenhouse h. house End-of-chapter exercises 1. Each consonant is described in terms of place and manner of articulation and voicing. Each vowel is described in terms of the part of the tongue used (front, center, or back), the tongue height (high, mid, or low), and lip rounding. 2. a. b. c. d. e. f. g.

[ækt] [rɔy] [fətig] [maws] [ritrit] [mæsk] [vasəlet]

h. [naw] i. [pɔn] j. [pʊt] k. [siž] or [siǰ] l. [mošən] m. [day] n. [dɛləkɛt] o. [ay] 3. The differences between ideal transcriptions of these sentences and the pronunciation of them in connected speech will differ from person to person and from dialect to dialect. 4. See text. 5. a. b. c. d. e. f. g.

Give me liberty or give me death. Play it again Sam. Friends, Romans, Countrymen Oh say can you see Hasta la vista, baby. There’s no place like home. Four score and seven years ago

6. A. These answers represent only some of the possibilities. a. [lays] or [rays] b. [šak] c. [kar] or [kal] d. Might sound like [hayv] or [hayb] e. Might sound like [bɛt] f. [pre] or [ple] g. [hord] or [hold] h. [bal] or [val] or [bar] or [var] i. [sɪŋk] j. Might sound like [hayb] k. [bal] or [bar] l. [sɪŋk] m. [briz] or [bliz] n. [ford] or [fold] o. [bɛst] or [vɛst] p. [briz], but could be [vriz] q. [pre] or [ple] r. [lays] or [rays] B. From the above list rice and lice, ford and fold, vale and bale, and pray and play. Students could come up with many others. © 2021 Author Information Classification: General

C. The voiceless fricative [s] is used in place of the voiceless fricative [θ], and the voiced fricative [z] is used in place of the voiced fricative [d]. Only the place of articulation differs. There is no [v] in Japanese, so the closest English sound in terms of articulation is often substituted for it, which is [b]: [b] shares with [v] in being voiced, made with partial lip closing, and, although a fricative, can be produced similarly to a stop. The [r] and [l] are both alveolar voiced sounds and are similar in other ways. These relationships and others in this exercise should be better understood after reading Chapter 3, especially the topic of natural classes of sound. D. Answers will vary.

Chapter 3 Answers to exercises Exercise 1: 1.  They are allophones of the phoneme /k/.  They are in complementary distribution.  [kh] occurs in the initial position in a word.  [k] never occurs in the initial position. It occurs in the medial and final position.  [kh] and [k] do not form minimal pairs. 2. a. b.  

They are allophones of the phoneme /l/. They are in complementary distribution. [l] occurs in the initial position before a front vowel. [ɫ] never occurs in the position of [l]. It occurs in the initial position before a central or back vowel and in the final position.

3. a. /tap/ b. /pæm/ c. /kod/ 4. Free variation; examples will vary. Exercise 2: 1. a. [ŋ] does not fit. The rest of the sounds share the following features: [−nasal, +consonantal ([ŋ] is + or −consonantal), −sonorant]. b. [n] does not fit. The rest of the sounds share the following features: [−nasal, +continuant. c. There are no natural classes in this entry. d. They could all be seen as being in the same natural class, sharing almost all features except voicing: [p] is [−voice] and the other two sounds are [+voice]; [n] is [+nasal] and the other two sounds are [−nasal]. Or, they could be seen as being in natural classes based on the nasal or voicing criteria. e. [æ] fits less well. The rest of the sounds share the feature [−low]. 2. a. [i] does not fit. The rest of the sounds share the following features: [+back, +round]. b. [p] does not fit. The rest of the sounds share the following features: [+sonorant, −nasal]. c. [v] does not belong here. The rest of the sounds are characterized by the following: [+consonantal, −sonorant, −continuant, −strident]. Exercise 3:

1. The three phonetic variations of the prefix meaning “not” are due to place assimilation, which in this case is an obligatory phonological process. See page 80 of the text for a complete explanation of this process. 2. The obligatory phonological process is devoicing. Nasals are devoiced in word final position. [m] and [m̥ ] are allophones of the phoneme /m/. [ŋ] and [ŋ̥] are allophones of the phoneme [ŋ]; [n] and [ŋ̥] are allophones of the phoneme /n/. 3. The following combinations of consonants would not occur in the initial position in a word in English: [ŋg, nd, mb, nt, nf] and, of course, any combinations with sounds that do not occur in English. 4. The phonological rule is called g-deletion: /g/ is deleted when it occurs before a nasal consonant that is in the final position of a syllable. But when the nasal consonant is not in the final position of the syllable, the /g/ is pronounced. (There are exceptions.) 5. The three plurals /s/, /z/, and /ǝz/ are distributed in English based on voice assimilation, which is an obligatory phonological rule. Words with a root ending in a voiceless sound are pluralized with the voiceless /s/; words with a root ending in a voiced sound are pluralized with the voiced /z/. The exception is that words ending with a complex sound, such as an affricate, are pluralized with /ǝz/. See Box 10-1, The Wug Test, for further explanation. 6. The optional phonetic process is called insertion. The insertion of /p/ makes the words in question easier to pronounce. End-of-chapter exercises: 1. Diegueño (also called Kumeyaay) is a member of the Yuman language family and was spoken in San Diego County and northwest Baja California. There is more complexity to the formation of plural than is displayed in this exercise. However, an analysis of the corpus of words that is provided would yield some basic principles. First, if the root word ends in a consonant preceded by a short vowel, in the plural the vowel is simply lengthened (becomes a long vowel indicated by the diacritic [:]. If the root word ends in a consonant preceded by a long vowel, that vowel becomes short in the plural. 2. In English, vowels are long when they occur before voiced consonants and at the end of words. This is an obligatory process.

Chapter 4 Answers to selected exercises Exercise 1 Part A a. telephone tele +phone B + F “tele” is a prefix meaning “across” “phone” means “sound” b. infirm in + firm B + F “in-” is a prefix meaning “not” “firm” means (in this case) “well” or “strong” c. farm F Farm is one free morpheme, a place where domestic plants are grown for food and domestic animals might be raised for food. d. reformers re + form + er + s B + F + B + B “re-” is a prefix meaning “anew” “form” is a free morpheme meaning “to build” “-er” is a suffix that changes a verb into a noun (an agent) “-s” is the plural suffix e. ranchers F + B + B “ranch” is a place used to raise livestock, often under range conditions “-er” is a suffix that changes a verb into a noun (an agent) “-s” is the plural suffix f. actor act + or F + B “act” means to perform “-or” changes a verb into a noun; it also functions to mark the word as masculine g. inaccessibility B + F +B + B “in-” is a prefix meaning “not” “access” a way or means to approach “-ibil” (a form of able) is a suffix that means having the means to do something “-ity” is a suffix meaning “the state of” h. ducklings duck + ling + s F + B + B “duck” refers to an animal “-ling” is a diminutive meaning “young” “-s” is the plural marker i. countess F + B “count” in this sense is a nobleman in a European country “-ess” is a suffix that changes a masculine noun to feminine j. boysenberry boysen + berry B + F This is a problematic form. It is clear that berry is a free morpheme. But, since “boysen-” does not occur in another form, can the word be broken in the way shown? Most linguists say yes. From a logical point of view, we know that “boysen-”, “cran-”, and “huckle-” describe different types of berries; therefore, they do have meaning. They must be attached to berry, so therefore we call these forms bound. Part B 1. textbook adj/noun noun © 2021 Author Information Classification: General

Note: In the compound word text is acting as an adjective. As a clipped word, the word text can stand for (take the place of) the longer compound, such as in I am reading a text. In this case, text is a noun. 2. hot dog adj/noun noun Note: Compounds may appear as two separated words. The reason hot dog is considered a compound word is that it is grammatically not a phrase. That is, a hot dog is not a dog that is hot, but a type of food. Compare this to a word like greenhouse. A greenhouse is not necessarily a house that is green, but a place to grow certain types of plants. Hot dog and greenhouse are formed in a conceptually similar way. 3. beachcomber—noun/noun noun 4. bunkhouse—noun/noun noun 5. blacktop—adj/noun noun 6. into—prep/prep prep 7. forerunner—adj/noun noun 8. takeover—verb/prep noun (from verb phrase take over) 9. crybaby—verb/noun noun 10. workman—verb/noun noun 11. downshift—prep/verb verb or noun 12. empty-handed—adj/adj adj Note: This hyphenated word is a compound for the same reason that hot dog is. See number 2 above. Exercise 2 Parts 1and 2 a. Bill’s Bill +’s F + BI b. running “run” + “ing” F + BI; -ing is called the progressive Note: The double “n” is a spelling convention. It is not necessary to account for the second “n” in the example. The morphemes involved are “run” and “-ing”. c. player “play” + “er” F + BD d. action “act” + “ion” F + BD; “-ion” changes the part of speech. e. roughest “rough” + “est” F + BI f. comes “come” + “s” F + BI; “-s” is the third-person singular marker g. friendly “friend” + “ly” F + BD h. unfriendly “un” + “friend” + “ly” BD + F + BD. Both “-un” and “-ly” are derivational: “-un” changes the meaning of the word and “-ly” changes the part of speech. i. longer “long” + “er” F +BI; “-er” is the comparative j. lovable “love” + “able” F + BD; “-able” changes the part of speech k. judgment “judge” + “ment” F + BD (The fact that the e after the g is eliminated in the compound word judgment is a spelling convention.) l. banana “banana” F Note: Just as the concepts word and morpheme are not synonymous, the concepts morpheme and syllable are not synonymous. For instance, banana is a three-syllable word consisting of one free morpheme, whereas love is a one-syllable word consisting of one free morpheme. m. slowest F + BI; “-est” is the superlative n. quicker “quick” + “er” F + BI o. unhappy “un” + “hap”+ “y” BD + F + BD © 2021 Author Information Classification: General

(Hap can mean good fortune or be the clipped version of happening, as in: That concert was a real happening. Here it means good fortune or luck (although this is an archaic use of the word). The “-y” ending means with or the state of having. Compare the word lucky. p. semicircle “semi” + “circle” BD + F q. nobody F + F r. Aaron’s “Aaron” + “s” F + BI s. broken F +BI as a past participle; “-en” is an inflectional bound morpheme t. happily “hap”+ “y” + “ly” F + BD + BD (see item o. above). Exercise 3 1. The sounds [p] and [ph] do not have meaning and do not signal a different in meaning in English if substituted for each other; therefore they are allophones (in complementary distribution) of the phoneme /p/. However, /s/, /z/, and /ǝz/ do have meaning when attached as a bound inflectional morpheme to the end of a root noun; they mean more than one. They are allomorphs of the plural morpheme in English. A morpheme can be formed by one or more phoneme(s). Which allomorph is used to create a word will depend on morphophonemic rules. The use of /s/, /z/, or /ǝz/ to form a plural depends on what sound is the final sound in the root noun that is being pluralized. See the text on morphophonemic rules.   

2. [d], [t], and [əd] [d] is added to words ending in voiced sounds, with the exception stated in the third bullet below. [t] is added to words ending in voiceless sounds, with the exception stated in the third bullet. [əd] is added to alveolar stops. The [ə] is inserted because English speakers do not distinguish between long and short consonants as they do between long and short vowels. An English speaker would not distinguish [ret] from [rett] or [klawd] from [klawdd]. Therefore, the [ə] is inserted to form [retəd] and [klawəd]. 3. Other allomorphs (not mentioned in Chapter 3) of the meaning not are: “a-/an-”, “un-”, and “ir-/il-”. The “a-/an-” prefixes derive from the Greek prefix that means not, and “un-” derives from Latin. They might be used with roots that derive from the same language as the prefix or be used when a negative form of a new word is coined. The forms “ir-” and “il-” are variants of “in-” and are used when the root word that is going to be put into a negative form begins with the r sound or the l sound respectively (e.g. irrational and illogical). 4. In Spanish, male forms usually end with an -o and feminine forms with an -a. However, if the masculine form ends with a consonant, the feminine form will still end with an -a. If the masculine root ends with an -a, then the word can be both masculine and feminine. The situation can be even more complex; some Spanish words have a fixed gender that has nothing to do with actual male- or femaleness. The article that would be the in English has two forms in Spanish: el and la. A noun preceded by el is masculine (el asiento is a seat), and a noun preceded by la is feminine (la silla is a chair). (Both words asiento and silla can be used to refer to the same piece of furniture, and of course furniture is neither male nor female.) © 2021 Author

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Exercise 4 1. a. Lists will vary. b. The four types are ideal types. In reality, most languages combine two or more of these four morphological types to varying degrees. c. Yes, English has changed in the manner in which bound morphemes are used. For one, we have had a reduction in bound inflectional morphemes, especially as they relate to case endings (See pages 360–361on this topic.) 2. a. reformer—This word shows the agglutination process in that it is made up of several morphemes that each has its own meaning or function. b. her—This word shows the inflectional process. Her carries several bits of information: feminine, singular, and third person. c. pneumonoultramicroscopicsilicovolcanokoniosis—Because it is so long (perhaps the longest word in the dictionary), this word might appear to be based on the polysynthetic principle. Although it has this characteristic to some degree, it is not a sentence in and of itself. It would be best classified as the result of agglutination. d. The word will, as in “I will go,” is best described as following the analytic pattern. Will indicates the future as a word, while similar types of concepts (such as the past or present progressive) are indicated in English by bound morphemes. Exercise 5 1. Students’ answers will vary. 2. a. skunk (from Algonquian Indians) b. typhoon (from Chinese) c. sonata (from Italian) 3. Acronyms are shorter than the phrases they represent; they are easier to remember than the entire phrase; and sometimes they are made to represent some characteristic or impart some emotion relevant to the meaning of the acronym. 4. All are English words coined in the past 125 years (or have taken on new meanings in that time). 5. The word swindler came into the English language in 1774. About eight years later someone used it as a verb by simply removing what in other words was used to mark agency (a person), that is “-er”. In other words, they “went back” to the original word and formed a new word from it. See more detail at: www.etymonline.com/index.php? search=swindle&searchmode=none. 6. The names of celestial bodies, new products, streets, buildings, new manufacturing processes, clothing, and others are often named for people. 7. This list will vary, but acronyms such as MADD (Mothers Against Drug Drivers, Make a Difference Day, and others) and COPE (Cooperation Of People in Education and many others) would be examples. Exercise 6 Answers will vary, but a good source to answer this exercise is www.etymonline.com/. © 2021 Author Information Classification: General

Exercise 7 1. Note to instructor: Not all of the subcategories of each lexical category are mentioned in the book. So in some cases, such as with adverbs, the student would have to find those subcategories in another source. A. a. Pronoun—indefinite; b. Verb—intransitive B. a. Determiner—qualifier; b. Adverb—degree C. a. Group preposition; b. Determiner—qualifier (numeral); c. prep—single word prep D. a. Determiner—qualifier; b. Noun—concrete, common E. a. Adjective-descriptive ; b. Adjective-descriptive F. a. Verb—transitive; b. Prep—single word G. a. Adjective—descriptive H. a. Adverb—direction I. a. Prep—single word J. a. Noun—collective; b. Conjunction—coordinating; c. Noun—collective K. a. Pronoun—indefinite; b. Conjunction—subordinating; c. Pronoun—indefinite; d. Pronoun—intensive L. a. Verb—transitive; b. Pronoun—indefinite M. a. Auxiliary verb—helping verb; b. and c. pair of correlative conjunctions N. a. Interjection; b. Adverb—time O. a. Noun –mass; b. Verb-copulative; c. Adjective--descriptive 2. The word round can be most lexical categories. The lexical category is determined not by the spelling of a word, but by its use in a sentence. This includes its place in the word order of the sentence. End-of-chapter exercises 1. The article the has the two allomorphic forms /ðǝ/ and /ði/. The article an has three allomorphic forms: /ʌ/ and /e/ (which is the pronunciation of “a” when it is emphasized —as in “I bought five potatoes; now I just have one left. Yes, in my whole pantry I have a potato”), and /æn/. The /ðǝ/form is used before words that start with a consonant (phonetically). A word might be spelled starting with a letter that represents a vowel but be pronounced as starting with a consonant. So, for example, the word university starts with a u in spelling but is pronounced starting with the consonant /y/. In like manner, a (/ʌ/) is used before a word starting with a consonant, and an /æn/ is used before a word starting with a vowel. 2. To derive the name of the language, “-in-” is added to the name of the ethnic group. It is added after the first sound unless that sound is a vowel. In the case of an ethnic group that begins with a vowel sound, the affix is added as a prefix. Note that when “-in-” is added after the first consonant it cannot be properly called a prefix or suffix. It is in these cases an infix, added in the middle of the word. English has no true infixes, although some linguists maintain that alternations such as man/men come close to being the result of infixes. In this case, the root would be m–n and the infix -a- would be added to make the root singular and -e- to make it plural. Note that the root would not be a free morpheme or any usual form. 3. a. clipping (from photograph) © 2021 Author Information Classification: General

b. c. d. e. f. g. h. i. j. k.

derivation (“re-” added to make) acronym (self-contained underwater breathing apparatus) compounding (black and bird) acronym (radio detecting and ranging) foreign word borrowing (Italian) trade name proper name (named for General Burnside) back formation (from sculptor) trade name blending (mistake and happening)

4. A. determiner (article) B. noun (common, concrete, count) C. verb (intransitive) D. preposition (single word) E. determiner (article) F. noun (common, concrete, count) G. pronoun (personal) H. verb (modal) I. adverb (degree) J. verb (linking) K. adjective (descriptive) L. part of verb “to go” M. verb (intransitive) N. preposition (single word) O. determiner (article) P. noun (common, concrete, count) Q. adjective (descriptive) R. noun (common, concrete, count) S. determiner (qualifier) T. noun (common, concrete, count) U. noun (common, concrete, count) V. adjective W. pronoun (possessive) X. verb (transitive)

Chapter 5 Answers to exercises Exercise 1 1. Subject a. I b The clown . c. Is this d Come here. (See number 2 directly . below.) e. We

Predicate am going to the store. amused us. the place? were amused by the clown. (See number 2 below.)

2. In sentence 1d. above, the subject of the sentence is understood as you. Sentence 1e. is passive. The object of the verb in the active sentence of Exercise 1b. (us) becomes the subject of the passive sentence (we) in terms of word order. However, from a meaning (semantic) point of view it could be argued that the clown is still the subject of the sentence in that it is still the clown that is doing the action (amusing). 3. A free morpheme can stand by itself as a word, and an independent clause can stand by itself as a simple sentence. A bound morpheme has to be attached to another morpheme to have meaning, and a dependent clause has to be attached to an independent clause to complete the meaning of a complex or compound-complex sentence. 4. a. b. c. d. e. f. g. h.

simple simple complex compound complex complex compound-complex compound

5. a. b. c. d.

the beautiful furniture: NP → Det Adj N a cow: NP → Det N the most educated people: NP → Det Adv Adj N six pens: NP → Det Noun (Noun is written out because it can be broken down further and the next line will be written Noun → N pl.) e. those pens: NP →Det Noun 6. a. Jill’s house—subject; the market—object of the preposition (indirect object) © 2021 Author Information Classification: General

b. All guns—subject c. It—subject; Shane—subject of the dependent clause; dinner—object of the preposition (indirect object) d. You (understood)—subject; home—object of the verb e. large cars—subject; more gas—object of the verb 7. Proper names and some abstract names do not take articles. 8. a. ran after the car b. died c. has taken five tests 9. a. ran after the car: VP → V PP b. died: VP → V c. has taken five tests: VP → V NP 10. a. the blue b. a fat yellow c. quite upset 11. a. He arrived at noon. (See number 12 below.) b. She usually gets up early. c. The farmer harvested the corn with a machine. (See 12 below.) d. We are going to take a vacation before the prices go up. (See 12 below.) e. The teachers all showed up to support the students. 12. a. at noon c. with a machine d. before the prices go up Exercise 2 1. a.

b. c. d.

Fluent Adj The Det We Pro The Det

speakers N rabbit N may Aux boy N

have V quickly Adv visit V will Aux

an Det jumped V our Adj do Verb

enormous Adj into Prep good Adj the Det

subconscious Adj the Det friend. N homework. N

knowledge N big Adj

of Prep hole. N

their Det

language. N

1. Phrase structure rules specify how constituents of an utterance are arranged and what constituents can occur as parts of other constituents (the hierarchical structure of a sentence). 2. a. S → NP Aux VP NP → Det N Aux → Tense VP → V PP PP → prep NP b. S → NP Aux VP NP → N Aux → Tense VP → V c. S → NP Aux VP

Noun → N pl Aux → Aspect VP → V NP Exercise 4 1. a. insertion and movement b. movement c. substitution and deletion d. deletion e. deletion and movement 2. a–c Answers will vary. d. imperative transformation e. There is an adjective movement transformation and a relative pronoun deletion transformation. 3. a. optional (both) b. obligatory c. optional (both) d. optional e. optional Exercise 5 © 2021 Author Information Classification: General

1. a. The cat a jumped over the highly fence. Word order and the form of the modifier are wrong. There is also an extra article. Sentence should read: The cat jumped over the high fence. b. You can’t put too much water on those plants. There is subtle ambiguity in this sentence. It can mean either “Don’t put too much water on those plants” or it can mean “There is no amount of water that is too much for those plants.” c. Not that is dog. The sentence is incomplete and the word order is wrong. Should be: That is not a dog. d. The jail was near the bank. This sentence is lexically ambiguous. It could be rewritten as: The jail was near the bank of the river. Or it could be rewritten as: The jail was near the bank that had been robbed (or anything that indicates that the bank is a financial institution). e. He saw the light. Again this is lexical ambiguity. Light can refer to inspiration or actual physical light, and the sentence would have to be written to clarify the meaning. f. Steve Tom at looked. Word order is wrong. Sentence should be: Steve looked at Tom or Tom looked at Steve. g. They intend to buy. This is an incomplete sentence. The verb to buy takes an object, so it should say what “they” intend to buy, such as: They intend to buy a car. h. Into he house ran. The word order is wrong and the sentence is incomplete. It should be: He ran into the house. 2. a. Structural ambiguity—Does the prepositional phrase in my pajamas refer to the speaker or to the elephant? b. Lexical ambiguity—Bear could mean “give birth to” or “tolerate.” c. Structural ambiguity—Does the adjective hot also apply to turkey? d. Part-of-speech ambiguity—Polished could be an adjective describing Bill’s shoes or a verb referring to Bill’s action in the past. e. Part-of-speech ambiguity—Are shoots and leaves nouns referring to the food that the panda eats, or are they verbs referring to the actions of the panda after eating? This ambiguity is made clearer in writing by the use of punctuation. f. Part-of-speech ambiguity—Is the word flies a noun (used as an adjective) or a verb? If it is a noun, then fruit modifies flies and the sentence means that fruit flies (a particular kind of fly) like to eat bananas. But if it is a verb then the sentence says that fruit can fly, just as bananas can fly. 3. a. The biology student drew blood. This is lexically ambiguous because the word drew can mean to draw a picture or to take as in to cause someone to bleed. b. There is a big earring sale today. This is structurally ambiguous because the word big could be modifying either sale or earring. c. You can freeze chicken for a year, but when you defrost it, it will be /fawl/. This might be stretching the concept a little, but in speech the word /fawl/ can be foul or fowl. So, when spoken it might create lexical ambiguity. It could mean that when you defrost your freezer the chicken will still be a bird (fowl), or it could mean that the chicken will be spoiled (foul). In writing the meaning would be clear. © 2021 Author Information Classification: General

d. He likes to eat raw vegetables and meat. This is structural ambiguity. It could mean that He likes to eat raw vegetables and raw meat, or it could mean that He likes to eat raw vegetables and meat (whether cooked or not). e. Want Ad: We need a violinist and pianist, male or female. Response: Hear you need a violinist and pianist, male or female; being both, I offer my services. This again is structural ambiguity. Is the respondent both a violinist and a pianist, or is the person both male and female? The response would have to be worded in a way that would clarify this. Of course, this is the basis for a joke. 4. Students are to provide their own examples, so answers will vary. Exercise 6 The sentences of each pair mean essentially the same thing (although they may have different shades of meaning); therefore they are essentially synonymous sentences. The first set just substitutes words that are synonymous; the second set just changes the voice from active to passive. End-of-chapter exercises (selected answers) 2. a. Yes, “the dog” from the second sentence. b. Yes, “and” as a conjunction to combine the two sentences. c. The dog with big teeth bit the ball and ran into the house. d. Check students’ answers with the information in the text. 4. Answers will vary.

Chapter 6 Answers to selected exercises Exercise 1 1. Answers could vary, but here are some possibilities: a. Answer will vary. b. Student needs to say the word. c. /lʌv/ d. Love 2. a. Will vary. b. You can view the ASL sign for walk here: www.lifeprint.com/asl101/pagessigns/w/walk.htm. c. /wɔk/ d. Students need to say the word. Exercise 2 1. a. I b. You c. He d. We e. They 2. Answers will vary but the following are some possibilities: a. You may be going shopping but … b. I like what you are wearing. c. Bruce was stuck in traffic on Desoto Ave., so … d. My boyfriend and I have are studying tonight so we can’t come to your party. e. Heidi and John just came back from the Toyota dealers. Exercise 3 1. © 2021 Author Information Classification: General

a. Female, human, adult/not adult b. Adult, parent, human, male/not male c. Adult/not adult, male/not male, have same parent(s) d. Provides transportation, four wheels, motor/non motor, passengers/freight, commercial/non commercial e. Animal, mammal, pet, carnivore/herbivore, cage/bowl/yard, noisy/silent 2. a. adult female human

Woman + + +

Girl − + +

b. adult male parent

Mother + − +

Father + + +

c. Sister adult ± male − Have same parent(s) +

Brother ± + +

Provides transportation Four wheels Motor Passengers Freight Commercial

Car

Bicycle

+ + + + − −

+ − − − − −

Motorcycl e + − + − − −

Bus

Truck

+ + + + − +

+ + + − + +

Parakeet + −

Hamster + +

Cat + +

Dog + +

Goldfish + −

Pet Carnivore Cage/bowl Makes noise

+ + − +

+ − + −

+ − + +

+ − + −

Exercise 4 1. These are the answers given by most of the students in our classes: a. Man b. Woman c. Woman d. Man e. Man f. Woman g. Man h. Man i.

Man

j. Man 2. Possible answers: a. Female doctor or lady doctor (although that term can also mean a gynecologist) b. Male nurse c. Male kindergarten teacher d. Lady professor e. Lady lawyer f. Male secretary g. Female CEO h. Female construction worker i.

Lady farmer

j. Female firefighter Exercise 5 1. Answers may vary in some parts of the world, but common answers in North America would include dogs, cats, birds, fish, small mammals like hamsters, gerbils, rabbits, rats. a. The most unmarked terms would be the most common pets: dogs and cats, birds, fish.

b. The most marked terms would be the least common pets: hamsters, gerbils, ferrets, llamas, horses. Another list of marked terms could be breeds or types of dogs, cats, birds, etc. c. Line 1

Line 2

Line 3



dog

cat

bird

small mammal

fish









Collie

Tabby

Parakeet/Parro t

Rabbit/Hamster

Goldfish







Miniature

Orange

Budgie/Macaw

Lop-eared/Golden

Comet/Fantail

2. Answers may vary in some parts of the world, but common answers in North America would include sparrows, starlings, robins, ducks, storks, orioles, blue jays, blackbirds, crows, ravens. a. The most unmarked terms would be the most common birds: sparrows, robins, crows, pigeons. b. The most marked terms would be the least common birds: egrets, herons, geese. Another list of marked terms could be species of birds: Great Blue Heron, European Black Hooded Crow. c. Line 1 Line 2





sparrow

robin

crow

duck

pigeon



Old World Sparrow

American Robin

Hooded Crow

Mallard Duck

Rock Pigeon



3. Answers may vary in some parts of the world, but common answers in North America would include milk, eggs, cereal, pizza, meat, hamburgers, bread, chicken, carrots, apples, vegetables. a. Unmarked words could be the names of categories such as meat, dairy products, produce. Or a student could choose to give the names of meals, such as food for breakfast, lunch, dinner, snacks. b. Most marked would be specific brand names, such as Danone yogurt, Grimmway carrots, Kellogg’s Corn Flakes. © 2021 Author Information Classification: General

c.  Dairy  Milk 

 Produce  Fruit/Vegetables 

 Meat  Chicken/Turkey 

Carnation evaporated

Sunkist/Grimmway

Tyson/JennyO

Line 1 Line 2

Line 3

 Grain  Bread/Cereal  Wonder Bread/Kellogg’s Corn Flakes

 Canned foods  Peas/Ketchup  Del Monte/Heinz

Exercise 6 1. Automobile 2. Flower 3. Tools 4. Possible answers for North Americans might be: (clothes) washing machine, dryer, dishwasher, refrigerator, stove. 5. Possible answers for North Americans might be: apple, orange, peach, cherry, strawberry, blueberry, pineapple. 6. Possible answers for North Americans might be: sofa, couch, chair, table, bookcase, bed rocker, end table, coffee table. Exercise 7 1. Answers may vary by region and usage. Possible answers are: a. Student—less formal than pupil; suggests that the person studies. b. Pupil—more formal than student; suggests that the person is simply enrolled in a course but may not study. c. Carry—brings something by holding it in the arms. d. Tote—brings something rather heavy; this term would suggest a southern regional dialect. e. Backpack—a book bag carried on the back. f. Knapsack—a hiker’s backpack g. Day pack—a small backpack for a day hike. 2. Answers may vary by region and usage. Possible answers are: a. Child—young person (usually under the age of puberty, legally under the age of 18). b. Kid—less formal term for a child. c. Slept—past tense of sleep; an unmarked term that can be used for sleeping either day or night. © 2021 Author Information Classification: General

d. Napped—a more marked term that designates a short period of sleep usually during the day, not at night. e. Deeply—an adverb that suggests that the child would be difficult to wake. f. Soundly—an adverb that suggests that the child would be difficult to wake and would not move much during sleep. g. Bed—a standard size and construction of furniture for sleeping. h. Cot—a small bed that is portable temporarily set up for guests. In Britain this word is used for what North Americans call a (baby) crib. Exercise 8 1. Homonym pairs may vary by region and pronunciation. Possible answers are: a. Read/reed b. Caret/carrot c. Berth/birth d. Bare/bear 2. Answers will vary. 3. Homonyms are words that sound the same and may be written the same, but they are derived from different root words. A polysemous word may have many meanings, but the word is derived from a single root word. Exercise 9 1. a. Complementary pair b. Gradable pair c. Relational opposite d. Complementary pair e. Relational opposite f. Gradable pair g. Gradable pair h. Relational opposite 2. Answers will vary. Possible answers are: a. Cooperative/uncooperative b. Entity/nonentity c. Tolerant/intolerant © 2021 Author Information Classification: General

3. Answers will vary. Possible answers are: Luminous–bright–glowing–glimmer–shaded–dim–shadowy–dark Stop–creep forward–roll–accelerate–go Tall–heightened–average–under height–short–midget–dwarf 4. Answers will vary. Possible answers are: Bob lives in the apartment over Tom; therefore Tom lives in the apartment under Bob. Dr. Teoh is my doctor; therefore I am Dr. Teoh’s patient. I bought the car from him; he sold the car to me. 5. Answers will vary. Possible answers are: He loaned her the money—he was the lender; she was the lendee. Exercise 10 Answers will vary. Exercise 11 1. a. A fork in a road and a choice in life; travelling on a road is compared to living your life. b. The passage of time is compared to someone chasing you in a chariot. c. God (who provides for people) is compared to a shepherd who takes care of the sheep in his flock. d. A woman is compared to a rose that blooms during the day and makes the day beautiful. e. The sun is compared to a ship sailing on the water. 2. a. To pay more than the usual amount of money for a particular item. b. To go to bed. c. To disappoint someone by not helping when your help was expected. d. To take a risk on behalf of someone. e. To confront the consequences of your actions. f. To end an argument.

3. Answers will vary, but might include: a. Three strikes and you’re out (baseball)—you get a limited number of chances to do something correctly. b. A ballpark estimate (baseball)—an approximation. c. A slam dunk (basketball)—something that is easy. d. Sitting on the sidelines (football)—not fully participating, waiting and watching. e. Par for the course (golf)—something that is usual, normal, or average. 4. Answers will vary, but might include: a. Marching to the beat of a different drummer—someone who does not conform to others. (Soldiers used to march to the beat of a drummer; this could also be considered a music metaphor.) b. Fight the good fight—strive for something that is worthwhile. c. Bring a knife to a gunfight—to be unprepared. d. Dodge a bullet—successfully avoid a problem or disaster. e. Keep your powder dry—act cautiously so as not to damage your chances; be prepared. 5. Answers will vary. You may want to refer to this website: www.usingenglish.com/reference/idioms/.

Chapter 7 Answers to exercises Exercise 1 1. One possible answer: I am very sorry about what I did, and apologize unreservedly. 2. One possible answer: Your work is not up to our standards so I’m going to have to let you go. 3. One possible answer: I’d like to offer you the job that we have discussed. 4. One possible answer: You’d never have the nerve to do that; I dare you. 5. One possible answer: I can get there faster than you! 6. One possible answer: I promise to have your homework graded by tomorrow. 7. One possible answer: I’m telling you that this is the last time I’m going to pick you up. 8. One possible answer: Would you mind going shopping for milk and eggs? Exercise2 1. a. The speaker sounds like a cowboy. b. The speaker sounds like a valley girl, i.e. a teenage girl from California. c. The speaker sounds like a hippie, i.e. a college student from the 1960s. d. The speaker sounds like a surfer, i.e. a teenage boy from California. e. The speaker sounds like an older person. f. The speaker sounds like a computer geek. 2. Answers will vary, but the sentence pairs should contain adjectives and adverbs that express opposite feelings about the same referent. An example could be: The young lady was chatty, animated, and delightful. The young woman talked so much I couldn’t get a word in edgewise. 3. Answers will vary. In the example of the linguistics joke we can imagine the student in the back of the class using nonverbal communication—posture, paralanguage, emblem, illustrator–to convey the negative comment. Exercise 3 1.

A. Negative politeness. Shirley’s negative face is her desire not to be interrupted in the thing that she is currently doing. Joe’s request recognizes that fact. B. Positive politeness. Shirley sees that Joe is potentially uncomfortable, but might not want to point it out, so she offers a solution without forcing Joe to make a request. 2. A. Positive politeness. Friendly concern for person without invading their choices: the person could say “No thank you.” B. Neither type of politeness. A statement like this is sometimes called a bald on-record act. It can be a face-threating act, but might also be performed among people who know each other well or as an expected act between people of unequal status, such a parent talking to a child. Exercise 4 1. a. The person you are speaking to does not know Barbara and does not know your relationship to her or where she lives. b. I don’t know what you are planning to do during your time off on Saturday and/or Sunday, and I’d like to plan to do something with you. c. There are things at the snack bar I think you might want that I am willing to bring you. Another possible implicature is that I am simply being polite in asking you, but I really don’t expect you to say yes. d. The person you are speaking to knows Max, so you don’t need to explain who Max is and where Max is going. 2. a. Jane, Jane’s family, Jane, John, John b. John, John c. Alex, Alex d. Jane, Alex, Jane e. Jane, Alex, Jane 3. a. a, the, a b. a, the c. a, the, the, the, d. a, a, a, the, the, the

Exercise 5 Answers will vary. Exercise 6 1. Relevance—Even though the question calls for a yes or no answer, the parent has a condition (doing homework) to add to the mix. 2. Quantity—unless this is a very small town with only one road. Someone asking for the nearest gas station probably needs specific instructions on how to get there in the shortest driving time. 3. Manner—All that’s needed to answer the question is the date. The rest is superfluous, although perhaps demonstrating affective meaning! 4. Quantity—It’s a part of an informal greeting ritual. 5. Quantity—Your parent is not just greeting you but actually wants to know what (mischief) you’ve been up to. You haven’t been given enough information. 6. Answers will vary. Exercise 7 Answers will vary.

Chapter 8 Answers to exercises Exercise 1 A. 1. To be laid off 2. To be fired 3. To knock on someone’s door 4. To telephone someone 5. An elevator 6. A truck; typically, larger than a pick-up truck 7. A flashlight 8. French fries 9. An apartment 10. The hood of a car 11. The trunk of a car 12. Gasoline 13. A baby carriage 14. (Women’s) underwear 15. Diaper 16. Fanny pack B. 1. British/American 2. American/British 3. British/American 4. British/American 5. British/American 6. British/American 7. American/British C. 1. © 2021 Author Information Classification: General

run away

garbage can or trash can/kill me

pal/wrong

making the grade

despicable or contemptible person

rest or nap

swiping

making out

radio/backpack

10.

whip something up

11.

was

D. Answers will vary according to the friends and relatives contacted. Exercise 2 1. This website has both the text and a video of Dr. King delivering the speech: www.americanrhetoric.com/speeches/mlkihaveadream.htm. This website gives some historical context along with the text of the speech: www.usconstitution.net/dream.html. a. Answers will vary, but students should note that some of the repeated phrases include: 

One hundred years



Freedom/free at last



I have a dream



Go back to (state name)



Let freedom ring

These repeated phrases include the most important points of the speech. b. A few examples of the alliteration include: 

Symbolic shadow … stand … signed … seared … segregation … shameful



Sweltering summer



Dignity and discipline



Dark and desolate

The state names rhyme; other sentences end with the same word, such as “hope”, “ring”, “dream”. These rhymes and alliterations provide emphasis.

c. Some of the sources referenced are the speeches of Abraham Lincoln, the Bible, the song “America” (“My Country ’Tis of Thee”), the Constitution, and the Declaration of Independence. These would all be familiar to the African American community. They would be keenly aware of the irony of the guaranteed liberty, justice, and “inalienable rights” which had not been available to them. d. One of the most important metaphors initially is the comparison of civil rights to a bad check. Others include: 

Segregation as an island



Freedom as a bell that rings



A plan for the future as a dream



Heat as oppression; water as the cure

e. There is no AAE grammar or phonology; there is a rhythmic intonation in the delivery. 2. Answers will vary depending on the literary work chosen. The student should include a copy of the lyrics or text; they should support their statements with examples from the text. Exercise 3 1. SAE 2. AAE 3. Both 4. AAE 5. SAE 6. AAE 7. AAE 8. AAE 9. SAE 10. SAE 11. SAE 12. AAE 13. SAE 14. SAE 15. AAE © 2021 Author Information Classification: General

Exercise 4 1. Answers will vary according to the article or conversation the student chooses to analyze. 2. Students should notice that more contractions are allowed in pronunciation than in writing. a. I’m studying linguistics. I’m studyin linguistics. b. I’ll be going to the store today. I’ll be goin t’th’store t’day. c. I’m going to a party tonight. I’m goin t’a party t’night. d. I’m going to dance at the party. I’m gonna dance at’th’ party. e. I have a large dog. I ’ave a large dog. f. I’ve been working a long time. I bin workin a long time. g. We would’ve been late if we stopped for coffee. We’d a bin late if we stopped fr coffee. h. He won’t need a coat today. He won’ need a coat t’day. i.

You don’t have enough money.

Ya don’ ’ave enough money. j. That is not going to happen. That’s not going to happen. That’s not gonna happen. Ain’t gonna happen. 3. a. b. c. d.

Contraction I’m I’m not You’re not He’s

Pronunciation /aym/ or /am/ /aym nat/ or /am nat/ /yr nat/ /hiz/

e. f. g. h. i. j.

They’re I’m going to I’ll have I didn’t I’ve I haven’t

4. Answers will vary. Exercises 5 and 6 Answers will vary.

/ðer/ /am gʌnə/ /al av/ /ay dɪnt/ /ayv/ /ay avnt/

Chapter 9 All exercises in this chapter involve students doing their own research and analysis, so all answers will vary.

Chapter 10 All exercises in Chapter 10 are based on students doing interviews and making observations. The answers will therefore vary.

Chapter 11 Answers to End-of-c Chapter eExercises 1. Students’ answers will vary 2. Answers will depend on the emblems you listed in answer 1. An example of an answer would be that for the “V” emblem the TAB is in front of the signer’s body (ø), DEZ is the victory hand spread ( (V), and the SIG is away from the body (┴ ). 3. See example given in exercise. Students’ answers will vary. 4. Yes, facial expressions and postural changes are always important in ASL communication. They supply meaning at all levels:; direct meaning, inflection, emotion, punctuation, and so on. 5. Using one or a few emblems occasionally does not constitute a sign language. Languages can be used to communicate about any topic that a person has knowledge of and vocabulary for that topic. Emblems are limited in what they can express, and are usually not noused more than a few are used at a time. Some linguistics might also argue that putting two or a few emblems together are is done on a more or less random basis, and therefore there is no grammar involved. Although a new emblem might very occasionally be added to a culture’s inventory of emblems, that inventory is almost completed closed — unlike all languages, which are very open systems. 6. A delivery system is a way of conveying linguistic information (language) to others. ASL is a delivery system that is not dependent on hearing or speech. 7. Yes, ASL is a language. The chapter explains this in detail and student answers will vary. 8. People who use ASL can communicate all of their needs, emotions, and information

linguistically without speech and hearing. ASL is a language just as much as English is a language. It displays openness, productivity, displacement, arbitrariness, and the other design features of language.

Chapter 12 Answers to exercises Exercise 1 1. a. I love you. (The last picture is supposed to be a female sheep—a ewe, which is pronounced /yu/.) b. I saw you. c. Two be or not to be. d. A starlit night. e. J. C. Penny (the store) catalogs. (Note that catalogs is plural—there is more than one log in the picture.) 2. Answers will vary. Exercise 2 1. a. I see why. b. Are you 80? c. See a bee? d. You are OK. e. You are a crocodile. 2. a. Any b. I am empty. c. You are cagey. d. I envy you. e. To excess f. Orchid g. Toucans (the birds) h. You are a cutie. 3. Answers will vary.

4. There are many, and each student’s list will differ. A couple of common names are La-ZBoy chairs and U-Haul trucks. 5. Answers will vary. 6. A rebus is a type of writing where individual symbols (letters, pictures, and numbers) are used to represent words. The main limitation is that it takes so many different symbols to write a long message. The meaning of all these symbols must be learned. Some, like to represent the word I or eye, are easy, and most people who speak English would have no problem interpreting the symbol. However, the symbol used in Exercise 1 might be more problematic. First, the artist’s skill will partially determine what the reader interprets. Second, the reader’s knowledge and ability to figure things out from context will play a role. The drawing was supposed to be a female sheep—a ewe, which is pronounced the same as you. Third, many abstract concepts are difficult to depict in rebus writing. Syllabic writing uses symbols to represent syllables, not whole words (unless they are nonsyllabic words). When syllabic symbols represent one-syllable words, the effect is similar to a rebus. Syllabic writing is limited because most languages would need hundreds or thousands of symbols to be represented graphically in this way. The number would, however, be lower than with a pure rebus system. Also, syllabic writing cannot differentiate between homophones (words that sound alike but have different meanings). It takes a rebus to do that. Exercise 3 1. Answers will vary. 2. a. This is a classroom. b. Want really good grades? Then do your homework. c. They started slow, but picked up speed. d. English approaches the ideal of one grapheme for one phoneme with such letters as f, r, v, and m. 3. Answers will vary. 4. They are homophone problems. In sentence c., the to is clearly wrong. It should have

been two. Sentences a. and b. are ambiguous. In some contexts they may be correct. However, if the principle in sentence a. refers to a person, it should have been spelled principal. And if piece in b. refers to “the general quiet and calmness,” it should have been spelled peace.

Chapter 13 Answers to the end-of-chapter exercises will vary depending on the data that the student collects.

Chapter 14 All exercises in this chapter ask students to make their own observations or do their own research on various topics. Therefore, the answers will vary.