TEST BANK for Gendered Lives 13th Edition by Julia Wood & Natalie Fixmer-Oraiz. ISBN 9781337671040. by StudyGuide

Test Bank to accompany Gendered Lives 13e

Contents Introduction

Part I General Approach to Teaching Communication, Gender, and Culture Opportunities and Tensions Opportunities Tensions Managing the Unsympathetic Reader Creating an Effective Classroom Climate Openness Personal Involvement Creating a Sense of Community Alternative Course Emphases and Content Class Size Pedagogical Approaches Using Technology in the Classroom Summary Sample Schedules of Classes Semester Syllabus Summer Session Scheduling Quarter-Long Experiential Focus

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Part II Key Concepts, Activities, and Test Introduction: Opening the Conversation Chapter 1: The Study of Communication, Gender, and Culture Chapter 2: Theoretical Approaches to Gender Development Chapter 3: The Rhetorical Shaping of Gender: Competing Images of Women Chapter 4: The Rhetorical Shaping of Gender: Competing Images of Men Chapter 5: Gendered Verbal Communication Chapter 6: Gendered Nonverbal Communication Chapter 7: Becoming Gendered Chapter 8: Gendered Education: Communication in Schools Chapter 9: Gendered Close Relationships Chapter 10: Gendered Organizational Communication Chapter 11: Gendered Media Chapter 12: Gendered Power and Violence

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Part II References

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Introduction The purpose of this updated resource book is to assist you in teaching a course for which Gendered Lives is the primary textbook. Some instructors have taught courses in gender, communication, and culture for many years, while others are doing it for the first time. The amount of experience you have teaching in this area, however, may not determine the value of this resource book to you. Even though we have taught courses in communication, gender, and culture for a long time, we constantly gain insights from listening to other teachers describe their goals, instructional strategies, activities, and assignments. Regardless of whether you are a veteran or novice, we hope you’ll find ideas presented here helpful in enriching and extending material in Gendered Lives. This guide consists of three sections. First, to establish a foundation, Section I explores issues that arise in teaching about communication, gender, and culture. Here, we include sample syllabi to help illustrate the various ways this course might be taught. In addition, three other resources address important issues: Managing the Unsympathetic Reader, Judgment Calls, and Suggestions for Online Instruction. Section II provides chapter-by-chapter suggestions for teaching Gendered Lives. For each chapter we offer a summary of the textbook’s content and a sample of exercises and assignments we have found useful in extending and applying conceptual material. Section III consists of sample test items, many newly created for this edition. To make these convenient for instructors with varying sequences of coverage and testing dates, we organize test items by chapters.

Part I: General Approach to Teaching Communication, Gender, and Culture Courses in communication, gender, and culture are unique. Inherent in the focus of these courses are distinct opportunities and tensions. In addition, the effectiveness of classes hinges on creating a climate that is collaborative, open, supportive, and encouraging of risks in thought and discussion. Finally, courses in communication, gender, and culture adopt diverse teaching emphases in pursuit of distinctive pedagogical goals. In this section, we discuss what we have encountered regarding each of these topics and suggest sample teaching schedules. Opportunities and Tensions A course in communication, gender, and culture offers particular rewards, and it typically involves distinct dilemmas. More than other courses we teach, we find this one especially exciting and challenging. Instructors with experience teaching in this area have already encountered both the pleasures and perils of courses in communication, gender, and culture; new instructors will quickly discover them. To help you prepare for teaching, particularly if you have limited experience in this area, we want to identify issues that persistently punctuate our own classes. Opportunities We believe that communication is an extraordinarily rich and exciting area of study, and this is especially true when classes probe how communication intersects with culture and gender. For us, as for many teachers, it’s exhilarating to be part of a process in which students learn about fundamental influences on their identities and self-concepts. The more they understand about how social values shape gender and, thus, their lives, the more they are empowered to choose who they will be and what they will do. One of the greatest opportunities of teaching this course is helping students discover the ways in which gender is constructed and sustained in cultural life. In a supportive learning environment, this insight enables many students to assume agency in sculpting their own identities and contributing to those legitimated in society as a whole. Another exciting aspect of teaching in this area is the possibility of enlarging students’ range of communication competencies. Because our culture is so deeply gendered, most people are socialized primarily into a single gendered form of speech, thought, and knowledge—either masculine or feminine. The bias of western society cultivates respect for masculine modes of speech, thought, ambition, and so on and accords less recognition to the merits of that which is feminine. Courses in communication, gender, and culture help students realize how little grounding exists for cultural preferences for masculine modes over feminine ones. In turn, this encourages students to enlarge their own communication repertoires to incorporate styles historically associated with both genders. Neither masculine nor feminine communication is better; both have distinctive strengths, so students can grow by learning to understand, appreciate, and employ diverse modes of communicating. A third special opportunity in teaching this course is the potential to enhance students’ abilities to participate critically in cultural life. Reading any daily newspaper or popular magazine quickly reveals a wealth of contemporary issues germane to © 2019 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. 2

communication, gender, and culture. The material in Gendered Lives and class discussion help students understand how many topics entail issues usually not explicitly named in publications. For instance, media discussion of the Family and Medical Leave Act of 1993 has highlighted the need for workers to be given time to care for family members. Yet, media have not called attention to the gendered nature and implications of family care: Who is the caregiver in most families? Whose job prospects, opportunities, benefits, and so forth are affected by leave policies? Does the current legislation protect the professional lives of women, who are likely to be the greatest users of family leave? There are many issues like this one, with hidden gender dimensions that influence how we understand and respond to various positions and policies in public life. By increasing students’ awareness of hidden gender issues, the course heightens students’ abilities to be critical members of their society. Gendered Lives and the courses it supports also encourage students to identify and take stands on issues that may not have been salient to them in the past. For example, when students realize that four women die daily from battering in the United States alone, gendered violence is no longer an issue removed from general life; when they learn that it’s estimated one in four women will be raped in her lifetime, rape ceases to be someone else’s problem; when they discover that men’s ways of expressing affection have been devalued, they have to rethink their own tendencies to judge partners in their personal relationships; when they discover mainstream feminism has historically neglected issues and experiences of women of color, they are compelled to reconsider whether feminism is “the women’s movement,” as well as whether women are a homogeneous or a diverse group. As students learn more about how gender pervades their social and personal lives, they become more alert and more critical participants in public life and in private relationships. Tensions We’ve also found that teaching in this area can be difficult, frustrating, and upsetting to our students and us. Because gender is central to social organization and individual identity, it’s not unusual for students to resist information that forces them to examine and question their own gendered values, thoughts, and actions. Not infrequently, our students tell us we are exaggerating gender inequities, their lives aren’t like those reported in research, or gender discrimination and oppression are history—that’s all behind us now. We’ve learned to expect initial resistance to and resentment of both us and material we present. This is almost inevitable, since the material unsettles students and erodes the comfort of not realizing the extent to which hierarchy and its cousin, oppression, permeate everyday life in Western society. A number of our students are seriously shaken by the realization of how devalued women are in our society. Further, they are often disturbed and angry that they have not seen this before—often they report feeling duped. Upsetting as these feelings are, they may be productive in moving students toward more active postures regarding their personal identities and cultural practices. We have found that students experiencing anger and frustration appreciate hearing about the evolution of our own gender consciousness. We let them know that we too underwent stages of denial, anger, and disturbance on the path to change. In addition to this kind of conversation, we often suggest readings to help students realize they are not alone in feeling troubled, and they are likely to pass through the phase of overwhelming anger and upheaval and to arrive at © 2019 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. 3

a less unsettling and more constructive point. The text mentions a number of articles and books that may be recommended as further reading for interested students. Study of communication, gender, and culture also demands attention to issues that will be personally painful to many students. For instance, Gendered Lives discusses how cultural prescriptions for gender foster grave problems such as anorexia, sexual harassment, rape, and battering. It’s predictable that in any contemporary college class a number of students will have suffered one or more of these problems, and some will be enmeshed in traumas while taking the course. The text and class discussion are likely to propel them to revisit and reflect on deeply disturbing experiences. Although the introduction to Gendered Lives warns students that personally upsetting topics will be covered and they may prefer not to deal with these, many students who remain enrolled will encounter difficulty and may need your assistance and/or referral to a professional counselor. In preparation for teaching this course, instructors should familiarize themselves with counseling resources and should find out which counselors have particular skills in dealing with issues surrounding sex and gender. For us this tension does not diminish but rather increases our commitment to teaching about communication, gender, and culture, for it reminds us of how relentlessly gendered values affect our lives. Teaching also allows us to offer students perspectives that are more enabling than those they may currently hold on the oppressions they have experienced in their own lives. Like many who teach in this area, we have found no other curricular focus offers as great an opportunity to engage students in thinking about their own identities and how those are formed by and formative of the culture in which they live. In our teaching we strive to encourage students to embrace their capacities for re-forming their own identities as women and men who may choose to resist some or all of society’s prescriptions for gender. Managing the Unsympathetic Reader A number of faculty members have told us they are unsure how to deal with students who are unsympathetic to the content of this course and book. We’d like to share our thinking about those students and some of the ways we attempt to encourage them to be active, constructive members of the class community. Our experience has been that students who are unsympathetic to part or all of the course materials resist for various reasons. Some students resist ideas that are “new” simply because they may be unfamiliar to them. Other students resist because mainstream society—including some parents/guardians, friends, media, and institutions—has provided them with counter-information. Some students resist because they are uncomfortable acknowledging their own privileges. For these students, it may be particularly helpful to delve more deeply into standpoint theory (see Chapter 2 of the text). Finally, there are some students who resist particular points because they have had an experience (or more) leading them to believe in certain values. Overall, though the reasons may vary, it is important to recognize that unsympathetic readers and listeners tend to have reasons. Do not be surprised if they bring in these alternative perspectives. In fact, we consider these students to be rising to the challenge of the text. Fixmer-Oraiz and Wood’s book invites every student to bring her/his/their whole self into the course. The main scenario you want to avoid is letting the student “shut down” or feel unwilling to engage the course. Hopefully, if you have created an effective classroom climate (see next section), no one will shut down. Given © 2019 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. 4

the nature of a course on gender, communication, and culture, you should expect resistant readings. After recognizing a student is resisting an idea for a reason, consider stepping back for a moment and allowing another student to respond. In our experience, this approach often has proven effective because it helps reinforce the understanding that your goal is not to silence a student with a resistant view. In addition, there is usually at least one student willing to disagree; thus, this dialogue between peers may become an opportunity for them to practice critical thinking and engaging differences. As we stated earlier, you should expect resistance. This is a sign that students find your course involving. Students who question some or all of the course ideas are engaging the material at some level. Consider these responses opportunities to clarify ideas and to build community—a community that models respectful disagreement and discussion about ideas. If you are uncomfortable with opening the classroom floor after a particular comment, consider the following three approaches. First, if you choose to be more direct, ask students how so much research can be wrong, what support they can find for their claim, or what it would take to persuade them otherwise. You may even choose to assign students a paper in which they summarize research that supports and does not support their position. A second approach is to attempt to locate the student’s reasoning through questions. Simply ask: Why do you believe that? Helping a student locate what informs her/his/their opinions can often be the first step in coming to a closer understanding between differences. Because refutation, argument, and discrediting students’ views tend to compel them to protect their positions, we find it more persuasive to rely on gentle, yet persistent questioning. Questions such as these model reflectiveness and openness on the teacher’s part and invite similar postures in students. This is not to suggest, however, that unpressured questioning will render all students open or will dissolve all students’ resistance: It won’t. Nonetheless, for us this approach has been more effective than others, and we are more comfortable with it than with methods that invoke the formal power of our positions as teachers. A third approach we have found successful in teaching this course is to take on the most extreme interpretation of the student’s comment. For example, if a student states that she/he/they believes sociobiologists appear to have a strong case for claiming male rape of women is a biological imperative, ask that student: if someone raped a woman that student knew (her/his mother/guardian, sister, friend, etc.) that very night in her own bedroom, should that rapist be held responsible? By drawing an extreme, concrete scenario, we have been able to illustrate what is at stake in resistant values, attitudes, and behaviors. In addition, when the student addresses a scenario we have fabricated, she/he/they often ends up “correcting” us instead of vice versa. Creating an Effective Classroom Climate The climate, or psychological mood, of a classroom is a pivotal influence on students’ willingness to explore ideas. Because a course in communication, gender, and culture deals with personal identity and deeply held social values, reflection and exploration are risky. Creating a comfortable, safe climate makes it more possible for students to question themselves and each other and to inspect critically assumptions that they have taken for granted all of their lives. In our own teaching we have found openness, personal involvement, and a sense of community contribute to an effective classroom © 2019 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. 5

climate. Openness Openness creates room for students to take risks by letting them know their feelings, values, and beliefs will not be ridiculed or dismissed. Respect for diversity and the equal legitimacy of different identities and points of view is a key foundation of openness. Instructors have considerable influence in establishing a respectful attitude in classes. Your behaviors, especially communication, should model open attitudes by demonstrating your own respect for differences. An obvious part of this is using inclusive language: She and he instead of he; first-year students instead of freshmen; partners instead of spouses; parent(s) or guardian(s) instead of parents; and so forth. Language, however, is not the only way to model and foster an open climate in the classroom. We make creating an open climate the primary focus of the first few class meetings, since those establish the tone for the rest of the term. Usually in introducing our course, we tell students some personal stories in order to expose ourselves before we invite them to reveal their private thoughts and feelings. We also make it a point to confess quite genuinely that we are confused and uncertain about some gender issues and that we find it unsettling to live in an era characterized by changing views of gender and relationships between the sexes. By divulging that we are perplexed about some issues, we communicate to students that uncertainty and confusion are normal and okay. In our opening conversation with a class, we usually mention ways in which our views have changed over time in order to indicate to students that change is also a natural part of the ongoing process of personal growth. Finally, in our initial meeting with a class we say explicitly that this course assumes that all opinions deserve respectful hearings, and we caution students that demeaning or dismissive responses to others’ ideas will not be tolerated. This “class rule” also appears on the printed syllabus. As the class progresses, there are opportunities to build on the foundation for openness established at the outset. The first few times students disclose personal experiences or venture controversial opinions, we are especially careful both to recognize the risk they have taken and to respond generously to what they have said. After several instances in which students “test the waters” and find them safe, security and willingness to take risks become more settled in a course. Teachers may also encourage respect for diversity by modeling interest in views different from their own. For instance, teachers may show curiosity and interest when students offer ideas different from those expressed in the text and the teacher’s remarks. In addition, the instructor may act as a foil by giving voice to perspectives not being heard in the classroom. Sometimes this means making sure feminist viewpoints are articulated competently. More often, however, students who take this course are already somewhat liberal politically and inclined toward feminism, whether or not they use that term. Thus, the teacher may have to make sure conservative outlooks are represented fairly by identifying reservations and counterarguments to feminist views and proposals. Because many teachers of this course are deeply committed to nontraditional gender ideologies, it is sometimes difficult to give voice to traditional or even anti-feminist positions. Yet doing so is important in teaching students to consider alternate views and criticisms of their own views. One approach we have used in this course is sharing stories of our past students or our families. Often, telling a story of a conservative relative opens not only the possibility of discussing conservative views but also the © 2019 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. 6

difficulties that arise when we try to negotiate our own views with the people we love who share these more conservative perspectives. Finally, teachers should be alert to infractions of the “class rule” that insists on respecting diversity. Deliberately or inadvertently, students invariably break the rule at some point. It might be using allegedly generic male terms or commenting on race as if it pertains to people of color but not to European Americans; it might be actively disparaging another student’s ideas with verbal or nonverbal communication. If this happens, it’s important for the instructor to firmly and quickly remind the whole class of the need to respect differences and to struggle against deeply held racist, heterosexist, and androcentric biases that have been inculcated in all of us. By setting an inviting tone in early classes, modeling openness personally, and ensuring respectful processes in the classroom, an open climate can be created and sustained. Personal Involvement Involvement is a second quality of an effective classroom climate. Here the goal is to encourage students to interact directly with course material in order to discover how thoroughly intersections among communication, gender, and culture permeate their personal lives and the society in which they live. The content of the class as well as students’ experience invite personal involvement, so encouragement is usually all a teacher needs to provide. We recommend four specific pedagogical strategies for sparking students’ engagement. First, we suggest it is important to kindle personal involvement at the beginning of the class. On the first day you might enlist individual students in conversation by asking them what they think about particular issues relevant to the course. For instance, after introducing the class, you might identify several topics and then call on a number of students for responses: If you marry, will you/your partner keep your/her name or take yours/your partner’s? Should institutions and organizations have gender neutral bathrooms? Students are likely to feel awkward and on the spot since they don’t anticipate being asked to speak up at the first meeting of a class. Yet, they get beyond initial reticence with a bit of good-humored prompting. After one student responds to a question, the teacher may comment on the response. Then it’s a good idea to ask another student to respond to the first student in order to encourage interaction among students, not just between them and you. Pose additional questions and call on different students, always taking time to acknowledge and work with their ideas. Doing this in the opening class introduces the process as well as the content of the course by inviting participation and personal involvement from the beginning. We’ve developed a second way to stimulate involvement that has become a favorite of ours and our students. “Class Business” is a period of 5 to 15 minutes set aside at the beginning of each class meeting. During that time members of the class share ideas about gender, communication, and culture based on observations, news items, films, television shows, and so forth. This discussion period serves three goals: (1) It encourages students to notice issues of communication, gender, and culture all around them; (2) it allows us to extend the course beyond topics in the textbook and formal syllabus; and (3) it energizes the classroom by relating theory and research to real-life happenings. For these reasons, we include questions related to class business on our exams. Although our students invariably become highly committed to class business, © 2019 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. 7

getting this process rolling takes some groundwork. Few students have ever had a class in which time was set aside specifically for discussing how goings-on in everyday life pertain to what they are studying, so they are unsure of how to participate. Therefore, the teacher has to act as a model and fuel interest initially. To do this, at the start of each class we announce that it’s time for class business and ask if students have any items to contribute. Usually they don’t for the first few sessions, so we present articles on gender issues that we’ve clipped from current newspapers and magazines. For each, we call on students for responses and then suggest we should watch for further developments. Typically by the third or fourth class meeting, students are bringing their own clippings, as well as observations of the media and of everyday interaction. In fact, student interest tends to be so great and gender issues so pervasive that we’ve found it necessary to impose a time limit on class business so that it doesn’t consume the entire class each day we meet! We also recommend two other ways to encourage students to personally engage material in the course. First, instruments and exercises allow students to test conceptual material in their own lives. Within this manual we describe a number of exercises and activities that we’ve developed for our classes, and we explain how to process each one. There are also many available instruments that students may find useful in measuring their own attitudes and communication styles. Second, we recommend a Gender Journal (or another writing exercise outside of the classroom) as a major assignment that allows students to reflect in an ongoing way on issues in the course and to explore how these fit into their own lives. Typically, during each class meeting we specify at least one journal assignment that pertains to the readings and class discussion for the day. In Section II of this manual we suggest items chapter by chapter for the Gender Journal, and you will doubtlessly generate others that you want your students to address. We usually have students turn in their Gender Journals at midterm so that we may respond to their entries and give them feedback on the quality of their work. Final journals are turned in toward the end of the course. One of the challenges of teaching this course is responding to students’ journals both as academic work and personal thinking. We recommend that instructors offer feedback that is both pedagogical (e.g., praising good insights, calling for more analysis of an observation) and personal (e.g., empathizing with anger or hurt, applauding constructive changes, sharing your own experiences). An alternative to a Gender Journal is choosing 4 to 6 shorter assignments, such as Reaction Papers on specific questions or Oral Position statements on the course readings, in order to have more focused writing/thinking. Personal involvement with the course is promoted by engaging students in the first class meeting, reserving time for class business, and assigning activities and journal entries that encourage reflection. These teaching strategies, along with an instructor who embodies involvement, tend to generate personal excitement and participation in students. Creating a Sense of Community A third important dimension of an effective classroom climate is a sense of community. Teaching and learning are enhanced when members of a class feel collectively engaged with each other and issues. Creating a sense of community also supports openness and involvement, because a feeling of camaraderie encourages members of a class to take risks in their thinking and communication and to be respectful of each other. © 2019 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. 8

One simple yet effective strategy for building a sense of community is taking time for people in a class to learn each other’s names. Many communication instructors routinely personalize their classes by devoting time in the first few periods to learning names. You can ask students to give straightforward introductions and then ask them to name each other, or you can rely on various activities or games to make getting acquainted more interesting. Whatever means you use, we believe the time spent in learning names is a sound investment in course climate. We’ve found that we and students learn everyone’s name more easily if students write their names on index cards and place those on their desks for the first week or two of classes. Relatedly, it’s valuable to encourage students to interact directly with each other instead of limiting exchanges to student–teacher dialogue. To promote direct student interaction, teachers may invite students to comment on each other’s ideas and identify connections among remarks offered by different students. Members of a class feel more personally involved and committed when their teacher and peers recognize them as individuals. Another way to encourage a sense of community and commitment in students is to invite them to take a more active role in sculpting their course than is usual at colleges and universities. To do this, you might reserve one or several class period(s) for topics that students wish to discuss or on which they wish to have you present information. By inviting students to specify part of the course’s content, you share the power of defining and directing learning. We also sometimes invite students to propose items for their tests. This is a clear and material demonstration that we take them and their ideas seriously. However, if you invite students to submit questions, then you should be willing to include a reasonable number of their items on your examinations. Feelings of good will and collective interest also are nourished by common interests. Class business promotes this sense of common interests, as do shared readings and discussion topics. We have also found students appreciate announcements regarding campus events pertinent to communication, gender, and culture so that they may collectively or individually attend. In addition, you may choose to define some specific topic or topics as ones a particular class will track throughout the term. Invariably there are issues pertinent to communication, gender, and culture that are under the media spotlight during any given academic term. These spotlighted issues offer an opportunity for classes to focus collectively and in some depth on a specific topic while still covering the broad range of topics in the text. When a particular issue involving communication, gender, and culture interests our students, we specify it as a class focus. Then after class business, which launches each meeting, we devote a few minutes to the focus topic, relying on articles, reports on television and radio, and students’ own evolving opinions. To concretize this teaching strategy, we’ll offer a few examples of topics our students have chosen for a class focus. During the war in Iraq and America’s war against terrorism, our classes followed coverage of women’s roles in the military. Hillary Rodham Clinton was selected as the focus in another class, and throughout the term we traced how the media represented her and her role and, by implication, women’s roles in public life. During the fall of 1991, our students designated the Anita Hill–Clarence Thomas hearings as their collective focus, and we analyzed news stories and television coverage to discover how gender, race, and sexual harassment were portrayed in media coverage. In the spring of 2017, women’s resistance to the Trump administration was a class focus. Since there is never a shortage of issues involving communication, gender, and © 2019 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. 9

culture, designating a class focus is always an option for your classes. It allows students to probe one topic in greater depth than is possible with the gamut of issues covered in Gendered Lives. As stated earlier, because we see class business and class focus topics as integral to the content of our course, we include questions about them on our tests. This practice fortifies the point that engagement with issues on the current scene is an important facet of the course. Alternative Course Emphases and Content Class Size Gendered Lives was written to accommodate diverse teaching situations, goals, and styles. Although perhaps most courses in this area are limited to enrollments of 20 to 35 students, substantially larger classes are possible and exciting. Some universities offer communication, gender, and culture as a large-enrollment course with as many as 175 students. Even with 100+ students, we have been able to generate ample open discussion in our classes, and students have evaluated the courses favorably. There are three special advantages to large-enrollment courses. First, more students are able to learn about communication, gender, and culture. A second benefit of large classes is that increased perspectives are available. Expanded viewpoints are likely in larger classes for two reasons. First, more students generally yield a greater range of viewpoints, backgrounds, and so forth. Second, the very close community that sometimes develops in small sections often deters students from expressing ideas that diverge from those endorsed by the class as a whole. Larger classes, then, may facilitate the goal of respecting diversity in who we are and what we believe, because they avoid the problems of limited viewpoints and subtle conformity pressures that may be more present in small classes. A third advantage of a large enrollment is that graduate students have opportunities to gain supervised experience in effectively handling the course content and classroom dynamics. The course may be organized so that some days are reserved for large group meetings with the senior faculty member lecturing or leading discussion, and other days are reserved for smaller recitation sections taught by graduate students. This format provides students with the opportunity both for small-group interaction and for exposure to senior faculty with experience and a broad command of research and theory in the area. We do, however, recommend the senior faculty member sit in on these sections periodically to not only legitimize and enhance these spaces but also to learn more about the students. Pedagogical Approaches Gendered Lives may be used to support courses that emphasize any of three pedagogical approaches or a combination of these: mastery of theory and information about communication, gender, and culture; application of conceptual ideas through experiential activities and reflection; and/or extension and augmentation of textbook material (Springboard focus). While some instructors tend to adopt one of these three orientations, many instructors combine teaching goals and strategies. We will discuss each of these approaches. Focus on Mastery of Theory and Information. Some instructors think that the primary goal of higher education is to learn about theories, concepts, and research. This © 2019 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. 10

pedagogical focus emphasizes course content more than students’ feelings about content or their application of it. A persuasive rationale for this teaching focus is that students become more informed. Consequently, they have more sound bases for making choices about their own activities and for evaluating social practices. A course that emphasizes theory and information from research maximizes the instructor’s control over what happens in a classroom. Because the instructor defines the class agenda and steers away from the uncertainties of students’ feelings, this teaching focus tends to yield relatively predictable, orderly classes. Instructors who prefer this approach also tend to think it allows greater objectivity in evaluating students’ work. Since students are tested in a straightforward manner on comprehension of information and theory, it’s not difficult to judge the rightness of answers. Further, focusing on theory and research lends itself to lectures and structured class discussions, so it’s feasible to enroll a greater number of students than can be accommodated in courses that rely on interaction, activities, and the like. For instructors who wish to emphasize theory and research, Gendered Lives is an effective textbook. The extensive and current research surveyed in the book provides a wealth of information both on theoretical viewpoints and on specific research about communication and gender as these are produced and enacted in various spheres of cultural life. Using Gendered Lives as a foundation, instructors may reinforce coverage by supplementing the textbook with additional studies and updates from research published since 2011, when the book went to press. Instructors may also reinforce and elaborate on the chapter material to highlight what they consider most important for students to learn. Through lectures and discussion, instructors should be able to facilitate students’ understanding of information and themes presented in the textbook. To promote students’ attention to readings, instructors may wish to assign focus questions for some or all chapters. We have found these effective in encouraging students to be more active and critical readers. The assignment requires each student to generate a question based on designated readings. The student may pose a question about how a particular study was conducted, the implications of findings reported in the text, or issues beyond the text’s discussion that she or he considers pertinent. At the beginning of each class period for which focus questions were assigned, students may be invited to state their questions to the class, and then the class may discuss the questions. Alternatively, students may simply turn in their focus questions on a listserve that all students are expected to read prior to class sessions. For this pedagogical approach, we also recommend emphasizing the ability to develop and articulate informed positions. Therefore, essay questions on exams, short paper assignments, or brief oral statements might highlight how to construct thesis statements and supporting points to illustrate the theories and research taught regarding communication, gender, and culture. Experiential Approach. A pedagogical focus on experiential learning and personal application is probably most widely employed by teachers of communication, gender, and culture. Perhaps this approach owes its popularity to the personal character and implications of course content. Because every student is gendered and lives in a gendered society, many teachers’ primary objective is providing a context and activities that allow students to explore how they embody or resist cultural prescriptions for gender and how cultural dicta influence both personal and public life. Gendered Lives may be used to support instruction that emphasizes experiential © 2019 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. 11

learning. Because the text provides extensive information, less class time need be devoted to lecture and discussion of theory and research; the majority of class time may be dedicated to activities that encourage students to apply readings to their own lives and their thinking about cultural practices. Of course, this approach works only if students actually read the text in preparation for classes. Therefore, instructors who wish to devote substantial class time to discussion and experiential ventures need to stress the importance of doing the reading. When personal engagement with issues surrounding communication, gender, and culture is the primary goal of a course, the majority of class time is usually devoted to activities that illuminate personal, pragmatic implications of material in the textbook. Instructors who adopt this focus generally talk with students during the opening days of the course to explain that an experiential focus is not “fun and games” and is not something removed from serious learning. Further, to underline this point and to help students appreciate the connections between class activities and theory and research covered in the textbook, it’s important to reserve ample time for discussing the students’ experiences. Discussing the questions at the end of each chapter in Gendered Lives is one activity that leads students to explore their own feelings about issues and to consider how gender surfaces in their personal lives. Other activities, such as role-playing, case studies, and structured experiences, should be processed in ways that highlight their relationship to readings. Similarly, films and movies should be analyzed to disclose how they illustrate themes in the text, and scores on instruments should be interpreted in light of theoretical and research findings. Conceptually grounded activities are another valuable means of facilitating students’ discovery of how gender permeates the culture and how it affects them personally. Section II of this manual provides a number of exercises and activities that allow students to apply material covered in each chapter of Gendered Lives. Instructors who have experience teaching courses in communication, gender, and culture will also have a fund of activities they have developed or selected from other sources. If you are new at teaching this course and want additional activities or ones different from those we suggest, then we recommend networking with other instructors to share ideas and activities and to develop original ones that advance the particular themes of your course. In addition to exercises, instruments, and class activities, educational and commercial films enhance an experiential approach to teaching. Among the more effective educational films we have discovered are the following: Dreamworlds 3, narrated by Sut Jhally, dramatically depicts relationships between popular music videos and actual rapes. This film is disturbing to many students, particularly ones who have been victims of sexual violence, and we recommend that students be given the option of leaving class if they find the film too disturbing. Killing Us Softly 3 is Jean Kilbourne’s videotaped presentation on ways in which commercial advertising portrays women as inadequate and victimizable and legitimizes violence against women. This is an updated version of her original presentation, Killing Us Softly, and its successor, Still Killing Us Softly, both of which still exist on videotape. Tough Guise 2 is an excellent video for helping students recognize how masculinity, in general, and violent masculinity, in particular, are constructed by popular media. Tough Guise 2 includes extensive illustrations from popular © 2019 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. 12

culture, including films, the tragic school shootings, and hip-hop. Trans is a documentary that follows the lives of trans men and women of different ages and walks of life and the challenges they have faced in coming out and coming closer to matching their personal identity. Gender Revolution is a documentary produced by NatGeo and hosted by Katie Couric released in early 2017. She talks to different families, psychologists, and experts about changing conceptions of gender. This includes talking about and to intersex and transgender people. She’s Beautiful When She’s Angry is a documentary about the early years of second wave of U.S. feminism, from 1966-1973. Drawing on extensive archival footage, the creativity and vibrancy of feminist activism shines though. How to Survive a Plague is a moving documentary about the early years of ACT UP, the AIDS Coalition to Unleash Power. The Punk Singer is a documentary about Kathleen Hanna, the lead singer of Bikini Kill and one of the most well-known Riot Grrrl feminist activists and zine writers. The film provides an excellent window into the Riot Grrrl movement as a whole. A number of commercial films also have strong potential for teaching about gender and communication. Following are descriptions of a few of our favorites, and new films directly germane to this course are constantly premiering. The Joy Luck Club provides multiple examples of interaction between genders (how women and men negotiate their own ego boundaries within romantic relationships), generations (the expectations between mothers and daughters), and culture (China and the United States). Get on the Bus narrates the meaning and importance of the Million Man March from several different African-American male standpoints (e.g., straight/gay; teenager/elder). The film lends well to focused clips of exchanges between men as to why they want to go to the March and what they feel it means to be an African-American male in the United States. Itty Bitty Titty Committee is a fictional story of a radical third-wave feminist activist group called the C(i)A (Clits in Action). It tells the story of 19year-old lesbian Ana as she becomes aware of feminist issues and committed to feminist action. It is a great example of radical activist groups. For the Bible Tells Me So is a documentary of several Christian families struggling and working to accept and understand their gay children. It is generally well received by a broad audience and promotes challenging and good discussion. Transgeneration is a miniseries documentary of four transgender college students. The series covers important issues related to being transgender and is particularly useful for talking about gendered educational settings. Southern Comfort is a documentary following the life of Robert Eads, a transgender man who has been diagnosed with ovarian cancer but cannot receive treatment because doctors will not treat him. The film also covers his relationship with a transgender woman and his chosen family. © 2019 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. 13

Rabbit-Proof Fence follows the story of three young indigenous girls in Australia who are sent to a reeducation camp to become domestic servants. They escape the settlement and walk 1,500 miles to get back to their home. Persepolis is a film version of Marjane Satrapi’s graphic novel telling the story of her coming of age set against the backdrop of the Iranian revolution. Winter’s Bone is a film set in the Ozarks. Ree Dolly is taking care of her family after her father has disappeared and has to go looking for him to try to save her home. This film deals with poverty and gender in how the men and women of the area react to Ree’s presence and whether what she is doing is “right.” Transparent (TV series) this Amazon television series follows the story of Maura, a transgender woman, and her family as they navigate her coming out. Jessica Jones (TV series), a series on Netflix, while ostensibly a superhero show, deals with issues of rape, sexual assault, and post-traumatic stress disorder. Moonlight is a film that won Best Picture at the Academy Awards in 2017. It tells the story of Chiron, a young, gay black man growing up in a low-income area of Miami and his experiences negotiating his masculinity and sexuality. Finally, the Gender Journal is a valuable vehicle for furthering experiential learning. By assigning topics that encourage reflection on personal implications of issues covered in Gendered Lives, instructors promote increased self-awareness in students. In Section II we suggest topics that we and our students have found useful in prompting personal reflection and learning related to each chapter in the textbook.

Springboard Focus. The springboard approach to teaching aims to extend coverage in the textbook by devoting substantial class time to topics that go beyond those considered in readings. The text works as a starting point or a foundation on which the class builds. Typically, instructors using this approach set aside some time during each class meeting or use the first portion of a term to cover readings and make sure students understand relevant theory and research presented in Gendered Lives. The rest of the class time is then used to explore issues either underdeveloped or not addressed in the textbook. The instructor may assign topics for class extension and/or invite students to suggest ideas. Then students and the instructor may schedule panels of guest speakers, projects, observations, and so forth to supplement coverage in the textbook. In our classes we and our students have learned a great deal from panel discussions that either we or they have arranged. Here are some sample topics and panelists: A panel discussion of violence against women might include the sexual harassment officer if your campus has one, a rape counselor from a local women’s center, a volunteer from a battered women’s shelter in your community, and a staff person from a men’s resource center. Different kinds of feminism may be represented by a panel of women and men who align themselves with different branches of feminism: a womanist, a feminist minister, a lesbian feminist, a liberal feminist, and a separatist. A panel we often schedule that especially engages students features partners in dual-career relationships. We invite partners in two to three couples to talk openly with the class about the pleasures and pitfalls of being a two-worker © 2019 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. 14

family and about ways they have recognized and dealt with gendered assumptions in their relationship. Single guests are more effective than panels in addressing certain topics. For instance, we had the district attorney of our county visit the class to discuss current rape laws and trial procedures to inform the class of how gendered assumptions permeate legal proceedings. Another topic that a single guest might address is sexual harassment on your campus. If there is an institutional officer for sexual harassment, invite her or him to meet with the class to inform students of the incidence of sexual harassment, as well as procedures for redress. Also valuable is asking a counselor to talk with the class about different sources of stress and reactions to stress that are typical of men and women. Another way to extend course coverage beyond content presented in Gendered Lives is to assign group and/or individual projects. Whether to make these assignments on an individual or group basis depends on preferences of instructors and students. Group work tends to be more frustrating for students, and there are often problems such as conflicting schedules and uneven contributions by group members. Yet group tasks also emphasize collaborative work and cooperation and interaction styles many instructors wish to highlight. Another difference between group and individual projects is that results of the former can usually be presented to the entire class, whereas there is seldom enough class time to allow presentation of every student’s individual project. Since group work is often challenging to coordinate, we recommend the use of peer evaluations. Therefore, each person in the group is asked to assign the percentage earned by every group member (including her/himself), with an explanation of why. This process raises a sense of accountability. Although there are many valuable ways to focus projects, we favor ones that combine research and observation focused on a topic that received little or no coverage in the textbook. For instance, we have had projects on changes in images of and advice to women in bridal magazines from 1960 to 2000, gender images in commercial versus educational children’s television, coverage of women’s and men’s sports in national, state, and campus newspapers, and so on. Other topics that extend the coverage of Gendered Lives are global rape, differences in how men and women are treated by medical professionals, and comparing agendas of male and female legislators. Observation projects allow individuals or groups to study “real life” versions of what they are learning about through readings and class discussion. For example, students concentrating on gender stereotyping in preschools might visit kindergarten and elementary classes and report on differences, if any, in how teachers treat boys and girls. Investigations that are reported in Gendered Lives could also be replicated by individuals or groups. During terms when we assign individual or group projects, we usually offer students a list of 10 to 15 suitable subjects for study and observation and also invite students to suggest additional topics. Using Technology for the Classroom You will notice that Fixmer-Oraiz and Wood’s textbook highlights websites for every chapter. Technology is not a substitute for teachers, but it can assist us as a resource for learning about gender, communication, and culture. We encourage you to use the Web yourselves (to prepare for classes, to update information, etc.) and to get your students involved in online work. © 2019 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. 15

Another increasing practice at many colleges and universities is the use a class list serves to facilitate dialogue outside the classroom walls. One approach to structure this interaction is to assign weekly response questions for the readings. Then, ask everyone to post those reactions to the list, leaving enough time for all of the students to read the messages prior to the class meeting. In the classroom, ask a group of students or one student to summarize the reactions posted to the list. An exercise such as this provides students with more time to prepare for discussion and keeps them engaged with the course throughout the week. In addition, students sometimes feel more comfortable sharing their ideas when they have more time to respond and do not need to confront anyone face-to-face. Another use of technology for the classroom is to assign “Judgment Calls,” a classroom resource we developed for Gendered Lives. Each Judgment Call describes a current controversy, issue, or dilemma related to gender and communication in society. Following each description are several prompts that may guide thought and discussion and that direct students to additional resources on the Internet. Instructors may assign Judgment Calls to individual students as journal entries or reaction papers, they may be used to structure class or small group discussions, or they may be topics for research papers. Key references are provided for each Judgment Call. There are no right or wrong answers to the Judgment Calls. Rather, they are designed to highlight the pervasiveness of gender issues in society and to stimulate thought, discussion, and research on gender, communication, and culture. They aim not only to engage students in controversial issues, but also to guide students to recognize assumptions that lie behind positions and implications of adopting various stances. Summary In this first section on teaching about communication, gender, and culture, we have discussed opportunities, tensions, and resistant readers. Following that discussion we offered suggestions for ways to create a climate that is open, personally involving, and communal so that optimally effective teaching and learning may occur. Finally, we identified three distinct pedagogical approaches to teaching a course on communication, gender, and culture, and we suggested classroom emphases and assignments suitable for each. The final portion of Section I presents examples of scheduling used to structure courses for which Gendered Lives is the primary text. The first syllabus, included in complete form, covers a semester-long course. Additionally, two schedules of classes offer examples for alternate ways a course can be crafted. One plan is for a course during summer session, and the other plan is for a course that meets for one ten-week quarter, using an experiential focus.

Sample Schedules of Classes Semester Syllabus

The syllabus appearing here is for a course in communication, gender, and culture that is taught at the University of North Carolina–Chapel Hill. The entire syllabus is included to provide an example of the types of information we find useful in delineating expectations and responsibilities for the classroom.

“Gender, like culture, organizes for its members different influence strategies, ways of communicating, non-verbal languages, and ways of perceiving the world.” Carol Tavris (1992). The Mismeasure of woman (p.291). New York: Simon & Schuster. Gender and Communication MWF (1:00 to 1:50 p.m.) Designed as an introductory course, Communication Studies 224 focuses on interactive relationships between gender and communication in contemporary American society. This implies three priorities for our class. First, we’ll explore multiple ways communication in families, schools, media, and society in general creates and perpetuates gender roles. Second, we’ll consider how we enact socially created gender differences in public and private settings and how this affects success, satisfaction, and self-esteem. Third, and perhaps most important, we’ll connect theory and research to our personal lives. Your experiences, insights, questions, and ideas are a key part of this course. Throughout the term we’ll consider not only what is in terms of gender roles, but also what might be and how we, as change agents, may act to improve our individual and collective lives. Readings Fixmer-Oraiz, N., & Wood, J. T. (2019). Gendered Lives: Communication, gender, and culture (13th ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth. Selected Reserve Readings available at the Undergraduate Library, as listed on the class schedule. Course Philosophy Learning is an active process in which we all participate. Viewing learning as an active process implies several significant distinctions between many traditional classroom interactions and what I hope this course will become for each of us. First, an © 2019 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. 17

active process suggests the importance of understanding and experiencing ideas as they relate to our own lives, rather than just remembering a list of facts. This course should provide us with plenty of material upon which to reflect as we consider the pervasive influence of gender on personal identity and societal structures. Second, a process continually evolves with no clear beginning or end. Hence, this course should become a dialogue between all of us as we reflect upon the material presented and its relevance in our experiences. Such a conversation includes responsibilities to which we must all agree. Clearly, one initial responsibility involves being in class regularly. However, merely being in class is not enough to create a climate in which we can all learn. Being prepared for class is an additional commitment that is necessary from each of us. A quick reading of the assigned material will do little to prepare for class. The nature of the material presented in this course invites critical reflection upon the ideas and a willingness to share our insights and perspectives on personal and potentially controversial topics. A final and vitally important responsibility involves a willingness to be open to and consider the thoughts and ideas of others in the classroom. If there are 32 of us in the course, then there will be at least 32 different perspectives. No one experience or viewpoint is more important or more valuable than any other. You may not agree with the views expressed by others in the course, but we must all agree to respect each individual’s right to have and share their own experiences. Hearing and listening to the perspectives of others should do nothing more than create greater understanding of the diversity of experience in contemporary American society. Assignments Class Business. Each day the first 10 minutes of class will be used for discussion of some of the many ways gender issues surface in the world in which we live. As a semester-long course, there is never enough time to include all of the interesting topics that arise from studying gender and communication. “Class business” will allow us to consider more of the ways gender issues pop up in our lives and experiences. As the course progresses, we will all be more aware of the power of gender and the prevalence of gender stereotypes. Readings, television programs, advertisements, classroom experiences, and our interactions with others, all provide fertile ground for material for “class business.” Please be willing to bring in examples for discussion and also be ready to share your perspectives on the issues raised. Finally, “class business” is considered fair game for test questions—the ways we notice gender issues in daily life are at least as important as other material from the readings, lectures, and class discussions. Testing. This course includes two midterms, each valued at 20% of the course grade, and a final that is worth 30% of the course grade. The final is cumulative, as the material presented later in the course builds upon earlier theories and information discussed. There are no provisions for missed tests. If you miss a test for a University-approved reason, the weight of that assignment is placed on the final. Of course, proper documentation and, if appropriate, prior approval are necessary for redistributing the weight of a midterm to the final. The midterms and the final will include both objective and essay items. Gender Journal. Throughout the course, questions will be assigned for your consideration and reflection. In responding to the questions, use one to two (or more) © 2019 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. 18

paragraphs to share your perspective on, understanding of, and experiences with, the topics assigned. Journals must be typed. As most of the issues are highly personal, consider the types of responses you are willing to share with me. I can assure you that I consider your journals confidential material and no eyes will read your responses other than mine. At the same time, I do not want to force you to share experiences you would rather not disclose. Please feel free to ask me to share my experiences as they relate to any of the assignments. I would not expect you to consider any topic that I am not willing to discuss. The journals are worth 20% of your course grade and are evaluated based on the depth and understanding you display of course concepts. Include analysis of the topic assigned, not just a description. Depth is the key issue. Don’t be afraid to carefully examine what you believe and why you believe what you believe. Most importantly, remember the journals are really for your benefit, not mine, so use them to meet your needs. Journals are due twice during the semester, on March 3 and April 19; each time a grade will be assigned worth 10% of the course grade. Focus Questions. In order to facilitate discussion, participation, and critical thinking, you are required to submit at least two “focus questions/comments” for each day, as noted on the syllabus. These questions/comments, which may be handwritten, should demonstrate careful reading and consideration of the assignments. Further, you are expected to push beyond the surface to explore or question the underlying assumptions and the implications of the material. Your focus questions/comments are to be submitted at the beginning of class and will not be accepted after discussion has begun. They will be assigned from “0” to “5” points depending on their quality and will account for 10% of your course grade. Grading. Grades are based on a 10-point scale. Thus, 90 to 92 is an A minus, 93 and above an A, and so on. There are no provisions for extra credit. Handing in Journals late results in a 3-point per day penalty, including weekend days. Writing proficiency is considered a significant part of any grade assigned. The College of Arts and Sciences puts it like this: “Students should expect to be graded on spelling, punctuation, grammar, and style as well as on the content and organization of their written work.” Honor Code. You are bound by the standards of the university’s honor code for all of your work in this course. Hence, accept and give no “unauthorized assistance” on any of the assignments for the course. Signing your name on your assignments is your pledge and consent to abiding by the honor code.

SCHEDULE OF CLASSES Date

Class Focus

Readings/Assignments

08/21

Course Intro, Syllabus Review

none

08/23

Assumptions about gender

Chapter 1 Focus questions due

08/26

Theories of Gender Development

Chapter 2

Focus questions due 08/28

Theories of Gender Development Film: Secret of the Sexes

08/30

Women’s Movements

09/02

No class: Labor Day

09/04

Diversity within Women’s Movements

bell hooks, “Black Women: Shaping Feminist Theory”; Sojourner Truth, “Ain’t I a Woman?”; Donna Kate Rushin, “The Bridge Poem”; Cherríe Moraga, “The Welder” Focus questions due

09/06

Men’s Movements

Chapter 4 Focus questions due

09/09

Backlash/Anti-feminism

Susan Faludi, “Blame It on Feminism” Focus questions due

09/11

Becoming Gendered

Chapter 7 Focus questions due

09/13

Learning Gender beyond the Family Film: Tough Guise 2

Chapter 3 Focus questions due

09/16

Gendered Education

Chapter 8 Focus questions due

09/18

Gendered Education

Nel Noddings, “A Morally Defensible Mission for Schools in the 21st Century”

09/20

Discussion

09/23

Exam 1

09/25

Gendered Verbal Communication

Chapter 5 Focus questions due

09/27

Gendered Verbal Communication

Chapter 5

09/30

Sexist Language

Sherryl Kleinman, “Why Sexist Language Matters”; Douglas Hofstadter, “A Person Paper on Purity in Language”

10/02

Language as a Tool

Gloria Steinem, “Womb Envy, Testyria, and Breast Castration Anxiety”

10/04

Gendered Nonverbal Communication

Chapter 6 Focus questions due

10/07

Gendered Nonverbal Communication

Chapter 6

10/09

Gendered Body Image

Sandra Lee Bartky, “The Feminine Body”; Abra Fortune Chernik, “The Body Politic”; Sirena J. Riley, “The Black Beauty Myth”; Harrison G. Pope, Katharine A. Phillips, and Roberto

Olivardia, “The Adonis Complex” Focus questions due 10/11

Gendered Body Image Guest Speaker

10/14

Gendered Friendships

pp. 209–218 Focus questions due

10/16

Gendered Friendships

Julia T. Wood, “He Says, She Says: Misunderstandings between Men and Women”

10/18

Fall Break

10/21

Gendered Romance

pp. 218–230 Focus questions due

10/23

Gendered Romance

Adrienne Rich, “Compulsory Heterosexuality and Lesbian Existence” Focus questions due

10/25

Discussion

10/28

Exam 2

10/30

Gendered Organizational Communication

pp. 231–237 Focus questions due

11/01

Gendered Organizational Communication

pp. 237–246 Focus questions due

11/04

Redressing Inequities

pp. 246–255 Focus questions due

11/06

Redressing Inequities

Barbara Ehrenreich, “Nickel and Dimed” Focus questions due

11/08

Mediated Gender

Chapter 11 Focus questions due

11/11

Mediated Gender Film: Killing Us Softly 3

11/13

Analyzing Advertisements

Bring in 2+ Ads

11/15

Gendered Violence

Chapter 12 Focus questions due

11/18

Gendered Violence

Julia T. Wood, “The Normalization of Violence in Heterosexual Romantic Relationships” Focus questions due

11/20

Gendered Violence Guest Speaker

11/22

Mediated Violence Film: Dreamworlds 3

11/25

Mediated Violence

Emilie Morgan, “Don’t Call Me a Survivor”; Suzanne Pharr, “Homophobia: A Weapon of Sexism” Focus questions due

11/27

Agency and Voice

Whitney Walker, “Why I Fight Back”; Pat Schroeder, “Running for Our Lives: Electoral Politics” Focus questions due

12/02

Exam Review/Class Party

Final Exam

Summer Session Scheduling The following is a sample schedule of classes for a course taught during a summer session. At UNC-CH, summer classes are scheduled to meet five days a week, for one and one-half hours each day. SCHEDULE OF CLASSES AND ASSIGNMENTS May

Introduction to the course

Reading

Conceptual Foundations 22

Course topics, terms, and assumptions

Introduction Chapter 1

Theories of gender development

Chapter 2

Women’s Movements

Chapter 3

Men’s Movements

Chapter 4

Creating Gender through Communication

June

The early years: Learning gender

Chapter 7

Film on family communication: The Pinks and the Blues Small group discussions

Examination #1

The “gender curriculum”

Chapter 8

Verbal communication and gender

Chapter 6

Nonverbal communication and gender

Chapter 7

Film: Tough Guise 2

Turn in Journals (Opt.)

Gender differences in friendship

pp. 209–218

Gender differences in intimacy

pp. 218–230

Exercise: Rapport/report talk 11

Gender and professional life

pp. 231–246

Gender in Social and Public Communication Contexts 12

Addressing inequities

pp. 246–255

Examination #2

Media messages about gender

Group discussions of media messages Bring in 3 + advertisements

Gendered violence

Chapter 12

Film: Dreamworlds 3

Journals (20%)

Discussion of gender and violence

Chapter 11

Review and evaluation of course; preview of final examination 24

Final exam (40%)

Quarter-Long Experiential Focus The following syllabus is intended for a class that meets for one quarter; classes are scheduled to meet five days a week, for 50 minutes each day. This syllabus includes exercises, speakers, and presentations that intend to expand beyond the material presented in the text. For a class to work with this type of experiential focus, students must read the text carefully, so that class discussions can move beyond the material presented in the text. SCHEDULE OF CLASSES AND ASSIGNMENTS Date March 29 30 30 31 April 1 2 5 6 7 8 9 12 13 14 15 16 19 20 21 April 22 23 26 27 28 29 30 May 3 4 5 6 7 10 11 12

Class Focus Introduction and course overview Self-positioning for study of gender issues Activity: Beliefs about sex and gender Course topics, terms, and assumptions Student presentations: Research on androgyny Theories of gender development Activity: Theories of gender development George Herbert Mead: Symbolic interactionism Examining standpoint theory Men’s and women’s movements Holiday Guest panel: Feminist voices Video: Get on the Bus The Backlash Examination #1 (20%) Gendered verbal communication Exercise: Rapport/Report Talk The power of language Gendered nonverbal communication Video: In & Out Complete video and class discussion Becoming gendered Video: The Pinks and the Blues Gendered friendships Gendered intimate relationships Video clips: Relationships Gendered education Exercise: The gender curriculum Observation: Gender in preschool settings Student suggested topic Examination #2 (20%) Media messages and gender Video: Dreamworlds 3 Gendered violence

Reading Introduction Chapter 1 Chapter 2

Chapters 3 and 4

Faludi, Chapter 4 Chapter 5 Tannen, Chapters 2 and 3 Spender Chapter 6 Journals due Chapter 7 First half of Chapter 9 Complete Chapter 9 Chapter 8

Chapter 11 Chapter 12

June

13 14 17 18 19 20 21 26 27 28 31 1 2 3 4 7 9

Exercise: Advertising and gender The Beauty Myth Wolf Gender and organizational life Chapter 10 Guest speaker: Sexual harassment Sandler and Hughes Panel: Dual-worker relationships Student presentations: Gender in organizational settings Student presentations continued Journals due Student-suggested topics Student-suggested topics Group project meeting day Holiday Group presentations Group presentations Group presentations Group presentations Wrap-up and review Final Exam (30%)

Part II: Key Concepts, Activities, and Tests In this section of the resource book, you will find summaries, suggested journal assignments, activities, and tests to accompany each chapter of the text. For some chapters, we suggest a specific activity, for which we provide a detailed explanation. In other cases, we provide several general exercises that can be tailored to the specific emphases of your course. Introduction: Opening the Conversation I.

II.

III.

Natalie Fixmer-Oraiz and Julia Wood Introduce Themselves A. Authors’ perspectives affect how books are written. B. Julia is a “European American, middle-aged, heterosexual, spiritually engaged, middle-class woman who has been in a committed relationship […] for 46 years.” C. Natalie is a white, female, cisgender, middle-class woman who has been in a committed relationship for twelve years. D. Julia became an adult during the second waves of feminism, while Natalie grew up in a culture that presented far greater opportunities to girls and women than that of previous generations. E. The “simple” demographic information shows that Natalie and Julia are privileged by their race and economic class as well as their cisgender identity. The Social Construction of Inequality A. It is possible to change society. We do not have to accept discrimination. Because we construct society, we can reconstruct it. B. We need to learn the experiences, perspectives, and circumstances of people in other social positions. C. It is also important to remember the limits of our own perspective and realize that we do not know everything and our experience is not everyone else’s experience. Feminism—Feminisms A. “Feminism” was coined in France in the 1800s and combines the word “woman” (“femme”) and the suffix “ism” (which means political position): a political position about women. B. Many people do not call themselves feminists although they believe individuals should have equal rights, suggesting a reservation of the label “feminist.” C. Feminism is not a single belief or position. Most people’s impressions have been formed by bias in media portrayal, such as the report that feminists burned bras at a 1968 protest. D. Many people avoid using the word “feminist” because it is often associated with radical protests and male-bashing. E. Most feminists are not extremists and most have strong and loving relationships with people of all sexes and genders. F. Both heterosexual men and women who are in relationships with feminist partners are happier and more satisfied with their relationships than are heterosexual men and women with nonfeminist partners. G. The authors define feminism as including “respecting all people, as well as 52

nonhuman forms of life and the Earth itself” and being against all kinds of oppression. H. Feminism does not just happen but is a process and an achievement. IV. Becoming Aware A. Reading Gendered Lives will increase your awareness and knowledge about gender. Reading it may feel informative at times and frustrating other times. B. Becoming aware of injustices equips you to be critical of those inequities. Speaking out about inequality can be empowering and also frustrating. C. It is important to remember that our culture is constructed in ways that are oppressive, and the problem does not lie with individual people. V. Why We Wrote this Book A. Natalie and Julia wrote this book because they believe change in the way we enact gender is needed. Research can empower us to make more informed choices about personal identity and our shared world. B. Awareness of inequities must be coupled with realizing that change is possible. Many blatant forms of sex discrimination have been eliminated. Views of men have changed. C. Gender is increasingly recognized as fluid. LGBTQ individuals enjoy greater visibility and acceptance. D. Changes can lead us to think we are in a “postfeminist era,” but not all inequities based on sex and gender are history. E. The consequences of how we define and embody gender are not abstract but can affect people’s health and lives. VI. Communication as the Fulcrum of Change A. We use communication to identify and challenge inequity and to define alternatives to the status quo. B. Most recently, students are leading the way in persuading women’s colleges to rethink policies that have excluded transgender students. C. Other kinds of communication instigate change: social media, discussion in class, speaking with family. VII. The Challenge of Studying Communication, Gender, and Culture A. Studying communication, gender, and culture means considering new ideas and taking risks. B. Awareness comes with responsibility to confront inequity. C. Although studying gender, communication, and culture can be frustrating, it can also be rewarding. VIII. Features of Gendered Lives A. Four features distinguish this book and support the views discussed in the introduction. 1. The book uses diverse examples that cover various classes, ethnicities, races, and sexual orientations. 2. The language aims to include all readers, using “he and she” instead of simply “he” and “committed relationships” rather than “marriages.” 3. There is an inclusion of diverse perspectives including student voices that reflect widely ranging experiences, values, and identities. 4. The text encourages active engagement. 53

Journal Entry 1. After reading the Introduction to the text, position yourself as an individual studying gender and communication. Discuss/comment on the importance of acknowledging your standpoint(s), such as gender, race, class, sexuality, geography, age, and so on, and how they might affect your perspective on gender issues. 2.

Ask two or three people—friends, colleagues, or family members—to define feminism and reflect on their answers. How do your informants define feminism? Are the definitions similar to one another or are they diverse? Do your informants define feminism positively, negatively, or in a neutral fashion? How do your informants’ definitions intersect with Wood’s discussion of feminism?

Getting to Know You Activities We have found it desirable to learn students’ names early in the semester as a way of connecting with individual students more personally within classroom interactions. Creating an open and comfortable climate in the classroom is one of the most important elements in ensuring a successful course. There are undoubtedly many different options for learning students’ names. Here are a couple of activities we have tried and found successful: 1.

Arrange students in a circle. Have the person to your right or left tell her/his name. Let the next person tell her/his name and the first person’s name. The third student will share her/his name as well as those of the first two students, and so on, and so on . . . . As the activity continues around the circle, students become involved in remembering others’ names and also in helping classmates remember names. Be sure that you are the last person in the activity and recite the names of all the students in the class. Allow each student to find an item in her/his purse, backpack, or wallet that represents something about her/him as a person. Let students introduce themselves and share their items, as well as the stories their items hold. Often students share a picture of a significant other, a checkbook that never seems to balance, or even a driver’s license that required three attempts to pass the driving test. Some instructors find it useful to ask students to fill out index cards on the first day of class with students’ names, contact information, and why she or he chose to enroll in this course. We find it helpful to use these cards as not only a way for the instructor to become better acquainted with the students, but also for the students to help construct the course. For example, you might ask them to include the most frequent criticism they have heard concerning gender studies. Then, when you come to the day when the readings on The Backlash are due a few weeks later, bring these cards back out and address these comments. This helps create an atmosphere for a diversity of views in a less confrontational climate. In Chapter 1, Fixmer-Oraiz and Wood discuss conflicting views many people have about gender in our era. Ask each student to anonymously write down one issue regarding gender about which she/he feels either very confused or at odds with peers. Ask them to include why. Then, collect their papers and redistribute them. Ask each student to read the paper she/he has received out loud and then answer one or two questions as if those where her/his own words. As an early exercise in the class, it can serve to help you and the rest of 54

the class discover what experiences and ideas are being brought into the room. Suggested Activity: Beliefs about Sex and Gender Issues The following activity is intended to be completed in two parts. First, individuals indicate a “generally true” or “generally false” response to each statement on the survey “Beliefs about Sex and Gender Issues” included with this activity. After each individual has responded to all of the statements, divide the class into groups of four to five students. Allow the students to discuss their beliefs and feelings on each question and arrive at a consensus response for each survey statement. In discussing the survey statements after groups have arrived at a consensus, encourage students to share the assumptions that guide their perspectives on the statements. The exercise intends to allow the class to start examining their opinions and beliefs on various gender issues that will be addressed throughout the course. You will find thoughts that may help to guide your discussion of particular items as follows. 1.

Women are more empathic than men. The answer is generally false. There is some danger in statements like this one that assume all women and all men are the same. Essentializing women and men to any list of traits unnecessarily reduces the range of options for human individuality. While popular notions of empathy would agree with this statement, the evidence in current research is less clear. What does appear a reasonable conclusion deals with socialization into gender roles. Femininity, with its emphasis on being responsive to and concerned for others, does suggest greater empathy. Additionally, more permeable ego boundaries associated with femininity allow individuals to experience the feelings of others as more nearly their own, rather than as distinct from their experience. Thus, femininity is more readily linked to empathy than is biological designation as female.

Young children need an at-home mother at least for the first years of life. Again, the response is generally false. Evidence on early childhood socialization and developmental paths suggests that an infant needs a caregiver to meet its needs. A caregiver, however, is not necessarily a mother or a father for that matter. As economic realities force dualcareer marriages, new childcare arrangements increase the range of options necessary in bringing children into the world. Future research undoubtedly will examine effects of diverse arrangements made for caring for infant children.

America’s national policy guarantees parental leaves only if they are unpaid. Again, the response is generally false. Currently, no national policy exists for parental leave, making the United States unique among Western nations. When the Clinton administration first came to office, the “family care leave” bill was pushed through Congress. The Family and Medical Leave Act does not, however, apply to all Americans. It only covers employees in companies with more than 50 workers. The employees must have worked at least 1,250 hours during the year and cannot be among the top 10% of the company’s pay scale. The bill allows 12 weeks of unpaid leave for family emergencies. The bill covers only about one-half of the work force and will not help employees who cannot afford to take time off without a paycheck. The United States still has significant distance to travel in recognizing and encouraging more humane policies in the public sphere. 55

Women generally value friendships more than men. Men and women both value friendships as a significant form of attachment to others, hence the answer is generally

false. There do tend to be some generalizable differences in the activities that characterize men’s and women’s friendships; men more typically engage in activity-oriented friendships, while women’s relationships tend to revolve more around personal, disclosive talk. 5.

Women generally want to talk “about the relationship” more than men do. The correct response is generally true. Consistent with women’s general proclivity toward greater personal, disclosive talk in friendships, women do tend to want to talk about the relationship more than men do. For many women, it appears that talk is the primary way to build and sustain relationships. Oftentimes misunderstandings occur in relationships between men and women based on perceived comfort with and need for talk about the relationship.

Women’s hormonal swings and PMS make them unsuitable for military service or high political offices. This question requests an emphatic response of generally false. Recently, through the coverage by popular television sitcoms and magazines, it appears that PMS is affecting women in record numbers. In fact, it may actually be an epidemic. Evidence suggests that men, too, experience a hormonal cycle, though the attention has been focused on women’s hormones as reasonable grounds for special treatment and exclusion of women. Physiologically, conditions like chronic fatigue and chronic pain probably have more detrimental effects on performance than PMS, yet PMS is frequently used as a rationalization for excluding over half of the population from opportunities available to men.

Affirmative action policies involve quotas that require hiring certain percentages of women and minorities. The correct response is generally false. Whereas quotas are occasionally used to compensate for inadequacies in hiring and admission policies, quotas are not a part of affirmative action. Quotas involve set numbers that must be met. Affirmative action, in contrast, encourages an active effort be made to find a more equitable balance of opportunities available to qualified women and minorities.

In American schools, educational opportunities are equal for women and men. It is generally false that equal opportunities exist in the educational system for male and female students. Rather, a consistent negative impact on and bias against female students has been documented to exist. The longer female students stay in the educational system, the lower their self-esteem falls; additionally, teachers have been shown to give greater attention to, and encourage more favorably, the participation and achievements of male students.

Having lower self-esteem than males is a weakness of many females. This question merits a response of generally false. Certainly some individual females have lower self-esteem than some males; at the same time, there are some males with lower self-esteem than specific females. In probing this question, it is important to consider the standard for selfesteem. What has been designated as the correct amount of self-esteem? Is there a proper level of self-esteem that should be possessed by all individuals? Women generally have more natural instincts for nurturing than men do. The correct response is generally false. Despite popular notions, there has not been any conclusive evidence of a “nurturing gene” possessed by women. Historically, childcare arrangements

10.

have varied and cross-cultural evidence finds societies where men occupy the more nurturing role. Current socialization in American society links femininity with a concern for relationships. Hence the broader issue involves the ways individuals are socialized, rather than biological differences between men and women. 11.

Feminists are pro-choice in the abortion debate—the decision should be up to the individual women. The best response for this question is generally false. As later portions of the text emphasize, there is no one definition of feminism. Just as there are many different varieties of feminism, there are also many different beliefs on the subject of abortion. While many feminists support a woman’s right to her own reproductive freedom, there are also groups like Feminists for Life that are pro-life. Beliefs about Sex and Gender Issues

Read the statements listed next. Then indicate whether you think each statement is generally true or false in the column labeled INDIVIDUAL OPINIONS. Next, discuss the statements with members of your group and reach GROUP OPINIONS for each. Focus your discussions on understanding why group members think as they do. INDIVIDUAL OPINIONS Generally Generally True False 1.

Women are more empathic than men.

Young children need an at-home mother at least for the first years of life.

3. America’s national policy guarantees parental leaves only if they are unpaid. 4.

Women generally value friendships more than men.

Women generally want to talk “about the relationship” more than men do.

GROUP OPINIONS Generally Generally True False

Women’s hormonal swings and PMS make them unsuitable for military service or high political offices.

Affirmative action policies involve quotas that require hiring certain percentages of women and minorities.

In American schools, educational opportunities are equal for women and men.

Having lower self-esteem than males is a weakness of many females.

10. Women generally have more natural instincts for nurturing than men do.

11. Feminists are pro-choice in the abortion debate—the decision should be up to the individual women.

Introduction: Opening the Conversation Multiple Choice

The Industrial Revolution transformed social views of the essence of masculinity from A. courage to strength B. physical strength to ability to earn an income C. intelligence to physical strength D. ambition to attractiveness E. none of the above

ANS: B REF: p. 8 2. Fixmer-Oraiz and Wood argue that communication is the fulcrum for change because A. change comes through communication. B. communication allows us to identify and challenge cultural views. C. communication allows us to define alternatives and persuade others. D. individuals may be powerful social agents for change through communication. E. all of the above are valid reasons. 59

ANS: E REF: p. 10 3.

Heterosexual men and women report being happier and more satisfied with their relationships when their partners A. define themselves as feminists. B. define themselves as nonfeminists. C. have the same attitudes toward feminism as they do. D. are unconcerned about feminism. E. There is no research about relationship satisfaction and feminisms. ANS: A REF: p. 4

If we break the word feminism down to its roots, femme and ism, what does it literally mean? A. In favor of women B. Superiority of women C. A political position about women D. A cultural position about women E. Equality for women ANS: C REF: p. 3

What percentage of seats in the U.S. House of Representatives is held by women as of 2012? A. 50% B. 30% C. 40% D. 25% E. Less than 19% ANS: E REF: p. 9

True/False

6. Being feminist is in conflict with being feminine. ANS: F REF: p. 4 7. Because our perspectives are limited by our social positions (e.g., sex, class, race, sexual orientation), we can never fully understand the lives of people who differ from us. ANS: T REF: p. 5 8. The term feminism was coined in France in the early 1800s. ANS: F REF: p. 3 9. The authors of the textbook agree that we live in a postfeminist society where gender-based inequalities generally no longer exist. ANS: F REF: pp. 8–9 10. Terms such as spouse, husband, wife, and marriage are inclusive of all people. ANS: F REF: p. 11 11. Topic or question should come from class business. See pages 8 to 10 of this manual for details on this activity. Identification

12. Socially constructed ANS: Social construction means something is arbitrary and changeable. This concept allows us to question and resist its continuation. In the readings, inequality is offered as a prime example of a social construction that influences our lives. REF: pp. 2–3 13. Inclusive language ANS: Inclusive language is more than simply “adding” women. Inclusive language is used to recognize individuals and groups marginalized in current society. For example, the word partner is more inclusive than spouse because the latter term excludes gays and lesbians and fails to acknowledge the intimate connection between people who cohabit without marriage. REF: p. 11 14. Feminism ANS: Feminism is a word that has different meanings for different people. It comes from a French word meaning “woman” and “political position.” Most feminists agree that it is “a movement for social, political, and economic equality of women and men,” and many people go beyond this to work to increase rights for all disadvantaged groups. REF: p. 3 Essays

15. Identify and explain why many people do not identify themselves as feminists, even when their beliefs and values align themselves with those of feminism. ANS: Feminism is not one single belief or political position. The media portrays feminists as “man-hating, tough, shrill extremists.” Feminism is often portrayed as in conflict with femininity. REF: pp. 3–4 16. Explain what the authors of Gendered Lives mean when they mention that privileges and disadvantages are unearned. ANS: The social disadvantages and privileges that accompany race, class, gender, sexual orientation, and so on are not earned. They do not reflect the achievements, efforts, or failings of individuals who enjoy or suffer them. REF: pp. 1–3 17. The authors of your textbook talk about privileges and disadvantages that are part of their social location that they did not earn and explain how their locations shape how they the world. Choose one privilege and one disadvantage that is part of your social location and explain how 62

it shapes how you see the world. ANS: Responses will vary depending on the social location selected. Students may choose to talk about their race, gender, sex, sexuality, religion or spirituality, class, geographic location, or other marker. They should be specific in their explanation. REF: pp. 1–3 18. The authors of your textbook argue that while many believe that we live in a postfeminist era, in which gendered inequalities have largely been eliminated, we do not in fact live in a culture of gender equality. What reasons does she use to support her argument? ANS: Women experience a lack of access to and barriers to reproductive choice in the United States. Women continue to earn less money for equivalent work. Less than 19% of the seats in the House of Representatives are held by women. The Senate has not ratified the UN Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women. Women still spend twice as much time on housework and child care as men. REF: pp. 8–10 19. What reasons do the authors of your textbook provide for preferring the term partner to terms such as spouse, husband, or wife? ANS: Fixmer-Oraiz and Wood argue that terms such as spouse, husband, and wife exclude some lesbians, gay men, transgender, and intersex people. They use partners to be inclusive of all people. REF: p. 11

Chapter 1: The Study of Communication, Gender, and Culture II. III.

Introduction A. The general public’s fascination with gender and communication matched by college students who are demanding courses in the subject. Communication, Gender, and Culture as an Area of Study A. Today, most colleges offer courses on gender because there is a base of research to inform teaching. B. Research on gender, communication, and culture 1. Research on gender takes place in many academic fields, including anthropology, communication, sociology, and so forth. 2. Researchers use a variety of methods and perspectives to study gender. a. Quantitative research methods use data that can be quantified, or turned into numerical terms, to draw conclusions. b. Qualitative research methods look to understand and interpret experiences that cannot be quantified. c. Critical research identifies and critiques the means by which power relations are created or challenged. 63

d. Mixed research methods combine multiple methodologies and approaches. C. Reasons to learn about communication, gender, and culture: Studying these topics serves important goals: 1. Learning about gender helps you understand how culture influences our understandings of masculinity and femininity. 2. It also helps you gain insight about your own gender and become empowered to think critically about cultural prescriptions for gender. 3. Your effectiveness as a communicator will be increased as you learn to understand and adapt to a diverse variety of communication styles. Gender in a Transitional Era A. Cultural views of gender are in transition, which can make us feel conflicted about gender issues. B. We often struggle to combine new ideas about gender and equality with traditional notions of sex and gender. Differences between Men and Women A. Pop psychology suggests that men and women are inherently and distinctly different. B. The differences between men and women are not solely biological and natural. They may also be related to culture, experiences, social class, race, and sexual orientation. C. Essentializing occurs when we assume that all members of a group (e.g., all men, all women) are the same. It ignores individual variations and differences among members of the same sex. While this text discusses generalizations about women and men, it is important to remember that these are not essential qualities possessed by all members of a sex. Relationships among Gender, Culture, and Communication A. Sex and gender are often used interchangeably but have distinct meanings. B. Sex is a designation based on biology and assigned at birth. C. Gender is socially constructed and expressed. It includes gender identity, one’s internal sense of self as a man, woman, or neither; gender expression, the external communication of one’s gender identity; and gender role, the cultural expectations assigned to one’s sex.

IV.

VI.

Sex 1. Sex is based on external genitalia and internal sex organs. These are determined by chromosomes. a. Most people have two sex chromosomes, which produce female (XX) or male (XY) people. b. For every 500 people, 1 does not have XX or XY sex chromosomes, meaning around 600,000 people in the United States do not have XX or XY chromosomes. c. Chromosomes can vary (e.g., XO, XXX, XXY, XYY), which means biologically there are actually more than two sexes. 2. Another challenge to the traditional dichotomy is intersex people who have biological characteristics of both sexes. Doctors are increasingly reluctant to recommend “normalizing” 64

surgery to make infants’ genitals consistently male or female. 3. Hormones also influence sexual development of male and female sex organs and how our bodies develop throughout life. 4. Biology is a significant influence on sex, but it does not determine behaviors. Environment is also an important developmental factor. Gender 5. Gender is neither innate nor stable. We have to learn to behave in gendered ways. 6. Gender varies throughout time, geography, within the individual person, and within relationships. 7. Consider the United States. Masculinity is associated with strength, ambition, rationality, and emotional control, while femininity is associated with physical attractiveness, nurturing behavior, and concern with people and relationships. 8. Gender is learned. Cultures stipulate the social meaning and expectations of each sex, so we tend to see society’s view of gender as normal. 9. Conventional views of both sex and gender are challenged by transgender and gender nonconforming people. Role models can also embody alternatives to traditional gender identities. 10. Androgyny combines qualities our culture considers both feminine and masculine qualities. 11. The meanings of gender are arbitrary. a. Different cultures have drastically different conceptions of masculinity and femininity. b. Body ideals for men and women change by time, culture, and geographic location. c. Some cultures consider gender to be changeable across the lifespan, and some recognize more than two genders. d. The meaning of gender can even change over time in a single culture or social group. 12. Gender is a relational concept. We can only understand masculinity in relation to femininity and vice versa. Changing ideas about one gender affects the other. Beyond Sex and Gender 13. The term cis functions as a prefix (i.e., cisgender, ciswoman) to designate a person who fits conventional social expectations of gender. 14. Sexual orientation refers to the preference one has about romantic and sexual partners. Heterosexual people are attracted to people of a different sex, gay men are attracted to men, and lesbians are attracted to women. Bisexuals are attracted to men and women. 15. Changing views of gender and sex mean increasing recognitions for people who don’t fit into orthodox categories. Transgender, or trans, individuals find their biological sex doesn’t match their gender identity. 16. Sexual and romantic interests do not necessarily change because a person transitions from one sex to another. 17. There are also some people who reject the idea of being one or the other sex. Culture 65

18. Culture is structures and practices that reflect and uphold a particular social order. 19. One of the primary practices that structure society is communication. Each practice communicates society’s view of gender. One practice is a woman taking her husband’s last name. 20. Social structures and institutions also uphold gender ideology. Consider the judicial system and child custody laws. 21. Western culture is patriarchal, which means the dominant ideology, institutions, and practices were created by men and implicitly value masculine perspectives and priorities. 22. Learning to question these cultural prescriptions for gender empowers you to choose your own courses of action and identity. Communication 23. Communication Is a Dynamic Process a. Communication continually changes. Communicative interactions have no definite beginnings or endings. 24. Communication Is Systemic a. Communication occurs in particular systems that influence how we interact and what meanings we attach to messages. The largest system affecting communication is our culture. 25. Communication Has Two Levels of Meaning a. The content level of meaning is communication’s literal meaning. b. The relationship level of meaning defines the relationship between communicators. This level reflects and influences how people feel about each other. 26. Meanings Are Created through Human Interaction with Symbols a. Humans are symbol-using creatures. b. Symbols are abstract, ambiguous, and arbitrary ways of representing phenomena, which do not have inherent qualities. c. Each of us interprets communication by drawing on our past experiences, our knowledge of the people with whom we are interacting, and other factors in a communication system. Journal Entries 1.

Do you think that your understanding of gender differs from the expectations and roles that characterized the period in which your parents were raised? Comment on your perceptions of the meanings of gender in a transitional era.

Describe/reflect on: (a) One interaction with your parent(s) or guardian(s) (the earliest you can remember) that communicated expectations for your gender, and (b) the most recent interaction with someone who communicated expectations for your gender.

Analyze how current institutions sustain gender roles. For example, how have your experiences within our educational system worked to shape your perceptions of appropriate gender roles? What are some current judicial or cultural practices that enable gender 66

inequalities? What are some actions that you and other individuals can take to begin to empower yourself within our current cultural framework? 4.

What do you think you would do if your romantic partner of many years told you that s/he felt s/he was transgender? Would you consider staying in the relationship? Would you consider leaving it? What challenges do you think you would face as a couple? How do you think your perception of him/her would change? How would your perception of yourself change? What negative and positive potential outcomes do you perceive would occur?

Reflect on cultural assumptions about gender as they affect your life. If you are a biological woman, do you conform to norms of femininity? If you are a biological man, do you conform to norms of masculinity? How do the people around you respond to the ways you enact your gender? How comfortable are you with the ways you enact your gender?

Suggested Activities 1.

Shopping for Gender: Consumer culture plays a central role in the construction of gender. This assignment is designed to help students begin to see and understand that role. Place students in small groups and either assign or ask groups to choose a store or set of stores to explore. The assignment works best if each group chooses a different venue: department stores, malls, boutiques, box stores, books stores, toy stores, sporting goods stores, grocery stories, card stores, and so forth. Groups should spend approximately 30 minutes at their assigned store looking for messages about gender. Ask students to take notes about the kinds of products available for boys, girls, women, and men. If they visit a clothing store, tell them to attend to the color, fabric, and construction of the clothes. For all stores, instruct students to pay attention to product displays, store layout and decorations, posters, and packaging. Devote a class period to discussing the groups’ findings. What messages about gender did the various stores communicate and how? Were there similarities and differences between the gendered messages communicated by the different stores? What might those similarities and differences suggest about gender and age, race, and/or socioeconomic status?

Differences, Similarities, and Essentializing: For many of our students, much of the “research” read and heard about gender and sex comes from pop psychology, and many come into the course expecting to learn about how men and women communicate as if they are from different planets. Provide the students with a brief excerpt from John Gray’s book Men Are from Mars, Women Are from Venus. Chapter 1 of the book works nicely for this exercise, and the book is usually available at most college libraries. (Take care to abide by education fair use regulations for copyrighted work. Using only Chapter 1 stays within these guidelines.) Lead a discussion around the following questions: • • •

What of Gray’s claims do you agree with? What do you disagree with? Do you think Gray’s descriptions of men and women are consistent with you and those close to you? 67

• •

Who do you know who challenges these notions? Are there any ways in which thinking about men and women in these ways can be problematic?

The concept of essentializing (i.e., assuming all members of a group are the same) should underlie this discussion, and if it is not raised by a student, you should introduce it during the discussion. After examining the discussion questions, students should have an idea of how essentializing can be useful (it helps us organize the world neatly) but also very narrowing and confining. 3.

Exploring Trans Identity: Show the film Ma Vie En Rose (My Life in Pink) about a boy who hopes and thinks he will grow up to be a girl. The film shows the struggle for him, his family, and his community as he explores his gender and sexual identity. (The film is rated R, but there is no sex or violence enacted in the film.) Alternatively, the film Middle Sexes: Redefining He and She explores similar issues and includes commentary on gender in many different cultures. Discuss students’ responses to the film, imagining what it would have been like to be the boy in the film, his parents, or his neighbor. Chapter 1: The Study of Communication, Gender, and Culture

Multiple Choice 1.

Rick was born with male and female sex organs. Which of the following is the best term to describe Rick as a person with biological qualities of a male and a female? A. Cisgender B. Intersex C. Transgender D. Gender rebels E. Dual sexed ANS: B REF: p. 20

Which of the following is NOT one of the ways cultures reflect their views of gender? A. Communication within the culture B. Cultural practices C. Cultural institutions D. Biology E. None of these ANS: D REF: pp. 28-29

Which of the following persons would be accurately described as “cisgendered”? A. A person born as a biological female who embodies both masculine and feminine characteristics B. A biological male who prefers romantic and sexual relationships with biological 68

males C. A biological female who identifies as female and feminine D. A biological female who enjoys dressing in men’s clothing E. A person whose biological sex is inconsistent with their gender identity ANS: C REF: p. 30 4.

The meaning of masculinity and femininity in our lives is affected by A. our age. B. our race. C. our interactions with others. D. the historical time period in which we live. E. all of the above. ANS: E REF: pp. 28-29 Research that examines the reasons why working mothers are often forced to return to the workplace earlier than they want and attempts to change the dynamics of the corporate world to end these practices would be best served by which research methods? A. Quantitative research methods B. Qualitative research methods C. Mixed research methods D. Critical research methods E. None of these ANS: D REF: p. 16

The term patriarchy literally means A. oppression of females. B. from male standpoint. C. rule by the fathers. D. government by men. E. all of the above. ANS: C REF: p. 29

Which of the following is not one of the current meanings of masculinity in American culture? A. Emotional engagement B. Strength C. Ambition D. Success E. Rationality 69

ANS: A REF: p. 21 8.

Yan Bing and Dianna are college students discussing how they each define cheating in a romantic relationship. Yan Bing considers flirting during an IM conversation cheating, but Dianna thinks cheating only involves physical contact. Later, they continue the discussion with friends over dinner. This scenario best describes which of the following? A. Communication is dynamic and contextual. B. Communication is gendered. C. Yan Bing and Dianna are exhibiting feminine styles of communication. D. Content level of meaning and relationship level of meaning are not the same thing. E. All of the above. ANS: A REF: p. 30

A professor says to a student, “I will not accept your paper after 5 pm today.” The content level of meaning in this message is that the professor A. is open to negotiation. B. feels s/he has to explain the policy to the student. C. can exercise power over the student. D. feels s/he has greater status than the student. E. won’t accept the paper after 5 pm today. ANS: E REF: p. 31

10.

Topic or question should come from class business. See pages 8 to 10 of this manual for details on this activity.

True/False 11.

Gender is a relational concept because masculinity and femininity make sense in relation to one another. ANS: T REF: p. 25

12.

The thinness valued as desirable and beautiful in American culture has always been the standard for attractiveness in that culture. ANS: F REF: p. 24

13.

The Industrial Revolution led to the redefinition of masculinity and femininity. ANS: T REF: p. 24

14.

Different cultures have different gendered expectations than Western society does. ANS: T REF: p. 23-24

15.

16.

The standard practice today for intersex infants is to give them normalizing surgery so their genitalia are consistently male or female. ANS: F REF: p. 20 Androgyny is a term describing individuals who “feel their biological sex is wrong— that they are really women trapped in men’s bodies or men trapped in women’s 71

bodies.” ANS: F REF: p. 23 17.

There are two distinct genders, female and male. ANS: F REF: p. 21

18.

Gender identity is the same thing as one’s biological sex. ANS: F REF: p. 19

19.

Most transgender people experience a change in their sexual orientation after transitioning. ANS: F REF: p. 26

Identification 20. Content and relationship levels of meaning ANS: Communication includes the content level of meaning, which is the literal or informational message, and the relational level of meaning, which defines the relationship between communicators. Both levels must be understood to interpret communication. Dimensions of the relational level are liking, responsiveness, and power. Example, C = “I’ll meet you at the thing over by the place.” R = liking/familiarity between communicators. REF: p. 31 21. Essentializing ANS: Essentializing involves referring to all men as if they are the same, and as if that similarity reflects some fundamental essence that is maleness. In the same vein, essentializing involves referring to all women as if they are the same, and as if that similarity reflects some fundamental essence that is femaleness. Essentializing is problematic because it obscures differences between people of the same sex while also minimizing similarities between women and men. REF: p. 18 22. Sex ANS: Sex is an individual quality determined by biology (chromosomes and hormones). Sex is biological; gender is socially constructed. Sex is innate; gender is learned. Sex is unchanging or stable (possible exception—sex change surgery.) REF: p. 19 72

23. Gender ANS: Gender refers to the traits, behaviors, and assumptions linked to masculinity and femininity. Individuals perform gender roles; however, those roles are created and defined by society at large. Gender varies over time and between and within cultures. REF: p. 19 24. Sexual orientation ANS: A person’s preferences for romantic and sexual partners. Heterosexual orientation means one is romantically and sexually attracted to members of the other sex, while gays and lesbians are attracted to their own sex. Bisexuals are attracted to members of both sexes. REF: p. 25 25. Intersex people ANS: Intersex individuals are born with ambiguous genitals and may differ from most people in hormonal, chromosomal, and physiological ways. Concerning intersex people, doctors have routinely decided which sex the child was “meant to be” and advised parents to authorize “clarifying surgery” that then allowed parents to bring the child up as the sex it was “meant to be.” REF: p. 20 26. Cis: ANS: A person whose biological sex and gender identity are consistent. The term draws attention to the taken-for-granted assumption that all people experience consistency between sex, gender, and sexual orientation. REF: p. 25 27. Patriarchal ANS: Patriarchal is a term that describes a system that literally means “rule by fathers.” To say that a culture is patriarchal means that it is primarily focused on men’s goals, needs, and realities. Men are given preference over women as ideologies, structures, and practices are defined by and for men. REF: p. 29 28. Transgender ANS: Individuals who feel that their biologically assigned sex does not match their true sexual identity. REF: p. 26 Essays 73

29.

Popular psychology books often profile the behaviors and characteristics of the “opposite sexes.” Based on your understanding of material from Chapter 1, how would you critique this labeling of men and women? Make sure your answer demonstrates your understanding of essentializing, androgyny, and sex and gender. The framework for the answer to this essay may be found throughout Chapter 1. ANS: Answers should: • explain the difference between the definitions of sex and gender (pages 5–11) • explain the tendency of these books to essentialize or presume that all members of a sex are alike in certain respects (page 4) and focus on these as key opposing differences between sexes. Reference that many men and women have androgynous characteristics or qualities associated with both masculine and feminine ideals (page 9). Also note that certain people are intersex (page 6) and that some people are now refusing to define themselves as a gender altogether. Students may also note that men and women have many similarities and how societal definitions of gender are in a constant state of change. REF: pp. 18–25

30.

The term cis has come to be used to designate a person who fits conventional gender categories. Explain how cis is used and why it is an important word. ANS: A biological woman who identifies as female and feminine is a ciswoman or cisgendered. A man who identifies as male and masculine is a cisman and cisgendered. This is an important word because it recognizes that the terms woman and man assume sex and gender in line with cultural expectations. Since our culture calls attention to being gay and being transgender, for example, people who fit conventional categories should be similarly labeled. REF: p. 25–26

31.

Define levels of meaning in communication and provide a concrete example of each level of meaning. ANS: Communication has two levels of meaning: content and relationship. Content level of meaning is the denotative, or literal, meaning of communication. Relationship level of meaning defines the relationship between communicators. Dimensions of relationshiplevel meaning are power, liking, and responsiveness. Example: “You will do what I say.” Content level of meaning is that the receiver of this message will do what the sender says. Relationship level of meaning is that the sender has the power to tell the receiver what to do. REF: p. 31

32.

Unlike sex, gender is a relational concept. Explain what this means and the implications of it, and give an example that illustrates your point. ANS: Gender is a relational concept because we can only understand femininity 74

compared and contrasted with masculinity. Likewise, we cannot understand masculinity without the concept of femininity. We socially construct these two to be opposites; for example, if we see masculinity as being about strength, then femininity is seen as weakness. This concept is important because it means that when we change our ideas about one gender, we necessarily change the way we think about another gender. REF: p. 25 33.

Describe three cultural structures and practices that reflect and promote a culture’s views of gender and sex. (1) Communication announces social views of gender and defines for us what is considered normal and appropriate masculine and feminine behavior. (2) The family frequently defines for us what it means to be masculine and feminine by modeling gendered behaviors for us. (3) The judicial system frequently reinforces gendered parenting roles in families. REF: pp. 28–29

Chapter 2: Theoretical Approaches to Gender Development I. Theoretical Approaches to Gender A. A theory is a way to explain, describe, and predict relationships among phenomena in our everyday lives. B. We use theoretical frameworks to make sense of men’s and women’s behaviors. For example, different theories would explain the differences between twins. C. Theories offer more than explanations. They also influence attitudes and behaviors. D. One theory should not be considered the theory on gender development; theories work together to create a fuller picture. II. Biological Theories of Gender A. Biological theory maintains that biological characteristics like chromosomes, hormones, and brain specialization account for gender differences. B. Sex chromosomes are the X and Y chromosomes. Most people inherit one sex chromosome from each parent. 1. The Y chromosome’s primary function is to determine if the fertilized egg will become male. 2. The X chromosome influences intelligence, some hereditary conditions, and sociability. C. Hormonal activity also plays an important role in biological theories. 1. Estrogen, the primary female hormone, has been shown to have a positive influence on cardiovascular functioning, to strengthen the immune system, to create greater deposits of fat around the hips and breasts, and to slow liver processing of alcohol. 2. Testosterone, the primary male hormone, has been shown to have a hormonal cycle and has been linked to violence, aggression, and changes in cognitive functioning. One study shows that men’s testosterone levels decrease when 75

they become fathers, which may increase their nurturing tendencies. 3. Both men and women experience changes in their hormonal levels over time. Men’s testosterone levels begin gradually decreasing around age 30. D. Brain structure and development is a third focus of biological theories. 1. While research has shown that women and men use both the right and left lobes of their brains, the sexes tend to specialize in using different lobes. a. Men tend to emphasize left brain functioning, responsible for traditionally linear, logical thought and abstract, analytical thinking. b. Women tend to emphasize right brain functioning, responsible for imaginative, artistic, and intuitive thinking and some visual and spatial functions. c. The prefrontal cortex, which restrains aggression, is larger and develops earlier in women than men. For women, the insula, which affects intuition and empathy, is larger, while for men, the amygdala, which is the center for emotions such as anger and fear, is larger. 2. The corpus callosum joins the two sides of the brain and has been shown to be more highly developed in women. This structure generally allows women the greater ability to cross from one lobe to the other. 3. Most differences in the sexes’ brains are absent or very small at birth and tend to increase as individuals age. E. Biological classification into male or female is not as clear-cut as many people think. The term gender binary refers to the division of humans into two sexes that are presumed to be opposite, distinct, and natural. 1. One of the earliest challenges to the gender binary came from research on intersex people. Other research has noted that there is more variation within each socially defined sex than between the two. 2. The term genderqueer was developed to signify identities outside of the gender binary. III. Interpersonal Theories of Gender A. Psychodynamic Theories of Gender Development 1. Psychodynamic theories argue that the first relationship we have influences how we define our identity, including our gender. 2. Since the primary caretaker for most infants is the mother, she provides a fundamental influence on later self-definition and how interactions with others are understood. a. The mother, as a gendered being herself, may act differently toward sons and daughters based on her social views of boys and girls. b. There is a fundamental likeness between mothers and daughters, which creates closer identification. c. Sons must establish an independent identity from their mothers. 3. According to psychodynamic theories, the identity formed in infancy remains core to the self. So, infants carry the basic identity formed in the pivotal first relationship. a. Many women tend to define their identities in connections with 76

IV.

others, prioritizing their relationships with others. b. Many men tend to emphasize independence and autonomy. B. Psychological Theories of Gender Development 1. Social learning theory claims that individuals learn to be masculine and feminine by imitating others and then observing how others respond to those behaviors. a. Reinforcement of gendered roles and behaviors occurs when people around the children reward some behaviors appropriate for one’s gender and react neutrally or negatively to others. b. These messages about gender can also come from the media. When children see media that reward girls for being feminine and boys for being masculine, traditional gender roles can be reinforced. 2. Cognitive Development Theory a. This theory assumes that children play active roles in developing their gender identities. b. Children notice the ways others label and describe them. c. A key developmental stage occurs at or before the age of three. Gender constancy is the point at which a child recognizes that her/his gender is relatively unchanging. At this point, children are motivated to learn to be competent at their gender. They do this by observing same-sex role models to see what behaviors, attitudes, and feelings are associated with their gender. i. Gender constancy can be more challenging for children who do not identify with their assigned sex and its gender expectations. d. Gender schema theory holds that by age two, children begin to organize their understandings of gender into coherent wholes. i. A gender schema is a framework for categorizing behaviors and artifacts related to gender. Using gender schemata helps children choose toys, clothes, activities, and so forth. e. Children continue to seek out role models of femininity and masculinity into adolescence. Cultural Theories of Gender A. Cultural theorists assume that biological and interpersonal influences on gender reflect larger cultural contexts. B. Anthropology 1. Many societies have views of gender that differ from those currently prevalent in the United States. 2. For example, Australian Aboriginal fathers have no say in their daughters’ marriages. Germany, New Zealand, Nepal, and Australia legally recognize more than two genders. 3. In the Dominican Republic, “conditional girls” are males with undescended testes and an underdeveloped penis, who are treated and dressed as females until puberty, when typical masculine traits appear. C. Symbolic Interactionism 1. Symbolic interactionism emphasizes the pivotal role of communication as 77

the primary way we develop identity, including gender identity. 2. Play with peers and teachers’ interactions with students are key ways cultural views of gender are communicated to children. 3. Roles are important for understanding cultural theories of gender. A role represents a set of expected behaviors and the values associated with them. a. For example, gender roles assume women are caretakers and men are primary breadwinners. b. Society also assigns value to the roles. Women are taught to accept their role, but it is also clearly devalued compared to the primary roles assigned to men. c. We internalize our culture’s gender roles. Critical Theories of Gender A. Critical theories direct our attention to structure and practices by which societies accord more or less privilege and power to different groups. B. Standpoint Theory 1. Standpoint theory notes that all societies are made up of different groups that have different amounts of power and privilege. It focuses on how being a member of those groups (race, class, gender, sexual orientation, etc.) shapes what a person experiences, knows, feels, or does, as well as how he or she understands social life as a whole. 2. Three significant claims: All perspectives in social life are partial, some perspectives are more partial than others, and a standpoint is earned by developing political awareness of power differences among social groups. 3. A social location is a group to which an individual belongs but is not a standpoint. A standpoint is earned through critical reflection on power relations and engagement in an oppositional stance to the dominant one. 4. Marginalized people can generate unique insights on how a society works by offering perspectives outside the cultural center. a. Some theorists assert that for survival, those in subordinate positions must understand their own positions, as well as those of individuals with more power. 5. Standpoint theory’s major contribution to understanding gender is calling our attention to how membership in groups shapes individuals’ experiences. C. Queer Performative Theory 1. Queer performative theory looks at people who defy conventional identity categories of sex, gender, and sexual identity. It troubles our thinking, and that trouble is productive. 2. Queer theory is a critique of conventional categories and cultural view of “normal” and “abnormal,” particularly in relation to sexuality. a. Queer theory arose in the content of gay and lesbian studies and originally focused on heteronormativity (the assumption that being straight is normal and the standard for sexuality). b. The word queer refers to anything that departs from what society considers normal and challenges the ways that a culture defines what is considered normal and abnormal. c. One idea central to queer theory is that terms such as men, women, 78

gay, and straight are not useful since there are multiple ways of being any of those things. Labeling someone according to such a category is inherently misleading. d. A second key idea is that identities are fluid. This fluidity of identity means being able to refuse accepting any stable identity. e. Performative theory suggests people generate identities through performance or expression. Without performance, there is no gender. i. We all perform our gender, and our performances are not solo but collaborative. f. Queer performative theory looks at queer performances as a means of challenging and destabilizing cultural categories and the values attached to them. i. Allows us to understand transgressive presentations of self as political acts that point to the insufficiency of binary categories. VI. Theories Working Together A. Different theories often work together to shed light on how we develop and enact gendered identities. Women athletes are at higher risks for certain injuries. This fact means that there is a biologically based difference and that socialization teaches girls and boys to run and hold themselves differently. Journal Entries 1.

Describe one situation and explain gendered attitudes and/or behaviors in it, using three different theories of gender development. Which theory do you think provides the most insight into this situation?

How does your social location as a member of one sex (male or female) shape your experiences and interactions with others? Explain how other social locations besides sex and/or gender help you to understand your position or location within our culture.

Consider a way in which you do or could engage in a queer gender performance. This may mean dressing in drag (masculine, feminine, hyper-feminine, hyper-masculine, androgynous, etc.), changing your gestures and facial expressions, and modifying your speech patterns. Enact that performance of gender, and reflect on how others responded to you. You may want to note how they were co-performers in your gender (since we know it is not an individual act). How do you think your behavior queered existing categories of gender for those who observed you and for yourself?

Ask an older friend or relative to reflect on gender. For example, you might ask “what do you think makes a man a man and a woman a woman?” Then, consider what theories of gender underlie your friend’s or relative’s response. Do you agree with this person’s response? Why or why not? What does this say about the gender theories that you hold? 79

Be explicit about why/how your own and your informant’s responses reflect a specific gender theory or specific gender theories. Suggested Activities 1.

Examining Theories: The various theoretical approaches to gender development can be confusing at times to students as they try to differentiate between the theories. One option for structuring a class period involves allowing students to work in groups to examine the different theories. By dividing the class into groups, students can work together and share their views and perspectives on gender development. Often, through working together, students develop greater understandings by listening to the perspectives of others. At the end of the following suggested activity, you will find an exercise that can be used to examine six different approaches to gender development. Allow the groups of students to work for 10 to 15 minutes, during which time they should find an example to support the theory assigned to their group. The groups should then present their example to the rest of the class and explain the reasoning behind their choice. An example of a cultural phrase that could be explained by social learning theories might be “boys will be boys” within the following scenario: A two-year-old boy imitates his father’s actions in building a shelf. The boy watches his father using a hammer and begins to hit his father on the back with his rattle to mimic the action. The father responds by smiling and enthusiastically saying, “Oh, what a big, strong boy you are,” thus reinforcing the behavior. The mother, watching in disbelief thinks to herself, “Well, boys will be boys,” by which she means that her son is learning to take command over and to exert control over the world through his physical actions, characteristic of a masculine emphasis on instrumentality. A recent Barbie doll that was recalled because of the implications behind its spoken message might represent an approach to gender development premised on symbolic interactionism. The Barbie doll said, “Math is hard.” Thus, communication was being used to help establish a girl’s identity and reinforce cultural expectations that girls do not succeed in math or science. The messages that discourage girls from being interested in and pursuing careers in math and science come from parents, teachers, peers, and even Barbie dolls. Playing with Barbie dolls, additionally, may emphasize care giving functions in little girls, later incorporated into popular notions of women’s roles. The examples students suggest may range from ordinary to outstandingly creative. Be sure to listen to the reasons groups give to explain why their example illustrates a particular theoretical approach.

Queer Performances: Show a clip from a popular reality dating show such as The Bachelor. (Nondating shows will also work; however, the dating shows can help emphasize the point.) Many networks such as NBC and MTV include full episodes and/or clips of their shows online, and you can also access clips via YouTube. After showing the clip, have students perform the scene with one of the student actors engaging in a queer gender performance. Explore how it changes the scene. Students may be tempted to engage in hyperbolic or campy/drag performances. Encourage them to also examine less 80

extreme examples of queer performance. This activity can help students to understand the impact of queer gender performances and can also demonstrate that queer does not necessary mean gay or lesbian. 3.

Exploring Heteronormativity: Ask students to bring in a cultural artifact about relationships. Their artifact may be song lyrics, a magazine, a novel, or any other piece of popular culture that relates to romantic relationships. You, the instructor, may also want to bring some artifacts. Clips of commercials or a package of the popular stick-figure family members that many people use as car window decorations are two useful examples. Have the students form small groups, and ask them to examine their artifacts for indications of heteronormativity. They may look for instances of assumed heterosexuality (such as the suggestion that “every girl dreams of her wedding day” that many magazines promote; pronoun usage that assumes cross-sex partners in advice columns) and constraints that do not provide options for queer partners (such as forms that leave blanks only for male/female partners, the stick-figure families that only include one female adult figure and one male adult figure). After discussing the examples in groups, ask the students to share one or two examples from the class. Alternatively, you may choose to show/share the artifacts to the larger group and discuss them without using small groups. If any instances exist that represent a challenge to heteronormativity, you should point out that they are instances of a queer performance. You may want to emphasize that heteronormativity does not suggest showing heterosexual partnerships is wrong, but rather than favoring only these and not providing other options/examples limits the possibilities and ease of interaction for queer couples. Also, heteronormativity is a problem for all relationships because it is one of the many ways that diverse relationships are devalued, and many people believe that all oppression is linked.

In Their Words: How Children Are Affected by Gender Issues: In January 2017, National Geographic Magazine dedicated an entire issue to what they deemed the “Gender Revolution.” One of these articles focused on the ways nine-year-old children are navigating gender in their lives. The children live all over the globe and their responses vary, but most seem to agree that there are differences between boys and girls. Thinking about the theories studied in this chapter, what theories could account for some of the differences these children see around them? For example, why might Ayanah Nyawira Kinyua from Nairobi say the worst thing about being a girl is “when you’re not an adult and you’re still a child when you [give] birth” and Sediq Samim in Ottawa says the worst part of being a boy is “when you go to school, the teachers blame the boys, because the girls are most of the time the teacher’s pets”? How do gender theories help us understand their statements? The article is available at http://www.nationalgeographic.com/magazine/2017/01/children-explain-howgender-affects-their-lives/

Identifying Theories in Everyday Life. Divide the class into eight groups. Give each group one of the instructions below. Allow groups 10-15 minutes to complete the assignment and then have each group present its report to the class.

Your mission is to come up with a cultural phrase or an example of gendering that reflects the perspective of biological theories. You also must be able to explain why this example is representative of the theoretical approach. Consider what aspects of the theories your example relates to or demonstrates. Your mission is to come up with a cultural phrase or an example of gendering that reflects the perspective of psychodynamic theories. You also must be able to explain why this example is representative of the theoretical approach. Consider what aspects of the theories your example relates to or demonstrates. Your mission is to come up with a cultural phrase or an example of gendering that reflects the perspective of social learning theories. You also must be able to explain why this example is representative of the theoretical approach. Consider what aspects of the theories your example relates to or demonstrates. Your mission is to come up with a cultural phrase or an example of gendering that reflects the perspective of cognitive development theories. You also must be able to explain why this example is representative of the theoretical approach. Consider what aspects of the theories your example relates to or demonstrates. Your mission is to come up with a cultural phrase or an example of gendering that reflects the perspective of anthropological theories. You also must be able to explain why this example is representative of the theoretical approach. Consider what aspects of the theories your example relates to or demonstrates. Your mission is to come up with a cultural phrase or an example of gendering that reflects the perspective of symbolic interactionism. You also must be able to explain why this example is representative of the theory. Consider what aspects of the theory your example relates to or demonstrates. Your mission is to come up with a cultural phrase or an example of gendering that reflects the perspective of standpoint theory. You also must be able to explain why this example is representative of the theory. Consider what aspects of the theory your example relates to or demonstrates. Your mission is to come up with a cultural phrase or an example of gendering that reflects the perspective of queer performative theory. You also must be able to explain why this example is representative of the theory. Consider what aspects of the theory your example relates to or demonstrates.

Chapter 2: Theoretical Approaches to Gender Development Multiple Choice 82

Which of the following is generally true? A. Most women use only the right lobe of their brain. B. Most men use only the left lobe of their brain. C. Most men’s brains are more highly integrated than most women’s brains. D. A and B. E. None of the above. ANS: E REF: p. 37

Research into female hormones asserts that estrogen A. causes women’s bodies to produce “good” cholesterol and to make blood vessels flexible. B. strengthens the immune system, making women less susceptible to immune disorders, infections, and viruses. C. causes more fat tissue to form around a woman’s hips, providing cushioning for a fetus during pregnancy. D. causes the liver to process alcohol more slowly, making women quicker to feel the effects of alcohol. E. All of the above. ANS: E REF: p.36–37

Which of the following is/are true of queer theory? A. Queer theory critiques what we consider to be normal and abnormal. B. Queer theory applies to only gay people, not heterosexual people. C. Queer theory focuses on sexuality as the most important identity marker. D. Queer theory advocates for more defined identity categories. E. All of the above. ANS: A REF: p. 49

When parents who seek to promote traditional gendered behaviors in their children reward tomboys for wearing frilly dresses or punish effeminate boys for playing with Barbies, they are assuming which theory of gender? A. Biological theory B. Psychodynamic theory C. Social learning theory D. Symbolic interaction theory E. Standpoint theory ANS: C REF: pp. 41–42 83

At age three, Bonnie realizes she is female and she wants to become skilled at being a girl. She begins to watch her mother and older sister and to model her behaviors after theirs. Bonnie’s efforts to learn how to act feminine are best explained by which theory? A. Cognitive development B. Social learning C. Psychodynamic (or psychoanalytic) D. Biological E. Both B and C ANS: A REF: pp. 42–43

According to standpoint theory A. people with the most social privilege are most likely to develop an oppositional stance toward existing power structures. B. people who are privileged in some ways but disadvantaged in others are most likely to develop an oppositional stance toward existing power structures. C. people with the least social privilege are most likely to develop an oppositional stance toward existing power structures. D. no group is more likely than another to develop an oppositional stance toward existing power structures. ANS: C REF: pp. 46–48

David is a stay-at-home father of two young daughters who attend a “mommy and me” playgroup for young children and their caregivers. He is the only male caregiver to attend the group. According to standpoint theory, which statement(s) best explain(s) this scenario? A. As members of different genders, David and the female caregivers have developed different ways of thinking about parenting, different techniques for parenting, and different skills for parenting. B. David and the mothers’ viewpoints are limited and partial. C. David may view parenting differently from the mothers’ perspectives based on their different standpoints. D. It would be possible for David and the mothers in the group to work to understand the others’ standpoints. E. All of the above. ANS: E REF: pp. 46–48

Children learn who they are and what that means in their culture through interaction with parents, teachers, and friends. Through this, they learn gender roles for men and women and may internalize them. Which theory does this definition best describe? 84

A. Cognitive development B. Social learning C. Psychodynamic (or psychoanalytic) D. Biological E. Symbolic interactionism ANS: E REF: pp. 45–46 9.

Kate explains, “When I was a little girl, I always wanted to be outside playing and getting dirty. However, my mom dressed me in fussy clothes with lots of ruffles and bows and dressy shoes that were hard to play in. If I did manage to go outside and I got my clothes and shoes dirty, my mom would be upset with me. I hated wearing those clothes, but I saw how happy it made my mom when I wore them and kept them clean, so I kept on wearing them.” A. Social learning theory B. Cognitive development theory C. Queer theory D. Symbolic interactionism E. Standpoint theory ANS: A REF: pp. 41–42

10.

Topic or question should be generated by a student. See pages 8 to 10 of this manual for details on this activity.

11.

Topic or question should come from class business. See pages 8 to 10 of this manual for details on this activity.

True/False 12.

Gender schema theory claims that by the age of two, children use the concept of gender to organize their understandings. ANS: T REF: p. 43

13.

Parents’ roles in children’s gender development are seen as unimportant by cognitive development theory. ANS: F REF: pp. 42–43 85

14. The best way to explain sex and gender is through interpersonal and cultural theories. ANS: F REF: pp. 51–52 15.

Men and women have hormonal cycles that can affect their behavior. ANS: T REF: p. 36

16.

According to psychodynamic theories, the first relationship we have fundamentally influences how we define our gender identity. ANS: T REF: pp. 40–41

17. According to psychodynamic theorists, gender identity becomes fixed early in life. ANS: F REF: pp. 40–41 18. According to standpoint theory, all perspectives on social life are equally insightful. ANS: F REF: pp. 46–48 19. Queer theory states that identity categories are limiting and meaningless. ANS: T REF: p. 49 20. Performative theory says that gender is not a thing we have but is instead a thing we do. ANS: T REF: pp. 49–50 21. Biological theory says that genes, hormones, and brain structure are the basis of gender difference. ANS: T REF: pp. 35–37 22. Biological theory suggests that men’s and women’s brains are formed and develop 86

differently, resulting in different behaviors and characteristics. ANS: T REF: p. 35–37 23. Social learning theory suggests that children actively seek to perform their gender correctly. ANS: F REF: pp. 41–42 Identification 24.

Gender schema ANS: An internal framework for categorizing perceptions and behaviors. Children begin to develop a gender schema as early as age two and use it to organize their understanding about appropriate behaviors for boys, girls, men, and women. REF: p. 43

25.

Psychodynamic theories ANS: Infants develop a sense of self and gender identity by internalizing the views of those they interact with early in life. The relationship with the primary caretaker, typically the mother, is a particularly important relationship. Researcher Nancy Chodorow states that mothers tend to form different relationships with boys and girls. Girls tend to define their identities within a relationship since they identify with their mothers, and boys tend to define themselves by differentiating themselves from their mothers. REF: pp. 40

26.

Social learning theory ANS: Children learn appropriate behaviors through reinforcement from others. Since children prefer rewards to neutral responses or punishments, they will repeat behaviors reinforced by others as appropriate for their gender. Children are viewed as relatively passive learners. REF: pp. 41

27.

Cognitive development theory ANS: Children select models to teach themselves how to be competent at masculine or feminine behaviors. Children are viewed as active learners. Children develop gender constancy, usually by age three, when they understand they are male or female and that this will not change. REF: pp. 42 87

28.

Symbolic interaction theory ANS: Symbolic interactionism claims that through communication with others we learn who we are and how our culture views our identity. Parents and other people tell the child who she or he is through their communication with him/her. REF: p. 45

29.

Queer theory ANS: Queer theory critiques conventional categories of identity and cultural views of “normal” and “abnormal” particularly in relation to sexuality. To queer theory, labels like man, woman, gay, and straight are meaningless and misleading. REF: p. 49

Essays 30. Four-year-old Caroline and seven-year-old Jenny are sisters who live and have been raised in the United States. Jenny plays a game in which she is a mother and her stuffed animals are her children. Jenny hugs them and pretends to carefully feed them. Later, young Caroline repeats the same hugging and feeding behaviors with her dolls. Caroline’s mother sees this and states, “Caroline, someday you’ll be a good mommy.” How would anthropological theory of gender explain Caroline’s behaviors? How would cognitive development theory explain Caroline’s behaviors? Make sure you address “maternal instinct” in your answer. ANS: The anthropological theory of gender would explain Caroline’s behaviors in terms of culture. Society influences our understanding of norms for femininity and masculinity. Caroline is repeating behaviors identified with “good mothering” in U.S. society, which include nurturing mothers displaying devotion to their families. Caroline’s mother may even believe that an innate “maternal instinct” is guiding Caroline’s behaviors. Cognitive development theories of gender development would focus on Caroline as an active learner. She has realized “gender constancy” by age three and is thus highly motivated to learn to be “competent” in her sex and gender. In order to learn this, she has selected her sister as a model to learn how to “enact” femininity. REF: pp. 42–45 31. Using an example from your own life or experience, describe an example of social learning theory in action. Be sure to give sufficient detail from the theory and your experience. ANS: Answers will vary based on students’ experiences. However, the answers should include the idea that we learn what is appropriate or acceptable based on behaving a certain way and then being punished or rewarded for it. REF: pp. 40–41 32. Biological theories attribute some aspects of masculinity and femininity to the 88

differences between male and female bodies. Yet, the author of your textbook notes that biological differences between women and men are quite small and do not explain most behavioral differences. How should the relationship between biology and gender be understood? ANS: Although researchers dispute the extent to which biology affects gender, virtually no one argues that biology is irrelevant. At the same time, it is also clear that biology does not direct or determine behaviors. Rather, biology and environmental factors work together in complex ways. For example, although men have far more testosterone, which contributes to muscle development, a physically inactive boy may not develop strong muscles, whereas a physically active girl may become quite muscular. REF: pp. 35–40 33. Consider your internal definition of what a man is. Then think about the example given in the textbook of Munroe, “the hottest and coolest drag queen in town.” Does Munroe fit your definition of a man? Do you consider Andy and Jada to be men? Using queer theory, explain how the label of man can or cannot encompass so much variation. How is a label like this seen by queer theorists? ANS: Queer theory argues that identities are fluid and are not fixed. Further, words like man are reductive and do not represent the vast variation of ways that people express masculinity. These labels are misleading by nature since three people as different as those mentioned in the question all have different identities and differing ways of expressing masculinity. REF: p. 48–51 34. What does it mean to say that gender should be viewed as a verb, not a noun? How is gender social? Finally, what are the implications of such claims? Your response should be grounded in performative theory about gender. ANS: According to performative theory, gender is something we do, not something we have. We see gender in the way someone gestures, how s/he dresses, and how space is used, for example. Because gender is a performance, we rely on others to confirm, challenge, and be an audience for our gender performances. Our verbal and nonverbal communication only sends a particular message about gender because we have agreed on the meanings of such communication. For example, if Callie dresses in a pink frilly dress, she will likely be perceived as feminine by others because pink and ruffles are associated with femininity in our culture. If we had decided pink was a masculine color, Callie would be seen as masculine for the same behavior. The implication is that gender only exists in the performances that we do with others. We socially construct gender, and we can change it as well. Thinking of gender as performed and social allows us to see its fluidity. REF: p. 49–51

Chapter 3: The Rhetorical Shaping of Gender: Competing Images of Women I.

II.

The Three Waves of Women’s Movements A. There have been multiple women’s movements. Rhetorical movements about gender are not uniform and embrace a variety of ideas about gender and pursue a range of goals. B. While many believe that women’s movements began in the 1960s, in fact activism about women had been happening for much longer than that. C. Two ideologies have informed movement goals. 1.Liberal feminism asserts that women and men are similar and equal in most ways. Therefore, they should have the same rights, roles, and opportunities. 2.Cultural feminism states that men and women are essentially different and consequently should have unique rights, roles, and opportunities. 3.U.S. women’s movements are typically referred to chronologically as the first, second, and third waves. This metaphor has limits. Movements don’t necessarily fit into neat compartments. The First Wave of Women’s Movements in the United States A. From approximately 1840 to 1925, the first wave of women’s movements included both liberal and cultural branches that worked together to change the status and rights of women. B. Liberal Ideology: The Women’s Rights Movement 1. The women’s rights movement arose to gain basic civil rights for women. 2. Lucretia Coffin Mott and Elizabeth Cady Stanton helped organize the 1848 Seneca Falls Convention—the first women’s rights convention in the country. 3. The keynote address, “The Declaration of Sentiments” catalogued specific grievances women had suffered (exclusion from the right to vote and all forms of higher education, limited access to employment, and loss of property rights upon marriage). 4. Although some African Americans, including Frederick Douglass, were key players early in the first wave, tensions between white and black activists developed, when the Constitution was amended to extend suffrage to black men, but not to women. Also, the movement came to focus largely on issues of concern to white women and ignoring differences caused by race. 5. Women of different sexual orientations and gender expressions and identities were involved in the early women’s rights movement. They did not rely on men for protection and were particularly vulnerable to gendered inequities and they were less constrained by marriage and child rearing. 6. Women did not gain the right to vote until 72 years after Seneca Falls in 1920. C. Cultural Ideology: The Cult of Domesticity 1. Many women of the time thought that men and women were different that women were suited to the domestic sphere because they were more 90

III.

moral and nurturing than men. This concept is called the cult of domesticity. 2. They worked for abolition because slavery destroyed families, lobbied for temperance because alcohol contributed to violence against women and children, and fought for labor laws to protect children. To have a voice, they needed to have a vote. 3. After the passage of the Nineteenth Amendment, women’s movements became relatively quiet due to two world wars. However, lack of opportunities for women outside the home sowed the seeds for the second wave of U.S. feminism. The Second Wave of Women’s Movements in the United States A. Starting in 1963, the second wave of feminism emerged in the United States. B. Liberal Ideology 1. The first feminist activism to emerge was radical feminism, also called the women’s liberation movement. This activism originated in the New Left politics that protested the Vietnam War and fought for civil rights. Treated by subordinates in the New Left movement, many women withdrew and formed their own organizations. 2. Radical feminists relied on conscious-raising, or “rap,” groups where women gathered informally to talk about personal experiences with sexism and link those personal experiences to larger social and political structures. 3. Their commitment to equality gave them a deep suspicion of hierarchy and led to leaderless discussions. 4. Radical feminists employed revolutionary analysis and politics and highprofile events to raise awareness of the oppression of women. 5. Some women involved with radical movements formed organizations to represent concerns of women of color. Radical feminism also fostered the activism of many lesbian, bisexual, trans, and gender nonconforming women who were not included in the political agendas of other movements. 6. One important outcome of radical feminism was the identification of the structural basis of women’s oppression. The connection between individual situations and social structures and practices was captured in the idea that “the personal is political.” 7. Another branch, mainstream second-wave feminism, which advocates women’s social, economic, educational, and political equality, was ignited by the publication of Betty Friedan’s The Feminine Mystique in 1963. a. In this book, Friedan described what she referred to as “the problem that has no name”: the dissatisfaction and discontent women experienced due to their limited opportunities outside of the home. b. This lack of access was the result of structural and institutional inequalities in the United States. 8. Second-wave liberal feminism was characterized by more focus on and leadership by white, middle-class women, but the movement was not “lily white.” 9. Womanism was founded by a group of black women to show how race and 91

IV.

gender intersect in the oppression of women of color. Womanists point out that black women, in comparison to white women, are more often single, have more children, are paid less, and assume more financial responsibility for their families. a. Womanists also focus on how class intersects race and sex in women’s lives to create inequality. 10. In 1997, African-American women held the Million Woman March led by a steering committee of average women. Building on this movement and activism, three black women created #BlackLivesMatter. 11. Multiracial feminism builds on the focus on equality for black women with a global perspective, emphasizing multiple systems of domination. a. In this movement, race is especially important but is also intertwined with other systems of oppression. b. According to multiracial feminists, gender does not have a universal meaning; instead gender and its effects on women’s lives are defined by a race, socioeconomic status, sexual orientation, gender identity, and so forth. c. A central theme of both womanism and multiracial feminism is an emphasis on women’s agency. 12. Ecofeminism argues that there is a connection between women’s oppression and the desire to dominate nature. a. Ecofeminists believe that as long as oppression is culturally valued, it will be imposed on anyone or anything that cannot or will not resist it. b. In this movement, all forms of oppression are linked, and feminism is about justice and ending all forms of oppression. C. Cultural Ideology 1. Separatism sought to provide communities for women to live independently of men. a. Separatists believed that feminine values of harmony, peace, life, equality, and nurturance gained little hearing in a patriarchal, capitalist society. b. They have very little political influence because they choose to live outside of the dominant political system. 2. Revalorism highlights women’s traditional activities and contributions to society. a. From standpoint theory, revalorists argue that women’s traditional involvement in childcare and domestic responsibilities makes them more nurturing, supportive, and cooperative than men. Contemporary Feminism A. A new generation of feminist activism began emerging in the late 1980s. Younger feminists are distinct from early generations because they are beneficiaries of the second wave. B. Riot Grrrl 92

1. Riot Grrrl was an underground feminist movement that began in the late 1980s and was aligned with punk music, radical politics, and Do-ItYourself ethics. 2. Forming feminist collectives across the country, they created and selfpublished music, art, and magazines in order to tell women’s stories. 3. Many scholars consider Riot Grrrl to signal the beginning of third-wave feminism as a whole. C. Power Feminism 1. Power feminism emerged in the early 1990s and argues that society does not oppress women because women have the power to control what happens to them. a. Naomi Wolf tells women the only thing holding them back from equality is their own belief that they are victims. Similarly, Katie Roiphe argued that “proclaiming victimhood” (her perception of the Take Back the Night movement) does not project strength. b. Power feminism ignores the difference between being a victim at a particular time and adopting the identity of a victim. c. Power feminism tends to be most attractive to financially comfortable, well-educated women who have little or no personal experience with discrimination and violence. D. Transfeminism 1. Transfeminism is a movement by and for trans and gender nonconforming people. Trans and gender nonconforming people have been active participants in women’s movements from the beginning and have informed intersectional feminism for decades. 2. It argues that not only is gender socially constructed but sex is also socially constructed. Society’s expectations of how males and females should look, behave, and feel are arbitrary. 3. Three primary beliefs: People have the right to define and express their own identities; people have the right to expect society to respect the identities they claim and express; and people have the right to bodily autonomy without fear of discrimination or violations from anyone. 4. They believe that their liberation is directly linked to the liberation of all women, so the movement invites all people to reflect on the extent to which they have internalized gender stereotypes and heterosexist and patriarchal perspectives. E. Mainstream Third-Wave Feminism 1. Mainstream third-wave feminism includes women of different ethnicities, abilities and disabilities, classes, appearances, sexual orientations, and gender identities. 2. Intersectionality: Third-wave feminists recognize that women differ in ways that significantly shape their experiences and opportunities. They focus on the intersectionality oppression: Race, class, sexual orientation, body shape and size, and (dis)ability are woven together and must be addressed holistically. 3. Coalitions and Alliances: Third wavers form relationships with other 93

people and groups that work against various forms of oppression. 4. Everyday Resistance: Third-wave feminists note that many second-wave reforms have not been woven into everyday life. Sexism is more subtle and more challenging to fight. Personal acts in local contexts are seen as a key way to instigate change. 5. Media Savvy: Third-wave feminists tend to be digitally networked, gaining information from numerous sources and creating media of their own. They are likely to learn immediately of new developments from blogs and social media. They also organize online. 6. Consumerism and individualism: This is not a component for all thirdwavers; however, some readily embrace “girl culture” and emphasize being sexy and feminine, which often involves a great deal of product consumption. 7. The third wave’s focus on individual choice is attractive, but there are some obstacles that cannot be overcome by individual effort and require structural change that grows from collective political action. F. Hip-Hop Feminism 1. Hip-hop feminism is rooted in black feminism and responsive to concerns of the post-civil rights or hip-hop generation. 2. Distinct from other branches of third-wave feminism because it is centered on the needs and experiences of young black women and draws on hip-hop as a subculture committed to challenging the status quo. 3. Some forms of racist discrimination have been prohibited, but systemic racism persists. 4. Some hip-hop has abandoned the genre’s social justice roots and has been critiqued for its misogyny and glorification of violence. Other artists, however, challenge gender norms and misogyny in their lyrics. G. The first stirrings of a new stage in feminist activism were evidence on January 21, 2017, as women across the world marched with their allies in over 650 cities. Journal Entries 1.

Identify the branch of feminism with which you identify the most, or explain why you identify with none of the feminisms discussed in the text. Reflect on the reasons and implications of your choice.

Explain the differences and similarities between womanist feminism and multiracial feminism. How can women of color add a unique perspective to other types of feminism? Comment on what impact you think these emerging movements will have on systems of oppression.

Some people claim that power feminism should not be considered feminism at all. What do you think? Justify your position, including describing who decides what counts as feminist and how those judgments should be made. 94

4. Riot Grrrl was an indie/punk feminist movement in the 1990s music scene that some scholars think marks the beginning of third-wave feminism. Do research to learn about this movement and then describe how you think it does or does not meet the goals of thirdwave feminism. 5. Radical feminists argued that gender was the principle axis around which oppression revolved. Multiracial feminists and third-wave feminists, in contrast, argue that gender is not the central axis of oppression; indeed, they maintain that gender identity/gender oppression cannot be understood without also considering issues of race, ethnicity, class, sexual orientation, ability, and so on. Weigh in on the debate. Do you think there is a central form of oppression? Can gender oppression be understood as separate from the issues listed above? Suggested Activities 1. Examining Third-Wave Texts: One text that is useful in conjunction with this chapter is Barbara Findlen’s Listen Up! Voices from the Next Feminist Generation, which is discussed in this chapter. Select one or two chapters to prompt a specific conversation regarding what feminism means to people today. Abra Fortune Chernik’s essay on her own struggle with eating disorders is particularly provocative and is mentioned specifically in the textbook. Ask students to take five minutes to write their reactions to her claim that: “Gaining weight and getting my head out of the toilet bowl was the most political act I have ever committed.” Do they think her change of behaviors was a political act? What are the implications for feminism? Then, bring their responses into a large discussion. Another interesting facet to discuss is Chernik’s criticism of supermodels and the fashion industry— ask your students if a supermodel can be a feminist? 2. Feminist Panel Discussion: Invite a panel of members of various women’s movements to class. Obviously, it will be difficult to find a representative of every women’s movement, so try to find individuals you think will represent effectively views from several of the areas. 3. The First Wave in Film: Iron Jawed Angels is a fictional depiction of the last days of firstwave feminism, with a focus on Alice Paul and Lucy Burns. Show part, or all, of the film in order to explore the first wave of women’s movements. Ask students to pay attention to the issues addressed by activists as well as the rhetorical strategies activists employed. Similarly, ask students to attend to the films themselves as rhetorical documents. Movie star Hillary Swank plays Alice Paul and the film’s creators manufacture a male love interest for her, played by Patrick Dempsey. However, most historians agree that Paul was a lesbian and likely in a romantic relationship with Lucy Burns. What do these and other rhetorical choices made by the film’s creators tell us about contemporary attitudes toward women’s rights and/or feminisms? 4. Radical Third-Wave Activism: Show a clip from Itty Bitty Titty Committee (2007), a film that depicts a young Latina woman working in a plastic surgery clinic who comes to a political consciousness through a feminist activist group called the C(I)A (Clits in Action). Discuss what feminist movement the film most closely portrays and how the C(I)A 95

functions as feminist. (The production company describes it as radical feminism [http://power-up.net/ibtc.htm], and it also includes third-wave feminist elements.) 5. Create a Women’s Movement: Many times students do not feel connected to one of the specific women’s movements. They may be lacking in some ways for them, too radical in others, or simply not in line with their personal and political beliefs. Borrowing from the movements in the text and using their own ideas, students should outline their own women’s movement. They should identify key goals of the movement, write a mission statement, and note two actions the group could take. This activity may be done individually or in groups. If completed individually, students will be able to draw on their own personal beliefs, goals, and values. If completed as a group, their movement may need to be more hypothetical since it will be unlikely that a random group of 4 of 5 classmates will share the same perspectives about women’s roles, rights, and responsibilities. Students could present their ideas to the class or turn in a written document. 6. Further Exploring Women’s Movements: The films I Am Woman (a two-part series) and Two Views on Feminism explore the beliefs of current women involved in feminist or antifeminist movements. The first examines African-American feminism and the current state of feminism. The second film contrasts two very different contemporary women’s movements. Students can learn more about these movements and discuss how they do and do not resonate with the movements. JUDGMENT CALL 1: WHAT IS FEMINISM? Feminism is a very ambiguous word that means different things to different people. This has always been true. In the 1800s, some people of both sexes saw the first wave of feminism as a movement for the rights women obviously deserved but had been denied in the United States. Other women and men saw feminism as an appalling movement that challenged both secular traditions and divine laws. The second wave of feminism in the United States, which began in the 1960s, was equally controversial and aroused equally disparate judgments—it was viewed as a virtuous liberation movement and a contemptible affront to home, family, and the rightful roles of man and woman. Opinions about feminists are every bit as divergent as those about feminism. Feminists are described as courageous crusaders for civil rights, man-hating bra burners, peace-loving people, and wreckers of tradition. They are viewed as confident and aggressive, brave and brazen, and moderate and extremist. There is probably no social movement in America about which opinions are more divided. What do you think feminism is? Now that you’ve read about different branches of feminism, can you create an all-encompassing definition of what it is and what it stands for? The following website and prompts may help you think about this issue. To learn how National Organization for Women (NOW), the most prominent mainstream feminist organization, defines feminism and feminist issues, go to: http//www.now.org/. Next, use a search engine to find terms such as critiques of feminism and problems with feminism. ¨

Identify recurrent criticisms of feminism. 96

¨ ¨ ¨ ¨ ¨

Do these criticisms seem valid in light of the information presented in Chapter 3 of your textbook? Do feminists offer responses to the criticisms (for instance, does the NOW website address any of them)? If so, how do feminists respond? Having read about many different kinds of feminism, can you identify any themes that weave through the range of feminisms? What, if anything, is common to the different branches of feminism in the United States? Is feminism needed as a movement in the United States today? Is feminism a social, intellectual, political, or philosophical movement, or is it a combination of these? References

Feminist Agenda Homepage. Retrieved from http://www.got.net/~elained/index.html Whelan, I. (1995). Modern feminist thought: From the second wave to “post feminism.” New York University Press. JUDGMENT CALL 2: IS POWER FEMINISM FEMINIST? Power feminists such as Naomi Wolf and Katie Roiphe (discussed in Chapter 3) claim that they are feminists and that the principles and goals they advance are feminist. At the same time, they criticize mainstream feminism and feminists for encouraging women to see themselves as victims and for not urging women to take charge of their lives and quit complaining about discrimination, violence against women, and other forms of oppression. Critics of power feminism argue that the movement is both anti-woman and anti-feminist. They claim that the women who advocate it are financially very well off, attractive, college educated, and otherwise privileged. Critics charge that power feminism may work for women who are advantaged, but it doesn’t speak for or about women who do not enjoy privileges such as wealth and education. Do you think power feminism is feminist? To answer the question, reread the discussion in Chapter 3 and then consider the prompts for reflection: ¨ ¨ ¨ ¨ ¨ ¨

Who defines whether a movement is feminist or not? Do people such as Naomi Wolf and Katie Roiphe have the right to call themselves “power feminists” if they choose to? What makes a movement feminist? Must a movement represent all women to be feminist? Does mainstream feminism encourage women to see themselves as victims as some power feminists claim? Can all—or most—women take charge of their own lives with the resources they command and current social structures and practices? What entitles someone to speak for others or to claim to represent the interests of others? Wolf and Roiphe, for example, claim to speak for “women,” yet Wolf and Roiphe are atypically privileged financially, educationally, and otherwise. Does 97

their privileged status affect the credibility of their claim to speak for women? In what ways is power feminists’ assertion that women should quit complaining about discrimination similar to charges that racial minorities should quit complaining about discrimination? References

hooks, b. (1994). Outlaw culture. New York: Routledge. Roiphe, K. (1993). The morning after: Sex, fear, and feminism on campus. Boston, MA: Little, Brown. Go to Amazon.com to read reviews of this book.

Wolf, N. (1993). Fire with fire: The new female power and how it will change the 21stcentury. New York: Random House. Go to Amazon.com to read reviews of this book. Wood, J. T. (1996). Dominant and muted discourses in popular representations of feminism. Quarterly Journal of Speech, 82, 171–185. JUDGMENT CALL 3: SHOULD THE EQUAL RIGHTS AMENDMENT BE PASSED? The complete text of the Equal Rights Amendment (ERA) is this: “Equality of rights under the law shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account of sex.” In 1972 the amendment was introduced into Congress and was quickly winning support in state-by-state balloting. In 1973, 35 of the 38 states needed to ratify the amendment had voted for it. Then Phyllis Schlafly launched the Stop ERA movement and the amendment was defeated. Schlafly and others who worked to defeat the ERA argued that, if passed, it would destroy femininity, turn women into men, and undermine the traditional balance of power and roles in families. Interestingly, one of the most effective arguments against ERA was that it would mean women and men would use the same bathrooms. Since the amendment was defeated in the 1970s, it has repeatedly been introduced into Congress and repeatedly been passed by. Today the ERA is not the law of the land. Do you think the ERA should be passed? Visit the websites identified next and then consider the prompts to decide where you stand on this issue. Debate about the ERA is not limited to the last 40 years. To read arguments for and against the ERA that were presented in the 1920s, visit these two websites: http://www.equalrightsamendment.org/why.htm and http://www.arragopwing.com/eraposition.html ¨ ¨ ¨ ¨

What would be the value of passing the ERA? Is the amendment strictly symbolic or would it also have material, pragmatic consequences in how women and men live, work, and interact? If the ERA would not necessitate any real changes, then what is the justification for opposing it? Does the lack of ERA’s passage mean that the United States is not committed to equal rights for men and women? Why did the idea of having women and men share the same bathrooms convince many people to vote against ERA? In many other countries, including first world 98

countries, public restrooms are not sex-segregated. If you wanted to become actively involved in pushing for ratification of the ERA, what campaign strategies would you use? How would you structure your advocacy to lessen the likelihood that another Stop ERA campaign could succeed? References

Campbell, K. (1983). To be or not to be a woman. Communication Quarterly, 31, 101– 108.

Davis, F. (1991). Moving the mountain: The women’s movement in America since 1960. New York: Simon and Schuster. Go to Amazon.com to read reviews of this book.

Solomon, M. (1983). Stopping ERA: A pyrrhic victory. Communication Quarterly, 31, 109–117. JUDGMENT CALL 4: WHO CAN USE MEN’S AND WOMEN’S BATHROOMS? In her book The Alchemy of Race and Rights (1991) Patricia Williams describes an experience she had while teaching law in California. One of her students, whom she refers to only as S., began law school as a man but was very unhappy as a man. S. had a sex change operation. One of the greatest practical problems S. faced after the operation was using the bathroom. Women students objected to having S. use the women’s restroom and claimed they felt “raped” when she entered. Male students were equally vociferous in insisting that S. could not use the men’s restroom because they perceived S. might feel attracted to them. It was proposed that S. would use the dean’s bathroom, but the dean felt this would violate his “inner sanctum” and give S. access to his private office that no other students had. In more recent news, the debate surrounding transgender people using bathrooms has been quite heated. Consider the North Carolina bathroom bill introduced in March 2016 that restricted use of bathrooms so that transgender people would have to use the bathroom matching the sex they were assigned at birth rather than the gender they identified with. Consider also the case of Gavin Grimm who sued his school after it decided he would not be allowed to use the boy’s bathroom. Later, the school provided a unisex bathroom for Gavin to use. Many universities have now adopted a policy of having unrestricted bathrooms that are not for a particular sex or gender. These inclusive bathrooms remove the choices transgender students have to make and also attempt to combat the potential harassment or danger they could face when using the bathroom. What do you think the right answer is to the question of who can use what bathroom? Consider the following: ¨

¨ ¨

What does it mean to be transgender? How you view the case of S., and an appropriate resolution of it depends on your knowledge of S. and others like her. If you’d like to learn more, visit either or both of these websites: http://www.ftmi.org/ or http://www.itpeople.org Is sex or gender a property of individuals? Who decides what is appropriate and inappropriate for each sex and each gender? 99

Should others have the right to define who a person is and what she or he can and cannot do? How are arguments for bathroom restrictions also influenced by gender? For example, consider lawmakers who say that wives and daughters must be protected in the bathroom. References

Butler, J. (1990). Gender trouble: Feminism and the subversion of identity. New York: Routledge. Williams, P. (1991). The alchemy of race and rights. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Go to Amazon.com to read reviews of this book.

Chapter 3: The Rhetorical Shaping of Gender: Competing Images of Women Multiple Choice 1.

What was/were the goal/s of the first wave of the women’s rights movement? A. Woman suffrage—the right to vote B. Women’s right to higher education C. Women’s right to work in the professions D. Women’s right to own property E. All of the above ANS: E REF: pp. 55– 57

What types of strategies were used by the first wave of women’s rights activists in the United States? A. Riots B. Nonviolent protests and hunger strikes C. Pamphlets D. Violent protests E. All of the above ANS: B REF: p. 56

What factors led to the development of mainstream second-wave feminism? A. The discrimination women experienced in New Left politics B. The publication of Susan Faludi’s Backlash C. The public protest at which women burned their bras D. The publication of Betty Friedan’s The Feminine Mystique 100

E. A desire to bring women’s moral perspectives to politics ANS: D REF: p. 60 4. Women won the right to vote in 1920 in part because of the efforts of the members of the movement, a group that asserted women’s moral superiority. A. Seneca Falls Convention B. Revalorists C. Cult of domesticity D. Women’s suffrage coalition E. National Organization for Women ANS: C REF: pp. 56– 57 5. A group of women engages in conscious-raising “rap” sessions. During the rap sessions, women talk about personal experiences with sexism and how these are related to social and political structures. Each woman has an equal opportunity to speak, so that no one person can dominate the discussion. This group best represents which branch of feminism? A. Radical feminists B. Liberal feminists C. Womanists D. Separatists E. Revalorists ANS: A REF: pp. 58–59 6. This feminist movement believes the key to understanding gender and identity is best understood by examining the intersection of key elements of identity like gender, race-ethnicity, sexual orientation, and economic class. This best describes which branch of feminism? A. Lesbian feminism B. Revalorism C. Womanism D. Radical feminism E. Mainstream third-wave feminism ANS: E REF: p. 69 7.

What form of contemporary feminism focuses on the needs and experiences of younger black women? A. Power feminism 101

B. Mainstream third-wave feminism C. Riot Grrrl D. Transfeminism E. Hip-hop feminism ANS: E REF: pp. 71–73 8.

Which wave of feminism focuses on intersectionality, coalitions and alliances, everyday resistance, media savvy, consumerism, and individualism? A. Third wave B. Second wave C. First wave D. Power feminism E. None of these ANS: A REF: pp. 69–70

Which feminist group emphasizes that all oppressions—including those to nonhuman living things—are linked and that to eliminate oppression of women we must also eliminate oppression of animals and the environment? A. Revalorists B. Ecofeminists C. Lesbian feminists D. Womanists E. Separatists ANS: B REF: p. 64

10.

Transfeminism believes that ______ are social constructs. A. gender identity and individual expression B. labels and gender C. sex and individual expression D. gender and gender identity E. gender and sex ANS: E REF: p. 70

True/False 11. There is a common set of beliefs that all feminists share. ANS: F 102

REF: p. 55 12. Women burned their bras to protest the Miss America pageant in 1968. ANS: F REF: p. 60 13. Womanists address issues that affect working and lower-class women. ANS: T REF: p. 62 14. Multiracial feminists argue that gender cannot be understood separate from other issues including race, ethnicity, class, sexual orientation, and so forth. ANS: T REF: p. 63 15. Revalorists choose to leave mainstream society and form separate communities that value women and are in harmony with nature. ANS: F REF: p. 66 16. Radical feminists were the first to declare that “the personal is political.” ANS: T REF: pp. 58–60 17. Artists like Beyonce and Erykah Badu express hip-hop feminism in music by challenging gender norms and misogyny. ANS: T REF: p. 73 18. Liberal feminist ideology claims that women and men are alike in all important respects and so should have equal rights. ANS: T REF: p. 55 19. Power feminism claims that women identifying as victims so frequently is part of the reason women are disadvantaged. ANS: T REF: p. 67 103

20.

Intersectionality, the recognition that women differ in many ways including race, class, sexual orientation, body shape and size, and (dis)ability, is a hallmark of first-wave feminism. ANS: F REF: p. 69

21.

Young feminists used social media like Twitter and Facebook to force the Susan G. Komen foundation to reverse its decision to defund Planned Parenthood in 2012.

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ANS: T REF: p. 70 Identification 22. Liberal feminism ANS: This feminist ideology asserts that men and women are alike and equal in most respects. Liberal feminism is an example of a movement predicated on this philosophy. REF: p. 80 23. Cultural feminism ANS: This feminist ideology asserts that women and men are essentially different and should have different rights, roles, and opportunities. Separatism is an example of a movement predicated on this philosophy. REF: pp. 85–86 24. Power feminism ANS: Contends that society doesn’t oppress women because women have the power to control what happens to them. According to Naomi Wolf and Katie Roiphe, women are held back by their position as “victims.” Power feminism tends to appeal to wealthy, successful, well-educated women who live in safe neighborhoods and is less helpful to those who do not share those privileges. REF: p. 85 25. Mainstream third-wave feminism ANS: Mainstream third-wave feminism includes women of diverse ethnicities, abilities, classes, appearances, sexual orientations, and gender identities. Third-wave feminism is characterized by recognition of intersectionality, the building of coalitions and alliances, acts of everyday resistance, cultivating media savvy, acceptance of consumerism, and an emphasis on individualism. REF: pp. 88–92 26. Radical feminism ANS: Radical feminism grew out of the New Left political movements that opposed the Vietnam War and supported civil rights. Radical feminists created their own organizations that focused on equality and a suspicion of hierarchy. One central tenant was the use of consciousness-raising groups where women talked about personal experiences with sexism and then linked those experiences to larger social and political structures. REF: pp. 58–59 27. Transfeminism 105

ANS: Transfeminism was created by trans and gender nonconforming women for women of the LGBTQ community. This form of feminism goes beyond the steps of second-wave feminism that defined gender as a social construct and claimed sex is also a social construct by pointing out expectations of looks, behavior, and feelings are arbitrary. Transfeminists have three primary beliefs: (1) People have the right to define and express their own identities; (2) people have the right to expect society to respect the identities they claim and express; (3) and people have the right to bodily autonomy without fear of discrimination or violations from anyone, including religious, political, or medical authorities. Essays 1. Explain the unique contributions of the women’s rights movement and the cult of domesticity movement to first-wave feminism. ANS: The women’s rights movement focused on gaining political rights for women, including married women’s property rights, access to higher education and the professions, and the vote. Women’s rights activists largely embraced liberal feminism, or the idea that all people are equal and therefore deserve equal rights. The first women’s rights convention was held in 1848 in Seneca Falls, New York; women’s rights conventions became a key means for networking activists and promoting the cause. The cult of domesticity movement argued that women were fundamentally different from men and that women’s superior moral sensibilities were required to clean up or improve the political sphere. In addition to promoting woman suffrage, cult of domesticity activists were active in abolition, temperance, and efforts to enact child labor laws. REF: pp. 55–57 2. Compare and contrast third-wave feminism and multiracial feminism. In your essay, note similarities as well as differences between the two movements’ values, goals, principles, and demographics of membership. ANS: Similarities: Both third-wave and multiracial feminists understand multiple forms of oppression (sexism, racism, classism, etc.) as intersecting. Thus, to examine women’s lives and the oppressions experienced by women, third-wave and multiracial feminists examine issues like race and sexual orientation as they influence and interact with one’s experience of gender. Differences: Multiracial feminists highlight the experiences and concerns of women of color. Third-wave feminists focus on the experiences of and issues pertaining to young women, who grew up in the wake of the social reforms of the 1960s and 1970s. Multiracial feminists emphasize women’s strengths. Third-wave feminists have a distinct vision of political engagement as personal action. REF: pp. 63–64 and 69–70 106

3. Some third-wave feminists embrace sexiness and femininity as part of being empowered. What is your position on this issue? Defend your stance. ANS: Answers will vary and depend on the student’s own justification. Students should demonstrate a clear grasp of third-wave feminism and make an argument. Make sure to see that their argument is logical (rather than that you agree with it). REF: pp. 69–70 4. Some second-wave feminists have criticized the younger generation of third-wave feminists for being too focused on consumerism and lacking a clear central message. Based on the characteristics of the movement described in your textbook, do you think these criticisms are valid? Why or why not? What are the differing motivations behind the two waves that could account for this criticism? ANS: The answers here will vary based on the student’s opinion. However, they should clearly represent an understanding of the characteristics of both second- and third-wave feminism and how both movements came to be and evolved. REF: pp. 58–64 and 60–70 5. Describe separatism and why it is limited in its power as a feminist movement. ANS: Separatism developed to give women opportunities to live apart from men. The argument is that women’s values are fundamentally different than men’s. According to this movement, women value life, equality, harmony, nurturance, and peace, which cannot thrive in a capitalist, patriarchal society. The movement’s power to change the culture is limited by its adherents sequestering themselves from mainstream communities and by not assuming a public voice for their critiques of the culture. REF: p. 64–65 6. Topic or question should be generated by a student. See pages 8 to 10 of this manual for details on this activity. 7. Topic or question should come from class business. See pages 8 to 10 of this manual for details on this activity. JUDGMENT CALL 5 SHOULD PRO-CHOICE FEMINISTS EXPAND THEIR FOCUS

BEYOND ABORTION AND TOWARD REPRODUCTIVE RIGHTS? A woman’s right to safe and legal abortion has been a central issue in feminism since the start of the second wave—in fact, the phrase “pro-choice” came out of some second-wave feminists’ efforts to legalize abortion. Today, many mainstream feminist organizations, including the National Organization for Women (NOW) and the Feminist Majority Foundation, advocate for abortion rights. However, not all feminists are comfortable with the focus on abortion rights or the phrase “pro-choice.” Not surprisingly, both the term and the focus are unwelcome to feminists who identify as “pro107

life.” Many feminists who are women of color also oppose to the focus and term, although for different reasons. They argue that the focus on abortion and the use of the term choice reflect the experiences of white, upper-middle-class women to the exclusion of women of color and poor women. Choice is possible only if a woman has access to abortion services, which can be expensive and unobtainable if an abortion provider is not located nearby. Similarly, feminists who are women of color point out that during the second wave, many women of color were fighting against coercive policies and practices, such as forced sterilization, that precluded some poor women and women of color from having children. Although forced sterilization is no longer practiced, women of color point to contemporary practices that continue to prohibit some women from bearing children, including welfare policies that impose “family caps,” a lack of access to prenatal care, expensive health insurance, and a lack of access to reproductive services in women’s native languages. As such, some women of color organizations, such as Sistersong Women of Color Reproductive Justice Collective, urge feminists to abandon the term choice as well as the focus on abortion rights and to focus instead on ensuring that all women have access to health and social services that will enable them to make real decisions about their reproductive lives. Instead of choice, they suggest feminists utilize terms such as reproductive justice, reproductive freedom, and reproductive rights. Indeed, they suggest that such terms and such a focus may even bring pro-life feminists into the fold because abortion will no longer be the central issue. What do you think of the suggestion that feminist organizations turn their attention away from abortion rights and toward reproductive justice? ¨ ¨ ¨ ¨

Why do you think feminist organizations have been so focused on abortion rights? Do you think that the term choice obscures attention to issues and concerns of women who are not white and middle-class? Why or why not? What are the possible benefits and pitfalls associated with turning away from a focus on abortion rights and toward a focus on reproductive justice? Do you think that a turn toward reproductive justice and related terms will bring pro-life feminists into the fold? Why or why not?

References Hayden, S. (2009). Revitalizing the debate between <life> and <choice>: The 2004 march for women’s lives. Communication and Critical/Cultural Studies, 6, 111–131. Palczewski, C. H. (2010). Reproductive freedom: Transforming the discourse of choice. In Sara Hayden & D. Lynn O’Brien Hallstein (Eds.), Contemplating maternity in an era of choice: Explorations into discourses of reproduction. Lanham, MD: Lexington. Silliman, J., Fried, M. G., Ross, L., & Gutiérrez, E. R. (Eds.) (2004). Undivided rights: Women of color organize for reproductive justice. Cambridge: South End Press.

Chapter 4: The Rhetorical Shaping of Gender: Competing Images of Men 108

Profeminist Men’s Groups A. Also called progressive men or male feminists, these groups began in the 1960s as men faced the sexism present in the New Left groups. They generally associate with liberal feminism (that men and women are basically alike and should be treated equally). B. Because they believe in the equality of the sexes, male feminists support women’s battles for equitable treatment. Their two main goals are: (1) Working to increase women’s rights and (2) supporting men’s development beyond existing social prescriptions for masculinity. C. Today, most male feminists support ending men’s violence, rights for LGBTQ people, men’s greater involvement with family, and working for social justice. D. One strategy used by profeminist men is performing a traitorous identity, which is when a man who is a member of a group challenges particular attitudes or actions that may be common and accepted among members of that group. E. One example of this would be pointing out the sexism and misogyny apparent in a joke told by a friend. F. Male feminists are also interested in challenging society’s prescriptions for masculinity by developing emotional capacities that society discourages in men. G. NOMAS 1. NOMAS is a male feminist organization that sponsors workshops to increase men’s awareness of options for emotional expression, ending men’s violence, developing profeminist studies, and supporting education against homophobia. 2. They value some traditional masculine qualities like courage and ambition and condemn conventional ones like aggression and violence. 3. At the NOMAS conference, four issues arise as priorities: a. Recognizing and resisting masculine power and privilege b. Ending violence against women c. Ending homophobia and associated violence d. Developing men’s studies at universities and colleges 4. Consciousness-raising groups encourage men to talk about their feelings and ways to change attitudes and behaviors they find unworthy in themselves H. ACT UP: The AIDS Coalition to Unleash Power 1. ACT UP was a grassroots movement that advocated for people living with HIV and AIDS. It fought for medical treatment and changes in social attitudes toward those impacted by HIV/AIDS. 2. Recalling tactics of civil rights movements and radical feminists, ACT UP groups were intentionally leaderless and democratic. 3. Although largely led by white, middle-class men who worked primarily to challenge discrimination against men, women were also involved. 4. Drew inspiration from the women’s health movement and created underground networks of self-educated health care providers. 109

II.

I. Men’s Antiviolence Groups 1. These groups reason violence against women is men’s issues since most violence against women is enacted by men. J. The White Ribbon Campaign 1. The White Ribbon Campaign (WRC) is an international organization of men committed to ending violence against women and is the largest men’s antiviolence group in the world. a. Members wear white ribbons as a symbol of their opposition to violence against women. b. WRC members present antiviolence workshops in schools, communities, and places of employment encouraging men to speak out against violence. c. These workshops not only focus on physical violence but also emotional violence, sexual harassment, sexist humor, and other practices that devalue and harm women. 2. Walk a Mile in Her Shoes a. Walk a Mile in Her Shoes relies on community awareness and fundraising to end men’s violence against women. b. Each year, men in this group participate in a one-mile march wearing high heels to cultivate men’s compassion for women’s experiences, generate community awareness, and raise money for local violence prevention programs. c. One criticism of both WRC and Walk a Mile in Her Shoes is that they don’t go far enough in their analysis of men’s violence. The problem is not violent men but that violence is intimately woven into how society defines men and masculinity. 3. Mentors in Violence Prevention a. Mentors in Violence Prevention (MVP) aims to educate men about socialization that links masculinity to violence and to reject violence in themselves and other men. b. Men are influenced by other men, so the MVP program instills antiviolence attitudes in men who then teach male peers not to be violent. The program has two foci: The first is to teach men that aggression and violence are closely linked to cultural views of masculinity, and the second is to call attention to the role of bystanders in preventing violence. c. MVP rejects the idea that only those who commit violence are blameworthy. In many cases, for violence to be committed, there are bystanders who approve, encourage, condone, or remain silent. Masculinist Men’s Movements A. A number of men’s groups embrace cultural ideology (men and women are fundamentally different and should have different roles and rights). These groups are called masculinist and assert men suffer from discrimination and need to reclaim their rightful status as men. They also tend to ignore or denounce gay men. B. Men’s Rights 1. Among the most conservative men’s groups are men’s rights activists, 110

whose goal is to restore the traditional roles of men and women and the privileges men have historically enjoyed. 2. One of the more extreme men’s rights groups is Free Men, who aim to restore men’s pride in being “real men.” For them, the primary burden of masculinity is the provider role. They want to regain their rightful place as heads of families but that status should not be tied to the breadwinner role. 3. Men’s rights groups think that discrimination against men is a greater problem than discrimination against women. They point to the military draft, shorter lifespans, more health problems, and child custody laws. C. Father’s Rights Groups 1. Father’s rights groups claim that courts discriminate against men by assuming that women should be the primary parents. 2. The highest profile father’s rights group is Fathers 4 Justice, which works to initiate public dialogue around father’s rights. They sometimes perform dramatic stunts to generate publicity. 3. There are dozens of groups fighting for fathers’ rights in the United States. They file class action suits in the United States arguing that fathers have a constitutional right to be a parent and are thus guaranteed at least 50% shared custody. 4. Some social issues that complicate custody issues are fathers who are not legally required child-support payments and fathers who don’t contact children after a divorce. D. Mythopoetic Men 1. The mythopoetic movement aimed to foster men’s personal growth by rediscovering the deep, mythic roots of masculine thinking and feeling to restore spiritual, emotional, and intellectual wholeness. 2. Ideal manhood existed prior to and during the Middle Ages, when men were self-confident, strong, and emotionally alive and sensitive. 3. Central to the movement is father hunger, a grief born of yearning to be close to their own fathers and other men. 4. The movement has received praise for identifying and highlighting the anguish men may feel because of distant relationships but has been criticized for being unwilling to confront issues of gender inequality. 5. Although popular during 1980s through the 1990s, this movement has largely been declining, with only a few active groups and few new members. E. Promise Keepers 1. Founded by Bill McCartney and Dave Wardell, Promise Keepers are based on evangelical Christianity and preach that men should become leaders of their families because it reflects God’s view of the proper relationship between husbands and wives. 2. Men make promises to be good husbands, father, and members of communities. This is to build strong families and communities. 3. Women are prohibited from attending Promise Keepers’ meetings, reflecting the belief that men should lean on each other and not women. They have also been charged with elitism—a great majority white and middle- and 111

III.

IV.

upper-class. 4. In response, the movement has attempted to recruit a more racially diverse membership and has elected an African-American president. They also have softened their rhetoric about husbands leading wives. 5. Promise Keepers assert homosexuality is a sin and offer advice on how to challenge LGBTQ-positive branches of Christianity. F. The Million More Movement 1. In 1995, Minister Louis Farrakhan and the Reverend Benjamin Chavis, Jr. organized the first Million Man March to bring black men together to pledge themselves to spiritual transformation and political action. 2. Faced criticism for encouraging black men to focus on the race of those who suffer rather than rage against inequity no matter who is the victim. Also criticized for being anti-feminist and antigay. 3. The Millions More Movement learned from the criticisms of Millions marches. It was defined as an ongoing movement rather than an annual event and includes all sexes, races, and sexualities. 4. An event called Justice or Else Rally saw Louis Farrakhan passing the torch to the new generation, which has been galvanized by #BlackLivesMatter and noted for its radical intersectionality. This demonstrates the fluidity of activism surrounding race, gender, and sexual orientation. Contemporary Men’s Movements A. The recession in 2008 hit sectors in manufacturing and construction the hardest. The economic downturn is one of three recent and large social changes that have fueled contemporary masculinist movements. 1. The second is that U.S. family laws have not kept pace with changing family dynamics. 2. Also, the Internet has made it possible for masculinist men to connect with one another. B. Younger men are redefining masculinity beyond the traditional breadwinner role. In 2012, for the first time in American history more 18to 34-year-old women than men say succeeding in a high-paying career is one of the important things in life. The Good Men Project A. The Good Men Project is a multifaceted effort to stimulate a national conversation about what it means to be a good man today. B. Started with a book, whose royalties are donated to groups that work with at-risk boys. Features men telling a story that describes a defining moment in their lives. C. Reading other men’s stories and thoughts can help each man formulate his own definition of what it means to be good. D. In 2010, the online magazine was created featuring stories and columns that address issues that surface in men’s lives: sex and relationships, sports, dads, and advice. It facilitates an ongoing conversation about what masculinity does and what it might mean. E. A third of readers of The Good Men Project magazine are women who want to understand men’s perspectives. 112

Journal Entries 1. Identify the branch of the men’s movements with which you are most comfortable, or explain why none of the men’s movements discussed in the text appeals to you. Discuss reasons and implications of your stance. 2. Several of the men’s movements focused on the importance of male friendship and/or opportunities to mentor other men. Identify the movements that assert this as an important part of their group’s principles. How important do you think these relationships are? What are potential positive and negative consequences of focusing on these types of relationships? What level of importance do you assign to male friendship and mentor opportunities? 3. Men’s rights groups argue that some contemporary practices and policies, such as child custody customs and laws, discriminate against men. Investigate some of the laws in place in your community and discuss whether you believe they are discriminatory. Justify your responses, indicating why/how you think the laws either do or do not discriminate against men, and if you believe the laws are discriminatory, offer suggestions for how you think the issues under consideration could be addressed in nondiscriminatory ways. Suggested Activities 1.

Exploring the Million Man March: Spike Lee’s film, Get on the Bus, is a useful springboard for discussion focused upon the Million Man March. Showing a clip (e.g., the last scene) or the entire film (with the next class set aside for discussion) opens a space to discuss why men in general are searching for men’s movements and why black men in particular went to the March. In addition, due to the variety of standpoints on the bus (e.g., straight/gay; dark skinned/light skinned; Muslim/Christian, etc.) the film helps move students away from essentialism.

Men’s Movements and Spirituality: Kimmel’s and Messner’s book, Men’s Lives, offers a diverse collection of voices on a multiplicity of topics related to masculinity. The conclusion of the fourth edition is three pages long and asks why the most recent men’s movements (mythopoetics, Promise Keepers, and the Million Man March) are focused upon spiritual renewal. We find this question leads to thought-provoking discussions regarding the differences and similarities of men’s movements.

Men’s and Women’s Movements Debate: Divide your students into groups and stage a debate between various women’s and men’s movements (such as radical feminists, third wave, ecofeminists, Free Men, the Promise Keepers, and NOMAS). Ensure that your students provide reasoned explanations for their positions that correspond with the beliefs and ideologies of the movement they are representing. Some potential topics for debate: How should domestic labor be divided between partners? Should women in the military engage in combat/should women be required to register for the draft?

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Activist Men Panel: Much like with the panel suggested on women’s movements, you may consider inviting a panel of activist men to talk about their activism in their communities, both local and global. Because men’s groups tend to be smaller and less widespread, you may find it hard to find men who identify with a particular group. However, religious leaders, volunteers and workers for family violence centers, health care providers, health activists, and others could speak about how their activism targets gendered issues, including their motivations and goals.

Social Movement Jeopardy: Another great activity that helps students learn and distinguish between the various types of feminisms and historical movements, while also sparking class discussion, is to participate in what we call Social Movement Jeopardy. We also found that this game was a wonderful way for our students to study for their exam. Start by creating five different categories: Women’s Movements, Men’s Movements, Gender Movements, Potpourri, and Dates. The conclusion of the fifth edition provides you with test questions and answers that you can use to help generate questions. Within each category there are five questions ranging from 100 points to 500 points. The game is played just like the television show Jeopardy, although due to time constraints, you may choose to alter it by forming teams of four to five students instead of individual players. The following questions and answers are provided for you as a starting point. Please add questions and change dollar values as you see fit. Women’s Movements

$100.00 Q: This individual attempted to attend the World Anti-Slavery Convention in London in 1840 as a representative from the United States. She was refused participation because of her sex. A: Who is Lucretia Coffin Mott? $200.00 Q: This event held in 1848 made an effort to secure basic freedoms for women. At this convention, Stanton delivered the “Declaration of Sentiments,” which paraphrased the Declaration of Independence. A: What is the Seneca Falls Convention? $300.00 Q: These groups became a significant forum for communication in radical feminist groups, which stressed the slogan “the personal is the political.” Hint: Working committees also grew out of radical feminist efforts because of the distrust of formal organizations and hierarchical arrangements. A: What are consciousness-raising or rap groups? $400.00 Q: This movement finds oppression in any form objectionable to life and harmony on earth. Hint: A goal of this movement is to increase awareness of the interrelated nature of all forms of life and to restore harmony to life on earth.

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A: What is ecofeminism? $500.00 Q: Second-wave mainstream feminism was sparked by a book that discussed “the problem that has no name.” Name the author and the name of the text that identified a general discontentment that surrounded many middle-class, white women who had the American dream of a husband, children, and a house in the suburbs. A: What is Betty Friedan’s 1963 book The Feminine Mystique? Men’s Movements $100.00 Q: This male feminist organization sponsors workshops, speakers, and annual conferences to increase men’s awareness of options for emotional expression, ending men’s violence, developing profeminist studies, and supporting education against homophobia. A: What is NOMAS (National Organization for Men against Sexism)? $200.00 Q: This promasculinist group seeks to encourage and celebrate the traditional roles and values associated with “real men.” This group recognizes the presence of gender oppression but focuses on the ways men have been restricted by the role of provider. A: Who are Free Men? $300.00 Q: These two individuals started a group that is committed to bringing Christian men together to pray in order to help men return to a Christian path by keeping their promises to be good husbands, fathers, and members of communities. Hint: This group calls for male responsibility to rebuild strong families and communities. A: Who are Bill McCartney and Dave Wardell of the Promise Keepers? $400.00 Q: Also called “profeminist men,” these men share the ideology of liberal or enlightenment feminism. Hint: They believe that men and women are basically alike and thus should enjoy equal access to opportunity and status in society. A: Who are male feminists? $500.00 Q: This men’s movement began in reaction to the Montreal Massacre and is committed to ending men’s violence against women. A: What is the WRC? Gender Movements $100.00 Q: This phenomenon occurs whenever any progress is made toward women’s equality. A: What is anti-feminism/the backlash? 115

$200.00 Q: This author wrote Backlash: The Undeclared War on American Women that points out that backlash against women is nothing new historically. A: Who is Susan Faludi? $300.00 Q: This movement believes that sex and gender are social constructs and that people should have the freedom to identify however they want. A: What is transfeminism? $400.00 Q: This strategy found in gender movements is enacted when a person acts toward members of a group to which that person belongs in a way that is not expected or typical of members of that group. A: What is a traitorous identity? Potpourri $100.00 Q: This type of feminism is an emerging movement that recognizes that women and men are located in a range of systems of domination. Hint: This movement also stresses agency highlighting experiences of woman of color. A: What is multiracial feminism? $200.00 Q: This type of feminism attempts to reclaim traditional feminine activities, skills, and perspectives marginalized by society—includes recognizing and celebrating traditional roles and skills of women. A: What is revalorism? $300.00 Q: These two individuals led the Million Man March at the nation’s capitol in order to encourage men to pledge themselves to spiritual transformation and political action. A: Who are Minister Louis Farrakhan and Reverend Benjamin Chavis, Jr.? $400.00 Q: This men’s group is based upon the writings of poet and founder Robert Bly and seeks to rediscover the deep, mythic nature of masculine thought and feeling. A: Who are mythopoetic men? $500.00 Q: This group, started in 1987, recalled tactics of civil rights movements and radical feminists and made themselves intentionally leaderless and democratic. A: What is ACT UP? 116

$600.00 Q: Groups like the WRC, Walk a Mile in Her Shoes, and the MVP program believe it is men’s responsibility to stop this. A: What is violence against women? Dates Category $100.00 Q: The Million Man March marched on Washington D.C. for the first time in this year. A: What is 1995? $200.00 Q: This year, Elizabeth Cady Stanton delivered the collaboratively written keynote address, titled the “Declaration of Sentiments” at the Seneca Falls Convention that was held in New York. A: What is 1848? $300.00 Q: In this year, Sojourner Truth delivered her speech, “Ain’t I a Woman?” that pointed out the ways in which white women’s situations and oppression are different from those of black women. A: What is 1851? $400.00 Q: On this year, the constitutional amendment granting women the right to vote was passed and ratified. A: What is 1920? $500.00 Q: Between 1960 and roughly 1995, this movement gained momentum in the United States. A: What is the second wave of the women’s movements? $600.00 Q: Roughly between the years of 1840 to 1925, this wave of the women’s movements included both liberal and cultural branches. A: What is the first wave of women’s movements? $700.00 Q: An economic downturn in the United States in this year resulted in massive job losses and has fueled contemporary masculinist movements. A: What is 2008? $800.00 Q: Riot Grrrl, considered by many scholars as the beginning of third-wave feminism as a whole, was started in this decade. 117

A: What is the late 1980s? $900.00 Q: In this year the Civil Rights Act was amended to include sex, along with race, religion, and nationality, as an illegal basis for employment discrimination. A: What is 1964? $1000.00 Q: The Million Woman March was held in Philadelphia on this date. A: What is October 24 and 25, 1997?

JUDGMENT CALL 6: HOW IMPORTANT ARE MEN’S ISSUES AND MEN’S MOVEMENTS? Men’s movements and efforts to raise awareness of men’s issues are relatively recent developments in the United States. In the 1960s when the second wave of American feminism began, there were no identifiable men’s movements. Men who believed that the existing gender ideology oppressed men as well as women generally defined themselves as male feminists or just plain feminists. Only in the last two decades of the twentieth century did we see a number of distinct men’s movements emerge. These movements have offered definitions of men and manhood and have named problems and oppressions men face. Some laypersons, scholars, and social commentators think the men’s movements serve valuable purposes. According to them, men have not reflected enough on the identities society imposes on them or on the cultural practices that oppress men. At several universities and colleges, there are men’s studies courses and sometimes whole curricula or departments of men’s studies, paralleling departments of women’s studies. These courses aim to raise awareness of the ways in which current social views and expectations of men are oppressive and potentially lethal. Yet not everyone thinks that men’s movements and men’s studies are needed. Some scholars, laypersons, and social commentators think that men’s movements tend to be made up of “whiners.” According to them, men are the ones in charge of society so they have no right to complain about how its practices oppress them. Also, say these critics, men still enjoy the bulk of privileges, including wealth and status, in American society. Thus, they argue, any problems men have or discriminations they experience are comparatively much smaller than those facing women. What do you think? Is it legitimate to have courses in men’s studies? Are men’s movements serving valuable purposes in our society? Consider these probes in the course of answering the questions: ¨

Visit some of the websites for men’s movements that are identified in Chapter 4. After reading materials on these sites, what do you think of men’s movements? Do you think the issues they say face men are legitimate? Do you think they are as compelling as those facing women? Do you or men you know identify with any of them? 118

What do you see as the greatest problem or source of oppression facing men in the United States today? Is it possible to generalize about the “greatest problem facing men” when men vary in race-ethnicity, economic status, sexual orientation, and so forth? What would be the advantages and disadvantages of dismantling programs in women’s studies and men’s studies and creating programs in gender studies? Does focusing on each sex and gender separately foster greater self-reflection than would be likely with a focus on both? To learn more about the history of men’s studies and the issues addressed in men’s studies settings, visit the site of the American Men’s Studies Association: http://www.mensstudies.org/ References

Keen, S. (1991). Fire in the belly: On being a man. New York: Bantam. Read reviews— positive and negative—of Keen’s book on Amazon.com. Rabinowitz, F., & Cochran, S. (1994). Man alive: A primer of men’s issues. Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole. JUDGMENT CALL 7: WHERE SHOULD FEMINISTS’ FOCUS BE?

Intersectionality is a central term in much contemporary feminist scholarship and activism; it is particularly prevalent in the “third wave.” Intersectional scholarship and activism recognizes the multiple and intersecting axes of power that form our identities and around which instances of oppression and resistance are enacted. This means that in addition to attending to issues of gender/sex/sexuality, third-wave intersectional scholars and activists also address questions of race, class, nationality, and (dis)ability, among others. In turn, some third-wave intersectional scholars and activists argue that feminists and feminisms must move beyond “women’s issues” and focus on social justice issues broadly construed. For example, Laboton and Martin (2004), editors of The Fire This Time, argue “intersectionality suggests those issues that have traditionally been associated with the feminist movement—reproductive rights, domestic violence, date rape, and equal pay for equal work—are not the only issues that should define it” (p. xxxiv). While Laboton and Martin are not suggesting that these “traditional” second-wave issues no longer matter, they argue: “We should not become so distracted by the core issues that we neglect other social justice concerns. The borders of feminism need to be split open, both so that we are freed from ideological rigidity and so that other identity claims of race, sexuality, class, nationality, and geography can move beyond being simply “tolerated” or ’included.’” (p. xxxiv) A similar sentiment is articulated by Lisa Jervis, cofounding editor of the third-wave feminist magazine Bitch: “Gender isn’t always the primary mode of analysis. . . . Anti-poverty work, international human-rights work, and labor are all issues that are feminist issues, but they aren’t all about women” (Rowe-Finkbiner, 2004, p. 34). 119

Reflect on the arguments put forth by intersectional feminists. Do you agree or disagree with what they advocate? Specifically, consider the following: ¨ ¨ ¨ ¨ ¨

What do you think motivates intersectional feminists to broaden their focus from “women’s issues” to social justice? What might be some of the implications, both negative and positive, of turning feminists’ attention from “women’s issues” to social justice? By expanding the bounds of feminism and moving beyond “women’s issues,” do you think feminism could become more appealing to men? Why or why not? What issues should intersectional scholars and activists focus on? What decision criteria should guide their focus? If feminists focus on social justice broadly construed, is the term feminism necessary? Is feminism still a legitimate social movement/area of scholarship?

References Hayden, S., & O’Brien Hallstein, D. L. (2009). Placing sex/gender at the forefront: Feminism, intersectionality, and communication studies. In K. Chavez & C. Griffen (Eds.), Standing in the intersections: Feminisms, intersectionality, and communication studies, New York: SUNY. Labaton, V., & Martin, D. L. (Eds.) (2004). The fire this time: Young activists and the new feminism. New York: Anchor Books. Rowe-Finkbiner, K., (2004). The F word: Feminism in jeopardy: Women, politics, and the future. Emeryville, CA: Seal Press. Chapter 4: The Rhetorical Shaping of Gender: Competing Images of Men Multiple Choice 1.

This branch of the men’s movement encourages men to develop the emotional capacities that society approves of in women but discourages in men. A. Mythopoetic men B. The White Ribbon Campaign (WRC) C. Free Men D. Profeminist men E. Postfeminist men ANS: D REF: pp. 77–78

Jake is at a party with a large group of men when his friend Dan makes a sexist joke 120

about the physical appearance of a woman they all know. Instead of laughing, Jake tells Dan that he thinks the joke is inappropriate and that he’d prefer that Dan did not talk about women that way in front of him. What type of identity has Jake performed in this scenario? A. An offensive identity B. A men’s rights identity C. A traitorous identity D. A Free Men identity E. None of the above ANS: C REF: pp. 77–78 3.

This men’s movement professes that most men are not violent and that men should work together to change the few who are violent. A. White Ribbon Campaign B. Mentors in Violence Prevention (MVP) C. NOMAS D. Free Men E. None of the above ANS: A REF: pp. 81–82

Which of the following statements is true of men’s rights activists? A. They aim to educate men about socialization that links masculinity to violence and aggression to motivate them to reject violence. B. They voice public support for women’s rights and men’s personal development. C. They engage in interpersonal persuasion to convince friends and coworkers to alter discriminatory attitudes and practices. D. They believe that violence against women is not just a women’s issue. E. They aim to restore the traditional roles of men and women, and with that the privileges that men historically enjoyed. ANS: E REF: pp. 84–85

According to the principles of , men who condone, encourage, or ignore violence are just as guilty as those who act violently. A. NOMAS B. Fathers 4 Justice C. White Ribbon Campaign D. Mentors in Violence Prevention (MVP) E. Mythopoetic men 121

ANS: D REF: p. 83 6.

Which of the following movements is a multifaceted effort to stimulate a national conversation about what it means to be a good man today? A. The Promise Keepers B. Mythopoetic men C. NOMAS D. The Good Men Project E. Mentors in Violence Prevention (MVP) ANS: D REF: pp. 92– 93

Which of the following is true of NOMAS? A. It believes more colleges and universities should adopt men’s studies. B. It celebrates traditionally masculine values of courage and ambition. C. It condemns traditionally masculine values of aggression and emotional insensitivity. D. It attempts to help men understand how their emotional development has been hindered by our culture’s view of masculinity. E. All of the above.

ANS: E REF: pp. 78–79 8. Which movement asked men to rededicate themselves to their families, spiritual transformation, and political action? A. Million Man March B. Mythopoetic men C. Free Men D. White Ribbon Campaign E. Profeminists ANS: A REF: pp. 89–90 9.

movements are those who work to support feminist movements in addition to working to change the way masculinity is constructed in the United States. A. Free Men B. Masculinist C. Men’s equality D. Profeminist E. No men’s movements support feminism. 122

ANS: D REF: pp. 77–78 10.

Which of the following is/are true of the MVP? A. MVP was started after the Montreal Massacre in which 14 women were killed. B. MVP says that if men make a personal commitment to never commit violence, violence will eventually stop. C. MVP says that men are socialized to be violent and aggressive. D. They are a masculinist group. E. All of the above. ANS: C REF: p. 83

11.

Topic or question should come from class business. See pages 8 to 10 of this manual for details on this activity.

True/False

12. Free Men believe that men are discriminated against, although not as much as women are. ANS: F REF: p.85 13. Profeminists endeavor to cultivate emotions that they feel have been suppressed by masculine socialization. ANS: T REF: pp. 77–78 14. Mythopoetic men argue that modern men experience emotional emptiness related to yearning to be close to their fathers. ANS: T REF: pp. 86–87 15. Promise Keepers see reconnecting with God’s commandments as the path for men to regain wholeness. ANS: T REF: pp. 87–88 16. Football coach Joe Ehrmann, who stresses to his team the value of building relationships, loving one another, and accepting love, is enacting a traitorous identity. 123

ANS: T REF: p. 79 17. Masculinist movements assert that men suffer from discrimination and that men need to reclaim their rightful status as men. ANS: T REF: pp. 84–85 18. When men observe sexist or violent behavior aimed at women and do not intervene, they are enacting bystander behavior. ANS: T REF: p. 83 19. NOMAS, MVP, and mythopoetics all agree that the current construction of masculinity can be harmful. ANS: T REF: pp. 78–79, 83, 86–87 20. Men’s rights movements typically represent the rights of all men, which includes standing up for the rights of gay men. ANS: F REF: p. 84 Identification

21. Mentors in Violence Prevention (MVP) ANS: Founded by Jackson Katz, MVP seeks to educate men about socialization that links violence to masculinity and to motivate men to reject violence in themselves and other men. MVP uses the power of peer influence to encourage antiviolence attitudes in men who can then also teach their peers not to be violent. MVP also seeks to call attention to the role of bystanders in violence. REF: p. 83 22. Mythopoetic movement ANS: Prominent in the 1980s and 1990s, mythopoetic men follow the work of poet and men’s rights activist Robert Bly. According to the mythopoetic perspective, the Industrial Revolution led to family and social structures that deprive boys of interaction 124

with adult men, particularly fathers. In response, mythopoetic men maintain that men have lost touch with the deep roots of masculinity and therefore must reconnect with the “male mode of feeling.” To accomplish this, mythopoetic men sponsor weekend workshops involving poetry, myths, and drumming. REF: pp. 86–87 23. Traitorous identity ANS: Rhetorical strategy performed by many male feminists. Enacting a traitorous identity entails using one’s social location to speak against the actions and/or beliefs that are common within that group. For example, men speaking to other men about sexism, heterosexuals speaking to other heterosexuals about the social injustice faced by gays and lesbians, and so forth. REF: pp. 77–78 24. The Good Men Project ANS: A multifaceted effort to stimulate a national conversation about what it means to be a good man today. The group published a book, the royalties of which go to groups that help at-risk boys. The group also publishes a magazine that addresses issues in men’s lives and relationships. REF: p. 92 25. Men’s rights activists ANS: Men’s rights activists’ goal is to restore traditional gender roles, including the rights and privileges for men that come with those roles. They differ from the male feminists. Men’s rights activist groups include mythopoetic men, Fathers 4 Justice, Promise Keepers, the Million Man March, and others. REF: pp. 84 Essays

26. Identify the goals and the beliefs of the MVP, the WRC, and Walk a Mile in Her Shoes. Then discuss similarities and differences between the three. Within your answer, discuss criticisms of WRC and Walk a Mile in Her Shoes and how MVP’s focus on bystanders encourages personal agency. ANS: The WRC is committed to ending violence against women. They believe that men should take responsibility to speak out against men’s violence against women. WRC believes that the problem is a small number of men who commit violent acts. Walk a Mile in Her Shoes relies on community awareness and fundraising to end men’s violence against women. The idea is to cultivate men’s compassion for women’s experiences through the act of the march and then generate dialogue afterward about gendered violence. 125

MVP also is committed to ending violence against women. Unlike WRC and Walk a Mile in Her Shoes, which focus on the individual, MVP focuses on socialization as the problem that links masculinity to violence and aggression. They believe that men should be aware of bystander behavior, or how those who are aware of a violent situation respond to it. Criticisms of both WRC and Walk a Mile in Her Shoes have said they don’t go far enough in their analysis of men’s violence. By focusing on making men not violent, they are not addressing societal issues, as MVP does. Furthermore, teaching bystanders to intervene makes more men responsible for violence instead of just the men who are committing the violence themselves. Speaking up as a bystander encourages personal agency in that by speaking up you are working to end violence. REF: pp. 81–83 27. Describe what is meant by a traitorous identity. Then, either hypothetically or from your own experience, describe a scenario in which someone performs a traitorous identity. Why do you think this behavior is difficult for some people? Why is it important to perform? ANS: A traitorous identity is a strategy in which a member of a group criticizes actions or attitudes that are common within that group. Scenarios described by students will vary as will reasons for the difficulty in performing a traitorous identity. The act is important because it is hard for members of a group to ignore criticism that comes from one of their own. This makes it a powerful force for change. REF: pp. 77–78 28. Men’s rights movements argue that a number of contemporary policies and practices are discriminatory toward men; moreover, some men’s rights groups argue that feminism is at least partially responsible for the implementation of these practices and policies. Identify one contemporary policy or practice that men’s movements have identified as discriminatory and explain whether or not you agree with that classification. ANS: The primary issue discussed in the text is child custody after divorce. Numerous father’s rights groups, including Fathers 4 Justice and the American Coalition for Fathers, argue that men should have equal rights to custody of their children after divorce; for some groups this means that a father should receive no less than 50% access to his children. On its face, this is a reasonable argument; students may reference their own or friends’/family members’ experiences in support of it. On the other hand, the issue is complicated by statistics, including men who do not pay child support or contact their children after divorce. Other issues that might be addressed in class but are not addressed by Wood include domestic violence legislation that mandates that alleged perpetrators be incarcerated for 24 hours after an alleged victim has contacted authorities with a charge of domestic violence or putative fathers’ registries that regulate the rights of men who may have impregnated women to whom they are not married. REF: pp. 70–72 29. Topic or question should come from class business. See pages 8 to 10 of this manual for details on this activity. 126

Chapter 5: Gendered Verbal Communication I.

Verbal Communication Expresses Cultural Views of Gender A. Gendered Language Excludes 1. Generic language (chairman, mailman, mankind, he) claims to include everyone, yet only refer to men. 2. Research makes it clear inclusive language has an impact. People associate males only with generic terms with much greater frequency than they associate females with them. 3. Gendered language is apparent in traditional pronouns, which erase people who do not fit into conventional categories. 4. Some universities and the Washington Post will now use they to refer to individuals. B. Language Defines Gender as Binary 1. Women are frequently defined by appearance and by relationships with others, while men are more often defined by activities, accomplishments, and positions. 2. Coverage of women’s sports focuses more on appearance of female athletes, whereas descriptions of male athletes focus on athletic skills. 3. Language reflects social views of women as passive and men as active participants in sexual activity. For example, “She got knocked up”; “He laid her.” 4. Language reflects views of women as more defined by relationships than men. For example, women who don’t marry are often referred to in negative terms. 5. Women are traditionally expected to take their husband’s names, but there are alternatives. a. Keeping your name, hyphenating, or creating a new name. b. Renaming to reflect matriarchal lineage. Matriarchy means “rule by mothers” and refers to systems and practices created by women and reflecting the values of women as a group. C. Language Shapes Awareness of Gendered Issues 1. Language shapes awareness of what is important and helps us define realities. 2. When something is named (e.g., sexual harassment, date rape), it is easier to recognize it, think about it, and stop it. 3. Language is always changing. We reject terms that are objectionable and create new terms to define realities we think are important. D. Language Organizes Perceptions of Gender 1. A stereotype is a generalization about a group based on (often limited) information about some people who are part of that group. a. Stereotypes overlook individual characteristics and differences. b. Women are often stereotyped as overly emotional and weak while men tend to be stereotyped as rational and strong. 127

II.

2. Polarized thinking is looking at things as complete and distinct opposites. a. For instance, assuming something is either right or wrong or a person is male or female or masculine or feminine. b. Our commonly used vocabulary emphasizes all-or-none terms and obscures the range of identities people can express. It also erases transgender and intersex people. E. Language Evaluates Gender 1. Language reflects cultural values and is a powerful influence on our perception. 2. Women are often referred to as immature or juvenile (e.g., girl, honey, darling). They are also equated with food (e.g., sweet thing, sugar) or animals (e.g., chick, bitch). 3. Diminutive suffixes designate women as reduced forms of the male standard (e.g., majorette). 4. Women are often blamed with language (e.g., slut) for the same behavior that men are celebrated with language for doing (e.g., stud). 5. Female and feminine terms are used to degrade boys and men (e.g., sissy, momma’s boy). F. Language Allows Self-Reflection 1. We use language to reflect on and evaluate ourselves. We live in a celebrity culture that makes it tempting to define ourselves in comparison to celebrities. 2. Meanings of language change over time. For example, what is considered “fat” now may have been considered slim several decades ago. 3. If the existing language is inadequate, we can move beyond it, such as through labeling ourselves androgynous, genderqueer, or gender nonconforming. This nudges culture to recognize us on our own terms. Gendered Styles of Verbal Communication A. Gendered styles of communication mean that girls can learn masculine modes of communicating and boys can learn feminine modes. Some people work to become fluent in both modes of communication. B. Gendered Speech Communities 1. A speech community is a group of people who share understandings of communication goals, strategies for enacting those goals, and ways of interpreting communication. 2. Children are typically socialized into gendered speech communities. C. The Lessons of Children’s Play 1. Researchers have drawn connections between the ways children play and how they communicate. This pattern seems to develop since children tend to play in sex-segregated groups and play different kinds of games based on those groups. 2. Boys’ games a. Boys’ games are often played in large groups, are competitive, have clear goals, include roughhousing, and have distinct rules and roles. b. Structured by goals and roles, there is limited need to discuss how 128

to play. Boys’ games cultivate four communication rules: i. Use communication to assert ideas, opinions, and identity. ii. Use communication to achieve a specific goal. iii. Use communication to attract and maintain others’ attention. iv. Use communication to compete for attention from others. 3. Girls’ games a. Girls’ games are often played in small groups or pairs and often do not have clear rules or roles like house or school. Players must talk to work out what to do and what roles to play. b. When playing, young girls spend more time talking than doing anything else. These games teach four basic rules for communication: i. Use communication to create and sustain relationships. ii. Use communication to establish egalitarian relations. iii. Use communication to include others. iv. Use communication to show sensitivity to others and relationships. 4. The size of girls’ groups foster prosocial, cooperative play, while boys’ groups encourage competition. 5. Many girls today play competitive sports and learn the rules of masculine speech communities. This is consistent with standpoint theory’s premise that subordinated groups are motivated to learn the standpoint of dominant groups. D. Gendered Communication Practices 1. Feminine communication a. People socialized in feminine speech communities regard communication as the primary way to establish and maintain relationships with others. b. A second important feature is establishing equality, often by matching experiences. c. A third characteristic is support others, which often involves expressing emotions to show understanding of another’s situation or feelings. d. A fourth feature is “maintenance work.” This involves inviting others to speak and prompting them to elaborate their ideas. e. A fifth quality is responsiveness, affirming the other person and showing interest in what was said. f. A sixth quality is talking in a personal, concrete style. Including details, personal disclosures, and concrete reasoning cultivates a personal tone and facilitates feelings of closeness. g. A final feature is tentativeness. Tentative communication opens the door for others to respond and express their opinions. Interpreted from a masculine perspective, this can seem to reflect a lack of confidence. 2. Masculine communication a. Masculine speech communities view communication as a way to establish goals, exert control, preserve independence, entertain, and enhance status. b. The first feature of masculine speech is the effort to establish status 129

and control. This is done through asserting ideas and authority and disclosing less than women. c. A second prominent feature is instrumentality—the use of face-toface or computer-mediated communication to accomplish instrumental objectives. Men want to show their knowledge to others and to solve problems. d. A third feature is conversation command. Men tend to talk more often and at greater length than women. i. They are more likely to interrupt and either to control the conversation or because interruptions are considered normal in masculine speech. e. Masculine speech tends to be direct and assertive. f. A fifth feature is that masculine speech tends to be more abstract than feminine speech. In personal relationships, abstract talk sometimes creates barriers to intimacy. g. Finally, masculine speech tends to be less emotionally responsive than feminine speech. Men are more likely to give minimal response cues (e.g., “Yeah,” “um hmm”). Others may see this as a lack of involvement. i. In masculine speech communities, sympathy is a sign of condescension, and revealing personal problems is seen to make one vulnerable. h. Men and women differ in their motivation and use of the Internet: Men emphasize instrumentality and women emphasize connectivity to others. 3. The Gender-Linked Language Effect a. The gender-linked language effect notes that language differences between men and women are affected by a number of factors, including topic, speaker status, conversational partners, and the significance of gender to the conversation. b. Women tend to speak more tentatively on masculine topics, but men speak more tentatively than women on feminine topics. c. Gender expression varies according to context and other factors. E. Gender-Based Misinterpretations in Communication 1. Showing support a. People who are feminine communicators often want to talk about a problem while masculine communicators want to solve it. b. This often leaves both communicators feeling unsupported. c. Showing sympathy can be interpreted as condescending by masculine communicators but is seen as a way of showing support by feminine communicators. 2. Troubles talk a. Masculine communicators tend to show respect by assuming others don’t need sympathy, but in feminine speech communities this seems to dismiss someone’s feelings. b. By asking what’s wrong in a masculine speech community, you are 130

imposing and pushing to expose vulnerability. By not disclosing, someone from a feminine speech community could feel shut out. c. Feminine speech communities relate by matching experiences but in a male speech community this could feel like an attempt to steal attention and focus the conversation elsewhere. 3. The point of the story a. Masculine communicators tend to tell a story in a linear, chronological way, while feminine communicators tend to tell stories in less structured formats. b. Masculine communicators often feel that feminine communicators fail to move quickly to the point of the story, and feminine communicators often feel that masculine communicators don’t include important relationshiplevel details. 4. Relationship talk a. Masculine communicators tend to talk about a relationship only when there is a problem, and feminine communicators tend to want to regularly check in about the state of the relationship. b. Masculine speech communities view communication as a means to doing things and solving problems, whereas feminine speech communities regard the process of communication as the primary way to create and sustain relationships. 5. Public speaking a. A masculine speaking style is generally the standard for public speaking. Women in politics have to manage a fine balance in which they are sufficiently female and sufficiently masculine. 6. When partners understand how to interpret each other’s rules, they are less likely to misread motives. Greater fluidity and fluency in gendered communicative norms can empower us to become more gratifying conversational partners. Journal Entries 1.

Discuss your conversational rules for your speech community. Do you feel more comfortable engaging in a predominately feminine or masculine speech style?

What are the advantages of being able to engage comfortably in both masculine and feminine styles of speech?

Violate a gender prescription for verbal communication and analyze the consequences in terms of how others responded to you and how you felt. How does this challenge reinforce cultural prescriptions for gender?

4. Look at the website www.thesaurus.com. Enter the terms female and male as search terms using the thesaurus option. How would you classify the words this search engine displays to describe these two terms? How do these relate to the ways language defines 131

gender, organizes perceptions of gender, and/or evaluates gender? 5. Watch an episode of your favorite television program. Does the episode support or contradict the claim that women typically are defined (and valued) by appearances and relationships and that men typically are defined (and valued) through activities, accomplishments, or positions? Why or why not? Reference specific plot lines or ways of representing women and men to support your answer. Additionally, determine whether characters use masculine or feminine communication styles. Again, be specific in your response. Suggested Activities 1.

“That’s How Men/Women Are”: One instructor who teaches this course has developed a wonderful exercise that could be used in any chapter. The idea is to have students spend 5 to 10 minutes in class writing down, for example, what most frustrates them in communication with the other sex. Then, collect the comments and redistribute them randomly. Then, ask the student to read what is before them carefully and imagine why that person would feel that way. Then, go around the room and ask each student to read her/his statement and to answer one to two questions as if those words were her/his own. It is a productive way to bring honest discourse into a room with low risk. In addition, it pushes everyone to consider a perspective other than her/his own.

Examining Sexist Language: Two articles that are useful in conjunction with this chapter are Sherryl Kleinman’s Why Sexist Language Matters and Douglas R. Hofstadter’s A Person Paper on Purity in Language. These succinct and powerful essays often invite vigorous debate and critique of sexist language. Ask for your students’ reactions to and comments on Kleinman and Hofstadter. Do they feel differently regarding sexist language after reading these pieces? Is the analogy to race legitimate? Insightful? Persuasive? Does a change in language possess the potential to be a catalyst for other kinds of change?

Talking from 9 to 5: Women and Men in the Workplace: Compiled and narrated by Deborah Tannen, Talking from 9 to 5: Women and Men in the Workplace provides real-life examples of masculine and feminine communication patterns utilized by people in professional situations. Thirty minutes long, the video reinforces key points from Chapter 5, including how children’s games and language patterns are the basis for adult language and the misunderstandings that can result when the assumptions about speaking styles are not shared between speakers. Filmed in workplaces across the United States, the video adds an additional dimension to the discussion of gendered speech styles by addressing how masculine and feminine styles of speech may play out in professional situations.

Examining One’s Own Gendered Language: Students tend to be somewhat aware of how men and women are defined differently through language; however, they are often surprised by how often they (themselves) use language to define men and women differently. Provide students with the survey given next in this chapter, giving half of the students Survey A and half Survey B, attempting to ensure the surveys are as randomly distributed as possible. Ask the students to begin discussing their responses in small groups while you compile the 132

results. Present the results to the students and continue a discussion about how the stories were viewed similarly or differently. Ask students to share their own experiences of how language has defined them differently because of their sex or gender. 5.

Looking for Gendered Language: This activity can be performed two ways. Bring either an episode of a sitcom or reality television show or a set of newspapers to class. Ask the class to watch (or review) the material, looking for examples of gendered language. In the television shows, students can look for instances of people engaging in masculine and feminine speech. In the newspapers, they should look to see how men and women are described and for any instances of spotlighting. This activity can be useful to help students see examples of gendered speech that they would normally overlook because they are so used to using gendered language. (Television episodes can be accessed through hulu.com and many networks’ websites. Gossip Girl, The Real World, and The Office are all often available online free [legally] and include both masculine and feminine communicators. If you choose to use newspapers, using your college’s paper can be particularly effective.)

Report Talk/Rapport Talk—Experiencing the Differences: The exercise that follows (after exercise 5) is based on report and rapport talk, discussed by Deborah Tannen (1990) in her popular book You Just Don’t Understand. To conduct the exercise, divide the class into pairs and distribute a copy of the exercise to each student. If possible, form mixed-sex groups among the students. The exercise contains two situations that allow students to roleplay both styles of conversation—report and rapport talk. After the students have conducted the role-plays, bring the class together and discuss their experiences in the activity. Inevitably, some students will have preferences for one style or the other. Encourage them to consider the differences in the ways they felt based on the style of response of their partner. You may also want to encourage students to consider different types of situations in which one style may be more or less desirable. One goal of this exercise is to encourage greater communicative flexibility in students. If students experience firsthand these two styles, they may later adopt different styles of response in their interactions with friends and family. USING LANGUAGE TO DEFINE MEN AND WOMEN

Survey A: Kiley was really excited about the party she and her friends were going to over the weekend because there were supposed to be a lot of hot guys there, and Kiley had only hooked up with one guy since she had gotten to school a month ago. When they got to the party, Kiley had a couple of drinks and met Mateo. Mateo seemed cool for a while, and the two kissed some as they danced. Kiley lost interest in Mateo, though, because he wasn’t as outgoing as she would have liked. After hanging out with her friends for about 20 minutes, she met Lucas, who she thought was really attractive. After talking to Lucas for a while, he invited her to a party back at his house, and Kiley told her friends she was leaving. Lucas and Kiley went back to Lucas’s house, holding hands along the way. When they got there, the two got separated because the crowd was so large, so Kiley was happy when she ran into Dameon from her math class. The 133

two talked for about 45 minutes at the party about their math class and other experiences at college. When Dameon asked her if she wanted to come back to his dorm for the night, Kiley figured she might as well go because she hadn’t seen Lucas in over an hour. Eventually that night, Kiley and Dameon had sex, and Kiley went back to her dorm the next morning. Respond to the following questions: 1. On the following scale, rank Kiley as you perceive her in terms of promiscuity: 1 2 3 4 5 Not promiscuous Very promiscuous 2. On the following scale, rank Kiley as you would compare her to other college women: 1 2 3 4 5 Very much like Not at all like other women other women 3. How many sexual partners would you guess that Kiley has had in her lifetime? 0–3 4–7 8–11 12 + 4. Having about how many sexual partners would classify a 19- or 20-year-old woman as promiscuous? 0–3 4–7 8–11 12 + other: Survey B: Kyle was really excited about the party he and his friends were going to over the weekend because there were supposed to be a lot of hot girls there, and Kyle had only hooked up with one woman since he had gotten to school a month ago. When they got to the party, Kyle had a couple of drinks and met Bridgette. Bridgette seemed cool for a while, and they kissed some as they danced. Kyle lost interest in Bridgette, though, because she wasn’t as outgoing as he would have liked. After hanging out with his friends for about 20 minutes, he met Tinisha, who he thought was really attractive. After talking to Tinisha for a while, she invited him to a party back at her house, and Kyle told his friends he was leaving. Tinisha and Kyle went back to Tinisha’s house, holding hands along the way. When they got there, the two got separated because the crowd was so large, so Kyle was happy when he ran into Jenna from his math class. The two talked for about 45 minutes at the party about their math class and other experiences at college. When Jenna asked him if he wanted to come back to her dorm for the night, Kyle figured he might as well go because he hadn’t seen Tinisha in over an hour. Eventually that night, Kyle and Jenna had sex, and Kyle went back to his dorm the next morning. Respond to the following questions: 1. On the following scale, rank Kyle as you perceive him in terms of promiscuity: 1 2 3 4 5 Not promiscuous Very promiscuous 134

2. On the following scale, rank Kyle as you would compare him to other college men: 1 2 3 4 5 Very much like Not at all like other men other men 3. How many sexual partners would you guess that Kyle has had in his lifetime? 0–3 4–7 8–11 12 + 4. Having about how many sexual partners would classify a 19- or 20-year-old man as promiscuous? 0–3 4–7 8–11 12 + other: REPORT TALK/RAPPORT TALK—EXPERIENCING THE DIFFERENCE Pair off with a class member, preferably one whose sex differs from your own. With that person, role-play Situation A described next so that one of you presents the problem and the other responds. First, the responder will engage in report talk, focusing on solutions and information. Then, retell the problem and let the responder use rapport talk, focusing on listening carefully, responding to feelings expressed, and being supportive. Now switch roles so that the person who responded to Situation A is the one telling Situation B described next. Again, the partner should first respond with report talk and, second, with rapport talk. After completing all four role-plays, discuss the interactions with your partner. Make notes about how each of you felt as you got each type of response, report and rapport, to your telling of the story. Did the two kinds of response feel different to you? Did you prefer one over the other? Did one feel more confirming or helpful? Why? Did you find one kind of response easier to provide than the other? Why? SITUATION A You just got back your first test in one of the courses required in your major, and you made a 62—a D. You need to do well in this course in order to graduate and get a good job. You are upset and frightened you won’t be able to pull up the grade since you don’t understand the material well. Although professors are supposed to help students, you feel maybe you shouldn’t ask your professor for time and assistance. But if you don’t improve your grade, you’ll have to repeat the course and your transcript will look bad. You are distraught, and you don’t know what to do. Talk with your partner about this situation. Rely on your own experiences as a student to elaborate the description given here. SITUATION B You are under incredible stress right now. In order to graduate on time you are taking 18 hours. In addition, you are working 20 hours a week to make money for tuition and books. To top it all off, you’re having problems with Pat, the roommate assigned to you this year. Pat plays music all of the time and stays up late and gets up late. You need quiet in the room to study, and you like to hit the sack by 11 and arise early. You feel Pat should be more considerate, but at the same time you are reluctant to ask Pat to change to meet your needs. Right now you feel very frustrated about meeting all of your responsibilities, especially with the conflict between your and Pat’s lifestyles. Talk with your partner about your thoughts and feelings about this problem. 135

Use your own experiences to supplement what’s described here. Chapter 5: Gendered Verbal Communication Multiple Choice 1.

Which of the following is an example of generic language that would refer to everyone regardless of their gender? a. congressman b. mail carrier c. actress d. mankind e. chairman ANS: B REF: p. 97

Which of the following examples shows a way in which a female athlete or politician is most treated like a male athlete or politician would be by the media? a. Corey Cogdell is identified as the wife of a Bears’ lineman rather than an Olympic medal winner. b. Women skiers are complimented for managing the course and their makeup deftly. c. Hillary Clinton’s outfits are analyzed and determined to be too dowdy. d. Elizabeth Warren is criticized for her stance that tax reform should benefit the poor. e. Katy Ledecky earns a world record in the 400-meter freestyle and told she “swims like a man.” ANS: D REF: p. 98

Which of the following phrases would be unusual to use in reference to a man? a. He balled her. b. He let her give it to him. c. He’s a player. d. He knocked her up. e. He got what he wanted. ANS: B REF: pp. 99

In what ways is language changed to reflect our changing understandings of ourselves and our world? a. To reject terms that we find objectionable. b. To create new terms to define realities we think are important. c. To shape meanings of our culture. 136

d. To better define how we see ourselves and the world. e. All of the above. ANS: E REF: p. 101 5.

Which of the following is the example of stereotype we typically hold about gender in U.S. society? a. That women are emotional and don’t make reasoned arguments. b. That assertive women are showing confidence. c. That certain actions can only be masculine or feminine. d. That men tend to make emotional appeals to win arguments. e. That a man who is too assertive will come across as off putting. ANS: A REF: pp. 102

Which of the following terms is one you would not expect to see in the kinds of language typically used to describe women? a. honey b. chick c. stud d. cow e. sugar ANS: C REF: p. 102

What would be a style of communication would expect to see happen in a boys’ game rather than a girls’ game? a. Use communication to show sensitivity to others and relationships. b. Use communication to include others and bring their ideas into the conversation. c. Use communication to establish egalitarian relations with others and avoid criticism. d. Use talk to achieve something, such as solving problems or developing strategies. e. Use communication to create and maintain relationships.

ANS: D REF: pp. 104-105 8. Which movement asked men to rededicate themselves to their families, spiritual transformation, and political action? a. Million Man March b. Mythopoetic Men c. Free Men d. White Ribbon Campaign e. Profeminists 137

ANS: A REF: pp. 89-90 9.

Sarah is talking to Matt. He tells her that he is going through a rough time and that his long-term girlfriend recently dumped him to be with someone else. Sarah tells Matt she is sorry to hear it and that she had a boyfriend cheat on her once and it really upset her. Matt feels that Sarah is trying to steer the conversation toward herself. What is Sarah likely trying to do? a. Give personal, concrete details about herself to cultivate a personal tone. b. Do maintenance work to help sustain the conversation. c. Establish equality by matching experiences with Matt. d. Demonstrate responsiveness by showing she cares what he has to say. e. Show tentativeness to open the door and allow him to share his opinions. ANS: C REF: p. 107108

10.

A female senator stands before a crowd to talk about the tax code. She spends some time demonstrating her knowledge of policy and forcefully demonstrates that she has a plan to better the lives of her constituents. Afterward, she discovers her speech was not taken well, that most people thought she was too aggressive. What tactic would have likely helped her speech be better received? a. Bringing personal details into the speech such as talking about specific families and especially children affected by the current policies. b. Speaking with more tentativeness and hedging her words and phrases a little more. c. Discussing a topic that is seen as more suitably feminine, such as childcare and family leave. d. Mentioning her own personal struggles with money and relaying that she is a relatable and likeable person. e. All of the above ANS: E REF: pp. 113

11.

Topic or question should come from class business. See pages 8-10 of this manual for details on this activity.

True/False 12. Dictionaries and national newspapers now have policies requiring inclusive language and writing style manuals caution against male generic language. ANS: T 138

REF: pp. 97 13. Hurricanes with feminine names are more deadly than those with masculine names. ANS: T REF: p. 97 14. Most heterosexual women now keep their last names rather than taking their husbands’ names upon marrying. ANS: F REF: p. 100 15. Naming typically has little influence in the way we think and deciding what matters to us. ANS: F REF: p. 101 16. Girls primarily communicate in feminine ways, which is a reflection of how sex influences the way we speak. ANS: F REF: p. 105 17. A speech community can be based around gender, race, culture, or economic class. ANS: T REF: p. 104 18. Girls’ games are typically played in larger groups and the games have a set of established rules. ANS: F REF: p. 105 19. Masculine speech tends to be more abstract, using general or conceptual terms that are removed from concrete experiences and personal feelings. ANS: T REF: pp. 109 139

20. Men tend to speak more tentatively than women when talking about feminine topics. ANS: T REF: p. 110 Identification 21. benevolent sexism ANS: Benevolent sexism is a paternalistic attitude that describes women affectionately but assumes they aren’t competent to do particular tasks. One example of this is “that sweet little thing can’t change a tire.” REF: pp. 101 22. generic language ANS: Generic language purports to include everyone, yet literally only refers to men. Examples of generic language include congressman, spokesman, mailman, and the pronouns he and him used to refer to everyone. Studies have shown that generic language leads to certain assumptions and inclusive language has an impact in how we think. REF: pp. 97 23. minimal response cues ANS: Minimal response cues are used in masculine speech communities and are more likely to be given by men than women. Examples of these cues include verbalizations such as “yeah” or “um hmmm.” Studies suggest that this verbal communication patterns plays out in computer mediated communication as well—men use fewer references to emotions in email than women do. REF: p. 109 24. polarized thinking ANS: Polarized thinking is conceiving of things as absolute opposites. Something is right or wrong; a person is male or female or masculine or feminine. Our commonly used vocabulary emphasizes all-or-none terms and thus all-or-none thinking. REF: pp. 102 25. speech community ANS: A speech community is a group of people who share norms about communication. This means that one exists when people share understandings 140

about goals of communication, strategies for enacting those goals, and ways of interpreting communication. REF: pp. 104 Essays 26. In what ways does language organize perceptions of gender through stereotyping and polarized perceptions of sex and gender? ANS: A stereotype is a generalization about an entire class of phenomena based on perceptions of some members of that class. Relying on stereotypes can lead us to overlook important qualities of individuals and to perceive them only in terms of what we consider common to a general category. For example, if you stereotype women as being uninterested in sports, it might not occur to you that a woman you know really loves to play soccer or is interested in attending baseball games. The English language can also encourage polarized thinking, a way of conceiving of things as absolute opposites. In this way male becomes the opposite of female and masculine becomes the opposite of feminine. Using all-or-none terms and can contribute to all-or-none thinking. One example of this is that polarized language excludes people who fall outside the typical gender dichotomy. REF: pp. 102 27. In what ways do boys’ and girls’ games differ? How do these difference encourage different communication rules? ANS: Boys’ games usually involve fairly large groups and are competitive, have clear goals, involve physically rough play in large spaces, and are organized by rules and roles that specify who does what and how to play. Girls’ games tend to focused on pairs or small groups rather than large ones. Their games do not have preset, clear-cut goals and roles. When playing, young girls tend to spend more time talking than doing anything else, using that talk to decide what to do and what roles to play. Because boys do not have to figure out the rules of the game, there is limited need to discuss how to play. They learn to communicate to accomplish goals, compete for and maintain status, exert control over others, get attention, and stand out. This is based around the fact that their games are competitive and have a clear winner. Because girls talk much more and have to figure out the rules of the game, their communication is cooperative rather than competitive. These games require them to develop interpersonal communication skills that teach them to be egalitarian and inclusive in their talk. REF: p. 104-106 28. What are the characteristics of feminine speech communication and why are they used? How would a man be perceived if he attempted to use one of these characteristics?

141

ANS: Feminine speech communities tend to regard communication as the primary way to establish and maintain relationships with others. They use language to foster connections and support closeness and mutual understand. A second important feature of feminine speech communication is establishing equality. Communicators match experiences to achieve symmetry, to pursue equality, and show empathy. A third characteristic is support for others. To demonstrate support, communicators often express emotions to show understanding. Conversations between feminine people tend to be characterized by intensive adverbs and questions that probe for greater understanding of feelings and perceptions. A fourth feature is conversational “maintenance work” that sustains conversation but inviting others to speak and by prompting them to elaborate their ideas. A fifth quality is responsiveness. This could include making eyes contact, nodding, or asking them to say more. Responsiveness affirms the other person and encourages elaboration. A six quality of feminine talk is personal, concrete style. This means including details, personal disclosures, and concrete reasoning to cultivate a personal tone. A final feature of feminine speech is tentativeness. This type of communication opens the door for others to respond and express their opinions. Using the characteristics of feminine speech in a masculine speech community could cause miscommunication. If a man tried to use experience matching, for example, the other party could see it as his attempt to steer the conversation toward himself and for him to hold the stage. Demonstrating responsiveness through eye contact could be seen as aggressive. Sharing concrete details could open him up to vulnerability and being sympathetic could be seen as a sign of condescension. REF: p. 107-108 29. Topic or question should come from class business. See pages 8-10 of this manual for details on this activity.

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Chapter 6: Gendered Nonverbal Communication I.

Functions of Nonverbal Communication A. Supplement Verbal Communication 1. Nonverbal behavior supplements, or adds to, verbal messages in five ways: a. Repeating words (e.g., saying “right” and pointing to the right) b. Contradicting a verbal message (e.g., saying “I’m fine” while crying) c. Complementing verbal statements (e.g., sealing a threat with a forceful glare) d. Replacing language (e.g., shrugging in response to a question) e. Accenting verbal message by emphasizing certain words B. Regulate Interaction 1. Eye contact, body posture, and vocal inflection cue others into when we want to speak and when we want them to speak. 2. Women tend to use cues to invite and encourage others into conversations. Men tend to use more cues to maintain attention and discourage others from speaking, such as avoiding eye contact. C. Establish the Relationship Level of Meaning D. Three primary dimensions of relationship-level meaning are responsiveness, liking, and power, each of which is linked to gender. 1. Responsiveness a. Responsiveness indicates interest in and attentiveness to others. b. Nonverbal cues indicating responsiveness include inflection, eye contact, and open body posture. c. Women tend to be more responsive than men as responsiveness is cultivated in feminine speech communities. 2. Liking a. Liking is demonstrated through verbal cues such as vocal warmth, sitting close to others, touching, or holding eye contact. b. Girls and women tend to be socialized more strongly than boys and men to communicate liking because they are socialized to be nice to others and build relationships. c. Dislike is communicated nonverbally as well such as through frowns, glares, or turning away. 3. Power or Control a. Power refers to the degree which people are seen as equal to, dominant over, or deferential to others. b. Three primary ways we communicate power through nonverbal communication are through voice, touch, and use of space. c. Men tend to talk louder and with more inflection than women. They tend to take up more space and touch people more to communicate their status. Women are more likely to give up their space than men. 143

II.

Forms of Nonverbal Communication A. Artifacts 1. Artifacts are personal objects that express our identity and how we view ourselves. 2. Colors and types of toys demonstrate appropriate behaviors and activities for boys and girls (e.g., building set for boys, dolls for girls). 3. Clothing, another type of artifact, while less strict than in past generations, still defines women and men differently. While men’s clothing tends to be less colorful and allow for easy movement, women’s clothing calls attention to their bodies with form-fitting styles and clinging materials. a. Selecting clothing is particularly challenging for trans and gender nonconforming people. 4. Advertising emphasizes what artifacts men or women are supposed to use. 5. Some people use artifacts to challenge cultural prescriptions of masculinity and femininity. B. Proximity and Personal Space 1. Proxemics refers to how people use space; space is an index of power and a primary way to designate who is important and privileged. a. Other ways space is used can include who sits at the head of the table, and what mothers’ and fathers’ spaces look like within households. 2. Territoriality is personal space, but not everyone’s territory is equally respected. a. People with more power have more control over the use of space. b. Men are more likely to go into women’s spaces than women are to go into men’s spaces. C. Haptics (Touch) 1. Haptics, or touch, from parents and other adults communicate different messages to boys and girls. 2. Parents tend to touch daughters more often and more gently than they touch sons, which teaches girls to expect touching from others. Boys are more likely to learn to associate touch with control and power. 3. Men are generally taller and stronger than women and tend to be more willing to use bodily force than women. D. Kinesics (Facial and Body Motion) 1. Kinesics are face and body movements. 2. Feminine kinesic behaviors include tilting heads, smiling, and condensing their bodies to take up less space. Masculine kinesic behaviors include using large gesture, taking up space, and entering others’ territories. 3. Women tend to make more eye contact during conversation than men do to signal interest and involvement. E. Paralanguage 1. Paralanguage refers to vocal cues that accompany verbal communication such as inflection, tone, volume, accent, pitch, and rhythm. 2. Male and female physiology doesn’t fully explain differences in pitch. a. Men tend to use lower pitch and greater volume to assert themselves. b. Women tend to use higher pitch, softer volume, and more inflection to appear polite and caring. 144

3. These are socialized behaviors and not entirely the result of physiological differences. F. Physical Appearance 1. Western culture places high priority on physical appearance. Both sexes may feel pressured to conform to a culturally defined ideal appearance. 2. An increasing number of men feel pressure to embody social prescriptions for ideal masculinity. Goals tend to be having buff, muscular bodies. Pressure includes the masculine ideal presented on television and gendertyped action figures. 3. Girls and women are more likely than men to feel pressure to look good all the time. a. For girls and women, concern about weight starts early. By third grade, 50 to 80% of girls say they want to lose weight. Women make up between 85% and 95% of people with eating disorders. Dissatisfaction with body size, particularly for Caucasian women, influences overall self-esteem. 4. In general, African-American women, particularly those who strongly identify with their ethnic heritage, tend to be more satisfied with their bodies and less prone to eating disorders. 5. More men report body dissatisfaction related to muscularity and are exercising, working out with weights, taking fitness supplements, and using steroids. Gay men are more likely to be concerned about appearance to develop eating disorders. G. Interpreting Nonverbal Behavior. 1. Generally, females are better able to decode nonverbal behaviors and more accurately perceive others’ emotions. However, men are noticeably faster at recognizing angry facial cues. 2. Various theories offer explanations for this strong ability to read feelings: a. Biological theories posit that it is a result of sex-related brain differences. b. Another explanation says that from childhood females are encouraged to be sensitive to others. c. Women’s social location encourages them to learn to read their feelings and needs. d. Standpoint theory suggests women’s ability to decode results from their standing as subordinate members of society. H. Respecting Gendered Styles of Nonverbal Communication 1. Judgment of the way others speak reflect the communication rules we have learned, and our rules may not pertain to others’ way of communicating. 2. Interpreting others on their own terms might lead to clarification of misunderstanding and to develop communicative techniques to minimize misunderstandings. 3. It also enhances personal effectiveness by increasing the range of options you have for communicating with different people. 145

Journal Entries 1.

Violate a gender prescription for nonverbal communication and analyze the consequences in terms of how others responded to you and how you felt. How do these reactions challenge or reinforce cultural prescriptions for gender?

Think about society’s standards for beauty and physical attractiveness. Choose and respond to one of the following questions: (1) How do we learn what the standards are for beauty in our society? Are there different messages for women than for men? (2) Are you or someone you know currently suffering from an eating disorder? Explain how gendered messages work to encourage and influence eating disorders.

Reflect on some of the messages you received about nonverbal behaviors when you were a child. For example, did parents, teachers, or friends comment on your attractiveness or weight? If you were raised a boy, were you admonished to act tough and/or not to cry? If you were raised a girl, were you told to be “lady-like”? What kinds of artifacts were you given; here, reflect on toys and clothing. Reflect on your feelings about the messages you received both then and now. Do the messages you received as a child continue to discipline you to enact certain behaviors today?

Suggested Activities 1.

Masculine and Feminine Posture: At the beginning of your first day on nonverbal communication, you may want to try the exercise that follows. This exercise is useful for demonstrating some ways women are more constrained than men by norms of nonverbal behavior. Though male students may find the requests humorous, female students more than likely will recognize these rules as taken-for-granted assumptions about their posture and dress. a. Have students sit down in a chair with a straight back. Instruct them to cross their legs at the ankles and keep their knees pressed together. Have them hold this position and count to 10. b. Tell students to drop a pencil on the floor and bend down to pick it up. Remind them to bend their knees so that their rear end doesn’t stick up and place a hand over the front of their shirt to hold it in place. Have them repeat this motion several times, quickly. c. Have students sit comfortably on the floor. Tell students to hold this position for 30 seconds.

Note: This exercise is taken and slightly modified from page 305 of Eakins, B. W., & Eakins, R. G. (1991). Sex differences in nonverbal communication. In L. A. Samovar & R. E. Porter (Eds.), Intercultural Communication: A Reader. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth. 2.

Performing Masculinity and Femininity with Nonverbal Behaviors: Show all or segments of the video Boys Don’t Cry to your class. This film is particularly effective because it is based upon a true story. Because this film includes a graphic rape scene along with other acts of violence, some students may become disturbed while watching the film. Therefore, talk to your students before viewing the film and create a safe space for 146

discussion following the video. It is not necessary to show the graphic scenes in the film in order to provide rich examples of nonverbal communication. Encourage students to pay attention to the modifications Hillary Swank makes in her nonverbal behavior as she undergoes the transition from living as a woman to living as a man. The film is filled with subtle and blatant messages about gender and sex roles and expectations in the United States and should provide ample material for discussion and consideration. Conduct a class discussion after showing the video. Discussion should focus on nonverbal communication and how Brandon’s nonverbal communicative acts are used to conform to prescribed gender and sex roles. Discussion can also be extended to address how nonverbal communication influences how individuals view or label others’ sexuality. Finally, this film does an excellent job of showing the dark side of what can happen when individuals choose to challenge and deviate from what society deems as “appropriate” gendered and sexual practices. Therefore, a discussion of moving out of traditional gender roles, and the difficulties in doing so, should also be addressed. Other films that will work for a discussion of how men and women perform the other sex include: She’s the Man (2006, with Amanda Bines), Mrs. Doubtfire (1993, with Robin Williams), One of the Guys (1985, with Joyce Hysner), Tootsie (1982, with Dustin Hoffman), and Some Like It Hot (1959, with Marilyn Monroe, Tony Curtis, and Jack Lemmon). 3.

Communicating Masculinity, Femininity, and Sexuality: Show part or all of the movie In & Out to your class. One of the most pedagogically rich scenes occurs when Kevin Kline decides to play an audiotape titled “Be a Man: Exploring Your Masculinity” in order to ascertain if he is gay or not (at approximately 42.30 minutes, DVD chapter “Exploring your Masculinity”). Encourage students to pay attention to the nonverbal and verbal communication lessons that Kevin Kline is being taught. After the clip is shown, brainstorm on the board “what we learned was masculine.” Add questions to the scene such as: “What are masculine instruments? Masculine sports? Masculine eating habits?” Then, ask them to brainstorm how one communicates femininity. Push them past simply stating “doing the opposite of what is masculine.” Ask them to act out feminine versus masculine ways of sitting, drinking, and so forth. One way to push this conversation further is to ask students to consider why one’s gendered communication styles lead others to assume one’s sexuality. How does homophobia become a tool for reinforcing rigid gender roles? If you show the entire film, save time for a class discussion after viewing the video. You also may want to assign a related journal entry.

Observing Nonverbal Behaviors: Allow students to leave the classroom for a portion of the class period (30 minutes works well) and go to a populated area of campus. Have them watch the people they see, looking for examples of gendered nonverbal communication, both those mentioned in the text and new ones they may identify. Remind them that men may engage in feminine nonverbal communication and women in masculine nonverbals. Afterwards, have them return to class to share their findings. Did men and women tend to follow traditional expectations for nonverbal communication? Did they notice any other 147

patterns in their observations? Did anyone violate a nonverbal expectation? What was the response? A variation on this activity is to release students and ask them to engage in a violation of the expected nonverbal communication style for their sex and record the reactions of those around them. This version tends to work better when students have more time, so assigning as a homework activity is often more effective. 5.

Changing Norms of Attractiveness: Obtain copies of popular magazines such as Life, Cosmopolitan, or Better Homes and Garden from the 1950s, 1960s, 1970s, 1980s, 1990s, and 2000s. (Public and university libraries often have collections of old magazines that can be checked out.) Put students into groups; divide the magazines between the groups depending on the size of the class and the variety of magazines you are able to access. Instruct each group to peruse the magazine looking for messages about fashion, beauty, and attractiveness for both women and men. Ask students to attend to race; body size; hair color and styles; body posture; the color, fit, and cut of clothing; the apparent age of models, and so forth. Also, have students consider the kinds of products targeted to women and/or men. Have groups report their findings to the class, showing images from the magazines to support their claims. What do the differences suggest about changing nonverbal norms for women and men? Chapter 6: Gendered Nonverbal Communication

Multiple Choice 1.

According to research presented in the Gendered Lives text, which of the following is true about smiling? A. Women generally smile more than men. B. Smiling is an example of haptics. C. African-American women are socialized to smile more than Caucasian women. D. Men generally smile more than women. E. Research has shown that men and women smile about the same amounts. ANS: A REF: p. 123

During conversation, Alyssa holds steady eye contact with her friend to indicate she is listening. Alyssa’s eye contact is an example of A. haptics. B. proxemics. C. kinesics. D. artifacts. E. power. ANS: C REF: p. 123 148

Which of the following statements is true about body image? A. In general, men and boys are more satisfied with the way they look than are women and girls. B. An increasing number of men feel pressure to embody social prescriptions for ideal masculinity. C. Men are increasingly seeking to meet body ideals by exercising and taking fitness supplements. D. Binge eating seems to be increasing among men. E. All of the above. ANS: E REF: pp. 124–129

People from which demographic group are most likely to strive to achieve unrealistic body ideals? A. African-American women B. Caucasian women C. African-American men D. Caucasian men E. A and B ANS: B REF: pp. 127–128

The CEO at the company you work for has a spacious corner office all to herself while the rest of the employees share offices or work in cubicles. What form of nonverbal communication is indicating a power differential here? A. Kinesics B. Haptics C. Proxemics D. Territoriality E. Environmental factors ANS: C REF: p. 122

Which of the following has been advanced as an explanation for gender- and sexrelated differences in ability to decode and interpret others’ nonverbal communication? A. Men and women have biological sex-related differences in brain functioning that influence their ability to understand nonverbal communication. B. As part of their socialization to be sensitive to and build relationships, females learn to decode nonverbal communication. C. According to standpoint theory, women must learn to interpret others in order to survive as subordinate members of society. D. All of the above. 149

E. None of the above. There are no gender- and sex-related differences in ability to decode and interpret others’ nonverbal communication. ANS: D REF: p. 129 7.

Three-year-old Kate falls and scrapes her knees on the playground. Her mother runs to her, scoops her up into her arms, and cuddles Kate until she stops crying. What aspect of nonverbal communication is being used here? A. Kinesics B. Artifacts C. The responsiveness dimension of relationship level of meaning D. The liking dimension of relationship level of meaning E. Haptics ANS: E REF: p. 123

Which of the following is NOT one of the ways nonverbal communication can function? A. To regulate interaction B. To establish liking C. To supplement verbal communication D. To establish power E. To give a detailed description of an event ANS: E REF: pp. 117–119

Which of the following is true about men’s clothing? A. It is generally not as colorful or bright as women’s. B. Pockets are used for decorative touches, but not utilitarian purposes. C. They tend to fit close to the body. D. Shoes are meant to flatter the legs at the expense of comfort. E. All of the above. ANS: A REF: p. 120

10.

Which of the following statements about haptics are accurate? A. Men are more likely to initiate friendly touch than women are. B. Parents tend to touch daughters more often and more gently than they do sons. C. Touch is a type of nonverbal that does not differ much at all across cultures. D. Women tend to be more likely to use physical force than men. E. Haptics is a type of nonverbal communication that includes how much space a person uses. 150

ANS: B REF: p. 123 11.

Topic or question should come from class business. See pages 8 to 10 of this manual for details on this activity.

True/False 12. Women are more likely to speak with a greater volume than men and with less inflection. ANS: F REF: p. 124 13. Body image disorders only affect women. ANS: F REF: pp. 127–129 14. Stace frowns at another boy and turns his back in disgust. Stace’s nonverbal communication is demonstrating the liking dimension of relationship-level meaning. ANS: T REF: p. 118 15. Carrie and Jennifer are talking in the hallway between classes. Carrie is making eye contact with Jennifer, nodding intently while Jennifer speaks, and occasionally asks questions to clarify what Jennifer is saying. Carrie is using nonverbal communication to regulate interaction. ANS: F REF: p. 118 16. Nonverbal communication can help underline the importance of a verbal message. ANS: T REF: p. 118 17. Paralanguage includes spoken words. ANS: F REF: p. 124 18. Women are generally better at reading all facial expressions than men are. ANS: F REF: p. 129 151

19. Children’s toys are becoming increasingly gender neutral; many toy stores and toy catalogs no longer separate “toys for girls” and “toys for boys.” ANS: F REF: pp. 119–120 20. Men tend to take up more physical space than women do. ANS: T REF: pp. 122–123 21. Artifacts can be a tool to challenge traditional notions of masculinity and femininity. ANS: T REF: pp. 121–122 22. Topic or question should by authored by a student. See pages 8 to 10 of this manual for details on this activity. Identification 23. Paralanguage ANS: Paralanguage is a form of nonverbal communication. The vocal cues that accompany verbal communications include pitch, tone, and volume. REF: p. 124 24. Artifact ANS: Artifacts are a form of nonverbal communication. They are personal objects that influence how we see ourselves and how we express our identities. Artifacts that help us define and express ourselves as masculine or feminine include toys, clothing, jewelry, makeup, and so forth. REF: p. 129 25. Territoriality ANS: Territoriality is related to proxemics, a nonverbal form of communication related to physical space and our use of it. Territoriality represents the personal space that we don’t want others to invade. People with more power tend to enter the space of people with less power. REF: p. 122 26. Kinesics ANS: Kinesics is a form of nonverbal communication that refers to face and body movements. Kinesics may include gesturing, facial expressions, and body positioning. REF: 152

p. 123 27. Haptics ANS: Haptics refers to the use of touch. Girls tend to be touched more than boys. Those in power tend to have more control over the use of touch than those who do not have as much power. REF: p. 123 28. Proxemics ANS: Proxemics refers to space and how we use it. This includes the distance we keep between ourselves and others. REF: p. 122 29. Responsiveness ANS: Responsiveness refers to the nonverbal behaviors through which we show attentiveness to others and interest in what they say or do. We show our responsiveness through eye contact, posture, and facial expressions. In general, women are more responsive than are men, which may reflect the speech communities into which they are socialized. Differences in responsiveness also can be attributed to race/ethnicity. REF: pp. 128 20. Power ANS: The degree to which people are equal to, dominant over, or deferential to others. Nonverbal communication is frequently used to exert power, particularly through vocal quality, touch, and the use of space. REF: p. 129 Essays 31. What is the relationship level of meaning and how is it conveyed nonverbally? In your answer, be sure to define the three dimensions of relationship-level meaning and give examples of each. ANS: The relationship level of meaning is the nonliteral meaning of communication that expresses how a speaker sees the relationship between self and other. It is conveyed primarily nonverbally. It consists of three dimensions: responsiveness, liking, and power or control. Responsiveness: shows attention to and interest in what others say and do. Nonverbal cues include smiling, inflection, eye contact, leaning forward, and so forth. In general, women tend to be more overtly emotionally expressive communicators (e.g., smile more) and maintain more eye contact than men. Liking: signals like or dislike. Nonverbal behaviors include tone of voice, proximity, 153

touching, and eye contact. Power or control: refers to the degree to which we act as if we are equal to, dominant over, or deferential to others. Nonverbal cues include tone of voice, touch, and use of space (e.g., who moves aside when two people are walking toward one another, office size). REF: pp. 128–129 32. Your textbook states, “members of both sexes often feel pressured to meet current cultural ideals of physical appearance.” Discuss what this means. As part of your answer, be sure to identify and explain the form of nonverbal communication directly relevant to the statement. Be able to discuss gender and race-ethnic variations (if any) in relationship to physical appearance. ANS: The framework for this answer may be found on pages 110 to 115. You may also wish to have students address classroom discussion regarding this issue. The following answer represents some of the many ideas from the text that could be utilized to answer this question. The form of nonverbal communication relevant to this statement is physical appearance. Physical beauty is culturally defined and changes over time. In general, satisfaction with physical appearance varies across gender and race. Typically, men report being satisfied with their appearance and do not attach their appearance to selfesteem. However, some gay men have reported linking appearance to self-worth and are more likely to develop eating disorders. Girls and women, particularly Caucasian, tend to report they are dissatisfied with their bodies and are more likely to diet. Females report being strongly influenced by media images of ultrathin models. Popular culture images of an idealized female body may lead to eating disorders. However, the influence is not limited to females. Males are also developing eating disorders and may practice extreme workout regimes in an attempt to build an idealized muscular body. In general, African-American women report being more satisfied with their bodies, are less prone to eating disorders, and have less extreme unrealistic body image, especially if they identify strongly with their ethnic heritage. REF: pp. 124–129 33. Your book states that toys are powerfully gendered artifacts for children, socializing them into masculine and feminine behaviors from an early age. Describe why toys are so powerful and important and how they influence a child’s gender socialization. ANS: Children tend to be given specific toys based on their gender. Boys are given toys that encourage toughness and competition. Girls are given toys that encourage nurturing, domestic work, and caring for physical appearance. Toys tell children what is acceptable or appropriate for them behavior-wise, and these types of toys tend to reinforce gender stereotypes. REF: pp. 119–120 34. Explain which nonverbal behaviors may be employed to exert power and control and examine the link to gender. 154

ANS: Power dynamics speak to issues of dominance and subordination. Control references who is in charge—for example, who chooses the topic of conversation, who interrupts, and who defers. There are many ways in which nonverbal behaviors play into power and control; however, the text argues that three categories of nonverbal communication are particularly important to this discussion—proxemics, haptics, and paralanguage. Proxemics refers to space and our use of it. In general, masculine communicators take up more space when sitting and standing, a difference not attributable to body size alone. Also related to space, in heterosexual families, fathers are more likely to have their own room and/or sit at the head of the table than are mothers. Haptics refers to touch, and masculine communicators are more likely to use touch to direct others, assert power, and express sexual interest than are feminine communicators. Paralanguage includes the vocal cues that accompany verbal communication. Masculine communicators typically speak more loudly and for longer periods of time than do feminine communicators; they also use stronger inflection to highlight their ideas. In all of these ways, masculine communicators may use nonverbal communication to exert power and control. REF: pp. 122–123

Chapter 7: Becoming Gendered I.

Gendering Communication in the Family A. Unconscious Processes 1. Insight into unconscious dynamics come primarily from psychoanalytic theories, which claim that core identity, including gender identity, is shaped early in life. B. Gender Identity 1. As children we develop a gender identity, a person’s subjective sense of their gender. a. Traditional psychoanalytic theory asserted that biology, particularly genitals, determine which parent a child will identify with. b. Freud believed that children of both sexes focus on the penis as a symbol of power. c. Current psychoanalytic theorists agree that families play a critical role in the formation of gendered identities. 2. Children tend to identify with the person who takes care of them, usually still a woman. For girls, daily interactions with mothers or caregivers create a sense of self within a relationship. 3. Boys have close relationships with fathers or other adult males to define their own masculine identity. 4. Many girls and women continue to prioritize close relationships whereas boys define themselves by separating from their mothers and see themselves relatively independent of others. 5. Children in nontraditional families may face social stigma or have difficulty finding available models of both sexes, but family diversity often fosters a new way of thinking. 155

II.

a. Approximately two million children are being raised with gay or lesbian parents. They tend to have more expansive views of gender roles. b. Lesbian moms tend to model greater egalitarianism in romantic relationships and encourage economic and emotional self-sufficiency in their children, particularly daughters. 6. There has been less research on heterosexual men as single dads. a. Children in single-parent families may have trouble finding available models of both genders. C. Ego Boundaries 1. Ego boundaries are the point at which an individual stops and the rest of the world begins. It distinguishes self from everyone and everything else. 2. People with feminine gender identities tend have relatively permeable ego boundaries that do not entail rigid separation from others. a. This may partially explain why many girls and women tend to experience the feelings of those close to them. 3. Conventional masculine gender identity is premised on fluid alliances with others which makes for a relatively firm ego boundary. They sympathize with others but do not experience those feelings as their own. Parental Communication about Gender A. While some parents’ attitudes and communication about gender are becoming more egalitarian, much evidence of traditional stereotyping still exists. 1. Parents label and respond to their infants according to gendered stereotypes within hours of birth 2. Parents, particularly white middle-class parents, rewarding verbal and physical activity in sons and interpersonal and social skills in daughters. 3. Heterosexual fathers are particularly likely to encourage sons to be heterosexual. Gay fathers are more likely to resist normative expectations. B. Mothers tend to communicate with children more than heterosexual fathers. 1. Mothers typically make talk the center of their relationships with sons and daughters. The talk focuses on providing comfort, security, and emotional development. They play at the children’s level, which develops confidence and security. 2. Today’s fathers talk more with children than in previous generations. They focus on play that is physically stimulating and exciting. They urge children to compete, achieve, take risks, and act independently. C. Parents also communicate gender expectations through encouraging particular toys and activities. 1. Toys marketed for girls encourage gentle, nurturing interaction. Toys marketed to boys promote independent or competitive activities. D. Household chores assigned reflect gender expectations. 1. Domestic chores are more frequently assigned to girls while outdoor work is assigned to boys. E. In general, boys experience more rigid socialization into masculinity than girls into femininity. 156

III.

F. Parental Modeling 1. Parents communicate gender through modeling masculinity, femininity, and male-female relationships. For most children, observing parents teaches them roles socially prescribed for women and men. 2. In addition to LGBTQ families and single-parent families, another departure from tradition is the breadwinner role. Most children are in households where all adults work and 40% of women in two-earner households earn more money than their male partners. The Personal Side of the Gender Drama A. Growing Up Masculine 1. Although there is a dominant model of masculinity, there are also many variations on and challenges to that. 2. There are six themes of manhood in America today. 3. Don’t Be Feminine a. For many men, the most fundamental requirement for manhood is not to be feminine. b. To be accepted by peers, boys become less verbally expressive. Showing sensitivity or vulnerability makes you a sissy or a wimp. c. This directive is at least as strong for men of color as for white men. 4. Be Successful a. Boys are expected to be successful at sports and other competitive activities. You must be not just good, but better than others. b. This often includes being a good provider, which is not realistic after the recession. c. Men not in the paid labor force have to find other ways to define themselves. 5. Be Aggressive a. Expected to take stands, be tough, no run from confrontations. Media fuel ideals of extreme masculinity. 6. Be Sexual a. Men are supposed to be interested in sex, have many partners, and treat them casually. b. This is problematic for gay, bisexual, and trans men and younger men who do not want casual sex. 7. Be Self-Reliant a. A “real man” depends on himself, not others. 8. Embody and Transcend Traditional Views of Masculinity a. Men feel pressures from other boys and men to be conventionally masculine. b. Romantic partners, female friends, sisters, and mothers expect them to sensitive and emotionally open. c. More men are depressed and stressed but unwilling to seek help. They are four times as likely to take their own lives as women. B. Growing Up Feminine 1. Two different narrative of femininity coexist. One version suggests that women “have it all” since they have new professional opportunities and 157

IV.

egalitarian marriages. On the other hand, statistics show that women are unlikely to advance to the highest professional levels, they continue to be paid less than men, and workplace policies don’t accommodate family responsibilities. 2. Five major themes of femininity and womanhood are examined. 3. Appearance Still Counts a. Women are still judged by their looks. To be desirable is to be pretty, slim, and well dressed. b. Consumption is unending and never sufficient to secure lasting success. c. Women athletes feel particular pressure to look feminine. 4. Be Sensitive and Caring a. Women are expected to be nice, deferential, and helpful and to care about and for others. b. Girls learn that being outspoken and smart does not win them prizes. 5. Negative Treatment by Others a. Devaluation and mistreatment of females is pervasive in Western culture. This devaluation is internalized and can be especially intense in girls’ peer groups. b. Young girls engage in relational aggression, which involves attacking others using social, rather than physical, strategies. 6. Be Superwoman a. Many young women today seem to feel they are expected to do it all. There is a tension in trying to figure out how to have a family life and a successful career. 7. There Is No Single Meaning of Feminine Anymore a. Themes of femininity reveal both constancy and change. Traditional expectations still exist yet there are options that allow women to define themselves in diverse ways. Growing Up outside Conventional Genders A. For people who do not identity with and perform normative gender identity and heterosexuality, growing up can be particularly difficult. B. Social isolation greets many people who are gender nonconforming or trans. It’s also difficult to find role models and acceptance from family, peers, and society. C. More recently, transgender and intersex people have made their identities and struggles public. One sign of changing attitudes is evolving school policies and laws. D. Transgender people face particular challenges about their gender performance and living day-to-day life that gender-conforming people do not face.

Journal Entries 1.

Thinking about the early years in your family, recall the messages that were given to you by your family that told you what it meant to be a boy or a girl. Reflect on how these 158

messages helped shape your gender identity. 2.

How would your life be different if you woke up tomorrow and were a member of the other sex?

How permeable are your ego boundaries? If you have more permeable ego boundaries, how do these enrich your life and relationships? How might they constrain and restrict you? If you have more rigid ego boundaries, how do these enrich your life and relationships? How might they constrain and restrict you?

Have you felt the pressures to be feminine or masculine as the book describes them? How so? Were there any aspects of being masculine or feminine that have not been part of your experience of gender socialization? Explain.

Reflect on the ways your parent(s) or guardian(s) modeled their gender(s). Were they traditional in their gender expressions or did they defy gender norms? Or, were they traditional in some ways but nontraditional in others? Next, consider how your parent(s)’ or guardian(s)’ gender expression influenced your own gender identity. Do you perform/express your gender in ways that are similar to or different from them?

Suggested Activities 1.

Pinks and Blues: Watch and discuss the film The Pinks and the Blues. Though the film is several years old, the socialization processes illustrated and the research discussed are just as relevant today as when the film was made.

Family Communication and Gender Role: Allow students to discuss the socialization processes they experienced in their families. Divide the class into groups of two or three students to allow discussion that is more in-depth, and perhaps more personal. Use the exercise “Family Communication and Gender Role” included with this section to guide students’ reflections. Hand out the exercise the class period before you intend to use it to allow students time to reflect on their experiences. Because many of the examples and experiences shared may be of a personal nature, you may want to debrief the class after their interactions, rather than conduct a formal discussion. In debriefing the activity, share some representative examples that you heard being discussed across the groups; additionally, students will often offer their experiences to supplement your observations. You may want to include some of your experiences growing up to represent issues you feel are relevant to the exercise and the class.

Examining Ego Boundaries: The book Boundaries in the Mind (Hartmann, 1991) examines the concept of ego boundaries. You may wish to use an instrument that Hartmann designed, the Boundary Questionnaire, to allow class members to measure their ego boundaries. The instrument consists of a number of statements on which respondents indicate their level of agreement or disagreement. For example, the statement “My thoughts often blend into one another” measures permeability, and “I get to appointments right on time” gauges rigidity. Scoring the instrument results in a measure of permeability 159

or rigidity of ego boundaries. After students have completed this instrument, it is useful to conduct a discussion of how the permeability or rigidity of ego boundaries affects an individual’s worldview and personal relationships. 4.

Gendering through Childhood Stories: Have students bring in a book that they enjoyed as a young child. (You may need to announce this activity in advance so that students have time to obtain a copy of the book.) Suggest that they visit the local library if they do not have a copy of the book. Have them examine the books in small groups to see what messages the storybooks teach about gender. Ask them to recall how they were first introduced to the text (did someone give it to them, did they discover it on their own?) and why they liked the book as a child. This activity can emphasize how unaware we are of gendered messages we receive as a child and how natural they often seem.

Letter to Your Former Self: Ask students to recall what they were like around the time they started puberty (middle school years). Then, ask them to think about how they have matured and learned about themselves since them. Ask the students to write a letter to the younger version of themselves, giving the adolescent advice about masculinity, femininity, gender, sexuality, and so forth. In other words, what have they learned about gender that they could teach their younger, more naïve selves? They may say things like, “It’s actually okay to admit when you’re upset” or, “Just because your body looks like you’re 18, doesn’t mean anyone should expect you to act like you are.” They may talk about how they have matured into their own gender, gender identity, and gender expression. The students may or may not wish to share their letters. Because some will probably be quite personal, be sure not to require or pressure them to share, and it is probably best not to collect the letters (and to tell them in advance that they can keep them private, if they wish). However, you can have a discussion about the kinds of things they wrote. Even though they cannot go back and change the last several years, the students can think about how they can use productively the knowledge they have gained. For example, they may mentor a child from the community, be a role model for a younger sibling, or work to raise awareness among friends who know less about gender than they do.

A Genderless Childhood: In January 2011, a baby named Storm was born. The only people who know Storm’s sex are the baby’s parents, Kathy Witterick and David Stocker, the midwives who helped deliver the child, and the child’s older siblings. ABC News reports that “Storm’s parents decided not to share the child’s sex . . . because they want to allow the baby to develop without the constraints of gender stereotypes.” (http://abcnews.go.com/Health/genderless-baby-tribute-liberty-conscript-war-sexroles/story?id=13716165). Here is a more recent article from Vox about parents in Sweden who raising their children gender neutral: https://www.vice.com/en_us/article/ppxjvb/raising-children-genderneutral-876. Discuss this particular case, but also the growing awareness and trend of raising neutral children, with the class. Is it possible to raise a “genderless” child? Ask students to consider how they would respond to meeting and interacting with a child whose sex was not disclosed. It may be helpful to obtain and share news articles about the case to facilitate discussion. 160

FAMILY COMMUNICATION AND GENDER ROLE This exercise will allow you to examine how family communication influences gender role by guiding your discussion with a few classmates. The goal is for you to apply research we’ve read and discussed to your personal life. Before the small group discussions, please think about gender messages in your own family, and how these influenced the sense of gender identity and ego boundaries that you formed. Consider especially the formative, early years of your development. Following are some questions designed to prompt your thinking about gender messages in your family. Think about all of them, though in your group you may choose to focus on only several. 1. Think about your parents or guardians as gender role models. How did your mother figure enact her gender? How did your father figure enact his gender? How consistent with traditional sex-role stereotypes were your parents or guardians? How do you reflect their modeling? If you grew up in a single parent or guardian home, how did the parent or guardian you lived with enact her or his gender? Do you think having a single parent or guardian influenced your sense of your own gender? 2. Think about the kinds of things your guardian(s) required you to do—chores or responsibilities expected of you. Were you expected to do housework, yard work, and so forth? To what extent did chores expected of you reflect gender roles? 3. How did praise and discipline reflect your guardian(s’) ideas about your gender? What kinds of activities, feelings, goals, and so forth. earned praise for you? What sorts of behaviors, attitudes, and feelings led to scolding from your guardian(s)? 4. What did you do with your guardian(s)? Did you engage in different activities with your father figure and/or mother figure? 5. Did material things your guardian(s) got for you carry messages about “appropriate” gender role? Think about the kinds of clothes, toys, and so forth. you were given. 6. If you have (or had) siblings of the other sex, what differences were there in how you and your sibling(s) were treated? Did your guardian(s) act and talk in distinct ways with you and your siblings? What lessons did you draw from any differences you experienced? 7. How did your guardian(s) respond to statements you made about “what I’m going to be when I grow up”? Toward what adult goals/careers did your guardian(s) encourage you? Were you discouraged from any of your ambitions? 8. During your childhood years, how much time did you spend in independent activities? How much of your time was spent with others? How constantly were you supervised growing up?

161

Chapter 7: Becoming Gendered Multiple Choice 1.

A person’s private sense of, and subjective experience of, his or her gender is called A. monitoring. B. internalization. C. gender identity. D. ego boundaries. E. gender constancy. ANS: C REF: p. 136

Which of the following is true, according to psychoanalytic theorists? A. Children of both sexes usually form their first identification with an adult woman. B. Boys identify more closely with their fathers than girls identify with their mothers. C. For a girl to fully form her identity, she must repress her original identification with her mother. D. At around the age of one year, male and female development diverges dramatically. E. All of the above. ANS: A REF: pp. 136–137

The point at which an individual stops and the rest of the world begins is called a(n) A. gender identity. B. gender constancy. C. ego boundary. D. masculine speech community. E. none of the above. ANS: C REF: p. 139

What has research found about social aggression in girls? A. It is often physical. B. It includes spreading rumors. C. It happens very infrequently. D. It has decreased in the last five years. E. It tends to end by the time girls are in high school. ANS: B REF: p. 149 166

Even when people Kathy hardly knows tell her about their emotions and private lives, she feels very connected to them. Kathy could be described as having A. rigid ego boundaries. B. permeable ego boundaries. C. unstable gender constancy. D. an androgynous gender identification. E. an unstable sense of self. ANS: B REF: pp. 139– 140

Allison is a 30-year-old mother of two young sons. She and her partner, Mike, both have full-time jobs. At work, Allison constantly feels pressure to work hard for promotion to the next level in her career. At home, she worries frequently that she’s not spending enough time with her sons and that her house is never clean enough. What theme of cultural expectations of women is Allison experiencing? A. Be superwoman. B. Be sensitive and caring. C. Appearance still counts. D. Negative treatment by others. E. None of the above. ANS: A REF: pp. 150– 151

Derek is frustrated because his girlfriend wants him to speak openly about his feelings, but his male friends make fun of him for showing what he feels. Which of the following elements of masculine socialization in the United States best describes both of these pressures Derek feels? A. Don’t be female. B. Be aggressive. C. Follow the boy code. D. Embody and transcend traditional views of masculinity. E. Be successful. ANS: D REF: p. 146

Which of the following is generally true of mothers’ communication with their 179

children? A. Mothers tend to communicate with children more than fathers. B. Mothers typically focus on providing comfort, security, and emotional development. C. Mothers tend to talk about numbers with their sons more often than their daughters. D. Mothers engage in more eye contact and face-to-face interaction with children than do fathers. E. All of the above. ANS: E REF: pp. 141– 142 9.

Before leaving for work every morning, Laura spends about 90 minutes styling her hair and applying her makeup. Before bed each night, she carefully selects the outfit she will wear to work in the morning. At Laura’s office, the list of dress code requirements for women is two-pages long. The requirements for men fill barely half a page. Which theme of femininity does this describe? A. Appearance still counts. B. Being superwoman. C. Being treated negatively by others. D. There is no single definition of femininity today. E. Be caring. ANS: A REF: p. 147– 148

10.

Daniel works as a barista at a small coffee house in New York City. He loves his job and his customers love him. He has a very small apartment that he shares with a roommate. His salary allows him to eat at restaurants a few times a month and to visit his sister in another state a couple of times a year. Daniel is mostly satisfied with his life. However, he feels a lot of pressure from his parents, especially his father, to go out and find a job in his college major of economics. Daniel’s father frequently derides the coffee house job and the size of Daniel’s apartment. What theme of masculinity is described here? A. Don’t be female. B. Be successful. C. Be aggressive. D. Be sexual. E. Be self-reliant. ANS: 180

B REF: pp. 144– 145 11.

Topic or question should by authored by a student. See pages 8 to 10 of this manual for details on this activity.

True/False 12. Girls typically define their femininity in negative terms—as not masculine or not male. ANS: F REF: pp. 147– 151 13. Men tend to have relatively firm ego boundaries. ANS: T REF: p. 140 14. Mothers are more likely to encourage gender-appropriate behavior in their children. ANS: F REF: pp. 141– 143 15. According to psychoanalytic theory, families play a critical role in the formation of gender identity. ANS: T REF: p. 137 16. Newborn baby girls are frequently described as strong, big, active, and alert by their parents. ANS: F REF: p. 140 17. In the United States, a current theme in views of femininity is that women should 181

build female networks of support to achieve success. ANS: F REF: pp. 147–151 18. Though many things have changed about gender over time, appearance is still a primary measure and marker of femininity. ANS: T REF: pp. 147– 149 19. According to some counselors, pressure to live up to ideals of masculinity has led to an epidemic of hidden male depression. ANS: T REF: p. 146 20. Men in the United States are seen as failing at masculinity if they try to transcend traditional notions of masculinity. ANS: F REF: p. 146 21. Female babies tend to identify with their mothers and male babies tend to identify with their fathers. ANS: F REF: p. 137 Identification 22. Ego boundaries ANS: Defines the point at which an individual stops and the rest of the world begins. They distinguish the self from everything else. Individuals who develop more feminine gender identities, tend to have more thin or permeable boundaries—which means they are more likely to experience the feelings of others as their own. Masculine individuals tend to emphasize separation from others and have more rigid or thicker ego boundaries— which means they have a clearer sense of differentiation between self and others. REF: p. 146 182

23. Gender identity ANS: Part of a person’s overall identity, gender identity is one’s private sense of, and subjective experience of, his or her identity. REF: p. 157 Essays 24. Define ego boundaries and explain how they typically develop in masculine and feminine people, noting both similarities and differences in development. ANS: Ego boundaries are the point at which an individual stops and the rest of the world (and other people) begins. They distinguish the self from others and others’ concerns and lives. Generally, feminine people (often women) have more permeable ego boundaries than masculine people (often men), due to feminine socialization that emphasizes interrelatedness with others. Generally, masculine people’s ego boundaries are firmer than those of feminine people, due to masculine socialization that starts with differentiating from a female caregiver and have fluid alliances with others. Those with permeable ego boundaries typically empathize and identify more with others and experience the feelings of intimates more as their own than those with thick ego boundaries do. People with firm ego boundaries generally feel less responsible for others than those with permeable boundaries, although this should not suggest that masculine people do not care about others and want to help them with problems. REF: pp. 139–140 25. Identify the themes (or elements) of what it means to be masculine in the United States. As part of your explanation, be sure you provide brief, concrete examples for the six themes. Finally, discuss one way that parental/guardian communication about gender (as discussed in Chapter 7 of Gendered Lives) may influence understanding of one or more of these themes. ANS: The themes of masculinity may be found on pages 144 to 147. Five themes of masculinity are discussed in the text: (1) don’t be female/feminine, (2) be successful, (3) be aggressive, (4) be sexual, (5) be self-reliant, and (6) embody and transcend traditional views of masculinity. Each of these should have a short example to illustrate it. Answers on the final portion of the question may vary. For instance, a student may choose to talk about the psychoanalytical theorist approach that states that boys develop their sense of masculinity by lessening identification with their mothers. Therefore, this may reinforce the theme of don’t be female. REF: pp. 144–147 26. Contemporary fathers are far more involved in their children’s lives than were fathers of previous generations. Based on the ideas discussed in Chapter 7, reflect on the 183

implications this might have on the gender development of contemporary children. ANS: Psychoanalytic theory argues that because of the remoteness of fathers, boys struggle to find male gender models and therefore may define masculinity in the negative – e.g., as not- feminine. Fathers who are active in their son’s lives may abet this problem, providing boys with a concrete model of masculinity. However, it’s not clear that fathers’ greater involvement in the lives of their children will lead to more fluid gender roles. On one hand, fathers are more likely to encourage that their children enact appropriate gender norms than are mothers; on the other hand, fathers also are more likely to encourage both sons and daughters to stretch themselves and take risks. As such, they may push their daughters to try activities that might be traditionally considered “masculine.” REF: pp. 136–139 27. Identify the themes (or elements) of what it means to be feminine in the United States. As part of your explanation, be sure you provide brief, concrete examples for the five themes. Finally, discuss one way that parental/guardian communication about gender (as discussed in Chapter 7 of Gendered Lives) may influence understanding of one or more of these themes. ANS: The themes of femininity may be found on pages 147 to 151. Five themes of femininity are discussed in the text: (1) appearance still counts, (2) be sensitive and caring, (3) being treated negatively by others, (4) be a superwoman, (5) there is no single definition of femininity today. Each of these should have a short example to illustrate it. Answers on the final portion of the question may vary. For instance, students may write about how girls are often given toys that encourage building relationships in order to play and may often practice cooking, cleaning, and childcare through games. This emphasizes that girls should be caring and responsive to others and be a superwoman. REF: pp. 147–151 28. Children tend to be socialized into very strict gender roles. This socialization process and these expectations tend to be especially difficult for children who are gay, lesbian, bisexual, transgender, intersex, or otherwise genderqueer. Give an example of two specific difficulties that queer kids may face growing up as well as a potential response to help ease each issue, explaining how the response would directly impact the issue. ANS: Answers for this question may vary. Students should draw from the material on pages 138 to 139 to answer this question but may use their own unique examples. They may cite decisions (and social stigma and teasing) over what restrooms to use, what clothes to wear, what gendered sports team to play for, what dorm room to live in, among others, as issues queer kids face. Responses may include introducing diversity early on to children (both for queer and nonqueer kids), providing gender-neutral restrooms, sports options, and living opportunities, and eliminating gender-specific language from conversation. Students should make explicit connections between their potential responses 184

and the issues. REF: pp. 152–153 29. According to psychoanalytical theory, how do most boys develop their gender identity? ANS: For boys, the process of developing gender identity is complicated, according to psychodynamic theory. As infants, boys internalize and identify with their primary caretaker; in most cases this is the boy’s mother or another woman. By around age three, however, a boy recognizes that his sex is constant –he will always be male – and that his maleness is different from the femaleness of his primary caretaker. This realization leads boys to separate from their initial identification with their primary caretaker and seek out an adult male role model. Because fathers are more remote from their children than are mothers, they are not necessarily available to serve in this role. Boys, in turn, may develop their masculinity in negative terms – as not like mother, or not feminine. REF: pp. 136–137

Chapter 8: Gendered Education: Communication in Schools I. Gendered Expectations and Pressures on Students A. Academics 1. All students encounter gendered expectations and pressures in schools from kindergarten on. 2. Boys and Men a. Young boys tend to have more physical energy and less impulse control than girls. In addition, their verbal skills mature later. b. These developmental differences make it difficult for young boys to sit quietly and follows instructions. Elementary school classrooms may not be very boy friendly. c. These challenges may affect success later in school. More women attend college and pursue graduate study. d. Personal choices play a role in academic success: boys and men spend less time preparing for classes and more time leisure activities. 3. Girls and Women e. Long-standing beliefs that females are less able to understand math and science have acted as barriers to study and to careers in those fields. f. Persisting bias against female students in math and science show up in various ways (a counselor who recommends a different class). There is a faculty bias against female students in science as well. g. One study found that professors who believed an applicant for a 185

lab assistant was male were more likely to hire the student, propose a higher salary, and offer mentoring. Women and minorities were significantly less likely to receive a response. h. Girls drop out of math and science at about the time they become more aware of gender and see that women shy away from being overly smart. i. Behaviors that facilitate success in school—completing work, following directions, being neat—are the not the same as skills often necessary for career success. j. Curricula, particularly history, tend to misrepresent or eras women and gender-nonconforming people. If they do appear, they tend to fit traditional stereotypes of women or have distinguished themselves in masculine terms. k. Historical epochs tend to be taught in terms of effects on men while neglecting their impact on women, people of color, and other historically disenfranchised communities. l. The default person presented as the standard is the white, heterosexual, able-bodied, and middle- and upper-class men. 4. LGBTQ Students m. Students who identify as LGBTQ also face challenges and discrimination. Many of the challenges step from the gender binary norm that infuses schools and society. Bathrooms, sports teams, and locker rooms are divided by sex. n. Cisgendered heterosexuality is an assumption in school curricula, from the stories read in early grades to activities done for Mother’s Day and Father’s Day. o. The process of assigning roommates assumes students are cisgender and heterosexual. 5. Gender Isn’t the Whole Story a. Academic challenges are not exclusively tied to gender or sexual orientation. The gap between rich and poor students eclipses the gap between female and male success. b. This growing chasm is due in large part to the greater investments of time and other resources well-off parents can make in their children. B. Athletics 1. Title IX is part of the reason that women have greater opportunities to participate in athletics. Title IX requires women to be provided equitable opportunity to participate in sports, for colleges to provide female athletes with scholarships proportional to their participation, and receive equivalent practice times, equipment, supplies, coaching, and so forth. 2. However, male athletes and their coaches continue to receive greater support, including financial support. 3. Some colleges and universities employ deceptive practices to make it appear that they are meeting the criteria of Title IX when they are not. 186

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4. Participating in sports while in school is linked to higher salaries and better health for women and girls. C. Gender Pressures from Peers 1. Students have to work hard to conform to prevailing expectations for their gender. Peers are primary agents of gender socialization. 2. Pressures to Conform to Masculinity a. Male peer groups reinforce masculine identification. Cisgender men engage in drinking and sexual activity, doing as a group what they might not as individuals. b. Students of color, especially black men, often encounter obstacles. Fewer black men graduate from high school, attend college, or graduate from college than white men, white women, and black women. 3. Pressures to Conform to Femininity a. Female peer groups tend to encourage and reward compliance with feminine stereotypes. b. Girls and women are particularly targeted for sexual harassment and assault. This is not confined to peer interactions, but may come from faculty and coaches. c. An increasing problem for all students is bullying, which is behavior intended to hurt, embarrass, shame or intimidate another person. d. Undergraduate college women report feeling compelled to achieve effortless perfection: to be beautiful, fit, popular, and smart without any visible effort. Undergraduate women felt overwhelmed by the thought that they should be perfect in all realms of life. e. College women are also socialized into a culture of romance. One reason is some women become discouraged by barriers to their academic achievement and a second is peer pressure that emphasize attracting men as more important than anything else. 4. Gay, lesbian, and transgender students also face peer pressure. a. Pressure to conform to conventionally gendered identities can be much greater for LGBTQ students, and they are more likely to be bullied for living outside normative prescriptions for gender and sexuality. b. In 2010, Tyler Clementi committed suicide after discovering his roommate had sent out Twitter and text messages inviting others to watch a sexual encounter between Clementi and another man. Gendered Expectations and Pressures Facing Faculty A. In addition to being educational institutions, schools are also workplaces, and so it is important to explore the gendered attitudes and practices that affect faculty who work there. B. Women faculty members often experience some of the same pressures faced by women students. They may be stereotyped into traditionally feminine roles and perform more service than male peers and have to deal with sexual harassment. 187

C. The more advanced the educational level, the greater the ratio of male to female faculty. 1. Although most high school and elementary school teachers are female, most administrators and superintendents are male. 2. At higher status colleges and universities, most faculty members are white males. 3. Male faculty still earn more than female faculty. At doctoral universities, men outnumber women three to one and women average 90 cents per dollar earned by male faculty. 4. Limited numbers of female faculty and faculty of color mean women and minority students have fewer role models. D. Researchers have identified three major sources of gender bias hiring and promotion of faculty. 1. Women’s performance tends to be more closely scrutinized and judged by stricter standards than men’s. 2. Men have to give stronger demonstrations of incompetence to be judged by others as incompetent. 3. Male candidates tend to be hired and judged upon whether they show promise. Female candidates tend to be judged on accomplishments. 4. Invisible hand discrimination is unwitting discrimination in applying policies that are not inherently biased. D. For female faculty, early years require long hours and heavy investments that often coincide with the ideal years for bearing children. The lack of representation also often means excessive responsibilities for service and mentoring. Journal Entries 1. Observe and analyze gendered patterns of interaction in a class other than this one. Discuss how classroom dynamics reproduce or contest cultural views of gender. 2. Observe your campus population. What are the racial and gender demographics of the faculty, staff, and students on your campus? Analyze how these data inform your gendered and racialized education. (We find it never ceases to surprise both instructors and students to research their campus through our Affirmative Action offices and campus papers to discover what these demographics actually are versus our perceptions.) 3. Think back to when you were in grade school or high school. Recall messages that were given to you by your teachers. For example, recall if any teachers gave you gendered messages such as, “boys are better at math and science and girls are good at language and reading.” Think about how these messages may have affected how you viewed what career choices were available to you. Do you feel these types of messages have had an impact on other areas of your life today? 4. Your text maintains that history classes and texts tend to focus on the activities of 188

powerful men. Peruse a textbook used for a first-year world history or U.S. history course taught on your campus. Does this assertion hold true? If so, how so? If not, why not? Be careful to consider the amount and kind of coverage given to different topics. For example, if you are perusing a textbook on U.S. history, how much space and significance is given to the feminist movements? Is it comparable to the coverage given comparable historical events and social movements? Suggested Activities 1. The Gender Curriculum: The handout at the end of this section should be distributed to students at least one class period before the discussion you schedule to examine gendered patterns of interaction in the classroom and in instructional materials. You may want to consider reading the Hall & Sandler (1982) piece on the “chilly climate” that exists for girls and women in the classroom (complete citation for this article found in the reference section of this resource book). The Hall and Sandler article gives suggestions for students, teachers, and administrators to make the classroom a lessbiased place for female students. As gender issues in the classroom frequently hit home with students, your responses to students’ examples will reveal a good deal about how you view gender bias in the educational system. Students often discuss professors who tell sexist jokes, professors who do not learn the names of female students, and classrooms where African American students routinely are passed over when students’ hands are raised. You may want to encourage students to address these issues in whatever ways seem wise. Course evaluations at the end of a term can give anonymous feedback to professors on their instructional materials and their style of interaction. Additionally, many professors are unaware of the subtle bias that occurs in the classroom against female students; when these issues are brought to the attention of instructors, amazement and gratitude may follow for raising awareness. For this exercise, we find it helpful to allow students first to discuss these issues in groups of four or five of their peers. Often students’ observations spur classmates to consider examples in their experiences in the educational system. Additionally, students may share common classes and have differing perspectives on materials presented and interactions occurring. After allowing groups to share their findings for 20 to 25 minutes, pull the students back together for a full-class discussion. Be prepared to respond supportively, to express amazement and horror, and to offer suggestions. 2. Transgender Students at Single-Sex Schools: Show the episode of Transgeneration (The Sundance Channel’s documentary miniseries which follows four transgender college students) in which Lucas struggles with being an FTM transgender person at an all- women’s college. The college’s official position is that a student must be female at the time of admittance in order to attend Smith College; however, Lucas feels marginalized and unsupported. Lead a discussion about this episode addressing the following questions (you may choose to have students talk first in small groups about these questions). How should single-sex colleges handle transgender students? Why 189

does/might Lucas feel alienated? Why would a transgender student want to attend a single-sex college? What issues might trans students face at either single-sex or coed colleges that other students do not face (e.g., bathrooms, dorms, sports)? This episode also illustrates how the arguments for same-sex education are based on a binary model of gender and assumed heterosexuality. 3. Gendered Education in Film: Show a clip from a film that highlights education of males or education of females. Dead Poets Society (male education) and Mona Lisa Smile (female education) are examples of these. Ask students to note what assumptions are made about men or women and their education needs, styles, and goals in the film. It may be useful to show both films and contrast two different views. (Both films are set in the 1950s.) 4. Gendered Evaluations: Compile several sets of teacher evaluations: one set should include evaluations of one or more male professors, the other set should include evaluations of one or more female professors. In all cases, make sure that the names of the professors are not disclosed. Make copies of the evaluations and distribute to students. Place students in small groups and ask them to review the evaluations for gendered themes. Debrief the exercise as a large group. Do the compiled evaluations follow the patterns you might expect? Are other themes apparent? What do the evaluations tell us about students’ attitudes toward male and female professors? (You may want to use your own evaluations and/or evaluations of your colleagues if they are willing to share them. Alternatively, you can find evaluations of professors at ratemyprofessor.com.)

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THE GENDER CURRICULUM Prior to the class period in which you will meet with your groups to discuss sex-typing in schools, please prepare for discussion by doing the following field research. *** 1. Take notes on gender typing in the readings you have for two classes other than this one. The following general questions are meant to guide your examination of books. Some questions may not be relevant to textbooks for some courses. A. Is generic language used, e.g., “he,” “man”? B. How many examples feature women? How many feature men? Are the examples presented exclusively white individuals? C. How often are females presented in roles of dependency, leadership, supporting others, and so forth? Notice photos in books as well as prose. D. How often are males presented in these roles? E. How often are men and women presented in caregiving roles, such as taking care of children? 2. Pay attention to patterns of interaction in two of your classes other than this one. As you do so, notice whether there are gender inequities such as these: A. How often do male members of each class contribute comments? B. How often do female members of each class contribute comments? C. Does the instructor respond equally (encouragement, elaboration, interest, etc.) to comments from females and males? D. Does the instructor use an equal number of examples featuring each sex? Are the sexes portrayed in similar roles? E. Does the instructor use generic language? F. Are there any gender tendencies in interruptions of students? G. Do you notice any differences in the length of comments made by male and female students? H. In examples used in the class (both ones by teachers and students) are males and females represented with equal frequency and in equal kinds of roles?

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JUDGMENT CALL 8: SHOULD SAME SEX EDUCATION BE ALLOWED IN SCHOOLS THAT RECEIVE FEDERAL SUPPORT? Title IX states that schools that receive federal funds cannot discriminate on the basis of sex. Thus, schools that accept federal support must not show preference to either sex in admission, and they must provide “equal opportunities” in school-sponsored courses, cocurricular, and athletic activities. Title IX was recently tested when women applied to the Citadel, a military training school in South Carolina that had admitted only males since it opened its doors. The Citadel went through several levels of court battles in its fight to remain an exclusively male school, but the Citadel lost the fight. The courts ruled that as long as the Citadel accepted federal funds, it must admit qualified women who want to enroll in one of the top military training institutions. To do otherwise would be to refuse to provide women with the same opportunities to prepare for military careers that men have historically had. Even though Title IX prohibits discrimination by schools receiving federal support, some educators believe that sex-segregated education is desirable—at least in some cases. For example, research has shown that many female students learn more in sex-segregated math and science classes. Studies also show that a greater percentage of women who attend traditional women’s colleges become leaders in business and government than women who attend coeducational schools. Yet the law is very clear. Any school that accepts federal funds must provide equal opportunities to students of both sexes and all races. Supporters of these laws argue that sexsegregated education exists now and can continue to exist in private schools, but not in schools that receive federal funding. Is it acceptable to have sex-segregated education (classes or whole schools) when federal support is provided? As you reflect on the question, consider these prompts and consult the websites listed below: ¨ ¨ ¨ ¨ ¨

Can separate education be “equal”? Is it possible that women and men are more likely to receive an equal quality education if they are in separate classes or schools? To learn more about research (pros and cons) on sex-segregated education and about alternative ways of achieving gender equity in education visit this site: http://www.now.org/issues/education/single-sex-education-comments.html Should federal funding be a criterion for making decisions about how educational institutions operate? Does historic discrimination (both legal and attitudinal) against women justify providing special educational opportunities to girls and women today? Is it fair to argue that there should be women only classes in science and math because those classes benefit women, and, at the same time, to argue that historically male institutions such as the Citadel should not be allowed to exclude women? If women are admitted to formerly all-male schools, should the schools adjust their policies and practices? The Citadel, for example, prides itself on harsh discipline, lack of privacy, and punitive treatment of students.

To gain understanding of military institutions and how their history might affect your judgment on the issue of admitting women, visit these websites: 192

¨ Virginia Military Academy: http://www.vmi.edu/ ¨ The Citadel: http://citadel.edu/ ¨ Military Schools—Military Schools for Boys: http://www.armynavyacademy.com/ ¨ NOW (National Organization for Women): http://www.now.org/ After entering the site, go to the issues tab and select “women in the military.” References Spender, D. (1989). Invisible women: The schooling scandal. London: Women’s Press. Sadker, M., & Sadker, D. (1994). Failing at fairness: How America’s schools shortchange girls. New York: Simon and Schuster. Go to Amazon.com to read reviews of this book.

Chapter 8: Gendered Education: Communication in Schools Multiple Choice 1.

Which of the following helps explain why U.S. women are less likely to pursue careers in scientific and mathematical fields? A. In high school, girls take fewer advanced math classes than boys. B. Most girls have significantly less natural aptitude for science and math than do most boys. C. There are no women professors in the sciences or math, making it difficult for young women to envision themselves succeeding in these areas of study. D. Some faculty members and peers assume that females have less aptitude in these fields. E. All of the above. ANS: D REF: pp. 156–160

Which of the following is a challenge that males typically face in academics? A. Compared to same-aged girls, boys have more energy and less impulse control so they are less likely to adjust to early school contexts. B. Boys are viewed as being less able than girls to use the logic required for complex mathematics. C. In accordance with masculine socialization, males have more pressure to be self-reliant and are less likely to ask questions. D. Males have less school athletic opportunities since federal law has mandated equal money and support to female athletes under Title IX. E. All of the above. ANS: A REF: p. 193

156 3.

Peer pressure enacted by college women emphasizes being attractive to men over class work and career preparation. In addition, some female college students discover that their career goals are not taken seriously. These factors comprise , which researchers believe help explain these young women’s lower ambitions after college. A. effortless perfection B. the culture of romance C. the hidden curriculum D. both A and B E. none of the above ANS: B REF: p. 168

In a course on mass media history, the professor shows the film “Empire of the Air: The Men Who Made Radio,” which ascribes the entire development of radio to three men: David Sarnoff, Lee DeForest, and Edwin Armstrong, ignoring the contributions of women and minorities to the development of the medium. This is an example of what? A. Gender-stereotyped curriculum B. Invisible hand discrimination C. Gender-stereotyped discrimination D. Hidden discrimination E. None of the above ANS: A REF: pp. 159–161

Carolyn is a brilliant, but strict teacher who smiles rarely and is a tough grader. During a review, her department chair tells her she should warm up to the students and offer them more emotional support. Which of the following terms best describes the department chair’s evaluation of how Carolyn should act? A. Hidden curriculum B. Hidden hand discrimination C. Invisible hand discrimination D. Invisible curriculum E. None of the above ANS: C REF: p. 170

Which of the following is true about Title IX? A. All U.S. schools must abide by the rules of Title IX. 194

B. Title IX has led to a decrease in athletic programs for men. C. Title IX bans sex discrimination only in athletics. D. Most Americans approve of Title IX. E. Because of Title IX, male and female student athletes receive an equal number of scholarship dollars. ANS: D REF: pp. 161–164 7.

Which of the following is a challenge that gender-nonconforming students often face? A. The binary norm that force students into male or female categories B. Pressure to be self-reliant and not ask questions C. Pressure to always look good and appear put-together without seeming to put any effort into doing so D. Be attractive to men E. All of the above ANS: A REF: p. 161

Topic or question should by authored by a student. See pages 8 to 10 of this manual for details on this activity.

True/False 9. On average, male students in the United States lag behind their female peers in academics, particularly in early elementary school. ANS: T REF: p. 156 10. Boys are more likely than girls to earn a master’s degree. ANS: F REF: p. 156 11. When non-U.S. cultures are examined, it becomes clear that there are innate sex differences in math and science ability. ANS: F REF: p. 157 12. People practicing invisible hand discrimination truly believe they are acting in an unbiased manner. ANS: T 195

REF: p. 170 13. Socioeconomic status, more than sex, is a factor in a student’s success in higher education. ANS: T REF: p. 162 14. Male faculty are more likely to offer mentorships to male students than female students. ANS: T REF: p. 158 15. More women hold full professorships in American colleges and universities than men do. ANS: F REF: pp. 169–170 16.

Black men are less likely to get a college degree than white men and white women but more likely to obtain a degree than black women. ANS: T REF: p. 166

17.

Male students generally study and prepare more for classes than female students do. ANS: F REF: p. 156

Identification 18. Title IX ANS: Title IX legally prohibits sex discrimination in schools that receive tax dollars. This includes academic as well as athletic funding for public schools. Since the passage of Title IX, college men’s sports opportunities have actually increased. A recent Supreme Court decision allows schools to demonstrate compliance by sending out surveys and counting nonrespondents as satisfied with school policies. REF: p. 162 19. Culture of romance ANS: Women in college with high ambition and career goals often shift these goals into a culture of romance that emphasizes beauty and attractiveness to men. Two factors contribute to this phenomenon: (1) women’s ambitions are discouraged or ignored; and (2) intense peer pressure to attract a man, suggesting it is the most important thing a woman can do. REF: p. 168 196

20. Invisible hand discrimination ANS: Unwitting discrimination caused by applying policies that are not inherently biased. Examples include the tendency to explain women’s achievements as luck or resulting as help from others, which may result in lower work evaluations. REF: p. 170 21. Effortless perfection ANS: Effortless perfection is a term that refers to the pressure on girls and women to appear flawless and to hide the work that goes into creating that presentation. REF: p. 167 22.

Bullying

ANS: Bullying is behavior intended to hurt, embarrass, shame, or intimidate another person. Bullying behaviors can include words, physical actions, and nonverbal behaviors that can cause emotional, sexual, or physical harm. Bullying is often directed at people who do not conform to gender prescriptions. REF: p. 167 Essays 23. Discuss the controversy over female abilities for math and/or science. How do females typically fare in math and science? Be sure to address biological and social factors. ANS: The belief that females are not adept at math or science has persisted in the United States for some time. In early years, girls do just as well as boys in mathematics in school in the United States. However, participation changes as women progress through college and their numbers steadily drop between undergraduate and Ph.D. programs. Only 10% of math and science faculty are women. In contrast, women in other countries do well in, and major in, math in college. Biological explanations for why men might be better at math and science don’t pan out. IN most nations, girls outperform boys on science test given to students in developed countries. The fact that girls in most countries score better than boys on science tests raises doubts that there are significant innate sex difference in science aptitude or ability. Social explanations include: There is bias inherent in the system. This could include a counselor encouraging a female student not to take a difficult math class or a male physics teacher who doesn’t call on the women in his class. Some believe the reasons are a lack of female role models as math and science teachers. Others state that females are encouraged to pursue careers that involve direct interaction 197

with people, rather than science or math. The common belief that females do not do well at science or math affects their selfconfidence and performance, as well as other’s evaluations of them. REF: pp. 156–158 24. Describe how gender contributes to how women faculty members are expected to serve the universities for which they work. ANS: Because there are fewer women and minority faculty members at most universities, these faculty are frequently expected to take on excessive responsibilities for service and mentoring. University committees are expected to be diverse and so women and minorities are asked to serve on committees more frequently than white men. Women also tend to take on more advisory roles with students than men and provide more service. REF: pp. 169–171 25. With the passage of Title IX, female students were given access to athletic opportunities that were unknown to women of prior generations. Explain the basic framework of Title IX— what it promises and requires—and based on information found in Chapter 8, assess how well schools are implementing this law. ANS: Title IX requires that women be provided an equitable opportunity to participate in sports. This does not mean that women’s and men’s athletic opportunities must be identical, only that women and men are given similar opportunities to participate in athletics and that support for male and female teams is proportionate. Although Title IX has created new opportunities for women athletes, the playing field is not equal. Male athletes and coaches continue to receive more financial resources than do female athletes and teams; men’s team often also are privileged in terms of accessing playing fields at prime times. Male athletes also have access to more scholarly support in the form of tutors. Some colleges and universities employ deceptive practices to make it appear that they are meeting Title IX criteria when they are not. Some of these practices include counting male players who practice with women as female athletes and padding the roster of female teams when the numbers are counted only to cut players after the numbers have been recorded. REF: pp. 162–164 26. Same-sex schools provide some benefits that are appealing to many students, parents, and educators. However, same-sex schools present issues for trans-people that nongender queer people do not confront. Note three potential problems that trans-people face at same-sex schools that others do not. Then, propose a potential solution to one of those problems. ANS: Answers may vary on this question, but potential issues can include whether or not a trans- student who began transitioning after admittance should be allowed to continue to matriculate at the institution, how to address living situations, what bathrooms to use (including how many nondominant sex bathrooms are available). Potential solutions may include policy and interpersonal solutions that will vary depending on the issue and the student. 198

REF: pp. 161–162 27. Both males and females can be disadvantaged by U.S. school systems. Overall, which group students do you think experiences the most gender-based disadvantages in education? Be sure to use examples of disadvantages and/or other information from the chapter to support your opinion. ANS: Because this answer asks for an opinion, answers will vary. The material about disadvantages males and females face in academia can be found on pages 142 to 147. They may also refer to gender stereotyped curricula (pp. 145–146), discrimination in athletics (pp. 148–150), and may want to draw on other material from the textbook about nontraditionally gendered and trans people. A strong answer will take a firm position and support it with material from the text. REF: pp. 156–157; 162–164 28. Essay question that integrates theory covered in readings with an issue discussed during “class business.” See pages 8 to 10 of this manual for details on this activity.

Chapter 9: Gendered Close Relationships I.

The Meaning of Personal Relationships A. Personal relationships are those in which friends and romantic partners depend upon each other for various things ranging from material assistance to affection. Partners regard each other as unique individuals who cannot be replaced. Of the many relationships we form, only a few become really personal. B. Research demonstrates that people often choose friends and romantic partners who are similar to themselves in terms of age, gender, race, sexual orientation, and socioeconomic status. LGBTQ individuals are more likely to refer to friends as “family.” C. Models of Personal Relationships 1. Some scholars argue that masculine approaches to relationships are inferior to feminine ones, while others thin the two styles are equally valid. 2. The Male Deficit Model a. The male deficit model suggests that men are less skilled than women in developing and sustaining personal relationships. b. The fundamental assumption is that personal, emotional talk is the hallmark of intimacy and women generally self-disclose more than men. c. Media often represent men as emotionally lacking and women as naturally adept at relationships. 3. The Alternate Paths Model a. The alternate paths model asserts that there are different and equally valid paths to closeness. a. While this model agrees with the male deficit model that 199

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socialization is the source of differences between feminine and masculine styles of relating, it departs in two different ways. First, it does not presume masculine people lack feelings or emotional depth. Second, it argues masculine people express closeness in an alternate way. b. This model points out that Western culture relies on a feminine ruler to define and measure closeness, which falsely measures masculine modes of caring. c. Instead of self-disclosure, masculine people tend to express closeness by doing things together. This does not mean, however, that they don’t self-disclose or engage in emotional talk. d. Expectations and behavior in close relationships can also vary in response to a friend’s gender. The more information a man shares on a social networking site, the more likely a viewer is to pursue social interactions with him, but women, the opposite is true. Both men and women judge a friend more harshly for betraying confidence if that friend is female. Gendered Styles of Friendship A. There are many similarities between the friendship. Regardless of sex or gender, most individuals value close friends and invest in them. Most people use both feminine and masculine approaches to friendship. B. Women are more likely to communicate face-to-face and men usually interact side by side. C. Feminine Friendships: Closeness in Dialogue 1. A majority of women talk as the primary way to build and enrich friendships. Consequently, many share personal feelings, experiences, fears, problems, and daily lives to get to know each other. 2. Women tend to maintain higher expectations for their friends in matters related to trust and intimacy and communication tends to be empathetic, expressive, and supportive. 3. Because women are generally socialized to be attentive, emotionally supportive, and caring, it can be difficult for women friends to cope with feelings of envy and competitiveness toward friends. 4. Female friends often discuss the qualities and dimensions of their relationships explicitly. 5. Women’s friendships are often characterized by breadth that introduces friends to many different aspects of each other’s lives. D. Masculine Friendships: Closeness in the Doing 1. Many boys learn to ground their friendships in shared activities, particularly sports. 2. The phrase “closeness in the doing” describes the way many men build friendships. When men do talk, they often talk about activities. 3. Men’s friendships have an instrumental focus, in which men do things to help one another out. 4. Men tend to talk indirectly about their serious feelings with other men. Often serious emotional issues are shrouded in “joke talk” or 200

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friends will suggest diversionary tactics to take a friend’s mind off his troubles. 5. Men’s relationships may involve covert intimacy, in which affection is signaled through teasing, friendly competition, playful punches, and the like as a means of demonstrating care. They are also more likely to offer invisible support in response to a particular stressor or event where the recipient doesn’t have it as support. 6. Men’s friendships tend to be narrower in scope than women’s friendships, with different friends for various spheres of interest. E. Friendships across Gender 1. Because of the high emphasis we place on gender in our culture, women and men may see each other in sexual terms. 2. For many women, a primary benefit of friendships with men is a less emotionally intense relationship. 3. Men report getting more emotional support and release from their friendships with women. 4. Both men and women report receiving more emotional support from female than male friends. In cross-sex friendships, men generally talk more and get more attention and support than they offer. Gendered Romantic Relationships A. Gender roles are most salient in heterosexual romantic relationships—the script is well-known to most of us. B. Developing Romantic Intimacy 1. Heterosexual men and women seek fairly traditionally masculine and feminine partners with men prioritizing physical attractiveness and sexiness and women prioritizing status and success. 2. Heterosexual men are more likely to misinterpret their financial worth and heterosexual women are more likely to enhance physical attractiveness and misrepresent their weight. Gay men’s profiles tend to emphasize masculinity and physical fitness. 3. Research indicates that men tend to fall in love faster and harder than women. a. Men tend to express love in more impulsive and sexual ways than women, whose styles of loving tend to be more pragmatic and friendship focused. b. Heterosexual men are far more likely to regard sexual infidelity as more distressing than emotional infidelity. 4. Attitudes toward sexual behavior, while less rigid than in the past, still indicate that women who express sexuality openly or have nontraditional relationships are judged more harshly than men. a. Cisgender, heterosexual women tend to engage in sex for intimacy and commitment reasons, while cisgender heterosexual men are more often motivated by lust and physical pleasure. b. Lesbians place a greater premium on monogamy and gay men report greater comfort with open relationships. 5. Women, regardless of sexual orientation, are more likely than men to focus on relationship dynamics. 201

6. Committed heterosexual relationships tend to continue to reflect cultural values and beliefs, with men as the head of the family and primary wage earner and women as primarily in charge of domestic aspects of the relationship. 7. Gay and lesbian relationships are not as bound by roles. Their commitments often resemble best-friend relationships with the added aspects of sexuality and romance. C. Gendered Patterns in Committed Relationships 1. Gendered Modes of Expressing Affection a. Women tend to create and express closeness through personal, self- disclosive talk. Men rely more on instrumental displays of affection. b. For women, ongoing conversation about feelings and daily activities is a primary way to express personal relationships, but men find it pointless to talk unless there is a problem. c. There is cultural bias toward feminine forms of expressing love, often not recognizing instrumental displays of affection. d. Lesbian and gay couples may share perspectives about how to communicate affection. Lesbians generally build the most expressive and nurturing communication climates of any type of couple. 2. Gendered Preferences for Autonomy and Connection a. Masculine individuals tend to want greater autonomy and less connection than feminine people, whose relative priorities are generally the reverse. b. Desires for different degrees of autonomy and connection frequently generate friction. Many couples engage in a pattern called demandwithdraw, in which one partner feels distant so attempts to engage in close, personal talk leaving the other feeling stifled by the discussion. c. More damaging, though, is the tendency to interpret each other’s behavior according to gendered rules that don’t apply. Respect for different needs for autonomy and connection is essential to a successful relationship. 3. Gendered Responsibility for Relational Health a. Lesbian couples tend to be sensitive to interpersonal dynamics and interesting in talking about their relationship and working through problems. b. Heterosexual couples do not distribute responsibility for relational health as well. Both men and women tend to assume women should take primary responsibility for relational maintenance. tend to share responsibility for the relationship. c. Expectations for one partner’s responsibilities for ensuring relational health burdens them with keeping a relationship satisfying. Research shows highest couple satisfaction when both partners share responsibility for the relationship. 4. Gendered Power Dynamics 202

a. Historically, the person who earns the most money has the greater power, and in heterosexual relationships, that person has traditionally been male. Gay and lesbian couples report a greater desire for shared power and decision-making. b. The belief that men should be the primary breadwinners doesn’t match reality for a growing number of heterosexual households. c. People who adhere to traditional gender role views in marriages are more likely to experience decreases in self-esteem and marital satisfaction if the woman earns more money. d. In heterosexual relationships, women tend to do more work in the home, including housework and caregiving, than do men. This is true even when both partners work. e. Gay and lesbian couples are more likely than heterosexual couples to divide childcare and household labor equally between partners. f. Men who share in childcare tend to have less conflict in their relationships and more satisfying sex. g. One key reason in unequal contributions to domestic labor is gender ideology. Men and women with more traditional beliefs are more likely to perceive it as appropriate for women to do most of the domestic labor. i. Women who don’t perceive desirable alternatives to their current relationships have little leverage to persuade their partners to participate more. ii. A commitment to equity by both partners will affect how they divide domestic chores. iii. Gender socialization teaches girls to perform more traditionally feminine tasks and have developed those skills as adults. iv. Millennial men have more egalitarian views related to gender, family, and career within marriage. h. The extra domestic labor women typically do is called the second shift. Childcare is a big part of the second shift for many women. i. Because many women consider becoming a mother to be a “choice,” they may assume they are responsible to meet all of the demands related to that choice. j. The domestic work women do is often more taxing and less gratifying than that done by men and are repetitive, routine, and constrained by deadlines. k. The recession in 2008 propelled changes in men’s involvement in home life. More men are becoming more involved fathers. l. Women have the psychological responsibility for planning and remembering things that need to be done increases the burdens of second shift duties. m. Consequences of the second shift include stress, fatigue, illness, and resentment. Heterosexual couples who share equally in running a home and raising a family are the most satisfied. n. Another indicator of power dynamics is how couples manage conflict. 203

Masculine individuals tend to use unilateral strategies to engage in and to avoid conflicts through strategies such as issuing ultimatums, refusing to discuss an issue, or to assert the problem is being blown out of proportion. ii. Feminine individuals tend to employ indirect strategies when they do engage in conflict, or to defer or compromise to reduce tension. o. Gendered power dynamics are also reflected in patterns of violence and abuse. i. Acts of violence tend to be inflicted most typically by men who have been socialized into masculine identities and cuts across race, ethnic, and class lines. Journal Entries 1.

Observe and analyze gendered patterns of communication in a close friendship you have with someone of the other sex. How do these patterns reflect or vary from ones discussed in the text and class?

Observe and analyze gendered interaction patterns in a romantic relationship you have or one you were involved in previously. Do patterns reflect or vary from ones discussed in the text and class?

Brainstorm on society’s messages concerning the importance or nonimportance of friendships. Which are we told to value the most: family, friends, or romantic partners? Why?

Knowing that those individuals who are socialized into masculine identities engage in more acts of violence, what can we as a society do to change notions of masculinity? Reflect on images in the media, messages from family members, and how roles are defined in close relationships to help answer the question.

Talk with an older relative or friend about their views regarding friendships and romantic relationships. Are your relative’s/friend’s assumptions about friendship and romantic relationship norms similar to or different from yours? Are they similar to or different from the patterns discussed in Chapter 9? What do the similarities/differences suggest about changing norms of gender, friendships, and romantic relationships?

Suggested Activities 2.

Wish List Exercise: The “Wish List Exercise” is intended to encourage men and women to talk about the differences they perceive in communication patterns of the sexes. Divide the class into groups of four to five students, all of the same sex. Instruct the groups that they are to develop a list of problems they recurrently encounter in relationships with the other sex. Next and more importantly, tell the groups they must explain what they would do to improve the situation. They may choose to focus on the process of communication 204

in these situations, or the outcome. Basically, ask them what men or women could do differently in these instances to make them more comfortable. After the groups have developed a list of situations and solutions, over a period of 15 to 20 minutes, pull the class back together. Allow each group to share one or two of the issues they recognized and solutions they proposed. The role of the instructor is very important in this exercise for keeping order and making sure students stay on track. It is easy for their conversations to turn into “gripe” sessions, with little hope for constructive discussion. Make sure to push the groups to offer solutions and be prepared to offer your ideas on these issues. Also, be very aware of the classroom climate; it is vital that students listen to other groups’ observations and respect the differing views that inevitably surface. In our classrooms, situations voiced by students cover a range of issues. One group of female students said they felt violated and unimportant when men stared at their breasts and bodies, rather than looking them in the eyes. These women offered the solution that men interact with them with the attitude that women are intelligent human beings with minds, thoughts, and ideas, not sexual objects. A group of male students complained that they no longer understood the expectations of women regarding their role as men. The men were afraid to open doors for women and pay for dates because they no longer knew if these chosen behaviors were expected by, or offensive to, women. The men asked that women be more open and less confrontational in communicating about these issues and not assume they are being “male chauvinist pigs.” The “Wish List Exercise” inevitably opens tremendous dialogue between the sexes. In your role as instructor, you may choose to serve as moderator in these discussions; if you have a particularly vocal class where tensions run high, it may be necessary to limit responses from groups to situations offered by other groups. In our experiences with this exercise, the discussions carry on after class in hallways, over tables at lunch, and in relationships with others who are not students in the class. 3.

Let’s Go to Dinner: Go online to obtain a menu from a nice and/or up-scale local restaurant and distribute it to your students. With each menu, include one of the following scenarios: “You are on a first date with someone who you find attractive and interesting. Peruse the menu and take notes about what you would order, including appetizers, entrees, desert, and drinks.” “You are meeting a group of close friends for dinner. Peruse the menu and take notes about what you would order, including appetizers, entrees, desert, and drinks.” “You and your long-term partner are out for dinner. Peruse the menu and take notes about what you would order, including appetizers, entrees, desert, and drinks.” 205

After students have made their choices, compare and contrast ordering patterns. Depending on the size of the class, you may choose to do this in small groups or in a large group format. Ask students to consider their choices. Did men order differently, in general, than women? Did men/women order differently depending on whether they imagined they were on a first date, with a group of friends, or with a long-term partner? What do the ordering patterns suggest about students’ assumptions about romantic relationships, friendships, and gender? 4.

Gendered Relationships in Film: Another option for structuring a day of class discussion would involve clips from movies that represent dimensions of friendships and romantic relationships discussed in the text and class. We have incorporated four- or fiveminute segments from films such as The Sisterhood of the Traveling Pants or Waiting to Exhale (which present women’s friendships), Dead Poets’ Society or Good Will Hunting (which illustrate friendships between men), and When Harry Met Sally (which includes interesting examples of mixed-sex friendship and heterosexual romantic relationships). Choosing and editing representative clips from videotapes does take some time, but students respond favorably to the use of video in the classroom. Allow the portions of the films you select to structure discussion of aspects of friendships and romantic relationships portrayed in the films. Gendered Romantic Relationship Advice: Have students bring in popular magazines that focus in some way on close relationships (most popular, nonactivity specific magazines do; examples include Cosmopolitan, Glamour, and GQ). Ask students to examine a magazine in small groups to determine what it teaches about close relationships (friendships or romantic relationships). They should identify expectations about partners, behaviors, and feelings. You may want to bring in some additional magazines (perhaps ones whose target audience would not necessarily be your students). After the students have had time to discuss their magazine in small groups, they should present their findings to the class. Allow time for discussion about the implications of such texts. Communicating with Men and Women: In order for this activity to work, students will need to bring their laptops or cell phones to class. Ask the students to pull up their Facebook page (or, if they do not have one or cannot view it, to review the text messages saved on their phone). On Facebook, they can use the “wall-to-wall” feature to examine a conversation with a male friend and a conversation with a female friend. (On their phones they can review conversations in their inboxes and outboxes.) Ask them to see if they can see if (and if so, how) their communication is different with male friends and female friends. The following questions may be considered: (a) If you communicate differently with male and female friends, are you aware of it? Why do you do it? (b) If you do not communicate differently, why do you think that is? Do you use a more masculine or feminine style? Although this activity could be done without looking at specific conversations, it works better to do so because students may see something they do not realize they are doing. It is also a good opportunity for you to emphasize that not all men are masculine communicators and not all women are feminine communicators.

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JUDGMENT CALL 9: WHAT’S A FAIR SHARE OF HOUSEWORK AND CHILD CARE? Myranda and Scott have been married for four years. Both work outside of their home, he as a real estate broker and she as a computer systems analyst. For the first three years of their marriage Myranda and Scott managed to keep their home clean enough, although Myranda did more housecleaning than Scott. Last year, however, they had a child, Jackson, and the tasks at home multiplied. Now Myranda and Scott continuously quarrel about housework and child care responsibilities. Here is a typical exchange between them: Myranda: Scott: Myranda: Scott: Myranda:

Scott: Myranda: Scott: Myranda:

I thought you were going to do the laundry when you got home. I meant to, but I had to stay late at work. I’ll try to do it tomorrow. Tomorrow is no good. We are out of diapers and Jackson needs his green rompers for the picnic tomorrow. He can wear something else. Why should he have to? Is it too much to ask for you to do a fair share around here? I work just as much and just as hard as you every day. Yet, I always wind up having to work harder when I get home, usually because you didn’t do something you promised to take care of. Lighten up. I do a fair share. My father never did a load of laundry in his life, not to mention vacuuming and taking the baby to the doctor’s and all of the other stuff I do. I do more than a fair share. You don’t do half of what needs to be done. It’s not fair for me to be pulling my load and part of yours too. Then let things slip a little. Everything doesn’t always have to be perfect around here. We could get everything we need to do done if you would just be more realistic in your expectations. What’s unrealistic about wanting clean diapers for Jackson?

As you read the above exchange, did you find yourself thinking one of the spouses was more reasonable than the other? What do you think is a fair share? To guide your reflection, visit the website noted below and consider these prompts: What happens when spouses or romantic partners have different standards for what counts as a “fair share?” Myranda compares what Scott does to what she does and thinks he’s not pulling his share. Scott compares what he does to what his own father did and concludes he is pulling his share. ¨

When couples agree to share responsibilities for housework and child care, should they have equal say in the standards, or expectations, for what needs to be done and how well it needs to be done? In other words, should the person doing a particular task, such as dusting, have the authority to decide how it is done and to what standard of perfection? What social and personal factors might explain why more women work outside of the home today, but a proportionate number of men have not assumed a substantial share of homemaking and family care responsibilities? 218

References Hochschild, A., with Machung, A. (1989). The second shift: Working parents and the revolution at home. New York: Viking/Penguin. Go to Amazon.com to read reviews of this book. Suitor, J. (1991). Marital quality and satisfaction with the division of household labor. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 53, 221–230. Wood, J. T. (1996). But I thought you meant. . .: Misunderstandings in human communication. Mountain View, CA: Mayfield. (Read Chapter 17, “A Fair Share,” pages 224– 239). Chapter 9: Gendered Close Relationships Multiple Choice 1.

How do masculine people, often men, who are friends tend to build closeness? A. Share activities B. Talk about their friendship C. Engage in personal disclosure D. Engage in small talk E. Masculine people who are friends do not build closeness ANS: A REF: pp. 178– 180

Why are men assumed by some approaches to personal relationships to be deficient at developing and sustaining personal relationships? A. Men have been proven empirically to be bad at relationships. B. Women have been proven empirically to be the best at relationships. C. Many studies of men’s relationships use the “feminine ruler” of talk as the basis of close relationships to judge men’s relationships. D. Both A and B. E. All of the above. ANS: C REF: p. 175

Lesbian relationships tend to be A. nonmonogamous. B. low in disclosure and support. C. egalitarian in distributing responsibilities for maintaining the relationship. D. primarily based on doing things rather than talking. E. longer-lasting than heterosexual relationships. 219

ANS: C REF: p. 187 4.

Which of the following is true about romantic relationships? A. Women tend to fall in love faster and harder than men. B. Women perceive of love in terms of taking trips to romantic places, spontaneously making love, and surprising their partners. C. In romantic relationships between women and men, attitudes toward sexual activity have undergone profound changes over the last several decades. D. Women are more likely than men to focus on relationship dynamics. E. All of the above. ANS: D REF: p. 186 Emily feels that she and her partner Luke spend too much time together, and she wants more time for her individual interests and activities. Luke feels that they should spend most of their time with each other. The tension between them reflects A. tension over autonomy and connection. B. tension over bonding rituals. C. differences between desires for doing and talking. D. differences between desires for expression and instrumentality. E. none of the above. ANS: A REF: p. 185

Kaitlin and her partner Adam have spent a lot of time fighting and avoiding each other recently. Kaitlin is upset about the situation and wants to fix the problem. Adam doesn’t seem to have noticed that anything is wrong. Kaitlin takes it upon herself to start a conversation with Adam about their issues. This reflects Kaitlin and Adam’s A. tension between autonomy and connection. B. differing ways of showing affection. C. gendered responsibility for relational health. D. gendered power dynamics. E. none of the above. ANS: C REF: p. 186

Working women in heterosexual relationships typically engage in the majority of home and family care taking duties, which are frequently routine, repetitive, and constrained by deadlines. The term that this statement best defines is A. psychological responsibility. B. wonder woman syndrome. C. soccer mom. 220

D. second-shift job. E. the mommy myth. ANS: D REF: p. 188 8.

Which of the following are features of feminine (often female) friendships? A. They often contain covert intimacy. B. Doing activities together is the primary way to build closeness. C. The friends do things for each other to show that they care. D. They are less likely than men’s friendships to last if one friend moves away. E. None of the above. ANS: E REF: pp. 176–178

Which of the following is true about nonromantic friendships between men and women? A. For many women, a primary benefit of friendships with men is that they are emotionally closer than their friendships with women. B. For many men, a primary benefit of friendships with women is that they are lighter and more fun than their friendships with men. C. In friendships between women and men, men typically talk more and get more attention than they offer. D. Nonromantic friendships between women and men have the advantage of being free from sexual tension. E. Both women and men tend to seek out men in times of stress. ANS: C REF: p. 181

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Gender differences are apparent in the ways people manage conflict. Feminine people, in general, tend to respond to conflict by A. deferring or compromising to reduce tension. B. issuing ultimatums. C. refusing to listen or discuss an issue. D. asserting that the partner is blowing things out of proportion. E. all of the above. ANS: A REF: p. 191

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Which of the following tends to be true about lesbian relationships? A. One partner tends to be expected to be the breadwinner. B. They tend to be based on tangible investments such as money and possessions. C. They tend to be bound by traditional gender roles. D. The partners involved tend to have the most equality of all types of relationships. 221

E. None of the above. ANS: D REF: p. 183 True/False 12. In heterosexual couples in which the woman earns substantially more than the man, the man performs the majority of household labor. ANS: F REF: pp. 186–187 13. In a heterosexual relationship, the male partner would be the one most likely to be responsible for remembering the child’s doctor’s appointments. ANS: F REF: p. 190 14. Typically, men do not value friendships as much as women. ANS: F REF: p. 173 15. Cross-sex friendships tend to benefit women more than men. ANS: F REF: p. 181 16. Men who have sex with a lot of partners tend to be judged more harshly than women who do the same. ANS: F REF: p. 182 17. Gay and lesbian relationships tend to follow a best-friend model with the additional dimensions of sexuality and romance. ANS: T REF: p. 183 18. Lesbians report greater satisfaction with their romantic relationships than either gay men or heterosexuals. ANS: T REF: 222

p. 184 19. The demand-withdraw pattern explains why sexual tension often exists in cross-sex friendships ANS: F REF: p. 185 20. Regardless of sexual orientation, most couples have one partner that takes on most of the burden of caring for the relational health of the couple. ANS: F REF: p. 186 21. Socialization into gendered speech communities can make it challenging for men and women to be friends. ANS: T REF: p. 181 22. Gay and lesbian couples tend to share perspectives on how to communicate affection. ANS: T REF: p. 184 Identification 23. Male deficit model ANS: Regards women as relationship experts and views feminine ways of forming and maintaining relationships as the right way to intimacy. Views personal, emotional selfdisclosure as the key to close relationships. REF: p. 174 24. Second shift ANS: Working women in heterosexual relationships typically engage in the majority of home and family care taking duties, which are frequently routine, repetitive, and constrained by deadlines. Consequences of the second shift include stress, fatigue, illness, and resentment. REF: p. 188 25. Alternative paths model ANS: Claims men are generally not socialized to express feelings verbally. Masculine modes of expressing and experiencing care tend to be more activity-oriented. Masculine and feminine modes are considered equally valid. 223

REF: p. 175 26. Psychological responsibility ANS: The responsibility to remember, plan, and make sure things get done. In heterosexual partnerships, this responsibility tends to fall to the woman. REF: p. 190 27. Feminine ruler: ANS: Comparing men’s ways of building closeness (doing things together) to women’s (emotional talk). Contributes to the male deficit model by holding men to women’s standard of communicating closeness in a relationship. REF: p. 175 Essays 28. Identify general patterns of similarities and differences in how masculine and feminine communication occurs within same sex friendships. (To make this question more challenging and integrate Chapter 7 material, add: Explain how these differences grow out of gendered family socialization.) ANS: Both women and men report they value close, same-sex friendships and seek intimacy, acceptance, assistance, and trust in those relationships. Women’s friendships: “face-to-face” relationships. Women tend to share and engage in personal, disclosive talk. Feminine norms of communication may make it difficult for women friends to cope with feelings of envy and competition. Female friends often discuss the qualities and dimensions of their relationships. Often characterized by breadth that introduces friends to many different aspects of each other’s lives. Men’s friendships: “side-by-side” relationships. Activities tend to be the primary focus. Male friends tend to do things with and for others for whom they care, demonstrating an instrumental focus. Masculine socialization may restrict men’s willingness to verbally self-disclose feelings. Rather than talking about problems, male friends often try to distract friends from their problems by diverting their attention away from troubles. A covert intimacy may exist in men’s relationships, characterized by shared humor, friendly competition, and comfortable companionship. Men’s friendships tend to be narrower in scope than women’s friendships, with different friends for various spheres of interest. REF: pp. 176–180 29. Your textbook states that gendered orientations influence four dimensions of long-term love relationships: modes of expressing care, needs for autonomy and connection, responsibility for relational maintenance, and power. Discuss how heterosexual couples may differ from same-sex couples on two of the four dimensions. 224

ANS: Gendered Modes of Expressing Affection: Heterosexual couples who follow traditional gender patterns may encounter misunderstanding around expressing affection in that the woman may express care through talk whereas the man may express care through doing things for his partner. Gay and lesbian couples are less likely to face such misunderstandings because they share perspectives on how to communicate affection. In lesbian couples, partners are mutually attentive to nurturing and emotional openness. This may explain why lesbians report greater satisfaction with their relationships than either gay men or heterosexual couples. Gendered Preferences for Autonomy and Connection: Heterosexual couples who follow traditional gender patterns may experience tension around preferences for autonomy and connection. Masculine people are socialized to seek out autonomy and feminine people are socialized to seek out connection. Therefore, a masculine-oriented man may feel suffocated by a feminine-oriented woman’s desire for connection; similarly, a feminine woman may be hurt by a masculine man’s desire for space and independence. Although the textbook doesn’t specifically address lesbian and gay relationships along this dimension, it makes sense that partners in samesex relationships would be more likely to have been socialized along similar gender lines and therefore share preferences for autonomy and connection. Gendered Responsibility for Relational Health: In lesbian couples, both partners typically have learned feminine ways of thinking and acting; as such, they are likely to be sensitive to interpersonal dynamics and interested in working through relationship problems. As such, lesbian partnerships are marked by shared responsibility for the health of the relationship. In heterosexual couples, on the other hand, women tend to do most of the relationship maintenance work; this is both a burden to the woman and may lead to difficulties in the relationship in that the woman may be perceived as a “nag” whereas the man may not recognize a problem exists until it is quite severe. Gendered power dynamics: In heterosexual relationships where partners follow traditional gender scripts, men typically have more power than women. One outcome of this is that women typically work a “second shift,” engaging in the bulk of the domestic labor. In the past this power imbalance was compounded by the fact that men typically earned the entire or majority of the household income. Today, in the majority of heterosexual couples, both women and men work for wages; however, women continue to be responsible for most of the household work. Power imbalances between heterosexual partners also play out in terms of how each partner approaches conflict. Men tend to use more unilateral strategies when faced with conflict whereas women are more likely to defer or compromise. Finally, gendered power dynamics are displayed through the use of violence in some heterosexual couples; abusers tend to be more masculine and less feminine in their gender orientation than their partners. The problems that stem from assumptions about male power are not prominent in lesbian relationships; however, gay male relationships can be marked by competition over status and dominance. REF: pp. 184–192 30. Describe the division of labor in a typical heterosexual household. Why does the division exist in this form? Do you think it is possible for the division of labor in the home to be exactly equal? Why or why not? 225

ANS: For the first part of the question, students should discuss the fact that despite women increasingly working outside of the home, they still take on the bulk of the domestic labor and childcare. Reasons discussed in the text include traditional gender roles, lack of desirable alternatives to the relationship, and differing commitments to equity. For the last part of the question, responses will vary. REF: pp. 186–190 31. Reflect on a nonromantic, close, same-sex friendship. In what ways does your friendship match or deviate patterns of friendships described in the book? ANS: Answers will vary. Female students who believe that their friendships follow traditional feminine patterns discussed in Chapter 9 may focus on the importance of talk to the relationship, the willingness of both friends to disclose personal information and provide social support, as well as the difficulty they may experience expressing jealousy or dealing with feelings of competition. A less traditional friendship between women would be limited in scope and not personally disclosive. Male students who believe that their friendships follow traditional masculine patterns may note that their friendships are formed “in the doing.” They may discuss the kinds of activities they engage in with their friends and they may note that their friendships are largely limited to those activities. They may discuss expressions of covert intimacy such as teasing interactions or exchanges of playful punches. Finally, they may discuss the respect each friend shows for the other’s privacy. When a friend is down, a typical response would be to do something to distract him from his problems, such as playing sports. A male who describes an atypical friendship with another man may focus on close, intimate conversations. REF: pp. 176–180 32. One way to pose questions for this (and several other) chapters is to present them as advice column questions, with the students being the “experts” who respond. Another similar option is to present a question as if it is the student’s friend asking him/her for advice since the friend knows the student is in a Gender and Communication class. Students tend to enjoy these questions and they give them the opportunity to integrate the material in ways that are applicable to their lives. It is often helpful to integrate material from several chapters in the questions. Some examples include: Dear Gender Communication Expert, I am a female college senior, and I am so frustrated with my boyfriend Seth. Since we’ll be graduating soon, it’s important to me that we really make sure our relationship is strong before entering the “real world.” But when I tell Seth that I want to feel closer to him, he ignores me and instead just spent a bunch of money for us to go skydiving! I don’t want to jump out of a plane together, I want to talk! When I try to talk about my feelings about it, he barely looks at me and just starts fixing things around the apartment. Meanwhile, he just keeps planning more crazy dates like this. I’m afraid he might not want to be with me anymore. What should I do? Scared Senior 226

The framework for the answer to this question can be found on page 184. Dear Scared Senior, It sounds like Seth isn’t trying to pull away at all, he just has a different way of showing closeness and affection. See, you have a very feminine idea of intimacy—talking about your feelings and the relationship—but Seth doesn’t think of closeness that way. When he plans crazy dates for you or does other tasks for you (like fixing things around the apartment), he is showing you that he cares about you. This is a very masculine way of being close. Masculine people, like Seth, often don’t want to talk about the relationship unless they think something is wrong. You may want to talk to be sure things are okay, but Seth may think they are okay and so there’s no need to talk. In fact, a date like skydiving may even suggest he’s ready to do exciting (though sometimes scary) things with you, much like those you’ll face as you consider what you’ll do after graduation. I have two suggestions for you. First, try to remember that Seth’s actions are a demonstration of his feelings for you. Second, talk to him and explain that while you love that he does things for you, you’d also like to spend some time engaging in some more feminine modes of closeness. If you can each try to understand the other’s perspective, you’ll be able to appreciate each other’s efforts more. Good luck! Communication Expert REF: pp. 184 Dear Communication Expert, I’m a 20-year-old gay man. My boyfriend, Andrew, is driving me crazy! I really love him, but he’s so needy. When we first got together, he was so independent, but now he’s bugging me all the time to spend more time together and talk more on the phone. I like hanging out with Andrew, but I feel myself pulling back because it’s so annoying how much he wants to hang out. Spending time together used to be special, but now I feel like it’s never enough for him. Even though I care so much, the more he wants to see me, the less I find I want to see him. This would make sense to me if I just weren’t interested, but I really like Andrew, and I know he’s starting to think I don’t! What’s going on? Desperately Seeking Space The framework for the answer to this question can be found on page 185. Dear Desperately Seeking Space, What you’re experiencing with Andrew is a really common issue for couples called the “demandwithdraw pattern.” It seems like you’re more masculine in your preference for more autonomy, alone time; meanwhile, Andrew is more feminine in his preference for more connection, together time. What often happens in this situation is that the more one of you desires your preference for autonomy/connection, the more the other wants his or her preference as well. The more Andrew wants to spend time with you, the more you feel your autonomy is being threatened, so you pull back. Of course, from his perspective, pulling back makes Andrew think you don’t care about him, so he pushes for more time together. It seems like the best thing to do is for you both to talk openly about this. Try to understand that Andrew is not trying to take over your life or be 227

intrusive, he just cares about you. Hopefully he can try to understand that you are not uninterested and want to make your together time special. Best of luck! Communication Expert REF: p. 171 6. In the movie When Harry Met Sally, Harry says to Sally that men and women cannot be friends. Your book discusses some challenges and benefits of cross-sex friendships. Note at least two challenges and two benefits of cross-sex friendships. For each of the challenges you mention, note one way that friends could help to navigate that potential issue. ANS: Students may select from the challenges and benefits on page 181. Challenges include felt sexual tension if the friends are heterosexual, social pressure for men and women to date, and socialization into different speech communities. Benefits include increased ability to gain something not available in same-sex friendships (for men this include being able to share feelings and for women it may mean reduced pressure to emotionally disclose) and the ability to get a different perspective than in same-sex friendships. Answers will vary about how to address the challenges. Students may suggest openly talking about the tensions, being aware of their expectations, adjusting their own communication, among others. REF: p. 181

Chapter 10: Gendered Organizational Communication I.

Gendered Stereotypes in the Workplace A. Social expectations of sexes influence how we treat people in professional contexts. B. Stereotypes of Women 1. Women in the workplace are often stereotyped into one of four categories. 2. Sex Object a. The sex object stereotype defines a woman’s value by her sexual attractiveness, perceiving women based on their appearance rather than their qualifications. b. Federal law forbids discrimination based on sex, race, national origin, age, disability, and religion. Some qualities are considered bona fide occupational requirements. c. This stereotyping contributes to sexual harassment women and of members of the LGBTQ community. 3. Mother a. The stereotype of woman as mother has figurative and literal forms. The figurative version is expressed when others expect women to take care of everyone. b. This stereotyping also leads to segregation of female employees into 228

positions providing support and care for others, such as clerical and service positions. c. The literal form of mother is employees who are also mothers. These women are perceived as less serious. They are less likely to be hired or promoted and are offered lower salaries. i. Fatherhood tends to benefit male workers, who are seen as more committed to earning an income. ii. The term maternal wall refers to unexamined assumptions held by coworkers and superiors about how women will behave at work after they become mothers. 4. Child a. This stereotype sees women as a child, or pet—cute but not to be taken seriously. Women are assumed to need the protection of adults. b. Often stereotyping women as children is justified as protecting women from the harsh realities of the world. One example of this is the obstacles of women serving in law enforcement. 5. Iron Maiden a. Stereotyping a woman who is ambitious, directive, competitive, and sometimes tough as an iron maiden defines a woman with these qualities as competent, but unlikable because they are unfeminine. b. It is a compliment to call a male worker ambitious, but not necessarily for women. C. Stereotypes of Men 1. Men in the workplace are often stereotyped in ways that reflect cultural views of masculinity and that affect how men are perceived and treated. 2. Sturdy Oak a. The sturdy oak is a self-sufficient pillar of strength. With this view, men may rule out consulting others for advice or assistance. 3. Fighter a. Men are superman-like warriors who go into battle, either literally or metaphorically. Fighters should be aggressive and win at all costs— there is no room to be less than fully committed. b. Men who ask for paternal leave can face hostility for not putting their career first. Men are increasingly resisting this pressure. 4. Breadwinner a. One of the strongest stereotypes of men is that of breadwinner. It’s the reason they are often paid more than woman, but also why they are expected to put work ahead of family time. b. Men who tie their identity and worth to earning power are in danger in a culture where gender roles are evolving. D. Nonbinary Gender in Organizations 1. Lesbian gay, bisexual, and trans workers are often met with hostility for challenging gender in the workplace, and they may have fewer legal protections. 2. Performing nonbinary gender, like wearing something outside the norm, can risk hostility by colleague, eligibility for promotion, or the job itself. 229

II.

III.

3. There are no consistent federal protections for sexual orientation and gender identity and expression. 4. Narrow gender stereotypes limit the potential of all workers. Masculine Norms in Professional Life A. Because men have historically dominated institutional life, masculine norms in professional life infuse the workplace. B. Traditional Masculine Images of Leaders 1. The communication skills developed in masculine speech communities are often associated with management and leadership skills. These skills include assertiveness, independence, competitiveness, and confidence. 2. There are some gender differences in how individuals approach work, including leadership. Men tend to find having authority intrinsically rewarding, whereas women are more likely to find it rewarding when coupled with having influence. 3. Feminine communicators should become proficient complying with masculine norms, and masculine communicators should develop skills in collaboration and support. 4. In fact, the most effective leadership styles are those that blend relationshipbuilding and instrumental qualities. C. Traditionally Masculine Norms for Career Paths 1. We tend to think of careers as linear, that we start at an entry position and work our way up the ladder. We also think of them as being full-time jobs. This assumption reflects social relations of previous eras. 2. Workers often want organizations to have more flexible schedules and policies to accommodate family and life choices that are not consistent with the fulltime, linear model (such as flexible hours, on-site child care, part-time work, and more flexible overall career paths). 3. Recent research shows that women who work outside of the home are as happy and healthy than stay-at-home mothers, and among single mothers, more so. Children of working mothers are just as advanced academically, emotionally balanced, and socially adjusted as those of stay-at-home mothers. a. When mothers who leave paid work to care for children attempt to return, they run into obstacles. Gendered Patterns in Organizations A. Formal Practices 1. Leave Policies a. The Family and Medical Leave Act (FMLA) states that employees can take up to 12 weeks unpaid leave to care for new babies or sick family members. In 2010, this was extended to workers in same-sex relationships who needed time to care for a partner’s child. b. However, FMLA covers only about 60% of employees in the United States. Some states have enacted more generous family leave laws. c. Since FMLA does not require that employers pay employees on leave, many workers cannot afford to take leave. d. The United States is the only high-income country and one of few countries in general that does not provide a guaranteed paid family 230

leave policy. i. The United States shares this distinction with Oman, Papua New Guinea, and Tonga. 2. Work Schedules a. Rigid work schedules are another reflection of outdated career models. This model doesn’t accommodate two-worker or singleparent families with young children. b. Women are more likely than men to take off work in order to provide care for children. c. Providing more leave time and flexible working hours can actually save employers money by boosting worker productivity, increasing morale, and reducing turnover. d. A nursing home in Sweden reduced work hours without reducing pay and saw increased productivity. B. Informal Practices 1. Unwelcoming Environments for Women a. Even when used unintentionally, language relating to sports, sexuality, and the military may bind men into a masculine community in which some women feel unwelcome. 2. The Informal Network a. Informal networks, or the “old boy network,” are comprised of predominately male members. Hiring and promotion decisions are often made through informal communication within these networks. b. Informal networks are made up people who see themselves as similar, which can create barriers for coworkers who are not like most of the people in the group. Women, people of color, and gender nonconforming workers may avoid informal networks and lose out on key sources of information and support. 3. Mentoring Relationships a. A mentor is an experienced person who helps guide the development of a less-experienced person. Women and minorities are less likely to have mentors than white men. b. Reasons for the lower number of mentors for minorities and women include: i. Fewer women and minorities work in senior positions, which results in less opportunity for new female and/or minority employees to be mentored. ii. Men are sometimes reluctant to mentor young women for fear of gossip about sexual relations, they may assume women are less serious about their careers, or they may feel less comfortable with women than with men. c. Some women have formed their own networks to compensate to provide women with support and a sense of belonging with other professionals d. .Another challenge is workplace bullying, which is repeatedly acting toward another person in a way that humiliates, intimidates, or undermines the person’s credibility. 231

IV.

e. Women and gender nonconforming workers are more frequently the targets of bullying by both men and other women. i. Men bully men and women equally. ii. Women tend to more frequently bully other women. This could possibly be explained by the early socialization of girls to evaluate and critique other girls. 4. Glass Ceilings and Glass Walls a. The glass ceiling is an invisible barrier that limits the advancement of women and minorities. This most often results from subtle discrimination. b. The term glass walls is a metaphor for sex segregation on the job, in which women are placed in positions that require traditionally feminine skills (assistant, clerical, counseling, human relations). These jobs typically do not include opportunities for advancement. Efforts to Redress Gendered Inequity in Institutions A. Equal Opportunity Laws 1. Equal opportunity laws grew out of the Brown v. Board of Education case in 1954 that overturned the doctrine of “separate but equal” educational systems for white and black students. 2. The two main equal opportunity laws passed since Brown are: a. Title VII of the Civil Rights Act (1964), which prohibits discrimination in employment. b. Title IX (1972), which forbids discrimination in educational programs that receive federal aid. c. Several other equal opportunity laws have been passed as well, the most recent of which is the Lilly Ledbetter Fair Pay Act of 2009. 3. Equal opportunity laws focus on discrimination against individuals, not groups. Complaints must claim a particular person has suffered discrimination and focus on present practices. 4. Recent EEOC rulings have extended protections against sex discrimination to workers based on gender identity and sexual orientation, but these protections vary from state to state. B. Affirmative Action Policies 1. Affirmative action grew from the need to address the weight of historical prejudice. It is based on three key ideas. a. Historical patterns of discrimination have affected groups of people, so remedies must apply to groups, not individuals. b. To compensate for a legacy of discrimination, there must be preferential treatment of qualified members of groups that have suffered discrimination. c. The effectiveness of remedies is judged by results, not just intent. 2. Affirmative action has two important limitations. a. Affirmative action recognizes the limited availability of qualified people from historically underrepresented groups. Fewer women and minorities may have the education and experience to be qualified. b. Affirmative action does not encourage admitting, hiring, or promoting women and minorities that are not qualified. “Qualified” means that 232

applicants meet requirements, but they are not necessarily the “best qualified.” 3. Affirmative action attempts to compensate for the effects of a history of bias by giving preference to members of groups who are qualified despite discrimination. 4. Public debate has been vigorous. A controversial study claimed student admitted under affirmative action policies were less likely to be able to succeed, but many scholars refute those findings. 5. The Supreme Court has issued a number of rulings to clarify and refine affirmative action. In 2003, they ruled race cannot be the deciding factor but may be a factor. In 2013, they reaffirmed this ruling. 6. The most recent case, Fisher v. University of Texas, involved a white woman claiming she had been denied admission based on her race. The Court ruled against Fisher. 7. In recent years, there has been growing interest in revising affirmative action to give preference based on socioeconomic status rather than race-ethnicity. C. Quotas 1. A quota specifies a number or percentage of some group that must be admitted, hired, or promoted. This can mean if there are not enough qualified people to meet a quota, unqualified people must be promoted. D. Goals 1. Goals consist of an institution’s stated intention to achieve representation of minorities or women. There are no penalties for failing to meet the goal. 2. Goals and quotas may work against women and minorities. a. The quota or goal is seen as the maximum (rather than the minimum) number of women or minorities who will be admitted, hired, or promoted. b. Other institutional members may assume they got in only because of their sex or race and thus women and minorities may be perceived as underqualified. E. Diversity Training 1. Diversity training aims to increase awareness of and respect for differences that arise from distinct standpoints. It is often implemented in combination with one of the other remedies listed above. 2. A limitation of diversity training is that it requires strong personal commitment from participants. Many people are unwilling to make changes, especially those that reduce their own privilege. Journal Entries 1.

Do you think family leaves should be available to both male and female parents? Should both be required to take time off for families?

2. Explain why you support a certain “remedy” for gender inequities or why you don’t favor any discussed in Chapter 10 of Gendered Lives. For example, the majority of students say 233

they benefit educationally from ethnic and racial diversity on their campuses; yet, this may not mean that they support affirmative action policies. Where do you stand? 3. Reflect upon your own or others’ organizational experiences. Have you observed instances of classifying women or men according to the sex stereotypes identified in this chapter? How are these stereotypes imposed upon workers? How might workers resist being stereotyped? 4. Imagine you are in a long-term committed romantic relationship. How would you feel if your partner made more money than you? How would you feel if you made more money than your partner? Imagine you two decide to have children. Who, if either of you, will stay home with the child? Could you imagine ever having a different arrangement? 5. First, come up with a best-case scenario of yourself as a worker and/or parent ten years from now. What would an average, good workday look like? Next, consider whether some of the formal and informal gendered organizational patterns discussed in Chapter 10 would help you enact or hinder you from enacting an average, good day. If gendered organizational patterns stand in the way, how would you suggest changing those patterns to allow you (and others) to achieve their dreams and goals? Suggested Activities 1.

Panel: Balancing Work and Home: Invite a panel of dual-worker couples to discuss ways they balance roles, duties, and obligations within the home and professional organization. In our classes, students have responded favorably to this panel as they move out of the educational system and into organizational contexts. Couples negotiating these challenges often open the eyes of students to the “pitfalls” and pleasures of dual-worker relationships. In discussing your expectations with the couples you invited to participate, encourage them to reflect on and discuss such issues as “second shift” duties in the home and caregiving responsibilities for children and parents, when applicable. Student response tends to be highly positive to this panel, as it illustrates challenges they have not considered in conducting and maintaining relationships.

Stereotypes in the Workplace: Split your class into small groups (minimum of three people). Assign each group a stereotype. Provide ten minutes for them to brainstorm how to perform the act(s) of stereotyping. Ask them to perform (within five minutes) for the larger class. This exercise helps students identify the type of comments and behaviors that are communicated to reinforce limiting gender stereotypes. The instructor that introduced us to this popular exercise recommends you caution your students that no one should perform the stereotype (because they are most often inaccurate). This exercise is directed at how people stereotype individuals who are, in return, limited by these reductionary roles.

Nickel and Dimed: Assigning chapters from Barbara Ehrenreich’s Nickel and Dimed provides an excellent springboard for rich discussions concerning labor, hierarchy, and mobility that often lead naturally into debates surrounding legislation to redress inequities. 234

Some possibilities for opening discussion: To what extent are people able to freely choose their labor? What are the precursors to choosing one’s labor, and to social mobility? (i.e. education, proper food and shelter, health care, etc.) How might we better enable choice and mobility for America’s working and poverty classes? Given the ways in which sexism, racism, and classism have historically informed social hierarchies, what methods of redress do you think are useful and/or productive? 4.

Panel: Nontraditionally Gendered Workers: Invite a panel of speakers who work in jobs that are not or have not historically been seen in our culture as typical for their sex. This may include female lawyers, construction workers, police officers and male nurses, elementary school teachers, and administrative assistants. Ask the panelists to speak about how they navigate another-sex-dominated field given their sex, including any difficulties and positive aspects. Ask your students to generate questions for the panelists. You may also want to consider inviting people who identify as queer in some way (e.g., gay, lesbian, transgender) to talk about their experience being queer in the workplace.

The Price of Passing: Spradlin’s article “The Price of Passing” is a short essay about the strategies she used to negotiate being a closeted lesbian in her workplace. Have students read this article and discuss it in small groups, using the following discussion questions: (1) What are the strategies Spradlin used and how did she employ them? (2) Why do you think Spradlin did not simply reveal her sexuality? (3) How easy do you think it is now for LGBTQ people to come out in the workplace? (4) Think of an organization you are part of. Do you think that members of that organization feel pressure to hide their sexuality? Why or why not? You may add additional discussion questions to this exercise. This is also a good time to discuss and potentially debate the “Don’t Ask, Don’t Tell” policy. Many students are surprised to hear that the policy is viewed by many as discriminatory and degrading.

Difficult Decisions: Place students into small groups and ask them to read the following scenario and consider the questions that follow. Debrief the exercise as a large group. What assumptions ground students’ arguments and decisions? How are different activities, including work, art, and raising children, valued? Did any group come up with creative solutions to the scenario? Jennifer has worked the night shift at ACME organization for six years. A single woman, she recently adopted a five-year-old child. There is no night-time child care available in her area. To accommodate her child-care needs, Jennifer requested that she be transferred to the day shift. In order to meet Jennifer’s request, Jennifer’s boss, Susan, asks Tanesha, who has worked the day shift for the past ten years, to switch schedules with Jennifer. Tanesha is in a committed relationship and has no children. She is active in numerous arts, including a symphony orchestra that rehearses Tuesday and Thursday evenings and a wind quintet that works together on Mondays and Wednesdays at the same times. She is highly reluctant to switch to the night shift because doing so would require her to give up her music; moreover, her partner works days and she prefers a work schedule that matches her partner’s. 235

How would you assess Jennifer’s request? Is it legitimate? Should the organization accommodate her parenting needs? Why or why not? What do you think of Tanesha’s response? Should her participation in the arts be part of the calculation? Why or why not? Should her longer tenure with the organization confer her any rights or privileges? Should the fact that she is in a committed relationship enter the discussion? Why or why not? If you were Susan, how would you resolve this situation? 7.

Affirmative Action, Equal Opportunities, Quotas, and Goals in Action: This activity helps students understand these four ways of redressing inequities by applying them to a specific case. Give students the handout that follows, and ask them to follow the instructions. This activity works best if the students work in small groups. After they have worked in groups, share and discuss their answers in the large group to ensure that they understand the differences between these policies. Answers to question 1 will vary. You might consider discussing this question last in order to explore the differences between what the policies mandate and what the students think is right or fair. The correct answer to question 2 is Layla. Both Mason and Layla meet the minimum qualifications, so they are both qualified. Because women are very underrepresented at TAB, Layla’s minority status as a woman means AA would say she should be hired. This is a good time to note that Marjorie would not be hired because she is not qualified for the job since she does not have a finance-related degree. The correct answer to question 3 could be Layla or Mason. In reality, Mason would probably be hired since he is more qualified than Layla (because of his MBA). Equal opportunity does not look at past discrimination. However, if Layla could show that she was not hired because she was a woman, EO would protect her. The correct answer to question 4 could be Marjorie or Mason, but the quota policy might mean Marjorie would be hired since the organization is so far from reaching its quota. Quota policies tend to be enforced, though, when they are not reached, rather than during hiring, promotion, and admission. Note that strict quotas can result in an underqualified person being hired. The correct answer to question 5 could be Layla or Mason. Goals are the least strict policies because they only “hope” to produce equity rather than having any consequences. Marjorie would probably not be hired because she is not qualified. NOTE: Be prepared that the discussion could become heated about these policies. Some people feel strongly about these remedies, and they may want to share those perspectives, especially if they think one of the policies results in an unfair situation for one of the potential applicants. To help you prepare, be sure you are very clear on the policies. Also, you may want to learn what policies are used at your university or college. It is likely that students may want to talk about their experience at your institution, and it’s helpful if you can accurately tell them which policies are used. 236

Affirmative Action, Equal Opportunities, Quotas, and Goals in Action Directions: Read the scenario below. Then follow the instructions for each numbered question. Scenario: Marjorie (a woman), Layla (a woman), and Mason (a man) are applying for the same job as a loan officer at The American Bank. The job requires a degree in a finance or bankingrelated field. Typically, men have tended to dominate the banking industry, and 80% of employees at TAB are men. Layla and Mason both have undergraduate degrees in personal finance. Marjorie has an undergraduate degree in English with a 4.0 GPA. Mason has an MBA; however, an MBA is not required to apply for or to do the job. Both Layla and Mason perform well in interviews, and each of their references check out well. It seems that both Layla and Mason are qualified and would do well in the job. 1. Who do you think should be hired? 2. If The American Bank used affirmative action, who should be hired? Why? 3. If The American Bank used equal opportunity, who should be hired? Why? 4. Layla has withdrawn her application because she got another job. Now only Marjorie and Mason are potential employees. If The American Bank had a quota policy of having 40% female employees by the next year, who should be hired. Why? 5. All three applicants are still contenders. If The American Bank had a goal policy of having 40% female employees by the next year, who should be hired? Why?

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JUDGMENT CALL 10: SHOULD ALL WORK PLACES BE REQUIRED TO PROVIDE PAID FAMILY LEAVE TO MALE AND FEMALE EMPLOYEES? In 1993, the Family and Medical Leave Act was passed and became law in this country. As explained in Gendered Lives, the act states that, under certain conditions, employers must give employees up to 12 weeks of leave for family issues and medical problems. Your text also notes that there are some limits to the Act. Specifically, 1. The law does not apply to employers who have less than 50 workers. 2. Not all workers in 100+ worker companies are eligible for family and medical leave. Employers may designate certain workers as “essential personnel” who cannot be granted leave. Criteria for this designation are unclear. 3. To qualify for leave, an employee must have worked at least one year and a minimum of 1,240 hours a year and not be in the top 10% of the company’s salary levels. 4. Nothing in the law requires that employers pay full or partial salaries to workers who take family and medical leave. Obviously, employees who have fewer resources are less likely to be able to afford to take an unpaid leave. Other developed countries have more generous family leave policies and other countries typically pay full or partial salaries to employees who take leaves. In the United States businesses have argued that they cannot afford to pay for family leaves—that doing so would be prohibitively costly. Currently there are efforts to expand the 1993 Act. Some of the efforts are legislative attempts to lower the ceiling on company size so that businesses with fewer than 50 or more employees would need to provide family and medical leave. Other efforts in the private sphere focus on increasing the number of men who take family leaves so that men and women can participate more equally in raising children. And many people think that paid family leaves should be provided to all qualified employees. They reason that if other countries can afford it, so can the United States. Further, they argue, paid family leaves are in the best interests of the whole society because parental involvement with children strengthens families, which, in turn, strengthens the society. Where do you stand on this issue? Do you think that all employers should be required to provide paid family leave to employees? As you think about the issue, visit the websites listed below and consider the prompts that follow. The U.S. Department of Labor has a website that offers information on the current Family and Medical Leave Act. To learn the specifics of this Act, visit the site at: http://www.dol.gov/esa/whd/fmla/. Do you think it is the employer’s responsibility to pay for leaves employees take to care for children or other family members? Is family leave different than other benefits, such as medical insurance and disability leave that employers provide to employees? ¨

Women who work outside of the home are far more likely than men who work outside of the home to take family leave to take care of newly born or adopted children. Yet research demonstrates convincingly that fathers and mothers are both important to children. Should fathers be encouraged or required to take 238

time off when a new child enters a family? ¨ ¨

How do you think children would be affected if both parents took time off to care for them and to participate in raising them? How do you think fuller involvement of both parents in raising children would affect society? References

Hewlett, S. (1991).When the bough breaks: The cost of neglecting our children. New York: Basic Books. Chapter 10: Gendered Organizational Communication Multiple Choice 1.

The Lilly Ledbetter Act of 2009 A. bars employers from retaliating against employees who ask about pay schedules. B. states that wage discrimination occurs whenever an employee receives discriminatory pay. C. overturned the “separate but equal” doctrine. D. requires federal employers to provide maternity leave for all employees. E. expands the Family and Medical Leave Act (FMLA). ANS: B REF: p. 200

When LaKisha does not get a promotion she was expecting, she asks her supervisor to explain what happened. He tells her that the partners in the firm felt that the promotion would have created a lot of pressure on her and they wanted to protect her from that. The partners’ evaluation of LaKisha reflects which stereotype of women? A. Victim B. Mother C. Sex object D. Child E. None of the above ANS: D REF: pp. 200–201

The assumption that careers must follow linear, full-time patterns A. is based on work-patterns of previous eras that assumed a typical employee was a male worker with a stay-at-home wife. B. leads many women to choose to forego having families. C. negatively affects both men’s and women’s career trajectories. D. correctly assumes that workers are most productive and successful when they 239

remain invested in and committed to a job for a long period of time and without interruption. E. has been rejected by most contemporary major corporations. ANS: A REF: pp. 205–206 4.

Brendan is struggling to understand how to use the new reporting software his company has adopted. Rather than asking the IT director for help, Brendan keeps doing Google searches to try to answer his questions. Brendan is exhibiting what stereotype of men in the workplace? A. Fighter B. Sturdy oak C. Breadwinner D. Athlete E. Cowboy ANS: B REF: pp. 200– 201

Brown v. Board of Education led to what efforts to redress inequities in the United States? A. Equal opportunity laws B. Affirmative action C. Quotas D. Goals E. Sexual harassment laws ANS: A REF: p. 211

Equal opportunity laws A. apply to groups, not individuals, that have suffered discrimination. B. deal only with the present—not historical—discrimination. C. are judged by results, not intent. D. are the same thing as affirmative action. E. state how many minorities must be hired, promoted, or admitted at an institution. ANS: B REF: p. 211

Anna and Ben are up for the same promotion at work. When it comes time to make a decision, the management committee chooses Ben for the position because they think Anna’s commitment to being a good mother to her children would prevent her from wanting to take on more responsibilities at the office. Anna has just encountered what? 240

A. Glass walls B. FMLA C. Affirmative action D. The glass ceiling E. None of the above ANS: D REF: p. 210 8.

“Glass wall” is a metaphor to describe A. the invisible barrier to women’s advancement in the workplace. B. a new technology that lets supervisors monitor employees. C. the difference in pay that women and men receive for the same job. D. sex segregation of jobs based on stereotypes of women. E. leave policies that discourage men from taking family leave. ANS: D REF: p. 210

Affirmative action laws A. attempt to redress past discrimination for members of historically marginalized groups. B. apply only to individuals, not groups that have experienced discrimination. C. judge organizations by the intent of their hiring, admission, and promotion practices rather than end results. D. sometimes result in unqualified candidates being hired, admitted, or promoted. E. mandate a number of people that must be hired, admitted, or promoted at an organization. ANS: A REF: pp. 211–212

10.

Which of the following is a reason why women workers tend to lack mentor relationships? A. Fewer women and minorities hold senior positions in many organizations. B. Men are often reluctant to mentor women for fear of gossip and innuendo. C. Men often assume that women are less serious about their careers. D. Some men are less comfortable with women than men. E. All of the above. ANS: E REF: pp. 208–209

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are policies that judge effectiveness based on results rather than intention. A. Affirmative action 241

B. Goals C. Equal opportunity laws D. Informal networks E. All of the above ANS: A REF: pp. 211–212 12.

At work, Nick feels pressure to compete against his coworkers. He and his wife are expecting a child and although the company has a family leave policy, he is afraid to ask for time off in case it hurts his future chance at promotions and his coworkers view him as undedicated. What stereotype of men in the workplace does this kind of pressure reflect? A. Sturdy oak B. Breadwinner C. Iron man D. Fighter E. Glass wall ANS: D REF: p. 201

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Women’s careers can be hampered by which of the following informal practices? A. Male mentors who attempt to impose male values and styles on women B. Workplace environments that focus on families and relationships C. Informal networks that require women to join men in games of golf and other sports, activities most women do not enjoy D. Segregation into jobs that offer little or no opportunity for advancement E. All of the above ANS: D REF: pp. 206–210

True/False 14. Hillary Clinton was judged based on her fitting with the iron maiden stereotype during the 2016 U.S. presidential campaign. ANS: T REF: p. 199 15. Less than 5% of Fortune 500 companies have female CEOs. ANS: T REF: p. 196 242

16. In the United States, companies are required to grant leaves to care for new babies or sick family members as mandated by the FMLA. ANS: F REF: pp. 204–205 17. Because men have dominated in the workplace in the past, many informal networks are largely or exclusively male. ANS: T REF: pp. 206–210 18. Affirmative action is a quota system that states a number of minorities that must be hired, admitted, or promoted, regardless of qualifications. ANS: F REF: pp. 211–212 19. The glass escalator is the idea that when women take jobs in male dominated fields, they are often quick to rise through the ranks of those fields. ANS: F REF: p. 210 20. Topic or question should be authored by a student. See pages 8 to 10 of this manual for details on this activity. Identification 21. Workplace bullying ANS: Repeatedly acting toward a person or persons in ways that humiliate, intimidate, or otherwise undermine the target’s professional credibility. Women are more frequently the targets of both male and female bullies. Women who bully disproportionately target other women. REF: p. 209 22. Maternal wall ANS: Both employers and coworkers may assume that women workers who have children are more invested in family than they are in their career. These unexamined assumptions and the behaviors that result are referred to as the maternal wall. For example, an employer might assume that a woman with children is interested in a promotion that would require her to relocate and therefore not offer her the opportunity. Similarly, coworkers might assume that a woman who is a mother does not want to participate in activities outside of work and therefore not invite her to join the rest of the group. In this way, the mother misses out on 243

important informal networking opportunities. REF: p. 198 23. Affirmative action ANS: Affirmative action policies are those that aim to increase the representation of women and minorities in education and the workplace with qualified, although not necessarily the best qualified, candidates. These policies are based upon the ideas that in order to redress historical discrimination to groups of people, there should be preferential treatment for qualified members of these groups. The effectiveness of these policies is judged by results, not intent. Recent court rulings have upheld the constitutionality of affirmative action policies. REF: p. 211 24. Equal opportunity laws ANS: Equal opportunity laws are those that prohibit discrimination in organizations. The Civil Rights Act and Title IX are examples. These laws do not address past discrimination but address current discrimination against individuals. These complaints are addressed on a case-by-case basis and someone who claims to have been discriminated against must prove that specific decisions or actions were taken (or not taken) based on his/her race, sex, or other category covered by the law. REF: p. 211 25. Glass escalator ANS: An invisible advantage that accelerates men’s success in female dominated spheres of work. While all men seem to benefit, the greatest advantage seems to be for white males. REF: p. 210 26. Glass walls ANS: The term glass walls is a metaphor referencing sex segregation in the workplace. Women tend to be placed in positions that require traditional feminine skills, which often do not include career advancement. REF: p. 210 27. Glass ceilings ANS: Glass ceilings consist of subtle discrimination that acts as barriers to limit career advancement of women and minorities. The subtle discrimination may take form of the gendered stereotypes. REF: p. 210 28. Mentors ANS: Mentors are a senior colleague helps a junior employee build a career. Minorities and 244

women have a harder time finding other minorities and women to mentor them, since fewer occupy senior positions. Men may also feel uncomfortable mentoring younger women for fear of gossip or sexual tension. These elements perpetuate patterns where white men receive more help in career advancement and are part of the informal practices that disadvantage women and minorities. REF: p. 208 Essays 29. How might gendered stereotypes contribute to more subtle forms of discrimination practiced in organizations today? Explain two stereotypes each for women and for men. Provide an example of how they might be enacted in organizational life. How does each of these limit opportunities? ANS: Students should explain and provide organizational examples for two of each of the following. Examples may vary, but should provide a concrete illustration of the stereotype to illustrate the student’s understanding. Gendered stereotypes—women: Sex Object—defines women in terms of their sex or sexuality, including judgments of women workers based on their appearance and/or actions. This may limit opportunities for women because they are viewed in terms of appearance over accomplishments. It also contributes to sexual harassment. Mother—this stereotype may be applied literally or figuratively. Figuratively, women may be expected to prepare food, listen, help, and support others. Literally, women may be perceived as not “serious” professionals because they are expected to be preoccupied with children. This may limit women if employers restrict their opportunities for experience and promotions based upon the idea that work needed for professional accomplishments and motherhood are incompatible. Child—reflects a view of women as less mature, competent, and capable than adults. Often takes the form of trying to “protect” women from dangerous or challenging jobs, which often are of higher prestige and higher pay and thereby limits women’s opportunities. Iron Maiden—derogatory view of a woman as independent, ambitious, competitive, and sometimes tough. Although these behaviors are celebrated in men, they may be perceived as unfeminine. These limit women by restricting assertive behaviors that often are rewarded in the workplace and by providing contradictory expectations for women to be not too unfeminine, but not act “too much like women.” Gendered stereotypes—men: Sturdy Oak—defines men as completely self-reliant. As such, a man should never admit doubt, weakness, or ask for help from others. This may restrict men by reducing their abilities to collaborate or ask for assistance. Fighter—the stereotype of a man as a “brave warrior” who goes into battle, figuratively or literally. Men are expected to be fully committed to work life, ruthless in business dealings, 245

and competitive. This may limit men through expectations that their work life is more important than personal and family matters. Breadwinner—one of the strongest stereotypes for men in U.S. society. Men are expected to be able to provide the sole or highest income to support family. With today’s common corporate practice of layoffs, frequently cited need for two-income families, and women’s ability to earn higher amounts than their husbands; this unrealistic belief may lower men’s feelings of self-worth by tying identity to earning power. REF: pp. 195–201 30. Your Gendered Lives textbook discusses a number of informal organizational practices that contribute to discriminatory practices in organizations today. Define and discuss two of these practices that you believe are most damaging and explain why you believe this. Finally, pick one of the methods to redress gendered inequity and explain how this solution would help address the discriminatory practices discussed in your essay. What are the benefits and limitations of this method? ANS: Students should choose two of the following informal practices to define and discuss: Unwelcoming environments for women—environments where language and behaviors emphasizing men’s experiences are normative (e.g., those in which sports, military, or sex metaphors are used to describe business practices or women experience resistance to entering a male-dominated field.) Informal networks—also known as the “old boy network” since informal networks are predominately male. Organizational members often use informal communication to make hiring, promotion, and buying decisions, so they are vital to professional success. However, women and minorities tend to be less involved in informal networks since they feel different or outnumbered. Mentoring relationships—occur when a senior colleague helps a junior employee build a career. Minorities and women have a harder time finding other minorities and women to mentor them, since fewer occupy senior positions. Men may also feel uncomfortable mentoring younger women for fear of gossip or sexual tension. These elements perpetuate patterns where white men receive more help in career advancement. Glass ceilings and walls—Glass ceilings consist of subtle discrimination that acts as barriers to limit career advancement of women and minorities. The subtle discrimination may take form of the gendered stereotypes (see answer to question 1). The term glass walls is a metaphor referencing sex segregation in the workplace. Women tend to be placed in positions that require traditional feminine skills, which often do not include career advancement. Students should provide an explanation of why they feel the two informal practices they have selected are the most damaging and then pick one of the following means to redressed gendered inequity and address a strength and weakness of this method. The answer should clearly indicate how this method will address the informal practices they have addressed in their response; this element of the answer may vary. 246

Equal Opportunity Laws—These are laws that prohibit discrimination against individuals who are members of groups who have historically faced discrimination. The focus is to extend equal opportunity to all within an organization. These laws would be unlikely to address the subtle, informal discriminatory practices addressed in this question. Affirmative action—These policies aim to increase the representation of women and minorities in education and the workplace with qualified, although not necessarily the best qualified, candidates. These policies are based upon the ideas that in order to redress historical discrimination to groups of people, there should be preferential treatment for qualified members of these groups. The effectiveness of these policies is judged by results, not intent. Benefits of this method include addressing a legacy of bias against certain groups, while still maintaining qualification standards and gaining the benefits of diverse organizational membership at all levels of the organization. Disadvantages may include difficult implementation due to a limited availability of qualified people from historically underrepresented groups. Quotas—Using a results-oriented focus like affirmative action, quotas aim to require a certain number or percentage of minorities and women to be admitted, hired, or promoted within an organization. A benefit of this method is women and/or minorities would be guaranteed to comprise a certain percentage of the organization. A disadvantage is that they may not be qualified and minority or female organizational members overall may be stigmatized as having only received a position because of belonging to a disadvantaged group. Goals—Similar to quotas, but represents only an organization’s stated intention of achieving a certain percentage of women and/or minorities. Goals have the same advantages and disadvantages of quotas, with one additional disadvantage in that goals are not mandated. Therefore, failure to achieve a goal may have no consequences. Diversity training—aims to increase awareness of and respect for difference. These programs have an underlying assumption that organizational members are unaware of subtle biases and introduce them to new ways of behaving and interpreting others. An advantage of the program is that participants may learn to avoid unconscious discrimination. A disadvantage is that participants must be motivated to learn and make changes for the program to be effective. REF: pp. 206–215 31. Your textbook discusses the effect of outdated norms for career paths on women in the workplace. Describe what those norms are and how they impact women’s careers. If you were to advocate for a change to these paths, what would that change be? Is that change realistic? Why or why not? ANS: For the first part of this question, students should mention that “good” workers are expected to work weeks are Monday through Friday during business hours, and that leaving work to raise children can result in limited opportunities for return for women. The second part of the question will vary by student. REF: pp. 203–204

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Chapter 11: Gendered Media I.

II.

Media Saturation of Cultural Life A. People today are media-saturated and media-engaged, with as many as 99% of all households owning at least one TV. The average U.S. citizen watches more than five hours of television a day. 1. Social media take up more of our time than mass media. Recent surveys show the average person spends six hours online every day. 2. We use social media to connect with others, organize our communities, and find out what’s happening in the world. Media Impacts B. Most people think that others are affected by media but they are immune from media influences, a belief called the third person effect. Research shows most of us are not immune to influence from mass and social media. C. Set the Agenda 1. A primary impact of media is agenda setting, the process by which media tells us what we should attend to. Media don’t tell us what to think, but they do tell us what to think about. 2. A gatekeeper is a person or group who controls what messages get through to consumers. Editors, owners, and producers are examples of gatekeepers. 3. Gatekeepers shape our perceptions by deciding which issues to spotlight, which points of view get a hearing, and how to depict women, men, and people of diverse sexual orientations and gender identities. D. Regulate Images of Gender 1. Underrepresent Women, Minorities, and LGBTQ People a. Although women outnumber men, media overrepresent cisgender heterosexual white men. b. Males outnumber females in film, cartoons, and newscasts. The majority of women characters on television shows are depicted in interpersonal and secondary roles. c. The Bechdel Test assesses gender bias in film by asking: does it feature two women who talk to each other about something other than a man? d. Women are rarely shown as authorities in news programming—they make up less than one-third of the sources for stories on women’s rights. e. The media also underrepresent and often negatively portray minorities. Less than a quarter of speaking roles in the 500 top grossing films between 2007 and 2012 were nonwhite. Portrayals are often stereotypical. f. Films also give scant representation to people who are not straight and cisgender. 2. Portray Men Stereotypically a. Portrayals of men include depictions of males as independent, strong, aggressive, and in charge. b. Television news programming is disproportionately male. 248

c. There is a scarcity of nonwhite men and nonwhite versions of masculinity. Men are seldom shown nurturing others or doing housework. d. Media offer some complex portrayals of male characters. However, displays of vulnerability tend to be viewed more favorably when performed by men who are otherwise traditionally masculine. 3. Portray Women Stereotypically a. Portrayals of women include depictions of females presented as shopping, grooming, being emotional, being focused on men, being sexual, and performing domestic activities. b. The most traditional stereotype of woman is sex object and continues to dominate media portrayals of women. i. Even animated films show women with small waists, large breasts, and pretty faces. c. Whiteness is a standard and an ideal. Images of black women are often based on very negative stereotypes. Black femininity is far less stereotyped when black women get to tell their own stories. d. Many black women in advertising and programming have light skin and straight hair. Asian women and Latinas are often presented as exotic and sexualized. e. Women are usually seen as either “good” or “bad.” Bad women are witches, bitches, sluts, and unattractive. Good women are often pretty and passive, focused on the home, subordinate to men, and loyal helpmates. f. In recent years, media have featured some women characters who depart from tradition in shows like House of Cards, Grace and Frankie, and The Fosters. 4. Gendered Images in Advertising a. Ads also show these gendered portrayals of men and women. We are repeatedly exposed to the same messages, ads feature visual images, which we tend to analyze less critically than verbal claims, and we mistakenly think we’re immune to advertising. b. Ads typically portray men as independent, successful, engaged in activities, and strong. Men’s dominance over women is emphasized. c. Men also serve as voices of authority. Even though women are seen at being successful in the home, male authority is still seen in ads through male voice-overs and male images like Mr. Clean. d. The sexual objectification of women is central to advertising. There is a relentless emphasis on youth and appearance. e. Ads are more subtle when they are blurred with content. i. Complimentary copy is an article or two that appears in a magazine to increase market appeal. ii. Product placement shows or mentions a particular brand or product. iii. Contextual advertising is embedded in digital content and tailored to specific individuals based on data mining practices. 249

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iv. Immersive advertising incorporates a product or brand into an entire storyline; e.g., Prada in Gossip Girl. f. Women appearing as sex objects and men appearing as sexual aggressors are common in popular music videos and video games. 5. Motivate Us to Consume a. Some analysts argue that the primary function of media is to encourage us to buy products and services. b. Advertising associates certain products and procedures with happiness and success. Cosmetic surgery is popular to make women fit to beauty ideals. c. History helps us understand how powerful media can be in shaping social attitudes and behaviors about gender. i. Only in the last century has underarm and leg hair been viewed as unfeminine. d. Media also tell men they are deficient. The body-building trend has been linked to increasing abuse of steroids. e. Normal changes in sexual vigor are represented as problems to be solved by buying the right products. f. Media encourage us to measure up to impossible ideals. Gender and Social Media A. Social media are seamlessly woven into our lives. Young people use social media to construct and manage their everyday lives and relationships. B. Social and traditional media are increasingly enmeshed in the digital world. C. There are some important intersection between social media and gender. D. Social Networking 1. One of the most popular uses of social media is social networking. Girls, women, and LGBTQ individuals are more inclined to regard the online environment as a resource for enriching relationships. 2. Girls and women frequently use social networking for self-development, talking about their experiences and thoughts and incorporating others’ reactions to those ideas into their identities. 3. Social networking technologies have been adapted by LGBTQ and gender nonconforming people in ways that reflect their experiences. They use social networking for identity exploration and formation. 6. Social networks can have a major downside in cyberbullying, which includes actions meant to hurt another person and are circulated through email or social media. a. Girls who are bullied tend to be more physically developed than others their age, are regarded as less attractive, or are very attractive. b. Boys, especially nonwhite boys, perceived as feminine are most likely to be victims of cyberbullying. c. Online bullying and harassment can lead to abuse of drugs and alcohol, refusal to attend school, lower self-esteem and more health issues. d. Cyberbullying is different than face to face bullying in that it can be done anonymously, and that it has no boundaries, following the 250

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victim at all times. E. Learning and Sharing Information 1. The digital world offers boundless sources of information about gender issues. Some include the Huffington Post, Jezebel, Guerrilla Feminism, and Black Girl Dangerous. 2. College students have created informal online networks to share information and strategize about sexual assault on campus. 3. Twitter feeds and news apps are ways to stay on top of information as it unfolds. 4. There are also online communities that provide information and support related to specific issues like bullying, male victims of sexual abuse, surviving rape, and human rights relevant to gender. 5. Social media allow ordinary individuals to document what’s happening in their communities and broadcast those reports. F. Holding Others Accountable 1. Picking up on a function of traditional media, social media have emerged as vital force in holding corporations and other powerful interests accountable for sexism and gendered violence. G. Activism 1. Social communities are frequently used for purposes of activism. a. Organizations can use social media sites to get their messages out to interested parties. b. Social media are ideal platforms for activism, allowing for nimble community organizing and almost immediate responses. Consequences of Gendered Media A. Normalize Unrealistic Standards 1. When we are exposed to the unrealistic images of men and women in the media, we tend to see ourselves as inadequate. 2. Selfie culture invites online evaluations of appearance and encourages people to view themselves as objects for evaluation. 3. The availability of pornography creates unrealistic standards for sexual partners and sexual activity. a. A majority of porn includes some aggression toward women who often respond pleasurably; young girls may learn this is how sex happens. b. A woman’s sense of their own female sexuality is obscured by an effort to perform sexuality in ways to please men. 4. Research suggested the unrealistic ideals in popular media do influence how many of us feel about ourselves. B. Normalize Violence Against Women 1. There is evidence that violence in the media contributes to increasing violence in real life. a. Some studies have linked exposure to violent media with aggression, violence, and antisocial behavior. When we see violence frequently in the media, we can come to see it as a normal part of life. 2. Video games invite players not just to watch violence but to engage virtually 251

in violence, including violence against women. 3. Several theories of gender development show the relationship between media violence and real-life violence. a. Social learning theory thinks about when boys and men watch music videos that show men being rewarded for exploiting and violating women. b. Cognitive development theory would say that when women and girls see women in the media inviting or allowing violence against them, they might think such violence is acceptable. c. Symbolic interactionism would say that social views of relationships represented in the media can affect how we see our own relationships. Journal Entries 1.

Discuss gender images and expectations as reflected in three advertisements.

Analyze gender stereotypes in a film or television show.

Think of a television show or film that was not mentioned in Chapter 11 that attempts to challenge traditional depictions of men or women. How does this example differ from other media images you have seen? How do these alternative images challenge prevailing norms of what women and men should be?

Print out lyrics from your top 5-8 favorite songs. What messages do the lyrics send about sex and gender? Do you support those ideas? If there are messages you do not support, why do you listen to those songs? How do you think some artists are able to resist pressure to sing songs that position men and women in limiting ways? (This is an individual version of suggested class activity 4.)

5. Think about how you use social media. What are your most common purposes for using social media? Does your usage match the gendered patterns explained in Chapter 11? How do you think social media affects your perceptions of gendered communication? Suggested Activities 1.

Documentaries: Gender and Media: There are many different videos that can be shown to examine sex and gender issues as presented by the media. We will include suggestions for three different videos we have used in this section of the course. Bibliographic information to assist you in locating these videos appears in the reference section of this resource book. You may also want to consider showing a recent episode from one of the season’s hot new television shows. Reality TV shows such as The Swan or America’s Next Top Model provide plenty of material to discuss in reference to gender stereotyping and dangerous standards of physical beauty. The three videos we have used to educate and provoke discussion are: a. Dreamworlds 3 examines rock music videos for the messages presented about the sexes. 252

This piece demonstrates the ways rock videos are made and marketed to play on the fantasies of adolescent males. Women in these music videos are presented in very restricted ways; viewing images that present violence against women is linked to desensitization of men and women to violence against women. One caution deserves consideration: Dreamworlds presents offensive and violent images in a very powerful way. We encourage you to discuss the nature of the film in advance with your students and allow them to leave the viewing if they so choose. We provide an alternate assignment to students who choose not to watch the film, such as a reading from Naomi Wolf’s (1991) book The Beauty Myth. After your class watches Dreamworlds, be prepared for several moments of silence from repulsion. The video includes a rape scene from Jodie Foster’s performance in The Accused. Students (and instructors) often find themselves overwhelmed by the powerful images that are repeated so frequently that we often do not notice them or consider their impact. After watching this video, students regularly report on current videos they see on television. Many students also have decided they can no longer watch these images and choose to make their friends aware of the issues presented in Dreamworlds. b. Tough Guise 2 (2013) is an excellent video for helping students recognize how masculinity, in general, and violent masculinity, in particular, are constructed by popular media. Tough Guise 2 includes extensive illustrations from popular culture, including films, the tragic school shootings, and hip hop. NOTE: Tough Guise is available in two versions. The abridged version is 57 minutes long and it does not include spoken obscenities and visible nudity. c. Jean Kilbourne’s film entitled Killing Us Softly 3 examines violence in mainstream media and pornography. Her previous work, Still Killing Us Softly, which was the predecessor to this film, is also available on videotape. 2.

Gendered Messages in Magazines: Another activity we frequently bring into the classroom asks students to clip and examine advertisements from popular magazines. Assign students the task of bringing in three print advertisements, or other forms of media, such as commercials. Tell students to pay particular attention to the images presented with respect to men and women in society. Ads often include female models who are unhealthy, thin, and have no pores or wrinkles and male models with extremely muscular bodies, sexy images instead of the product being advertised, and products that appear as phallic symbols. Students tend to feel powerless to resist these images that relentlessly target women and men in daily life. You may want to encourage students to write to magazines that carry images that students deem unhealthy or offensive. Magazine editors are said to view one letter as representing the opinion of 10,000. Another option for students who would like to resist these images is to encourage them not to buy the products the ads are selling. Having several options available for individuals in your class who are bothered by the power of mediated images may prevent students from feeling powerless in the face of advertisers. Additionally, having information about the dangers of unrealistic images may empower students to resist the messages that bombard women and men in daily life. 253

Gendered Messages in Commercials: Record several commercials during an evening television show. (If students do not have cable, they can look up recent commercials on YouTube.) Show several commercials (such as all of those that aired at a single commercial break). Ask students to examine what messages the commercials send about sex and gender, especially grouped together in a set of 4 or 5. Students may also want to discuss how those messages relate to the message the show (on which the commercials are advertising) also sends about sex and gender. This exercise tends to be both entertaining and informative.

Gendered Messages in Songs: Ask students to bring in a printed copy of lyrics to some of their favorite songs. Ask them to examine the lyrics in small groups to determine what messages the songs send about sex and gender. They may want to compare and contrast songs from genres, cultures, and consider how the sex of the singer affects the messages conveyed. Consider the implications and explore why we are often willing to listen to (sing along with, spend money on) songs and artists that are communicating problematic messages. Discuss how artists who do not conform to sexist and heterosexist portrayals of men and women may be able to resist those pressures.

What You’re Watching: This exercise requires advanced planning and can take several days of class time. You may find it to be worth the time investment for several reasons: It requires students to analyze critically television programs they watch and enjoy. Additionally, students often are able to incorporate material from earlier chapters – verbal and nonverbal communication patterns, close relationships, organizational communication, and gender, and so forth. Finally, the exercise provides students the opportunity to act as experts, offering analyses of media texts for their classmates and instructor. On the day you begin discussing gendered media, ask your students to write the name of their favorite television program on a piece of paper. Collect and collate their responses to determine the favorite four or five programs in the class. During the following class, provide students with a handout that lists the class’s favorite programs and when and where they air. You may need to adjust the list to ensure that at least some of the included programs are available to all students (e.g., you don’t want the list to include only programs available through subscription cable). Many programs of the programs will likely be available through Netflix or Hulu. Include the following instructions on the handout: Tracking Media Texts: What You’re Watching Over the next XX weeks, please watch at least three episodes of one of the programs found on the list below. Take notes as you watch, focusing on the following questions: 1. List the central and subordinate characters on the program. Describe each character’s appearance, noting the person’s sex, race, age, size, and level of attractiveness. 2. Consider the plots and subplots of the episodes you viewed. Are sex and/or gender central to these plots and subplots? 254

3. Consider the gender roles played by each character. Do they conform to the patterns discussed in Chapter 11? If so, how so? If not, how not? 4. Consider the relationships between characters. Do these reflect gendered themes? (You may want to consult material covered in earlier chapters for this question.) 5. If advertisements are shown with the program, consider the questions as they relate to the ads. Toward the end of the unit, devote part of or a whole class period for students to meet in small groups. Each small group should be composed of people who have watched the same program. Have students compare notes. Based on their discussions and notes, each group should prepare a short presentation (10 or more minutes, depending on the size of the class and time available). The presentation should take into account issues that arise from the questions posed on the handout and that intersect with ideas presented in Chapter 11. Devote one or two days to student presentations. If possible, ask students to illustrate their arguments with clips from the program they are discussing. (Some students will own the DVDs of their favorite programs; others can be streamed instantly. Even if full episodes are not available online, shorter clips oftentimes are.) Although groups are asked to make connections between the material in the textbook and the programs on which they are presenting, the instructor will want to be prepared to help make those connections, too. Additionally, it’s a good idea for the instructor to take notes during the presentations and to formulate test questions based on what is presented. Alternatively, the instructor might ask each group to compose two or three test questions based on the material they presented and include some of those on the exam. Students often take this exercise more seriously if they are given a grade on the group presentation that counts toward their course grade.

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JUDGMENT CALL 11: WERE MEDIA PORTRAYALS OF BRANDI CHASTAIN SEXIST? In July of 1999 the U.S. Women’s Soccer Team won the World Cup. In the moment of victory after kicking the winning shot, U.S. player Brandi Chastain ripped off her shirt and waved it at the crowd with a black sports bra as the only clothing above her waist. Photos of Chastain in her sports bra were featured on the covers of Newsweek and Sports Illustrated, as well as many newspapers. Chastain was the player who captured media’s attention—not teammates Briana Scurry whose magnificent work deflected one of the Chinese kicks or Mia Hamm who is the highest scoring woman in the history of international soccer. Chastain was the media’s pick. Many people regarded the photos of Chastain as showing a superb athlete in the flush of victory—exhilarated and impulsively celebrating. But others thought the photographs reflected media’s intent to portray women as sexual objects. Columnist G.D. Gearino (1999, p. 1E) wrote that Chastain wasn’t on the cover because of her athletic skills but rather “because she kicked the winning goal and then ripped her shirt off to scamper about in her underwear.” Gearino argued that the media “love photographs and videotape of women in their underwear.” Do you think media were sexist in choosing to feature photos of Chastain in her sports bra? If possible, view the cover of Newsweek’s July 19, 1999 issue. The following prompts may be useful in thinking through the question. ¨ ¨ ¨ ¨

Is it different for a woman athlete to rip off her shirt in the throes of victory than for a man athlete to do so? Tennis star Pete Sampras removed his shirt on the court, and nobody commented. Does it matter whether Chastain ripped off her shirt because of “momentary insanity,” as she claimed, or as a calculated move to seize media’s attention, as Gearino and others imply? Is an athlete whose muscles and strength are visible and who is wearing a sports bra a sexualized image? Is it the same kind of image as a woman wearing a lacy bra? Aside from the fact that cover photos of Chastain showed her in the sports bra, was the shot of her a better symbol of the victory and the success of the women’s team than shots of Scurry deflecting a ball or Hamm playing in field would have been?

References Gearino, G. D. (1999, 20 July). Soccer’s winning streak. Raleigh News and Observer. (1999, July 19). Cover. Sports Illustrated (1999, July) Cover.

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Chapter 11: Gendered Media Multiple Choice 1.

Which of the following is true about media portrayals of men and women? A. Black men are just as likely as white men to be cast in leading roles now. B. In advertising, men are portrayed as authorities on homemaking tasks. C. News coverage of women who have been targets of violence tends to focus on their strength and courage. D. Television shows today focus equally on men’s and women’s careers. E. All of the above. ANS: B REF: p. 227

A hair straightening treatment advertisement that appears next to a magazine article titled, “HOT: New smooth looks for summer hair!” is best described as A. complimentary copy. B. product placement. C. misandry. D. synergy advertising. E. an emphasis on visual images, which receives less conscious analysis than verbal claims. ANS: A REF: p. 227

Research indicates that watching sexually explicit films that degrade women A. is reported by a majority of convicted rapists as a regular activity prior to incarceration. B. is significantly correlated to viewing habits of women in violent romantic relationships. C. is related to men becoming more dominant toward women with whom they interact. D. has no impact on men’s views toward women. E. has no impact on women’s understanding of their relationships with men. ANS: C REF: pp. 235–236

In what way are girls and women more likely to use social media than men and boys? A. As a venue for self-development B. To participate in “sexting” C. To set up interactions with peers D. To play games E. None of the above 256

ANS: A REF: p. 230 5. You’re watching Mad Men and notice that Don Draper frequently drinks Canadian Club whisky. This is an example of A. complimentary copy. B. product placement. C. immersive advertising. D. editorial advertising. E. none of the above. ANS: B REF: p. 227 6.

Which of the following is true about the use of social media for activism? A. It is rarely effective. B. Women are more likely than men to use social media for activism. C. A lawmaker’s filibuster provoked significant public awareness and commentary concerning women’s health and rights. D. Social media activism is expensive and difficult to implement. E. All of the above. ANS: C REF: p. 234

7. Advertisements than other media. A. contain less gendered messages B. are less pervasive C. are less effective D. contain more gendered messages E. are often more powerful ANS: E REF: p. 225 8.

The most traditional stereotype of women in the media is A. powerful. B. strong. C. sex object. D. ambitious. E. none of the above. ANS: C REF: p. 223 257

Who is most likely to be represented across media, particularly as substantive characters? A. White, cisgendered women B. Heterosexual cisgendered white men C. Heterosexual men of all races D. Cisgendered women of all races E. Heterosexual black women ANS: B REF: p. 221

10.

Topic or question should by authored by a student. See pages 8 to 10 of this manual for details on this activity.

True/False 11. Research has shown that if you are educated about and are aware of the impact, media will have little or no influence on you. ANS: F REF: p. 220 12. Advertising in the United States tends to present women as authority figures by using them for voice-overs in commercials. ANS: F REF: p. 227 13. Women are typically used as the primary sources for women’s rights issues like abortion and parental leave. ANS: F REF: p. 222 14. More than girls, boys use social media to actively construct identities and get responses from others. ANS: F REF: p. 230 15. Cyberbullying has real, sometimes fatal consequences for its victims. ANS: T REF: pp. 231–232 16. Though sometimes their portrayals are problematic, news programs, sitcoms, and dramas no 258

longer underrepresent women and minorities. ANS: F REF: pp. 221–222 17. The dominant representation of men in the media is now sensitive, gentle, and in touch with their emotions. ANS: F REF: pp. 222–223 18. Social media serve as ideal platforms for activism. ANS: T REF: p. 234 Identification 19. Product placement ANS: Product placement involves showing brand-name products in a television show, movie, or other form of media. Corporations pay to have their products used in various media outlets as a way of advertising their products. REF: p. 227 20. Third person effect ANS: The belief that media affect others more than they affect us. Research shows, however, that most of us are not immune to the effects of media. REF: p. 220 21. Cyberbullying ANS: Text messages, comments, rumors, embarrassing pictures, videos, and fake profiles that are meant to hurt another person and are sent by email or posted on social networking sites. Up to 43% of teens are subjected to cyberbullying. Physical appearance, nondominant gender roles, and sexuality tend to make a teen more susceptible to this form of bullying. Consequences ranging from poor academic performance to suicide have been connected to cyberbullying. REF: p. 231 22. Immersive advertising ANS: Immersive advertising incorporates a product or brand into the storyline of a book, television show, or film. Gossip Girl books are an example of this. 259

REF: p. 213 23. Agenda setting ANS: The theory that media set the public agenda by telling us what is important is called agenda setting. By what they highlight, media tell people what to pay attention to and think about. REF: p. 220 24. Gatekeeper ANS: The term gatekeeper refers to people and groups that control what messages reach audiences. Publishers, producers, editors, and some writers are gatekeepers. These gatekeepers allow messages they want to be seen/heard and stop messages they do not want to be communicated from being released. REF: p. 221 Essays 25. Your textbook reviews how women and men are portrayed in advertising. Discuss the portrayals of gender in this type of media. How influential are advertisements? ANS: Some key ideas appear below. Students might also draw from classroom discussion. If you showed the movie Killing us Softly 3, this question could be easily modified to include important ideas from this film as well. • Advertising underrepresents women and minorities. • Men are often portrayed as incompetent in caregiving and homemaking tasks. However, male voices are often used in voice-overs for products marketed toward women, reinforcing the idea of men as authorities. • Advertising plays a key role in promoting and pleasing others as foci of women’s lives. They reinforce the idea that women need to change themselves in order to be beautiful and remain attractive to a romantic partner. By using certain products, women will make themselves irresistible to men. • Men are usually positioned above women and women are more frequently shown in varying states of undress, which nonverbally represents men as powerful and women as sexualized, vulnerable, and submissive. • Advertising for men often links products with hypermasculinity and violence. Advertising may be even more powerful than other forms of media because (1) we tend to think we are immune to it, (2) we see advertising messages repeatedly, and (3) a majority of ads emphasize visual images, which are less likely to be consciously analyzed than verbal claims. REF: pp. 225–229 260

26. In what ways does the text highlight social media as a venue for learning and sharing information, holding others accountable, and activism? Think about recent issues either concerning your own personal use of social media and how engaged in one of these three uses. Think of an instance where social media accomplished holding others accountable and activism. ANS: The information from the text that will cover this information can be found on pages 232 to 234. Students should talk about some of the sites that have created voices for women, minorities, and LGBTQ people on the internet (such as Jezebel and Black Girl Dangerous). They should discuss how social media has taken over the traditional media role of holding powerful interests accountable and talk about how social media communities are fertile grounds for cultivating activism. Black Lives Matter is a great example of recent activism on social media. Examples they use will vary, but there are a lot of options, including using social media to organize the Women’s March in January 2017, the use of social media to get public figures and companies to apologize (such as Pepsi withdrawing the Kendall Jenner commercial), and other sources of information that might not be listed in the book. REF: pp. 232–234 27. Your book discusses the ways in which unrealistic standards are normalized in media. Choose two of the unrealistic standards, give specific examples of them, and describe the implications of them for media consumers. ANS: The unrealistic expectations include unrealistic physical appearances and expectations. This can include unrealistic body image issues, such as trying to look like anorexic models, setting ourselves up for evaluation by others, and pornography creating unrealistic standards for sexual partners and sexual activity. The implications of these expectations is that we tend to see ourselves as inadequate, we assess our own relationships based on flawed standards, and we perceive our natural bodily processes as something to be fixed or changed. REF: pp. 234–235 28. Discuss how women, minorities, and LGBTQ people are underrepresented in media. Give examples from film or news that highlight this underrepresentation. ANS: Students might focus on the following issues: Males outnumber females in films, cartoons, and newscasts. Only 30.2% of characters in topgrossing films who have names or speak are female, and less than 25% of leading characters are female. The majority of women characters on television shows are depicted in interpersonal and secondary roles. Behind the scenes, only 1.9% of top-grossing movies are directed by women. Students may discuss the Bechdel Test and its rules: (1) does the film feature two women (2) who talk to each other (3) about something other than a man? They might think of recent and popular films that fail to pass the Bechdel Test. 261

News programs rarely present women as authorities. Men make up 75% of sources on major news shows. Even on issues that are considered women’s issues, like birth control and abortion, men are the primary sources. Women make up less than one-third of the sources for stories on women’s rights. Race compounds this issue. In the 500 top-grossing films between 2007 and 2012, 76.3% of speaking characters were white. Hispanic women were most likely to be shown with little or no clothing and black men were those least likely to be portrayed as fathers or in a committed relationship. Media depict Asians and Asian Americans as silent and exotic (women) or as asexual and subordinate (men). Top-grossing films from 2007 until 2014 featured only 19 characters who were gay, lesbian, or bisexual; none were trans. REF: pp. 221–222 29. The author of your textbook argues that television programs and movies such as House of Cards, Grace and Frankie, The Fosters, Divergent, and Frozen have begun to depart from the traditional portrayals of women. In what ways does the text argue they break with tradition? Do you agree or disagree? You may reference specific examples from the programs/movies in support of your answer. ANS: Students should review the programs covered and how they break with tradition. They will likely agree with the points made but might have some interesting insight into the shows if they watch them. If you choose to use this question on your exam, you may want to discuss the specific movies and television shows in a large class discussion prior to the exam. This will allow students to begin formulating their thoughts about the programs and movies. In those discussions, you or other students may push those expressing counter-arguments to think critically about what they are claiming, leading to more nuanced conclusions. In turn, students who provide counter-arguments on the exam should be expected to provide nuanced discussions. REF: p. 225 30. How do media motivate us to consume, and why is this significant in terms of gender? Use examples to make your point. ANS: The specific examples students use will vary. The response below represents a possible response to this question. Media encourage us to consume by telling us that we need products in order to be healthy, happy, or successful. Some people even say that this is the primary goal of media. This consumption is gendered because we are often encouraged to buy products that help us to achieve gendered ideals and expectations. For example, men are encouraged to buy musclebuilding, weight-gain supplements in order to be big and strong. Women are encouraged to buy diet pills to be slim and delicate. Ads for television dinners differ depending on who they are 262

targeting. For example, Hungry Man meals target men and emphasize that the box contains a pound of food and shows burly, large men eating it. Lean Cuisine, on the other hand, shows thin women consuming “light” meals. Through these ads we learn that certain products are for men, and others are for women because they help men and women achieve success at being masculine and feminine. REF: pp. 228–229 31. Essay question that integrates class business, class activities, or films viewed with material covered in readings.

Chapter 12: Gendered Power and Violence Special Note: The material in this chapter is especially sensitive and potentially polarizing of women and men in the class. In discussing this chapter, it is extremely important to channel conversation in productive ways. The exercises that follow the summary of chapter content offer ways to guide constructive discussion of gendered violence. I.

The Many Faces of Gendered Violence A. Gendered violence includes physical, verbal, emotional, sexual, and visual brutality that is inflicted disproportionately or exclusively on members of one sex. B. Gender Intimidation 1. Gender intimidation exists when people, because of their sex, gender, or sexual orientation, are treated in ways that make them feel vulnerable or unsafe. This is also called street harassment. a. A common form is sexualized remarks made in public spaces. b. LGBTQ people or people who do not conform to gender norms also are subject to gender intimidation in the form of humiliating, disrespecting, or imposing violence. C. Sexual Harassment 1. Sexual harassment is unwelcome verbal or nonverbal behavior of a sexual nature that links academic or professional standing or success to sexual favors that interfere with work or learning. Women are the predominant targets. 2. Quid Pro Quo a. Quid pro quo harassment is the actual or threatened use of professional or academic rewards or punishment to gain sexual compliance from a subordinate or student. b. This form of harassment depends on power differences. The person seeking sexual favors must have some kind of power over the other person. 3. Hostile Environment a. Hostile environment harassment is unwelcome conduct of a sexual nature that interferes with a person’s ability to perform a job or to gain an educate. It is also conduct that creates a hostile, intimidating, or offensive working condition because of sexualized 263

conduct. b. This form of harassment is often between peers. c. A hostile environment grows out of a pattern of behavior. A single action is unlikely to meet the legal standard. D. Sexual Assault 1. Sexual assault is any sexual activity that occurs without the informed consent of at least one of the persons involved. 2. One type of sexual assault is rape, which is one or more acts of nonconsensual oral, anal, or vaginal penetration by a body part or object. a. For many years, marital rape was not recognized as a crime. b. Trans people are particularly vulnerable to assault—one in two are sexually abused or assaulted in their lifetimes. c. For many years, the United States defined rape as carnal knowledge of a female forcibly and against her will, but this was expanded to include men. 3. The definition of sexual assault includes the concept of informed consent. a. Informed consent is only given by an adult who is of typical mental abilities, who is not under the influence of alcohol or drugs, and who is not being coerced. b. Children cannot give informed consent nor inmates who are coerced. 4. Sexual assault has been a major problem on college campuses. a. One reason for the prevalence is the existence of rape culture, defined as common attitudes, beliefs, and practices that ignore, excuse, encourage, or normalize sexual violence. b. Many people, including college students, believe rape myths, such as rape is usually perpetrated by someone who is a strange to the victim. An estimated 90% of rape victims know their assailant. c. Claiming that a woman deserved to be raped because of her behavior or dress is blaming the victim: holding the harmed person responsible for the harm that another has inflicted. 5. Fewer studies have focused on perpetrators of sexual assault and rape. One study found 6% men reported they had raped or had attempted to rape someone they knew. Of those men, approximately two-thirds were serial offenders. 6. Sexual assault is not confined to civilian contexts. It is a serious problem in the military. The Department of Defense’s surveys reveal that 90% of female cadets experience forms of sexism, including assault. 7. In 2008, the United Nations designated rape as a “weapon of war.” a. Rape has, throughout history, been used as a means of ethnic cleansing, humiliation, and intimidation. Frequently, rape in these contexts goes entirely unpunished and is often inflicted on very young children. 8. Forced prostitution, or sexual slavery, has also been inflicted on women and men throughout the world. a. During World War II, Japanese women were forced to act as “comfort women” for Japanese soldiers, having sex with as many as 30 men a day. 264

b. Estimates state that around 1.8 million girls and women are trafficked into forced prostitution every year. E. Intimate Partner Violence F. Intimate partner violence includes physical, mental, emotional, verbal, or economic power used by one partner against the other partner in a romantic relationship. 1. Intimate partner violence is experienced and perpetrated by both sexes and by all sexual orientations. 2. Twenty-five percent of U.S. women have been violently attacked by husbands or boyfriends. Bisexual women are far more likely to be beaten, stalked, or sexually assaulted by an intimate partner. At least 30% of women worldwide have been victims of intimate partner violence. 3. Control is a key issue for many abusers, who want to control their partners’ appearances, behaviors, relationships, and lives. 4. Violence between intimates typically follows a cyclical pattern: mounting tension, explosion and violence, remorse and apology, and honeymoon. 5. Both women and men can be abusers, but there are general differences in the types of violence committed by men and women. i. Women tend to verbally abuse, slap, or shove partners. ii. Men are more likely to use their bodies and weapons to commit assault. iii. Abusive men’s assaults are typically more severe. Men who engage in domestic violence tend to overestimate how common such behavior is and/or they underestimate the amount of harm they inflict. iv. Men tend to use violence to enhance self-esteem, win respect, and exert control. v. Women are more likely than men to use relational aggression in romantic relationships, hurting partners by manipulating social relationships. 6. Stalking is a form of intimate partner violence. It is repeated pursuit that is uninvited and unwanted that makes the target of the pursuit concerned for his or her safety. G. Genital Surgery 1. Genital surgery is also called genital mutilation and genial cutting. This practice continues to be practiced in some countries. More than 200 million women and girls have been cut. 2. Male circumcision a. Male circumcision is the removal of prepuce of the penis. In some countries, including the United States, circumcision is a common practice. Recent research reports possible health benefits, yet some people view it as a form of genital mutilation. 3. Sunna a. Sunna involves removing both the sheath and tip of the clitoris. This significantly lessens a woman’s sexual pleasure and has greater 265

potential for medical complications. It is most often performed in African countries on girls between the ages of 4 and 14. 4. Excision or Clitoridectomy a. A clitoridectomy removes the entire clitoris and parts of the labia minora. It greatly reduces sexual pleasure for women and is intended to discourage premarital sex or being unfaithful after marriage. It often has medical complications and increase pain and danger in childbirth. Clitoridectomies were performed in the United States and Europe as late as the twentieth century to “cure” masturbation. 5. Infibulation a. Infibulation is the most extreme form of genital surgery and is usually performed on girls between the ages of 5 and 8. The clitoris and labia minor are removed, the flesh is scraped from the labia majora and sewn together, closing the vagina almost completely (leaving a small opening for urination and menstruation). The opening is made larger after marriage to permit intercourse, but may be ordered by her husband to be resewn (e.g., to prevent pregnancy or if he leaves town). This makes sexual activity extremely painful for women and often increases men’s pleasure. 6. Genital surgery is usually performed by people with little or no medical training who operation in unsanitary conditions without anesthesia. 7. Genital surgery is rooted in cultural traditions, which can only change when members of the culture resist them, such as Chinese citizens fighting against the practice of foot binding. H. Gender-Based Murder 1. When both sexes are given proper care, females will generally outnumber males. However, in many countries today, men outnumber women. The reason for this is gender-based murder. 2. Reproductive technologies can selectively abort female fetuses or select sex prior to in vitro fertilization. Others reduce the number of women through female infanticide. 3. Femicide is the killing of women and takes the form of adult women who simply “disappear,” dowry deaths, and bride burnings. a. Femicide is not confined to developing nations. Consider the statistics on intimate partner violence in the United States or the mass killings of women. 4. Reproductive Violence a. Reproductive violence is coerced or discriminatory infringement on reproductive rights. b. This includes force or exploitation that prohibits someone from having free will over the decision to become a parent and parent existing children. c. In the United States, this took the form of eugenics and state-funded programs that forcibly sterilized women involuntarily. d. Racism has long affected reproductive regulation, with programs offering poor minority women free birth control but denied other 266

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health care services. e. Norplant was a long-term, implanted contraceptive. Women were given the choice between having Norplant implanted and jail terms. States refused to pay to remove Norplant. f. Commercial surrogacy disproportionately affects poor women. In this practice, wealthy women who are unable to conceive or carry a child pay poor women to carry children for them. The power dynamic is problematic here, with many women making the decision to become surrogates based on their own poverty and need for money. Cultural Foundations of Gendered Violence A. Individual pathologies alone cannot explain the pervasiveness of gendered violence. B. The Normalization of Violence in Media 1. Gendered violence is frequent and varied in the media, on films and TV, in music, and video games. 2. Pornography is sexually explicit material that favorably depicts subordination, degradation, and nonconsensual sexual behavior. Distinctly, erotica depicts consensual activities desired by and pleasurable to all parties. One study found men who viewed mainstream pornography were more likely to say they would commit rape than men who did not. C. The Normalization of Violence by Institutions 1. Schools a. There are 55 colleges and universities subject to investigation because they have or may have mishandled investigations of sexual assault. b. Many students say that they are not taken seriously when reporting a rape or other sexual assault. c. Colleges and universities want to preserve their reputations. d. The White House established a special Task Force in 2014, which provides information and resources on preventing and responding to sexual assaults on campus. 2. Family a. In families where violence exists, children may grow up assuming violence is a part of marriage. b. Families may encourage women to stay with violent men for economic security, because it is her duty, or for the sake of the children. c. Immigrant women or women of color may be especially vulnerable to pressures not to report intimate partner violence. 3. Law enforcement a. The current legal system does not offer sufficient safeguards for victims. Some law enforcement officials and judges give greater priority to maintaining a two-parent family than the safety of survivors. b. Laws governing restraining orders need to be strengthened so people can get protection before tragedy happens. 4. Language 267

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a. Language sometimes reflects and sustains cultural acceptance of gendered violence by obscuring the seriousness of the issue. b. Passive language that obscures moral responsibility for violence by not indicating the abuser fosters permissive attitudes toward abuse. Resisting Gendered Violence: Where Do We Go from Here? A. Personal Efforts to Reduce Gendered Violence 1. The most basic personal choice is to decide you will not engage in or tolerate violence in your relationships. 2. Refuse to be a silent bystander. Speak or act to prevent violence. 3. Can join groups on campuses or in communities write or call in to media, teach your children that nobody has the right to touch them in a sexual way. B. Social Efforts to Reduce Gendered Violence 1. These efforts can include supporting educational and social service institutions, voting for laws that will reduce violence and punish those who commit it, and working with others to educate communities and create resources for victims of violence. 2. The NFL announced in 2014 it would take a more serious stand against violence in the league. C. Taking a Voice 1. Direct power is the ability to make others do what they would not do on their own. 2. Agenda setting can be efforts to shape the public agenda or to engage in agenda setting in professional and social relationships. 3. Voice is communicating with others and engaging in everyday cats of principled resistance. One way to do this is to adopt a traitorous identity or to challenge sexist attitudes and practices in everyday life.

Journal Entries 1.

Discuss your attitudes toward genital surgery. Do you feel efforts should be made to intervene in the practices of other cultures? If so, how? If not, why?

Do you think violence in media contributes to actual violence in the real world? If so, what, if anything, do you think should be done about this? If not, how would you respond to charges that media does contribute?

Your text lists several ways of reducing gendered violence. Which, if any, appeal to you? In your current situation, what can you realistically and specifically do to help reduce gendered violence? Consider if you would like to focus your efforts among friends or family, locally on your campus and within your community, nationally, or internationally.

Investigate the ways gender-based violence is being addressed in your community. (Your university likely has an organization devoted to addressing relationship and/or student violence; similarly, there is likely to be a battered women’s shelter and/or rape crisis center in your community. You might look up one or more of these organizations online or otherwise seek out literature from them.) In your journal, reflect on what you learned. Were 268

you surprised by the information provided? Do you think current efforts to redress genderbased violence in your community are productive and/or sufficient? Can you think of other things the community or individuals in your community might do to help lessen genderbased violence? Suggested Activities 1.

Reducing Gendered Violence: Assign students to groups of 5 to 7 members. Ask groups to generate plans for reducing gendered violence on your campus. Emphasize that their suggestions should include ways that both women and men on campus can contribute to reducing violence. After 20-30 minutes, lead a class discussion that highlights ways women and men can work together to reduce gendered violence on campus.

Forum Theatre & Agency: Review Thomson and Woods’ (2001) article “Rewriting gendered scripts: Using forum theatre to teach feminist agency” in Feminist Teacher, 13, 202-212. This article offers an activity in which students interactively “perform” ways to reduce or end violence in a romantic relationship. This improvisational activity offers all students a way to actually enact these methods and see how others in the situation may potentially respond. Roles should be volunteered for and assigned in advance. Allow a full class period for the performance and debriefing.

Violence-Related Language in Newspapers: In advance of the day you conduct this exercise, ask students to save copies of 5 daily statewide newspapers (not the campus newspaper) and to cut out those articles that report on incidents of gendered violence. On the day of the exercise assign students to groups of 5 to 7 members. Working together, ask students to analyze the language used in the articles and to assess its accuracy and responsibility. After students have had 20 minutes to analyze articles, lead a class discussion of the groups’ conclusions.

Dreamworlds 3: The film Dreamworlds 3 underlines the cumulative effect of one form of media (MTV) in normalizing violence. If you chose not to show it to accompany Chapter 11, it would be appropriate here. The film lasts approximately 55 minutes. Thus, you may wish to edit out 10-15 minutes of the film in order to preserve time for processing with students. In previewing the film before showing it to your class, consider appropriate ways to deal with the intense emotions the film evokes, including campus counseling services.

Roiphe’s Perspective on Gendered Violence: Assign students to read the opening two chapters of Katie Roiphe’s The Morning After: Sex, Fear, and Feminism on Campus. Lead the class in analyzing how Roiphe’s rhetoric influences attitudes toward gendered violence.

Panel: Victim Services Professionals: Plan a panel with representatives from local battered women’s shelters and rape crisis agencies. You might also include one or two panelists who are survivors of battering and rape if there are individuals who are willing to discuss their experiences publicly. Ask the panel to present information and experiences that will enhance students’ understandings of why victims/survivors of sexual assault sometimes 269

blame themselves and survivors/victims of abuse often don’t “just walk out” when violence begins. 7.

Sexual Harassment on Campus: Research the sexual harassment policy of your university or college and/or invite the campus sexual harassment officer to speak to your class. As sexual harassment has been named and defined as inappropriate behavior, the issue has received increasing coverage by various forms of media. Recently television news programs, such as “Sixty Minutes,” have examined sexual harassment within a variety of contexts. Following this chapter summary, you will find an example of a sexual harassment policy. We often distribute this to students one class period before we discuss sexual harassment. This policy gives ample material for discussion. Familiarize yourself with your campus policy; inevitably students bring many examples of behaviors they think may qualify as sexual harassment. In knowing your campus policy, you also can suggest appropriate avenues to stop harassment. The Sandler & Hughes (1986) article listed in the reference section of this guide can provide you with additional information.

Gendered Violence Laws in Your State: In small groups, ask students to research gendered-violence related laws in their state. For instance, they may want to examine the age of consent, the definition of rape, and the definition of hate crime. Many students are surprised to find out that legal statutes are much more narrow than they expected. Students may also want to research which local hospitals will perform a full rape kit (since some hospitals are not equipped to do so). If students have access to the Internet during class, they may conduct these investigations during class time. Students should then compile a “fact sheet” that lists the information they have gathered and distribute it to others who would benefit from having the information.

Victim vs. Survivor: One of the language-related debates about gendered violence centers on the language used to refer to targets of violence. Write the words “victim” and “survivor” on the board. Have students call out other words or phrases they associate with each term. Then, lead a discussion in large group or encourage discussion in small groups about the merits and drawbacks of each term. Note: There is no definitive “correct” term. Controversy surrounds both. This is a good time to remind students that how we label someone affects how we treat them and our expectations of them.

10. Learning about Sex Trafficking and Sex Tourism: Sex trafficking (moving people [often minors], often illegally, in order to use them for prostitution) and sex tourism (vacation packages that include the opportunity to have sex with prostitutes [often minors] as part of the trip) are two common practices in many countries. Many people do not know about these practices and are surprised to find out how widespread they are, including that they occur in the United States. The University of North Carolina hosted a conference about these issues in 2008. Their website—http://womenscenter.unc.edu/08conference—offers many links and information about these practices. Ask students to view this website and its links (either in class or before class) and discuss their findings. Conclude with a discussion of actions they can take to address this issue. (Many suggestions are available on the 270

website. See Donna Bickford’s article, “Now that I Know, What Can I Do?” under “General Resources” to start.) This activity is primarily about raising awareness. Note: If you prefer to show a film rather than ask students to view the website, PBS has a documentary called Lives for Sale that can be purchased for under $20. The film is 58 minutes. http://www.livesforsale.com/ 11. Cheering for her Rapist: In October 2008, a 16-year-old high school cheerleader, identified as H.S., accused a fellow student and star athlete, Rakheem Bolton, of rape. Bolton ultimately pled guilty to misdemeanor assault and was given a suspended sentence. Bolton was allowed to continue playing on school teams while the case was pending, and H.S. continued to cheer. At a 2009 basketball game, H.S. cheered for the team on which Bolton played; however, she refused to cheer for Bolton when he approached the foul line to shoot a free throw. As a result, H.S. was thrown off the cheerleading squad. H.S. sued the school and lost in federal court. In addition to ruling against her, the court ordered that she pay the school district $45,000 in attorney’s fees. Discuss this case with the class in terms of the issues discussed in Chapter 12. Do your students think H.S. should have been required to cheer for the man who pled guilty to assaulting her? Why or why not? Was it appropriate for H.S. and her family to sue the school? Was the court’s ruling fair? What does this case tell us about the normalization of violence by institutions, including schools and the legal system? It might be useful to provide news coverage of the story prior to discussing it. Ms. Magazine published an article about the incident that can be found at http://msmagazine.com/blog/blog/2010/10/15/cheerleader-required-to-cheer-for-man-whoassaulted-her/. The San Francisco Chronicle wrote about the court’s ruling; that piece can be found at http://www.sfgate.com/cgibin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2011/05/02/MNSI1JAT0E.DTL.

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Chapter 12: Gendered Power and Violence Multiple Choice 1.

Meagen decides to wear a short skirt and tight shirt to class. As she walks there, a group of males whistle, comment on her legs, and make sexual gestures to her. Which of the following best describes Meagen experiences? A. Gender intimidation B. Hostile environment harassment C. Sexual assault D. Informed consent, since Meagen chose what to wear E. None of these ANS: A REF: p. 240

Which of the following examples meets the definition of informed consent? A. Vidhi is sold by her family and is forced to work as a prostitute. B. Jake drinks alcohol until he passes out and then is sexually fondled by his romantic partner of five years. C. Brittany agrees to have sex when she is 15-years-old with her 18-year-old romantic partner. D. Amber is mentally disabled and lives in an assisted living facility. While checking on her, a nurse touches her breasts, unrelated to the care he is providing. E. None of the above. ANS: E REF: p. 242

Christina goes on a date with Todd. After dinner at a nice restaurant, Christina invites Todd back to her apartment for a drink. They open a bottle of wine and start to make out. After a while, Christina is uncomfortable and asks Todd to stop. He ignores her, pulls off her clothes, and has sex with her. After he leaves, although upset, Christina begins to wonder whether she had been “asking for it.” The next day she tells a friend what happened and the friend asks her what she had been wearing and how much she had been drinking. This event reflects which of the following? A. Gender intimidation B. Informed consent C. Sexual harassment D. Rape culture E. Corrective rape ANS: D REF: p. 243

272

One prevalent rape myth is that rape is perpetrated by strangers. What percentage of women know their assailant? A. 60% B. 65% C. 75% D. 80% E. 90% ANS: E REF: p. 244

In this form of genital surgery, a female’s entire clitoris and parts of the labia minora are removed: A. Femilectomy B. Sunna C. Infibulation D. Clitoridectomy (excision) E. Revaganilization ANS: D REF: p. 251

Which of the following is NOT true about rape? A. Rape is motivated primarily by sexual desire. B. Rape is common on college campuses. C. A husband can rape his wife. D. Men and women can be victims of rape. E. The majority of rape victims do not report and seek to prosecute their rapes. ANS: A REF: pp. 242–247

Physical, verbal, emotional, sexual, and visual brutality that is inflicted disproportionately or exclusively on members of one sex is best defined as A. sexual slavery. B. a rape script. C. intimate partner violence. D. gender intimidation. E. gendered violence. ANS: E REF: pp. 239–240

Topic or question should by authored by a student. See pages 8 to 10 of this manual for details on this activity.

True/False 273

9. Lewd remarks made in public spaces, while annoying, are not considered gendered violence. ANS: F REF: p. 240 10. Intimate partner violence typically follows a cyclical pattern. ANS: T REF: pp. 247–248 11. Sexual slavery is a thing of the past. ANS: F REF: p. 247 12. Children who grow up in families with one or more abusive adults are generally not affected by that violence. ANS: F REF: pp. 255–257 13. State-funded programs to limit women’s rights to reproductive choice never existed in the United States. ANS: F REF: pp. 253–254 14. A hostile environment grows out of a pattern of behavior and is not determined by a single action. ANS: T REF: p. 242 15. Genital mutilation does not occur in the United States. ANS: F REF: pp. 250–251 16. Victims of battering would be safer if they left abusive relationships. ANS: F REF: pp. 247–250 Identification

17. Hostile environment harassment ANS: A pattern of unwelcome conduct of a sexual nature that interferes with a person’s ability to do a job or get an education and/or that creates a hostile, intimidating, or offensive working 274

environment because of sexualized conduct. The law insists on criteria of “reasonableness” (sometimes adhering to the “reasonable woman” standard) in determining sexual harassment cases. REF: p. 241 18. Infibulation ANS: The most radical form of genital surgery where the clitoris and labia minora are removed. The flesh of the labia majora is scraped raw and sewn together to form a hood over the vagina, with a small opening for urination and menstruation. REF: p. 251 19. Informed consent ANS: Agreement given by: • someone of legal age, • who has normal mental abilities, • who is not being coerced, • and whose judgment is not impaired by circumstances (e.g., alcohol and drug use) • REF: p. 242 20. Pornography ANS: Sexually explicit material that includes violence against women. Pornography often shows subordination and degradation of individuals as pleasurable, pain as enjoyable, and forced sex as positive. Viewing pornography may encourage people to think that violence in relationships is desirable or normal. Pornography should be distinguished from erotica, which is sexual explicit material that depicts consensual activities that are desired by and pleasurable to all participants. REF: p. 255 21. Blaming the victim ANS: Holding a person responsible for the harm that another person has inflicted. Part of rape culture, one aspect of this is when people believe that women are raped because of how they’re dressed, behaving, or where they’re going. REF: p. 244 22. Rape culture ANS: Attitudes found on many college and university campuses about who is responsible for date rape. Following a date rape, perceived ambiguity leads many victims to question whether they were somehow responsible for the assault. Victims may wonder whether they somehow “asked for it” because of the way they dressed or their behaviors. If a victim talks about the rape with a friend, that person might ask what the victim had been wearing or doing, another sign of the prevalence of a rape culture on campuses. REF: p. 242 23. Femicide 275

ANS: The killing of women, which may also include female fetuses. This often takes place in countries that highly discriminate against women and is often justified as normal or appropriate in those countries. REF: p. 252 24. Gender intimidation ANS: This occurs when someone is made to feel humiliated, unsafe, or inferior because of their sex or gender. This is different from street harassment because the person is not only harassed but made to feel less than someone of another sex or gender. REF: p. 240 25. Sexual assault ANS: Sexual assault is any sexual contact that occurs without informed consent from at least one person involved. Rape is a type of sexual assault, but not the only kind. Sexual assault is often not motivated by sex but is about violence and control. REF: p. 242 26. Sexual harassment ANS: Sexual harassment is unwelcome verbal or nonverbal communication of a sexual nature that links power (academic or professional standing) with success and interferes with the ability to get work done. This term was coined in the 1970s. It can include creating a hostile environment or offering tit-for-tat trades of something of a sexual nature for grades or favor at work (quid pro quo). REF: p. 241 27. Quid pro quo harassment ANS: Quid pro quo is a type of sexual harassment that occurs on a “this for that” basis. For example, it may be offering a promotion in turn for a sexual favor or denying a promotion if one refuses the sexual activity. REF: p. 241 28. Intimate partner violence ANS: The most common form of violence committed against women in the United States, intimate partner violence includes physical, mental, emotional, verbal, or economic power used by one partner against the other partner in a romantic relationship. Although men are the primary perpetrators and women are the primary victims of this form of violence, research suggests that gender is a more important factor than sex; both men and women who abuse their partners have strong masculine tendencies. REF: p. 247 Essays 29. Define gendered violence, and discuss the ways in which society normalizes gendered violence. 276

Your essay should identify three specific social foundations or institutions that allow or encourage both women and men to regard certain kinds of gendered violence as normal or acceptable. Include concrete examples. ANS: Gendered violence is defined (page 239) as physical, verbal, emotional, sexual, and visual brutality that is inflicted disproportionately or exclusively on members of one sex. Social institutions that the textbook outlines are: family, law enforcement, and language. Media is also a factor. It is important for students to not answer that gendered violence is solely motivated by individuals (page 254) and for them to offer specific examples. REF: pp. 254–256 30. Define sexual harassment. Then, identify and evaluate the two different legal forms of sexual harassment and standards for determining whether it occurred. ANS: Sexual harassment is unwanted and unwelcome verbal or nonverbal behavior of a sexual nature that links academic or professional standing to sexual favors, or that interferes with work or learning. Both women and men can be perpetrators of and victims of sexual harassment. Quid pro quo sexual harassment is actual or threatened use of professional or academic rewards and/or punishments to gain sexual compliance from a subordinate or student. Hostile environment sexual harassment is a pattern of unwelcome conduct of a sexual nature that interferes with a person’s ability to perform a job or gain education and/or that creates a hostile, intimidating or offensive working environment. REF: pp. 241–242 31. Define informed consent. Do you think this is an appropriate definition of informed consent? Why or why not? ANS: Informed consent is given when someone knowingly agrees to something. Only a legal adult with full mental capacities (meaning s/he does not have developmental or other mental problems) who is not being coerced and is not impaired (by circumstances, drugs, or alcohol) can give informed consent. This means that minors, mentally handicapped people, intoxicated people, and those being pressured cannot give informed consent. Student opinions will vary. They may support the definition because it protects vulnerable populations. However, some students may argue that minors or mentally disabled people, for example, should be able to engage in sexual relationships and can make informed decisions. The important thing to look for is that they make an argument and support it. REF: p. 242 32. What is rape culture? How does it affect victims of sexual assault? What should be done to eradicate this problem in our culture? ANS: Rape culture is when myths are perpetuated in a culture that allow rape to persist. Some of these 277

myths include the idea that when women say no to sex, they really mean yes, and that rape is a form of sexual fantasy for women. Further, the idea that a woman can cause herself to be raped by dressing a certain way or being in a certain place, also known as blaming the victim, perpetuates rape culture. Rape culture affects victims of sexual assault by making it personally difficult to report these crimes and by putting victims out for judgment and ridicule by the culture. Students will vary in their ideas for how to eradicate rape culture. REF: p. 243 33. As made clear by the material presented in your textbook, gendered violence is prevalent in the United States and around the world. What are some of the personal and social efforts we can engage in and/or support in an effort to lessen the prevalence of gendered violence? ANS: There are numerous things individuals can do to stand up against gendered violence. Most basically, of course, is not to engage in or tolerate gendered violence in one’s own personal relationships. Similarly, parents can teach children not to engage in violence, making them aware of the potential for violence in close relationships. Additionally, individuals can call out friends or colleagues when they hear people talk in ways that suggest violence is acceptable. If we see acts of violence occurring, we can try to take action. There are numerous organizations that work to end gendered violence, including local battered women’s shelters, rape counseling centers, and men’s groups devoted to end violence. These organizations provide support for victims of gendered violence and advocate for changes in laws and customs that will lead to less gendered violence in their communities. There are also international groups that seek to end violence unique to other countries. For example, Southeast Asian women have formed Saheli, which fights to end “dowry deaths” and Eve Ensler, author of The Vagina Monologues, has founded VDay, an organization that works to stop all kinds of violence against women. Individuals can support these and other organizations by volunteering and/or making financial contributions. REF: pp. 256–259 34. What is reproductive violence? What are some specific examples of reproductive violence in action? ANS: Reproductive violence is coerced or discriminatory infringement on reproductive rights. Includes force or exploitation that prevents a person from making the decision about when, if, or how to become a parent. Specific examples mentioned in the text include: • enslaved women being raped by owners for economic gain. • eugenics, or policies, designed to reducing births by “undesirable” people. • forcible, involuntary sterilization programs. • state-forced abortions. • programs aimed to decrease birthrate rather than solve poverty. • commercial surrogacy. REF: pp. 253–255 Essays 278

We have not provided essay bullets for the following essays because the answers should attempt to synthesize the entire course. We hope these questions provide helpful examples to provoke such responses. 1. Identify one issue you consider especially important in the ongoing cultural conversation about gender. Explain why you regard this issue as particularly pivotal now and how different resolutions of it might affect social life. 2. Throughout your Gendered Lives textbook and especially in the final chapter, the text encourages you to become an active and critical member of society. Explain what this means pertinent to individual and social views of gender. 3. Discuss how laws and organizational policies that regulate leaves from work influence gender roles in families. In your essay, explain both how laws and policies shape family life and how family life sculpts the kinds of laws and policies that are endorsed in the society. 4. Queer performative theory argues that gender is performed; at the same time, gender performances are enacted within a context that defines the possibilities that exist and what gender means. Reflect on an instance of gender performance that you think may broaden gender norms and discuss how this performance works with cultural norms to push gender boundaries. This gender performance may be real (Lady Gaga comes to mind) or hypothetical. 5. Drawing on all of your readings and class discussions, and especially on Chapters 3 and 4, define and discuss the sameness-difference (or sexual equality-sexual difference) debate. What are the positions in this debate and what are the social, legal, and personal implications of the different positions? 6. Class discussions and the textbook have emphasized this point: gender is constructed. Explain what it means to claim that gender is constructed. Your response should define gender and describe HOW gender is constructed and how it is changed over time. In addition, your response should discuss what viewing gender as a social construction implies for individual action and agency. Include specific examples of how gender is constructed, reproduced, and changed. 7. What does feminism mean to you? Are you a feminist? Consider the conversations and readings that we have done over the semester. 8. The textbook and the class have discussed ways gender norms have changed as a result of feminist and men’s movements. Name what you believe to be the three most significant changes that have resulted from these movements and explain why you believe they are significant. SAMPLE SEXUAL HARASSMENT POLICY POLICY I.

Sexual harassment by any member of the University is a violation of both law and University policy, and will not be tolerated in the University community.

II.

Requests for sexual favors, and other deliberate, unwelcome verbal or physical conduct of a 279

sexual nature by one in an official University position or by a fellow University employee constitute sexual harassment when, evaluated according to reasonable sensibilities— A. submission to such conduct is made either explicitly or implicitly a term or condition of an individual’s employment or academic standing, or B. submission to, or rejection of, such conduct by an individual is used as the basis for employment or academic decisions affecting that individual, or C. such conduct has the purpose or effect of substantially interfering with an individual’s employment, academic or administrative performance, or creating an intimidating or offensive environment. III.

This policy seeks to encourage students, faculty, and employees to express freely, responsibly, and in an orderly way their opinions and feelings about any problem or complaint of sexual harassment. Any act by a University employee or agent of reprisal, interference, restraint, penalty, discrimination, coercion or harassment—overtly or covertly—against a student or an employee for responsibly using the Policy and its Procedures interferes with free expression and openness. Accordingly, such acts violate this policy and require appropriate and prompt disciplinary action.

IV.

This policy shall not be used to bring frivolous or malicious charges against fellow students, faculty members, or employees. Part III: References

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