Instructor Manual for Adolescence 16e John Santrock by StudyGuide

Instructor Manual for Adolescence 16e John Santrock

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CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION INTRODUCTION What makes adolescents tick? The answer to that question has changed considerably since the fourth century B.C.E., when early Greek philosophers Plato and Aristotle identified two qualities that distinguish adolescents from children—reasoning ability and self-determination. During the eighteenth century, Rousseau believed infants, children, adolescents, and young adults demonstrated unique behavior during distinct developmental phases. G. Stanley Hall began the process of scientifically studying adolescence in the 1800s. Guided by Darwinian thought, he investigated the influence of biological and environmental factors, identifying genetics as a dominant force. Unlike Darwin and Hall, Margaret Mead concluded that sociocultural influences affect the adolescent experience to a greater extent than genetics. Historical events of the early twentieth century subsequently influenced remarkable maturational, intellectual, and psychosocial changes characteristic of adolescents. Sociohistorical circumstances may be considered the most influential aspect of change for adolescents. The Inventionist view posits that adolescence resulted from: • declines in adolescent apprenticeships; • increases in skill and educational requirements; • urbanization and separation of work and home life; • creation of age-segregated systems for education and socialization; and • restrictions on drinking, voting, and working due to age—all mechanisms of childhood. By 1950, the developmental period of adolescence had not only physical and social identities, but a legal identity as well. The voices of adolescents were heard loud and clear during the political protests in the 1960s and 1970s. The women’s movement of the 1970s changed how research on adolescents was conducted; research now included female as well as male adolescents. Today in the United States, a more diverse population results in adolescents who are more open-minded and tolerant than past generations. Adolescents in the twenty-first century are growing up immersed in technology. The technological revolution is having both positive and negative effects on today’s adolescents. Groups tend to gather stereotypical descriptions, and adolescents certainly exemplify this trend. Decade-specific characteristics—or time-in-history effects—are discussed extensively in literature, history, and psychology as important factors in understanding people during specific historical periods. The focus on highly visible members of the adolescent age group leads to an adolescent generalization gap, an overly negative perspective toward all of its members. The twenty-first century signals a time for change.

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Evidence suggests that both advantages and disadvantages abound from extended adolescence. Opportunity arises from the freedom to experiment, prepare, and explore. Risks from contradictory demands by peers and adults, the temptation to escape stress with drugs and alcohol, and inconsistent community and cultural expectations present difficult choices and require fine discriminations. One might ask why youths do not develop more similarly than they do. Although historical circumstances explain some of it, other aspects of context seem to contribute to marked differences. Economic, social, and cultural factors reflected by families, peers, neighborhoods, and schools influence the opportunity and risk faced by adolescents. In Chapter 1, Santrock identifies the framework created by social policy as a social context that currently places large numbers of youths in harm’s way. The strength of established societal members could sway social policy, thus promoting generational inequity. Support for youth could be achieved, however, with improved delivery of services that promote health and safety, family planning, leisure and recreation, drug use prevention, and parent education. What are youth around the world like? Although most of the research on adolescence has been done in Europe and North America, cultural differences among adolescents do occur. Overall health and well-being among adolescents around the world has improved, although some behaviors that compromise adolescent health, such as drug use, have increased. Gender differences in the way adolescence is experienced continue, but they are narrowing. Changes in family factors are occurring worldwide and include increased family mobility. The number of adolescents in developed countries that go to school is increasing, although in some underdeveloped countries many adolescents do not have access to education. Peers seem to be more important in the lives of adolescents living in Western countries. Clearly, contextual influences alone do not provide a thorough explanation of adolescent development that result in both similarities and differences in outcomes. Explanations of adolescent development are often ascribed to the combined influences of biological, cognitive, and socioemotional processes. Developmentalists identify eight distinct periods of development across the life course. Many years of childhood growth and experience influence what we observe during adolescence. At its completion, adolescent experiences set the course for the next 60 years of the young adult’s life! Important developmental transitions take place from childhood to adolescence and from adolescence to adulthood. Adolescents manifest developmental changes with: • growth spurts, hormonal changes, and sexual maturation. • shifts in abstract, idealistic, and logical thinking. • demands for intellectual challenge. • shifts toward egocentrism and cravings for independence. • quests for affiliative peers. • desire for increased intimacy with friends and romantic partners. • demonstrations of self-responsibility, both personally and financially. Santrock, Adolescence, 16e

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Three life-course developmental issues that dominate investigations of human growth are: • nature-nurture—the influence of biological inheritance or environmental experience. • continuity-discontinuity—development as gradual, cumulative change or distinct stages. • early-later experience—whether early or later experiences dominate development. Debates about the influence of each stance have shifted from an either/or argument to one that discusses their relative impact on observable outcomes. The importance of these developmental issues will become clearer throughout the text. Scientific knowledge depends on the rigorous implementation of the scientific method to conceptualize the problem, collect information, and draw conclusions. When formulating a problem to study, researchers draw on theories to develop hypotheses. A theory is a coherent set of ideas that helps to explain and predict behavior. Hypotheses are specific assumptions and predictions that can be tested. A theory of adolescent development can usually be attributed to one of four major fundamental schemes: psychoanalytic theory, cognitive theory, learning theory, or ecological, contextual theory. Psychoanalytic theories emphasize the importance of emotion, unconscious mental processes, the symbolic meaning of behavior, and enduring effects of early experience on later development. • Freud’s theory articulates personality structure as the id, ego, and superego; defense mechanisms for resolving conflict; and characteristics of five psychosexual stages. • Erikson’s theory consists of psychosocial stages, explaining that both instincts and experience influence development, that each stage characterizes distinctly different crises, and that degree of resolution within each stage influences success in development. Psychoanalytic theories recognize early experiences, family relationships, and the unconscious mind. Criticism includes lack of scientific foundation, sexual underpinnings, and negative image of humans. Cognitive theory focuses on conscious operations that change during childhood and adolescence. • Piaget’s theory states that children and adolescents demonstrate qualitative change by systematically exploring and manipulating the environment to understand it. He described four stages of distinctly different thinking processes: sensorimotor stage, preoperational stage, concrete operational stage, and formal operational stage. • Vygotsky’s theory specifies that cognition can be understood through developmental assessment, language-based interaction, and sociocultural contexts. • Information-processing theory focuses on the development of cognitive ability, specifically language and thinking, by measuring storage, retrieval, and speed of processing.

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Cognitive theories emphasize the individual’s active role in understanding the environment. They are criticized for not explaining individual variations in either timing or content of thought processes. Behavioral and social cognitive theories emphasize observable behavior and consequences. • Skinner’s theory of operant conditioning emphasizes environmental stimuli and learned consequences. • Bandura’s social cognitive theory considers behavior, environment, cognitive factors, observational learning, and personal consequences as key factors in learning. Behavioral theories emphasize scientific research, environmental influences, and learning processes. Yet, they are criticized for not emphasizing cognitive processes, creativity, or human development. Ecological theory examines environmental influence on child development. • Bronfenbrenner’s ecological theory proposes layers of environmental influence. Ecological theory supports systematic assessments of interconnected, environmental systems in contemporary and historical contexts. Critics argue that there is inadequate consideration given to biology or cognition. No single theory explains adolescent development. An eclectic theoretical orientation, using aspects of all four major theories, allows a complete narration. Developmental theories and research methods serve complementary functions in the scientific explanation of adolescent development. Research methods involve numerous approaches for collecting and analyzing information. • Observation may be completed in a controlled laboratory setting or in a naturalistic setting. • Surveys and interviews sample information about personal feelings or private behavior. • Standardized tests help researchers systematically compare the individual to a typical group. • Physiological measures gauge hormones, body composition, and brain activity. • The experience sampling method uses electronic pagers to “beep” subjects at random times. Subjects report their behavior or situation at that time. • Case studies are used to collect historical data to complete an in-depth investigation. Basic research designs include: • Descriptive research—Researchers use descriptive research methods, such as observation, surveys and interviews, standardized tests, experience sampling, physiological measures, and case studies, to observe and record behavior. • Correlational research—Researchers use correlational research to identify the relationship between two variables, and to explain the relative importance of several variables in predicting the occurrence of others.

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• •

•

Experimental research—Experimental research can explain how one variable affects another, such as instructional strategies affecting student learning. The independent variable is the variable that the experimenter manipulates directly in order to influence a dependent variable(s), or a variable that is influenced by the independent variable. The experimental group is the group that gets the manipulation of the independent variable. The control group is treated the same as the experimental group except for the manipulation of the independent variable.

Time span research allows researchers to study the relation of age to some other variable. The cross-sectional research design compares groups of individuals of different ages at the same point in time to identify developmental differences. The longitudinal research design identifies a group of adolescents and observes the same individuals at consistent time intervals to identify developmental changes. Challenges to good research are numerous. Here are some important ones to consider: • The American Psychological Association enforces a code of ethics to protect participants. • Gender bias may influence the accuracy of the conclusions drawn about females and males. • Ethnicity and culture often have not been accurately identified and their effects may be overlooked. Apparently, many things make adolescents tick. Santrock presents key topics throughout the text that clarify this answer. The information falls into the areas of (1) biological processes, (2) cognitive processes, (3) the contexts in which developmental tasks occur, (4) social and personality development, (5) problems and disorders adolescents encounter, (6) science that allows us to distinguish truth from fiction, and (7) critical thinking to put the information into a cohesive and usable package.

TOTAL TEACHING PACKAGE OUTLINE Chapter 1: Introduction HEADING I. THE HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE Early History

RESOURCE Chapter Map Handouts Learning Goal: 1 Internet Activity: 1.1

The Twentieth Century and Twenty-First Centuries G. Stanley Hall’s Storm and Stress View Margaret Mead’s Sociocultural View of Adolescence The Inventionist View Further Changes in the Twentieth Century and the Twenty-First Century

Short Scenarios: 1.1 Essay Questions: 1

Stereotyping of Adolescents

Research Project: 1.1; 1.2

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Chapter 1 Through the Eyes of Adolescents: Wanting to Be Treated as an Asset

II.

A Positive View of Adolescence Old Centuries and New Centuries Generational Perceptions and Misperceptions Positive Youth Development

Lecture Topic: 1.1 Discussion Topic: 1.1

TODAY’S ADOLESCENTS IN THE UNITED STATES AND AROUND THE WORLD Adolescents in the United States Social Contexts

Image: 1-1 and 1-2 Learning Goals: 2 Critical Thinking Exercise: 1.1 Research Articles: 1.1, 1.2 WWW: Administration for Children & Families news room; http://www.acf.hhs.gov/

Social Policy and Adolescents’ Development

III.

The Global Perspective

Learning Goal: 2

THE NATURE OF DEVELOPMENT

Learning Goal: 3

Processes and Periods Biological, Cognitive, and Socioemotional Processes

Image: 1-3 Essay Question: 3

Periods of Development Childhood Adolescence Adulthood

IV.

Learning Goal: 2 Essay Question: 2 Careers in Adolescent Development: Peter Benson, Director, Search Institute

Image: 1-4 Critical Thinking Exercises: 1.1

Developmental Transitions Childhood to Adolescence Adolescence to Adulthood Emerging Adulthood Becoming an Adult Resilience Is Adolescence Taking too Long?

Image: 1-5, 1-6, and 1-7 Short Scenarios: 1.1 Health and Well-Being Interlude: Changes in Emerging Adulthood Through the Eyes of Emerging Adults: Chris Barnard, a 24-year-old Emerging Adult

Developmental Issues Nature and Nurture Continuity and Discontinuity Early and Later Experience Evaluating the Developmental Issues

Image: 1-8 In-Class Activity: 1.1 Short Scenarios: 1.1, 1.2 Research Articles: 1.1, 1.2 Essay Question: 4

THE SCIENCE OF ADOLESCENT DEVELOPMENT Science and the Scientific Method

Learning Goal: 4 Lecture Topic: 1.2 Discussion Topic: 1.2 In-Class Activity: 1.4

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Chapter 1 Internet Activity: 1.2 Theories of Adolescent Development Psychoanalytic Theories Freud’s Theory Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory Evaluating the Psychoanalytic Theories

Cognitive Theories Piaget’s Cognitive Developmental Theory Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Cognitive Theory The Information-Processing Theory Evaluating the Cognitive Theories

Behavioral and Social Cognitive Theories Skinner’s Operant Conditioning Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory Evaluating the Behavioral and Social Cognitive Theories

Image: 1-9 and 1-10 Critical Thinking Exercise: 1.2 Essay Question: 5

Image: 1-11 Critical Thinking Exercise: 1.3 Short Scenario: 1.3 Research Article: 1.3 Essay Question: 6

Image: 1-12 Short Scenario: 1.4 Essay Question: 7

Ecological Theory

Image: 1-13 Essay Question: 8

An Eclectic Theoretical Orientation

In-Class Activity: 1.2 Essay Question: 9

Research in Adolescent Development

Methods for Collecting Data Observation Survey and Interview Standardized Test Physiological Measures Experience Sampling Case Studies

Research Designs Descriptive Research Correlational Research Experimental Research

Time Span of Research Cross-Sectional Research Longitudinal Research Where is Research on Adolescence Published?

Conducting Ethical Research

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Learning Goal: 4 Lecture Topic: 1.3 Discussion Topic: 1.3 Research Project: 1.3

Image: 1-14 In-Class Activity: 1.3 Critical Thinking Exercise: 1.4

Image: 1-16 and 1-17 Discussion Topics: 1.4 Essay Question: 10

Lecture Topic: 1.4 Essay Question: 12

Research Projects: 1.3

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Chapter 1 Minimizing Bias Gender Bias Cultural and Ethnic Bias

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Essay Question: 11 Internet Activity: 1.3

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SUGGESTED LECTURE TOPICS Topic 1.1—Positive Youth Development Reed Larson supports the argument that initiative is necessary for agency and for independent action by adults. As a core element of positive development, adolescents must acquire the ability to demonstrate initiative. Our culture does not offer a systematic means of establishing initiative, as it does not present a clear path from the dependence of childhood to the autonomy of adulthood. Larson suggests that two mechanisms might be used to encourage initiative: (1) adult models that motivate positive development through enticing images of adulthood, and (2) adolescent experiences that support the development of competence and the use of initiative. Larson proposes that initiative stems from intrinsic motivation, involves application in the complexities of daily life, and occurs across time. Adolescents require sophisticated environments offering suitable daily experiences to develop it. Schools typically have environments that elicit high levels of concentration and challenge, but low levels of initiative. Leisure activities, such as watching TV or hanging out with friends, promote higher levels of intrinsic motivation and easier concentration than academic work, but offer little challenge. Furthermore, neither TV nor peers present realities of daily life. Thus, academic and leisure contexts in which adolescents spend most of their time do not provide the opportunities adolescents require to establish initiative. Students report that during participation in sports, arts, hobbies, and organizations they experience both high levels of intrinsic motivation and concentration. The complex nature of experiences that elicit motivation and attention are characterized by statements such as, “You change, you forget everything around you.” (pp. 174) Research documents that organized youth activities support the development of sophisticated cognitive and social responses. For example, Markstrom, Xaioming, Blackshire, and Wilfong (2005) found that high school students who were involved in sports, student government, or volunteerism benefited developmentally in terms of ego strength. Similarly, Morrissey and Werner-Wilson (2005) investigated the role of the community and family in positive youth development. Communities that have opportunities available for adolescents and adolescents’ attitudes toward their community and family were predictive of activity involvement. According to Larson, adolescents must employ initiative to succeed at tasks such as selling cookies in Girl Scouts, completing an adventure in Outward Bound, or engaging in civic activities. Successful programs incorporate four characteristics. First, adult participation and guidance are essential to originate groups, but adults facilitate initiative by participants, they do not take it themselves. Second, organizational activities take place in real-world environments. Third, each group supports a variety of activities over time. Participants demonstrate changes in language use and structure that suggest marked changes in their ability to think about cause-and-effect relationships, to get clarification from others, and to adapt their language to the requirements of outside people and circumstances. Larson concludes that voluntary youth activities are an essential component of adolescence leading to personal initiative and positive youth development. References Santrock, Adolescence, 16e

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Larson, R. W. 2000. “Toward a Psychology of Positive Youth Development,” American Psychologist 55, 170–183.

Markstrom, C. A., Xaioming, L., Blackshire, S. L., and Wilfong, J. J. 2005. “Ego Strength Development of Adolescents in Adult-Sponsored Structured Activities,” Journal of Youth & Adolescence 34(2), pp. 85–96. Morrissey, K. M. and Werner-Wilson, R. J. 2005. “The Relationship Between Out-of-School Activities and Positive Youth Development: An Investigation of the Influences of Communities and Families,” Adolescence 40(157), pp. 67–86. Topic 1.2—Quantitative Versus Qualitative Development Explanations of developmental theories depend upon clarifications that help the student distinguish one from another. The terms qualitative and quantitative are often incorporated into discussions of continuity and discontinuity, and are useful in explaining differences between cognitive theories such as Piagetian Stages or information-processing approaches. As straightforward as the terms quantity and quality seem to be, identifying adolescent descriptions that may be assigned to each category appears to be a perplexing task for students. Begin the exercise by discussing items with which they may be more familiar and interested. Consumer Reports regularly provides product evaluations that include both quantitative and qualitative measures. For example, coffee may be described in the following ways: Quantitative Analysis of Coffee • the altitude at which the coffee grows • the hardiness of the bean (temperature and insect tolerance) • the amount of caffeine the beans contain • the country in which the bean grows • the type of beans in a blended coffee

Qualitative Analysis of Coffee • dark roast notes • floral or fruity notes • • •

cereal or cooked notes mellow or full bodied pungent flavor or smokiness

Beer or champagne may be discussed similarly. Finally, discuss the quantitative and qualitative aspects of adolescent development. Quantitative Measures of Adolescents • age, height, weight, or brain size • short- and long-term memory recall • • • •

number of words in vocabulary frequency of telephone usage occurrence of social contact duration of television viewing

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Qualitative Measures of Adolescence • mental processes • problem-solving style • • • •

imagination libidinal energy intimacy identity

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At the conclusion of this discussion, remind students that developmental continuity is based on incremental progress that we identify quantitatively. Distinct differences in behavior characterized within each stage of development or discontinuity are explained in qualitative measures. References “Cheers!” Consumer Reports, 64, no. 11, November 1999, pp. 18–21. “Which Beer for You?” Consumer Reports, 66, no. 8, August 2001, pp. 10–16. “Which Brew for You?” Consumer Reports, 65, no. 1, January 2000, pp. 29–33.

Topic 1.3—Basic Versus Applied Research Studies Two purposes may be served by addressing conflicts between basic and applied researchers in adolescent development. First, students often appear skeptical about research in general, and particularly when it supports expected conclusions (e.g., the conclusions were obvious) or when the conclusions contradict strong personal beliefs (e.g., the sample was not well chosen). Unfortunately, many people view research as a waste of taxpayers’ money, demanding that legislators require federally funded agencies to obtain quantifiable outcomes to justify funding. Second, students may benefit from information about this area as a potential career option. Some will find that basic research fits their level of curiosity, whereas others will want to investigate strategies to solve the problems they see in their own communities. Edward Zigler (1998) discussed the long-standing arguments on both sides. Over the past decade, people have discussed the applicability of research more than during the previous 50 years. The trend has brought developmental psychology full circle, back to the belief that knowledge should benefit children. Zigler (1998) explained that G. Stanley Hall began to study children because at least six constituencies needed the information: “scientists, college administrators, child savers and social workers, mental health workers, teachers, and parents” (pp. 533). Hall regretted that research was becoming too technical and inaccessible to those working with children, that a stigma was placed on the discussion of applied work, and that a pronounced schism existed between researchers and providers. The conflict between proponents of basic versus applied research suggests the following important questions: • • • • •

What are the purposes and limitations of research investigations? What are the implicit and explicit outcomes from basic and applied research? What are reasonable expectations for short- and long-term benefits of each? What are acceptable limitations of individual investigations? How can a balance be struck between complimentary strategies and topics?

Basic and applied research proceeds with different visions, but ultimately serves the same purpose. Scientists conducting basic research maintain a limited focus and remain unconcerned with long-term benefits, seeking knowledge in the purest sense. Applied researchers attempt to use information gained through basic research to solve specific problems to benefit constituents. Applied research can hardly exist without basic research. However, basic research, until recently, Santrock, Adolescence, 16e

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has tried to avoid the stigma of applied sciences. Consumer groups have pressured federally funded researchers to modify that scenario (Matthews, 1997). As research becomes more complicated, it becomes increasingly important to find financial resources from the federal government and large companies. Will it be possible to continue to conduct necessary basic research, or even valid research with the underlying influence of funding bodies? References Matthews, A. 1997. Bright College Years: Inside the American Campus Today. New York: Simon & Schuster. Zigler, E. 1998. “A Place of Value for Applied and Policy Studies,” Child Development, 69, pp. 532–542.

Topic 1.4—Schaie’s Most Efficient Sequential Design Quasi-experimental designs are like other research designs with the exception of one element— random assignment of participants. Time span developmental research deviates from true experiments as the selection and assignment of subjects is based on their age. As a result, questions arise about the validity of the results, particularly the external validity that allows us to accurately determine the relationship between age and behavior. Schaie and Willis (2002) describe four research designs to overcome the confounds associated with developmental research. • Cross-sectional designs compare groups of individuals of diverse ages or cohort groups by measuring age-based distinctions; advantages are low cost and time; the point of confusion or confound is between age and cohort differences or generational effects. • Longitudinal designs measure changes in the same people across two or more times; the advantage is control for age and cohort effects; disadvantages are cost and subject dropout due to death, moving, or refusing to participate; the confound is between age and time-of-measurement effects (e.g., practice effects and social-historical events). • Time-lag designs measure people in different cohort groups at the same age, but obviously at different times, to assess historical influences on cohorts; the confound is time of measurement. • Sequential designs repeat the measurement of two or more groups of participants on repeated occasions; Schaie’s design embeds the cross-sectional and longitudinal sequential designs: ➢ The cross-sectional sequence is accomplished by measuring independent groups of individuals within a specified range two or more times, thus functionally combining the cross-sectional and time-lag designs. ➢ The longitudinal sequence entails two or more longitudinal studies, requiring at least two cohort groups, thus functionally combining the longitudinal and time-lag design. ➢ Numerous strategies for analysis include the cohort-sequential analysis, the crosssequential analysis, and the time-sequential analysis. Developmental psychologists accept the challenge to identify and clarify characteristics of children and adolescents with quasi-experimental research. The cross-sectional design is more likely to be accurate with younger subjects than with adults, due to shorter time spans of investigation. Remarkable differences may be identified, however, in cognitive and socialSantrock, Adolescence, 16e

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emotional development because of changes in the educational curriculum, social policy, or historical events. Thus, sequential designs are likely to be necessary in fewer areas of research than with adults, but are valuable nonetheless. Reference Schaie, K. W., and Willis, S. L. 2002. Adult Development and Aging, 5th ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

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CLASSROOM DISCUSSIONS AND ACTIVITIES Discussion Topics Discussion 1.1—A First Time for Everything As Santrock discusses throughout the text, theorists from a wide variety of research perspectives have scientifically examined the phenomenon of adolescence. Siegel and Shaughnessy (1995) argue that theorists have only identified the tip of the iceberg in relation to the emotional upheaval that occurs during adolescence. Adolescence is a time when many things happen for the first time: the first crush, dance, date, kiss, job, and the first love. The authors argue that the newly experienced cognitive growth enhances the emotional experience, and the combined new experiences easily overwhelm an adolescent. As a result of the enhanced salience of adolescence, exaggerated perceptions lead adolescents to place a great deal of emphasis on a few key aspects of their lives. Friendships are a critical component of the emotional stability of adolescence. Heightened emotions foster unrealistic perspective of time, with adolescents believing that they will continue to experience the same strong beliefs indefinitely. As friendships become exceedingly rewarding, and as personal experiences are shared with others bearing the same degree of conviction, rejection from peer groups seems to have an equally intense, but opposite effect. Inconsistent care and love from parents followed by an inability to establish friendships with peers may result in an overwhelming sense of loss. Impulsiveness and feelings of invincibility often result in risktaking in matters of love and premarital sex, extreme problem-solving strategies such as suicidal ideation, and anguish over everyday situations. The stress associated with “firsts” appears to others as excessive. It is important to recognize the magnificent importance of each experience. Reference Siegel, J., and Shaughnessy, M. F. 1995. “There’s a First Time for Everything: Understanding Adolescence,” Adolescence 30, pp. 217–221.

Discussion 1.2—Supporting Research with a Theoretical Foundation After summarizing the theories presented in Chapter 1, ask students to identify issues of interest in adolescent development (e.g., sports, peer groups, drinking, sex education, eating disorders, or moral development). You will need to categorize the issues into topic areas for the students as they make suggestions. Try to organize the issues as they appear in the text (by chapter) or according to the theoretical orientation most likely to be used to investigate the topics. Discuss the categories students have chosen and the appropriateness of one or two theories over others in facilitating lines of research for each issue. Describe the usefulness of the scientific research approach in conceptualizing the problem, guiding data collection, analyzing the data and drawing conclusions, and finally, revising previous conclusions and theories. If time and interest permit, continue the discussion by identifying specific research strategies one might follow to complete data collection and analysis through systematic and valid observations; correlational or experimental methods; multiple measures; and group, single-subject, cross-sectional, and/or longitudinal designs. Santrock, Adolescence, 16e

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Discussion 1.3—Research Designs in Developmental Investigations Discuss the issue of quasi-experimental research in developmental psychology. It is not possible to randomly assign adolescents to groups if the purpose is to identify the age-based characteristics of those groups. As a result, the combined use of cross-sectional methods that identify age differences and longitudinal methods that identify age change are important design strategies. Present the crosssectional and longitudinal strategies of data collection. List some developmental topics in which adolescents are likely to demonstrate marked differences between ages 11 to 19. Examples of issues for which a great deal of change may be identified are peer affiliations, choice of leisure activities, hours of work, substance use, and sleep or study habits. Discuss what one might observe in a crosssectional analysis versus a longitudinal analysis of those behaviors. Think also about characteristics that might be influenced by time-of-measurement effects (e.g., collecting data in the spring versus the fall) and cohort membership. Determine the strengths and weaknesses of each approach for accurately identifying developmental patterns. For example, if one were to collect information about adolescents’ television viewing habits and time spent with peers, a cross-sectional analysis could reveal marked differences between age groups. The time of year—spring, summer, fall, or winter—might influence these behaviors as well. Thus, it is important to determine whether results accurately reflect differences and age change, or cohort differences and artifacts of time of measurement. Present the sequential design approach as a solution for the weaknesses of the other two alone. Discuss Schaie’s chapter on sequential design. References Pinon, M. R., Huston, A. C., and Wright, J. C. 1989. “Family Ecology and Child Characteristics that Predict Young Children’s Educational Television Viewing,” Child Development 60, pp. 846–856. Schaie, K. W. 1994. “Developmental Designs Revisited.” In S. H. Cohen & H. Reese (Eds.), Life-span Developmental Psychology: Methodological Contributions, Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, pp. 45–64.

Discussion 1.4—A Comparison of Correlational and Experimental Research Designs Students often find it difficult to discern the differences between experimental and correlational research designs. It may help to reduce their confusion by having a discussion in which you ask students how to apply each strategy to answer a specific question. Begin the lecture by asking the class to figure out how they would determine whether exposure to violence on television is related to aggressive behavior in adolescents. Suggest to them that there are two or three ways to answer this question and indicate that you want them to think of more than one way. Solicit solutions. Once you have an example, ask the class to categorize it. If the solution is a correlational research design, see if the class knows how to use a correlation coefficient in the solution. Note that doing so may not be appropriate, even though the design is essentially correlational. For example, the class may have suggested that a comparison be made between groups of teenagers who watch much violence on television and those who do not. Discuss the kinds of between-group comparisons that are appropriate in this case. Also be careful to discover whether people who offer this solution believe that they are suggesting an experiment, and gently correct them if they are! Santrock, Adolescence, 16e

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If the solution is an experiment, have the individual or individuals who propose it explore their solution. For example, have them identify independent, dependent, and control variables. Get them to discuss and classify their measures, and to indicate how they will assign participants to conditions. Then discuss the ethical implications. The effects of television viewing on children and adolescents continue to be a heavily researched topic. You should be able to supplement class discussion with media material as well as a wealth of information from the literature. You may want to review the references listed here that describe experimental and correlational investigations and their results on this topic. References Piak, H., and Comstock, G. 1994. “The Effects of Television Violence on Antisocial Behavior: A Metaanalysis,” Communication Research 21, pp. 516–546. Zillmann, D., Bryant, J., and Huston, A. C. 1994. Media, Children, and the family: Social Scientific, Psychodynamic, and Clinical Perspectives. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

In-Class Activities Activity 1.1—Investigating Class Members’ Beliefs about Major Developmental Issues It is often assumed that the developmental issues related to (a) nature and nurture, (b) continuity and discontinuity, and (c) early and later experience, are “intuitively obvious” and that students quickly grasp the concepts. The following exercise encourages students to systematically identify personal experiences that exemplify the relative impact of each perspective. The class data set may also be used to demonstrate some simple statistical analyses. The purpose of this project is (a) to have students think about their own experience in order to clarify the influence of family and community experience versus heredity on their own development, and (b) to have students develop a hypothesis about the influence of each developmental issue. In class, provide an overview of the three developmental issues explained in Adolescence. Discuss that there is still disagreement about the relative impact of each perspective, in spite of the information that we have from behavioral genetics research. Ask what questions students might formulate to determine which aspects of development are more influential for young adults. Show them the initial questions on the following questionnaire to exemplify the types of questions that they might ask. Then have students contribute, discuss, and choose questions they would like to include on the questionnaire. The following questionnaire suggests a format that may be followed to complete the demonstration. Note: This project is not intended to investigate students’ understanding of the research literature, but to clarify their beliefs based on personal experience and information.

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QUESTIONNAIRE Beliefs About Childhood and Adolescent Experience The information from this survey will be used for this class as a demonstration, and for no other purpose. The data will be gathered and analyzed for two reasons: (1) to provide a real set of data for statistical analysis, and (2) to assess assumptions about three developmental issues—nature-nurture, continuity-discontinuity, and early-later experiences. The hypothesis: personal experiences of class members are reflected in beliefs about the influence of nature-nurture, continuity-discontinuity, and earlylater experiences. Your name is not requested, and questionnaires will not be coded or numbered.

Demographic Information Gender: Male ___ Female ___

Age: ____

Number of college credits completed: _____

Parents’ Occupations:

Population of town where you attended high school: _____

Mother’s __________________________

Number of bedrooms in your family home: ____

Father’s ___________________________

Questions About Your Experience During Puberty For women only: Age at first menstruation ____

For men only: Adolescent age at most noticeable voice change ____

For both genders: Age at which you went through the adolescent “growth spurt” ____ What age do you think is normal for going through puberty:

For girls? ____

For boys? ____

Was your own puberty:

Do you remember your adolescence as:

___ much earlier than your peers

___ a very stressful time psychologically

___ somewhat earlier than your peers

___ somewhat negative, but not entirely so

___ about the same as your peers

___ both good and bad; some difficult times and some good times

___ somewhat later than your peers

___ usually positive

___ much later than your peers

___ a very happy time

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Questions About the Influence of Heredity Versus Experience If you were to conduct a research survey to find out how adolescents feel about these issues in their own lives, what questions would you ask? (Students supply questions.) Examples: What is your height in relation to your same-sex parent?

Much taller 2

No Difference/Very similar 0

Much shorter –2

–1

Did heredity or experience influence your childhood and adolescent development? ___ Heredity was much more influential than environment. ___ Heredity was somewhat more influential than environment. ___ Heredity and environment were equally influential.

___ Environment was somewhat more influential than heredity. ___ Environment was much more influential than heredity.

Questions About Continuity Versus Discontinuity in Childhood and Adolescent Development If you were to conduct a research survey to find out how adolescents feel about these issues in their own lives, what questions would you ask? (Students supply.) Examples: Was the community in which you grew up economically stable throughout your childhood and adolescence? Very stable 2

$ ups and downs 0

–1

Very unpredictable –2

Did continuity or discontinuity influence your childhood and adolescent development? ___ Continuity was much more influential than discontinuity. ___ Continuity was somewhat more influential than discontinuity. ___ Continuity and discontinuity were equally influential.

___ Discontinuity was somewhat more influential than continuity. ___ Discontinuity was much more influential than continuity.

Questions About Early Versus Later Experience If you were to conduct a research survey to find out how adolescents feel about these issues in their own lives, what questions would you ask? (Students supply questions.) Examples: Did reading with a parent when you were young have an influence on your interests? Very influential 2

Somewhat influential 0

–1

Not influential –2

Did early or later experience influence your adolescent development? ___ Early experience was much more influential than later experience. ___ Early experience was somewhat more influential than later experience. ___ Early and later experience were equally influential. ___ Later experience was somewhat more influential than early experience. ___ Later experience was much more influential than early experience.

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Activity 1.2—Key Terms and Developmental Issues Reflected in Theories This project introduces the various theoretical perspectives discussed in Chapter 1, and allows students to realize how much of the material they already know. On a board or overhead, list each of the following perspectives and distinguishing characteristics of the theories across the top. Ask students to indicate where each theorist or theory stands on each of the perspectives and characteristics You may use fewer, or modify labels, to fit your preferences, leaving room below each to add comments. Then have students suggest terms, ideas, and “great psychologists” associated with each. With life-span developmental psychology there are many choices of theorists and many choices for distinguishing characteristics. Other characteristics that could be used to discriminate between the theories include nature-nurture, continuity-discontinuity, stability-change, determinism (yes or no), critical periods (yes or no), and the role of the participant (active or passive). Students find the activity difficult; however, answers to essay questions about the theories show that they seem to learn a lot from the exercise. Depending on the amount of time available, the class can be divided into groups; each group given one or two theorists, then share the answers. If there is a limited amount of time, use a lecture/discussion format that encourages interaction but moves the discussion along. By the end of the exercise, they will be able to see some similarities and dissimilarities for each group. Here is an example of this exercise from one class. •

•

Psychoanalytic: Freud, Jung, Adler, Horney, Erikson, id, ego, superego, sex, early childhood, psychosexual stages, “mom’s fault,” unconscious, defense mechanisms, dreams, Oedipal complex, birth order, sibling rivalry, inferiority, libido, nature, discontinuity, stability. Behavioral: Watson, Skinner, Bandura, Pavlov, behavior modification, reinforcement, extinction, shaping, fading, imitation, operant conditioning, modeling, intermittent reinforcement, token economy, classical conditioning, unconditioned stimulus and response, conditioned stimulus and response, systematic desensitization, mechanistic, nurture, continuity. Cognitive: Piaget, Ellis, memory, information-processing, Binet, Terman, intelligence tests, accommodation, assimilation, language, development, moral development, Kohlberg, gender development. Ecological: Bronfenbrenner, Elder, environment, culture, ethnicity, nurture, continuity.

Students’ ability to offer suggestions will depend on how many psychology courses they have had previous to this course. As an instructor, you will learn which theoretical perspectives need the most class coverage, what misconceptions the students have, and what strengths they have coming into the course. Reference Irwin, D. B., and Simons, J. A. 1984. Theoretical Perspectives Class Activity. Ankeny, IA: Des Moines Area Community College.

Activity 1.3—A Sampling Experiment Using M&Ms Santrock, Adolescence, 16e

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This exercise will give students a hands-on experience with a manageable sampling problem. Students may have counted a packaged product such as animal crackers or multi-colored candy such as M&Ms in their youth. This activity will take childhood sampling experiences a few steps further to demonstrate how size of sample influences bias, and to demonstrate that there is a way to determine whether or not a sample is biased—by tallying the frequency and calculating the percentages of the entire group of items. Begin by distributing one small fun-size package of plain M&Ms to each student from one or more large sacks of smaller packages. Each fun-size package represents a sample of the larger sack(s) of samples. Ask students to establish the frequency distribution of the M&M’s colors in the fun-size package using paper and pencil to record their findings. Have students calculate the percentages of occurrence of each of the colors based on the raw data within their own sample. Then have students make projections about the total population based on their data and percentages. After students have advanced a hypothesis about the total population based on their own sample, have students work in pairs. They should combine their population data and generate a new joint hypothesis about the distribution of the M&M’s colors. Finally, have the entire class pool their data to determine the distribution of colors from the total population available in the classroom. Compare the results with those published by Mars, Inc. at the M&M’s home page. How well did the samples predict the results from the entire population? If time permits, repeat the experiment using regular individual size or larger packages of M&Ms. Compare the accuracy of larger sample sizes to the smaller ones. Students might be asked to demonstrate an understanding of their results by writing a letter to Mars, Inc. References Mars, Inc., M&Ms home page, http://www.mms.com, 2002. Smith, R. A. “A Tasty Sample(r): Teaching about Sampling Using M&M’s,” In L. T. Benjamin, B. F. Nodine, R. M. Ernst, and C. B. Broeker, Eds. Activities Handbook for the Teaching of Psychology, 4th ed. (Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association), pp. 66–68.

Activity 1.4—Demonstrating the Scientific Method with “Telepathy” Douglas Bernstein of the University of South Florida uses a “telepathy” activity to demonstrate the principles of conducting research. To conduct this activity all you need is a clean wastebasket or bucket, a pad of paper, and a pen. While standing in front of the class with paper and pen in hand, ask the students to name some European cities. Eventually someone will say “Paris.” As the students call out cities, act as if you are writing the name of each city on a piece of paper, wadding the paper up, and throwing it in the wastebasket. What you are actually doing is writing “Paris” on every slip of paper. Once you have a bucket full of paper, ask a student to choose one of the pieces of paper from the bucket, open the paper and concentrate on the city printed on the paper. Act as if you are trying to read the student’s mind and after a minute call out “Paris.”

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Although the students will think you have telepathy, tell them you really just did a simple magic trick and you want them to figure out how you did it. Students will suggest possible solutions, hypotheses. List the hypotheses on the board and ask students how they would go about testing these hypotheses. As they come up with ways to test their hypotheses, you can discuss other concepts such as independent and dependent variables. Although the students will want to know how you did your trick, don’t tell them. If you do tell them you won’t be able to use this trick in future classes. Bernstein suggests telling the students that some of their hypotheses came close, “…However, scientists never know for sure when they have found the truth; they can only eliminate plausible alternative hypotheses and reach a conclusion with a statistically significant, but not absolutely certain, likelihood of being correct.” Reference Bernstein, D. 2002. “Sharing Ideas on the Teaching of Psychology,” presented at The National Institute on Teaching of Psychology (NITOP), St. Petersburg, Florida.

Critical Thinking Exercises Exercise 1.1—Today’s Adolescents in the United States and Around the World In the section of Chapter 1 of Adolescence titled “Today’s Adolescents in the United States and Around the World,” Santrock describes the status of adolescents. This section of the chapter reflects a larger emphasis on one of the following determinants of development than on the others. Which one is it? Circle the letter of the best answer, explain why it is the best answer, and explain why each of the other answers is not as appropriate. A. cognitive processes D. discontinuity B. nurture E. change C. maturation Exercise 1.2—Theories of Adolescent Development Santrock presents several theoretical perspectives that explain strategies for investigating adolescent development. The author of the following quote was most likely a proponent of which of the following perspectives? “The psychological development of children in the family is affected not only by what happens in the other environments in which children spend their time, but also by what occurs in the other settings in which their parents live their lives, especially in a place that children seldom enter—the parents’ world of work. Another domain to which children tend to have limited access is the parent’s circle of friends and acquaintances—their social network.” Circle the letter of the best answer, explain why it is the best answer, and why each of the other answers is not as appropriate. A. cognitive D. psychoanalytic B. behavioral E. ecological Santrock, Adolescence, 16e

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eclectic

Exercise 1.3—Jess and His Teachers Read the following passage about Jess and his teachers. Which of the following statements is most likely to have been Graubard and Rosenberg’s assumption about difficult students, rather than an inference or an observation? Circle the letter of the best answer, explain why it is the best answer, and why each of the other answers is not as appropriate. Jess and His Teachers Jess is an eighth-grader at a junior high school in California. At 14 years of age, he already weighs 185 pounds. He is the school’s best athlete, but he used to get a thrill out of fighting. Jess knocked out several fellow students and once hit the principal with a stick, resulting in a 40-day school suspension. Jess’s teachers unanimously agreed that he was an impossible case. But one week, they began to notice a complete turnabout in Jess’s behavior. His math teacher was the first to notice the unusual but improved behavior. Jess looked at her one day and said, “When you are nice, you help me learn a lot.” The teacher was shocked. Confused, she finally smiled. Jess continued, “I feel really good when you praise me.” Jess continued to consistently praise teachers, came to class early, or stayed after class to chat. What was responsible for Jess’s turnabout? Some teachers said he attended a mysterious class every day that might provide some clues to his behavior change. In that “mysterious” class, a teacher was training students in behavior modification, which emphasizes that behavior is determined by its consequences. Those consequences weaken some behaviors and strengthen others. In an experiment, Paul Graubard and Henry Rosenberg (1974) selected seven of the most incorrigible students at a junior high school—Jess was one of them—and had a teacher give them instruction and practice in behavior modification in a 43-minute class period each day. The students were taught numerous pleasant responses to use to increase teachers’ positive attention. Pleasant responses included eye contact, smiling, sitting up straight, and being attentive. They also practiced praising their teachers, saying such things as, “I like working in this class where there is a good teacher.” And they worked on ways to discourage certain teacher behaviors by saying, “I just have a rough time working well when you get mad at me.” Jess had the hardest time learning how to smile. He was shown a videotape of his behavior and observed that he actually leered at people when he was told to smile. Although it was somewhat hilarious, Jess practiced in front of a camera until he eventually developed a charming smile.

Observations indicated that teacher-student interchanges were becoming much more positive during the five-week behavior-change program for students. Informal observations and comments after the program ended suggested that positive student-teacher interchanges were continuing. But what happened in the end? In the case of this experiment, we do not know. Circle the letter of the best answer, explain why it is the best answer, and why each of the other answers is not as appropriate. A. Difficult students’ behavior was not caused entirely by disturbed personalities or mental abnormalities. Santrock, Adolescence, 16e

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B. C. D. E.

The reactions of teachers reinforced the disruptive or harmful behavior of difficult students. Students exerted control over their teachers’ behavior by giving them positive and negative feedback. Students changed the way that they interacted with their teachers. The improved interaction between students and teachers continued for at least a while after the students finished their behavior modification class.

Exercise 1.4—Methods for Collecting Data Santrock describes five approaches for measuring adolescent behavior and then characterizes the nature of each. Listed below are measurement approaches paired with brief procedural descriptions. Which measurement approach/procedural description pair is correct? Circle the letter of the best answer, explain why it is the best answer, and why each of the other answers is not as appropriate. A. Observation: adolescents reported the degree of stress they experienced during the previous week. B. Interview and surveys: researchers collected data about mother-son and father-son interaction during 20-minute sessions. C. Standardized tests: the investigator gathered educational and medical records, reports from the psychologist and family service center, and conducted interviews with parents and teachers. D. E.

Physiological measures: neural responses were measured during conditions of changing stimuli. Case studies: performance was assessed using nonverbal ability sub-tests, and scores were compared to a sample that included representative percentages of majority and minority students.

Answer Key for Critical Thinking Exercises Exercise 1.1 A. Cognitive processes is not the best answer. If this were so, the issues Santrock raised would have concerned how changes in thought, intelligence, or language influence the lives of adolescents or the quality of an adolescent’s adaptation to the environment. But the contemporary concerns—status, idealized images, sociocultural contexts, and social police— are aspects of the adolescent’s environment and how they potentially influence adolescent development. B. Nurture is the best answer. As indicated in “A,” the focus of the contemporary concerns is adolescents’ environments and how they affect adolescents. These are explicitly discussed in the text as examples of the “nurture” side of the nature-nurture controversy. Santrock, Adolescence, 16e

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C. Maturation is not the best answer. Maturation refers to genetic and biological developmental influences on behavior. This would entail a focus on heredity and, perhaps, genetic engineering as a means of enhancing child development outcomes. Instead, the focus is on improving adolescents’ environments to enhance developmental outcomes. D. Discontinuity is not the best answer. If this were the concern, much would be said about the value of describing adolescent development as stages or about developing the notion of adolescence as a distinct stage from adulthood. This is not the sense of the contemporary focus at all. E. Change is not the best answer. If it were, the issue would be that patterns of behavior expressed early in an adolescent’s life are not especially predictive of later developmental outcomes. Again, the emphasis is on environmental conditions that promote optimal developmental outcomes. Exercise 1.2 A.

Cognitive is not the best answer. The main reasons are: (a) the speaker is mainly interested in children and families, whereas cognitivists typically (though not exclusively) are interested in individual people, combined with (b) a focus on observing behavior. Cognitivists are interested in making inferences about the mind and studying conscious mental activity.

Behavioral is not the best answer. The speaker indicates an interest in the system that influences the child. Behavioral theory focuses first on the study of behavior, and second, on environmental conditions that influence behavior. This parallels the development of Skinner’s behaviorism.

Eclectic is not the best answer. This researcher focused on the immediate and extended context that influences the child, not mentioning any interest in alternative behavior or strategies for studying it. This focus does not indicate that he believes all established approaches have something to contribute to his understanding of psychology.

Psychoanalytic is not the best answer. Psychoanalysts are interested in people and the inner workings of their thoughts. They also do not typically look beyond the immediate family to find things out, preferring instead various forms of clinical interviews or clinical devices for revealing the nature of personality and personality function.

Ecological is the best answer. Bronfenbrenner’s ecological theory is based on an analysis of systems of human behavior. This statement is from Bronfenbrenner (1986).

Exercise 1.3 A.

This answer is the best because it is an assumption. This appears to be a key belief of the researchers who worked with students like Jess. If they had not believed this, they would not have focused on specific behaviors that students could change which, in turn, might

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change the way teachers treated them. The statement is not made explicitly in the inset, nor does it seem to be a conclusion of the research, nor is it an observation. B.

This is not the best answer because it is an inference based on the following reasoning: the article demonstrated that a change in the students’ behavior produced a change in the teachers’ behavior and that, in fact, the changes reinforced each other. The suggestion is that in “normal” day-to-day interactions the specific patterns of behavior that people demonstrate toward others reinforces and maintains each other. For example, the students report things like “I have a rough time working well when you get mad at me.” In order to bring about behavioral change, one has to intervene in this self-maintaining pattern.

This is not the best answer because it is an inference or a conclusion that one might derive from the research. The teachers’ behavior changed when the students changed their own behavior. Because no other factors appear to have generated this change, the inference is that what the students did actually caused the change (controlled it).

This is not the best answer because it is an observation. This is a “fact”—something deliberately done and directly observable. A teacher/trainer taught students to smile, make pleasant comments, and so on. Students’ teachers in other classes then noticed these changed behaviors.

This is not the best answer because it is an observation. Teachers reported after the study that they continued to see pleasant interactions between the so-called problem students and their teachers.

Exercise 1.4 A.

This is not the best answer. The procedure describes an interview or questionnaire approach to getting information about adolescent feelings.

This is not the best answer. Researchers collect interaction data not only through direct observation, usually in real world settings, but also in contrived laboratory environments.

This is not the best answer. The process of completing an in-depth look at an individual includes gathering historical information through interviews, getting a medical or clinical history from the individual or parent, and reviewing standardized assessment information that may be available.

This is the best answer. Emotional responses can be measured through MRI, a physiological measure of neurological function.

This is not the best answer. The procedure describes a standardized test for performance skill and comparison of the results to the normal curve.

Short Scenarios Scenario 1.1 Santrock, Adolescence, 16e

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Dave and his friends are hanging out at the pizza shop—the only one in town. They are discussing their futures. They must choose to go to college or fight in the war. Neither choice is pleasing to most of them, but a student deferment is the only way to avoid being drafted—that or run away to Canada. Their parents manage the family farms. Dave thinks it is an interesting conundrum. They are old enough to go to war, but not old enough to vote, drink, or manage a business. The conversation drifts to recent new episodes of Andy Griffith, The Beverly Hillbillies, and Green Acres. Finally, the group disperses as one of the guys goes to his job at the gas station and another jumps in his dad’s truck to drive the 10 miles home to do chores. Dave heads back to school to check the schedule for science lab cleanup, and then goes home to work on his physics assignment. Dave thinks about the other guys’ reluctance to go to college. Since grade school, Dave has planned to attend medical school. Although his parents would like him stay at home and run the farm, he has absolutely no interest in that option. If Dave’s dad had received a well-rounded education, read more books when he was younger, or even had exposure to other ideas through television, he might understand Dave’s perspective. Fortunately, his mother recognizes his interest and capability in academics. At this point, Dave is using college textbooks for independent study in calculus and physics, and his friends refer to him as a walking encyclopedia of state and presidential history. If he doesn’t get into medical school, he’ll become a college professor. • The context is the mid-1960s in a small town in the Midwest, with a mixed social group of adolescents. • The boys are experiencing both optimism and concern about their futures, demonstrating the storm-and-stress of late adolescence. • Dave recognizes the conflict between expectations to go to war or to school, stereotyping adolescents, and promoting the adolescent generalization gap. • The cognitive processes of the boys differ greatly as Dave is much further ahead than his peers, both academically and in identifying reasonable future alternatives. • All of the boys demonstrate well-developed socioemotional processes with their diverse friendship network. • The boys demonstrate patterns of identity exploration characteristic of late adolescence. • Nature influenced Dave’s high cognitive ability and exposure to ideas through books and experience; nurture influenced his career choice. • Dave’s ability to amass large quantities of information reflects continuity in knowledge acquisition; differences in stages of cognitive development reflect discontinuity. Scenario 1.2 Jennifer is getting ready for basketball practice, and looking forward to sharing a cake afterward that one of her teammates brought for her fourteenth birthday. Jennifer enjoys playing on the team even though she is a little small for a basketball player. She is built just like her mom, but makes up for it by being quick just like her dad. She also runs and does resistance exercises to Santrock, Adolescence, 16e

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maximize her strength and endurance. Jennifer’s dad, Jim, encouraged her interest in the sport when she was much younger. They have played a substantial amount of basketball in the driveway, maybe because she doesn’t have any brothers. Basketball practice is a mixed blessing. It gets her out of some after-school responsibilities, but is an awful lot of work. She still has to run home to help with dinner and do her schoolwork. But she doesn’t have to take care of her younger sisters because they attend the after-school program at the church across the street. Her mother, Janet, has been loaded down with her own schoolwork since Jennifer was old enough to help at home. Janet, 34, is trying to finish a degree in teaching so she can put all of the kids through college. Jennifer will be the first child to go to college, and everyone expects it because she has done so well on achievement tests and in classes. During Jennifer’s childhood her dad, a seasonal construction worker, occasionally drank too much when he was out of work and her mom was working two jobs—one at a daycare center and another at a restaurant. Jennifer knows she does not want to have children until she is ready, and doesn’t plan to work for ungrateful employers. Things aren’t great now, but if she can keep it all together, she’ll get into a good school and have a real career at a flexible, dependable job. • Inherited biological characteristics, or nature, are evident from each parent. • Jennifer’s basketball skill is based on practice and experience with her father, nurture and continuity in skill development. • Jennifer has school, sport, and home responsibilities that are based on expectations for academic and family involvement, influences of context. • Janet, Jennifer’s mother, had Jennifer when she was quite young, resulting in an influential later experience. Now she is in college as an older-than-average student. • Jennifer remembers difficult times when she was younger, as her mother worked two jobs, her father drank, and economic conditions were inconsistent, examples of early experience. Scenario 1.3 Gene and Lev have lived next door to each other for their entire childhood and adolescence. They developed and maintained a strong friendship in spite of their differences in personal style. Gene has always been interested in science. Since he was nine, he has shown an interest in trying new chemistry experiments, testing magic that uses chemistry, and studying math and science. Lev, on the other hand, has always enjoyed being around people, young and old. He likes to tell stories, to play the guitar and other instruments, and to perform some of Gene’s magic tricks. Gene and Lev get together with some older blues band members to work on their musical style. Lev often makes plans for Gene and the rest of their friends to meet at the coffeehouse to talk about music, current and old films, and on occasion, to play their guitars. Gene plans to attend a liberal arts college to get a degree in chemistry or theater. He is not sure what he would rather do to make a living. Lev will probably go to school to major in fine arts and he, too, may choose a career in performance. But for now, they are having a good time with a recent development—

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some girls have started joining their group at the coffeehouse, and they are placing bets on who will score first. • • • •

•

Gene is demonstrating what Piaget described as the individual scientist, or an individual actively constructing his understanding of the world. Gene and Lev are demonstrating behavior characteristic of the formal operational stage as they prepare for and think about the possibilities for their future. Lev illustrates Vygotsky’s sociocultural cognitive theory emphasizing language and social relations as dominant components of the learning process. The various learning environments with the older blues band members and their peers provide opportunities for the adolescents to interact cooperatively and gain diverse knowledge. From a psychoanalytic perspective, Gene and Lev are seeking or anticipating sexual pleasure from someone outside the family, characteristic of the genital stage.

Scenario 1.4 Crystal is the youngest of three children. Her oldest sister will finish high school this year and her brother is a freshman in high school. Crystal will continue in middle school for a couple more years. Crystal is very interested in school, and easily solves all of the logic problems her math teacher gives her to do while other students are finishing their regular class assignments. She watches her brother and sister study and organize their time, and has learned from them that it pays off. Crystal admires them because they are earning awards for their success in debate, speech, and sports. She knows that she has a lot of say around home. Crystal almost always gets the things she asks for from her parents, and gets her sister to help her by asking her repeatedly. Crystal can always count on her immediate family to encourage her, and even the kids who tease her are motivating. She likes the idea that the schools in Maitown are known for winning statewide events. Even though she doesn’t know what she’ll major in when she goes to college, she is pleased with what she has accomplished so far and expects to be successful in the future. • •

• • • •

The behavior can be explained by behavioral and social cognitive theories. Crystal has two older siblings that serve as important models for her; the reinforcement that her brother and sister receive for their effort influences her decisions in her own life. Crystal’s interest in school is reinforced directly by her success in school and extra attention given to her by her teacher(s). Crystal has been reinforced in asking for help. Her sister responds to negative reinforcement (Crystal stops making annoying requests for help after help is provided). Her family and friends are important cues for working hard because they give her positive feedback when she succeeds. An important source of reinforcement for Crystal is her knowing that she has made good decisions and already has accomplished some important things. She expects the trend to continue as it has for her siblings.

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RESEARCH ARTICLES Article 1.1—Life Experiences Among Urban Adolescents Previous research has suggested that daily life events are important factors in the stress experienced by adolescents. The ecological framework suggested by Bronfenbrenner (1986 cited in Allison et al., 1999) can enhance our understanding of stress. Allison et al. argued that to better understand adolescent stress, we must understand that the specific types of stressors, the context and perception of life experiences, and the process by which context and events occur all impact perception of stress. This research examined the influence of stress experienced by adolescents in a neighborhood context. Recruited students were from two high schools in Capital City, an eastern U.S. city of approximately 50,000, and part of a metropolitan area of about a half-million people. The high schools, each offering vocational and college preparation courses, enrolled about 1,100 ninthand tenth-grade students. About 10 percent, or 114 students, agreed to participate and returned consent forms and parental ratings (Child Behavior Checklist, Achenback and Edelbrock, 1983). Subjects were 14 to 17 years of age, averaging 15; 78 percent were females. The sample included African Americans (71.9 percent), European Americans (14.9 percent), Hispanics (7.9 percent), and Asian Americans (.9 percent). The Urban Adolescent Life Experiences Scale (UALES) was developed following a series of item generation and validation procedures: directing focus groups, reviewing of filmed focus groups, and sorting 1,614 identified life events into a manageable set of items. The measure contained 127 items in the categories: School (17 items), Family/Community (37 items), Peer (22 items), and Personal (51 items). A panel of adolescent “experts” reviewed the scale for word clarity in the instructions and content. Both positive and negative events were included on the scale. Breadth of negative impact was established by weighting items based on the number of respondents reporting an event to be negative, the degree of negativity, and the personal frequency of the event. Youths also reported (a) participation in the school lunch program as an indication of SES (eligibility based on income and household dependents), (b) parental education, (c) parental employment, and (d) neighborhood and street address. The UALES was administered during the school day along with a general information sheet requesting information about ethnicity, residential address, and parental education and employment. Respondents were assembled in small groups to complete the measures. The broadest contextual events resulting in negative impact on adolescent respondents were family and personal events. The top four items included: (1) family members getting on your nerves, (2) having chores at home, (3) feeling tired, and (4) not having enough money. The fifth item related to peers with the life event identified as “people lying about you.” The sixth most negative event was “having bad teachers.” There were no significant correlations between life stress and SES. A categorical analysis of neighborhoods was completed by comparing two with dissimilar characteristics, although respondents from them (n = 88) showed no differences in SES. The first neighborhood, Sugar Hill, consisted of single and attached family houses of poor quality. There Santrock, Adolescence, 16e

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were five disreputable bars in the neighborhood. Residents were described as working poor (40 percent), on welfare (30 percent), and a single female headed the majority of families. The second neighborhood, Northeast New Town, was a transitional working class neighborhood becoming a growing center for drug trade. Although the neighborhood did not have a main effect on adolescents, a univariate analysis of variance (ANOVA) found that negative peer events had a greater negative impact on New Town respondents. Census variables believed to indicate economic viability of the neighborhood (rates of poverty for children under seventeen, male unemployment, vacant housing units, and public assistance receipt) were selected for dimensional analyses. Factors related to community that were considered as potential protective factors included high school dropout rate, percentage of employed male and female senior citizens, and the percentage of owner-occupied homes. Bivariate correlations between impact of life experiences and neighborhood indices indicated levels of high school dropout were associated with negative impact of school stress; personal and peer stress were associated with welfare receipt; male unemployment, welfare receipt, childhood poverty, high school dropout, and owner-occupied homes were associated with family/community stress (pp. 1023). Topical analyses showed differences in neighborhood type in relation to the impact of school events; lower quality neighborhoods resulted in higher levels of school stress. To summarize, three strategies for examining the association of adolescent life stress with neighborhood context showed that categorical, dimensional, and typological approaches are informative in examining types of adolescent life stress. Although the communities included in the present work had some similarities, the area with residents of slightly higher SES reported a higher level of negative peer stress. Apparently, ongoing neighborhood transitions associated with the drug traffic were associated with higher peer stress, and possibly greater peer violence and pressure to avoid or sell drugs. The examinations of high- and low-quality neighborhood types indicated that the perception of school stress tended to vary by type, with an indirect relationship demonstrated between neighborhood quality and levels of stress. Finally, students in the pilot study indicated several events related to family as having broad negative impact including family members getting on your nerves and parents being worried or upset. These items emphasize the underlying importance of the family to adolescents. Reference Allison, K. W., Burton, L., Marshall, S., Perez-Febles, A., Yarrington, J., Kirsh, L. B., and MerriwetherDeVries, C. 1999. “Life Experiences Among Urban Adolescents: Examining the Role of Context,” Child Development 70, pp. 1017–1029.

Article 1.2—Urban/Rural Differences in Adolescent Leisure-Time Usage Outdoor athletics, home-based activities, and community arts represent important choices for leisure and recreational activities available to youths. Previously, Australia identified high youth involvement in physical activities. Participation in active leisure tasks during adolescence predicts social involvement and better health than for uninvolved youth. This study investigated adolescent involvement in leisure activities by evaluating: (a) the relationship between leisure opportunities and leisure satisfaction; (b) participation in different types of leisure activities in Santrock, Adolescence, 16e

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relation to self-esteem, sensation-seeking, and boredom; and (c) the relationship between selfesteem, leisure control, and leisure satisfaction. Students from two Australian communities participated in the survey research. A total of 140 randomly selected students participated in the study. Students were enrolled in grades 8, 10, and 12 and ranged in age from 12 to 19 years. Cairns had a population of 44,000 with four high schools. Cairns participants included 35 male and 40 female subjects. In the Atherton community, the population was 10,000 and contained only one public school. Atherton subjects included 31 males and 34 females. The students completed a questionnaire containing the following four sections: • Self-Rating Scale (SRS). The SRS contained 36 items to measure self-esteem on a Likert-type scale. The instrument measured self-regard, school abilities, physical appearance, and abilities. The total score was inversely related to depression, anxiety, and anomie. • Sensation-Seeking Scale Form II (SSS-II). The SSS-II contained 34 forced-choice questions designed to measure motivation for sensation-seeking behavior. The types of activities queried included sexual activity, drug use, and unusual, risky activities. • Leisure Boredom Scale (LBS). Designed to measure differences in individual’s perception of boredom, it measured specific correlates to boredom including, from most to least influential,: intrinsic leisure motivation; self-as-entertainment; selfesteem; perceived social competence and leisure ethic; leisure participation; physical health; leisure satisfaction; and mental health. • Adolescent Leisure-Time Use Inventory. Quantitative and qualitative items were compiled to determine leisure time use, choices and rationale for choices, relevant contextual factors, and overall satisfaction with time use. Leisure activities included the following: passive leisure, active leisure, social leisure, work-related activity, organizations, hobbies, substance use, and crime. Questionnaires were administered during school with two different strategies. In Atherton, several small sessions were held with students in a structured setting with all seats facing forward. Students in Cairns were in larger groups seated at round tables and, inadvertently, were able to interact during the session. Students completed the questionnaire in 20 to 60 minutes. The results showed that, on average, students spent about 55 hours per week in leisure activity. Activity occurred most often in passive leisure (15.1 hours), and least often in active leisure (11.5 hours). Social leisure (14.8 hours) and work leisure (12.5 hours) occurred at intermediate levels. Students watched television or videos most often. They spent the least amount of time at church. Differences were found between the two locations: Atherton (rural) students chose passive leisure whereas Cairns (urban) adolescents most often participated in social leisure. Cairns students participated in more active leisure activities, possibly due to the availability of the beach. Differences were observed on each section of the questionnaire with urban subjects reporting lower overall levels of leisure satisfaction. Self-esteem differences showed students in Cairns with higher self-esteem overall, and a positive correlation shown between age and total SRS score. Atherton subjects showed a Santrock, Adolescence, 16e

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negative correlation. Males consistently showed higher self-esteem than did female students. Sensation-seeking results indicated that Cairns students scored higher than Atherton students. Age and SSS scores were positively correlated in both settings. Leisure boredom tended to result from lack of satisfaction with leisure activity arousal, thus leading to deviant activities. Age and total LBS scores were positively correlated for Cairns students and negatively correlated among Atherton students (in both settings, older students experienced less boredom). The relationships between self-esteem, sensation-seeking, and leisure boredom showed that self-esteem and sensation-seeking were positively correlated, and that self-esteem and boredom were negatively correlated. The results suggest that students with high self-esteem sought high levels of sensation and experienced low levels of boredom. More Cairns than Atherton students reported substance use, with alcohol used by 57 percent and 45 percent of the students, respectively. Cigarettes were used by almost five times as many students in Cairns (28 percent versus 6 percent). Drugs were used by almost six times as many students in Cairns (35 percent versus 6 percent) than in Atherton. The heaviest users were adolescents with low self-esteem, high sensation-seeking, and low leisure boredom. Substance use was mainly recreational. Overall, a majority of adolescents were satisfied with personal leisure-time use. More Atherton (rural) students were satisfied with their activities (81.5 percent) than were Cairns (urban) students (77 percent). However, more than half of students at both locations (Atherton— 62 percent; Cairns—51 percent) reported that there was not enough to do. Negative relationships were reported between age and satisfaction with leisure activities. Cairns students identified parents as barriers to leisure activity. In summary, leisure experiences may reflect attitudes toward choices more than the choices themselves. Reference Gordon, W. R., and Caltabiano, M. L. 1996. “Urban-rural Differences in Adolescent Self-esteem, Leisure Boredom, and Sensation-seeking as Predictors of Leisure-time Usage and Satisfaction,” Adolescence 31, pp. 883–901.

Article 1.3—Comparison of the Development of Formal Thought in Adolescents Cross-sectional comparisons of cohort groups with cohort sequential designs have shown an increase in the mean score of several intelligence tests including the Raven Progressive Matrices, Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale, and Wechsler Intelligence Scale (Flieller, 1999). Identified as the Flynn effect, increases in scores have averaged three points per decade for the past six decades. The results have occurred in 20 countries including France, where pertinent previous research led to this investigation. Environmental explanations include such things as better nutrition, increased availability of education, and/or the complexity of the environment. The fact that scholastic achievement has not improved, however, suggests that the increased IQ scores do not reflect improvement in real-life outcomes. Flieller argued that these results suggested a clear need for further research to investigate explanations for the observed changes in performance. He proposed that Piagetian tasks depending heavily on nonverbal factors provide measures of fluid intelligence and provide the following properties: Santrock, Adolescence, 16e

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• • • •

Performance depends on reasoning ability, not speed of execution. Correct performance is accepted if the respondent is able to justify it. A hierarchical order of tasks has been previously validated. Piagetian tasks measure concept acquisition and reasoning strategies.

The questions for this paper included: What differences might exist between two same-age adolescent cohort groups (a time-sequential analysis) 20 years apart? If differences between the cohorts occur, what factors might explain them? This research used data collected from 1972 and 1967 (10- to 12-year-olds) and compared it to data collected from same-age adolescents in 1993 and 1996 (13- to 15-year-olds). Longeot’s Logical Thought Development Scale was used to measure the cognitive development of the adolescent subjects. Five tests are included in the scale and each test used a four-tier cognitive level score: concrete (C), intermediate (I), formal A (Fa), or formal B (Fb). Level of performance was based on the accuracy of the answer, the respondent’s ability to explain the answer, and the respondent’s reaction to the experimenter’s objections and counter suggestions. Conservation. Materials include two clay balls and one metal ball of the same size and two containers of water. Test items include: (1) dissociation of weight and volume (Explain why the water rises; predict the height of the water.); (2) conservation of volume (How will sausage shaped clay and a ball of clay influence water level? What weight is a round ball of clay versus a flattened ball? What weight is clay broken into many pieces?) Permutation. Multicolor tokens are given to the participant, and the participant predicts the number of different ways that yellow, red, and blue tokens can be lined up. Then the participant is asked to line up the tokens in as many ways as possible. Then four additional colored tokens are added one at a time. The execution phase is scored along with explanations for the numerical response. Quantification of Probabilities. Two types of tokens, plain yellow tokens and yellow tokens with a large black X on one side, are used for this test. Collections of tokens are presented to the participant (e.g., four tokens of which one has an X; five tokens of which two have an X). The participant is asked to decide and explain in which collection a token with an X has a better chance of being chosen. Pendulum Oscillations. Materials consist of a stand, a string for hanging weights, and five weights (50 g, 100 g, 150 g, 200 g, and 250 g) that may be hung on the string. The experimenter hangs a weight, puts it in motion, and then explains that string length, weight of the pendulum, the force of the push, and the height of release may influence the pendulum period. The participant then is asked to investigate the influence of each variable. Experimenter watches the participant and asks for participant’s conclusions. Mechanical Curves. The mechanism required is a cylinder fastened to a stand that can be rotated around its horizontal axis using a crank. A 8.5  11-inch piece of paper is attached to the cylinder. A pencil on a bar allows a horizontal line to be drawn from one end of the cylinder to Santrock, Adolescence, 16e

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the other. The tasks require completing two movements; the horizontal motion of the pencil and the rotation of the cylinder. There are six movements: pencil movement without cylinder rotation; the cylinder rotates without pencil movement; the cylinder rotates and the pencil moves from one end to the other; cylinder moves and pencil goes to the end and back; the cylinder does two full rotations with the pencil going and coming back; and the cylinder does two full rotations without the pencil coming back to the starting point. Study 1 compared 510 participants of 10- to 12-year-olds from 1972 to 90 same age children in 1993. Study 2 compared 90 participants of 13- to 15-year olds from 1967 to 90 children of the same ages in 1996. All participants took all of the tests in their schools. The percentages of students at each level demonstrated clear shifts from Concrete to Intermediate and Formal A levels for both age groups. The cross-sectional comparison showed Study 1 group of 10- to 12-year-olds performed consistently better across all five tests in 1993 than had the same aged children in 1972. Study 2 showed some variation in performance, with a drop in performance on the weight-volume test between the years 1967 to 1996. Improvement between cohorts was noted on the other four tests by 13- to 15-year-olds, but scores on the probability, pendulum, and mechanical curves tests did not change as much as the permutation tests. The study showed that the Piagetian test supported previous findings using traditional IQtype tests and is subject to the Flynn effect. The studies suggested that problem solving using diverse reasoning skills have improved for both age groups. Improved performance may be attributed to the accelerated introduction of problems and solutions presented in classes. It may be that learning has a greater impact on development than recognized previously and is hastening the pace of cognitive development. Reference Flieller, A. 1999. “Comparison of the Development of Formal Thought in Adolescent Cohorts aged 10 to 15 years (1967–1996 and 1972–1993),” Developmental Psychology 35, pp. 1048–1058.

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STUDENT RESEARCH PROJECTS Research Project 1.1—The Nature of Adolescents Objective. To identify societal stereotypes that cross decades and that characterize specific generations. Type/Length of Activity. In- or out-of-class project; time to complete is highly dependent on the structure of the analysis and detail of report required, from 2 to 16 hours. Directions. Throughout the course, discussion on adolescence focuses on the nature of adolescents who are not children, yet not adults. Obtain copies of noteworthy films from three to five decades. Examples include the James Dean film, Rebel without a Cause or The Last Picture Show (1950s), Diner or American Graffiti (1960s), Woodstock (1970s), Risky Business or The Breakfast Club (1980s), and Boyz N the Hood (1990s). Have students view a film from each decade, collecting the following data: 1. Identify and define stereotypes about adolescents. Examples: _____________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________ 2. Identify historical events that influenced cohort groups to demonstrate distinguishing characteristics (e.g., decade-specific characteristics depicted in each film). Examples: _____________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________ 3. Identify and give examples of social, emotional, and personality development in adolescents common across decades. Examples: _____________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________ After viewing the films, develop a set of definitions for categories of behavior depicted in each film. Then observe a portion of each film or all of them in their entirety again, collecting data to determine the frequency or occurrence of behavior in each category. As a means of introducing the importance of rigorous, systematic inquiry to establish an understanding of adolescence, you may find it useful to contrast the film presentations with reports about adolescents in the community from newspapers, social service organizations, or by college students themselves. Have students compare and contrast topics they have found in the films with adolescent reports and identify differences in the information. This should help set the stage for analyzing subsequent media portrayals of any group. Wrap-Up. Write a research paper, or give an oral presentation that explains the methods and results of the project. Research Project 1.2 Media Images of Adolescence Santrock, Adolescence, 16e

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Objective. The myth that adolescence is a time of storm and stress gets perpetuated in part because of the way media portrays adolescence. Students can observe different forms of media to investigate the ways in which adolescence is portrayed. Type/Length of Activity. Out-of-class assignment; time to complete approximately 1 ½ to 3 hours, depending the type of media; then observe. Directions. Do ONE of the following (either A or B): A. Watch three television programs that have adolescents as part of the cast of the show. They can be dramas, soap operas, or situation comedies. If possible, watch an older program, perhaps a show that aired in the 1960s. B. Read three newspaper or magazine articles about adolescents. Pay attention to the issues and concerns presented in the article. Complete the following questions: 1. List the show you watched and indicate whether it is a current show or older show. Or, list the titles of the articles you read and give their sources. 2. Describe the ways in which the adolescents were portrayed in the programs you watched. Were there common themes? What sorts of issues did these adolescents deal with? Did the portrayals of adolescents match the stereotypes we have for adolescents? If you read articles, what were the issues in the articles? How were adolescents portrayed in the article you read? 3. If you watched an older program, did you find that the adolescents in the older program faced different sorts of issues compared to more contemporary programs? What other differences did you find between the older show and the newer shows? 4. What is the role of the media in perpetuating stereotypes about adolescents? Wrap-Up. Have students discuss what they found in class. Did most everyone in class find the same thing, or was there a lot of variability in the way adolescents were portrayed? Research Project 1.3—Ethical Guidelines for Professionals Objective. Students will understand the universality of ethical guidelines in scientific research and human services programs. Type/Length of Activity. Out-of-class activity; approximately 2 to 3 hours. Directions. Reputable professional organizations establish ethical guidelines for the treatment of animal and human subjects, and the acceptable behavior of researchers and providers. This project is designed to encourage you to investigate ethical guidelines across professional organizations and to identify the common themes that the guidelines present. Identify common ethical guidelines across professional organizations. You will find that ethical guidelines have specific sections at some sites and that you must search within the section’s entitled publications, or research topics at others. Read the ethical information presented at each site to identify universal principles. Santrock, Adolescence, 16e

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These sites present important fundamental information: • •

Declaration of Helsinki. Adopted by the 18th World Medical Assembly, Helsinki, 1964; amended several times by subsequent World Medical Assemblies. Federal Policy for the Protection of Human Subjects. Federal Register, Volume 56, No 117, June 18, 1991, pp. 28011-28018. Effective August 19, 1991.

These websites provide ethics guidelines and discussions for professionals. • • • • • •

American Psychological Association http://www.apa.org/ American Medical Association http://www.ama-assn.org/ National Alliance for the Mentally Ill http://www.nami.org/ National Association of Social Workers http://www.naswdc.org/ National Institutes of Health http://www.nih.gov/ Society for Neuroscience http://www.sfn.org/

1. What are key terms, phrases, and concepts common to all of the professional guidelines? 2. What guidelines and presentation style were unique to specific professions? 3. How are these points similar to and different from those discussed by Santrock in Adolescence? 4. Why are ethical guidelines necessary? Do you think that they are more important to us today than they were 75 or more years ago? Wrap-Up. Be prepared to discuss the key points that you identified across professions.

ESSAY QUESTIONS Provide students with the guidelines for “Answering Essay Questions” before they respond to these questions. Their answers to these kinds of questions demonstrate an ability to comprehend and apply ideas discussed in this chapter. 1. Compare and contrast G. Stanley Hall’s view of adolescence with Margaret Mead’s and Inventionists’ views; and discuss which of these appears to be most influential today. 2. Explain the indicators of social neglect Marian Wright Edelman uses as evidence that the United States is near the bottom in a ranking of industrialized nations in child and youth treatment.

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3. Explain the deciding characteristics of biological, cognitive, and socioemotional developmental processes. Give examples of each from personal experience or other coursework. 4. Briefly explain and give examples of developmental controversies including (a) the naturenurture issue, (b) the continuity-discontinuity issue, and (c) early-later experience. Also explain why developmentalists do not adopt extreme positions on the three issues. 5. Compare and contrast the psychoanalytic theories of Freud and Erikson. Explain in what ways Erikson made fundamental changes to psychoanalytic theory. 6. Compare and contrast the cognitive theories of Piaget, Vygotsky, and the informationprocessing approach. Identify the stages of Piaget’s theory; and sketch the nature of cognitive changes that take place from infancy through adolescence according to the other theories. 7. Explain the similarities and differences between the behavioral and social cognitive theories. Give an example of a personal experience that would be explained differently by a theorist from each behavioral perspective. 8. Define and distinguish the five systems in Bronfenbrenner’s ecological theory. Provide at least two examples of each system from your personal life. 9. Explain why the eclectic approach is beneficial in understanding adolescent development as a whole, and problematic in studying a single aspect of development. 10. Compare and contrast correlational and experimental strategies for conducting research in adolescent development. What do you gain and lose by using a correlational strategy rather than experimental strategy in research? 11. Explain what is meant by research bias. What scientific approaches and research methods lead to research bias? What strategies might investigators use to reduce the bias that has occurred previously in developmental research? 12. Compare and contrast cross-sectional and longitudinal research. What are the pros and cons of each type of design? References McCarthy, J. B., ed. 2000. Adolescent Development and Psychopathology. Blue Ridge Summit, PA: University Press of America. Miller, P. H. 1993. Theories of Developmental Psychology, 3rd ed. New York: W.H. Freeman and Company. Parke, R. D., Ornstein, P. A., Reiser, J. J., and Waxler, C. Z. 1994. A Century of Developmental Psychology. Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association. Thomas, R. M. 2001. Recent Theories of Human Development. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. World Health Organization. 1999. Programming for Adolescent Health and Development. Geneva: WHO.

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INTERNET ACTIVITIES Internet Activity 1.1 Classics in the History of Psychology The Classics in the History of Psychology (http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/) offers classic articles listed by topic or by author. You can assign an article (e.g., Hall, G. Stanley, [1904], “Adolescent Girls and their Education”) for students to read, or read sections of the article to the class to give them an idea of the roots of psychology and how it has progressed. Internet Activity 1.2 Research a Famous Psychologist Students can use the Internet as a resource to research a famous developmental psychologist. For example, there are several websites about Piaget’s life, such as http://piaget.org. Give students the following questions and have them find the answers on the Web. 1. Where was Piaget born? Where did he grow up? 2. What was his childhood like? 3. Who were his parents and what did his father do for a living? 4. What is the significance of the albino sparrow? 5. Briefly outline his career. 6. Find three common criticisms of Piaget’s theory. You can also pick your favorite psychologist and come up with questions for students to answer. Internet Activity 1.3 National Institute of Health The Web page for the National Institute of Health (NIH) offers specific information regarding research with human subjects. Students can go to this page to research the historical origins of the NIH’s commitment to the protection of the right of human subjects. There is also information about the roles and responsibilities of Institutional Review Boards. http://www.nih.gov/

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RESOURCES AVAILABLE IN CONNECT McGraw-Hill Connect is a digital assignment and assessment platform that strengthens the link between faculty, students, and coursework, helping everyone accomplish more in less time. For students, Connect uses innovative, interactive technology to enable a more personalized learning experience that better engages students in course content so they are better prepared, are more active in discussion, and achieve better results. Connect allows instructors to give homework assignments with immediate, automatic feedback, upload recorded class lectures and presentations through Tegrity, and track student progress and concept comprehension through robust reporting tools. Available within Connect, SmartBook™ is an adaptive learning program designed to help students stay focused and maximize their study time. Based on metacognition, and powered by LearnSmart™, SmartBook’s adaptive capabilities provide with a personalized reading and learning experience that helps them identify the concepts they know, and more importantly, the concepts they don’t know. Below is a selection of other resources available for this chapter in Connect. Chapter

Resource Title

Resource Type

Challenges of Conducting Research on Adolescents

Video

Correlation

Video

Independent and Dependent Variables

Video

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CHAPTER 2: PUBERTY, HEALTH, AND BIOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS INTRODUCTION Biological and cognitive changes are the essence of adolescent development. They encompass a sequence of events that transform a child into an adolescent. The predictable biological metamorphosis offers little opportunity for deviation. Santrock defines puberty as a period of rapid physical maturation predominantly occurring during early adolescence because of four biologically based systems. • •

•

Heredity—puberty occurs between 9 and 16 years of age because of genetic predisposition. Hormones—reproductive systems become functional as androgens and estrogens secreted by the endocrine glands and carried by the bloodstream influence the development of sex organs. The endocrine system—because of interaction between the hypothalamus, the pituitary gland, and gonads, the endocrine system ensures that hormonal stimulation prompts maturation and maintains reproductive capacity through a negative feedback system. Weight, body fat, and leptin and kisspeptins—the onset of menarche has been attributed to critical body mass, percentage of body fat, and/or leptin that signal readiness for puberty.

Both sexes experience a growth spurt in height and weight before sexual maturation begins. Girls typically begin puberty a few years earlier than boys. Preadolescent boys and girls are very similar physically, but puberty produces marked changes in a relatively short period of time, due largely to dramatic changes in hormonal balance between estrogens and androgens. The sequence of sexual maturation is consistent across adolescents, but the onset and time of completion is highly individual. The secular trend for the age at which puberty begins has gradually decreased during the twentieth century, but genetic limits still prevail. Psychological changes that accompany adolescence include perceptions by parents, peers, and adolescents themselves. Adolescents become preoccupied with changes in body image, with girls showing less satisfaction than boys. Hormonal changes have an effect on adolescent behavior, but social factors are two to four times more influential than hormones. Adolescent girls report only mild emotional responses to menarche, especially if they are prepared for the experience. Early maturation has particularly positive effects on boys. Late maturation provides opportunity for exploration,. Early maturation increases girls’ vulnerability to a number of problems including depression, substance use, eating disorders, and early sexual activity. Social context influences the complexity in interpreting outcomes of on-time and off-time pubertal events. Overall, adolescents experience relatively little effect from puberty, even for very early Santrock, Adolescence, 16e

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and very late maturers. Health care providers may provide valuable assistance in guiding adolescents through difficult experiences or off-time development. Adolescence is a critical junction in the adoption of health-related behaviors. Health habits developed in adolescence seem to carry forward through adulthood. Adolescents’ peak physical condition and feelings of invulnerability may lead to the development of poor health habits. Experts are interested in decreasing health-compromising behaviors and increasing healthenhancing behaviors. Adolescents are known for engaging in risk-taking behavior. Neurobiological research suggests that the prefrontal cortex is not yet mature, which may explain why adolescents engage in risk-taking behavior. Limiting opportunities for risk-taking behavior and increased parental monitoring can control risk-taking. In addition, adolescents are unlikely to see a physician for health care. Of special concern are older adolescent males who reported significantly less contact with health-care services than younger males. Accidents, homicide, and suicide are the leading causes of death for adolescents. Many adolescents practically live on fast food, and this contributes to high levels of fat in their diet and poor overall nutrition. Adolescents need vegetables, fruit, and whole grains, and should avoid excess fats and protein. In addition, many adolescents are not getting enough exercise. A comparison of adolescents in 28 counties found that U.S. adolescents exercised less and ate more junk food than adolescents in most of the other countries. Physical activity declines from early to late adolescence. Adolescents in the United States spend too much time in screenbased activities and schools do not provide daily physical education classes. Research has found that exercise may act as a buffer against stress for adolescents, improves overall health outcomes, and is related to better connectivity between brain regions. Sports participation improves adolescents’ emotional and physical well-being, but may be responsible for stress related to competition and lower grades. Adolescents get too little sleep and are perpetually fatigued. In adolescence, the biological clock for sleep shifts, and adolescents need nine hours of sleep a night. They also tend to want to stay up later and get up later in the morning. Because of school start times, increased use of electronic media and caffeine intake, adolescents experience a sleep deficit. This deficit causes adolescents to be sleepy in school, may affect their academic performance, and may increase the likelihood of emotional and peer-related problems. From an evolutionary perspective, humans are new to the earth. Natural selection is the evolutionary process that favors individuals who are best adapted to survive and reproduce. Evolutionary developmental psychology is the application of evolutionary principle to explain human development. Common elements of the human genome make it possible for our species to thrive. Several areas of investigation examine the link between genomes and development. • The genotype contains all of the genetic material inherited from both parents. • The phenotype reflects observed characteristics, far less than the genetic code transmits. • Behavior genetics investigates the influence of nature and nurture on behavior. • Twin studies investigate the similarity between identical and fraternal twins.

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•

Adoption studies investigate similarities of siblings with biological parents versus adoptive parents.

Research designs using monozygotic and dizygotic twins, raised by biological or adoptive parents, help to determine the influence of inherited characteristics and environmental influence. Observable patterns are: • • • • •

Passive genotype-environment correlations—environments that reflect parents’ preferences. Evocative genotype-environment correlations—the child’s inherited environmental preferences. Active (niche-picking) genotype-environment correlations—preferred environments identified by the child and in which the child chooses to participate. Shared environmental influences—shared experiences within the family. Nonshared environmental influences—unique experiences influencing personality variation.

In summary, genetic factors and environmental factors are mutually instrumental; one cannot exist without the other.

TOTAL TEACHING PACKAGE OUTLINE Chapter 2: Puberty, Health, and Biological Foundations HEADING I. PUBERTY

RESOURCE Learning Goal: 1 In-Class Activity: 2.1, 2.3 Short Scenario: 2.1

Determinants of Puberty Heredity Hormones The Endocrine System

Image: 2-1, 2-2, and 2-3 Lecture Topic: 2.1, 2.2 Essay Question: 1

Growth Hormone Adrenarche and Gonadarche

Weight, and Body Fat Leptin and Kisspeptins Weight at Birth and Infancy Sociocultural and Environmental Factors Growth Spurt

Image: 2-4 Lecture Topic: 2.1 Essay Question: 2

Sexual Maturation Secular Trends in Puberty

Images: 2-5, 2-6, and 2-7 Lecture Topic: 2.1 In-Class Activity: 2.1; 2.3 Critical Thinking Exercise: 2.1 Short Scenario: 2.1 Essay Question: 2

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Psychological Dimensions of Puberty

Body Image Gender Differences Body Art

II.

Discussion Topic: 2.3 Critical Thinking Exercise: 2.1 Short Scenario: 2.1 Essay Question: 3 Discussion Topic: 2.3 Research Project 2.1

Hormones and Behavior

Short Scenario: 2.1

Early and Late Maturation

Images: 2-8 Discussion Topic: 2.3 Essay Question: 4 Through the Eyes of Adolescents: Attractive Blond Females and Tall Muscular Males Health and Well-Being Interlude: Health Care Consultation for Early and Late Maturers Careers in Adolescent Development: Anne Petersen, Researcher and Administrator

Are Puberty’s Effects Exaggerated?

Short Scenario: 2.1 Essay Question: 4

HEALTH Adolescence: A Critical Juncture in Health

Learning Goal: 2 Lecture Topic: 2.3 In-Class Activity: 2.4 Research Article: 2.1 Essay Question: 5

Risk-Taking Behavior

Critical Thinking Exercise: 2.3 Essay Question:6

Health Services Leading Causes of Death

Image: 2-9 Essay Question: 7 WWW: Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report at www.cdc.gov/mmwr/mmwr.html

Emerging Adults’ Health

Image: 2-10 Lecture Topic: 2.3 In-Class Activity: 2.4 Short Scenario: 2.2

Nutrition

Exercise and Sports Exercise

Image: 2-11 Lecture Topic: 2.3, 2.4 Developmental Changes In-Class Activity: 2.4 Positive Benefits of Exercise in Short Scenario: 2.2 Adolescence Research Article: 2.1 Role of Families, Schools, and Screen Based Essay Question: 8, 9 Internet Activity: 2.3 Activities in Adolescent Exercise Through the Eyes of Adolescents: In Pitiful Shape Families Schools

Screen Based ActivitiesSports

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III.

Sleep

Discussion Topic: 2.4 Short Scenario: 2.3 Essay Question: 10

EVOLUTION, HEREDITY, AND ENVIRONMENT

Learning Goal: 3 Critical Thinking Exercise: 2.2 Short Scenario: 2.1, 2.3, 2.4 Research Article: 2.2 Research Project: 2.2 Essay Question: 11

The Evolutionary Perspective Natural Selection and Adaptive Behavior Evolutionary Psychology Evolutionary Developmental Psychology Evaluating Evolutionary Psychology The Genetic Process DNA and the Collaborative Gene Genotype and Phenotype

Image: 2-12

Heredity-Environment Interaction Behavior Genetics

Lecture Topic: 2.2 Discussion Topic: 2.1 Critical Thinking Exercise: 2.2 Essay Question: 12

Image: 2-13 Discussion Topic: 2.1; 2.2 Research Project: 2. 3 Internet Activities 2.1; 2.2 WWW: National Center for Human Genome Research; www.nhgri.nih.gov/

Heredity-Environment Correlations

Image: 2-14

Shared and Nonshared Environmental Experiences

Short Scenario: 2.3

The Epigenetic View Conclusions About Heredity-Environment Interactions

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SUGGESTED LECTURE TOPICS Topic 2.1—Four Developmental Growth Curves and Puberty Puberty refers to the onset of sexual maturation. The term generally refers to the glandular and bodily changes that are involved during the adolescent developmental period. The remarkable maturational changes that appear during adolescence are dependent upon a developmental process that began at conception and involves four major growth curves. Development occurs in the reproductive organs, the brain and head, the lymph glands, and general bodily growth. Most skeletal and muscular components of growth, such as height and weight, follow general growth curves. The brain and head show the most dramatic development during the prenatal period and the first few years of childhood. The head and central nervous system must be more advanced than the rest of the body in order to support the subsequent development that will occur. Three of the four growth curves change gradually during childhood, but they show marked increases between ages 10 and 12, indicating the phenomenon referred to as the adolescent growth spurt. The lymphoid system is made up of a series of glands that promote secretion of specialized hormones in cells throughout the body. Hormones produced by glands are secreted directly into the bloodstream and are circulated to influence cell growth. The pituitary (master gland) stimulates the release of hormones from other glands including the hypothalamus, the thyroid, and the adrenal glands. The hypothalamus, at the base of the brain, stimulates hormonal changes to regulate growth affecting height, weight, and reproductive systems. The Human Growth Hormone (HGH) regulates general height and weight growth. Gonadotrophic hormones (two in males, three in females) are activated by the hypothalamus to stimulate glands in the testes and ovaries that secrete testosterone and estradiol. Because of sudden changes in glandular and hormonal influences at puberty the growth curve for the reproductive system changes much more dramatically than the growth curves for height and weight. The factors that influence growth curves follow four patterns. • Target seeking—genetic inheritance dictates the need for the body to achieve specific functional capacity. • Maturity gradients—the head and brain must be one developmental step ahead of other parts (i.e., neural tube, nylon sheath, nerve endings) in order to provide the foundation for the development of other body functions. • Feedback regulation—the lymphatic system regulates chemical secretions to make the physical structure functional, but a feedback loop from the hypothalamus influences the pituitary to direct more or less hormonal influence as the individual reaches genetic targets. • Body mass—the physical structure influences the onset of growth spurts or development (i.e., marked weight gains coincide with puberty onset); health expectations identified by weight and height gains are required before the reproductive growth spurt begins.

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These basic growth curves reflect the normal developmental process that occurs during adolescence. References Damon, A. 1977. Human Biology and Ecology (New York: W. W. Norton & Company, Inc.).. Martini, F. H. 1995.Fundamentals ofAnatomy and Physiology. 3rd ed. (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall).

Topic 2.2—Twin Studies The study of twins as a mechanism for determining the influence of inherited characteristics— referred to as nature or genotype, and environmental factors on individual outcome or phenotype—began in the 1870s. Sir Frances Galton proposed the method of study in 1876 when he reported on two groups of twins. Galton explained that one group of twins was likely to have developed from a single fertilized egg and the other dissimilar pair of twins was the result of two separately fertilized eggs. Biologists were almost universally convinced that two types of twins existed. Merriman was the first to convincingly use the twin study approach in 1924, when he found that the similarity in IQ between opposite-sex twins in his sample was the same as nontwin siblings (a correlation of 0.50). Same-sex twins had a much higher correlation for IQ at about 0.87. He explained that the reason the same-sex twins had such a remarkably high correlation in IQ was that the sample included many “duplicate” (monozygotic) twins. He subsequently distinguished the two types of twins by comparing physical similarity, noting that duplicates “resembled each other closely enough to frequently cause confusion of identity.” He achieved a correlation of 0.99 on the Stanford-Binet IQ test with his sample of 22 same-sex pairs. By mid-1900, blood markers and physical similarity were considered highly reliable methods for distinguishing monozygotic and dizygotic twins. Phenotypecharacteristics continue to be used as indicators of zygosity. A systematic assessment of physical characteristics is relatively unintrusive and inexpensive compared to blood or genetic tests. Physical similarity can be determined by asking mothers, for example, if it is difficult for strangers to tell them apart; whether they have the same eye and hair color, facial appearance, complexion, weight, or height; or whether either parent or other family members ever confuse them. Generally, people tend to show consistent response patterns to twins that would support accurate classification of zygosity. Family members and friends seldom mistake fraternal twins for each other, whereas identical twins often are mistaken for one another (Husen, 1959; Carter-Saltzman & Scarr, 1977 cited in Plomin, DeFries, & McClearn, 1980). The most common mistake that tends to occur is identical twins misclassified as fraternal twins. In a Philadelphia twin study of 400 pairs of adolescent twins, 40 percent incorrectly identified their own zygosity. The effect of labeling seems to be minimal. The important point is that variance in genetic similarity allows researchers to determine how much of an effect the environment has on phenotype characteristics. In a family relationship study, for example, systematic comparisons may be made between monozygotic, dizygotic, full siblings in nondivorced families, full siblings in remarried families, half siblings, and genetically unrelated siblings and home environments. References Santrock, Adolescence, 16e

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Bussell, D. A., Neiderhiser, J. M., Pike, A., Plomin, R., Simmens, S., Howe, G. W., Hetherington, M., Carroll, E., and Reiss, D. 1999. “Adolescents’ Relationships to Siblings and Mothers: A Multivariate Genetic Analysis.” Developmental Psychology 35, pp. 1248–1259. Plomin, R., DeFries, J. C., and McClearn, G. E. 1980. Behavioral Genetics: A Primer. San Francisco: W. H. Freeman and Co..

Topic 2.3—Nutrition, Exercise, and Health Americans are more interested in reading about health than any other topic, according to U.S.A. Today (March 10, 1999). Almost everyone can improve their quality of life by learning about and acting on information from the American Heart Association, the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, and the U.S. Department of Agriculture. Several activities are associated with good health habits. The positive behavior that we want to increase through regular practice includes weight control and physical activity. The negative behavior that we want to reduce or eliminate includes eating foods high in fat and sugar, smoking, drinking too much alcohol, and eating too little or too much for our personal needs. What really matters? Good health that enhances independence, a good quality of life, and high self-esteem is valuable to everyone. Good health depends on eating well and exercising regularly. A good diet requires balanced proportions of dairy products, vegetables, high protein foods, fruits, and starches. While overeating in any of these categories can lead to health difficulties, Americans are most likely to eat too much fat, sugar, and protein. Optimally, we should consume 30 percent or fewer of our daily calories from fat. Diets made up of hamburgers, French fries, pizza, whole milk, and salty snack foods all contain high levels of fat. Studies repeatedly demonstrate that adolescents need more food from the grain, vegetable, and fruit categories. The percentages of food that each person consumes from each food group serves as an important vital sign of health. People with good nutritional habits have fewer illnesses, less obesity, and speedier recovery from injury (American Academy of Family Physicians; American Dietetics Association). Physical activity can be categorized as aerobic activity and resistance training (American Heart Association, 1996). The purposes of these two types of physical activity are to develop and maintain aerobic endurance, joint flexibility, and muscle strength. Participation in both aerobic activity and resistance training are important for everyone. Aerobic training helps the heart and lungs work better, increases the amount of blood delivered to all exercising muscles, and helps to improve brain function. Aerobic activity alone does not help to strengthen the muscles that support joints, but resistance training helps to maintain strength, muscle mass, bone mineral density, functional capacity, and helps prevent musculoskeletal problems. Overall, resistance training improves flexibility and quality of life. Resistance training alone has a limited effect on maintaining a healthy heart. Health benefits are optimized when people balance both types of physical activity. The combination of eating well and exercising regularly serves as a formidable alliance in achieving a healthy life. Keeping track of what we eat and how much we exercise provides us with basic information about our health habits. Measuring weight or calculating body mass index and measuring our strength and flexibility help determine the results of those health habits.

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References American Heart Association, http://www.americanheart.org/ Dr. C. Everett Koop, http://www.thehealthproject.com/about-us/dr-c-everett-koop/ American College of Sports Medicine, http://www.acsm.org/ U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, http://www.hhs.gov/

Topic 2.4—Obligatory Exercise The obligatory exerciser is a person who will not interrupt their exercise routine, even if they are injured and the continuation of exercise may be detrimental to their health. In addition, these exercisers are not willing to disrupt their exercise schedule for family or friends, possibly compromising their mental health (Draeger, 2005). Exercise has become maladaptive for these individuals. The maladaptive nature of their behavior has led researchers to use the terms negative addiction and exercise to describe the condition (LeUnes & Nation, 2002). The exact characteristics of the obligatory exerciser are not defined. Even though they exercise to excess, excessive exercise has no accepted definition. Several criteria for excessive exercise have been suggested. Morgan (1979), who first examined obligatory exercise in runners, defined a negative addiction as a state in which a person believes that running is necessary in order to cope with everyday life, and if running is stopped then withdrawal symptoms ensue. Wichstrom simply defined excessive exercise as eight or more exercise sessions per week (as cited by Draeger, 2005). The cause of this excessive behavior has been speculated to be related to obsessivecompulsive traits. Kagan (1987) compared obligatory runners, alcoholics, smokers, and gamblers on the Compulsiveness Inventory and six subscales of the MacAndrew Alcoholism Scale. He found that excessive running was related to a compulsive profile. Wyatt (1997) found that obligatory exercisers scored higher on obsessive-compulsiveness than non-obligatory exercisers. It also has been suggested that obligatory exercisers have become addicted to the release of endorphins that occurs during vigorous exercise. Several studies have found that obligatory exercisers are more likely to display eating disordered attitudes than those who are not obligatory exercisers (Steffen & Brehm, 1999). In addition, it has been suggested that obsessivecompulsiveness is associated with efforts to achieve social standards of perfection, in particular body perfection (Blatt, 1995). In our culture, this translates into women wanting to lose weight and men wanting to increase muscle. Therefore, exercise for the obligatory exerciser may be a compulsion to reduce the anxiety felt about his or her body. References Blatt, S. J. 1995.“The Destructiveness of Perfectionism,” American Psychologist 50,pp. 1003–1020. Draeger, J. 2005. “The Obligatory Exerciser,” Physician & Sportsmedicine 33(6), pp. 13–20. Kagan, D. M. 1987. “Addictive Personality Factors,” Journal of Psychology 121(6), pp. 533–538. LeUnes, A. and Nation, Jr. 2002. Sport Psychology, 3rd ed. Wadsworth Publishing. Morgan, W. P. 1979. “Negative Addiction in Runners,” Physician & Sportsmedicine 7(2), pp. 56–70. Steffen, J. J., and Brehm B. J. 1999. “The Dimensions of Obligatory Exercise,” Eating Disorders 7(3), pp. 219–227. Santrock, Adolescence, 16e

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Wyatt, L. M. 1997. Obsessive-compulsiveness and Disordered Eating in Obligatory and Non-obligatory Exercisers. Dissertation Abstract International.

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CLASSROOM DISCUSSIONS AND ACTIVITIES Discussion Topics Discussion 2.1—Heritability To demonstrate the concept of heritability, have students conduct a kinship study of two families (one of the families can be their own). Height will be the characteristic of interest. To collect the necessary data, have students record the height of all family members over 18 years of age for both families. Students should separate family members by sex. Students will need to calculate the mean and range of heights of both sexes for both families and compare them. This exercise will give students experience both with a kinship study design and with the concept of heritability for a variable with a clear operational definition. After students have collected this information, the class can discuss the heritability of height and whether or not their data supports the heritability of height. The secular trend can also be covered, looking for evidence of this trend in their families. You could also discuss why height was used as the variable of interest instead of some other variable, such as intelligence. Discussion 2.2—Genetic Counseling, Genetic Mapping, and Individual Rights The ethical, legal, and social implications of acquiring information provided by genetic research influences professionals and nonprofessionals. As we weigh the benefits and risks of having genetic information, four areas have high priority for current and future activities of the National Human Genome Research Institute. The following topic areas are considered high priority areas in human genetics: (1) privacy and fairness in the use and interpretation of genetic information, (2) clinical integration of new genetic technologies, (3) issues surrounding genetics research, and (4) public and professional education. Privacy and fairness. An increasing pace of discovery allows genetic information to be available to decision makers in all walks of life. It is unclear what the genetic information means, how it may be interpreted, or in what ways it may be applied. The risk of discrimination by insurance companies, employers, the criminal justice system, the educational system, adoption agencies, and the military are examples of the wide range of areas that may be affected by information that may or may not be interpreted correctly. Activities that are crucial to the success of genetic research explore these issues and elaborate on ethical foundations, research guidelines, and mandated frameworks for ensuring the safe and appropriate uses of genetic information. Clinical integration of genetic technologies. Although genetic counseling, testing, and predicting have the potential to help people avoid personal tragedy, the impact of the information on individuals and families is yet unclear. Two questions arise. Are health professionals adequately prepared to give accurate information about genetics and genetic technologies, recognizing the ethical, legal, and social implications, to provide optimal services? Are recipients adequately prepared to weigh the benefits and risks of acting on this information? Personal issues that may be affected by these issues are prenatal testing, testing for untreatable disorders, testing for mental

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disorders, and the effect of the information on the individual, parents, children, and other family members. Genetic research. The difficulties that result from genetic research are closely related to those discussed in the previous two sections. Participation in research and identification of genetic information has the potential to generate unexpected consequences. Early phases of identification may be associated with misinterpretation or misuse of the information, agonizing delays between the time of discovery and treatment, and negative effects on the individual and family members. As a result, informed consent procedures, responsibilities of institutional review boards, commercialization and ownership of research materials (tissue) and products (data) require investigation and clarification. Education. Most members of the general and professional populations have limited information about genetics, genetic technologies, and the possible ethical, legal, and social implications of having genetic information. As additional information becomes available, biomedical research, medical practice, and public perceptions about genetic information and technologies continues to change. It is important to disseminate information as it becomes available, to supply suitable resources, and to optimize prevention and treatment of disease. Education continues to be a critical element in making knowledge usable. Questions likely to be asked in the near future include: 1. Should any individual with a family history of early- or later-onset disease or disability be required to undergo genetic testing? 2. Should adolescents be required to undergo testing at the time they become fertile? 3. Should couples be required to submit to genetic testing at the time they are married? 4. If genetic testing shows that both partners intending to marry carry a recessive gene, which choices are acceptable? a. Couple should be legally prevented from having children. b. Couple should be required to have treatment (e.g., genetic engineering or in utero surgery). c. Couple should be required to have an abortion if the disorder is untreatable. 5. Should insurance companies and employers have access to genetic information? References Information for Genetic Professionals, University of Kansas Medical Center, http://www.kumc.edu/gec/geneinfo.html National Center for Biotechnology, http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/ National Human Genome Research Institute, http://www.nhgri.nih.gov/

Discussion 2.3—“The Stars and the Nerds” One way to illustrate the classic findings about the relationship between early or late maturation and aspects of personality and social development among adolescent boys is to do what Kenniston and Santrock, Adolescence, 16e

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Peden (1996) call “The Stars and the Nerds’’ activity. This activity is fun and nearly always stimulates student discussion about the relationship between physical and psychological development at puberty and allows them to spontaneously apply some of the chapter material to their own lives. Begin by asking the class to think about the most popular boy in their seventh-, eighth-, or ninth-grade class. Have students try to form an image of the person that they can then describe to you. Give them a minute, and then solicit their physical and psychological descriptions. Write their answers on a chalkboard or on an overhead under the “Star’’ heading. You may have the occasion to ask for clarification or additional comments on the meaning of the characteristic or observation. Students should have fun thinking of these characteristics and describing the individuals they have in mind. When you finish collecting descriptions of the “Stars,’’ announce that you now want a description of the class “Nerd,’’ or least popular boy. Arrange student responses under the “Nerd” heading as you collect them. This phrase will undoubtedly generate a certain amount of hilarity, which generally should contribute to, rather than detract from, the exercise. Finally, ask students to study the paired sets of characteristics and comment on any pattern among the respective lists of psychological and physical characteristics that they notice. You should find indications that (a) the popular boy was an early maturer and the unpopular boy was a late maturer, and (b) the popular boy enjoyed a considerable range of personal and social advantages compared to the unpopular boy. Comment on the extent to which this mirrors the classic and contemporary work on early versus late maturation. In fairness to both genders, you may want to repeat the activity for students’ recollections of popular versus unpopular girls, and find out whether the results are similar. The literature suggests that they should not be. Discussion 2.4—Sleep Essentials Ideally, we spend about one-third of our lives sleeping yet two-thirds of us actually get fewer than seven hours each night. The importance of good quality sleep in ample quantities remains largely ignored in our 24/7 culture. Without adequate amounts of sleep, people demonstrate problems at home, school, or work, including accidents and compromised learning processes. Sleep disorders result from obstructive sleep apnea; insomnia; restless legs syndrome; narcolepsy; other medical conditions that disrupt sleep (e.g., chronic bronchitis, asthma, chronic pain); prescription and over-the-counter drugs, caffeine, alcohol, and nicotine; and inadequate sleep due to lifestyle. Adolescents also are prone to changes in the circadian timing during puberty, resulting in the tendency to have delayed onset of sleepiness and difficulty rising (Giannotti & Cortesi, 1997; Wozniak, 2000). Poor sleep habits by adolescents are associated with poor self-reported school achievement; increased complaints of daytime sleepiness; greater use of caffeine, alcohol, and tobacco; evening phase delay preference; and anxiety and depressive mood. Most adolescents do not seek help for their sleep difficulties, but are prone to using substances to help themselves sleep (Giannotti & Cortesi, 1997). Many college students do not change habits established earlier. Problem sleepiness may occur due to social activities, Santrock, Adolescence, 16e

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homework responsibilities, early waking for school, loss of parental support in setting and enforcing bedtimes, and/or employment, sports, or extra activities that decrease the availability of time for sleep. Sleep disorders often develop as a result of combined factors. A sleep analysis and/or sleep diary can be helpful tools in identifying behavior leading to problem sleepiness. A sleep analysis is helpful in determining whether students get adequate amounts of sleep (Simmons, 2001). A sleep diary assists in identifying patterns or conditions that may be influencing the type of sleep students get each night. You may want to retrieve instruments from Web sites referenced below so students can do their own sleep analysis. The following habits promote good sleep for most people (National Institute of Health, 1998). • Wake up at the same time each day, even on weekends or days off. • Discontinue caffeine at least four hours before bed; minimize total daily consumption. • Nicotine is a stimulant and should be avoided before bed and during night wakings. • Avoid alcohol in the late evening to fall asleep; minimize total daily consumption. • Avoid heavy meals too close to bedtime; a light snack may facilitate sleep. • Engage in regular exercise a minimum of six hours before bedtime. • Minimize noise, light, and high temperature during periods of sleep. • Move the clock away from the bed if it is distracting. Napping may be helpful to supplement the sleep we get at night; a natural dip in alertness occurs between 1 and 4 in the afternoon. The pros of napping are an increase in alertness, additional memory consolidation, and combating sleep deprivation. Naps may be problematic if they worsen insomnia, last too long and result in grogginess, or if good sleep conditions and consistent nap patterns cannot be achieved. To summarize, sleep is a necessity for success in school. Students may need to set priorities if inadequate time is available for school, social, and work commitments. Chronic sleep disturbance is predictive of greater problems in psychological and/or physical health. Improvement in sleep will help students make the most of their high school or college experience and improve the quality of their lives. References Giannotti, F., and Cortesi, F. 1997. Sleep Pattern and Daytime Functions in Italian Adolescents, International Symposium on Contemporary Perspectives on Adolescent Sleep, Marina del Rey, CA, http://www.websciences.org/adolescentsleep/main.htm (March 5, 2002). National Institutes of Health, Insomnia: Assessment and Management in Primary Care. 1998. NIH Publication No. 98–4088, Washington, D.C.: Author. http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/prof/sleep/index.htm, (March 5, 2002). Wozniak, P. 2000. Good Sleep, Good Learning, Good Life, http://www.supermemo.com/articles/sleep.htm (March 5, 2002).

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Activity 2.1—Talking about Sensitive Pubertal Topics Charlesworth and Slate (1986) suggested that students could learn to discuss sensitive topics in the area of maturation at puberty with a little hands-on experience. After students have read the chapter on puberty, ask them to divide into groups of four students each, with members of both sexes in each group. Then provide them with the following scenario: Each of you has two children, a boy and a girl, about to enter adolescence. You are a long distance from your children and tomorrow you will be leaving on a long journey that will prevent you from having contact with either child for the next 10 years. Tonight is your last opportunity to inform your children of the changes they will experience during puberty, so you need to use this chance to tell your children what you consider important to help them better deal with these changes. The only form of communication available to you is the mail. Each of you is to assist your group in writing two letters, one to your daughter and one to your son. As a group you must decide what to put in your letters. The choice is yours, except in the letter to your daughter you must discuss menarche, and in the letter to your son you must discuss nocturnal emissions and spontaneous erections. You are to write these letters using a vocabulary that will be understood by these children and that will give them a positive attitude toward the changes they will experience. Each group must decide which letter it is going to write first.

When students have finished the letters or during the next class period, ask each group to read the letters they composed. Have class members critique the letters. Charlesworth and Slate suggest that the activity accomplishes the following objectives: ▪ Increases knowledge of pubertal issues, especially for the opposite sex. ▪ ▪

Increases comfort in discussing pubertal issues. Increases confidence in describing pubertal issues to their own children.

Reference Charlesworth, J. R., & Slate, J. R. 1986. “Teaching about Puberty: Learning to Talk about Sensitive Topics,” Teaching of Psychology 13(4),pp. 215–217.

Activity 2.2—Biological Predisposition and the Self-Fulfilling Prophesy This project is designed to help students recognize basic patterns in biological heredity as well as the self-fulfilling prophecy. Students perform the activity based on their own ideas or expectations. The project serves as a good example of how those who overemphasize the value of heredity, expectations, stereotypes, and discrimination can become confused. Choose a dominant/recessive characteristic that all class members can demonstrate. For example, most people are able to roll their tongues because it is a dominant characteristic; the inability to roll the tongue is a recessive characteristic. The inherited characteristics Fred Nesbit highlighted were hair on the first finger section, a dominant characteristic, versus hair on the second finger section (midsection), a recessive characteristic. Recessive genes are not likely to be found.

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Explain the characteristic that you want students to observe. Announce that you are looking for those rare individuals who are not able to roll their tongues or who have hair near the proximal knuckle. Give students a chance to actively discuss the characteristic that you are seeking. Discovery of the percentage of students with the recessive characteristic allows discussion of expected ratio of occurrence in the phenotype for biogenic traits. Ask students to check family members for the specific characteristic (inability to roll the tongue or mid-digit hair) and make a list of other significant characteristics that their unique relatives share. When students return to class with a list of the relatives and the traits they may share, discuss the meaning and consequences of the recessive characteristics. Ask students to consider the implications of the dominant and recessive characteristics. Individuals identified as having certain characteristics may be treated differently. For example, people who cannot roll their tongues are smarter; thus, they may be given more opportunities to respond and given more suggestions so that they have the ability to respond correctly in class. Help students think about the implications for behaviors that arise biologically for mid-digital hair (there are none) by proposing some “What ifs.” What if it has something to do with untrustworthiness? Is it related to irresponsibility? On exposure to moonlight, does it lead to werewolfism? What if a flat tongue is associated with the inability to taste food properly? Is it associated with the inability to tolerate spicy foods? Is it associated with being overweight? Reference Nesbit, F. L. 1990. “Biological Bases of Behavior and the Self-fulfilling Prophecy.” In V. P. Makosky, C. C. Sileo, L. G. Whittemore, C. P. Landry, & M. L. Skutley (Eds.), Activities Handbook for Teaching of Psychology (Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association), pp. 241–242.

Activity 2.3—Personal Experience of Puberty Depending on the size of your class, have students discuss their own experiences while going through puberty, either as one large group or in several small groups. You can direct them to answer questions such as the following: 1. When did puberty occur for you? Were you, compared to your peers, an early or late maturer? 2. If you were an early or late maturer, what was that experience like for you? Was it similar to what the text describes for early and late maturers? 3. If you entered puberty with your peers, what was that experience like? Was it negative or positive? 4. What is your most vivid memory of puberty? 5. As a class you can discuss common experiences among the class members and sex differences in the experience of puberty. Activity 2.4—Health Habits

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This is a chance for students to examine their own lifestyle practices. After you have lectured on health-enhancing and -compromising behaviors, have students construct a chart of their good and bad health habits. For each bad habit, have them explain the risks involved if the habit is continued. Have them indicate why they continue the bad habit despite evidence indicating its hazards. For each good habit, have students indicate how the habit was developed and the personal benefits derived from maintaining it. Use the following as a handout. Bad Habit

Long-Term Results

Rationale for Habit

Good Habit

How Habit Was Developed

Personal Benefits

Students can answer the following questions: Santrock, Adolescence, 16e

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1. Has the material we have covered in class caused you to think about your own health habits or lifestyle? Are you going to change anything about your daily behavior as a result of what we have covered? Why or why not? 2. What do you think it would take to change other people’s behavior? What would it take to get other people to eat healthy, stop smoking, etc.? 3. Do you think the public believes what is written about medical research findings? Or is there confusion generated—such as the on again/off again articles on cholesterol in the diet?

Critical Thinking Exercises Exercise 2.1—The Psychological Dimensions of Puberty In Chapter 2, Santrock discusses psychological dimensions of puberty, the problems of pubertal timing, and health care. The basic idea is that off-time puberty is a problem that places adolescents at risk for other difficulties. Which of the following statements is an assumption rather than an inference or an observation that underlies the recommendations that emerge in this discussion? Circle the letter of the best answer, explain why it is the best answer, and why each of the other answers is not as appropriate. A. Early-maturing adolescents often feel empowered by their different developmental status. B. The effects of early maturation are more positive for boys than for girls. C. An underlying mechanism for positive body image is comparison of one’s own body to peers’ bodies. D. Early-maturing adolescents are especially vulnerable to sexual activity and delinquency. E Discussing the sequence and timing of pubertal events may reassure adolescents maturing off-time. Exercise 2.2—Evolution, Heredity, and Environment In the section “Evolution, Heredity, and Environment,” Santrock explains the mechanisms that influence changes in the relative influence of nature and nurture. Which aspect of the described heredity-environment influences is not paired correctly with an example of adolescent development? Circle the letter of the best answer, explain why it is the best answer, and why each of the other answers is not as appropriate. A. Genotype; John inherited his dad’s charm and his mother’s intellect. B. Phenotype; From a biopsychosocial perspective, Alice demonstrated highly resilient characteristics. C. Passive genotype-environment correlations; Gary’s enthusiastic and curious parents began traveling throughout Europe, taking him with them soon after his sixth birthday.

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Evocative genotype-environment correlations; After his long illness, Scott’s interest in ice skating was encouraged and successful competitions were followed by increased support by his parents. Active (niche-picking) genotype-environment correlations; Raised in a family of politicians, Martha decided to make her own way in journalism.

Exercise 2.3—Another Explanation for Risk-Taking Behavior Risk-taking behavior increases in adolescence and the cause of this is attributed to the immaturity of the brain. The frontal lobes are not developed enough to override the limbic system. Which of the following is another explanation for the risk-taking behavior typical of adolescents? Circle the letter of the best answer, explain why it is the best answer, and why each of the other answers is not as appropriate. A.

Immature moral reasoning skills

Lack of friendships

The personal fable

Identity diffusion

Lack of creativity

Answer Key for Critical Thinking Exercises Exercise 2.1 A.

This is an inference. The Berkeley Longitudinal Study is cited as indicating that earlymaturing boys perceive themselves more positively and as more successful than their latematuring peers, but data to explain or support the point are not presented.

This is an observation because the statement is supported by data and a graph to show the mixed results of early maturation for girls.

This is an assumption. The statement is an explanation that has not held up for all investigations as explained in the section discussing the complexity of on-time and off-time pubertal events.

This is an inference. It expresses a conclusion from earlier research, but data are not presented to support or explain the comparison.

This is an inference. This hypothesis is offered as a summary of information explaining that health care providers who take the initiative can discuss individual differences to reassure later maturers.

Exercise 2.2 A.

This is the best answer because it does not adequately characterize genotype; 50 percent of his genetic makeup came from each parent and is much more extensive than observable characteristics.

This is an accurate example of phenotype, the expression of an individual’s genotype.

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This is an acceptable example of an environment that parents create for their children.

This is an example of a child’s influence on the environment parents create for him.

This is an acceptable example of an adolescent choosing an environment that suits his/her preferences.

Exercise 2.3 A.

This is not the best answer. Most adolescents are at Kohlberg’s conventional level of moral development and want to conform to society’s norms. This type of reasoning would make adolescents less likely to engage in risky behavior.

This is the best answer. The personal fable is one manifestation of adolescent egocentrism. The personal fable leads adolescents to believe they are unique and invincible, therefore unlikely to have to suffer from the consequences of their risk-taking behavior. This is not the best answer. Creativity refers to the ability to think in novel ways and to find new and unique solutions to problems. It is not related to risk-taking behavior. This is not the best answer. Pressure from peers might have something to do with engaging in risk-taking behavior but the lack of friendships would not. This is not the best answer. Adolescents who are identity-diffused are not exploring identities and have not made commitments to an identity. Adolescents who persist in this status are lethargic and lack direction. This is not related to risk-taking behavior.

C. D. E.

Short Scenarios Scenario 2.1 Cindy is 12 years old, and she just started her first menstrual period. She has become very interested in boys, and they are interested in her. Unfortunately, the recent bliss is offset by her parents’ concern that her grades have become very irregular. Cindy and her mother, Carol, usually get along well, and her mother explained that she had similar experiences at the same age. Currently, the two of them are mistaken as sisters, and they have a great time dressing similarly when they go shopping. Cindy has a lot of friends and in the past has done well in school. Her musical talent is recognized in the community because she can sing in many styles, competes in classical music competitions, and sometimes performs with a local band. Carol was good at music too, but didn’t get the support she needed to become a professional musician. Carol has done a lot to make sure that Cindy has a choice when it is time to decide about a career. She has paid for Cindy’s music lessons, sat with her during practices, and encouraged her at every step. Carol also created special opportunities for Cindy to work with well-known musicians by volunteering with the local art council to run workshops for students led by nationally known performers. Cindy willingly has taken advantage of every opportunity. She truly is an example of the apple that did not fall far from the tree. •

Cindy is somewhat ahead of the average onset of menarche.

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• • • • •

•

Cindy apparently is responding to hormonal and social influences as she demonstrates more interest in boys, and they respond to signs of her maturity. Cindy is at risk for lower educational and occupational attainment due to her early maturational status. Cindy’s parents are concerned about her maturational status and potential problems associated with changes in her focus away from academics and toward mature peers. Carol and Cindy have similar inherited phenotypical characteristics: they look alike, are talented musically, and have had similar experiences of early maturation. There are multiple examples of evocative genotype-environment correlation. Carol recognizes Cindy’s musical talent, popularity, and now her early maturation and Carol is responding to the demands of the situation. The scenario suggests that Cindy has willingly participated in the opportunities that her mother has offered her, further support of the evocative genotype-environment correlation. It is not clear which path Cindy will follow. Whether she actively seeks out opportunities to further her musical career or commits her attention to social interests, she will demonstrate an active niche-picking process.

Scenario 2.2 Stan, a high school junior, has a hard time waking up in the morning. School starts at 7:30, so he has to get up by 6:00 to have enough time to dress, eat breakfast, and catch the bus. His grades have dropped in the last year or so, and he is so tired he finds it hard to concentrate in the mornings. Stan is usually more alert in the afternoon. After school, he and his friends like to go to a fast-food restaurant to grab something to eat. Most of the food Stan eats is fast food, and his favorite is a big hamburger and super-sized French fries. His mom tries to get him to eat more fruits and vegetables, but Stan just doesn’t like to eat fruits and vegetables, and since his mom isn’t home much he can eat whatever he wants. When Stan gets home he likes to watch TV, play video games, and get on the Internet. He rarely exercises; he only has PE one day a week at school. Stan is naturally thin and so he doesn’t think much about what he eats or how much exercise he gets. • Stan’s biological clock has shifted, so he wants to stay up late and get up late in the morning. • Since school starts so early, Stan is still groggy, making it hard for him to pay attention. This is why his grades are slipping. • Stan, like most teenagers, likes fast food. He is eating a diet too high in protein and fat and is not eating enough fresh food. • The activities Stan enjoys are sedentary and he is not getting enough exercise. • Because Stan is young and male, his basal metabolism rate burns energy fast so he doesn’t have to worry about gaining weight.

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Scenario 2.3 Eric, 16, is taller than his peers, slender, and recently experienced a major voice change. He has dark brown eyes and hair, and medium skin tone. His family has a very diverse heritage, and he gets a charge out of filling in half of the boxes on forms that ask for “national origin.” He eats well and often, exercises regularly, and usually is too tired to ignore his body’s demands for sleep. He is very popular with the girls and usually feels confident about himself. Eric’s immediate family is really into sports; both his mom and dad were all-around good athletes. His brother and sister are good athletes too. As a family, they play golf, ski, and bowl. Individually, they each participate in a team sport with peers. Although Eric is on the track team, he excels in academics, is fascinated by literature, and enjoys the challenging exercises in biology and math. Recruiters at Stanford and MIT have already contacted him about academic scholarships. He’ll probably pick up some courses at the local university and finish high school early. He will continue in college track if it doesn’t interfere with school too much. Everything seems to be going pretty well. The biggest problem he has is deciding what his major will be at college. • • • • • • • • • •

Eric is at the end of the pubertal growth sequence and is probably right on time. Eric’s genotype in a varied genetic heritage has resulted in a phenotype of dominant characteristics in appearance. Eric balances food intake and exercise to maintain a slender physique at his current basal metabolism rate. Adolescents need about nine and one-half hours of sleep per day. Eric has a positive self-image due both to his on-time maturational status and his appearance. Eric demonstrates athletic ability (phenotype) similar to his parents and siblings, examples of genetic inheritance. His parents, who are good athletes, have created an environment that fosters athleticism, an example of passive genotype-environment corrections. The siblings are experiencing many shared environmental experiences with family activities and nonshared environmental influences with peers. Evocative genotype-environment corrections have occurred as Eric demonstrates both athletic abilities in sports and scholastic ability resulting in academic scholarships. Eric is engaged in active genotype-environment correlations (niche-picking) by breaking away from family patterns to seek out intellectual challenges that interest him.

Scenario 2.4 Michelle and her brother Nathan are 14 years old, but they were born a month apart. Problems during her mother’s pregnancy resulted in the obstetrics team deciding that she should be allowed to be born while Nathan matured four weeks longer. They both have food allergies and asthma. Also, Nathan is a hemophiliac, and she is a carrier. Her mom often says, “We defied the laws of nature,” whatever that means. As a result of the unusual circumstances surrounding their birth, Santrock, Adolescence, 16e

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their medical problems, and Nathan’s hemophilia, they have spent a lot of time in hospitals and around doctors. They have a lot of restrictions that they don’t like, so they often plot out ways to get around the monitoring by medical people and their parents. Since their parents discourage Nathan from getting involved with sports, he has gotten more interested in books and the local children’s theater. Michelle and he spent so much time together that in spite of teasing from classmates, they support each other in social relationships and school responsibilities. It has been difficult for them to establish strong friendships with kids their own age. Since Michelle started showing some interest in other boys and some of the older boys in her, Nathan has felt betrayed. He knows the girls in his class are definitely not interested in him. Even though Michelle and Nathan are going through some tough times, this is nothing new. They both know they can depend on each other and their parents, whatever happens. • •

• • • •

Michelle and Nathan are fraternal twins, developed from separate eggs and separate sperm. They both have genetically inherited characteristics for hemophilia, but Michelle does not express hemophilia, whereas Nathan does since it is a sex-linked disorder; the gene is present on the X chromosome with no complementary dominant gene on the Y chromosome. Influential evocative genotype-environment correlations influence the environment that the twins have experienced since birth due to their remarkable medical circumstances. They have been prevented from establishing active genotype-environment correlations due to strong control of their environments by parents and medical staff. Michelle appears to have reached puberty, predictably ahead of her brother. The difference in their level of maturation is creating some difficulties in their interpersonal relationship. The twins have extensive shared environmental experiences that are likely to have a dominant influence over other relationships.

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RESEARCH ARTICLES Article 2.1—Using Participation in Sports to Increase Health Enhancing Behaviors and Decrease Health Compromising Behaviors. The leading causes of death in adolescence are accidents (motor vehicle crashes are most common), homicides, and suicides. Alcohol is related to all of these causes of death. In addition, most adolescents do not get enough exercise. It is recommended that adolescents participate in at least 20 minutes of aerobic exercise three or more times per week. Although the relationship is not fully understood, it appears that sport participation and perhaps exercise habits are linked to substance use. Therefore, this study used sport participation as the basis for an alcohol prevention program in hopes of not only preventing alcohol use but at the same time increasing physical activity. Four-hundred and fifty-four eighth-graders from three schools participated in the study. About one-half (50.7 percent) of the students were white, about one-third (36.3 percent) were African American, and the rest were other ethnic groups. Sixty-two percent of the participants were female and the mean age of the samples was 13.2 years old. Students were randomly assigned to one of three groups. The first group received a Sport Consultation. This consultation addressed alcohol use, sport and physical activity, nutrition, and sleep habits. The consultation (as were all consultations) was administered by a nurse and students had to sign a contract. The second group received a Sport Consultation in addition to an Alcohol Preventive Consultation. This consultation used an alcohol intervention protocol in addition to the information about sports and other health habits. The third group received the Sport Consultation, the Alcohol Consultation, and also received printed materials for the parents. The Youth Alcohol and Health Survey was used to collect data on alcohol and drug use and other health behaviors at the beginning of the study and at a three-month follow-up. Major findings: • For all three groups, there was a decrease in alcohol use and problems and an increase in frequency of exercise. • The participants in the Sport Consultation only groups showed a reduction in perception of peer alcohol use and an increase on social norms. Both of these factors are important in preventing alcohol use. • • •

The Sport Consultation only worked best for adolescents who drank alcohol before the intervention. The Sport Consultation only decreased exercise for those who drank before the intervention and increased exercise for those who did not drink before the intervention. Parental materials were most effective in increasing alcohol use self-control and parentchild communication about alcohol.

These findings are hopeful. It seems that even a simple sport consultation that provides information specific to the health habits of adolescents can be useful in reducing adolescent alcohol use and increase frequency of exercise. Santrock, Adolescence, 16e

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Reference Werch, C., Moore, M, Diclemente, C. C., Owen, D. M., Jobli, E., & Bledsoe, R. 2003. “A Sport-based Intervention for Preventing Alcohol Use and Promoting Physical Activity Among Adolescents,” Journal of School Health 73(10), pp. 380–389.

Article 2.2—Adolescents’ Relationships to Siblings and Mothers Previous research suggested that episodes of interaction in the parent-child subsystem are reflected in the types of sibling relationships within the same home. Behavior positively correlated with maternal encouragement included older siblings’ helping and managing behavior toward younger siblings. Punitive and inconsistent behavior by the mother is negatively correlated with prosocial sibling interactions. This research evaluated “the relative contributions of genetic and environmental factors to observed interactions between mother-adolescent and sibling relationships” (pp. 1248). Subjects were obtained from a nationwide sample that previously participated in the Nonshared Environment in Adolescent Development (NEDA) project. (The NEDA project investigated nonshared environments between siblings that influence adolescent uniqueness.) Two categories of families included nondivorced and divorced, with three family subcategories in each. Nondivorced families were a mother and a father never divorced from each other and the biological parents of the targeted sibling pair. Three nondivorced family subcategories included 93 families with identical twins, 98 families with dizygotic twins, and 95 families with full siblings. Stepfamilies were established for at least five years: 182 stepfamilies had a full sibling pair (50 percent genetically alike); 109 stepfamilies had a pair of half siblings (25 percent genetically alike); 130 families with genetically unrelated adolescent siblings. There were 363 brother and 344 sister pairs, and equal gender representation. The average age of siblings was 14.8 for older and 12.6 for younger participants of each pair. Parents’ ages averaged 38.1 for mothers and 41.0 years for fathers. The sample had an average income of between $25,000– $35,000 and an average education of almost 14 years. About 94 percent of participants were Caucasian. Trained interviewers visited the participants in their homes during two 3-hour interviews spaced one week apart. A questionnaire and role-played conflict were used to determine family interaction patterns. Observer ratings were based on 10-minute videotaped discussions of a highintensity conflict. The intensity and frequency of behaviors were rated with global assessment measures. Measures were aggregates of conceptually similar measurement tools. Mother-adolescent relationships were measured to determine positivity and negativity. Positivity was measured by three scales: (1) the Parent-Child Relationship Scale; (2) the Closeness and Rapport Subscale; and (3) the Expression of Affection Scale. Respondents answered questions on a five- or sevenpoint Likert-type measure. Observational codes categorized assertiveness, warmth, communication, and involvement. Negativity was measured by five self-report indexes including: (1) the Parent-Child Disagreement Scale; (2) the Parent Discipline Behavior Scale; (3) the Punitiveness subscale; (4) Yielding to Coercion; and (5) the Symbolic Aggression subscale of Santrock, Adolescence, 16e

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the Conflict Tactics Scale. Each scale used a five- or seven-point Likert-type measure. Observers were coded for demonstrated anger and rejection, coercion, and transactional conflict. Sibling relationships were measured for sibling positivity and sibling negativity. Sibling positivity was measured as a self-reported rating on the Sibling Inventory of Behavior. The Sibling Inventory of Behavior was also completed by each adolescent about each other and by parents about each adolescent. Three subscales measured companionship, empathy, and teaching. Observers reported on warmth, assertiveness, communication, involvement, and self-disclosure. Sibling negativity was assessed by seven measures as follows: three subscales of the Sibling Inventory of Behavior (self-reported) (1) Aggressiveness, (2) Rivalry, and (3) Avoidance; (4) the Symbolic Aggression; (5) Violence subscales of the Conflict Tactics Scale; (6) the Criticism subscale of the Relationship Quality Survey; and (7) the Sibling Disagreements Scale. Siblings’ reports of each other’s behavior were based on all seven measures. Observer ratings were on the categories of anger, coercion, and conflict. A bivariate genetic model was used to determine environmental covariance between adolescent experiences with mothers and adolescent experiences with siblings into genetic and environmental components. The mother-adolescent and sibling-adolescent relationship association was treated as a dependent variable. Genetic effects may be calculated if one knows the genetic variation between related individuals. If genetic effects are influencing outcome, genetically similar individuals should resemble one another. The six-group design used in the NEAD project was used to examine genetic influence based on the following pattern of correlations between siblings: “monozygotic twins (MZ; 100 percent) > dizygotic twins (DZ; 50 percent) = full siblings in nondivorced families (FSI; 50 percent) = full siblings in remarried families (FSS; 50 percent) > half siblings (HS; 25 percent) > genetically unrelated siblings (US; 0 percent)” (pp. 1252). (The degree of shared genetic influence is noted in parentheses.) MZ twins would score the same if genetics alone influenced adolescent interactions with family members. Environmental influence of MZ twins and dissimilar family experiences would produce differences in measured variables. Relationships between positive and negative interactions across domains were not significant. The within-domain correlations (positivity with mother to positivity with sibling; negativity with mother to negativity with sibling) were much more clear and significant. As a result of mothers’ reporting on their relationships with target adolescents and reporting on relationships between siblings, mothers who see the relationship as more or less conflicted than they really are inflated the correlation. The results show similarities for all sibling types. Monozygotic twins show a correlation that is about twice that between DZ twins in reports of positivity across relationships. The results suggest little overlapping genetic influence on the two relationship systems. The authors explain that the shared environment served as the cause of the linkage between adolescents’ experiences with mothers and with siblings. Further, across participants and behavior domains, shared environmental attributes served as the largest influence on the relationship between mothers and adolescents and between adolescents and siblings. Thus, family climate is a consistent influential variable creating similar interaction between family members. Reference Santrock, Adolescence, 16e

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Bussell, D. A, Neiderhiser, J. M., Pike, A., Plomin, R., Simmens, S., Howe, G. W., Hetherington, M., Carroll, E., and Reiss, D. 1999. “Adolescents’ Relationships to Siblings and Mothers: A Multivariate Genetic Analysis,” Developmental Psychology 35, pp. 1248–1259.

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STUDENT RESEARCH PROJECTS Research Project 2.1—Body Images in the Media Objective. Students will investigate the portrayal of body ideals for males and females among different forms of media. Length/Type of Activity. Out-of-class; 1–3 hours Directions. Students will either watch three television shows which feature adolescents in them or they will examine a popular magazine. If students watch the television shows they will be looking for the body types of men and women in the shows. If possible, watch an older program (one that aired in the ‘60s) and compare the body types to the body types in newer programs. If students examine the magazine, look for the body types for men and women represented in the magazine articles and in advertisements. Answer the following questions: Program #1_________________________ Old or current program________________ Program #2_________________________ Old or current program________________ Program #3_________________________ Old or current program________________ Magazine:__________________________ 1. How were girls and women portrayed in the television shows you watched or in the magazine you examined? Was there a lot of variability in body shape and size? What seemed to be the ideal body type? 2. How were boys and men portrayed in the television shows you watched or in the magazine you examined? Was there a lot of variability in body shape and size? What seemed to be the ideal body type? 3. How attainable are these body types for men and women? Explain. 4. How do you think the media’s portrayal of men affects adolescent boys? Is it positive, negative, or both? Explain. 5. How do you think the media’s portrayal of women affects adolescent girls? Is it positive, negative, or both? Explain. 6. Do you think the media’s portrayal of men affects expectations women have of men’s bodies, and do you think the media’s portrayal of women affects men’s expectations of women’s bodies? 7. Do you think the media plays a role in the development of eating disorders? Explain. 8. If you believe the ideal body type portrayed in the media for women plays a role in the development of eating disorders for girls, what effect might the ideal body type portrayed in the media for men have on adolescent boys?

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Wrap-Up. Students can discuss their findings in class and compare what they found with other students. This should facilitate a class discussion on the role of the media in eating disorders for girls and anabolic steroid use for boys. Research Project 2.2—The Influence of Nature and Nurture on Temperament Objective. Students will identify research evidence to suggest the relative influence of genetic and environmental influences on the phenotypic characteristics of temperament. Type/Length of Activity. Out-of-class activity; highly variable. Directions. Investigations to determine genetic and environmental influences on temperament have studied a single dimension such as behavioral inhibition (Robinson, et al., 1992) or multiple dimensions such as activity level, mood, and persistence (Thomas & Chess, 1977). Sibling and family studies of maternal and fraternal twins, full siblings, half siblings, and unrelated children living in the same household have led to our current understanding about the impact of genetics and environment. Students should read current and historically significant research articles about temperament. The articles include those specifically assigned to you by your instructor and/or those you identify from the research literature. Consider the professional articles listed under references. As you read, prepare to complete one or more of the following: 1. Write queries, and submit them to your instructor for class discussion. 2. Prepare for a debate taking the position that genetics or environment is the dominating influence over the phenotypical aspects of temperament. 3.

Write an eight-page paper to summarize and draw conclusions about past and current thinking regarding the influence of nature and nurture on temperament. The instructor may provide all of the references to consider, or you may be asked to conduct your own library investigation.

Wrap-Up. Be prepared to explain your original position on the influences of nature and nurture on temperament, your current position, and why. References Kagan, J. 2001. “Emotional Development and Psychiatry,” Biological Psychiatry: Special Issue 49, pp. 973–979. Kagan, J. 1997. “Temperament and the Reactions to Unfamiliarity,” Child Development 68, pp. 139–143. Kagan, J., and Snidman, N. 1991. “Temperamental Factors in Human Development. American Psychology 46, pp. 856–862. Novosad, C., and Toman, E. B. 1999. “Stability of Temperament over the Childhood Years,” American Journal of Orthopsychiatry 69, pp. 457–474. Plomin, R., Reiss, D., Hetherington, E. M., and Howe, G. W. 1994. “Nature and Nurture: Genetic Contributions to Measures of the Family Environment,” Developmental Psychology 30, pp. 32–43. Robinson, J. L., Kagan, J., Reznick, J. S., and Corley, R. 1992. “The Heredity of Inhibited and Uninhibited Behavior: A Twin Study,” Developmental Psychology 28, pp. 1030–1037. Santrock, Adolescence, 16e

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Thomas, A., & Chess, S. 1977. Temperament and development. New York: Brunner/Mazel.

Research Project 2.3—Investigating Genetically Based Disease Objective. Students will learn how combined genetic and environmental influences affect differing outcomes for individuals with genetic disorders. Type/Length of Activity. Out-of-class activity; approximately 2–3 hours. Directions. Choose one or more of the following genetically based diseases. Investigate the disease descriptions presented by each of the foundation and information sites. As you are learning about each condition, differentiate between range of reaction—the differences in phenotypic outcome due to environment, and canalization—development controlled largely by genotype except under extreme conditions, and explain the possible outcomes that an individual with each disease might experience. • Cooley’s Anemia Blood and Research Foundation for Children, 129-09 26th Ave, #203, Flushing, NY 11354 http://www.cooleysanemia.org/index.php • Cystic Fibrosis Foundation, 6931 Arlington Road, Bethesda, MD 20814 http://www.cff.org/ • National Hemophilia Foundation, 116 West 32nd St, 11th Flr, New York, NY 10001 http://www.hemophilia.org/NHFWeb/MainPgs/MainNHF.aspx?menuid=0&contenti=1

• Sickle Cell Disease Association of America, Inc., 200 Corporate Point, Ste 495, Culver City, CA 90230-8727 http://www.sicklecelldisease.org/ • Williams Syndrome Association, P O Box 297, Clawson, MI 48017-0297 http://www.williams-syndrome.org/ • Turner’s Syndrome Society, 14450 TC Jester, Suite 260, Houston, TX 77014 http://www.turnersyndrome.org/ • National Down Syndrome Society, 666 Broadway, New York, NY 10012 http://www.ndss.org/ • Klinefelter’s Syndrome and Associates, PO Box 119, Roseville, CA 95678-0119 http://www.genetic.org/ Wrap-Up. Be prepared to discuss your findings in class. What implications can you draw from the information you now have about inherited genetically based disorders?

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ESSAY QUESTIONS Provide students with guidelines for “Answering Essay Questions,” and have them respond to these questions. Their answers to these kinds of questions demonstrate an ability to comprehend and apply ideas discussed in this chapter. 1. Describe the indirect and direct influences of hormones on pubertal change. What rationales might support the design of this complex system? 2. Explain the relationship between the growth spurt, sexual maturation, and secular trends in puberty. 3. Describe sex differences in the physical and physiological changes boys and girls experience at puberty, and speculate how these differences could influence behavioral and psychological differences that may emerge at this time. 4. Compare and contrast early and late maturers, discuss positive and negative consequences for each type of individual, and evaluate the impact of being on-time or off-time with respect to puberty. 5. Explain why adolescence is considered a critical juncture is the development of behaviors that may enhance or compromise health. 6. Why are adolescents prone to engage in risk-taking behavior? 7. Describe the chief barriers to health care for adolescents. What can be done to improve health care services to adolescents? 8. Describe the ethnic differences in exercise participation rates. Why do U.S. adolescents exercise less than their counterparts in other countries? 9. Describe the positive and negative effects of sports participation for adolescents. 10. Describe the patterns of sleep that adolescents require versus the habits that adolescents demonstrate. 11. Explain the methods behavior geneticists use to study the relative influence of heredity and environment on adolescent behavior. 12. Indicate how you would explain to a friend that heredity and environment interact in various ways to produce development. Provide an example of each of the three types of interaction and shared and nonshared environmental influences that you would use to help your friend understand this concept. References Buss, D. M. 1999. Evolutionary Psychology: The New Science of the Mind. Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon, Inc. Buss, D. M. 2000. “The Evolution of Happiness,” American Psychologist 55, pp. 15–23. Plomin R., and Rutter, M. 1998. Child Development, Molecular Genetics, and What to Do with Genes Once They are Found,” Child Development 69, pp. 1223–1243.

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INTERNET ACTITIVIES Internet Activity 2.1 Cloning Students can research the Internet to find out more about cloning. Many websites offer information about cloning, such as the Web page for the Human Genome Project. http://www.ornl.gov/sci/techresources/Human_Genome/elsi/cloning.shtml You can assign the following questions for students to answer. 1. Describe the process of cloning. 2. What was the first species to be cloned and when did this occur? 3. What are some practical purposes of cloning? 4. Why has human cloning been considered impossible until recently? 5. What ethical and moral questions does cloning raise? Internet Activity 2.2 Human Genome Project Students can find out more about the Human Genome Project. http://www.ornl.gov/sci/techresources/Human_Genome/home.shtml Students can respond to the following topics. 1. Summarize the goals of the Human Genome Project. 2. Describe some of the research associated with the Human Genome Project. 3. How will information from the Human Genome Project affect the private sector? 4. Investigate two chromosomes and describe diseases associated with those chromosomes. Internet Activity 2.3 American College of Sports Medicine The Web page for the American College of Sports Medicine provides educational and practical applications of exercise science. The page includes recommendations for aerobic activity and many current articles related to exercise and health. http://www.acsm.org/

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Resource Title

Resource Type

Adolescents’ Perspectives on Body Image

Video

Girls and Body Image

Video

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CHAPTER 3: THE BRAIN AND COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT INTRODUCTION The adolescent brain shows marked differences from a child’s brain and probably continues to grow through middle to late adolescence. Neuron anatomy includes dendrites to receive information, the cell body, and axons to transmit information. Neuron growth is based on continued myelinization of the sheath surrounding the axon and continued improvement of synaptic function. The structure of the brain changes dramatically in synapse density and the location of high levels of activity. Adolescents are capable of strong emotions, but because the amygdala matures earlier than the prefrontal cortex, adolescents are not able to control these emotions. Research has found that enriched environments stimulate brain development and growth. Cognition represents the second essential aspect of biological and cognitive development. Cognitive development provides a framework within which we can describe the conscious, albeit unobservable, thinking processes characteristic of young and older adolescents. Piagetian theory describes adolescents as constructing a schema to organize information as they acquire it. Adolescents add and organize new information through assimilation, and restructure the schema through accommodation as they acquire new, disparate facts. Equilibration represents the shift that takes place as thought processes change qualitatively by stage. Piaget explained the lifelong cognitive developmental process as occurring in four stages: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational. He identified hypothetical-deductive reasoning— the ability to develop systematic, problem-solving strategies—as a cognitive process that emerges during adolescence. Piaget also provided extensive research to support his theory, but he did not explain the influence that environmental influences have on development. Neo-Piagetians argue that a fifth stage of cognitive development, postformal thought, emerges as young adults engage in reflective thinking and recognize the relativism of truth. Wisdom is defined as expert knowledge about the practical aspects of life that permits excellent judgment about important matters. Late adolescence and early adulthood are the main age windows for wisdom to develop. Robert Sternberg believes that wisdom should be taught in schools. Vygotsky described the cognitive developmental process as one stemming from social relationships. He believed learning occurs only with guidance, and he described this as the zone of proximal development. Learners successfully complete activities because of help provided by skilled mentors. Therefore, formal education along with parents, peers, the community, and the mass media influence adolescents socially and intellectually. Information processing provides another framework for explaining intellectual development. Information-processing capacity increases with experience, and this leads to refinement in

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processing strategies. The information-processing view has been used to understand adolescent cognition in a number of areas, including: • Attention—focusing mental effort that depends on selective and shifting capacities and action planning. • Memory—retaining information temporarily in short-term or working memory and permanently in long-term memory. • Cognitive Control—controlling attention, reducing interfering thoughts, inhibiting motor actions, and begin cognitively flexible. • Executive Function—this allows adolescents to engage in decision making— evaluating the options, weighing the choices, and making a competent choice. • Critical thinking—thinking reflectively about information, objectively conceptualizing evidence • Creative thinking—restructuring information in novel ways to form unique solutions In domains that adolescents demonstrate expertise, information processing skills are extremely good. Practice, motivation, and talent develop expertise. Metacognitive and selfregulatory processes give adolescents an opportunity to assess their personal strengths and weaknesses, and to modify their behavior or environment to optimize thinking and problemsolving. Educators serve critical roles by facilitating improvements in cognitive processing. The psychometric/intelligence view of cognition emphasizes the importance of individual differences that reflect intelligence. Current examples of these approaches include: • • •

Intelligence tests—Binet Tests, Wechsler Scales Theories of Multiple intelligences—Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory, Gardner’s Eight Frames of Mind Emotional intelligence—Goleman

Certainly the effort to determine what behavior accurately reflects adolescent intelligence will become increasingly complicated as psychometricians address measurement strategies. Standardized tests measure individual performance in relation to the performance of other recipients. Researchers continue to debate whether performance results reflect inherited ability or environmental opportunity because testing shows that a person’s ability may manifest the effect of either. Test results also can be used to determine educational placement, but tests are most accurate in explaining how individuals benefited from previous education and in predicting how they will benefit from subsequent educational opportunities. Controversies result from using culturally biased tests to make these decisions, and some educators have a tendency to depend on traditional standardized tests to determine educational opportunity. In contrast, reputable assessments include the use of writing samples, school performance and, when possible, direct observations in addition to standardized measures. New research into the area of the neurological aspects of intelligence has indicated some interesting patterns. First, there appears to be a moderate correlation between brain size and Santrock, Adolescence, 16e

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intelligence giving some support to the idea that bigger brains equate with more intelligence. Secondly, while traditional thinking held that intelligence was located in the frontal lobe, the prefrontal cortex and various connections across the frontal and parietal lobes have now been implicated in intelligence. The temporal and occipital lobes and the cerebellum have also been linked to higher intelligence. The age old question whether intelligence is due to nature or nurture has support for both sides. Twin studies show that identical twins are more similar in IQ scores than fraternal twins. However, most studies do not show a large difference. Support for environmental causes of intelligence is prolific. Most researchers agree that genetics and environment interact to influence intelligence. Adolescents demonstrate an important consequence of improved cognitive abilities through social cognition; that is, the ability to apply abstract thinking and problem-solving strategies to successful peer interactions. Adolescents’ social successes correlate highly with experience in other life domains. Adolescents reflect newly acquired abstract thinking ability in heightened awareness of self through adolescent egocentrism, imaginary audience, and personal fable. The development of social cognition signifies successful completion of a major task of adolescence.

TOTAL TEACHING PACKAGE OUTLINE Chapter 3: The Brain and Cognitive Development HEADING I. THE BRAIN

RESOURCE Learning Goal: 1

The Neuroconstructivists View

II. VIEW

Neurons

Images: 3-1, 3-2, and 3-3 Essay Question: 1

Brain Structure, Cognition, and Emotion

Image: 3-4 Essay Question: 2

Experience and Plasticity

Internet Activity 3.1

THE COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENTAL Piaget’s Theory Cognitive Processes

Image: 3-4

Learning Goal: 2 Image: 3-5 Short Scenario: 3.1 Research Article: 3.1 Essay Question: 3

Stages of Cognitive Development

Essay Question: 4

Sensorimotor and Preoperational Thought

Short Scenario: 3.1

Concrete Operational Thought

Essay Question: 4

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Chapter 3 Short Scenario: 3.1 Formal Operational Thought

Discussion Topic: 3.1 In-Class Activity: 3.1 Critical Thinking Exercise: 3.1 Short Scenario: 3.1 Essay Questions: 4, 5

Evaluating Piaget’s Theory

Lecture Topic: 3.2

Contributions Criticisms

Cognitive Changes in Adulthood Realistic and Pragmatic Thinking Reflective and Relativistic Thinking

Discussion Topic: 3.1 Short Scenario: 3.1

Is There a Fifth, Postformal Stage? Wisdom

Vygotsky’s Theory

III.

Images: 3-6 and 3-7 Learning Goal: 2 Short Scenario: 3.1 Essay Question: 6, 7

THE INFORMATION-PROCESSING VIEW

Learning Goal: 3 Lecture Topic: 3.1, 3.2 Essay Question: 8 Through the Eyes of Adolescents: We Think More Than Adults Think We Do

Cognitive Resources

Critical Thinking Exercise: 3.2 Short Scenario: 3.2 Essay Question: 8

Attention and Memory Attention Memory

Images: 3-8, 3-9, and 3-10 In-Class Activity: 3.2 Research Article: 3.2 Research Project: 3.3, 3.4 Essay Question: 9 Internet Activity: 3.2

Short-Term Memory Working Memory Long-Term Memory

Executive Functioning Cognitive Control Control Attention and Reduce Interfering Thoughts Be cognitively Flexible Decision Making

Image: 3-11 Essay Question: 8

Critical Thinking Mindfulness Developmental Changes Schools

Essay Question: 10 Careers in Adolescent Development: Laura Bickford, Secondary School Teacher

Creative Thinking

Research Project: 3.1 Essay Question: 11

Expertise

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Chapter 3 Lecture Topic: 3.1 Short Scenario: 3.2

IV.

Metacognition What is Metacognition? Strategies Domain Specific Thinking Skills

Image: 3-13 Short Scenario: 3.2 Essay Question: 12

THE PSYCHOMETRIC / INTELLIGENCE VIEW

Learning Goal: 4 Short Scenario: 3.3 Essay Question: 13

Intelligence Tests The Binet Tests The Wechsler Scales

Image: 3-14 Lecture Topic: 3.3 Research Project: 3.2 Essay Question: 13 Internet Activity: 3.3

Using Intelligence Tests Multiple Intelligences

Image: 3-15 Short Scenario: 3.3 Image: 3-16 Essay Question: 13

Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory Gardner’s Eight Frames of Mind

Essay Question: 13

Do People Have One Intelligence or Many Intelligences?

Short Scenario: 3.3 Internet Activity: 3.4

Heredity and Environment Heredity Environment Heredity and Environment Interaction

Image: 3-17 Lecture Topic: 3.3 Discussion Topic: 3.2 Critical Thinking Exercise: 3.3 Essay Question: 14

The Neuroscience of Intelligence Heredity and Environment Heredity Environment Heredity and Environment Interaction V.

SOCIAL COGNITION

Learning Goal: 5

Adolescent Egocentrism Social Cognition in the Rest of this Edition

Discussion Topic: 3.3 Essay Question: 15 Health and Well Being Interlude: The Personal Fable and Adolescent Adjustment

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SUGGESTED LECTURE TOPICS Topic 3.1—Experiential Influences in the Development of Expertise Piaget defined the emergence of formal operational thought during adolescence as a result of maturation. It is clear, however, that adolescents begin to show a pattern that is commonly observed during adulthood whereby there are noticeable differences in knowledge and skill that result in near-genius performance in some areas and near-incompetence performance in others. During early adolescence, youths often demonstrate thought patterns that reflect the concrete operational level. Alternatively, adolescents readily demonstrate complicated intellectual feats when they operate in a territory with which they have a great deal of familiarity (e.g., baseball or music). Research shows that youths and adults with a large factual knowledge base about a selfselected topic can categorize information with sophisticated hierarchical strategies. These people also have an easier time organizing and remembering new information about the topic. They apply more advanced forms of logic in this area of expertise than in other areas, but the formal operations used in the area of expertise do not seem to generalize to non-expert areas. In his discussion of formal models of strategy choice, Robert Siegler relates a story about his experience with plasterers who ignore requests to use drop cloths, refrain from smoking in his house, and follow healthful hygienic habits. Still, they can fix cracks and holes quickly and effectively. He, on the other hand, will use drop cloths, refrain from smoking, and employ healthful hygienic habits, but does not have the strategic competence to use home plastering kits successfully and produces wavy, and soon cracked, repairs. Almost everyone has a similar story to tell. Siegler explains five fundamental phenomena of strategy choice. Variability, the use of multiple strategies, results from numerous approaches a child has in his or her repertoire to solve problems. Every child has several approaches that may be used with any given topic and chooses different approaches at different times. Strategy choices are adaptive in four ways: (a) strategy choices are based on item difficulty; (b) back-up strategy choices are based on previous success; (c) appropriate discrimination of circumstances places an emphasis on a particular element (e.g., speed or accuracy); and (d) choices improve with experience. Change occurs with experience and increased expertise, by adding new strategies, increasing or decreasing the use of each strategy, and executing strategies more efficiently. Better choices are made with experience. Individual differences follow patterns associated with good students, poor students, and perfectionists. The phenomenon of generalization suggests that effective strategy choices result in generalization from past experiences to new situations. Educators should be encouraged to help students find topics of personal interest upon which a structured learning sequence can be applied to develop highly expert levels of competence. Expertise can be established by beginning with concrete approaches, establishing a strong knowledge base, and moving toward more complex strategies of thinking and analyzing the topic.

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References Artman, L., and Cahan, S. 1993. “Schooling and the Development of Transitive Inference,” Developmental Psychology 29, pp. 753–759. Siegler, R. S. 1996. Emerging Minds: The Process of Change in Children’s Thinking. New York: Oxford University Press,.

Topic 3.2—Information Processing Analysis of Piagetian Tasks One way to make the transition from Piaget’s theory of cognitive development to informationprocessing approaches is to show how information-processing psychologists have analyzed some of Piaget’s tasks. You can draw numerous examples from each of the four stages. You also can focus on concrete and formal operations or deal exclusively with formal operations. Begin the lecture with a review of the criticisms of Piaget’s theory that students studied in Chapter 4. Individuals arguing from an information-processing perspective developed much of this critique. You can also draw on the works of Rochel Gelman, Thomas Trabasso, Jerome Bruner, and others. Make the point that Piaget’s tasks call on diverse aspects of information processing, and the age difference in performing them could be due to failure in any one of them rather than failure to attain some generalized set of cognitive operations. Illustrate your point with a specific example. A good example is Trabasso’s classic analysis of transitive inference (it is a good choice, because you can devise tests of transitive inference that your students will fail). Present Trabasso’s analysis in some detail, and discuss the experiments Peter Bryant and he carried out to test their ideas. There are many other possibilities, but we recommend Robert Sternberg’s analysis of performance on analogies. Conclude your lecture by taking a stand on how the cognitive processing research relates to Piaget’s work and vice-versa. You may wish to argue that it illustrates severe deficiencies that invalidate the old master’s contribution. Alternatively, you may wish to develop the position that Piaget unearthed puzzles that continue to fascinate and challenge subsequent generations of researchers. References Bruner, J. S. 1997. The Culture of Education. Boston: Harvard University Press. Carey, S., and Gelman, R., Eds. 1988. Essays on Biology and Cognition. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc. Gelman, R., Carterette, E. C., Friedman, M., and Au, E. K. 1996. Perceptual and Cognitive Development. New York: Academic Press, Inc. Wilkening, F., Becker, J., and Trabasso, T., Eds. 1980. Information Integration by Children. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.

Topic 3.3—The Use and Misuse of Intelligence Tests in Educational Placement In eighteenth-century Europe, the classification of individuals based on religious, social, and economic variables resulted in oppression of various groups and their migration to North America. When the U.S. Constitution was developed, categorizing had created such oppression Santrock, Adolescence, 16e

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and unequal opportunity in Europe that the founding fathers of the United States went to great lengths to ensure basic rights to individuals. Thus, individuals were given the right to retain property, the right to practice religion of their choice, and the right to confront those attempting to deprive individuals of their basic rights. The process of defining these rights laid the foundation for court decisions regarding the use of tests in educational placement. Early efforts to educate the masses were also influenced by traditions of educating individuals most likely to succeed. Only those with social and economic backgrounds unique to the upper social classes were encouraged to attend school. The identification of additional individuals likely to succeed, those who demonstrated an ability and a desire to learn, increased the need to screen individuals before time or effort was spent on their training. Standardized tests were meant to provide a uniform procedure for identifying potential students worthy of the opportunity of an education. IQ tests were believed to accurately predict school success, career choice, and socioeconomic status. With the advent of mandatory education for all children, schools used IQ tests to place children into remedial, less demanding classrooms. However, some viewed the use of IQ tests for remedial placement as a deprivation of equal educational opportunity. Although teachers, parents, and administrators in competitive societies are usually anxious to know how their children compare to other children, it is not always clear how these measures actually help the child. Several unfortunate consequences have been identified with the classification of children as mentally inferior. (a) Children often are placed in remedial classrooms that do not provide the necessary learning opportunities for advancement to normal classrooms. (b) (c)

Expectations are difficult to change; and the prediction of low achievement often results in a self-fulfilling prophecy. The evaluation and classification remain in the student’s record for life, potentially affecting every subsequent decision.

Nevertheless, IQ tests remain a vital component in the process of educational placement since they provide an efficient method of distinguishing generally among educational needs. Some also question whether the process of classifying children is inequitable. They claim denial of equal treatment and equal opportunity breaks the Fifth and Fourteenth amendments and case law. In an attempt to understand the constitutional and legal arguments surrounding these issues, it may be helpful to briefly review the legal rationales for providing an education for all citizens. Although for decades many people believed that education was important, it was not valued enough to include as a fundamental right in the Bill of Rights of the Constitution of the United States. Because education was not enumerated as a strictly protected constitutional right, school districts could refuse to educate some children, segregate others, and provide incomplete programs to others if they could supply reasonable justification. The Supreme Court’s decision in Brown v. Board of Education (1954) officially recognized that the technological advancement of our society made education “the foundation of good citizenship” (Turnbull and Turnbull, 1978). Without an appropriate education, “it is doubtful that any child may be expected to succeed in life” (Brown at 493). In essence, the Supreme Court felt that education (an opportunity to Santrock, Adolescence, 16e

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develop the ability to acquire property) was equivalent to a property right—the deprivation of which should be strictly scrutinized. Although the Court subsequently held that education is not a fundamental right in San Antonio Independent School District v. Rodriguez (1973) recognized in the Bill of Rights, the effects of Brown and the recognition of the importance of education has had long-standing results. If one believes that education is fundamentally important, then to classify or place any child in a discriminatory manner could be a violation of the Fifth and Fourteenth amendments. The public schools have taken responsibility to provide children with equal educational opportunities and equal treatment. Because children do not begin school with the same preparation, equal opportunity must be provided in the form of compensatory education and individualized treatment for a segment of the publicly educated population. References Brown v. Board of Education, 347 U.S. 483, (1954). “H. R. Turnbull III and A. P. Turnbull,” Free Appropriate Public Education: Law and Implementation, 33 (1978). Brown at 493San Antonio Independent School District v. Rodriguez, 411 U.S. 1, (1973). P. L. 94–142, 89 Stat. 733 (1975); 20 U.S.C. §§ 1401 to 1420.

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CLASSROOM DISCUSSIONS AND ACTIVITIES Discussion Topics Discussion 3.1—A Curriculum to Promote Formal and Post-Formal Reasoning Review the recommendations for education discussed in “Piaget’s Theory and Adolescent Education.” Give students some concrete examples of strategies that are used in middle- and high-school classrooms, and consider showing one of the films featuring Kay Toliver or Jamie Escalante referenced in the section “Adolescent Development on Screen” in Chapter 10: Schools, under Educational Films at the end of the Instructor’s Manual. Point out that class discussions, in-class activities, and research papers can increase student involvement and communication skills. Ask groups of four to six students to design a curriculum for promoting formal operational reasoning in concrete operational children. During the first part of the discussion, the students should specify what changes normally take place between those two stages. After the initial discussion, the students should identify the kinds of activities that might promote those changes. Model good teacher involvement by circulating between groups, asking questions, and giving suggestions. Ask each group’s members to contribute their best idea to a class-generated plan. Reference Sinnott, J. D. 1998. The Development of Logic in Adulthood: Postformal Thought and its Applications. New York: Plenum Press.

Discussion 3.2—The Origins, History, and Responsible Use of Intelligence Tests Begin the discussion with a brief overview of Galton’s idea of the inheritance of intellect. Briefly summarize Galton’s ideas (these are usually outlined in introductory psychology texts), and then discuss Galton’s idea that intelligence could be measured in terms of elementary cognitive functions such as reaction time; and that intelligence represented a biological trait much like any other. You might conclude with Galton’s observations that genius seemed to run in families, the inferences he drew from that, and his interesting recommendations about the value of eugenics. This might be a good time to let the class discuss the ideas you are presenting. Continue with a few examples of other early attempts to measure intelligence (you could draw on Stephen Jay Gould’s The Mismeasure of Man). The main point is to show that most early attempts foundered, which is also an opportunity to review concepts such as reliability and validity. Highlight Binet’s success. Emphasize any of the following points: (a) the practical basis of Binet’s work (the French government’s commission); (b) Binet’s empirical approach (development and norming of items that discriminated between children of different ages); (c) the essentially developmental basis of Binet’s work (something often overlooked in discussions of intelligence); (d) Binet’s belief that intelligence was learned and remediable; and (e) Binet’s concerns with the need for an objective, reliable, and valid measure. All of these points are features of contemporary controversies about intelligence, and presenting them allows you to cast contemporary issues in a historical context. Santrock, Adolescence, 16e

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Provide examples of how IQ tests came to be used after Binet developed the first successful one. For example, one of the first big users was the U.S. Army, which also figured large in the development of group intelligence tests. The tests also played a role in attempts to control immigration in the early 1920s into the United States.

References Plucker, J. History of Influences in the Development of Intelligence Theory and Testing, 1998, http://www.intelltheory.com/, (March 23, 2002). (Plucker offers an interactive map as a one-page overview of influential theorists and the subsequent development of theories and approaches to testing.) Siegle, D. A Brief History of Intelligence Testing and Theory Development, n.d., http://www.education.uconn.edu, (March 23, 2002).

Discussion 3.3—Adolescent Egocentrism You can introduce Elkind’s concept of adolescent egocentrism by presenting adolescent explanations for not using contraceptives. Have students identify which of these explanations involve the imaginary audience, personal fable, or other typical forms of adolescent social cognition. 1. I didn’t think a girl like me could get pregnant. 2. I didn’t think I was old enough to be concerned. 3. I didn’t think I had sex often enough. 4. Using a contraceptive would indicate to everyone that I was planning to have sex. 5. I wanted sex to be spontaneous. 6. I felt that if my partner loved me he’d take a chance. 7. I was waiting for our relationship to get more serious. 8. I thought my partner would take care of that. 9. Contraceptives are unsafe. 10. My parents might find out. Reference Walraven, M. G. 1993. Instructor’s Course Planner to Accompany Adolescence, 5th ed. Dubuque: Brown and Benchmark, Publishers.

In-Class Activities Activity 3.1—Longeot’s Logical Thought Development Scale—Permutation Task This activity will give students a chance to experience a Piagetian task that requires formal operations at a level close to their ability. In the test situation, students would be given as much time as they needed to complete the task. You may find that students continue to be engaged

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with the task for up to 30 minutes. The following data sheet is included in the section “Student Handouts” at the end of this manual. Permutation. The required materials are paper clips or slips of paper of different colors. Each student should receive seven items of different colors. 1. First, predict how many different ways three paper clips or pieces of paper of three different colors (yellow, red, blue) can be lined up. This is your prediction: _____. 2. Next, line up the three items in all ways possible. After executing this task, give the correct number of combinations and explain your answer. _____ (The experimenter makes suggestions in case of failure. Only the execution phase is scored.) 3. Now add an item of a different color (green) and follow the same sequence. What is your prediction? _____ 4. After execution of the task, give the correct number of combinations and explain your answer. _____ 5. Now add an item of a different color (purple) and follow the same sequence. What is your prediction? _____ 6. Ask students to explain what will happen when the sixth and seventh items are added to the other five items. Determine whether students have generalized the information they gained from executions of the previous steps. Scoring. The scoring is based on response accuracy, the number of suggestions made by the experimenter, and the method used by the participant. The answer “24” on Item 2 is not accepted if it is obtained by quadrupling the permutations of three colors: six permutations for three colors, therefore 24 permutations for four colors or explaining the rule of factors. A better answer is the explanation that the fourth item could be placed in four locations for each of the six permutations, thus creating 24 permutations. Participants who succeed on the first item are classified at the Concrete Intermediate Level, and those who fail on this item are classified as below the concrete level. Level Formal A is defined as succeeding on Item 2 or 3, and Level Formal B is defined by success on Item 4 (Flieller, 1999, p. 1050). Reference Flieller, A. 1999. “Comparison of the Development of Formal Thought in Adolescent Cohorts Aged 10 to 15 Years (1967–1996 and 1972–1993),” Developmental Psychology 35, pp. 1048–1058.

Activity 3.2—Demonstrations of Short-Term Memory Strategies 1.

Short-term memory capacity using digit spans. Read the following lists of numbers to the class. Signal the students when you are finished to begin writing the list on a blank page in the order in which you gave it to them. Watch for the primacy (remembering the early numbers) and recency (remembering the most recently heard numbers) effects in recall. List A 9317

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List B List C List D List E List F List G List H List I

81604 908365 7646320 65130485 538417946 4581965130 35708382452 046183260457

Encourage students to remain calm and not to sigh loudly or laugh as the lists get too long for their short-term memory capacity. These distractions interfere with the concentration and memory capacity. Ask students to raise their hands to indicate what lists they were able to complete. Students with exceptionally long list recall may be asked to describe their strategies. Dempster (1981) reported that adults generally are able to remember about seven numbers, as are early adolescents that are aged 12 years. 2.

Categorical organization as retrieval cue. Show the following list to your students on the overhead projector for about 10 seconds. After taking the list away, ask students to recall the items on the list and write the items on a blank page in any order they choose. Brush Paperclip Horse Razor Notebook Dog

Cow Telephone

Soap Bird

Pencil Toothpaste

Ask a few students to read their lists to the class. You should notice that at least some of them have categorized the words into office items, toiletries, and animals to help recall them. Elaboration as short- and long-term memory strategy. Present a list of unrelated words. Ask students to participate in creating a story using the words in the order in which you have presented them. Jam Cartoon Envelope Farm New Jersey Basketball Paperclip Mouse Book Cat Plant

Light

Coat

Date

Plug

The suggestion provided by Lorayne and Lucas (1974) is to link the items together. Linking items by thinking of the items in impossible, crazy, illogical, or absurd relationships that associate the two items together seems to be much more successful than thinking of logical relationships. Thinking of a jar of jam with a label that has a cartoon character on it may be logical, but unmemorable. Thinking of a jar of jam with a cartoon character crawling out of it and covered with the gooey stuff may be more memorable. New items can be added to the chain by establishing a ridiculous association between the known and unknown items in the chain.

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Practice with one line of items before you ask your students to create a story that puts the items in orderly, humorous, and memorable relationships. When the three memory exercises have been completed, talk about the strategies of rehearsal, categorization, and elaboration, discussing the amount of time that each took and the effectiveness each strategy might serve in various everyday contexts. Obviously, the elaboration approach is most time consuming, but you might find that many students will remember the word list until the next class period. References Dempster, F. N. 1981. “Memory Span: Sources of Individual and Developmental Differences,” Psychological Bulletin 89, pp. 63–100. Lorayne, H., and Lucas, J. 1974. The Memory Book. New York: Dorset Press.

Critical Thinking Exercises Exercise 3.1—Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development Chapter 3 reviews Piaget’s stages of cognitive development. Although Piaget developed specific tests for each stage, a child’s cognitive level may be diagnosed from everyday aspects of cognition as well. Below are a number of statements children might make at home or school. Indicate which of the following cases best illustrates formal operations. Circle the letter of the best answer, explain why it is the best answer, and explain why each of the other answers is not as appropriate. A. B. C. D. E.

Katie is asked, “Do you have a brother?’’ She says, “Yes.’’ Then she is asked, “Does he have a sister?’’ She answers, “No.’’ Ray says, “A fly is like both insects and birds. It’s like birds because it flies, but it’s like insects because it has six legs.’’ Tim is working on analogies. He declares, “Biking is to pedaling as riding in a car is to stepping on the gas pedal because they both make the vehicle go!’’ Bobby states, “I understand how this nickel and these five pennies are the same as this dime.’’ Her teacher asks Mary, “How can the scale be brought back into balance?” Mary replies, “The only way to do that is to remove the weight that made one pan sink lower than the other.”

Exercise 3.2—Advances in Information Processing In Chapter 3, Santrock discusses several ways that information processing appears to change with age. Interestingly, some of his discussions contain descriptions of evidence, and some of them do not. Listed below are several of the aspects of information processing that Santrock describes. For which of these is his discussion best supported with evidence? Circle the letter of the best answer, explain why it is the best answer, and explain why each of the other answers is not as appropriate. Santrock, Adolescence, 16e

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A. B. C. D. E.

Adolescents enjoy better automaticity than children when processing information. Adolescents allocate their attention better than children. Children have more trouble processing information than adolescents because their short-term memory becomes overloaded. Adolescents have substantial increases in working memory over children. Adolescents demonstrate better critical thinking skills than children.

Exercise 3.3—Educational Achievement in the United States and Japan Read the following passage titled “Achievement in Math Requires Time and Practice: Comparisons of Children in the United States and Japan.” Based on this information, indicate which of the following statements constitutes an assumption rather than an inference or an observation. Circle the letter of the best answer, explain why it is the best answer, and explain why each of the other answers is not as appropriate. (Hint: There is more than one assumption.) A. Genetics are not influencing differences between Japanese and American children’s math achievement. B. The difference between Japanese and American children’s scores is smallest for first-grade girls. C. The difference in achievement is caused by the amount of time spent in school. D. Differences in achievement are not associated with differences in teacher experience. E.

Japanese and American children are equally motivated to achieve in mathematics. Achievement in Math Requires Time and Practice: Comparisons of Children in the United States and Japan

Harold Stevenson and his colleagues (1986) conducted an investigation of math achievement in first- and fifth-grade children from the United States and Japan. The final sample included 240 first-graders and 240 fifth-graders from each country. Extensive time was spent developing the math test that was given to the children. The children were observed in their classrooms, and additional information was obtained from mothers, teachers, and the children themselves. Stevenson and his colleagues found that Japanese children outscored U.S. children on the math test in both the first and fifth grades. Japanese first-grade boys outscored U.S. first-grade boys by 20.7 to 16.6, and Japanese first-grade girls outscored U.S. first-grade girls 19.5 to 17.6. In the fifth-grade comparisons, the highest average score of the U.S. classes fell below the worst score of the Japanese classrooms. Japanese fifth-grade boys outscored their U.S. counterparts 53.0 to 45.0, and Japanese fifth-grade girls outscored their U.S. counterparts 53.5 to 43.8.

What are some reasons for these dramatic differences between American and Japanese children’s math achievement? Curriculum did not seem to be a factor. Neither did the educational background of the children’s parents, nor did intelligence. The American children sampled actually scored slightly higher than the Japanese children on such components of intelligence as vocabulary, general information, verbal ability, and perceptual speed. Did the Santrock, Adolescence, 16e

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Japanese teachers possibly have more experience? Apparently this was not the case, since no differences were found in educational degrees and years of teaching. The amount of time spent in school and math classes was probably an important factor. The Japanese school year consists of 225 days of instruction and each school week is 5 1/2 days long. The American school year consists of 180 days of instruction and each school week is five days long. In the fifth grade, Japanese children were in school an average of 37.3 hours per week; American children only 30.4 hours. Observations in the children’s classrooms revealed that Japanese teachers spent far more time teaching math than did American teachers. Approximately one-fourth of total classroom time in the first grade was spent in math instruction in Japan, and approximately one-tenth in the United States. Observations also indicated that the Japanese children attended more efficiently to what the teacher was saying than did American children. Also Japanese children spent far more time doing homework than American children—on weekends, 66 minutes versus 18 minutes, respectively. Moreover, in another investigation, Chinese children were assigned more homework and spent more time on homework than Japanese children, who in turn were assigned more and spent more time on it than U.S. children (Chen & Stevenson, 1989). Chinese children had more positive attitudes about homework than Japanese children, who had more positive attitudes about homework than U.S. children. The conclusion: Learning requires time and practice. When either is reduced, learning is impaired.

Answer Key for Critical Thinking Exercises Exercise 3.1 A.

This is not an example of formal operational thinking. In this example, Katie fails to understand that sibling relationships are reciprocal. According to Piaget, this is a sign of preoperational thinking.

This is an example of concrete operational thinking. In this example, Ray is able to understand that flies have attributes that place them in more than one category (creatures that fly and creatures with six legs). According to Piaget, this is a concrete operational skill.

This is an example of formal operational thinking. In this example, Tim declares that he understands the equivalence of two abstract relationships. Piaget claims this is a formal operational ability.

This is an example of concrete operational thinking. In this example, Bobby is working with two concrete representations of money and is able to add the values of the nickels and pennies to confirm their equivalence to the dime. The equivalence also implies reversibility. All of these points characterize concrete operational thinking according to Piaget.

This is an example of concrete operational thinking. In this example, Mary shows reversibility. However, she can only think of one solution to the problem and fails to

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realize that there are several ways to balance a scale. Piaget identifies this as concrete operational thinking. Exercise 3.2 A. This is not the best answer. Santrock cites three references to Case, but does not present any data. B.

This is not the best answer. Although research shows marked differences between 8-, 12-, and 20-year-olds, the explanations also suggest that it is unclear whether differences in performance are due to attention or increased processing speed, capacity, and automaticity.

This is not the best answer. Sternberg hypothesizes that children do not complete the information processing to solve analogy problems because their short-term memory is overloaded.

This is the best answer. A substantial amount of information is presented to support the conclusion that working memory increases between 8 and 24 years.

This is not the best answer. Two issues should be considered for this statement. First, the discussion of critical thinking skills does not have a foundation in data presented with this information. Furthermore, adolescents with limited academic foundations are unlikely to develop critical thinking skills.

Exercise 3.3 A.

This is an assumption. There are no data on this point, yet it must be true if we want to say that the differences in performance are due to different educational practices. An interesting point is that this is not assumed in discussions of differences between intelligence scores of African American and Caucasian American children.

This is an observation. It is a direct statement describing the children’s scores.

This is an inference. It is an interpretation of the finding that Japanese students spend more time in school and have higher mathematics achievement scores. There is no evidence in these facts that indicates a necessary connection between them.

This is an observation. No association between these two variables was found.

This is an assumption. Motivation is a relevant concern, but apparently no data were collected to corroborate it. Thus the researchers assumed that motivation was equal for both Japanese and American students.

Short Scenarios Scenario 3.1 Paul and Melissa are the parents of three children at distinctly different stages of development. As far as they are concerned, each child is unique, good looking, and above average. Paul has

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noticed that all the children are curious about their environment, ask lots of questions, and organize the information they gather. As they get older, each child develops areas of expertise and provides increasingly complicated explanations about how things work. Matt is the oldest, and he demonstrates a lot of talent in math, science, and music. He has composed a small symphony and is experimenting with a synthesizer, the high school orchestra, and his friend’s rock band to investigate how it sounds. The second child, Mark, shows an interest in scientific topics as well, but seems to be most interested in plants and animals. As a youngster, he was fascinated by dinosaurs, as are many children, but the interest seemed to generalize to other types of animals as he learned about evolution. After visiting the Smithsonian’s Natural History Museum, he became very interested in categories of aquatic life. Their youngest, Lucas, hasn’t shown much interest in math or science, but he is what you might call a “free spirit,” enjoys people, and likes spending time at the library and bookstore. Lucas often is a nuisance to his brothers, showing little consideration for their time and interests. They get back at him by playing on his simple thinking ability, like tricking him into taking two small pieces instead of a full slice of dessert. As Paul watches the children, Melissa observes him taking mental notes of their progress, and recognizes his appreciation of the family. • Paul and Melissa are describing the children’s development from a Piagetian perspective. • Matt and Mark are demonstrating behavior described by Piaget, collecting information to construct and better understand their world. • The oldest child, Matt, is demonstrating formal operational processes exemplified by abstract thinking. • The middle child, Mark, demonstrates a high level of expertise in plants and animals and formal operational thinking as he categorizes them. • From an information-processing perspective discussed by Robert Seigler, Mark engages in self-modification and development of expertise. • The third child, Lucas, is described as a social child and his behavior appears to reflect Vygotsky’s perspective of cognitive development. • Lucas is at Piaget’s preoperational level of cognitive development. Scenario 3.2 She did it! She, Hanna A. Tucker, is the champ at solving the word games and logic problems Mrs. Johnson presents to her philosophy class. Besides that, she knows why she is successful and many of her classmates are not. First, she has a great vocabulary. All those years with her nose in a book and working crossword puzzles paid off. She doesn’t even have to think about the information Mrs. Johnson is giving them because the associations are just there. She admits that it wasn’t always easy. At first she was afraid of being wrong, didn’t respond fast enough, and never won. To fix that, she bought some word and logic puzzle books to practice and increase her confidence. Then she had a talk with herself saying, “Hanna, focus and trust your first response. Don’t second-guess yourself. Just do it.” Now she is top H.A.T. HA!

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•

• • • •

From an information-processing perspective, Hanna is demonstrating characteristics of thinking and using change mechanisms at a more advanced level than her peers. Her ability to solve class exercises in a philosophy class is an example of good critical thinking skills. The foundation for Hanna’s ability to solve logic problems is her solid vocabulary. Hanna was aware of her nervousness and weaknesses in responding quickly and correctly, an example of metacognition. The expertise that Hanna demonstrates was developed through practice and selfchallenge. She set goals, explored strategies, and developed a pattern for maximizing her performance.

Scenario 3.3 Sammie has never been comfortable with standardized tests, in spite of the fact that her aunt is a school psychologist and that she was the practice student for every new test her aunt investigated. The irritation of tests is that they have so much influence on future opportunities and don’t seem to show how good anyone is at everyday life. Of course her best friend, Janet, thinks they are great fun. Janet takes tests like most kids play video games. Sammie has noticed that Janet says standardized tests are very easy. Janet says there is always one answer that is clearly correct. Sammie, on the other hand, often sees two correct answers, and she can explain why one is correct sometimes and the other would be correct under other circumstances. Another difference between herself and Janet is their style of handling other people. If things don’t go Janet’s way, she walks away and writes off the people involved. Sammie always tries to work things out, and she has managed to remain friends with some of the most difficult students in their class. Sammie’s aunt assures her that her intelligence, ability with people, and creative skills will take her anywhere she wants to go. In this situation, that is the only acceptable answer. • • •

• • • •

Sammie is describing a concern over measurement of her intelligence, a prized possession as Santrock points out in Chapter 4. Standardized tests help determine individual differences in intelligence. The inability to measure intelligence directly leads to the necessity of caution in interpreting their results, which includes avoiding stereotyping, using tests with a variety of assessment strategies, and interpreting the meaningfulness of the scores. Janet demonstrates what Sternberg describes as analytical intelligence. Sammie depicts what Sternberg describes as creative and practical intelligence or what Goleman describes as high emotional intelligence. Janet’s clear perspective about identifying correct answers is typical of people with high intelligence quotients. Sammie’s explanation of interpreting answer choices on tests is typical of creative people.

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RESEARCH ARTICLES Article 3.1—Piaget’s Enduring Contribution Jean Piaget is credited with having an extraordinary impact on developmental psychology. The rationales for Piaget’s considerable influence are as follows: (a) The constructivist view that Piaget’s theory represents serves as a fundamental influence in theories of developmental psychology. (b) Piaget’s theory represents a developmental theory by offering explanations of developmental mechanisms. (c) The developmental theory is based on structural and functional explanations. (d) The continued exploration of experiments Piaget proposed to support his theory, to maintain continued interest, and to influence cognitive developmental theory as a whole. Piaget’s work has been described as a vast research program. From the 1920s to the 1980s, his accomplishment reflects four phases and distinct shifts in thinking. Phase I: The child’s conception of reality mediated through language and social interaction. Piaget gained immediate attention in his discussions of language and thought. In 1923, Piaget explained that descriptive categories are of little value without an explanation of the functional origins of the classified strategies. Piaget published the following papers and books on relations in the study of “why” questions to (a) logical and causal connections (because, therefore, and although), and (b) juxtaposition, the pattern of successively linking one thought to another with causal or logical relationships: • Language and Thought of the Child (1926). (Original work published in French in 1923) • Judgment and Reasoning in the Child (1928). (Original work published in French in 1924) • The Child’s Conception of the World (1929). (Original work published in French in 1923) • The Child’s Conception of Physical Causality (1930). (Original work published in 1927) • The Moral Judgment of the Child (1932). (Original work published in French in 1927) Piaget’s early research was based on verbal exchanges to discriminate between form and function in the child’s thoughts. Thus, the functions served and the needs met by language were the main focus. Phase II: Stages in sensorimotor development: The theory of adaptation. The second phase of Piaget’s work in the 1930s was based on extensive observation of children’s actions on objects. The shift is attributed to the close observation of his children born in 1925, 1927, and 1931. Piaget outlined six stages of sensorimotor development as a result, concluding that both language and thought are preceded by “logic of action” represented in schema development. The functional theory of adaptation was used to explain the origin of thought categories: Implicative function (assimilation) included logic of classes (functional equivalence) and logic of relations (functional differences). Explicit function (accommodation) related to categories of reality

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entailing objects and their causal relations in time and space. Structure d’ensemble (structure-ofthe-whole): theory of representation emphasized the importance of circular reactions and the increasing role of intentions. Piaget incorporated a biological explanation into his theory and included other theoretical information from Saussure, Poincaré, and Baldwin to explain some concepts. Phase III: The structuralist period: logico-mathematical models, concrete and formal operations, and the standard theory. In the late 1930s and early 1940s, Piaget began to investigate numerical and physical quantities. Piaget determined characteristics of thought that clarified differences between concrete and formal operations and former stages through experiments on logical, mathematical, and scientific thinking. The mental process of grouping concerns logical subtraction, multiplication, and negation. Other logic and mathematical concepts included (a) conservation of quantity: decalage and structures-of-the-whole; and (b) genetic epistemology: the history of ideas relating to knowledge and its applications in the sciences; and equilibration, causality, and formal operations. Publications related to this phase include the following: • • • • • •

The Child’s Conception of Space (Piaget and Inhelder, 1956). Mathematical Epistemology and Psychology (Beth and Piaget, 1966). Structuralism (1970). (Original work published in French in 1968) Understanding Causality (Piaget and Garcia, 1974). The Equilibration of Cognitive Structures (1985). (Original work published in French in 1975) Psychogenesis and the History of Science (Piaget and Garcia, 1989).

The structuralist period did not produce results that satisfied Piaget. As a result, he made major shifts in theory during the 1960s, which resulted in what Beilin identifies as a new theory in the 1970s. Phase IV: Return to functionalism: preoperational thought, strategies, intentional logic, and the theory of meaning. During Piaget’s work up to this time, the preoperational period received limited investigation. It was a period described by lack of reversibility, but one that did characterize representational thought and the development of concepts. The study of functions filled a gap in the theory previously dominated by structuralist characteristics. Two books that resulted from this research follows: • •

The Grasp of Consciousness (1976). (Original work published in French in 1974) Success and Understanding (1978). (Original work published in French in 1974)

Subsequent research led Piaget to conclude that the most general characteristic of conscious states is the expression of “significations”; mental actions were redefined as signifying implications. The theory was expanded to include possibility and necessity, the relationship between possibility (procedural freedom and flexibility) and necessity, and equilibration. Resulting texts published posthumously included:

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• •

Possibility and Necessity: Vol. 1. The Role of Possibility in Cognitive Development (1987a). Possibility and Necessity: Vol. 2. The Role of Necessity in Cognitive Development (1987b). (Original works published in French in 1981)

Piaget’s work demonstrated that cognitive processes undergo continuous change from birth and through adulthood. He contributed well-defined scientific method and empirical demonstrations. Piaget showed that the construction of knowledge occurs as a result of active participation by the learner, not as a passive process. His lifelong investigation clarifies the theory he so painstakingly explained. Reference Beilin, H. 1992. “Piaget’s Enduring Contribution to Developmental Psychology,” Developmental Psychology 28, pp. 191–204.

Article 3.2—What Develops in Working Memory? Working memory is defined as a resource with finite capacity. Working memory allows a person to retain information long enough to process it. Investigations suggest that, compared to young adults, differences in performance by older adults and young children result from an inability to retain information in the memory while simultaneously processing it or other information. The study was conducted (1) to determine whether age-related differences in working memory by individuals from nine age groups are related to processing efficiency or storage capacity, and (2) to determine the consistency in behavior when verbal and visuo-spatial measures of working memory are related to reading and math tasks. The subjects for this study included 778 people from six to 76 years of age. The participants were from 10 U.S. states and 2 Canadian provinces. The composition of the group was (a) 45 percent female; (b) 72 percent Anglo, 13 percent Hispanic, 5 percent Asian, 9 percent Black, 1 percent other; and (c) 75 percent urban. The socioeconomic status of the child sample was 35 percent low income and 65 percent middle to high income; about 90 percent of adults were middle to upper class and spoke English. Working memory tasks were administered to individual participants between the years 1987 to 1994. Tasks represented verbal and visuospatial processing, and retrospective and prospective retrieval. Each required simultaneous processing and storage of information, and measured various contents. Two verbal tasks assessed working memory. The auditory digit sequence tested the person’s ability to remember numerical information embedded in a short sentence. The participant was provided with four strategies to remember numerical information including rehearsal, chunking, associating, and elaborating information. A sample exercise was provided: “Now suppose somebody wanted to have you take him/her to the supermarket at 8651 Elm Street.” A process question was asked: “What is the name of the street?” The subject was told that she/he would be asked to recall the numbers later and asked to select a picture representing the strategy she/he Santrock, Adolescence, 16e

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would use to remember the information. The range of digits was 3 to 14; the dependent measure was the number of sets correctly recalled (0–9). The semantic association task was to determine the participant’s ability to organize words into abstract categories. The researcher presented some words to the participant, asked a process question, and then asked the participants to recall the words that go together. For example, the researcher would present shirt, saw, pants, hammer, shoes, and nails, and ask the person to retrieve the words that go together (shirt, pants, shoes; saw, hammer, nails). The process question would be something like, “Which word, saw or level, was said in the list of words?” The participant was told to recall the words in any temporal order within the categories. Difficulty ranged from two categories of two words to five categories of four words (0–8). Two visuospatial tasks assessed working memory. The mapping and directions task was used to determine whether the participants could remember directions on a map that had no labels. Subjects were shown a street map with lines connected to a number of dots illustrating the vehicle path through the city. The dots represented stoplights. The map was removed for 10 seconds, the participants were asked to answer a process question, and to indicate which strategy would be used to remember the directions. Last, participants were asked to draw in the line and dots indicating the path and stoplights. The difficulty ranged from 4 to 19 dots. The dependent measure was the number of maps drawn correctly (0–9). The visual matrix task assessed participant’s ability to remember visual sequences in a matrix. Each participant was allowed five seconds to study a series of dots in a matrix. After its removal, the participant was asked a process question, “Are there any dots in the first column?” The participant was then asked to draw the dots in their correct location on a blank matrix. The difficulty ranged from 4 squares and 2 dots to 45 squares and 12 dots. The dependent measure was number of matrices recalled correctly (1–11). Four scores were collected for each measure: initial testing, gain, maintenance, and probe scores. Gain in performance was measured by testing working memory under conditions that used a series of graduated probes to enhance performance. Gain was defined as the best score under probe conditions. Maintenance in performance was determined by re-administering the item with the best score during the gain condition without probes. This score was believed to “reflect the stability of the asymptotic level after the probe condition was removed.” If the gain score was not maintained, the initial score was used for this measure as well. A probe score was assigned based on the number of hints needed to achieve the gain score and was interpreted as representing processing efficiency. All of the items on the working memory task were administered until probing was not reflected in improved performance. Participants were tested individually, taking approximately 40 minutes to complete all four tasks under the initial, probe, gain, and maintenance conditions. Testing continued until a process question was missed or an error in retrieval occurred. Errors in retrieval resulted in the administration of probes. Complete explanations of the procedures can be found in Swanson (1993; 1995).

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The results showed significant age effects for the initial, gain, and maintenance conditions. The pattern across the three conditions was an increase in working memory through the 35 and 45 age groups (30- to 50-year-olds). At age 51, scores began to decline. The number of cues necessary to establish asymptotic performance also showed marked differences between age groups. The number of cues required increased from 6 to 8 years, declined for ages 10 to 13, increased again for 13- to 24-year-olds, followed again by a gradual decline from ages 35 to 57. Verbal (semantic association; digit/sentence) and visuospatial (mapping/direction; visual matrix) showed an age-related increase on both tasks for initial, gain, and maintenance conditions. Adolescents (15–19) and young adults (19.10–30) showed consistent, marked improvement over children’s performance. Significantly higher differences in verbal composite scores appeared between subjects in the 35-, 45-, and 57-year-old groups than the younger groups. References Swanson, H. L. 1999. “What Develops in Working Memory? A Life Span Perspective,” Developmental Psychology 35, pp. 986–1000. Swanson, H. L. 1993. “Working Memory in Learning Disability Subgroups,” Journal of Experimental Child Psychology 56, pp. 87–114.

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STUDENT RESEARCH PROJECTS Research Project 3.1—Creativity Objective. Students will be able to identify and explain how structured interview methods and a test of creativity can be used to gather comparable information from very different individuals. Type/Length of Activity. Out-of-class activity; 3 hours. Directions. Give a creativity task to four to eight children, half to age 10 and the other half to age 5. In order to test the two groups of children, you will need to clear this through the human subjects review board at your school and get a signed informed consent form from the children’s parents. Evaluate the children’s responses with the hypotheses that there may be both age differences and individual differences in creativity. Two tasks are to be presented to each child. Be sure to keep a “straight face’’ during the children’s response period. Experimenters can inadvertently cause differences or variability in the data by not treating each subject the same. Preferential smiling, laughing, or scowling might encourage some and discourage other responses. A standardized procedure is essential. Use the following data sheet and data summary sheet for collecting and summarizing data. Then answer the questions that follow after completing the interviews of the children. The data sheet for this project is included in the section “Student Handouts” at the end of this manual. Task 1: What are some unusual ways to use a spoon? Task 2: How many objects can you name that are red? 1. 2. 3.

Which children had the larger number of responses for task 1? For task 2? Which children had more original responses for task 1? For task 2? Overall, which children seemed to provide more creative responses? To what would you attribute this? How does your finding fit with information on creativity presented in the text? Do you think your tasks were appropriate for eliciting creative responses in children? Why or why not?

Wrap-Up. Be prepared to present your data from the research project. Analyze the data for age and individual differences in number of responses and originality of responses. Is there as much variability within each age as there is between ages? Is there as much variability within the 5year-old children as there is within the 10-year-old children? Could some of the variability be due to differences between experimenters, rather than differences in the children? Did any gender differences appear in the data? How did researchers create the originality scale? What criteria did they use in scoring the responses? How difficult a task was devising the scale? Was the scale objective enough to allow another individual to use it and come up with the same scoring of the responses? What is the possible validity of the measure of creativity used? Research Project 3.2—Measuring High IQ

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Objective. Students will be able to describe and critique a variety of strategies used to measure and compare cognitive development. Type/Length of Activity. Out-of-class activity; 2 to 4 hours. Directions. Using the World Wide Web or the book Match Wits with Mensa (1998), study the variety of strategies Mensa uses to identify individuals from the top 2 percent of the population in cognitive ability. Look for characteristics of questions that indicate they require verbal or nonverbal ability and fluid or crystallized intelligence on the part of the test taker. Determine whether the questions are culturally unbiased. In the space provided below, explain the characteristics of the following types of questions: 1.

Trivia ___________________________________________________________________

Vocabulary _______________________________________________________________

Analogies ________________________________________________________________

Mathematics, Reasoning, and Logic ___________________________________________

Classics __________________________________________________________________

Culture __________________________________________________________________

Wrap-Up. Critique the assessment procedures that you have analyzed. How do they compare with those discussed in the chapter on cognitive development? Do some strategies seem more suitable to adolescent development than others? Do you think that different results might be typical of children, adolescents, or adults? Overall, which strategy or strategies seem most useful to assessment of adolescent intelligence? References American Mensa, Ltd: The High IQ Society, http://www.us.mensa.org/. Grosswirth, M., Salny, A. F., Stillson, A., and American Mensa, Ltd. 1998. Match Wits with Mensa: The Complete Quiz Book. New York: Quality Paperback Book Club.

Research Project 3.3—Memory Span Objective. Students will be able to identify and explain how to test and gather information about memory span at various developmental stages. Type/Length of Activity. Out-of-class activity; 1 to 2 hours.

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Directions. Pair up with a classmate, and administer a digit-span test to three subjects: a preschool child (3 to 5 years old), a young adolescent (11 to 15 years old), and an older adolescent (18 to 23 years old—this can be yourself if you fall in that age range). If the child and adolescent you test are not family members, be sure you ask permission from the parents before conducting the digit-span test. The test will consist of three lists of digits (listed below). Present each list of digits to each subject at a rate of one digit per second. After saying each digit list, the subject will be asked to recall the digits. One student will present the digits and the other will record the subject’s responses. Answer the following questions after you have collected the data. Digit lists: 36824 146934768 278739031540647 Questions: Record the number of digits remembered by each subject for each list: 5 digits9 digits15 digits Preschooler Young Adolescent Older Adolescent Did each subject remember the same number of digits regardless of the number of digits presented? Explain. Did you find age differences in the number of digits remembered? Describe any age differences you observed. How do you account for these differences? Wrap-Up. In class, compare your findings with other students. Are the age differences you observed the same as those observed by others? What can you say about the nature of memory span from childhood through adolescence? What are some of the limitations of these findings? Research Project 3.4—Memory Strategies Objective. Students will be able to identify and explain how to test and gather information about memory strategies at various developmental stages. Type/Length of Activity. Out-of-class activity; 1 to 2 hours. Directions. Pair up with a classmate and ask the questions about memory strategies listed below to three subjects: a preschool child (3 to 5 years old), a young adolescent (11 to 15 years old), and an older adolescent (18 to 23 years old—this can be yourself if you fall in that age range). If the child and adolescent you test are not family members, be sure you ask permission from the parents before asking the questions. Before you start, tell them you are going to ask them a few questions about memory. You will need to get a set of 12 pictures (you can just cut pictures out of a magazine) that can be clustered into categories. 1. Do you think it is easier to remember some sorts of things compared to other sorts of things?

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2. 3.

6. 7.

What kinds of things are easy to remember? What kinds of things are hard to remember? If you wanted to telephone a friend and someone just told you the number, would it make any difference if you called the friend right away after hearing the number or if you got a drink of water first and then dialed the number. Why? Place the set of pictures on a table and say—“Suppose I wanted you to learn these pictures. I will give you three minutes to look at them, and then I will take them away. What would you do to learn the pictures?” Suppose you are planning to go rollerblading with a friend after school (class) tomorrow. You want to be sure to bring your rollerblades with you to school (class). What can you do to be certain that you won’t forget to bring your skates to school? How many different things can you think of that you can do? Suppose you lose your jacket at school. How would you go about finding it? Think of all the things you could do. Suppose I tell you a story, and I ask you to remember it. Would it be easier to remember it word-for-word or in your own words? Why?

After you complete your interviews, answer the following questions: Did you find age differences in the memory strategies used? Describe any age differences you observed. How do you account for these differences? Wrap-Up. In class, compare your findings with other students. Are the age differences you observed the same as those observed by others? What can you say about the development of memory strategies from childhood through adolescence? What are some of the limitations of these findings?

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ESSAY QUESTIONS 1. 2. 3.

Explain how a neuron functions and describe the relationship of neurons to overall brain function. Explain the similarities and differences in developmental changes in the brain between childhood and adolescence. Define and give examples of key cognitive processes explained by Piaget’s theory of assimilation, accommodation, and equilibration.

Compare and contrast Piaget’s views about concrete operational and formal thought. Give examples of each.

Explain the difference between early and late formal operational thinking. Give examples of each. Outline Vygotsky’s theory of cognitive development and explain how his theory concurs with contemporary educational strategies.

6. 7.

Compare and contrast Piaget’s cognitive constructivist approach with Vygotsky’s social constructivist approach to adolescent development.

Explain executive functioning and how it affects information processing.

How do attention and memory change from childhood to adolescence? Do these changes influence other types of mental performance? Explain. Compare and contrast the characteristics of decision-making and critical thinking from an information-processing perspective.

10. 11.

Explain creativity as it relates to traditional measures of intelligence. How might educators encourage creative thinking and why should they?

12. 13.

What is metacognition? Is the process important to education? How can it be enhanced? Compare and contrast one traditional approach to intelligence (e.g., Stanford-Binet; Wechsler Scales) with a contemporary approach (e.g., Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory; Gardner’s Eight Frames of Mind)

14.

Explain the cultural bias in intelligence testing and describe a culturally fair test.

15.

What is adolescent egocentrism? What changes in adolescent egocentrism take place during adolescence?

References Baer, J. 1993. Creativity and Divergent Thinking Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. Campbell, D. T., and Fiske, D. W. 1959. “Convergent and Discriminate Validation by the MultitraitMultimethod Matrix,” Psychological Bulletin 56, pp. 81–105. Hoffman, E. 2001. Psychological Testing at Work: How to Use, Interpret, and Get the Most Out of the Newest Tests in Personality, Learning Styles, Aptitudes, Interests, and More! New York: McGrawHill.

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INTERNET ACTIVITIES Internet Activity 3.1 New Scientist The Web page for the New Scientist offers such articles related to adolescence as “Teen Brains Show Low Motivation,” and “Teenage Special: The Original Rebel.” You can assign one or more of these articles for students to read and then discuss in class. Or you can enhance your lecture with information from these articles and others on the Web page. http://www.newscientist.com/ Internet Activity 3.2 Memory Strategies The Mind Tools Web page has information about various memory strategies that can be useful for students. http://www.mindtools.com/memory.html Internet Activity 3.3 Human Intelligence Students can go to the Human Intelligence Web page. This page has a wealth of information about intelligence and intelligence testing such as biographical profiles and a map of the history of intelligence testing. http://www.intelltheory.com/ Internet Activity 3.4 Emotional Intelligence Students can take an emotional intelligence test. http://www.queendom.com/tests/iq/emotional_iq_r2_access.html

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Resource Title

Resource Type

Developing Brain: Adolescence

Video

Influence of Brain Development on Puberty

Video

Teenage Brains and Risk Taking

Video

Adolescent Perspectives on Thinking and Memory

Video

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CHAPTER 4: THE SELF, IDENTITY, EMOTION, AND PERSONALITY INTRODUCTION Adolescents’ sense of self becomes increasingly complicated, yet stable, as these young adults form a social-cognitive understanding of self. Self-understanding is that which an adolescent believes about his or her substance and content. A distinct aspect of self-understanding during adolescence is the tendency for adolescents to think about the self in idealistic and differentiated ways. Adolescents recognize the differentiation as a dichotomy between good and bad, or the real and the ideal. Ideas about possible selves lead to questions about personal achievement compared to that of others. Dimensions of self-understanding include: • • • • •

abstraction and idealism differentiation the fluctuating self contradictions within the self real and ideal; true and false

• • • • •

social comparison self-consciousness self-protection the unconscious self integrated self

Changes in understanding of self are described as occurring during three phases: (1) early, contradictory self-descriptions; (2) middle, resolution of contradictions; and (3) late, integration of identity. Ethnically diverse youths have opportunities to transverse cultural settings and their success in doing so directly affects their opportunities to transcend racism, poverty, and other cultural barriers. An important part of adolescence is learning to understand others. As adolescences proceeds teens gain a much better understanding of others as evidence by the fact that teens get better at understanding that others might distort their own traits in an effort to impress others. Another aspect of understanding others that develops during adolescence is perspective taking. Lastly, social cognitive monitoring in which teens monitor their social world increases during adolescence. Self-esteem based on global assessments and self-concept based on domain-specific evaluations of self may be measured by assessing eight domains of competence described by Susan Harter (1989): • scholastic competence • behavioral conduct • athletic competence • close friendship • social acceptance • romantic appeal • physical appearance • job competence A comprehensive assessment of self-esteem might include the self-report, ratings reported by others, and behavioral observations. Physical appearance appears to correlate highly with selfSantrock, Adolescence, 16e

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esteem. Relationships with parents measured through expression of affection, concern, and harmony contribute to high self-esteem in children and adolescents. Judgments and support by peers is more important for adolescents than children. Prolonged low self-esteem can result in depression, suicide, anorexia nervosa, delinquency, and other adjustment problems. Self-esteem may be improved by (1) identifying causes of low esteem, (2) increasing social approval, (3) rectifying achievement deficits, and (4) establishing coping mechanisms. Recent research suggests that today’s adolescents have grown up receiving too much praise. As emerging adults they have difficulty handling competition and criticism. Some research indicates that adolescents and emerging adults are more narcissistic than the previous generation. These findings continue to be controversial. The consequences of low self-esteem are significant. Low self-esteem has been associated with depression and suicide, being overweight, anxiety, and delinquency. These affects may also carry over into the adult years. Self-regulation or the “ability to control one’s behavior without having to rely on others’ help” is associated with many positive developmental outcomes including high achievement, better health, and more life satisfaction. Effortful control or “inhibiting impulses and not engaging in destructive behavior, focusing and maintaining attention despite distractions, and initiating and completing tasks that have long-term value” has also been associated with positive developmental outcomes. Some of these outcomes include educational attainment and academic persistence. Teens’ capability for self-regulation and effortful control is related to development of the prefrontal cortex and increasing cognitive control. Erik Erikson discussed the adolescent dilemma he identified as identity versus identity confusion. During this stage, adolescents typically experience a period of time when they are undecided about their future roles, experiencing a psychosocial moratorium. During early phases of the moratorium, adolescents try many different roles and personalities before deciding which one reflects a clear sense of self. After actively searching, the individual successfully chooses an identity that fits. Contemporary explanations of identity include the following points: • • • •

Identity development is a lengthy process. Identity formation begins with attachment and is reviewed periodically until old age. Identity formation depends on establishing a balance between autonomy and connectedness. Identity formation decisions are small everyday events that are revisited repeatedly.

James Marcia described four statuses of identity including identity diffusion, identity foreclosure, identity moratorium, and identity achievement. According to Marcia, young teens are more likely to be in a status of diffusion, foreclosure, or moratorium. It is not until emerging adulthood that teens develop a status of identity achievement. The experiences of college, including increased reasoning skills and exposure to new experiences may produce an environment that is conducive to developing a sense of identity achievement. Identity has been Santrock, Adolescence, 16e

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found to be more stable during adulthood, however, it is not uncommon for individuals to reconsider their identities through the MAMA cycle; cycling back and forth between moratorium and achievement. Experiencing emotions involves physiological arousal, behavioral expression, and conscious experience. Adolescents experience frequent emotional swings from high to low. This is a normal aspect of development. These emotional fluctuations may be due, in part, to hormone levels. During this time adolescents are also becoming more emotionally competent. The five big personality traits—openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism—have not been found to be as stable during adolescence as they are in adulthood. Recent research has found that the development of conscientiousness is a predictor of adjustment and competence in adolescents and emerging adulthood. Other traits, such as aggression and dominance, remain stable during childhood and adolescence. Temperament, an individual’s behavioral style, is related to personality. Like personality, some aspects of temperament are more stable than others. An easy temperament in childhood is related to better adjustment in adolescence and adulthood. In addition, goodness of fit, the match between an individual’s temperament and his or her environment, is also related to later adjustment.

TOTAL TEACHING PACKAGE OUTLINE Chapter 4: The Self, Identity, Emotions, and Personality HEADING I. THE SELF

RESOURCE Learning Goal: 1 Lecture Topic: 4.1 Discussion Topic: 4.6 Critical Thinking Exercise: 4.1 Short Scenario: 4.1, 4.2 Essay Question: 1

Self-Understanding and Understanding Others

Lecture Topic: 4.1 Short Scenario: 4.1 Essay Questions: 1, 2

What Is Self-Understanding?

Short Scenarios: 4.1, 4.2 Research Project 4.2

Self-Understanding in Adolescence Self-Understanding and Social Contexts Understanding Others Perceiving Others’ Traits Perspective Taking Social Cognitive Monitoring Self-Esteem and Self-Concept

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What Are Self-Esteem and Self-Concept? Measuring Self-Esteem and Self-Concept

Lecture Topic: 4.2 Discussion Topic: 4.5 In-Class Activity: 4.1, 4.2

Self-Esteem: Perception and Reality Does Self-Esteem Change During Adolescence and Emerging Adulthood? Is Self-Esteem Linked to Success in School and Initiative?

Image: 4-2 Lecture Topic: 4.3

Are Some Domains More Closely Linked to Self-Esteem Than Others?

Image: 4-3 Short Scenario: 4.2 Essay Question: 3

Social Contexts and Self-Esteem

Lecture Topic: 4.2 Critical Thinking Exercise: 4.3 Research Article: 4.1

Consequences of Low Self-Esteem

Critical Thinking Exercise: 4.3 Essay Question: 3

Self-Regulation II.

IDENTITY Erikson’s Ideas on Identity Revisiting Erikson’s Views of Identity

Critical Thinking Exercise: 4.3 Essay Question: 3 Health and Well-Being Interlude: Increasing Adolescents’ SelfEsteem Learning Goal: 2 Lecture Topic: 4.4 Discussion Topic: 4.1 In-Class Activity: 4.3, 4.4 Discussion Topics: 4.2, 4.4 Critical Thinking Exercise: 4.1, 4.2 Essay Questions: 4, 9

Personality and Role Experimentation

Discussion Topic: 4.2, 4.4 Essay Question: 4

Some Contemporary Thoughts on Identity

Critical Thinking Exercise: 4.2 Research Article: 4.2

The Four Statuses of Identity

Image: 4-4 Lecture Topic: 4.3 Essay Question: 5

Developmental Changes in Identity

Essay Question: 6

Identity and Social Contexts

Short Scenario: 4.3 Research Article: 4.2 Essay Question: 7, 8 Through the Eyes of Adolescents: Identity Exploring

Family Influences on Identity Ethnic Identity Gender and Identity

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III.

Identity and Intimacy

Through the Eyes of Emerging Adulthood: Developing and Identity before Intimacy

EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT The Emotions of Adolescence Hormones, Experience, and Emotions

Learning Goal: 3 Essay Question: 10, 11 Video: Adolescents’ Perspectives on Emotions (Connect)

Emotional Competence IV.

PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT Personality Temperament Temperament Categories Developmental Connections and Contexts

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Images: 4-5 and 4-6 Learning Goal: 4 In-Class Activity: 4.5 Essay Question: 12, 13 Internet Activity: 4.2; 4.3

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SUGGESTED LECTURE TOPICS Topic 4.1—Self as Knower and Self as Object William James (1842–1910) might be considered the father of self-understanding. James recognized the differences between the “I” and the “Me.” • • • • • •

I-self as knower The ultimate thinker The spirit Active observer Self-generation of thought Self-referenced information

• • • • • •

Me-self as object (known) Mental capacities and achievements The object of concerns The social me The material me Self-concept and self-esteem

James explained that self-understanding depends on recognizing two selves, or even multiple selves, as we organize personal information. Our self-understanding is based on the combined aspects of “I” (e.g., personal feelings, beliefs, or values), and “Me,” (e.g., the material, the social, and the spiritual me). James explains that the “I” is difficult to grasp because it represents that which is conscious and reflected in a passing state of consciousness. The “I” is always the same; it is the thinker, the “Soul,” the “Transcendental Ego,” or the “Spirit.” James explained that although distinct mental states cannot fuse, the “I” serves as an agent or combining medium. The “I” is the underlying spirit of the man on which ideas are combined and their effect tailored. The “Me” represents the externally influenced person defined by three categories of external factors: (1) The component of material goods the individual has, including his clothes, house, family, and other items that reflect success. (2) The component of self-appreciation influenced by these items that affect an individual’s feelings and emotions. (3) The component of self-seeking and selfpreservation that are reflected in the effort to maintain the self-fulfilling aspects of life. Briefly, the consciousness of self includes the “I” that mediates the external components of the “Me” influenced by external factors. What distinct examples does our society provide for the multiple selves concept (e.g., celebrities, sports heroes)? References Honderich, T., Ed. 1995. The Oxford Companion to Philosophy. New York: Oxford University. Myers, G. E., Ed. 1992. William James: Writings 1878–1899. New York: Literary Classics of the United States, Inc.

Topic 4.2—Self-Concept A discussion of the development of self-concept could center on Coopersmith’s (1967) work with 10- and 12-year-old boys. He identified four factors that contribute to self-concept: 1. Significance—how much a person is loved and approved by others. 2. Competence—how well a person performs tasks he or she considers to be important.

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3. 4.

Virtue—the extent to which a person feels he or she has attained the expected moral standards of his or her culture. Power—how well and to what extent a person can control himself or herself and his or her influence on others.

Coopersmith found that those who believed they possess these qualities had higher selfesteem than those who did not believe they possess these qualities. After defining the term and discussing the factors, students may want to know what they can do to ensure that their children develop a strong sense of self. Coopersmith suggests that to foster self-esteem, parents can do the following: 1. Try to keep their own esteem high. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Communicate concern and interest to their child. Encourage interaction with the child. Engage in joint activities. Use reinforcement rather than punishment to reinforce rules. Encourage self-reliance and independent behavior tempered with protection from too much pressure.

Reference Coopersmith, S. 1967. The Antecedents of Self-esteem. San Francisco: Freeman. Topic 4.3—How Much Does Self-Esteem Matter?

The link between high self-esteem and psychological health seems to be intuitive. Although research has found self-esteem and happiness to be positively correlated, research has not consistently shown a link between self-esteem and other favorable outcomes. For example, Pottebaum, Keith, and Ehly (1986) found that high levels of self-esteem among tenth-graders did not predict school success in the following two years. Self-esteem among high school students has not always been found to be predictive of popularity either. Bishop and Inderbitzin-Nolan (1995) found that those students who had high self-esteem were not more likely to be nominated most-liked by their classmates compared to those who reported low levels of self-esteem. What about problem behaviors such as drinking or aggression? Again it seems intuitive to link low-self esteem to substance abuse and behavior problems such as bullying. McGee and Williams (2000), in a large-scale study, found no correlation between self-esteem at 9 and 13 years old and drinking and drug use age 15 years old. Olweus (2003) found bullies reported low levels of anxiety and high levels of confidence in themselves. So what can we make of these findings? Although high self-esteem does seem to have some social importance, particularly in terms of overall life satisfaction and happiness, it does not appear to be linked to all positive outcomes. References McGee, R., and Williams, S. 2000. “Does Low Self-esteem Predict Health Compromising Behaviors Among Adolescents?” Journal of Adolescence 23(5)5, pp. 569–583. Olweus, D. 2003. “A Profile of Bullying at School,” Educational Leadership 606), pp. 12–18. Santrock, Adolescence, 16e

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Pottebaum, S. M., Keith, T. Z., and Ehly, S. W. 1986. “Is There a Causal Relation Between Self-Concept and Academic Achievement?” Journal of Educational Research 79(3), pp. 140–144.

Topic 4.4—Erikson’s and Marcia’s Research on Identity Erik Erikson’s ideas about identity development during adolescence represent standard concepts used to organize and integrate diverse aspects of adolescent social development. They form a complex conceptual network that Erikson himself admits is not transparent. However, textbook treatments are necessarily brief and often cursory overviews of concepts. Although Santrock’s treatment is accurate, it is brief, and a more detailed presentation may help clarify students’ understanding of the theory. Describe Erikson’s writings collected in Identity, Youth and Crisis (1968). You will find that the first two or three essays give a full treatment of Erikson’s ideas about identity. Quote them liberally as you characterize the richness, complexity, and ambiguity of Erikson’s ideas. Notice how Erikson actually refuses to define the concept in a compact way, and explore his reasons for doing so. Notice the contrast in his pithy characterizations of identity. Other interesting observations include his original idea that the identity crisis was entirely an unconscious process, but that modern fascination with the idea has almost mandated that it be excruciatingly conscious. As rich as Erikson’s ideas are, they are not operationalized in ways that appeal to researchers. With the publication of his doctoral thesis in 1966, James Marcia changed things. Marcia proposed and demonstrated that a valid and reliable interview could yield a four-way classification of identity status derived from Erikson’s theory. The textbook summarizes Marcia’s theory, linking the importance of Marcia’s work to the continued influence of Erikson’s theory. Highlight your lecture with a sampling of quotes from Marcia’s research report. You may also wish to informally explore your students’ identity statuses as part of an in-class discussion suggested below. References Erikson, E. H. 1968. Identity, Youth and Crisis. New York: Norton. Erikson, E. H. 1998. “Youth and the Life Cycle,” In R. E. Muuss & H. D. Porton, Eds., Adolescent Behavior and Society: A Book of Readings, 5th ed. Boston: McGraw-Hill College, pp. 252–260. Marcia, J. E. 1966. “Development and Validation of Ego Identity Status,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 3, pp. 551–558. Muuss, R. E. 1989. “Marcia’s Expansion of Erikson’s Theory of Identity Formation,” In R. E. Muuss & H. D. Porton, Eds., Adolescent Behavior and Society: A Book of Readings, 5th ed. Boston: McGrawHill College, pp. 260–270.

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CLASSROOM DISCUSSIONS AND ACTIVITIES Discussion Topics Discussion 4.1—The Seven Best Things Teenagers Do John and Linda Friel, authors of The Seven Worst Things (Good) Parents Do, have written a book for adolescents, The Seven Best Things (Smart) Teenagers Do. The book parallels Chapter 4 by including discussions of competence (e.g., Harter) and Erikson’s theory about identity versus identity confusion. Present these ideas to the class and discuss the implications of these points on adolescent development. How might an adult help adolescents follow these suggestions? Why might an intervention program for adolescents with low self-esteem be successful or unsuccessful? The Seven Worst Things Teens Do • Expect to have self-esteem without becoming competent • Let your feelings run the show • Silently scream instead of making yourself known • Don’t learn about power • Hide the really serious stuff • Avoid the struggle to find yourself • Live in the extremes The Seven Best Things Smart Teens Do • Become competent: You can’t get self-esteem from talking to yourself in front of the mirror or being smothered with praise • Master your feelings: Don’t let the tail wag the dog • Break the silence: It takes so much energy to silently scream • Get healthy power: Learn to respectfully make things happen • Face the serious stuff: some things are too big to be kept buried • Find an identity: From accepting without question to discovering your own path • Start learning to stake out the extremes: It’s the universal skill Reference Friel, J., and Friel, L. D. 2000. The Seven Best Things (Smart) Teens Do Deerfield Beach, FL: Health Communications, Inc.

Discussion 4.2—Erikson’s Identity Struggle Erik Erikson’s own identity struggle provides an interesting example of identity crisis. Erikson was born in Frankfurt, Germany, in 1902, and never knew his biological father. When he was 4 years old, his mother (who came from a prominent Danish Jewish family) married a Jewish pediatrician named Homburger, who eventually adopted the boy. Growing up in Germany, the Santrock, Adolescence, 16e

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tall blond Erik Homburger was teased by his Hebrew school classmates for his Danish looks, while non-Jewish children teased him for being Jewish. When his mother and stepfather had children of their own, Erik felt that he was treated differently due to his status as a stepson. As a young man, Erik wandered around Europe as an artist, searching for himself and his work. Through a connection with a friend, he landed a job as a teacher in a school set up for children in therapy and children of parents in therapy or in training to be therapists with Sigmund and/or Anna Freud. While working at this school, Erikson became a certified Montessori schoolteacher and a psychoanalyst. When the Nazi party began its persecution of Jews, Erik and his new wife Joan left for the United States (Joan’s home country). Several years later, after establishing himself as a teacher and a therapist, Erik Homburger took the final step in claiming his identity by adopting the name Erik Erikson: son of Erik. Reference Friedman, L. J. 2000. Identity’s Architect: A Biography of Erik H. Erikson Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Discussion 4.3—Physical Appearance Have students write down their ideas about the physical characteristics of the ideal male and female, including height, weight, hair color and length, eye color, physical proportions, and amount of body hair. Some classes initially protest this exercise and, yet, when they go along with the instructor they have as many definite ideas about the ideals as do other classes. Now ask students to rate themselves from 0 to 10, with 10 the ideal, on how closely they match the ideal for their own sex. Collect the responses and have a few students summarize the results (e.g., calculate average heights and weights and provide frequency distributions for the various physical characteristics). Have these students present the results to the class. Do people tend to rate themselves high or low? Why? How do the physical ideals compare with the statistics of average physical characteristics in this country (e.g., taller, weigh less)? How does physical attractiveness affect the way we interpret another’s behavior (e.g., the “beautiful is good’’ hypothesis)? How does physical attractiveness affect our interpersonal attraction levels? How have physical ideals affected our lives and our self-evaluations? How have physical ideals changed? Reference Simons, J. A., Irwin, D. B., and Drinnin, B. A. 1987. Instructor’s Manual to accompany Psychology: The Search for Understanding, (1989), by J. Simons, D. Irwin, and B. Drinnin. St. Paul: West Publishing.

Discussion 4.4—Identity in Adolescence Marcia (1980) expanded on Erikson’s description of the conflicts encountered at the identity versus identity confusion stage. Four statuses of resolution are described: identity diffusion, identity foreclosure, identity moratorium, and identity achievement. The resolutions vary on two dimensions: the presence or absence of a crisis and the presence or absence of a sense of commitment to an identity. After describing each type of resolution, students should be able to give Santrock, Adolescence, 16e

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examples of people experiencing the different resolutions. To test their ability to do so, you may want to give them some examples and ask them to identify the status of the adolescent in the scenario. 1. Marsha is a 14-year-old who, when asked what she wants to do when she graduates from high school, replies, “Maybe I will get married and have some children, or maybe I will be a neurosurgeon or a fashion designer.” (identity moratorium) 2. Seventeen-year-old Suzanne is questioning the tenets of the religion in which she was brought up. She is, for the first time, examining her beliefs and considering other belief systems. At the end of the period, she chooses to follow the same religion as her parents. (identity achievement) 3.

Lorraine is 16 years old, and when asked what she wants to do when she graduates from high school, replies, “I never really thought about it. I guess I will decide when the time comes.” (identity diffusion) After Bill graduates from high school, he plans to go into his father’s business. He has been talking this over with his parents since he was a preschooler and is eager to fulfill his parents’ expectations. (identity foreclosure) Richard was asked to debate issues concerning premarital sex in his health class. His parents always taught him that premarital sex was wrong and that they would be very disappointed if they discovered that he had participated. After thoroughly investigating the consequences of premarital sex, Richard came out against it. (identity achievement)

References Marcia, J. E. 1980. “Identity in Adolescence,” In J. Adelson Ed., Handbook of Adolescent Psychology. New York: Wiley. Temple, L. L. 1992. Instructor’s Course Planner to accompany Life-span Development, 4th ed., by J. Santrock. Dubuque: William C. Brown Communications.

Discussion 4.5—Characteristics of Self-Esteem Santrock discusses the developmental precursors of positive self-concept and self-esteem in adolescence. This activity addresses the topic by asking students to write a one-paragraph sketch of the low self-esteem adolescent. Following the completion of their papers, ask students to build a composite description of an adolescent with low self-esteem. After discussing the characteristics they identified, provide students with the following clinically and empirically derived portrait: • • • • •

distrusts others responds inappropriately to flattery overreacts to criticism feels like a loser feels rejected and mistreated

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blames others for her problems hypercritical of others tries to appear big in others’ eyes (fronting) poor self-disclosure bluffs and cons people IM-4 | 11

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•

negative about competition

•

refuses to try new things

Reference Walraven, M. G. 1993. Instructor’s Course Planner to accompany Adolescence, 5th ed., by J. Santrock. Dubuque: Brown and Benchmark Publishers.

Discussion 4.6—Why the Self Is Empty Do people have one self, as suggested by Erik Erikson, or many selves, as suggested by William James? Do we have one identity or many identities? Historically, the answer for most of mainstream American psychology has been “one” to both questions. Indeed, when the answer is “two or more” the predominant view is that such an individual is mentally ill or under extreme stress. Nevertheless, a growing movement suggests people’s selves are not necessarily composed of one integrated entity; rather, people may in fact be whole collections of several relatively unintegrated selves. Try this idea out on your students as a counter to Erikson’s ideas. Have them discuss it. Have them share experiences that have suggested to them that they are less integrated than they thought they were supposed to be. References Cushman, P. 1990. “Why the Self is empty: Towards a Historically Situated Psychology,” American Psychologist 45, pp. 599–611. Gergen, K. J. 1991. The Saturated Self. New York: Basic Books. Sampson, E. E. 1990. “The Decentralization of Identity,” American Psychologist 45, pp. 1203–1211.

In-Class Activities Activity 4.1—Culture-Free Self-Esteem Inventory Battle’s Culture-Free Self-Esteem Inventory (SEI) was developed to assess the affective needs of students demonstrating difficulties in school. The inventory was designed to measure an individual’s perception of self, and to help consumers gain insights into their own subjective feelings. The Culture-Free SEI for Adults was standardized initially with a group of male and female college students enrolled in educational psychology. The inventory can be administered to groups or individuals, and requires about 20 minutes to complete. In-class scoring may require 10 minutes since most students do not have experience using standardized tests. Give the test to the students as in regular conditions for group testing. Assure students that they will be turning the protocols in to you for disposal only. They should not put their names at the top of the page, to ensure confidentiality. Allow students ample time to complete the test. Then explain the subscales: general self-esteem, social self-esteem, personal self-esteem, and lie items (indicating defensiveness). Ask students to score their own inventories. Suggest how the inventory might be used in, for example, research, clinical evaluations, or assessing domains of competence. Reference

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Battle, J. 1981. Culture-free SEI: Self-esteem Inventories for Children and Adults. Seattle: Special Child Publications.

Activity 4.2—Q-sort Method of Self-Concept The Q-sort method of self-concept assessment is another classroom activity that you can use to distinguish between the real and the ideal self-concept. Using this method, hand out 50 cards containing adjectives to each student and instruct them to sort the cards into piles describing themselves as they are today. Pile 1 = very characteristic of me; pile 2 = very uncharacteristic of me. Then ask them to sort the cards as they would like to be. The results of the two sorting processes are then compared. You can point out to students that this technique can be used to evaluate the stability of self-concept and to evaluate the efficacy of therapeutic outcomes. (See Figure 10.4: What Gender-Role Orientation Will You Present to Adolescents? for a list of adjectives with which you might begin.) Reference Walraven, M. G. 1993. Instructor’s Course lanner to accompany Adolescence, 5th ed., by J. Santrock, Dubuque: Brown and Benchmark, Publishers.

Activity 4.3—“Coming of Age” in Media One way to open a discussion about identity development is to ask students to discuss recent films, music videos, and television programs that explore “coming of age.” In addition to covering the topic of moratorium, other typical teenage issues may be relevant, such as loss of innocence, peer acceptance and rejection, decision making, and intimacy. Ask students if they think the media’s portrayal of adolescent problems and issues is accurate, what conclusions they make about identity development during adolescence based on these media portrayals, and why the media focuses so much attention on adolescents. Activity 4.4—Exploring Identity Development Since identity development occurs largely during adolescence, many of the students in your class will be exploring and forming their identity. Have students think about their own identity development. Ask them to define their identity in terms of roles, responsibilities, groups they may belong to, beliefs, abilities, etc. Ask them to list 10 facets of their identity. Once they have listed the facets of their identity, have them rank the importance of each from 1 (most important) to 10 (least important). You can continue with this if you wish by having students also list the facets of their identity 5 years ago. Students will be able to observe the process of identity development, particularly if you have nontraditional students in class. Activity 4.5—Developing a Personality Test Have students develop a personality test. They can use the trait perspective presented in the text. They will have to decide what traits they would like to test and develop a questionnaire to test these traits. They can get ideas by first doing Internet Activity 5.3 to get ideas about personality questionnaires and how they are constructed. You can also have them come up with other ways Santrock, Adolescence, 16e

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of conceptualizing personality besides just personality traits. You can discuss the role of the environment and other theories of personality, such as Erikson’s theory.

Critical Thinking Exercises Exercise 4.1—Research Methods An important theme of Chapter 4 is that it is possible to intervene in the lives of adolescents in ways that will help teenagers form integrated self-concepts, acquire positive self-esteem, and develop clear senses of identity. An important step toward justifying this claim is evaluating the kinds of research that support such a claim. Which type of research appears to define the bulk of research reviewed in Chapter 4? Circle the letter of the best answer, explain why it is the best answer, and why each of the other answers is not as appropriate. A. case studies D. experimental research B. observational studies E. It is not possible to tell from the text C. correlational research Exercise 4.2—Characteristics of Erikson’s Theory Erikson’s theory of identity development is a tour de force of developmental thinking. It illustrates virtually all of the developmental issues outlined in the final two thirds of Chapter 4. Which of the following statements represents Erikson’s position on these issues least well? (You may wish to review relevant material in previous chapters to do this exercise.) Circle the letter of the best answer, explain why it is the best answer, and why each of the other answers is not as appropriate. A. Biological, cognitive, and socioemotional processes contribute to identity development. B. There are stages in the development of identity. C. Identity development results from both maturation and experience. D. The development of identity is gradual and continuous. E. Early experience plays a role in identity development. Exercise 4.3—Explanations of Self-Esteem Chapter 4 describes several of the causes and correlates of self-esteem in adolescents. Which of the following appears to be an assumption most researchers in this area make, as opposed to an inference or an observation? Circle the letter of the best answer, explain why it is the best answer, and why each of the other answers is not as appropriate. A. High self-esteem is associated with parental expression of affection. B. Peer support influences self-esteem in adolescents more than it does in children. C. Some youths with low self-esteem come from conflicted families. D. Intervention must occur at the level of causes of self-esteem. E. The causes of self-esteem are experiential rather than genetic or maturational. Santrock, Adolescence, 16e

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Answer Key for Critical Thinking Exercises Exercise 1 A.

This is not the best answer. Santrock does rely on a few case studies to illustrate the material. For example, Erikson’s analysis of Ghandi is a case study. But the majority of work appears to come from systematic assessment of large numbers of youths in comparative or experimental research.

This is not the best answer. The only indication that observational research figures in the study of the self and identity is Figure 4.1, which lists behavioral indicators of self-esteem. The rest of the chapter describes questionnaire and interview measures of this and other constructs.

This is the best answer. Most of the work described in the chapter compares the selfconcept, self-esteem, or identity of adolescents who inhabit different situations (e.g., families, peer relations) or have other different characteristics (e.g., achievement, gender, ethnicity). This work is essentially correlational.

This is not the best answer. Little, if any, experimental work seems to be cited in Chapter 4.

This is not the best answer, though one might make an argument that it is the second bestanswer. The phrase (or words of similar meaning) “research shows” appears often in this chapter. That is, findings are summarized with too little information to indicate what type of research generated the results. Nevertheless, over the whole chapter, there is enough information to suggest that correlational research is the dominant type in the study of self and identity.

Exercise 2 A.

This is not the best answer. (Remember, we are looking for the least accurate statement!) Erikson specified genetic bases of identity development, which is based on an active cognitive processing of socioemotional experience.

This is not the best answer. The development of identity begins at birth, even though it is not the focus of personality development until adolescence, according to Erikson’s theory.

This is not the best answer. As indicated in (A) above, nature and nurture both have a role in Erikson’s theory. This is the best answer. Erikson’s account indicates that identity has precursors in earlier developmental stages, but that these precursors are qualitatively different in kind, complexity, and organization. Prior to adolescence, a child’s sense of self is a mix of identifications with other people in the child’s life. The formation of an identity results in a sense of self that is not a quantitative refinement of these previous identifications, but a new integration and organization of them.

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This is not the best answer. As indicated above, the nature of an individual’s identity depends on resolutions of all of the previous four crises in the life cycle of an individual.

Exercise 3 A.

This is not the best answer; it is an inference. This statement expresses the finding of a correlation between parenting characteristics and adolescents’ self-esteem, but no data are presented.

This is not the best answer. This is an inference about the presumed reason that peer support is more highly correlated with self-esteem in adolescents than it is with self-esteem in children.

This is not the best answer; this is an observation. Correlational research is cited as having noted this fact in assessments of children and adolescents from conflicted families.

This is not the best answer. This is Susan Harter’s conclusion based on research concerned with attempts to improve self-esteem and hence, it is an inference.

This is the best answer. Santrock does not discuss the possibility that biological factors play a role in self-esteem directly, and it seems that researchers do not look for biological factors as possible causes. For example, when Susan Harter looks for causes of self-esteem, she looks for them in the areas that adolescents themselves regard as most important to their senses of self. Thus, she and other researchers do not address biological factors except in the case of appearance as it relates to self-esteem among adolescents. Harter refers to this as “perceived” appearance, which appears to emphasize the subjective rather than the objective evaluation of this dimension.

Short Scenarios Scenario 1 Jamie will be 16 years old by the time school is out in the spring and plans to have a good paying job this summer. She has been babysitting and doing yard work since she was 12, and she feels confident that she can handle a job at the hardware and home store. Jamie doesn’t mind school. In fact, she enjoys writing essays in English class and easily works through algebra and geometry problems. School is the best place to see her friends during the week, too. But since she took the retail job she feels like a traitor to the older people in her neighborhood who have depended on her to clean up their yards in the spring or get groceries for them in foul weather. She will miss spending time with them. Jamie has promised to help her neighbors find other support and to check on them to make sure everything is going okay. However, Jamie is not sure how she will balance her time. She plans to ask her family to take phone messages and to help the neighbors learn her work schedule at the store. All of a sudden she isn’t feeling very confident about her decision. •

Jamie is grappling with an understanding of self.

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• • •

Jamie has concluded that her success with previous work suggests that she will be able to move into a complicated retail setting (abstract and idealistic). Jamie describes her personal success across a variety of work, educational, and personal roles. Jamie seems to realize that although she is competent, she will need the continued support of her family to take phone messages and manage her schedule (real and ideal selves). Although she is confident, Jamie recognizes a sudden loss of self-assurance after reviewing the entire scenario of her summer (fluctuating self). In spite of her good intentions and promises to help her older friends, Jamie is experiencing some discomfort about abandoning them. Jamie’s self-descriptions may be self-protective as she builds her confidence to respond to the upcoming demands for the summer.

Scenario 2 At times like these, Carol wishes she had a brother. Mowing the lawn just seems like something a brother should do! As the oldest of three girls, Carol has many responsibilities that sons have in other families. Most of the kids at school don’t know that she can change the oil in a car, fix just about anything mechanical around the house, and prepare a meal for five. Her friends know her as a quiet but interesting, bright and attractive volunteer junkie. A few of them know that she has a strong commitment to her family. Even though Carol sometimes resents the fact that almost everyone looks to her for assistance, she knows deep down that she feels a sense of peace because she has the competence and confidence to cope with any problem that may come her way. • Carol describes her personal competence in several domains as a demonstration of her self-concept. • Domains in which Carol has provided a self-assessment include academics, personal appearance, friendships, and competence at home. • Although Carol regrets that she doesn’t have a brother with whom she can share responsibilities, she demonstrates a high self-esteem and responsibility toward her family. • The social approval and confirmation that she receives from her friends and family who depend on her apparently reinforce Carol. • Carol’s overall self-esteem appears to be very high as she reviews her ability to cope with any problem. Scenario 3 Maria appreciates the opportunity to collect herself as she waits to talk with a social service worker. In Eastern Europe, lines are a large part of everyday life. It is different here because there are far fewer people waiting and they have benches on which to sit down. Santrock, Adolescence, 16e

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Maria also is still learning how to use the bus system in America and finds that getting herself and her mother to appointments is doubly stressful. First, she must negotiate through the maze of schedules and get directions from people she can barely understand. Then, she must prepare to translate and negotiate between the social service workers and her mother to get what they can for her family. Although her father and mother have jobs at a local factory, they have professional backgrounds. They need credentials and documents to regain professional positions. Maria is trying to learn English as quickly as possible so she can speak English at home, but if her parents learn English, too, it will help Maria to do well at school. After all, her education and life opportunities were an important part of their leaving Europe. Maria and her parents intend to become citizens as soon as they can. Since they could not bring anything to America from their country, their apartment looks American already. It is so amazing how the appliances, water, and electricity work all of the time and the stores always have lots of food to purchase! Maria feels so lucky to come to America when so many others were turned down. She intends to do everything necessary to be a good American. • • •

• •

Maria’s identity formation is complicated by the family’s move to America. Maria’s parents are as important to her as she is to them. They probably have a lot to do with the formation of positive self-esteem. Maria’s parents are experiencing a transformation in identity as they experience a loss of professional status, an example of MAMA, moratorium—achievement— moratorium—achievement. It is not clear whether Maria has thought about their ethnic identity, but her strong desire for self-change suggests a high discrepancy between real and ideal selves. The change in location will probably have an impact on Maria’s identity formation, and gender identity in particular.

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RESEARCH ARTICLES Article 4.1—Attachment to Parents in Adolescence Most attachment research has been completed with infants and young children. Theory suggests, however, that attachment relationships and well-being influence internal working models in adolescence and adulthood. Previous research suggests parental separation results in modest increases in the likelihood of underachievement, psychological maladjustment, low self-esteem, and interpersonal difficulties through adulthood. Parental separation has also been correlated with early independence from family, increased opportunity to interact with antisocial groups, and increased engagement in antisocial activities. Hetherington (1989) found that adult children from separated homes report feeling less affection toward parents, spending less time with parents, and engaging in less cross-generational assistance than adult children of intact families. This research was completed to determine: (1) the effect of child age at separation, (2) the effect of child gender, and (3) the effects of confounding factors (changes in family structure and/or family climate before the divorce). Participants were selected from 1,265 children (635 male; 630 female) participating in the Christchurch Health and Development Study (CHDS) longitudinal assessment. Participants were born mid-1977, and have been studied annually for 16 years. Children were studied through direct assessment, parent interviews, teacher interviews, and medical records. At age 15, participants received the Inventory of Parent and Peer Attachment (IPPA) to determine adolescents’ perceptions of attachment to their parents. The IPPA contained three subscales to assess parental communication, trust, and alienation. • Parent attachment. A three-point Likert-type scale ranged from doesn’t apply (0) to definitely applies (2), and was used to assess participants’ perceptions of questions such as, “I tell my parents about my problems.” The scale did not distinguish between perceptions of mothers or fathers. • Parental bonding. As participants became age 16, they were questioned about their relationships with their mothers and fathers. The care and overprotection subscale of the Parental Bonding Instrument (PBI), used for analysis of parent bonding, contained 25 items asking participants to recall the attitudes and behavior demonstrated by parents during respondents’ childhood. The parent characteristics investigated on the care scale included supportive, affectionate, and nurturing (e.g., “was affectionate to me”). Characteristics measured on the overprotective scale were both overprotection and control (e.g., “tried to control everything I did”). • History of parental separation. The longitudinal data collected for families provided comprehensive records of families. The information was used to determine exposure of children to parental separation. A parent separation was defined as a period of more than six months during which a child’s parents separated with the intention of dissolving the marriage. Based on child history, children were assigned to a group

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•

based on their age at the time of their parents’ separation: preschool (< 5 years), middle childhood (5–10 years), and adolescence (10–15 years). Confounding factors. Additional measures were gathered to determine the associations between parental separation and measures of subsequent parent-child relationships at 15 and 16 years of age. Family background factors at birth were measured by evaluating family social background and socioeconomic resources. Maternal age and education, socioeconomic status at participant’s birth, total number of children in the home at birth, family composition, and planning of pregnancy were considered. Interparental conflict (0–15 years) was measured by determining whether (a) parents had extended conflict, (b) the mother reported assault by a partner, and (c) the mothers’ reports of sexual difficulties. Early child behavior (3 years) determined whether the participant demonstrated either internalizing or externalizing behavior difficulties. Mothers rated children across behavioral characteristics (e.g., aggression, tantrums, tension) and developmental characteristics (e.g., eating, sleeping, language development). Mother-child interaction (birth–3 years) was assessed based on reports of developmental records, observations of mothers’ frequency of punitive responses, and observations of mothers’ frequency of positive responses.

The results for the relationship between parental separation and attachment and bonding to parents in adolescence showed prevalent linear relationships between the age at which children were exposed to parental separation and adolescents’ perceived attachment to parents. The younger the child at the time of his or her parents’ separation, the greater the likelihood that the child perceived decreased levels of attachment, parental care, and parental overprotection during adolescence. Even after adjusting for confounding variables, the data show that mean attachment and care scores were .35 to .51 standard deviations below, and overprotection scores were .33 standard deviations above children in intact families. Remarriage did not seem to have an effect on these results. The results clarify the position that parental separation with children of younger ages is likely to demonstrate weaker parental attachment and increasingly negative perceptions of parental care and protection. These results suggest that early separation by parents leads to increased risk for lowered quality of interpersonal relationships, psychological well-being, quality of intimate relationships, family formation, and stability. Reference Woodward, L., Fergusson, D. M., and Belsky, J. 2000. “Timing of Parental Separation and Attachment to Parents in Adolescence: Results of a Prospective Study From Birth to Age 16,” Journal of Marriage and the Family 62, pp. 162–174.

Article 4.2—Perspective-Taking and Ethnic Socialization

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Social perspective-taking ability represents an area of personal, social, and cognitive development that has become increasingly important for harmonious cross-cultural interaction. An underlying assumption serving as part of the foundation for cognitive-behavioral theory suggests that children and adolescents develop an increasing ability to engage in role-taking and perspective-taking. These abilities are highly correlated with increasingly mature forms of ethnic identity and attitudes. An outline of levels of ability as discussed by Quintana (1994) based on Selman (1980): • • • • •

Level 0: Physical appearance and surface characteristics of ethnicity. Level 1: At about 5–9 years, recognition of differences in language, social interaction, treatment. Level 2: At approximately 7–12 years, role-taking skills, recognizes that others judge their social actions, awareness of ethnic prejudice. Level 3: At about 10–15 years, youth develop a recognition of ethnic influence on life experiences. Level 4: From 12 years through adulthood, increasingly aware of differences and commonalties between ethnic groups; recognizes the contribution of diversity.

The current research was based on the hypotheses that (a) ethnic perspective-taking ability (EPTA) is related to ethnic identity, social perspective-taking ability (SPTA), and ethnic socialization; and (b) there are recognizable distinctions in EPTA related to SPTA. Participants included 43 Mexican American adolescents (23 girls and 20 boys) averaging 161/2 years of age. Participants lived in neighborhoods that were predominantly Mexican American (12), Anglo (21), or evenly mixed Mexican American and Anglo residents (10). Families represented a range of SES. Parents’ education was diverse; 14 had at least one parent with a grade school education, 14 had both parents with a high school education, and 15 had at least one parent with some educational experience beyond high school (three had two parents with a college education). In order to qualify for the study, parents verified that youths were Mexican American. Four instruments were used to assess social and ethnic perspective-taking characteristics of youths, ethnic identity characteristics of youths, and socialization processes by parents. Social perspective-taking interview. The interviewer read a short story and administered a short, semi-structured interview to assess youths’ level of social cognition. Ethnic perspective-taking ability interview. A semi-structured ethnic interview was used to assess youths’ perspective on Individual, Friendship, Group, and Family aspects of ethnicity. The Individual section determined how youths interpreted “ethnicity” and their multiethnic background. The Friendship section determined participants’ individual preference for friends of various ethnic origins. Preferences for Group membership, Mexican American, Anglo, or mixed group, were identified with explanations about why the preference occurred. The Family section assessed participants’ perspective, based on an imagined overnight stay with an Anglo American family, of differences or similarities between ethnic groups. Santrock, Adolescence, 16e

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Ethnic socialization. Parents of participants completed a paper-and-pencil questionnaire with a five-point Likert-type scale, to determine the ethnic socialization influences in the home. Question topics included language(s) spoken in the home, instruction on cultural heritage, and cultural objects in the home. Ethnic identity subscales. Adolescents completed this 23-item assessment to determine ethnic identity achievement, identity exploration, and identity diffusion. Scores were believed to be related to ethnic self-concept. Student participants were identified through school records and contacted by letter soliciting student and family participation along with an overview of the study. The reported results were averages of assessed scales or categories of behavior. The average scores on social perspective-taking ability and ethnic socialization were about Level 3. Ethnic perspective-taking ability was somewhat higher at 3.27. Ethnic identity achievement was 3.35 and other group orientation was highest at 3.81. The results showed that social perspectivetaking ability (SPTA) predicted ethnic perspective-taking ability (EPTA). Statistical analyses showed that grades in school were significantly related to SPTA and EPTA. The research results supported Hypothesis 1: The predictive variables of SPTA, ethnic socialization, and grades were highly responsible for about 30 percent of the variance (measured outcome) for EPTA. Further, SPTA alone was a highly reliable predictor of EPTA. The distinctions assessed to support Hypothesis 2 indicated that EPTA and ethnic socialization variables were significant predictors in relation to other variables. As a result, ethnic socialization and EPTA are comparatively independent predictors of ethnic identity achievement (p. 176). Reference Quintana, S. M., Castaneda-English, P., and Ybarra, V. 1999. “Role of Perspective-taking Abilities and Ethnic Socialization in Development of Adolescent Ethnic Identity,” Journal of Research on Adolescence 9, pp. 161–184.

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STUDENT RESEARCH PROJECTS Research Project 4.1—Appearance and Self-Esteem Objective. Upon completion of this project, students will be able to describe the effects appearance has on personal self-esteem. Type/Length of Activity. Out-of-class activity; a minimum of two weeks in duration. Directions. Begin the project by carefully defining ways in which you can use clothing, cosmetics, hair styling, and so on to create an attractive, unattractive, or stereotypical personal appearance. Then randomly choose which day of each week you will make yourself attractive or unattractive according to your own specifications. Specify also that on the following week you will exactly reverse the days on which you will be attractive or unattractive. Before you begin your experiment, make up fourteen 4 x 6 cards on which you have typed the 10 positive and 10 negative indicators of self-esteem listed in Chapter 5 of Adolescence. These cards will be your measure of self-esteem over the two-week period during which you carry out your self-experiment. Begin your experiment according to the schedule you have planned. Maintain an attractive appearance on “attractive days” and an unattractive appearance on “unattractive days.” At the end of each day, take a moment to check which of the indicators of positive or negative selfesteem you have experienced that day. Then subtract the negative indicators from the positive and call the result your daily self-esteem score. Do this for all 14 days of your experiment. When you collect your data, enter your daily self-esteem scores in a table that compares attractive days to unattractive days. Indicate in your table descriptive statistics such as the mean and standard deviations of your scores (you may need help from your instructor to calculate these). After you create a table, write a brief report that answers the following questions. 1. What did you expect to find out? Explain your expectations. 2. What did you do to test your hypothesis? Indicate your plan, and summarize your procedures. 3. What did you find out? Indicate your table of data. 4. Did you confirm your expectations? Why did or didn’t you? 5.

Do you believe the results of your self-experiment? Why or why not?

Wrap-Up. In either small or large group settings, examine each other’s work. Your instructor might want to tally the various mean self-esteem scores in a grand table on a whiteboard or overhead. You may then calculate mean and standard deviations for the results to see whether the class as a whole demonstrated that making oneself attractive leads to improved self-esteem. Discuss various features of this project. It represents an experimental attempt to manipulate self-esteem, thereby testing the hypothesis of a causal relationship between appearance and selfesteem; and it promotes a critique of students’ measures and procedures in pursuit of a deeper Santrock, Adolescence, 16e

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understanding of the difficulty of doing self-esteem research. Finally, you may want to assess the validity of this sort of self-experiment and test the hypothesis that appearance is causally related to self-esteem. Research Project 4.2—Creating a Home Page Objective. Students will become more familiar with the dimensions of self-understanding as they relate to self-esteem and self-understanding by developing a representative website home page. Type/Length of Activity. Out-of-class activity; variable, 6 or more hours. Directions. Your text defines self-understanding as “the adolescent’s cognitive representation of the self, the substance and content of the adolescent’s self-conceptions” (p. 169). For this assignment, you will construct a personal Web page that represents dimensions of selfunderstanding and your personal identity. Based on the description of self-understanding in adolescence, create a page that reflects your current thinking about yourself and the sociocultural environment that influences you. Use the section “Dimensions of Adolescents’ SelfUnderstanding” to guide the choice of topics, links, examples, or icons that are representative of your identity. The Web page should include dimensions of self-understanding that are particularly appropriate to a representative composite of images that reflect your personal characteristics. Set up a Web page through the college or through a commercial server. The page should be your own design, but it can include links to other websites. Be sure to create a site that is aesthetically pleasing and represents dimensions of self-understanding discussed in the text. Be sure to place the greatest amount of effort in creating material for your page. The total number of pages you create and the links that you include will depend on the date the project is due and your instructor’s specifications. After the project is completed, write a one- to two-page paper that explains what you learned about yourself from the project. Students may also write an explanation about experiences they have had as a result of their personal characteristics. Be sure to give students specific parameters. Due Date: ______________ Length of Home Page: ___________ Number of Links: _______________ Items that must be included: _______________________________________________________________________ Items that must not be included: _______________________________________________________________________ Wrap-Up. Prepare to present the Web page during a class discussion. Reference Santrock, Adolescence, 16e

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Adapted from Halonen, J. S., 1999. “Expressing your Identity,” In L. T. Benjamin, B. F. Modine, R. M. Ernst, and C. B. Broeker, Eds., Activities Handbook for the Teaching of Psychology, Vol. 4. Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association, pp. 359–360.

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ESSAY QUESTIONS Provide students with the guidelines for “Answering Essay Questions” before they respond to these questions. Their answers should demonstrate an ability to comprehend and apply ideas discussed in this chapter. 1.

What is self-understanding compared to self-esteem and self-concept? Give personal examples of each that you have experienced in the last week.

Identify and describe changes in the understanding of self during adolescence, and explain how self-understanding is influenced by social contexts.

Describe the variety of ways developmentalists measure self-esteem, and explain how the strategies might be used to conduct research on self-esteem.

What is the definition of Erikson’s psychosocial moratorium? Explain how and why it is beneficial to adolescents.

Define James Marcia’s terms—crisis and commitment—and list and describe the four statuses of identity that he described.

Explain the criticisms of Marcia’s theory, and describe identity consolidation.

How do family, culture, ethnicity, gender, and identity influence developmental changes in identity formation during early and late adolescence?

Researchers are finding that a positive ethnic identity is related to positive outcomes for adolescents. Why do you think that is the case?

Compare and contrast the developmental processes Erikson identifies as identity versus identity confusion and intimacy versus isolation. Discuss the research on gender in relation to Erikson’s explanation.

10.

Adolescents tend to exhibit extreme emotions. What are some of the explanations presented in the text for these widely fluctuating emotions?

11.

List some of the emotional competencies that develop in adolescence. Give an example of each.

12.

List and describe the big five factors of personality, and explain the stability of these traits across the life span.

13.

What is the link between temperament and personality?

References Cohen, J., Ed. 1999. Educating Minds and Hearts: Social Emotional Learning and the Passage into Adolescence. New York: Teachers College Press. Côté, J. E., and Levine, C. G. 2002. Identity Formation, Agency, and Culture: A Social Psychological Synthesis. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc. McGraw, P. C. 2001. Self Matters: Creating Your Life From the Inside Out. New York: Simon & Schuster. Santrock, Adolescence, 16e

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Pipher, M. 1995. Reviving Ophelia: Saving the Selves of Adolescent Girls. Ballantine Books, Inc.

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INTERNET ACTIVITIES Internet Activity 4.1 Self-Esteem The Web page for the National Association for Self-Esteem has a wealth of information about self-esteem including a test of your self-esteem and tips for improving self-esteem. http://www.self-esteem-nase.org/ An additional test of self-esteem is located at: http://www.queendom.com/tests/personality/self_esteem_r_access.html Internet Activity 4.2 Temperament To find out more about temperament, how it affects development, and to take temperament tests go to the following Web pages: http://www.ptypes.com/temperament_test.html http://www.temperament.com

Internet Activity 4.3 Personality Traits There are many theories about personality traits. Have students research trait theory on the Web and bring the information obtained and possibly several questionnaires to class to discuss. The following Web pages have personality tests students can take online from two theoretical perspectives: Myers-Brigg: http://www.humanmetrics.com/cgi-win/JTypes1.htm http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myers-Briggs_Type_Indicator http://www.personalitypathways.com/type_inventory.html http://www.teamtechnology.co.uk/tt/t-articl/mb-simpl.htm Big 5: http://www.outofservice.com/bigfive/ http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_Five_personality_traits http://pages.uoregon.edu/sanjay/bigfive.html http://www.personalitytest.org.uk/

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Resource Title

Resource Type

Adolescents’ Perspectives on Emotion

Video

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CHAPTER 5: GENDER INTRODUCTION The term gender refers to characteristics of people as males and females. Gender roles are a set of expectations that prescribes how females and males should behave. Gender development is influenced by biological, social, and cognitive factors. First, the inherited biological blueprint influences our gender by programmed hormonal changes associated with puberty. The intensity of feelings associated with hormonal flooding during adolescence usually leads to the magnification of gender-based behavior. Second, the resultant behavior demonstrated by adolescents appears to be influenced by social norms of the community. Other members of the family, peer group, and culture, model and reinforce what is perceived to be acceptable behavior. Third, the adolescent has the ability to choose the behavior pattern that best fits his or her understanding of self and expectations for personal outcome. The following points summarize the main theories and evidence explaining gender. • • •

•

• • •

Freud and Erikson believed sexual differences explained the psychological and gender-based differences between males and females. Evolutionary psychology explains that successful men were aggressive to fend off competitors, and that women developed a preference for successful men. Alice Eagly suggests that women perform more domestic roles, have fewer resources, and have less control, and thus developed cooperative behavior patterns. This is consistent with social role theory. Social cognitive theory of gender explains that gender roles are modeled, reinforced, and punished directly, and are shown to be successful by parents and peers. • Parents interact differently with sons and daughters. Sons are given more independence and are higher expectation for academic achievement especially in math. Moms spend more time in care giving and teaching while dads spend more time in leisure based activities. School and teachers have biases against both boys and girls. The classroom is biased against boys because compliance is valued and girls are more compliant than boys. The classroom is biased against girls because boys demand and get more attention. The mass media presents magnified gender role behavior that solidifies stereotypical expectations and behavior patterns, including gender roles. The cognitive developmental theory explains that newly acquired cognitive capacity allows adolescents to choose a gender identity that fits personal goals and attitudes. The gender schema theory suggests that the paths adolescents choose are determined by the combined factors of cognitive, societal, and biological influences.

Gender stereotypes reflect sweeping explanations that are believed to characterize patterns of thought and behavior. Once established, gender stereotypes are hard to shake. In reality, the Santrock, Adolescence, 16e

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differences between males and females are relatively small. The area of greatest difference occurs following puberty in the area of physical development and are often tied to health. Male and female differences in cognitive performance are small. In the area of socioemotional differences, several patterns emerge: females establish connections through rapport talk versus the male style of report talk; males are more physically aggressive and active than are females; and females engage in more prosocial behavior than males. Males express fewer negative emotions and show less self-regulation than girls. Most psychologists argue that differences between males and females vary in degree depending on the domain observed. Behaviors characteristic of either gender may be influenced by the context in which it is observed. Gender role classifications include the following: •

•

• •

•

Traditional gender roles—males are independent, aggressive, and power oriented; females are dependent, nurturing, and uninterested in power; women’s traits are expressive, warm, and emotional; and men’s traits are instrumental and competent. Androgyny—males and females demonstrate high levels of both expressive and instrumental behavior, as both are desirable characteristics in promoting mental health due to increased flexibility and responsiveness in personal relationships. Attempts to change attitudes about gender-role orientation have shown mixed results as children demonstrate more liberal responses to role diversity than young adolescents. Traditional masculinity and problem behaviors—males engage in officially sanctioned but covertly reinforced behavior that heightens an image of masculinity (e.g., risky, aggressive or violent, sexual behavior). Gender-role transcendence—the competence of males and females is not based on gender roles but on people’s ability to respond humanely to each other.

Developmental changes associated with puberty have a tremendous impact on gender-based behavior. The gender intensification hypothesis explains that behavior change during maturation signals others to impose social expectations for the adolescent to demonstrate appropriate gender roles. Carol Gilligan explained that females must adapt to different levels of sensitivity between males and females, and adapt to male-dominated societies. An unfortunate side effect occurs as females suppress their ideas and sometimes become self-destructive. Feminine girls appear to lower their voices and adopt gender appropriate expectations in public settings; androgynous females maintain strong voices in all settings. Feminists are concerned about the study of women in the context of a male dominated theme. Carol Gilligan encourages women to establish their own perspective from personal development and experience. Assertive, independent, and authentic selves present a distinct female voice and perspective on gender. Critics of Gilligan believe that she exaggerates the differences between males and females. Biology and social factors influence gender expectations, yet determining individual roles serves as a central task of adolescent development—one that adolescents are highly motivated to complete.

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TOTAL TEACHING PACKAGE OUTLINE Chapter 5: Gender HEADING

RESOURCE

BIOLOGICAL, SOCIAL, AND COGNITIVE INFLUENCES ON GENDER

Learning Goal: 1 Critical Thinking Exercise: 5.1, 5.3 Short Scenario: 5.1 Essay Question: 1

Biological Influences on Gender

Lecture Topic: 5.1 Discussion Topic: 5.1 Short Scenarios: 5.3 Essay Question: 1

Pubertal Change and Sexuality Freud and Erikson—Anatomy Is Destiny Evolutionary Psychology and Gender Social Influences on Gender

Lecture Topic: 5.1 Short Scenario: 5.1, 5.2, 5.3 Research Article: 5.2 Research Project: 5.1 Essay Question: 1

Parental Influences Siblings Peers

Discussion Topic: 5.3; 5.4 Short Scenario: 5.1 Research Article: 5.1 Essay Question: 1

Schools and Teachers

Essay Questions: 1, 2

Mass Media Influences

Critical Thinking Exercise: 5.1 Research Project: 5.2; 5.3 Essay Questions: 1, 3 Internet Activity: 5.1

Cognitive Influences on Gender

II.

Discussion Topic: 5.1 Short Scenario: 5.3 Essay Question: 1

Short Scenario: 5.1, 5.2, 5.3 Essay Question: 1, 4

GENDER STEREOTYPES, SIMILARITIES, AND Learning Goal: 2 DIFFERENCES Lecture Topic: 5.2, 5.3 In-Class Activity: 5.1 Critical Thinking Exercise: 5.3 Essay Question: 5 Gender Stereotyping

Image: 5-1 In-Class Activity: 5.1 Short Scenarios: 5.2, 5.3 Research Project: 5.1, 5.2, 5.3 Essay Question: 5

Gender Similarities and Differences

Lecture Topic: 5.2

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Chapter 5 In-Class Activity: 5.2 Research Articles: 5.1, 5.2 Essay Question: 6 Physical Similarities and Differences Image: 5-2 Cognitive Similarities and Differences Critical Thinking Exercise: 5.1 Socioemotional Similarities and Differences Research Article: 5.1, 5.2 Essay Question: 6

III.

IV.

Gender Controversy Gender in Context

Discussion Topic: 5.2 In-Class Activity: 5.2 Research Articles: 5.1, 5.2 Essay Question: 6

GENDER-ROLE CLASSIFICATION

Learning Goal: 3 Discussion Topic: 5.2 Critical Thinking Exercise: 5.3 Essay Question: 7

Masculinity, Femininity, and Androgyny

Image: 5-3 Lecture Topic: 5.3 Discussion Topic: 5.3 Short Scenario: 5.3 Research Project: 5.1 Essay Question: 8 Internet Activity: 5.2

Context, Culture, and Gender Roles

Image: 5-5 Lecture Topic: 5.1 Careers in Adolescent Development: Cynthia de las Fuentes

Androgyny and Education

Essay Question: 2

Traditional Masculinity and Problem Behaviors in Adolescent Boys

Lecture Topic: 5.3, 5-4 Short Scenario: 5.1, 5.2, 5.3 Essay Question: 8

Gender-Role Transcendence

Critical Thinking Exercise: 5.3

DEVELOPMENTAL CHANGES AND JUNCTURES

Learning Goal: 4

Early Adolescence and Gender Intensification

Short Scenario: 5.3 Health and Well-Being Interlude: Guiding Adolescents’ Gender Development

Is Early Adolescence a Critical Juncture for Girls?

Critical Thinking Exercises: 5.1, 5.2 Essay Questions: 9,10 Internet Activity: 5.3 Careers in Adolescent Development: Cynthia de las Fuentes, College Professor and Counseling Psychologist

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SUGGESTED LECTURE TOPICS Topic 5.1—Cross-Cultural Comparison of Children Santrock defines gender as a sociocultural dimension of being male or female. A logical question is, “How does female and male gender differ across cultures?” Beatrice Whiting and John Whiting conducted cross-cultural investigations of aggression, nurturance, help seeking, sociability, and other social behaviors in children living in six cultures. Six field teams collected data in Kenya, Okinawa, India, the Philippines, Mexico, and the United States. The behaviors they observed included offers help, offers support, and suggests responsibly (high positive), seeks help, seeks dominance, and seeks attention (high negative), acts sociably, assaults sociably, and touches (high positive), and reprimands and assaults (high negative). Chores that the children were observed doing included carrying wood, water, or fodder; cleaning and other household work; gathering, preparing, or cooking food; gardening; caring for animals; and caring for younger siblings. A comparison of cultures showed that differences in behavior between males and females were more exaggerated in some cultures than in others. The United States revealed the least distinct differences between males and females. The most common and dominant behavior across the cultural groups was acts sociably. The least common behaviors were touches and assaults. The other nine behaviors occurred at varying levels of frequency throughout the six cultures. An interesting result of the observations was that children involved with the care of the household and siblings tended to show lower levels of gender differences and more reluctance toward aggression than children not conducting those chores. The variability of the outcomes suggests that biological factors cannot be ignored, but that cultural influence was responsible for a great deal of variation between demonstrated gender roles. Reference Whiting, B. B., and Whiting, J. W. M. 1975. Children of Six Cultures: A Psycho-cultural Analysis. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Topic 5.2—Researching Gender Roles In early gender research, psychologists tended to emphasize gender differences. Scientific observations started with the assumption that males are reason-oriented and females are emotionoriented. In doing this, psychologists have followed prevailing cultural beliefs that males and females are opposites, that women are the vassals of non-masculine traits, and that gender differences are based on biological differences (Hare-Mustin and Marecek, 1988). Yet, which would be a longer list: a list of how females and males are different, or a list of how females and males are similar? On the other hand, when not directly observing gender roles, psychologists have sometimes ignored gender differences. Before the 1970s, many research studies used male subjects and generalized the results to all people. Since the male norms were most valued within the society, all human behavior was measured based on the male norm. Psychology needs to develop research that neither overestimates gender differences (called an alpha bias) nor underestimates gender differences (called a beta bias). “Paradoxes arise, because every representation conceals Santrock, Adolescence, 16e

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at the same time it reveals. For example, focusing on gender differences marginalizes and obscures the inter-relatedness of women and men, as well as the restricted opportunities of both. It also obscures institutional sexism and the extent of male authority . . . [On the other hand, the beta bias attempt at denying differences reaffirms male behavior as the standard against which all behavior is judged.]” (Hare-Mustin and Marecek, 1988, p. 462). Both psychology and society are learning how to think more constructively about gender roles. Reference Hare-Mustin, R. T., and Marecek. 1988. “The Meaning of Difference: Gender Theory, Postmodernism, and Psychology,” American Psychologist 43, pp. 455–464.

Topic 5.3—The Four Rules of Male Gender Role Both boys and girls believe that male gender-role deviations are more serious than female gender-role deviations (Smetana, 1986). Traditionally, males are taught four strong rules about their gender role (David and Brannon, 1976). 1. “No sissy stuff.” This rule encourages boys to be as different from girls as possible (e.g., “Don’t be a baby and don’t be a girl”). 2. “Be a big wheel.” This rule encourages boys to be superior to others and to compete rather than to cooperate (e.g., “Winning is everything”). 3. “Be a sturdy oak.” This rule encourages male independence and self-reliance, but may also keep boys from asking for help when they need it, and from feeling comfortable with their emotions (e.g., “Big boys don’t cry”). 4.

“Give ‘em hell.” This rule encourages boys to be power-oriented, aggressive, ruthless, and even violent (e.g., “My dad can whip your dad”).

References David, D. S., and Brannon, R. 1976. The Forty-nine Percent Majority: The Male Sex Role. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley. Smetana, J. G. 1986. “Preschool Children’s Conceptions of Sex-role Transgressions,” Child Development 57, pp. 862–871.

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CLASSROOM DISCUSSIONS AND ACTIVITIES Discussion Topics Discussion 5.1—A Biologist’s Perspective on Differences Anne Fausto-Sterling, a member of the Department of Molecular and Cell Biology and Biochemistry at Brown University, provides her biological perspective on current discussion by social scientists that study gender. Fausto-Sterling suggests that in order for social scientists to use biology to answer developmental or evolutionary questions, questions must be considered carefully. If one is interested in explaining the way things are, then an evolutionary perspective works best. Developmental understandings are more useful for designing policies to change the status quo. As an example, David Buss (1995) proposed that women, in an effort to sustain themselves through childbearing and difficult times of low resource availability, prefer mates who demonstrate the ability to secure resources. Fausto-Sterling suggests that an equally plausible explanation for men’s skills of providing for women is that women’s spatial and memory skills evolved to ensure their survival. Without adequate data and specific hypotheses, there is no way of knowing exactly what occurred. Latour and Strum (1986) devised a set of questions to help propose specific hypotheses about human evolution. The questionnaire was used to evaluate the quality of theories constructed by social scientists and biologists. 1. Are the units of evolution measured by genes, individuals, families, or species? 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

Do the units possess qualities of selfishness, self-regulation, harmony, or aggression? Based on the qualities of the units, were relationships exploitative, trade-offs, or competitive? Are time delays between relationships pre-hominid, hominid, Homo sapiens, or prehistorical? What type of measurement can be used to answer questions 1–4? What framework is used to explain the story? What causes explain the events (e.g., shifts in fauna)? What methodology is specified? What are the explicit political lessons that the theory authors conclude?

Evolutionary psychologists reason backward from contemporary humans. This approach requires that they carefully analyze human epigenetic systems and attend to the specific context in which specific behaviors occur. Sound evolutionary arguments must clearly distinguish between information that documents specific current events and information that is used to construct a hypothesis about the past. By the way, Latour and Strum (1986) concluded that social scientists and biologists universally failed the test in hypothesis construction. References

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Buss, D. 1995. “Psychological Sex Differences: Origins Through Sexual Selection,” American Psychologist 50, pp. 164–168. Fausto-Sterling, A. 1997. “Beyond Difference: A Biologist’s Perspective,” Journal of Social Issues 53, pp. 233–258. Latour, B., and Strum, S. C. 1986. “Human Social Origins: Oh Please, Tell us Another Story,” Journal of Social Biological Structure 9, pp. 169–187.

Discussion 5.2—Tootsie and Gender Roles Ask students to view the movie Tootsie or Mrs. Doubtfire before the class in which you would like to discuss gender roles. Before watching the film, instruct students to look for specific gender concepts, or Figure 4, Changing Attitudes About Gender Roles, from Chapter 5. The films lead to discussion of gender role differences demonstrated by men and women as depicted by men forced to learn the new roles quickly. During the discussion, take note of the differences in behavior, such as smiling, eye contact, gestures, physical stance, and walking. If both films are watched, compare the different behaviors both actors demonstrate when playing the roles of women. Other aspects of the movies are also interesting and applicable to the topics of this chapter. The concept of androgyny emerges as each actor discovers more feminine components as he develops the personality of the new character, Dorothy or Mrs. Doubtfire. The relationships between the men and the leading women were also important as they developed connections between masculine and feminine characteristics. Reference Jessen, B. C. 1990. “Tootsie and Gender roles.” In V. P. Makosky, C. C. Sileo, L. G. Whittemore, C. P. Landry, and M. L. Skutley. Eds., Activities Handbook for the Teaching of Psychology, Vol. 3. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association, p. 301.

Discussion 5.3—Gender-Biased Treatment by Parents Have students discuss how parents reward and punish boys and girls differently and thereby contribute to gender differences in behaviors, beliefs, and so forth. Have them provide specific examples. Parents, especially mothers, act consistently toward boys and girls, but the subtle differences contribute to gender-typed behavior. Here are a few examples from the articles cited below. • Parents are more favorably responsive to girls talking about emotions and feelings than they are toward boys. In fact, they may give negative responses to boys who act or talk about being sad. • Parents are also more negative toward sons who act dependent than to daughters who do so. • Sons are more likely to be punished for misbehaving, and parents also allow sons to be more independent and expect less compliance. References Santrock, Adolescence, 16e

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Fuchs, D., and Thelen, M. H. 1988. “Children’s Expected Interpersonal Consequences of Communicating Their Affective State and Reported Likelihood of Expression,” Child Development 59, pp. 1314– 1322. Russell, G., and Russell, A. 1987. “Mother-child and Father-child Relationships in Middle Childhood,” Child Development 58, pp. 1573–1585.

Discussion 5.4—Family Influence on Gender-Typed Behavior To enhance your discussion on the role that parents play in the development of gender-typed behavior, have students write down the things around the house that their mothers and fathers usually did. You can help them by asking such questions as: Who usually did the house cleaning? Who usually fixed things that were broken? Who usually cooked dinner? Who usually took care of the car if it needed to be repaired? Who usually mowed the lawn? Who usually wrote thank-you notes? If you have a number of nontraditional students you might have the traditional and non-traditional students compare their answers to these questions to examine how gender-stereotyped behavior may be decreasing.

In-Class Activities Activity 5.1—Current Sex-Role Stereotypes This classroom activity follows a procedure used in Inga Broverman’s research. Divide the class randomly into thirds, asking one-third to describe a competent woman, one-third to describe a competent man, and one-third to describe a competent adult. Each group is then given bipolar adjective scales (e.g., gentle-rough, tactful-blunt) to formulate their descriptions. The class then analyzes the results. Are competent adults described in masculine terms? Broverman found that most of her competency or instrumentality items were masculineoriented, whereas most of the warmth-expressive items were feminine-oriented. You can emphasize some of Santrock’s comments about androgyny and competence, and you might point out certain dilemmas associated with traditional sex roles. For example, traditional males are often “unsexed” by failure, whereas traditional females are “unsexed” by success. Patterns of dominance and dependency may lead to problematic heterosexual relationships as well. A good way to conclude your comments could be to read the “Berkeley Men’s Center Manifesto” (Garfinkle and Morin, 1978, p. 110). References Broverman, I. K., Vogel, S. R., Broverman, D. M., Clarkson, F. E., and Rosenkrantz, P. S. 1972. “Sexrole Stereotypes: A Current Appraisal,” Journal of Social Issues 28(2), pp. 59–78. Garfinkle, E. M., and Morin, S. F. 1978. “Psychologists’ Attitudes Toward Homosexual Psychotherapy Clients,” Journal of Social Issues 34(3), pp. 101–112. Walraven, M. G. 1993. Instructor’s Course Planner to Accompany Adolescence, 5th ed., by J. Santrock. Dubuque: Brown and Benchmark, Publishers. Williams, J. E., and Best, D. L. 1990. Measuring Sex Stereotypes: A Multinational Study, Rev. ed. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.

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Activity 5.2—Role-Playing the Other Gender Ask students to pair up and do a role-playing task, with males playing the female role and females playing the male role. This activity can allow each sex to try to understand the feelings of the other in certain situations. Have them role-play situations like the following: • A male is drunk at a party. He wants to drive home, but his sober girlfriend wants to drive instead. • A girl becomes pregnant and tells her boyfriend. • A female is transferred from her job to another city and tells her husband. • A male is transferred from his job to another city and tells his wife. • A woman wants to go to work but her husband is against it, and they are trying to settle the conflict. • A girl asks a guy out. Or, a guy asks a girl out. • A husband loses his job and tells his wife. Or, a wife loses her job and tells her husband. • A boss makes advances on a worker. • A husband wants another child but his wife does not. • A boy wants to live with a girl but the girl wants marriage. Or, a girl wants to live with a boy but the boy wants marriage. • A girl picks up a boy in a bar. Or, a boy picks up a girl in a bar. These tasks, if done well, allow the students to empathize with the opposite sex. It is expected that the role-playing will most likely be stereotyped, with males portrayed as dominant and independent and females as emotional and dependent. It is also predicted that in the work scenes, the male’s job situation will take priority over the female’s job situation. Students may attempt to simplify these situations by having the female stay home and have a family. Reference King, M. B., and Clark, D. E. 1989. Instructor’s Manual to accompany Child Development: An Introduction, 4th ed., by J. W. Santrock and S. R. Yussen. Dubuque: Wm. C. Brown.

Critical Thinking Exercises Exercise 5.1—Being a Wise Consumer At the end of Chapter 1 of Adolescence, Santrock presents some guidelines for being a wise consumer of information about adolescent development. Study the pairings of guidelines and research findings presented in Chapter 5 below, and decide which pair represents an appropriate criticism of the information presented in the chapter. Circle the letter of the best answer, explain why it is the best answer, and why each of the other answers is not as appropriate. A. Consider the source of information and evaluate its credibility; attention and behavioral differences between boys and girls become greater during early adolescence. Santrock, Adolescence, 16e

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B. C. D. E.

Causal conclusions cannot be made from correlational data; boys’ sexual activity is related to increases in the level of androgens in their bodies. Be cautious of what is reported in the popular media; television is highly genderstereotyped and conveys messages about the relative power and importance of women. Distinguish between nomothetic research and idiographic needs; the work of Carol Gilligan. A single study is usually not the defining word; section—physical/biological differences.

Exercise 5.2—Characterizing Gilligan’s Work Santrock summarizes Carol Gilligan’s work on the idea that early adolescence is a critical juncture for females, and then outlines several criticisms of Gilligan’s work. Which of the following brief statements best characterizes these criticisms? Circle the letter of the best answer; explain why it is the best answer, and why each of the other answers is not as appropriate. A. Gilligan’s work is sexist. B. Gilligan’s work is unethical. C. Gilligan’s work is not about a developmental issue. D. Gilligan’s ideas cannot be tested. E. Gilligan draws causal conclusions from correlational data. Exercise 5.3—Investigating Gender Roles In this chapter, Santrock describes attempts to define and measure gender roles. Which of the following statements constitutes an assumption made by gender role researchers, rather than an inference or an observation? Circle the letter of the best answer, explain why it is the best answer, and why each of the other answers is not as appropriate. A. Girls will grow up to have feminine gender roles, and boys will grow up to have masculine gender roles. B. Gender-role stereotypes are more harmful to females than to males. C. Femininity and masculinity are separable aspects of personality that have their own unique characteristics. D. Most college students agree that women should not be restricted to traditional roles. E.

Rather than merge gender roles, females and males should transcend gender-role characteristics.

Answer Key for Critical Thinking Exercises Exercise 5.1 A.

This is not the best answer. Santrock cites several appropriate studies that support this claim.

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This is not the best answer. Santrock does not say that the relationship is causal.

This is not the best answer. The information in the text emphasizes the concern that the media sends inaccurate messages.

This is not the best answer. The main argument against it is that Gilligan and her colleagues have used large samples of girls and women in their work. The difficulty is that they have usually excluded males, which may render plausible the claim that they have not overcome their own idiographic needs.

This is the best answer. There is only one reference for the information provided in this section of the chapter.

Exercise 5.2 A.

This is the best answer. In Chapter 1, Santrock points out that a researcher’s stereotyped assumptions about sexes can lead to research that omits one sex from a study. Some of Gilligan’s critics say that Gilligan assumed girls are different from boys and therefore did not include boys in her research. Critics also suggest Gilligan exaggerates sex differences.

This is not the best answer. The critics say nothing about Gilligan’s harming her subjects, failing to obtain informed consent, or violating any other of APA’s guidelines for ethical research.

This is not the best answer. For example, Gilligan’s theory is about discontinuity in the development of girl’s self-esteem; her theory is about how girls’ personalities change over a portion of the life span, with special reference to early adolescence as a special period of development.

This is not the best answer. What critics have suggested is that Gilligan has not tested her own ideas because she excludes males from her research. Sympathetic researchers have, in fact, tested aspects of Gilligan’s theory with appropriate samples of boys and girls.

This is not the best answer. Gilligan herself does not have correlational data, because she did not include boys in her research. More importantly, Santrock does not describe any correlational work that Gilligan has done.

Exercise 5.3 A.

This is an inference. Especially during adolescence, females and males demonstrate behavior that differentiates them from the opposite sex. Biological, social, and cognitive theories explain how the developmental process occurs.

This is an inference. It is based on the observation that males enjoy more favorable gender stereotypes, which (logically) suggests that these roles will harm men less than women. However, the actual claim is not supported in the chapter with direct evidence.

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This is the assumption. This belief led researchers to develop separate scales for masculinity and femininity. However, the belief itself lacks independent confirmation, and the text does not present either arguments or evidence for its validity.

This is an observation. The statement is presented as a description of survey results.

This is an inference. It is the conclusion of Pleck’s argument that gender-role classifications create false dichotomies or contrasts, and that individuals are actually unique and must resolve gender issues on their own terms.

Short Scenarios Scenario 5.1 Amy and Marian are discussing their adolescent children and the differences they experienced during their own adolescence. Amy grew up in a home where both of their parents worked. Her mom was an accountant and her dad was the principal at a high school. Amy and her brother had responsibilities at home including finishing dinner that her mom started the night before, regularly doing a load of laundry, vacuuming, or finishing yard work after school. They also were expected to do well academically, participate in civic clubs with friends their age, and choose a sport to which they would commit some time throughout the year. Marian was one of four children in a somewhat traditional home. Her father was a machinist for a car manufacturing plant and her mother was a homemaker. Marian’s mother waited on everyone with seemingly endless amounts of energy and commitment. She never complained or protested if someone criticized her or the things she did. Her father, however, could be counted on to dole out some serious consequences if any of the kids were really out of line. As the children grew older, the boys took part-time jobs, but Marian was expected to continue to help her mother at home. Without plans or expectations for her to go to college, Marian took the first seemingly good opportunity to marry. She soon had a baby, divorced, and completed an x-ray technician program. Amy and Marian are proud of their own children’s accomplishments and their ability to take on a wide variety of responsibilities. The adolescents demonstrate concern for others and motivation to achieve. The mothers also marvel at the solipsism demonstrated by so many other teenagers. • • • • •

Amy grew up in a middle-class home with two professional parents as models. According to the social cognitive theory of gender, both Amy and Marian learned the gender roles for which they were reinforced. Amy and her brother were expected to complete household tasks and were reinforced for doing so. (social cognitive theory of development) According to the cognitive developmental theory, Amy and Marian had the opportunity to choose the gender-based behavior that they demonstrate. Marian did not follow through with the roles that her parents demonstrated for her; she divorced and is promoting androgynous behavior by her children. (cognitive developmental)

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• • • • • •

Amy and her brother had similar expectations; no designation was made between genders, suggesting that androgynous behavior was reinforced in both children. Marian came from a traditional family; her mother modeled traditional gender roles of serving the family. (Gilligan’s selfless female role) Marian and her siblings experienced an authoritarian parenting style and were expected to maintain traditional roles. Marian’s father saw male-female relationships in a very traditional way, expecting to have responsibility and to be in control. In an attempt to escape the family responsibilities that she had in her parents’ home, Marian began a family of her own. Both women are encouraging their children to develop androgynous gender roles, positive mental health, and responsive interpersonal relationships.

Scenario 5.2 Alicia is 20 years old. Ten years ago she moved from Guadalajara, Mexico, to San Diego, California, with her parents and siblings. In Guadalajara, there were not enough jobs or chances for children to go to school. San Diego is so different from what she grew up with in Mexico. At home, men were very machismo—they were in charge of everything. She was expected to wait on her father and brothers, and did not go to school very often. Women were expected to wait in line and be last. Even at fancy clubs, unescorted women were seated last. In the United States, Alicia works as a housekeeper for the Wheeler family. Mr. and Mrs. Wheeler have three children: Heather is 15, Thomas is 12, and Beth is 4 years old. The children take turns going first when they play games or are served at mealtime. Heather and Thomas regularly swim in their backyard pool and compete with each other athletically. Heather wins the swimming and diving contests with her brother now, but they joke about Thomas’s becoming a monster swimmer as he reaches puberty. Alicia hopes that when she has children, they will have the same opportunities for fun and for choosing their roles in life. • • • • • •

Alicia is describing cultural influences on gender roles. In Mexico, Alicia was expected to take a very traditional role and was not encouraged to participate in the educational process. Social factors influence cognitive factors; women are viewed as lacking logical thinking skills—a direct result of their exclusion from education. Men assume a traditional male-female relationship in which they take control, protecting and dominating the family in Hispanic culture. The Wheelers, as a typical upper-middle class family, have noticeably different standards for their children than Alicia experienced. The three children are treated equally, with the same expectations for social behavior and athletic skill.

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Steve has just experienced a major change in his voice. Sometimes he doesn’t recognize that it is his. Actually, there are many things about himself that Steve does not recognize. He is no longer interested in playing soccer on a co-ed team because the girls are a distraction, and they need to be protected from guys on the opposing team. They take his mind off the game, and they can’t play as well as the guys, anyway. He’s also finding that the girls he previously thought were too prissy are now enticing. Steve also wants to enhance his image. He has started weight lifting, is much more interested in clothes than he used to be, and will be buying a motorcycle as soon as he gets his license. Of course, he doesn’t need a girlfriend, but it would be handy to have a girl for parties and driving around town. Steve’s mother is both appalled and hurt by his magnified attention to gender differences. As a professional observing and experiencing sexism in the work environment, she has pointed out differences in salaries, job opportunities, and community expectations that place the onus on women to be extremely competent and well organized to be successful. Steve argues that men are in positions of greater responsibility and therefore must be confident about who they hire for various positions. Further, they should be adequately compensated for the additional responsibility. His mother hopes that this is a phase, and that it passes quickly. • Steve seems to have a gender schema that places males and females in traditional gender roles. • Steve is an example of youth exposed to androgynous behavior expectations, but caught up in gender stereotypes. • Steve is expressing the male-female relationship in traditional terms of male dominance and control. • Steve has drawn the conclusion that the female players are not as good, possibly due to his sexism more than an objective assessment of the girls’ performance. • Steve is demonstrating gender intensification. • Steve has formed a hypothesis and is developing expectations that fit distinct gender roles. • Steve’s explanations of gender roles could be identified as examples of the Freudian/ Eriksonian, or evolutionary psychology perspective that anatomy is destiny. • An explanation for Steve’s behavior could be the social influences of the mass media, with its distinct stereotyped gender roles portrayed by television characters and music videos. • Steve’s mother attempted to explain the issues of gender stereotypes through rapport talk. •

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RESEARCH ARTICLES Article 5.1—Goals as a Mediator in Dyadic Conversations Similarities and differences in peer conversations between girls, boys, and mixed-gender dyads are evident as documented by extensive previous research. Differences have been attributed to divergent goals; girls’ concern for needs of self and peer and boys’ concern for control and status. Same-gender dyads show greater affiliation between females and lower affiliation strategies between boys. Mixed-gender dyads often show that girls change interaction style to low-affiliation strategies, whereas boys usually continue to demonstrate the same approach with girls as with boys. This research investigated (1) whether similarities and differences in mutual-participation goals were a function of the gender of the participants, and (2) whether goals influenced gender differences in high-affiliation conversations. The participants included 104 sixth-grade preadolescents (53 girls) averaging 12 years of age (11.67 to 13.25 years). Seventy-seven percent of students recruited from a public school participated in the study. Participants were randomly assigned to same- or other-gender dyads creating 18 female, 17 male, and 17 mixed-gender dyads. The first set of procedures involved completing a creative writing assignment. Participants were assigned to work with their peers for 45 minutes, two times a week, for four weeks as part of class assignments. A mixed-gender pair of researchers videotaped two 15-minute writing periods and administered questionnaires following completion of the two sessions. The questionnaires, based on pilot research, were used to determine the extent to which participants attempted to accomplish each of the 20 goals during the previous session. Videotaping and questionnaire administration took place at the beginning and end of the project, an average of two weeks apart. The second set of procedures included segmenting the conversations into communication units, divided by change in speaker, pause, or change in idea. The communication units were identified as falling into 1 of 17 categories. High-affiliation conversations were characterized as collaborative (affirming, elaborating, informing, and asking) and obliging (going along, willingly submitting, and seeking manipulation/suggestion) communication units. Low-affiliation conversations were characterized as controlling (denigrating, countering, commanding, and resisting) and withdrawing (evasiveness, hesitancy, reluctance, nonparticipation, and silence) communication units. Gender, conversations, and goals over time were analyzed through repeated measure designs. A repeated measures analysis of variance comparing dyad gender and conversation showed high-affiliation conversations were more prevalent in female dyads than in male or mixed-gender dyads. A comparison of conversations between Times 1 and 2 showed that highaffiliation conversations were more prevalent at Time 1 than at Time 2.

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Mutual-participation goal scores were higher in female dyads than in the other two dyads; mutual-participation goal scores did not differ between male or mixed-gender dyads. In mixedgender dyads, collaboration units, obliging communication units, and mutual-participation goals did not differ for male and female participants. The hypothesized model, goals as a mediator of dyad gender differences in conversations, was examined through a regression analysis of differences in high-affiliation conversations. Separate analyses of data from Times 1 and 2 found similar results. First, female dyads demonstrated a higher occurrence of high-affiliation conversations than did male or mixedgender dyads. Second, mutual-participation goal scores were higher for female dyads than for male or mixed-gender dyads. Third, goals were identified as a significant mediator of differences between dyads in high-affiliation conversations. The same regression analyses completed at Time 2 showed no significant differences between dyad gender for high-affiliation conversations; there were reduced effects of dyad gender. The mutual-participation goal at Time 2 did not show change; mutual participation was significant. In conclusion, mutual-participation goals influenced pairs of young adolescents to engage in high-affiliation conversations whether they were same- or mixed-gender dyads. The results showed that female dyads demonstrated more high-affiliation conversation than did the male- or mixed-gender dyads. Further, high-affiliation conversation occurred during the first assessment period at the beginning of the project compared to the second assessment period. Differences in conversation for mixed-gender dyads were associated with similar levels of high-affiliation conversation by females and males. The differences between same- and mixed-gender dyads suggest that females reduce and males increase the amount of high-affiliation conversation they likely would demonstrate in same-gender dyads. In the context of a written assignment, the salience of gender may be reduced. Reference Strough, J., and Berg, C. A. 2000. “Goals as a Mediator of Gender Differences in High-affiliation Dyadic Conversations,” Developmental Psychology 36, pp. 117–125.

Article 5.2—Gender Differences in Depressed Mood Previous research has shown that females experience depression at a rate 1.6 to 2 times higher than males during adulthood. Measures of depressed mood and depressive syndrome also show different rates of occurrence between adolescent males and females. Recent research identified the shift as occurring somewhere between early and middle adolescence, or between 13 and 14 years of age. A question that has not been answered is that of the event or experience that influences depressed mood at the time of or just before the emergence of sex differences. The age and maturity of female adolescents influences the way in which peers and adults respond toward them, and subsequently shift toward stereotypical female behaviors. The gender intensification process also suggests that girls will identify more strongly with female stereotypes during adolescence than at other times. Three major challenges, or stressors, have been identified that represent key factors in the gender intensification hypothesis, including pubertal Santrock, Adolescence, 16e

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development, school change, and body dissatisfaction. Changes in pubertal status appear to be most troublesome for early adolescent females, although the results across studies are not entirely consistent. School changes in combination with pubertal changes were identified as accounting for poor self-esteem and depressed mood among girls. Finally, body satisfaction appears to be the most important factor in relation to global self-esteem; low levels of satisfaction are associated with poor self-esteem. The extended gender intensification model (EGIM) proposes that both the gender intensification hypothesis and the body dissatisfaction hypothesis may be influencing a causal chain. The result of being an early-adolescent female, as opposed to a male, entails (1) maturing earlier, (2) having a smaller physique, (3) perceiving herself as fatter, (4) identifying resolutely with the female stereotype, (5) increasing physical mass, (6) perceiving herself as less attractive than acceptable stereotypes, and (7) developing general dissatisfaction with appearance. The 10,839 subjects were students enrolled in grades 7 through 12, ranging in age from 12 to 20 years, from 67 schools in Norway. The questionnaire was administered during school and took about 90 minutes to complete. All students completed the questionnaire at the same time except for a small number absent during the first administration. The questionnaire included instruments for six categories of behavior. Depressed mood was measured using a form derived from the SCL-90 checklist. Using a four-point rating scale, students were asked to indicate the frequency of events such as having trouble going to sleep or feeling too tired to do anything. Sex role identification was measured with a brief form of Bem’s Sex-Role Inventory using a five-point scale. The Pubertal Development Scale was used to assess five areas of development with a four-point scale. Body mass index was based on the students’ self reports, and perceived obesity was based on a single measure. Satisfaction with body and appearance was measured with the Body Area Satisfaction Scale made up of seven items asking students to rank satisfaction with specific body parts including face, lower torso, mid-torso, upper torso, muscle tone, weight, and height. Self-esteem was measured using the Global SelfWorth subscale of the SPPA. School change and its occurrence with puberty were measured for elementary to junior high school changes. As expected, girls reported higher levels of depression than boys. For the entire age span of 12 to 20 years of age, the mean score for girls was 58 percent of a standard deviation above boys. An analysis of variance showed that both sex and age influenced the reported differences in depressed mood. Levels of depression showed a gradual shift for girls from age 12 to age 14: 12year-old girls showed similar mood to boys; 13-year-old girls showed a slight sex difference; but by age 14 and through age 20, girls showed a one-half standard deviation above the boys. About five percent of adolescents reported above average levels of distress or trouble, which was interpreted as depressed mood. Structural equation modeling was used to test the complete extended gender intensification model (EGIM). The results showed a weak path between pubertal timing and femininity (dissatisfaction resulted from increased tissue fat and perception of being overweight). Including a direct effect of gender on satisfaction improved the model further, but modifying the analysis Santrock, Adolescence, 16e

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of Global Self-Worth as a mediator for femininity and satisfaction with body parts resulted in the best fit for the model. The results showed that the EGIM was effective in explaining 90 percent of the variation between girls and boys. The most influential chain began with satisfaction of body parts, moved to Global Self-Worth, and ended with Global Physical Appearance. The second influential chain began with femininity influences of the three factors above, but also has a direct effect on depressed mood. Pubertal timing has some effect on increasing BMI, thus influencing dissatisfaction with appearance. In summary, the results show adolescent girls consistently reported higher levels of depressed mood at age 13 and above. Body dissatisfaction surfaced as the most highly correlated factor with depressed mood in the final model. While body weight was hypothesized to be the most influential factor, the perceived lack of thinness was correlated with dissatisfaction toward specific body parts and initial pubertal timing contributed to depressed mood. Reference Wichstrom, L. 1999. “The Emergence of Gender Difference in Depressed Mood during Adolescence: The Role of Intensified Gender Socialization,” Developmental Psychology 35, pp. 232–245.

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STUDENT RESEARCH PROJECTS Research Project 5.1—The Role of Gender in the Corporate World Objective. Students will be able to describe the roles of male and female members of major corporations and formulate conclusions about the impact of gender role expectations. Type/Length of Activity. Out-of-class activity; variable. Directions. This semester project has three phases. First, students should identify companies that have governing boards. Three types of influential companies include Fortune 500 companies, publishing companies, and local companies. In the category of Fortune 500 companies, be sure to choose a diversity that represents technology, consumer staples, consumer cycles, energy, financial services, health care, utilities, communication services, transportation, and basic materials. Identify as many companies as possible, up to 50 percent, that provide products or services primarily for females (e.g., Estée Lauder). In the area of publishing, identify the board of directors or editorial board of popular press magazines. Again, be sure to compare categories of magazines such as weekly news, sports, parenting, fashion, health, hobbies, politics, technology, home improvement, and travel. Balance the gender focus by getting two magazines from each category, with one of each oriented toward female and male audiences. Finally, identify local businesses in the city or state that have boards of directors, including the chamber of commerce, local foundations, churches, utilities, manufacturing companies, services, hospitals, and a telephone company. Second, conduct interviews of two board members, one female and one male, from each type of company―Fortune 500, magazine publishers, and local organizations. Ask board members to explain their duties, including details about the frequency and duration of meetings, fiscal management responsibilities, and the extent of responsibility in overseeing company philosophy, activity, and productivity. Third, complete some simple analyses of the composition of boards and the roles that board members fill. Draw some conclusions about gender roles, gender stereotypes and, possibly, sexism that take place in American businesses. Students should write a group paper describing their findings. Wrap-Up. Students may work independently or in small groups to complete a final report describing the methods, results, and conclusions of their investigations. Follow the writing guidelines in the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association, 6th ed. (2010). Their reports should explain what they learned about modern sexism. Discuss the implications of these findings in relation to issues of personal decision making about gender-appropriate behavior. Have students present their results to the class. Research Project 5.2—Gender Role Stereotyping on Television Objective. Students will be able to assess the power of the media to influence gender roles and sexism in industrialized countries. Santrock, Adolescence, 16e

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Type/Length of Activity. Out-of-class activity; 3 to 4 hours. Directions. In this project, you will be required to evaluate three prime-time television shows for gender role stereotyping. Pick three shows between 8:00 P.M. and 9:00 P.M. EST that children might watch. For each show record the following information: (1) number of male and female main characters; (2) occupations of main male and female characters; (3) thematic connections between males and females (e.g., female in distress and male as rescuer); (4) personality characteristics of one male and one female from the show (use the Bem androgyny scale to determine masculinity, femininity, or androgyny). Use the data sheet in “Student Handouts” to record the following information. Then answer the questions that follow. Program ___________________

Male_____

Female_____

Number of male and female characters _____________________________________________________ Occupations of male and female characters __________________________________________________ Connections between males and females ____________________________________________________ Gender classifications of males and females ________________________________________________ 1.

In the shows you watched, did males or females take more main roles? What kinds of occupations did the males have? What kinds of occupations did the females have? Were there status differences in the occupations of the males and females? What were they?

What kinds of themes connected the males and females in the television programs you watched? Were the themes stereotyped for male-female relationships?

What were the sex-typed categories of the males portrayed on television (masculine, cross-sexed, androgynous)?

What were the sex-typed categories of the females portrayed on television?

What do you think these models are teaching adolescents about being a male or a female in our society? Are they fair representations of the way women and men act in the real world?

Examine the data overall, looking at: (1) the relative number of males and females in primary roles; (2) the relative status of the males’ and females’ occupations; (3) the thematic relationships presented between males and females, and the extent to which these tie into sex stereotyping; and

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(4) the relative presentation of androgynous, cross-sexed, and sex-stereotyped males and females on television. Examine specific programs for differences. Wrap-Up. Present your information from the research project to the class. To the Instructor. You may want to discuss the following questions: 1. Are some shows more stereotyped than others? 2. In the stereotyped programs, is one sex portrayed as more advantageous than the other? 3. How does the class data relate to the data on stereotypes presented in the text? 4. 5.

If the programs generally support gender-role stereotypes, how does this affect the developing child? If males are presented as the more interesting and preferred sex, could this account for the tomboyish behavior of girls? How?

Research Project 5.3—Gender Role Stereotyping in Magazine Advertisements Objective. Students will be able to assess the power of the media to influence gender roles and sexism in industrialized countries. Type/Length of Activity. Out-of-class activity; 1 to 2 hours. Directions. You are going to explore gender role stereotypes in magazine advertisements. Pick one widely circulated magazine and evaluate the depiction of males and females in the advertisements. Evaluate the ads in terms of the characteristics listed below. Title of Magazine________________________ Date of Publication:____________ Number of Ads

Females___________ Males___________

Characteristics:

Males

Both_____________

Females

Physical Appearance Body Message Clothes Facial Expression Personality Activities Sexuality Other Answer the following questions: 1.

Are males and females equally represented in the ads?

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What characteristics are depicted for males and females? Are they different based on sex? Explain.

What generalizations about sex and gender can you make from the ads you looked at?

Wrap-Up. Present your information from the research project to the class. Students can compare their findings in groups. Are the findings different for different magazines?

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ESSAY QUESTIONS Provide students with the guidelines for “Answering Essay Questions” before they respond to these questions. Answers to these types of questions demonstrate an ability to comprehend and apply ideas discussed in this chapter. 1.

What evidence supports the conclusion that both nature and nurture influence gender roles? Discuss and evaluate the evidence presented in Adolescence.

Explain how the attitudes and behaviors of educators influence the gender roles demonstrated by male and female students.

Does mass media influence gender roles? Provide specific examples that support the conclusion for a causal influence.

Compare and contrast cognitive developmental and gender schema theories of gender typing.

Define the concept of gender-role stereotype and discuss whether stereotypes influence the development of gender roles during adolescence.

Discuss warnings about the nature and significance of gender differences, and indicate the nature and causes of gender differences as they are understood today.

Define androgyny and gender role transcendence, and explain why some researchers prefer one or the other concept.

Does the traditional masculine role promote problem behavior among adolescent males? Cite and evaluate the evidence.

Explain why Carol Gilligan and others have developed a distinct feminist perspective on female gender role development.

10.

What are some of the criticisms of Gilligan’s work? What is your opinion of the female gender role and the way in which this affects adolescent girls’ self-esteem?

References Butler, J. P. 1999. Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of Identity. New York: Routledge. Kindlon, D. J. 2000. Raising Cain: Protecting the Emotional Life of Boys. New York: Ballantine Publishing Group.

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INTERNET ACTITIVIES Internet Activity 5.1 Gender Roles and the Media Numerous websites are devoted to gender roles and how they are represented in the media, especially television (e.g., http://www.parentfurther.com.php53-8.dfw12.websitetestlink.com/technology-media/facts/facts_mediaeffect.shtml). Have students conduct research on the Web to answer the following questions: 1.

What is the ratio of men to women in television shows? Is the ratio different for different types of shows (e.g., dramas, sitcoms, and soap operas)?

Why do television shows perpetuate traditional gender roles for men and women?

How are men and women typically represented in advertisements on television and in magazines?

How are gender roles represented in children’s programming?

How does the presentation of traditional gender roles affect gender role development in children?

Internet Activity 5.2 Bem Sex Role Inventory (BSRI) Students can go to the following Web page to take the BSRI: http://garote.bdmonkeys.net/bsri.html Internet Activity 5.3 Carol Gilligan A number of websites have biographical information about Carol Gilligan. Students can find out more about her work, including her contributions to the areas of moral development and gender role development for girls. http://its.law.nyu.edu/facultyprofiles/profile.cfm?personID=19946

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CHAPTER 6: SEXUALITY INTRODUCTION Adolescent sexuality becomes the essence of life for youths through fantasy, exploration, and identity development. The transition from childhood to adulthood takes place across developmental domains discussed in previous chapters of Adolescence, and sexuality represents an integral component of each one of them. Adolescence might be considered an extended transition, especially in the domain of sexuality. Although some cultures actively embrace sexual exploration, others advocate postponing sexual contact until marriage. Cultures with mixed messages inspire heightened curiosity, and youths become increasingly aware of their own motivation to establish an understanding of preferences and patterns of fulfillment. With both anxiety and eagerness, adolescents are compelled to establish a sexual identity. The Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health found an overall pattern of vaginal sex first, average age of sexual initiation of 16 years, and spacing of more than 1 year between initiation of first and second sexual behaviors. Trends over the past several decades has indicated a fewer number of teen ever having sexual intercourse, currently being sexually active, having had sexual intercourse prior to age 13, and having had sexual intercourse with four or more persons during their lifetimes. Although researchers are finding that adolescents are waiting until they are older to have sexual intercourse, recent research indicates that oral sex is a common occurrence among adolescents in the United States. The advantages and disadvantages to initiating oral sex. Advantages include negating the risk of pregnancy, less likely to feel guilty, less likely to get in trouble with parents for sex, more likely to feed good about themselves and their relationships. Disadvantages include an increased risk for sexually transmitted infections and increasing the likelihood of initiating vaginal sex. A sexual script is a stereotyped pattern of role prescriptions for males and females indicating how they should behave sexually. The female sexual script links sexual behavior with love, and more females than males say love is the reason they are sexually active. Males are more likely to make sexual advances and females limit the sexual behavior. Research supports the notion that sexual double standard does still exist. Adolescents who have sexual intercourse before the age of 14 are at risk for a number of problems, sexual and otherwise. Other risk factors include contextual factors such as socioeconomic status and poverty, immigration/ethnic minority status, family/parenting and peer factors, and school-related influences. Cognitive factors such as attention problems and weak self-regulation and personality factors such as impulsivity have also been implicated in sexual risk-taking behaviors. Attitudes and behavior of individuals with same-sex attractions become part of an adolescent’s tendency or preference with varying degrees of different sex and same sex Santrock, Adolescence, 16e

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experiences. It likely that a combination of genetic, hormonal, cognitive, and environment influences contribute to the development of one’s sexual orientation. Because same-sex attraction is stigmatized, sexual minority youth often engage in self-devaluation. One common example of this is passing or the process of hiding one’s real social identity. Sexual minority youth are at increased risk for depression and suicide, substance abuse, sexually transmitted infections (especially HIV) . Adolescents of either sexual orientation experience similar mechanisms of sexual arousal. Masturbation facilitates excitement and frequently serves as an outlet for adolescents. Contraceptive use has increased, but many teens either do not use contraception or use it inconsistently. Rates of condom use in the US are less than condom use in Europe. Adolescent pregnancy and unwed mothers continue to be a serious dilemma in the United States. Although the rates decreased in the 1990s through 2004, the adolescent birth rate increased in 2006. However, in 2013 the US teen pregnancy rate reached an all-time low. However, the US continues to have one of the highest adolescent pregnancy rates among industrialized nations. Abortion is an option, however most states restrict adolescents’ access to getting an abortion. Pregnancy leading to childbirth before age 17 is characterized by: • • • •

Health risks of pregnant teens Infants with LBW Children with more behavior difficulties Mothers dropping out of school

• • • •

Children with neurological problems Children with lower intelligence scores Children with more illnesses Mothers and infants living in poverty

Cognitive abilities that reflect limited recognition of cause-and-effect relationships coupled with high unemployment motivate a feel-good-now perspective. Adolescent parents often do not have the support that they need to follow desirable child-rearing practices. In an attempt to demonstrate responsibility, adolescent fathers quit school to take low-paying jobs. Reducing adolescent pregnancy depends on family planning, contraceptive availability, future planning, and community consensus for adolescent success. Adolescents are at high risk for contracting sexually transmitted diseases. Every year more than 3 million American adolescents acquire an STI (sexually transmitted infection). The most common, potentially destructive diseases include: • • • • • •

HIV/AIDS—virus; destroys the immune system; death results from common illnesses. Genital Herpes—virus; many strains, some of which are STDs; recurring blisters, sores. Genital Warts—caused by the human papillomavirus (HPV); appears as small, hard bumps; treatment involves topical drug, freezing, or surgery. Gonorrhea—bacterium; thrives in moist membranes; treated successfully with antibiotics. Syphilis—bacterium; prefers warm, moist areas; attacks CNS; treated with antibiotics. Chlamydia—bacterium; infects genitals; highly infectious; 25 percent of females become infertile.

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Forcible sexual behavior and sexual harassment are unfortunate by-products of our sensual culture. Four issues are recognized as highly destructive to the individual involved, and to society as a whole. • • • •

Rape—forced, nonconsenting sexual intercourse. Date and acquaintance rape—coercive sexual activity with a known perpetrator. Quid pro quo sexual harassment—forced sexual compliance in exchange for protection from negative educational outcomes. Hostile environmental sexual harassment—forced sexual contact that negatively influences work.

Adolescents tend to have a poor knowledge base about sexually related issues. • • •

Most adolescents do not understand the human fertility cycle. Twelve percent of students believe the birth control pill protects against AIDS. About a quarter of adolescents believe they can identify AIDS by looking at a person.

Sexuality becomes entwined with every domain of adolescent development. Successful transitions depend on maintaining positive feelings about self, engaging in sexual experimentation without intercourse, and engaging in intercourse with commitment. Single teenage mothers and their children require diverse assistance from extended family, educational, and social services programs to support their continued development. Further investigations to improve success are imperative.

TOTAL TEACHING PACKAGE OUTLINE Chapter 6: Sexuality HEADING I. EXPLORING ADOLESCENT SEXUALITY

RESOURCE Learning Goal: 1 Lecture Topic: 6.1 Research Project: 6.1, 6.2 Essay Question: 1

A Normal Aspect of Adolescent Development

Lecture Topic: 6.2 Essay Question: 1, 2 Video: Sex among Teens at Age 15 (Connect) Video: Sexual Activity in Adolescence (Connect)

The Sexual Culture

Discussion Topic: 6.1

Developing a Sexual Identity

Lecture Topic: 6.1, 6.2

Obtaining Research Information About Adolescent Sexuality

Discussion Topic: 6.1 In-Class Activity: 6.1

II. SEXUAL ATTITUDES AND BEHAVIOR

Heterosexual Attitudes and Behavior

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Learning Goal: 2 Images: 6-1, 6-2, and 6-3 Discussion Topic: 6.1 Essay Question: 2 Lecture Topic: 6.3

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Development of Sexual Activities in Adolescents Oral Sex Cross-Cultural Comparisons Sexual Scripts

Short Scenario: 6.1 Through the Eyes of Adolescents: Struggling with a Sexual Decision

Risk Factors in Adolescent Sexuality Further Exploration of Sexuality in Emerging Adults

Research Article: 6.2 Through the Eyes of Emerging Adult: Christine’s Thoughts About Sexual Relationships

Sexual Minority Attitudes and Behavior

Factors Associated with Sexual Minority Behavior Developmental Pathways Gay or Lesbian Identity and Disclosure Similarities and Differences with Heterosexual Youth Discrimination, Bias, and Violence Health

III.

Learning Goal: 2 Lecture Topic: 6.1 Discussion Topics: 6.1, 6.4 Critical Thinking Exercises: 6.1, 6.2 Research Article: 6.1 Essay Question: 3

Lecture Topic: 6.4 Discussion Topic: 6.4 Research Article: 6.1

Self-Stimulation

Learning Goal: 2 Discussion Topic: 6.1

Contraceptive Use

Research Article: 6.2 Essay Question: 4

ADOLESCENT SEXUAL PROBLEMS

In-Class Activity: 6.1 Short Scenario: 6.2

Adolescent Pregnancy

Image: 6-4 Learning Goal: 3 Essay Question: 5

Incidence of Adolescent Pregnancy Cross-Cultural Comparisons Trends in U.S. Adolescent Pregnancy Rates

Image: 6-5 Discussion Topic: 6.2 Essay Question: 6 Through the Eyes of Adolescents: Wanting a Different Kind of Life

Abortion

Essay Question: 7

Consequences of Adolescent Pregnancy

Short Scenario: 6.2 Essay Question: 5

Adolescents as Parents

Careers in Adolescent Development: Lynn Blankenship, Family Consumer Science Educator Video: Coping as Teen Parents (Connect)

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Reducing Adolescent Pregnancy

IV.

In-Class Activity: 6.1 Essay Question: 6 Internet Activity: 6.1

Sexually Transmitted Infections HIV and AIDS Genital Herpes Genital Warts Gonorrhea Syphilis Chlamydia

Learning Goal: 3 Image: 6-6 Discussion Topic: 6.3 Essay Question: 8 Internet Activity: 6.2

Forcible Sexual Behavior and Sexual Harassment Forcible Sexual Behavior Sexual Harassment

Image: 6-7 Learning Goal: 3 Short Scenario: 6.3 Essay Question: 9

SEXUAL LITERACY AND SEX EDUCATION Sexual Literacy Sources of Sex Information Cognitive Factors Sex Education in Schools

Learning Goal: 4 Discussion Topic: 6.5 In-Class Activity: 6.1 Essay Question: 10 Internet Activity: 6.3 Health and Well-Being Interlude: Toward Effective Sex Education

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SUGGESTED LECTURE TOPICS Topic 6.1—Five Layers of Erotic Life Perceptions of normal versus abnormal sexual behavior change, as do behavioral expectations across cultures, and societal norms across time. Rosenhan and Seligman (1995) point out that in the past, behavior identified as “normal sexual function” was easier to define. Factors that contribute to confusion include: increased diversity in sexual practices, broader conceptualizations of sexual order, and narrower conceptualizations of sexual dysfunction than in the past. During the 1960s and 1970s, sexual behavior in general occurred with more frequency and diversity, due in part to the introduction of birth control pills and increased permissiveness by society. The advent of AIDS influenced an increased uneasiness, a decline in adventurousness, and thus, more conservative attitudes than those expressed during the ‘60s and ‘70s. Behavior practices that have become more common, or considered normal, over the last 40 years include masturbation, premarital sex, oral sex, same-sex attraction, and bisexuality (Rosenhan & Seligman, 1995, p. 470). Age, culture, and religion influence individual acceptance of each type of sexual behavior as well. In general, perceptions of sexual order and disorder have changed dramatically over the last century, and presumably will continue to change over the next. The five layers of erotic life, from the deepest layer—sexual identity—to the most surface layer—sexual performance—clarify normal sexual order and identify sexual disorders and dysfunction. •

•

Sexual identity is the first layer, defined by chromosomal and genital identification. Women identify themselves by vaginas (and a pair of XX chromosomes); men identify themselves by penises (and by a pair of XY chromosomes). These attributes contribute to an individual’s deepest layer of normal sexual identity. Transsexuals see themselves as being trapped inside the body of the wrong sex. Sexual orientation represents the second layer. An individual who has exclusive sexual attractions to the opposite sex is exclusively heterosexual. An individual who has exclusive sexual attractions toward the same sex is exclusively same-sex attraction. Individuals who fantasize about both male and female attractions are bisexual. Sexual orientation that is considered problematic causes distress or confusion that the individual finds unacceptable. Sexual interest is identified as the third layer. Attractions toward a type of person, parts of the body, and situations in relation to sexual arousal or fantasy represent sexual interest. Women tend to focus on the male chest, shoulders, arms, buttocks, and face. Men are liable to focus on the female face, breasts, buttocks, and legs. Unusual objects of arousal such as feet, belly button, panties, or animals that interfere with normal sexual arousal are classified as disordered sexual interests. Sex role, the fourth level, is reflected in the public demonstration of maleness or femaleness. Most people adopt a role that they believe fits them. Women adopt female roles; men adopt male roles. There are no disorders identified at this level.

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•

Sexual performance, the behavior that the individual demonstrates with the preferred person under preferable conditions, represents the fifth level. Normal performance is associated with desire, arousal, and orgasm. Problems at this level are identified as sexual dysfunction or inability to perform.

Rosenhan and Seligman explain that the deeper the layer at which dysfunction occurs, the more difficult it becomes for the individual to change. Sexual performance is most easily changed. As the deepest layer, sexual identity is the most difficult; not accepting one’s sexual identity— transsexuality—is a problem that reasonably cannot be expected to change. Reference Rosenhan, D. L,, and Seligman, E. P. 1995. Abnormal Psychology, 3rd ed. New York: W. W. Norton & Company.

Topic 6.2—Childhood Precursors of Sexual Behavior Treatments of adolescent sexual behavior in textbooks usually make it seem as though sexual behavior arises for the first time early in adolescence. There is little if any discussion of relevant childhood behavior. This is an opportunity for a lecture on the developmental precursors of adolescent sexual behavior. You could begin by disabusing students of the notion that children do not engage in anything like sexual behavior. Kinsey compiled data from men’s and women’s retrospective accounts about sex play during childhood, and it is clear that children both masturbate and engage in sex play with each other. You can cite and display these data and discuss their meaning. For example, there is a gradual increase in sex play for boys from ages 5 to 13, but a decline over the same period for girls. Boys’ and girls’ sex play is divided about equally between same and opposite sex peers. Pause in your lecture to let students discuss the meaning of these facts. Perhaps they will suggest that the sex difference in sex play is related to sex difference in sexual activity at adolescence. They will probably want to know more about the nature and significance of “” same-sex sex play. A more recent study by Larsson and Svedin (2001) examined normal childhood sexual behavior. Some of the behaviors they found to be normal included accidental touching of the mother’s or father’s genitals while showering or bathing, walking around without clothes on at home, being curious about their father’s genitals, and looking at other children’s genitals. This study, like Kinsey’s, found sex play to increase for boys as they got older and decrease for girls. Their explanation for this was that boys’ genitalia are more observable by the boys themselves and their parents. In addition, a boy’s gender identification is related to having a penis and parents often remark about their infants’ or preschoolers’ penis, giving boys the message that their penis is a valuable body part. Therefore, it seems that this difference in sex play may be the result of socialization. Present your own ideas about the meaning of these data. There appears to be little discussion of typical sexual activity among children, save the usual cross-cultural comparisons in anthropological work. Ask students if they think childhood activity is in itself truly sexual Santrock, Adolescence, 16e

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behavior independent of adults’ labels or explanations. This is an opportunity for you to speculate about the combined effect of physical development, socialization, and a child’s growing knowledge of life, along with an increasing awareness of sex, sexuality, and sexual behavior. References Kinsey, A. C., Pomeroy, W. B., and Martin, C. E. 1948. Sexual Behavior in the Human Male Philadelphia: Saunders. Larsson, I., and Svedin, C. G. 2001. “Sexual Behavior in Swedish Preschool Children, as Observed by Their Parents,” Acta Pediatric 90, pp. 436–444. Schlegel, A., and Barry, H. III. 1991. Adolescence: An Anthropological Inquiry. New York: Free Press.

Topic 6.3—Hormones and Sexual Behavior It appears that people generally believe the influx of androgens that adolescents experience during pubescence causes a heady and compelling interest in sexual behavior. The face validity of this belief is so widespread that it seems foolhardy to challenge it. Nevertheless, a lecture on the relationship between hormones and sexual behavior will probably be of interest to students. Consult a paper by Christopher Coe presented at the 21st Minnesota Symposium on Child Psychology. First, point out that the research we have on the topic is mainly correlational or clinical, which renders it inconclusive concerning causal mechanisms. Then suggest that social mechanisms could easily be just as powerful a basis for the association of hormone levels and sex. For example, you should be able to cite media representations of adolescents as sex-crazed people, as well as less intense representations of sex as being an important concern to teenagers. You may be able to locate clinical evidence about the relationship between treatments with androgens for renal gland dysfunction and sex life, for example, of the women who receive them. The research suggests that the influence is variable. Consult also Herant Katchadourian’s book, The Biology of Adolescence for additional information. Hyde and Delamater’s book, Understanding Human Sexuality, has some interesting information on children that may be relevant and helpful. Use sources such as these to develop your own position. Hormones both provide a necessary biological mechanism that supports the biological aspects of sexual behavior and intensifies the rewarding consequences of sexual behavior (pleasure, orgasm), but not necessarily a hydraulic need for sex. This is a useful position to develop if you want to talk later about the possibility of making teenagers, especially males, more responsible for their sexual activity. References Coe, C., et al. 1988. “Hormones at Puberty: Activation or Concatenation?” In M. R. Gunnar and W. A. Collins, Eds., Development During the Transition to Adolescence: The Minnesota Symposia on Child Psychology 21, pp. 17–41. Hyde, J. S., and Delamater, J. D. 2000. Understanding Human Sexuality, 7th ed. Boston: McGraw-Hill Higher Education. Katchadourian, H. 1977. The Biology of Adolescence. San Francisco: W. H. Freeman.

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Topic 6.4—Identity Development for Same-Sex Attraction Teens The development of a sexual identity is a normal part of adolescence. This process can be considerably more stressful for gay and lesbian youth. Because our society stigmatizes homosexuality, same-sex attraction youths may feel pressure to hide their sexual identity. According to Troidan (1989), same-sex attraction adolescents go through four stages of sexual identity development. During sensitization, the first stage, the youth (typically prepubescent) has same sex feelings without understanding what these feelings mean. It is at this time that youth begin to feel different from their peers, although they do not fully understand how or why they are different. Youth at this point typically ignore their feelings or they may try to actively suppress their feelings. The next stage, identity confusion, usually occurs during adolescence. Now the individual realizes that he or she may be a sexual minority youth. This is followed by identity assumption, when the individual comes out as a as a sexual minority. The final stage is commitment. The individual adopts a sexual minority lifestyle in the commitment stage. Coleman (1982) has identified five stages of coming out: pre-coming out, coming out, exploration, first relationship, and identity integration. During the pre-coming out stage individuals know they are different from their peers, but they are not sure why. In the coming out stage, individuals know they have same sex feelings but are not sure of their sexuality. In the exploration stage they begin to experiment with their sexuality. During this stage individuals have to develop social skills in order to meet others who have a same-sex attraction preference. In the first relationship stage individuals further develop their social skills for same-sex relationships. In the identity integration stage individuals integrate their same sex attraction identity to include both their public and private self. References Coleman, E. 1982. “Developmental Stages of the Coming Out Process,” Journal of Homosexuality 7, pp. 31–43. Troiden, R. R. 1989. “The Formation of Homosexual Identities,” Journal of Homosexuality 17, pp. 43– 73.

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CLASSROOM DISCUSSIONS AND ACTIVITIES Discussion Topics Discussion 6.1—Sexual Attitudes and Behavior As a way of introducing the chapter sections dealing with sexual attitudes and behavior, conduct an anonymous sexual attitude survey like the following one in class. 1. Do you approve of premarital sex? 2. Do you feel you must be in love with someone before having sex with that person? 3. Is sex with the same sex person between consenting adults morally acceptable? 4.

Do you think young people are more sexually promiscuous than they were a generation ago?

Does sexual experimentation before marriage contribute to later marital satisfaction and happiness? Is masturbation morally wrong? Does sex education lead to promiscuity? Is there any sexual behavior that you consider completely taboo?

6. 7. 8.

This exercise is a good prelude to putting the often-emotional issues of adolescent sexuality in proper perspective. The varieties of motivation for engaging in adolescent sexual activity can also be mentioned to or solicited from students (e.g., sex as a means to an end, sex as a form of negative identity and acting out, sex for locker-room credibility, or romanticizing maternity). Reference Walraven, M. G. 1993. Instructor’s Course Planner to Accompany Adolescence, 5th ed., by J. W. Santrock. Dubuque: Brown and Benchmark, Publishers.

Discussion 6.2—Teenage Pregnancy Rates Encourage students to think about the serious social problems created by the high rate of adolescent pregnancy. The National Center for Education in Maternal and Child Health explains that over 900,000 American adolescents become pregnant annually. The rate of adolescent pregnancy in the United States has declined by 22 percent, yet continues at a rate that is four times as high as France, Germany, and Japan. The effects for teenage mothers and their children are late school completion, health risks for mothers and infants, and poverty. The consequences for society are serious and enduring. Teenage pregnancy currently costs the United States more than $7 billion per year. Statistics published in 1990 showed that half of all teenage mothers, and 75 percent of unmarried teenage moms, received welfare within five years of giving birth to their first child. Families with a single parent have the greatest impact on poverty experienced by children. The long-term effects are likely to be more devastating. Currently, 45 percent of firstborn children and 33 percent of all children in the United States have mothers who are

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unmarried, teenagers, or mothers without a high school degree. The consequences for these children are increased disabilities, poor educational preparation, and continued poverty. How will we respond to this growing crisis? Show students examples of media materials that have been developed to prevent and deal with the problems of teen pregnancy. The Children’s Defense Fund, for example, has posters of adolescent mothers and their babies. These posters make statements such as, “The one on the left will finish high school before the one on the right,’’ and, “It’s like being grounded for eighteen years.” You can then lead a discussion concerning the effectiveness of such materials. How can the adolescent’s personal fable be penetrated? How can future planning and mature contraceptive behavior in sexually active adolescents and the postponement of sexual involvement be encouraged? References National Center for Education in Maternal and Child Health, 2115 Wisconsin Avenue, N.W., Suite 601, Washington, DC 20007-2292. Trad, P. V. 1999. “Assessing the Patterns that Prevent Teenage Pregnancy,” Adolescence 34, pp. 221– 240.

Discussion 6.3—Sexually Transmitted Infections The text does not discuss all sexually transmitted infections. Some sexually transmitted infections may present less immediate danger, but are annoying and can have long-term damaging effects if untreated. A sexually-transmitted virus called the human papillomavirus (HPV) causes genital warts. The warts are small, often barely visible, and may be flat or resemble cauliflower. They grow on the penis, vagina, or cervix, as well as in and around the rectum and throat. Some strains of HPV have warts that can cause cell changes that lead to genital cancers such as cervical cancer. The warts may bleed during delivery, and the virus can be passed to babies during childbirth. The warts can be removed, but the virus may continue in the body indefinitely. Incubation periods and recurrence can occur within 18 months of treatment. Vaginitis is a general term used to describe three types of diseases: trichomoniasis, yeast infection, and bacterial vaginosis. Women are generally aware of the symptoms and seek treatment, but men can also carry and spread the disease without symptoms. Even if partners are monogamous, treating one without the other results in passing the disease to each other. Some types of vaginitis can occur without being sexually active. • Trichomoniasis is noticeable because of yellow or green discharge. The discharge causes irritation such as burning or itching and has an odor. Although trichomoniasis is easy to treat with a full course of antibiotics, it is important to treat both sexual partners to prevent reinfections. Bubble baths, hot tubs, and douches may trigger relapses. • Yeast infections are noticeable when the discharge looks like cottage cheese and is accompanied by irritation and itching. Treatment includes antifungal pills, vaginal creams, or suppositories.

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•

Bacterial vaginosis causes a grayish-white, watery, strong-smelling discharge. It is treated with antibiotic pills.

Other common STIs include hepatitis (results in liver cancer and liver damage), crabs, and scabies. Contact the local health department, a family practice physician, or a gynecologist to find out which ones are common in your community or state. Remind students that adolescents and young adults are prime candidates for these and all too often go without treatment due to embarrassment or inadequate health care resources. Ask students if they think regular reminders to adolescents about current “epidemics” of STIs might help adolescents remember to use condoms and find out the history of their sexual partner. Reference Krames Communications. 1998. Sexually Transmitted Diseases: How to Recognize, Treat, and Prevent Them. San Bruno, CA: Author.

Discussion 6.4—Same-Sex Attraction A consciousness-raising activity uses the following questionnaire. After reading questions to students, they should answer true or false to each statement. 1. A conservative estimate of the number of sexual minority individuals in America is at least 10 million people. 2. Most same-sex attraction individuals identify themselves as members of the opposite sex. 3. Same-sex attraction has been in existence since biblical times, and numerous societies approve of same-sex sexual practices. 4. All same-sex attraction individuals are biologically abnormal. 5. All gay men are effeminate in dress and mannerisms. 6. Gay men identify with seductive mothers, and consequently they hate their fathers. 7. Sexual minority individuals are more likely than heterosexuals to be child molesters. 8. Sexual minority individuals are proven job risks in delicate positions. 9. Men who fear sexual minorities are likely to feel negative and anxious about their own sexual impulses. 10. Same-sex attraction individuals only practice sodomy. Answers 1. T 6. F

2. 7.

F F

3. 8.

T F

4. 9.

F T

5. 10.

F F

Discussion 6.5—Planned Parenthood Counselor Invite a Planned Parenthood counselor to class to discuss the services offered by Planned Parenthood for adolescents. Planned Parenthood offers a wide range of services that include birth Santrock, Adolescence, 16e

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control, pregnancy testing and counseling, emergency contraception, HIV testing and counseling, as well as screening and treatment for other sexually transmitted infections, safer sex counseling, abortions or abortion referrals, and medically accurate sexuality education.

In-Class Activities Activity 6.1—A Sex Education Program for Adolescents This chapter documents the changing sexual attitudes and behaviors of today’s adolescents. Many of these changes are not in a desirable direction. For example, the rates among adolescents of premarital pregnancy and of sexually transmitted diseases are unacceptably high. See if students can use the knowledge they gained in reading this chapter and information from class lectures and/or discussions to develop a sex education program for adolescents. Divide students into small groups to complete an outline. Ask them to consider the following questions before putting their thoughts down on paper. 1. What should be the goals of your program (e.g., accurate factual understanding, instilling of values)? 2. Should students and/or parents be surveyed concerning the desired content of the program? 3. At what grade should the program start? 4. How will you respond to parental concerns about sex education leading to promiscuity? 5. 6.

What criterion will be used to measure the success of the program? What methods should be used to present the program content (e.g., The Postponing Sexual Involvement Approach)?

Ask each group to present a component of the program. Give them some feedback concerning the reasonableness of their approach by considering the following facts. 1. Developed countries with liberal sexual attitudes, accessible contraceptive services for teens, and formal sex education programs have lower teenage pregnancy rates. 2. Teens are usually sexually active for a number of months before seeking information about contraceptive methods. 3. Fifty percent of new cases of sexually transmitted infections occur in people 15 to 24 years old. 4. Babies born to adolescent mothers have twice the mortality rate of babies born to mothers in any other age group. 5. About 89 percent of births among teenagers are out of wedlock. 6. Six percent of all teenage females become pregnant each year. 7. About 7 percent of all live births in this country are to teenage mothers. 8. Twenty-seven percent of all pregnancies among adolescents are aborted. 9. Eighty-two percent of sexually active girls use contraception regularly. Santrock, Adolescence, 16e

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10. 11. 12. 13. 14.

Seventy-seven percent of pregnancies among 15- to 19-year-old girls were unintentional. One-half of all first-time premarital pregnancies occur in the first six months of sexual activity. A large percentage of adolescents do not realize that venereal diseases come from sexual activity. Many adolescents feel that if you do not want to get pregnant, you will not.

After discussing all of this information, ask students to go back and look at their answers to the six questions that were posed. Would they change any of them? Would they discuss contraception in their program? Would they start the program earlier? What were the most innovative ideas they presented?

Critical Thinking Exercises Exercise 6.1— Sexual Minority Attitudes and Behavior In the section of Chapter 6 called “Sexual Minority Attitudes and Behavior,” Santrock discusses the changing societal acceptance and expression of diverse sexual orientation. In his explanation, Santrock presents an assumption about contemporary issues and bypasses discussion of the point. Which of the following statements represents this assumption, rather than an inference or an observation? Circle the letter of the best answer, explain why it is the best answer, and explain why each of the other answers is not as appropriate. A.

Preference for a sexual partner of the same or opposite sex is not always a fixed decision, made once in life and adhered to forever.

Today, it is more acceptable to view sexual orientation as a continuum from exclusive heterosexuality to exclusive homosexuality.

Parents are seldom the people an adolescent tells about his or her same-sex attractions.

Homosexual and heterosexual males and females have similar physiological responses during sexual arousal and seem to be aroused by the same types of tactile stimulation.

A very early critical period might influence sexual orientation.

Exercise 6.2—Developmental Theories and Transitions Chapter 1 in Adolescence provides an overview of developmental theories that you might want to review for this exercise. Which theory is correctly paired with the issues of adolescent sexuality? Circle the letter of the best answer, explain why it is the best answer, and explain why each of the other answers is not as appropriate. A.

Psychoanalytic theory: hanging with older friends, being pursued by older males, parent autonomy.

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Cognitive theory: early maturation, motivation for sexual contact, older friends, smoking and drinking.

Behavioral and social cognitive theory: timing of first sexual intercourse and emotional intensity.

Ecological theory: poverty, neighborhood quality, and school characteristics.

Eclectic theoretical orientation: gender roles and sexual scripts dominate experiences.

Answer Key for Critical Thinking Exercises Exercise 6.1 A.

This is an inference. Evidence of homosexual patterns that deviate from earlier or later patterns of sexuality suggests that change does occur for a percentage of the adult population.

This is an assumption. Kinsey’s sexual orientation continuum has been discussed for almost 50 years in academic circles, but one cannot assume that it is accepted more readily today than at the time of its inception.

This is an observation. This statement is based on research information.

This is an observation. This statement is also based on research information described in Adolescence.

This is an inference. The conclusion that hormonal influence changes sexual preference is not clear. Notice the word “might” appears in the explanation.

Exercise 6.2 A.

This is not the best answer. Psychoanalytic theory is concerned with the intense sexual desire associated with the libido. Timing of behaviors and subsequent events represent a combined influence of biological, social, and cognitive processes.

This is not the best answer. The focus and concern of cognitive theory is the understanding of sexuality’s complex meaning for adolescents as they become increasingly aware of the feelings and perspectives of self and significant others. The co-occurrence of health-related behaviors has the influence of biological and social factors as well.

This is not the best answer. The behavior and social cognitive theories look at behavior learned from others, the influence of peers in initiating sexual activity, or smoking and drinking with older friends. Timing of first sexual intercourse and emotional intensity has to do with cognitive processes.

This is the best answer. The ecological perspective assesses the relative impact of the immediate home and family, neighborhood conditions, and economic circumstances that influence current decisions and plans described as the contexts of sexual behavior.

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This is not the best answer. An eclectic approach uses a variety of theories to explain the combined influence of early maturation (i.e., biological), motivation for autonomy from parents and interest in dating (i.e., cognitive), and the influence of older friends (i.e., behavioral and social cognitive). Gender and sexuality are dominated by behavioral and social cognitive theory.

Short Scenarios Scenario 6.1 Bob and Caroline have been dating for two and one half years. They were both 15 when they met and their dating and sexual behavior followed the normal sequence. They pretty much learned about sex together. They have been enjoying intercourse almost every week for the last year. Fortunately, Caroline started taking the pill a couple of months after beginning to have intercourse, and they have promised each other not to have other sexual partners to guard against STDs. Caroline has noticed, however, that Bob has become less talkative, calls less often, and they have had sex less often. Their friends at school think everything is great between them, and of course she is always available for school dances or parties with them. Nobody else seems to have noticed that Bob has started spending more time with some guys that she and their mutual friends hardly know. Bob never introduces her to them when they run into each other by chance. He even seems a little embarrassed about her. Caroline is very concerned about their relationship becoming less solid and wonders about the importance of his relationship with these friends. • •

• • •

The relationship has been founded on typical heterosexual attitudes and behavior. If Bob and/or Caroline are African American, Latino, or Caucasian, they have engaged in the following sequence of sexual behavior: French kiss, touch breast, touch penis, touch vagina, sexual intercourse, and oral sex. They are avoiding several risky behaviors because Caroline takes the birth control pill and both promise to be exclusive with each other sexually. Bob appears to be experiencing some changes in his perspective about their relationship, possibly with Caroline in particular, or with the heterosexual relationship. Bob may be experiencing some difficulties deciding about his sexual orientation or may be trying to establish some distance from Caroline and their mutual friends due to the intensity of the relationship.

Scenario 6.2 Heather made it through the prenatal exam without throwing up or crying, as she feared she might. Dr. Robinson was a little critical, but he also asked how her plans were shaping up with this dramatic change in her life. If her parents hadn’t been so controlling and conservative, she could have gotten started with the pill and avoided all this. Now they are trying to force her and Ted to get married. Get real! She didn’t even like him that much, and he hasn’t called since her father brought up the subject. And as far as Heather is concerned, she is going to be back to a normal life as soon as the baby is born. Her mom will be able to take care of everything—she always has before. In the meantime, Santrock, Adolescence, 16e

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Heather has decided to do everything possible to keep her weight down so she will be back into her jeans after the baby is born. She definitely is not worried about the baby being small. It will be easier to deliver if it is. The only things she is worried about are the parties and senior class trip that she will miss over the spring semester. • • • • • • •

Heather is pregnant, but she appears to blame her parents for her not using contraceptives. Cognitively, Heather appears to have a low acceptance of self and her sexuality. Heather’s emotional and cognitive maturity are troublesome. The fact that she is having a prenatal exam decreases the likelihood for poor health of Heather and the baby. Heather is concerned with her weight, not the nutrition or weight necessary for a healthy baby. This could compromise the health of the child. Her age and behavior increase the chance that Heather will have a child with low birth weight and neurological problems. Heather already resents the infant. The baby will require continued support by outside caregivers to have the physical and cognitive stimulation necessary for normal development.

Scenario 6.3 The adolescent support group meeting is the last place Rachelle thought she would be over the holiday. She should be swimming to get ready for an upcoming meet. Not this year! She can hardly stand to go to school after being harassed by a pair of young male teachers for a year. They said that her younger sister wouldn’t make it through high school if Rachelle told anybody about the grotesque sexual acts these teachers enjoyed at her expense. But she isn’t alone. One girl’s brother prostituted her to his friends. Another became seriously ill after being raped by a stranger one night on her way home from the library. Everyone here has a story and none of them are pleasant. Rachelle worries constantly about an immune system disease suddenly appearing in her blood work. Everywhere she goes, she sees naked women and macho men. Does anyone else see this? Does anyone care? • Rachelle experienced a variation of quid pro quo sexual harassment; her sister was not harassed as long as Rachelle did not reveal the sexual harassment toward her. • Rachelle is concerned that she may have contracted a sexually transmitted infection such as AIDS. • The cultural issues that are invading Rachelle’s consciousness are the advertisements and the American cultural focus on sexuality. • Rachelle is probably wondering if others recognize the negative consequences of the emphasis on sex in our culture. • Rachelle may be asking herself many different questions. For example, does the lack of social policy, limited and late sex education in the schools, and high rate of teenage pregnancy in the United States suggest that nobody cares enough to affect change? Santrock, Adolescence, 16e

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RESEARCH ARTICLES Article 6.1—Development of Sexual Orientation Models of sexual orientation by young heterosexual or non-heterosexual adults have not distinguished between the developmental processes experienced by homosexual females versus males, nor of bisexuals versus homosexuals. Research shows that women often form sexual orientation preferences later and more abruptly than male counterparts. For example, Laumann et al. (1994) identified that about 9 percent of males 19–29 years old and 7 percent of males 30–39 years old reported same-sex attractions; less than 7 percent of females 19–29 years old and 9 percent of females 30–39 years old reported same-sex attractions. The current project investigated questions of consistency in young women’s reports of behavior, fantasy, and attractions in childhood, stability in sexual attractions, and onset of the selfquestioning process. Investigation was predicted to help distinguish between primary lesbians, whose experiences are more early developing and exclusive, than elective lesbians, whose same-sex orientation may be subject to external influences. A second issue concerned the process of confirming lesbian or bisexual orientations. Researchers agree that early awareness is followed by exploration with the non-heterosexual identity through sexual contact with same-sex individuals or media resources. The process includes these components: childhood feelings of being different; gender-atypical behavior; intense interest in the same sex; lost regard for the opposite sex; recognition of predetermined attraction toward the same sex; and active pursuit of an investigation of personal sexual identity. Defining characteristics of lesbians also include continuity over time, consistency between the domains of early behavior, and consistency with later attractions. Previous research suggested that bisexual behavior was less strongly tied to pre-adult sexual feelings than those experienced by lesbians, and was influenced by social and sexual learning. The current research was initiated to distinguish between women who experienced same-sex attractions before questioning their relevance to identity, and those who did not experience attractions until after the questioning process. The predictions for this study were that young women would not report all factors associated with the non-heterosexual identity, and the incidence of these features would overlap between homosexual and bisexual women, and would not be significantly associated with sexual identity labels. Participants included 89 women, 16 to 23 years of age (mean 20 years), who did not identify themselves as heterosexual or who declined to label their sexual orientation. They were identified through lesbian, gay, and bisexual community events in Ithaca, the Finger Lakes region, Syracuse, and Rochester, New York; classes on gender and sexuality at Cornell University; and groups at Cornell University, the State University of New York at Binghamton, and Wells College in central New York. Women attending community events had a 95 percent participation rate; participation by class members was not calculable. Santrock, Adolescence, 16e

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The participants completed face-to-face interviews lasting between 1 and 1.5 hours. Interviews were conducted at a university office whenever possible; alternative interview locations included outdoor parks, coffeehouses, and restaurants. Subjects were told that the interview was about prior and current same-sex and other-sex attractions and the sexual questioning process. Participants were given the opportunity to revise their answers at the end of the interview. Interviews were not recorded due to the sensitivity of the information. Subjects were informed that they could withdraw at any time. Many participants had not revealed their sexual orientation to relatives or friends, and several had not told anyone about same-sex attractions before the interview. Measures included the following: • Sexual identity questioning and development. Participants were asked to explain the processes they experienced during sexual questioning including first conscious evaluation of their sexual identity and time at which they reassessed childhood experiences. Interviewers identified participant’s age of first conscious evaluation, the type of antecedent event, and age at first same-sex attraction. Raters coded presence or absence of childhood indicators, precipitation of same-sex questioning by attractions versus homosexual or bisexual ideas and individuals, and whether these attractions occurred before questioning. • Proportion of current sexual and emotional attractions for women. Participants reported separately the proportion of sexual and emotional attractions they experienced toward women versus men. • Stability in sexual attractions over time. Participants were asked to report the level of change in attractions over time and whether levels of awareness influenced the attractions. Attraction shifts that were not explained as shifts in awareness were recorded as actual changes. • Attraction histories. Each participant was asked to describe three individuals to whom she was most greatly attracted sexually and/or emotionally during her lifetime. The results indicated that 46 percent of unlabeled women had not ever engaged in same-sex sexual contact and were excluded from the study. The results did not show a significant association between sexual identity and age of first same-sex sexual attractions. Significant differences were noted between lesbians’ attractions and those of bisexual and unlabeled women. Overall, 32 percent of lesbians reported exclusive sexual attractions for women, with about 60 percent reporting 75 percent or more attractions were for women. The majority (88 percent) of bisexual or unlabeled women reported 75 percent or less of their attractions were toward women. About 50 percent of women questioned their sexual orientation following contact with lesbian, gay, or bisexual ideas or individuals. Lesbians were least likely to indicate that they had experienced romantic sexual relationships with males; bisexual women had prior same- and other-sex sexual contact. Childhood indicators of sexual orientation were reported by 60 percent of women; same-sex attractions before questioning were reported by 71 percent; stability across time in sexual attraction was reported by 61 percent of women. Overall, 78 percent failed to indicate at least one of these three factors in personal lists of indicators, with no significant differences identified Santrock, Adolescence, 16e

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between the three groups. A major conclusion of the research is that multiple models of sexual orientation may be necessary to successfully describe the developmental and experiential processes of young men and women with sexual diversity. Reference Diamond, L. M. 1998. “Development of Sexual Orientation Among Adolescent and Young Adult Women,” Developmental Psychology 34, pp. 1085–1095.

Article 6.2—Contraceptive Practices Laganá provides a thorough literature review summarizing the correlates of effective and ineffective birth control practices. The review was intended to support effective programs for safe and responsible sex. The two main categories of influence include societal influences and psychological correlates. Societal influences refer to societal acceptance or rejection of contraceptive use. Psychological and other correlates of contraceptive practices include factors such as demographic characteristics, sex roles, guilt or embarrassment, communication skills, locus of control, and selfesteem. Societal influences appear to affect adolescents’ underlying perceptions of condom use. Condoms may be viewed as the means for safe pleasure and responsible sexual behavior, or as symbols of promiscuity and disease. An objective perspective would promote a healthy association between condom use, sexual behavior, and contraception. The question that remains is whether contraception is an acceptable alternative to unmarried youth. Negative attitudes toward contraception are not specific to an age group. Societal acceptance of contraception seems to be influenced by community and culture. Availability of contraception to young people evidently depends on education, motivation to use, and access. Observations show that condoms are the preferred contraceptive accessible from vending machines or 24-hour health facilities. About 90 percent of adolescents and 83 percent of parents indicated approval of condom advertisements on television. The inconsistent messages from various sectors of our culture produce confusion for adolescents regarding contraceptive use. Messages that influence adolescents’ decisions come from: • • • • • • •

Family of origin—parental suggestion to use condoms works. Family values—parents emphasizing responsibility reduce out-of-wedlock pregnancies. Family-oriented interventions correlate positively with birth control availability and education. Families with high communication levels have children who reflect parental values. Parent-child communication about sex influences adolescents’ values (guilt inhibits condom use). Peers appear to be influential in decisions about condom use (if parents don’t help, peers will). Family and peers are primary sources of information, but may not have accurate knowledge.

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•

Sexuality experts and other professionals provide badly needed information.

Psychological and other correlates of contraceptive practices are numerous and varied: • Demographic factors include age, knowledge of contraception, SES, and religion. Research shows a negative correlation between age at first intercourse and pregnancy rate. Females appear to have more knowledge about contraception than males. LowSES and religious female adolescents more often are poor contraceptive users. Those with high occupational and educational goals are more likely to use contraception. • Sex roles reflect the scripts female adolescents play out. Traditional sex roles contribute to poor contraception, whereas single young female undergraduates have positive attitudes toward contraception. • Erotophilia (positive response) and Erotophobia (negative response) reflect attitudes and behavior toward sexuality. Erotophilics respond to the medical issues of sexual activity, self-examine breasts, and get regular checkups. Erotophobics have less sexual activity and are poor users of contraceptives. • Sex guilt influences feelings of moral violation and the punishment that is due to the offender. Therefore, poor use of contraception is correlated with sex guilt, hostile guilt, and morality-conscience guilt. • Perception of chance or luck as an influence on outcome is correlated with inconsistent use of contraceptives, and possibly allows indecisive females to become pregnant. • Embarrassment and discomfort resulting from proactive behavior, such as buying contraceptives from a retailer who demonstrates a negative affect, negatively impacts contraceptive purchase and use. • Communication skills with the sexual partner correlate with contraceptive use. • Relationship quality and frequency of coital activity suggests that unstable relationships are associated with poor contraceptive usage. • Locus of control influences individual’s perception of personal control particularly in males; adolescent fatherhood correlates with external locus of control. • Self-esteem influences teenagers’ behavior. Low self-esteem is related to fear of loss of love and fear of inability to have children. High self-esteem relates significantly to effective contraceptive use. • Self-efficacy reflects sense of control and self-competence that leads to the use of effective contraceptive methods. Low self-efficacy strongly correlates with unprotected sexual activity. • Time perspective suggests that adolescents with limited forethought about the future have poor contraceptive utilization. Adolescents with plans are likely to use contraceptives consistently. • Perceived vulnerability influences use of safe behavior. Adolescents that see themselves as invulnerable are less prone to use contraceptives. • Sexual knowledge influences use of contraceptives; adolescents who have knowledge about contraceptives are more likely to use them. Santrock, Adolescence, 16e

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In general, contradictory, confusing messages about the use of contraceptives leads to embarrassment that inhibits the effective use of contraceptives. Family-oriented interventions help adolescents establish responsible attitudes and behavior, and lead to effective contraception. Health-care professionals need to be involved in adolescents’ contraceptive education. Reference Laganá, L. 1999. “Psychosocial Correlates of Contraceptive Practices During Late Adolescence,” Adolescence 34, pp. 463–482.

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STUDENT RESEARCH PROJECTS Research Project 6.1—Obtaining Information About Adolescent Sexuality: Up Close and Personal Before research activities and academic success became so highly dependent upon large, complicated studies and original work, researchers regularly replicated the work that was completed by colleagues at other colleges and universities. Replications tested both the ability to generalize and the accuracy of the findings. It is an excellent training opportunity and a great way for students to compare findings across settings. Objective. Following the completion of this project, students will have accomplished two tasks. First, they will have experienced the rigors of completing a research project that was designed, scrutinized, and published by the author’s professional peers. Second, they will be able to compare the results of a published paper with the information they were able to obtain locally. Type/Length of Activity. Out-of-class-assignment; variable. Directions. Ask a small group of students to identify a topic (or two) referenced in Chapter 7 that they find interesting. Obtain complete copies of the research papers referenced in these sections and decide which one is most interesting and feasible to complete. Also, contact the first author or, alternatively, any author on the paper, to get additional explanations about procedures such as subject recruitment strategies, measurement instruments, or data analysis strategies. After students have compiled the necessary information, have them follow the steps necessary to complete the research project with the guidance of a faculty member. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

Prepare a proposal that satisfies the instructor’s standards. Submit the proposal for the university’s Human Rights Committee approval. Select or recruit participants. (The number of participants should fit the amount of time available to complete the research.) Follow required informed consent procedures. Collect the data using the same methods described in the original research. Have students analyze the data. Complete a comparative analysis between the published data and the results obtained from the local sample. Write the research paper using the information from the local population.

Wrap-Up. Ask students to present the results of their research to the class. Students might also present the information at a poster session at the students’ college or at a regional conference. Research Project 6.2—Sexuality in the Movies Objective. Following completion of this project, students will be able to document the type of sexuality images and messages that adolescents experience and the potential influence these images have on adolescents as they develop sexual identities. Santrock, Adolescence, 16e

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Type/Length of Activity. Out-of-class assignment; variable, 15 hours. Directions. For this project, monitor how sex is portrayed in at least four movies. You will find some interesting choices under Adolescents on the Big Screen (see Preface for online information). Select movies that are likely to have a sex scene, and answer the following questions about that scene. (You may modify or add to these questions.) 1. What was the sexual orientation of the participants? 2. What was the occasion or setting of the sexual encounter? 3. What were the ages of the individuals in the scene? 4. What sexual scripts did the actors appear to be following? 5. Did the participants discuss what they were doing? 6. 7.

Did the participants take any precautions (e.g., condom, diaphragm, or acknowledge use of birth control pills)? What were the effects of the sexual encounter?

What might teenagers learn about sex in the movies? Commentators have speculated that cinematic depictions of sex idealize and romanticize it, and that sex in the movies is far removed from sexuality as adolescents and adults experience it. An aspect of the concern that these images raise is that exposure to such depictions may influence teens’ perspective about the place for sex in a relationship. Images are likely to be a factor that contributes to potential problems with sexual expectations, not to mention the more dire consequences such as pregnancy or infection that may result. Prepare a brief report in which you summarize your answers to these questions across the four movies you watched. Suggest appropriate interpretations of your observations. Wrap-Up. As with many of the previous research projects, you may want to have students compare their findings in small or large group formats. Consider also tallying results in appropriate tables on a blackboard or overhead for discussion. Because students may have rated the same scenes of the same movies, you will have an opportunity to explore the reliability of the observations students have collected. Relate what you find out to information that appears in Adolescence or your lectures. What is the sex in movies teaching adolescents about human sexuality?

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ESSAY QUESTIONS Review the guidelines for “Answering Essay Questions” before students respond to these questions. 1.

Compare and contrast normal adolescent development, which interacts in other developmental domains including biological foundations and cognition, families and peers, schools and culture, and/or self and identity and gender.

Explain current trends and incidences of heterosexual sexual behavior of males and females. Use data to illustrate or support your claims.

Describe the development pathway for those individuals with same-sex attractions. Is it similar for all individual with same-sex attractions or does it vary?

Describe the variables related to the failure of sexually active adolescents to use contraceptives. How can we counteract this failure?

What are the nature, incidence, and consequences of adolescent pregnancy?

Can we reduce adolescent pregnancy? What strategies seem to be effective?

List and describe the rationales for restrictive abortion laws?

Compare and contrast at least two sexually transmitted infections.

Define and distinguish rape and sexual harassment. Compare and contrast the effects of rape and sexual harassment on their victims.

10.

Characterize the sources and content of adolescent sexual knowledge. How might information be disseminated to inform adolescents and their other sources of information more adequately?

References Odem, M. E. 1995. Delinquent Daughters: Protecting and Policing Adolescent Female Sexuality in the United States, 1885–1920. Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press. Ponton, L. E. 2000. The Sex Lives of Teenagers: Revealing the Secret World of Adolescent Boys and Girls. New York: Dutton/Plume.

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INTERNET ACTIVITIES Internet Activity 6.1 Adolescent Pregnancy A number of websites focus on the prevention of teenage pregnancy. The Resource Center for the Prevention of Adolescent Pregnancy http://www.etr.org/recapp/ The National Campaign to Prevent Teen and Unplanned Pregnancy http://www.thenationalcampaign.org Students can do some research on the Web and develop their own programs to prevent teen pregnancy. Internet Activity 6.2 Sexually Transmitted Infections The Center for Disease Control and Prevention offers information about sexually transmitted infections. You can use the information on the Web page to enhance your lecture. For example, there is a fact sheet about HIV/AIDS with demographics about reported cases in 2010. There also is a fact sheet with information specific to the number of HIV/AIDS cases among adolescents. http://www.cdc.gov/ Internet Activity 6.3 Sex Education There are a number of Web pages providing information on sex education. http://www.guttmacher.org/pubs/fb_sexEd2006.html http://parentingteens.about.com/od/teensexuality/a/sex_education.htm If you assign In-Class Activity 6.1 students can use the Web as a source of information to complete that assignment.

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Resource Title

Resource Type

Adolescent Perspectives on Sexuality

Video

Talking About Teen Sex at Age 14

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Sex Among Teens at Age 15

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Sexual Activity in Adolescence

Video

Adolescent Sexual Activity

Sexual Identity Development

Corey Johnson

Sexual Activity Among GLBT Youth

Using Contraception at Age 15

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Talking About Teen Pregnancy at Age 15

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Thoughts on Being Teen Parents

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Coping as Teen Parents

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ACTIVITIES TO ACCOMPANY VIDEOS Sex among Teens at Age 15 Overview Two 15-year-old white females and a 15-year-old multicultural female describe the prevalence of sex among their peers. One girl says that most of the kids she knows are having sex. Another girl states that it only happens among certain cliques. All three girls express a romantic notion that if they find the right person, then sex is okay. Pre-Test

1. What is the prevalence of sexual activity among adolescence? a. Nearly all adolescents have had sexual intercourse by the time they are 15. Incorrect. Eight in 10 girls and 7 in 10 boys are virgins at age 15. b. More than one-half of 17-year olds have had sexual intercourse. Correct. Sexual intercourse usually occurs for the first time in middle to late adolescence. c. Most youths do not have sexual intercourse until they are in their 20s. Incorrect. By age 19, only 1 in 5 youths are still virgins. d. Most adolescents have had sexual intercourse by the time they are 13. Incorrect. Sexual intercourse does not usually occur until middle to late adolescence. Post-Test 1. What are the perceptions of these girls in terms of the prevalence of sexual activity among their peers? a. None of their friends or peers is sexually active. Incorrect. These girls believe that at least some of their friends are sexually active. b. All their friends and peers are sexually active. Incorrect. These girls believe that only some of their peers are sexually active. c. Some of their friends and peers are sexually active, especially among certain cliques. Correct. These girls indicate that many of their friends and peers, but not all, are sexually active. d. These girls do not have perceptions about their friends and peers. Incorrect. These girls do have perceptions about what their friends and peers are doing. 2. These girls have romantic ideas about relationships and sexual activity. How do their romantic ideas support the healthy sexual pathways toward adolescent sexual development presented in the text? a. These girls believe it is okay to have sex out of wedlock and without commitment. Incorrect. Although they believe it is okay to have sex out of wedlock, they do believe it is important to be in a committed relationship. b. These girls do not believe it is okay to have sex until you are married. Incorrect. These girls do believe it is okay to have sex out of wedlock if you intend to marry your partner. c. These girls think it is okay to have sex out of wedlock as long as you intend to marry that person. Correct. These girls believe that engaging in sexual intercourse is okay in the context of a committed relationship. Santrock, Adolescence, 16e

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Sexual Activity in Adolescence Overview Kim Rice, a registered nurse and sex educator at the Student Health Center at the University of Illinois, describes current trends in adolescent sexual activity. Pre-Test 1. What is the usual progression of sexual behaviors in adolescents? a. petting, kissing, oral sex, intercourse Incorrect. The usual progression is kissing, petting, intercourse, oral sex b. kissing, petting, intercourse, oral sex Correct. This is the usual progression. c. oral sex, kissing, petting, intercourse Incorrect. The usual progression is kissing, petting, intercourse, oral sex d. intercourse, oral sex, kissing, petting Incorrect. The usual progression is kissing, petting, intercourse, oral sex Post-Test 1. Which of the following statements about sexual intercourse is true? a. Most adolescents have experienced sexual intercourse by the age of 15. Incorrect. By age 17 only 50 percent of adolescents have experienced sexual intercourse. b. The likelihood of experiencing sexual intercourse increases with age. Correct. By age 17, 50 percent of adolescents have experienced sexual intercourse. c. Most adolescents do not engage in sexual intercourse at all. Incorrect. Adolescence is a time of sexual experimentation and sexual intercourse is part of that. d. Almost all adolescents have experienced sexual intercourse by the age of 17. Incorrect. By age 17 only 50 percent of adolescents have experienced sexual intercourse. Coping as Teen Parents Overview Andrea, a white 21-year-old female, and Joel, a white 21-year-old male, describe how they dealt with high school, living arrangements, babysitting, and the stigma of having a child as teenagers. Pre-Test 1. What type of parents, typically, are teenage parents? a. Adolescent mothers are very competent and have realistic expectations about their babies. Incorrect. Adolescent mothers are less competent at child rearing and have less realistic expectations about their babies. b. Adolescent fathers are usually well educated and able to support their children. Incorrect. Adolescent fathers are less educated and have lower incomes compared to fathers in their 20s. Santrock, Adolescence, 16e

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c. Adolescent fathers typically drop out of high school and get low-paying jobs in order to support their family and be a “good father.” Correct. Although they believe they are doing the right thing getting a job to support their family, they are ignoring the importance of education in getting a successful career. d. Adolescent fathers are very knowledgeable about child development and know how to behave around their baby. Incorrect. Although they may love their baby, they have very little knowledge about child development and may not know how to behave around their baby. Post-Test 1. Andrea and Joel were able to be good parents as teenagers because of all of the following EXCEPT a. they had parents who helped and supported them through this experience. Incorrect. Both sets of parents were involved in terms of childcare, financial support, and emotional support. b. both Joel and Andrea stayed in high school. Incorrect. Because they got help from their own parents, Joel and Andrea were able to finish high school. c. Joel decided to drop out of high school in order to support his family. Correct. This, fortunately, was not a necessity for Joel and Andrea because of the help they got from their parents. d. Joel and Andrea seemed to handle their situation in a mature and responsible fashion. Incorrect. Joel and Andrea were smart to accept help from their family and stay in school.

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CHAPTER 7: MORAL DEVELOPMENT, VALUES, AND RELIGION INTRODUCTION Moral development is a multifaceted aspect of individual growth involving cognition, behavior, motivation, and self-assessment based on personal interpretations of right and wrong. The thoughts, feelings, and behavior of moral development are interrelated. Kohlberg described three levels of qualitatively distinct aspects of moral reasoning. •

•

Level 1: Preconventional Reasoning—reasoning is based on external rewards and punishment. ➢ Stage 1: Heteronomous morality—morality is based on avoidance of punishment ➢ Stage 2: Individualism, instrumental purpose, and exchange—mutual pursuit of own interests. Level 2: Conventional Reasoning—morality is based on internal values and external standards. ➢ Stage 3: Mutual interpersonal expectations, relationships, and interpersonal conformity—value for trust, caring, and loyalty. ➢ Stage 4: Social systems morality—value for the social order, law, justice, and duty. Level 3: Postconventional Reasoning—morality is internalized. ➢ Stage 5: Social contract or utility and individual rights—explore options and makes own decisions. ➢ Stage 6: Universal ethical principles—ethics decides conflict between law and conscience.

Kohlberg hypothesized that the moral orientation of youngsters evolves in conjunction with cognitive development and external factors such as cognitive conflict, peer relations, and roletaking opportunities. Kohlberg’s critics argue that he places too much emphasis on thought versus behavior. It is not clear that students can apply Kohlberg’s dilemmas to their daily experiences. Kohlberg’s theory does not show respect for cultural traditions found in Eastern or developing countries. Kohlberg argued that parents have little influence on the moral development of children, but others argue that parents are in important in that they communicate with children and discipline them. Gilligan proposes that Kohlberg places too much emphasis on the Western justice perspective, and too little appreciation is shown for the care perspective. From the behavioral perspective, moral behavior depends on consistency of consequences, clarity of societal rules, quality of the modeled behavior, and competency of the adolescent. Models of moral behavior include parents, peers, and media figures. Competencies are based on cognitive capacity, demonstrated behavior, and awareness of morality rules. Social cognitive theory

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emphasizes the distinction between moral thought and moral action; that is, performing moral behavior when it is warranted. Altruism seems to develop from reciprocity in personal experiences; having experienced help, care, and forgiveness from others, an adolescent is able to offer the same assistance to others. Psychoanalytic theory focuses on how the superego, the moral branch of the personality, is influenced by components of the superego called the ego ideal and conscience. Empathy is an emotional response that depends on perspective to understand the emotional condition of others. A lack of empathy correlates highly with antisocial and violent behavior. Many developmentalists believe that the contrast between positive sympathetic and negative shameful feelings contributes to adolescents’ complete moral development. Another dimension of morality involves moral personality. Theorists supporting this view believe that a set of characteristics or “person” variables work together to influence morality and more important in determining morality compared to situational variables. Three important aspects of moral personality involve moral identity , moral character, and moral exemplars. Individuals with a strong moral identity place morality at the center of their being and thinking and behaving morally are of utmost importance. Moral character involves “having the strength of your convictions, persisting, and overcoming distractions and obstacles.” The moral exemplar approach considers the development of personality, character, and virtue in terms of moral excellence. Recent research investigating the personalities of exemplary young adults found them to be advanced in forming an identity and in moral development, more agreeable, and more open to entering into close relationships.

Another perspective recognizes the distinction between moral reasoning and socialconventional reasoning. Social conventional reasoning focuses on thoughts about social consensus and convention, whereas moral reasoning emphasizes ethical issues.

Families and schools are important contexts for moral development. Parents play a primary role in moral development. Parents influence moral development by employing love withdrawal and power assertion. These punitive strategies have not been found to be as effective as induction—explaining responsibility as it relates to consequences for others. Parents who use induction as a form of discipline will encourage positive moral development. Moral education is recognized as an aspect of instruction that occurs consciously and overtly as well as unconsciously or covertly. • Hidden curriculum—creates an atmosphere covertly teaching ethical and unethical behavior. • Character education—teaches moral behavior and avoidance of behavior that harms self or others. • Values clarification—helps students identify purpose and merit in their lives.

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• •

Cognitive moral education—develops democratic values such as cooperation, trust, and responsibility. Service learning—incorporates the community to provide applied learning settings that shift the focus from the student to those who require the skills the student must learn.

A common concern in moral education is cheating. Sixty percent of secondary school students admitted to cheating on a test in school during the past year. Students are more likely to cheat when they are not being closely monitored, when they know their peers are cheating, when they know whether or not another student has been caught cheating, and when student scores are made public. Values are reflected in one’s beliefs in politics, religion, money, friends, career, and selfrespect. Values change with time, and the current trend is toward concern for self over concern for others. Good personal adjustment depends on self-fulfillment and strong commitment to others. Adults usually introduce religion to present moral and ethical ideals, and to maintain religious tradition. A majority of adolescents report engaging in religious behavior and believe that religion is important. Piaget’s cognitive developmental theory may be applied to explain religious development. Adolescents demonstrate more abstract idealistic and logical thinking, allowing them to consider various ideas about religion. Religious organizations help adolescents with identity formation. Religious adolescents demonstrate greater self-discipline in avoiding premarital sex and other risky behavior, but are less likely to use contraception if they are sexually active.

TOTAL TEACHING PACKAGE OUTLINE Chapter 7: Moral Development, Values, and Religion HEADING I. WHAT MORAL DEVELOPMENT IS AND DOMAINS OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT

Moral Thought

Kohlberg’s Stages Kohlberg’s Level 1: Preconventional Reasoning Kohlberg’s Level 2: Conventional Reasoning Kohlberg’s Level 3: Postconventional Reasoning

Influences on the Kohlberg Stages Why Is Kohlberg’s Theory Important for Understanding Moral Development in

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RESOURCE Learning Goal: 1 Lecture Topic: 7.1 Critical Thinking Exercise: 7.1 Essay Question: 1 WWW: Institute for Global Ethics www.globalethics.org/ Learning Goal: 1 Critical Thinking Exercise: 7.1

Images: 7-1, 7-2, and 7-3 In-Class Activity: 7.1, 7.3 Critical Thinking Exercise: 7.2 Short Scenarios: 7.1, 7.2 Research Articles: 7.1, 7.2 Research Project: 7.2

Research Articles: 7.1; 7.2

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Chapter 7 Adolescence? Kohlberg’s Critics Moral Thought and Moral Behavior Moral Thinking: Conscious/Deliberate Versus Unconscious/Automatic Culture and Moral Development Families and Moral Development Gender and the Care Perspective Assessment of Moral Reasoning

Moral Behavior

Images: 7-4 Lecture Topic: 7.2 Discussion Topic: 7.1 Essay Question: 2, 3

Learning Goal: 1 Lecture Topic: 7.2 Critical Thinking Exercise: 7.1 Internet Activity: 7.1

Basic Processes

Short Scenario: 7.2

Social Cognitive Theory of Moral Development

Essay Question: 4

Prosocial Behavior

Discussion Topic: 7.2 Short Scenario: 7.2 Essay Question: 5

Moral Feeling

Learning Goal: 1 Critical Thinking Exercise: 7.1

Psychoanalytic Theory

Essay Question: 6

Empathy

Lecture Topic: 7.1

The Contemporary Perspective

Discussion Topic: 7.1

Moral Personality Moral Identity Moral Character Moral Exemplars

Short Scenario: 7.3 Internet Activity: 7.2

Social Domain Theory Social conventional reasoning

II.

CONTEXTS OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT

Learning Goal: 2 Lecture Topic: 7.3 Research Project: 7.1 Essay Question: 7 Internet Activity: 7.3

Parenting

Short Scenario: 7.2 Internet Activity: 7.2 Health and Well-Being Interlude: Parenting Moral Children and Adolescents

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III.

Schools The Hidden Curriculum Character Education Values Clarification Cognitive Moral Education Service Learning Cheating An Integrative Approach

In-Class Activity: 7.2 Image: 7-5 Essay Question: 7 Through the Eyes of Adolescents: Finding a Way to Get a Playground Through the Eyes of Adolescents: Nina Vasan, Superstar Volunteer and Fundraiser

VALUES, RELIGION, AND SPIRITUALITY

Learning Goal: 3 Critical Thinking Exercise: 7.3

Values

Image: 7-6

Religion and Spirituality The Positive Role of Religion and Spirituality in Adolescents’ and Emerging Adults’ Lives Developmental Changes Cognitive Changes Identity/Erikson’s Theory’s Religious Socialization and Parenting Religiousness and Sexuality in Adolescence and Emerging Adulthood

Learning Goal: 3 Image: 7-7 Research Article: 7.2 Essay Question: 8 Careers in Adolescent Development: Constance Flanagan, Professor of Youth Civic Development

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SUGGESTED LECTURE TOPICS Topic 7.1—Eisenberg’s Model of Moral Development Eisenberg suggests that Kohlberg’s model is too rigid. She points out that children’s moral reasoning is not very predictable because children can reason from several different levels rather than using one level and only being able to advance. In Eisenberg’s model, the higher levels are found only in older children, but children can use any of the levels for which they are capable. A child who can use high-level abstract reasoning doesn’t necessarily use it. Eisenberg’s model gives equal value to justice-oriented and caring-oriented moral reasoning. The six levels are: A.

Self-centered reasoning. At this level the individual is concerned with consequences to oneself. One may choose to assist or not assist because of (a) personal benefit or loss; (b) the expectation of reciprocity; (c) one needs the other, or likes or dislikes the other. Preschoolers and early elementary-school children frequently use this level. Needs-oriented reasoning. Concern for needs is expressed, without role-taking or empathy, even though there may be a conflict with one’s own needs. Some preschoolers and many school-age children use this mode of reasoning. Stereotyped and/or approval-oriented reasoning. This level involves stereotyped ideas of good/bad people and good/bad behavior and the desire to win approval. Some school-age children and adolescents use this level. Empathetic reasoning. The individual can use some role-taking, empathy, and recognition of the others’ humanness. There is awareness of the emotional consequences of helping (feeling good) or not helping (feeling guilty). This is the common level for a few older school-age children and many adolescents. Partly internalized principles. Justifications for actions involve internalized values (e.g., concern for others’ rights). The ideas are not clearly thought out or strongly stated. This is the common mode for a few adolescents and adults. Strongly internalized principles. Justifications for actions are based on strongly felt internalized values (e.g., wanting to improve society or belief in equality of all). Emotional consequences involve self-respect and living up to one’s own values. This reasoning is rare.

Reference Eisenberg, N. 1989. “The Development of Prosocial Values.” In N. Eisenberg, J. Reykowski, and E. Staub, Eds., Social and Moral Values: Individual and Social Perspectives. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Topic 7.2—Egalitarian Motive In some societies (e.g., Filipino peasants), the central cultural orientation is an egalitarian motive and the belief that all people should be equal. For the Filipinos, society provides a stable central government, sufficient agricultural and natural resources, over 50 percent literacy in English, and yet poor health, malnutrition, and much disease exist. The peasants live in a subsistence Santrock, Adolescence, 16e

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economy, do not plan ahead, do not allow government programs to improve agriculture and business, and deliberately avoid individual accomplishments. Americans view this pattern as irresponsible, illogical, and lazy. But from the Filipino perspective, the foundation of happiness is social approval rather than personal prestige and material possessions. These aspects of the egalitarian motive guide the peasants: 1. Pakiksama. More importance is placed on good feelings among people than on personal achievements. 2. Desirability of just meeting one’s needs. The prevailing attitude is that it is sufficient to just meet the day’s needs. 3. Leveling. Any attempts at personal improvement are discouraged by negative results such as teasing, threats, attacks, and gossip. 4. “All have a right to live” belief. While advancement is discouraged, the peasants do help people who are having great difficulty in meeting their everyday existence needs. 5. Hiya. Failure to succeed would lead to feelings of embarrassment and inferiority called hiya. Do the cultural effects of the egalitarian motive surprise you? Are there other effects of the egalitarian motive that surprise you? Are there other effects of this motive on a culture? Would it be possible to combine the typical American motives and the egalitarian motive? What do you think the result would be? Could you change some aspects of the egalitarian motive to make it a healthier motive? References Guthrie, G. M. 1970. The Psychology of Modernization in the Rural Philippines, I.P.C. Paper No. 8. Quezon City: Ateneo de Manila University Press. Madigan, F. C., Ed. 1967. Human Factors in Philippine Rural Development. Cagayan de Oro City: Xavier University Press.

Topic 7.3—Ethics Education Professionals are well aware of the importance of moral and ethical education in preparation for employment, particularly in areas such as social services, psychology, law, and medicine. Professional organizations have had ethical guidelines for decades, and in the case of medical ethics, for centuries. Books that discuss business ethics or ethics in daily life have recently become relatively popular. Adolescents are faced with increasingly difficult challenges to behaving morally and ethically as substance abuse, sexual harassment, bullying, cheating, and vandalism increase in educational settings. The importance of establishing acceptable codes of behavior suggests that moral and ethical behavior need to be addressed at the high school level. Although ethics education cannot and should not be the focal point in all coursework, it can be integrated into all levels and types of educational preparation. The basic goals of ethics education are to:

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• • • •

Sensitize students to ethical issues and potential consequences of their actions. Increase students’ ability to recognize ethical issues. Develop the ability to analyze issues and make good decisions. Accept the lack of clarity that often occurs before and after making ethical decisions.

Ethics must be related both to current experiences and to potential future difficulties. Issues that students experience regularly afford the best learning examples for ethical decision making. Students also must be prepared to recognize potential difficulties. Therefore, they must be presented with some slightly more abstract issues than they are familiar with currently. Several strategies are used: • Discussion of moral and ethical behavior may be conducted in separate training sessions or in conjunction with other areas of study. For example, high school students might learn how to respond to plagiarism in English class and perjury in law and government, or about lying and cheating as a topic in an ethics class. • Case studies provide students with the opportunity to solve ethical dilemmas that they might observe or experience. In these exercises, students think about the choices that they might make from the position of an objective observer. For example, suppose a student was told in confidence who took the money from a club treasury. The student recognizes that the planned party will not be held unless the money is returned. On the one hand, if the student tells the club advisor who took the money, the confidant will feel betrayed. If she doesn’t say anything, everyone will be deprived of the opportunity for a party. • Role-playing exercises get students directly involved in responding to difficult situations. For example, give one student the information that he has been at a party and is too drunk to drive, but can’t admit it to anyone. It could jeopardize his position on the team headed for a state championship. A second student is given the information that she recognizes that her friend is drunk for the fifth weekend in a row. Besides that, she has smelled alcohol on her friend’s breath all week, even in the morning. All ethical dilemmas have one or more moral issues that are present and must be decided upon for the good of those involved. Learning to weigh the relative importance and impact of each potential outcome of the moral dilemma allows students to make decisions with which they can be most comfortable. Issues that students are likely to be faced with include confidences of friends versus negative consequences for an individual or group, and freedom to choose versus harm to the individual or others. Although many educators believe that ethical behavior depends on an individual’s character, fundamentals of ethical behavior have been established in a wide variety of nonprofessional and professional settings. The acquisition of basic ethical awareness, knowledge of ethical behavior, and application of ethical decision-making capabilities represent invaluable interpersonal competence and commitment to the welfare of others. Reference Patterson, J. B., and Curl, R. M. 1990. “Ethics Education in Supported Employment Preparation,” Rehabilitation Education 4, pp. 247–259.

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CLASSROOM DISCUSSIONS AND ACTIVITIES Discussion Topics Discussion 7.1—An Age of Ethical Relativity Western culture emphasizes individualism as the foundation of relationships between people. As such, the individual is responsible for: making moral decisions, responding to individual conscience, determining responsibility, and establishing personal values through education. Kenneth Gergen explains that the individual acts on these responsibilities based on relationships with the broader culture and the broader concerns of the culture. Two theoretical foundations have been used to explain individual action: the romanticism view of deep inner standards that guide benevolent propensities and the modernist morality based on Darwinism, scientism, and increased cultural consciousness. Neither considers the relationship or interdependence of the individual with the greater culture. The consequence of considering relationships in identifying significance and meaning to moral action is what Gergen identifies as constructivist relativism. From this perspective, Kohlberg’s form of independent decision making would not be as beneficial as Gilligan’s socially centered decision-making processes. Current Gallup Polls suggest that Americans are becoming increasingly comfortable with moral relativism. In March 2000, almost 90 percent of Americans said religion was important in their lives, but only 20 percent believed theirs was the only true path to God. About 45 percent believed that their views and the views of others were as important as religious teachings. Only 24 percent of those polled viewed themselves as part of the religious right, a group that believes in biblical literalism. How do students determine the truth? What percentage of student’s base decisions about moral behavior on internal feelings? What percentage base decisions on scientific information? When might it be wrong to tell the truth? What additional evidence do students have that ethical relativism influences the lives of adolescents? References The Gallup Organization. 2000. Gallup poll topics: A–Z—Religion. Princeton: Author. http://www.gallup.com. Gergen, K. J. 1992. “Social Construction and Moral Action.” In D. N. Robinson, Ed., Social Discourse and Moral Judgment. San Diego: Academic Press, Inc., pp. 9–27. Lamborn, S. D., Fischer, K. W., and Pipp, S. 1994. “Constructive Criticism and Social Lies: A Developmental Sequence for Understanding Honesty and Kindness in Social Interactions,” Developmental Psychology 30, pp. 495–508.

Discussion 7.2—Does Altruism Really Exist? Do we really care about others, what happens to them, how they feel, and whether life is positive for them? Or do we always have ourselves as the target of our concern? Do we help others for their sake, or only for our own? A terminal value occurs if we value others for their own sake.

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An instrumental value takes place if we value others because it is to our advantage to do so. Which is truer of human nature? Some psychologists seem to believe that altruism, valuing and pursuing another person’s welfare as a goal, is a fantasy. These psychologists see humans as social egoists. As William James noted in 1890: “We know how little it matters to us whether some man, a man taken at large and in the abstract, proves a failure or succeeds in life—he may be hanged for aught we care—but we know the utter momentousness and terribleness of the alternative when the man is the one whose name we ourselves bear.”

In addition to William James, Freud’s psychoanalytic theory and Skinner’s behaviorism makes strong social egoist assumptions. Social egoism as a dominant psychological philosophy is also exhibited in the amount of research done on such self-emphasizing topics as self-awareness, self-monitoring, selfpresentation, self-handicapping, self-deception, self-evaluation, self-affirmation, self-discrepancy, self-expansion, and self-esteem. Many theories in social psychology assume that people are out for themselves. Among them are social comparison theory, social exchange theory, and equity theory. Yet, Batson and his colleagues (1990) conducted a series of research studies that suggests that there is altruism or true empathy-induced helping. His studies explored such alternatives as helping (1) to reduce aversive empathic arousal, (2) to avoid social and self-punishments (e.g., shame and guilt), and (3) to seek social and self-rewards, and found that some helping occurs because of altruism. Batson (1990) concludes, “All the research . . . suggests that our capacity for altruistic caring is limited to those for whom we feel empathy. In study after study, when empathy for the person in need is low, the pattern of helping suggests underlying egoistic motivation. It is not that we never help people for whom we feel little empathy; we often do . . . We care for them instrumentally rather than terminally.” (p. 344)

Furthermore, even when we have concern for others, we might not act on it if the cost of helping is painfully high. Reference Batson, C. D. 1990. “How Social an Animal? The Human Capacity for Caring,” American Psychologist 45, pp. 336–346.

Discussion 7.3—Satanism Satanism has been identified as a destructive religion that seduces individuals who feel alienated, alone, angry, desperate, and powerless. The promises of Satanism are power, dominance, and gratification to those who join the cult. Adolescents are seduced by these promises and have psychological needs that are met by participation in Satanic worship including: • • •

Sense of belonging—resolves the adolescent’s identity crisis. Mastery and structure—establishes order and a sense of accomplishment. Power and control—provides opportunity for power in destructive rituals.

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• • • •

Rebellion—satisfies normal processes of experimenting with values. Curiosity and relief from boredom—satisfies normal curiosity about occults. Self-esteem—achievement of identity resolves difficulties of low self-esteem. Validation of anger and violence—resolves alienation by violent means of attaining power.

Feelings of gratification that come from participation in the cult make it a difficult and lengthy process to leave. Contact and patterns of involvement can be used to determine level of involvement. • Experimental use—dabbling with friends. • Social/recreational use—practices magic and learns rituals. • Situational use—Satanic practices in response to stressful situations. • Intensified use—deeply involved; formal cult initiation has occurred. • Compulsive use—secretively and compulsively engaging in ritualistic behavior. • Chronic addiction—Satanism is a way of life; leaving the cult is nearly impossible Involvement often correlates with a significant event. Family participation often helps to successfully extricate adolescents from cult involvement, particularly after establishing a strong relationship between the therapist and client. Success also depends on developing alternative healthy activities, including elimination of probable substance abuse. Reference Clark, C. M. 1994. “Clinical Assessment of Adolescents Involved in Satanism,” Adolescence 29, pp. 461– 468.

In-Class Activities Activity 7.1—Kohlberg’s Ethical Dilemmas Present the four moral dilemmas and have students respond to them and explain their responses (essentially Kohlberg’s tasks). Then have the students break into small groups and analyze their results according to Kohlberg’s six stages. Do their reasons fit into his categories? Why or why not? How do their patterns of results support or not support his stage model? Are all their responses in one stage? What kind of mixture or patterning is evident? Dilemma 1: In Europe, a woman is near death from cancer. There is a form of radium that a druggist in the same town has recently discovered that doctors think might save her. However, the drug is expensive to make, and the druggist is charging 10 times what the drug cost him to make. He paid $200 for the radium and is charging $2,000 for a small dose. The sick woman’s husband, Heinz, goes to everyone he knows to borrow the money, but he can only collect about $1,000. He tells the druggist his wife is dying and asks him to sell the drug for $1,000 now and the rest later. The druggist says, “No, I discovered the drug, and I’m going to make money from it.” Heinz is desperate and considers breaking into the man’s store to steal the drug for his wife. Should he? Why or why not? Santrock, Adolescence, 16e

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Dilemma 2: John and Mary are taking a class together and are strongly attracted to one another. They want to have sex together, but John is married, although the marriage is having difficulties. Should they sleep together? Why or why not? Dilemma 3: Dr. Johnson makes decisions about which patients have access to a kidney machine. Patients who do not get access will die. There are far more people who need the machine than can be accommodated, so there is a waiting list for those not yet on it. Dr. Johnson’s young daughter is injured in a car accident and has kidney damage. She needs access to the machine to live. Should Dr. Johnson take another patient off the machine to put his daughter on? Why or why not? Dilemma 4: You are shopping with a friend when you notice that your friend is shoplifting. You look around and notice that the store manager is watching you. What should you do? Why? Reference King, M. B., and Clark, D. E. 1989. Instructor’s Manual to accompany J. W. Santrock and S. R. Yussen’s Child Development: An Introduction, 4th ed. Dubuque: Wm. C. Brown.

Activity 7.2—Values Clarification Exercise The world as we know it is coming to an end. There is a fallout shelter in central Canada, and six people will be admitted during this third world war. You are the administrator and you must make the selections. The supply of air, food, water, and availability of space is adequate for only 6 people for three months, but 10 people are asking to be admitted. For the survival of the human race, you must decide which 6 of them will be saved. You have exactly 30 minutes to make up your mind before Washington goes up in smoke. These are your choices: 1. A 16-year-old girl of questionable IQ, a high school dropout, pregnant. 2. A police officer with a gun (which cannot be taken from him—he was recently thrown off the force for brutality). 3. A clergyman, 75 years old. 4. A woman physician, 36 years old, known to be a confirmed racist. 5. A male violinist, 46 years old, who served seven years for pushing narcotics. 6. A 20-year-old Black militant, no special skills. 7. A former prostitute, female, 39 years old. 8. 9. 10.

An architect, a male homosexual. A 26-year-old law student. The law student’s 25-year-old wife who spent the last nine months in a mental hospital, still heavily sedated. They refuse to be separated.

Ask students to choose the six people they will admit to the shelter. After they have completed their assignment, ask students to choose by casting votes of the 10 applicants and determine who will be admitted into the shelter. Ask students to debate the decisions they made. Reference Santrock, Adolescence, 16e

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Santrock, J. W. 1998. Adolescence: An Introduction, 7th ed. Boston: McGraw-Hill.

Activity 7.3—Morally Relevant Issues Get students involved in a discussion of moral issues in their own lives. For example, ask the students to discuss pregnancy. Have students consider what they would do if they or their significant other became pregnant. As the instructor you may need to take one side or the other of the abortion issue to get the discussion started. After students consider this issue for 10 or 15 minutes, have the students list their arguments and write them on the board. Ask them to classify their arguments according to Kohlberg’s stages. Look for gender or ethnic differences in moral reasoning.

Critical Thinking Exercises Exercise 7.1—Moral Development, Values, and Religion The chapter discussion of moral development, values, and religion presents another opportunity to study clearly measurable developmental changes during adolescence. The developmental issues discussed in Chapter 1 receive variable emphasis for the topics in Chapter 7. Which issue appears to receive the least attention in this chapter? Circle the letter of the best answer, explain why it is the best answer, and why each of the other answers is not as appropriate. A. Development results from biological, social, and cognitive processes. B. There are periods of development. C. D. E.

Nature and nurture interact to produce development. Development may be either continuous or discontinuous. Early experience is often important for later development.

Exercise 7.2—Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development Lawrence Kohlberg’s theory of moral development represents a standard against which other theories are compared. One question to ask is how this approach relates to the various theories and studies about moral development presented in the chapter. Based on Santrock’s summary of Kohlberg’s theory in Chapter 7, which of the following statements does not accurately represent a way in which Kohlberg’s approach applies what we know about moral development? Circle the letter of the best answer, explain why it is the best answer, and why each of the other answers is not as appropriate. A. Piaget’s formal operational thinker is comparable to a person at Kohlberg’s Level 3: Postconventional Reasoning. B. Kohlberg’s approach to understanding moral development is to investigate cognitive processes, not moral behavior. C. Kohlberg’s theory emphasizes discontinuity in moral development across time.

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D. E.

Kohlberg’s approach is slightly different from the social cognitive theory of moral development. Kohlberg’s theory can be used successfully as the foundation for moral education.

Exercise 7.3—Values, Religion, and Spirituality In the section of Chapter 7 entitled “Values, Religion, and Spirituality,” Santrock discusses contemporary patterns and trends in adolescents’ values. Which of the following is an assumption, rather than an inference or an observation, which motivates Santrock to write about this topic? Circle the letter of the best answer, explain why it is the best answer, and why each of the other answers is not as appropriate. A. B. C. D. E.

Adolescents carry with them a set of values that influences their thoughts, feelings, and actions. College freshmen are strongly motivated to be well-off financially. Talking about values and exposure to religion helps adolescents make good decisions when they encounter new dilemmas in daily life. There was an increase between 1986 and 1995 in the percentage of freshmen that said they were strongly interested in participating in community action programs. Religious institutions created by adults are designed to introduce certain beliefs to children and adolescents and to ensure that they will carry on a religious tradition.

Answer Key for Critical Thinking Exercises Exercise 7.1 A.

This is not the best answer. The chapter suggests sex differences in emphasis of moral behavior; it covers social and cognitive processes extensively.

This is not the best answer. Piaget and Kohlberg, both of whom receive research support for their claims, treat developmental periods in the theories.

This is the best answer. There is no discussion of the influence of nature and nurture in this chapter.

This is not the best answer. The theories of Piaget and Kohlberg, and theories derived from them (e.g., Hoffman’s, Gilligan’s) explain discreet, discontinuous stages of moral development.

This is not the best answer. Although there is limited treatment of this idea, it is included in the discussion of psychoanalytic accounts of the development of moral feeling.

Exercise 7.2

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This is not the best answer. This statement correctly identifies the comparison between Piaget’s formal operations: individuals who think logically, deductively, and abstractly. Postconventional reasoning is based on completely internalized morality.

This is not the best answer. Kohlberg believed that moral development is based primarily on moral reasoning, not the behavior that an individual demonstrates.

This is not the best answer. Kohlberg described moral development as unfolding in a series of stages, and at each stage children and adolescents describe qualitatively distinct thought processes.

This is the best answer. It is an inaccurate explanation of Kohlberg’s theory because social cognitive theory of moral development distinguishes between moral competence in ability versus performance.

This is not the best answer. Higgins, Power, and Kohlberg (1983) demonstrated that moral education was successful in three schools following a democratic approach to school management.

Exercise 7.3 A.

This is an observation. Santrock states this as a principle at the beginning of the section with a reference. He argues for this position with additional supporting references as evidence.

This is an observation. It summarizes findings portrayed in Figure 7.6 from a study of college student values. In short, college freshmen say they are highly motivated to be welloff financially.

This is an assumption. Santrock proposes that adolescents who are exposed to values clarification and attend religious services are more likely to hear the necessary information about avoiding risky behavior, but they also benefit from spending time with good models. It is not clear how well adolescents generalize the information they receive to new problems they experience at school or in the community.

This is an observation. It is one of the observations that led to the interpretation just discussed in C. The statement reports an observed shift in what freshmen say about their interest in community action programs.

This is an inference. Santrock introduces the idea that adults create environments for children to transmit specific religious values. There are no data to suggest what percentage of parents use religious educational settings as a mechanism to teach values, to introduce students to acceptable peer groups, or to avoid undesirable influences by unacceptable peers. The data do show, however, that adults adopt the religions they were exposed to as youths.

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Short Scenarios Scenario 7.1 Brandon has been at the Roosevelt Senior High for three years, and he has great plans for writing a book about his high school experience. He was lucky enough to have two professional parents who provided him with interesting opportunities for academic achievement, participation in school activities, and travel around the United States and Europe. Brandon also learned about people; the way they respond to the circumstances of their lives, and the way they respond to other people. Of course he understands his classmates at school better than anyone else he has observed. He has noticed that students living in the poorer neighborhoods, and whose parents have inconsistent employment, look out for themselves. They do a good job of keeping track of the teachers and principal so they don’t often get caught breaking rules, but they take advantage of the system at every opportunity. Most kids want to be liked. They don’t really think for themselves; they do and say what most of their friends do and say. Even those who think they are very enlightened check with friends or authority figures before making any decision. Brandon has only a few personal friends who seem to be individualists, but they also are considerate of others’ feelings and beliefs. Most of them have jobs, support school and community events, or visit and help older people. Brandon writes in his journal every night to remember interesting events and the contradictions he observes between what students and teachers say and do. It also gives him a chance to reflect on his experiences and perspectives and those of his classmates. Someday he will have enough material to write a book of short stories. • •

• • • • •

Brandon has had a variety of experiences as a result of an upper middle-class SES. Traveling around the United States and Europe has given Brandon an opportunity to observe a wide variety of cultures and belief systems, offering points of comparison. As his exposure to Western cultures has been most dominant, the Kohlberg theory of moral development would provide an accurate assessment of his development. The pattern of taking care of self could be described as Kohlberg’s Level 1 behavior. The social cognitive theory of moral development explains the importance of distinguishing between the ability and the willingness to produce moral behavior. Wanting to be liked and going along with community rules are aspects of Kohlberg’s Level 2. Brandon describes his friends as engaging in postconventional reasoning.

Scenario 7.2 When Jim turns on his killer smile, he can charm almost anyone into almost anything. He has tried it often enough to know that it works. Other people know it too. His teammates started to ask him to buy alcohol and tobacco products for them. The coach wants him to help raise money for the team. His parents ask him to attend all of the social events they host for their business and civic activities. Even though he wants to remain good friends with his teammates, he knows that he will get into serious trouble with the law, the coach, and his parents if he is caught buying Santrock, Adolescence, 16e

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liquor. In addition to that, he knows it isn’t healthy to drink after extensive workouts or games. It is even more dangerous for his friends, and anyone else on the road, if they drink and drive. He could go into the liquor store and not be so convincing, but that would solve only part of the problem. He must think of some strategy to convince them that they should stay sober. Maybe he could get his parents and the coach to foot the bill for a professional ball player to come and give everyone a motivational “be smart” lecture. He’ll try that approach first. • Jim has mixed feelings because his adolescent friends encourage him to manipulate others; he does not want to get in trouble—Kohlberg’s Level 1 thinking. • Jim’s parents have modeled altruistic and philanthropic behavior to support community. • His coach wants him to help raise money for the team, and Jim’s altruistic behavior becomes apparent if he does so. • Jim’s parents ask him to attend social events that they host to further their business and philanthropic interests or their altruism. • Part of the dilemma is whether to help his friends so they will continue to like him versus refusing to help and having everyone angry with him—Kohlberg’s Stage 2 thinking. • Jim feels discomfort from the pressure that he gets from his friends, but he also wants to remain friends with them. Acting on these thoughts and feelings to find a solution demonstrates moral competence and behavior described by the social cognitive theory. • Jim has identified a solution by exchanging his support to his coach and parents for a speaker that could help his friends, an example of reciprocity in altruism. • The speaker would provide an opportunity for character education. Scenario 7.3 Lisa and her girlfriend Rhonda just had the scare of a lifetime. Two crazy people were driving down the freeway at what must have been 100 miles per hour, and one of them actually fired a gun! Lisa and Rhonda were fine, but the older gentleman driving in front of them didn’t fare so well. His car swerved off the road and ran into a guardrail. Lisa slowed down immediately and pulled over to see what could be done to help him. Lisa phoned 911 and asked for an ambulance as soon as she noticed the gash on the man’s forehead. The first aid kit and blanket her mother insisted on keeping in the car were certainly helpful, as was Rhonda, who volunteers at the hospital. As they took care of the wound, the man complained that he had not gotten the car license plate number and that the police had not yet arrived. Lisa and Rhonda were so thankful that nobody had been hurt seriously, they had not thought about the police. They realized that they wouldn’t be much help to the police when they did arrive. They were proud anyway, since their team effort had enabled them to deal with the man’s emergency medical needs. Everyone else seemed to have paid attention to the car. • Lisa and Rhonda demonstrated moral sensitivity by thinking first about the consequences of the gunshot. • Lisa and Rhonda demonstrated altruism by helping the older man at the scene. Santrock, Adolescence, 16e

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•

• •

Lisa was prepared for the emergency with the cell phone and first aid kit, indications of foresight to support the performance of moral behavior, and motivation to help others. Lisa and Rhonda were concerned that the injured man received attention, not the justice that the driver and occupants of the speeding car should receive. Rhonda may have received some direct instruction during her hospital work about handling a medical emergency that allowed her to act quickly and appropriately.

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RESEARCH ARTICLES Article 7.1—Moral Decision Making and Moral Judgment Development Research on moral judgment investigated the influence of a wide range of environmental factors including educational practices, social influences, and family and peer relationships. The results generally support the stage theorist’s perspective in that moral development is hierarchical and can be influenced by contextual experiences. Recently, studies have focused on individual correlates of change, specifically at the phases of consolidation and transition, as they relate to the individual’s development of moral judgment. Consolidation refers to the individual’s consistent pattern of responses across items that show a preference for one stage. Highly variable response patterns reflect low stage consolidation and a pattern of transition. Response patterns have been suggested as predictors of stage transition. This research investigated the possibility that the usefulness of Kohlberg’s moral stages increases during developmental phases of consolidation and diminishes during periods of transition. Subjects were identified from data sets of students representing junior high school, senior high school, college, and graduate school. Over 47,000 participants were included in three crosssectional samples (46,679) and two longitudinal samples (822). Analysis showed that the Defining Issues Test (DIT) scores formed a distribution that reflected a normal sample. The DIT, a measure of moral development based on Kohlberg’s stages of moral reasoning, was used to assess study participants. The DIT includes six stories of social dilemma about which participants must form solutions. Solutions are ranked and given a P score, based on a scale from 0 to 95 that reflects assessed preferences for postconventional moral orientation. The DIT assesses developmental shifts between adolescence and adulthood, focusing on conventional to postconventional reasoning. The results show that participants’ reliance on the Kohlbergian moral framework was greatest during periods of consolidation, and lowest during periods of transition. As participants demonstrated movement toward periods of consolidation, the usefulness of moral stage information increased. Participants demonstrating a high mixture in stages of reasoning were experiencing periods of transition; transition periods were associated with confusion about interpreting real-life events and, subsequently, how to respond based on the confusion. As a result, the authors concluded that it might be necessary to develop strategies for moral education that address current abilities and strategies students demonstrate during transition and consolidation periods. As the utility of Kohlberg’s stages decreases, it becomes increasingly necessary for other systems to be in place to guide moral decision-making processes. Reference Thoma, S. J., and Rest, J. R. 1999. “The Relationship Between Moral Decision Making and Patterns of Consolidation and Transition in Moral Judgment Development,” Developmental Psychology 35, pp. 323– 334.

Article 7.2—Individual Moral Judgment

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Theories of moral development explain developmental changes through (a) socialization of the individual to cultural ideology, and (b) the individual’s cognitive processes of social and moral meaning. Theories differ in ascribing the importance of one process over another. Other aspects of moral development include autonomy and heteronomy. Cognitive developmentalists emphasize the development of autonomy; social learning theories and cultural psychology focus on cultural transmission, thus emphasizing heteronomy. Piaget argued that the individual develops from heteronomy to autonomy. Kohlberg theorized that the individual fluctuates between heteronomy and autonomy within each stage. The position used as a foundation for this investigation was that both processes influence the development of moral thinking and that they occur simultaneously, in parallel, and reciprocally. Moral thinking is used in this research to describe the individual’s perspective on issues such as abortion, rights of homosexual individuals, or religion in public schools. Cultural ideology is another basic process used here to refer to values, norms, and standards that are independent of the individual and shared mutually by a group of people as part of the norm. The question for this investigation was how individual moral thinking and group cultural ideology interrelate. Two studies were completed to determine the association between political attitudes and moral judgments. Study 1 included two congregations of about 300 members each, from the same neighborhood in Minneapolis/St. Paul, MN. One church was a liberal congregation from the United Church of Christ (UCC); the second was a conservative American Baptist congregation. A random sample of 100 members from each was mailed a set of questionnaires. Respondents included 87 Baptists and 80 UCC members. Questionnaires measuring independent variables included measures from the Inventory of Religious Belief, the Intrinsic Religious Motivation Scale, and a measure of political conservatism-liberalism. The Defining Issues Test (DIT) was used to measure moral judgment. Opinions about public policy issues were dependent variables measured by the ATHRI. Public policy issues included items such as euthanasia, due process rights of the accused, and free speech. Demographic factors were measured on several variables such as education, sex, and occupation. The two churches were chosen for similarity on these variables, and in fact the results showed a high degree of similarity across variables. The results showed that the combined responses for religious ideology, political identity, and moral judgment produced a multiple correlation of .79 that established anticipation of members’ moral thinking. All major independent and dependent variables were significantly different between the two churches in the expected directions. With the exception of education, (the more conservative Baptist group had a higher reported level of education) the groups differed in the expected directions. The two congregations had opposite positions on human rights public policy issues and polarities were also found in ideological and moral judgments. DIT P scores were 32.44 for Baptists and 41.72 for UCC members. Study 2 was completed as a cross-replication of Study 1. Sixty-two undergraduate students completed all of the protocols and demonstrated consistency on the DIT. The materials and procedure were the same as in Study 1.

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The results of Study 2 indicated that the student sample was more like the UCC sample than the Baptist sample. Generally, students were more liberal on measures of political conservatism, theocentrism, fundamentalism, orthodoxy, moral judgment and public policy issues. The combined results also indicated that religion alone does not predict responses to questions about public policy, but the underlying orientation toward fundamentalist beliefs does so. Middle America, usually depicting the middle class socioeconomically and conservatism politically, refers here to the middle range of moral judgment that corresponds to religious fundamentalism. Overall, the results suggest that political identity (liberal or conservative), religious fundamentalism, moral judgment, and views on public policy were significantly interrelated. Liberal and conservative position viewpoints transcended categories of questions. A person who demonstrates high religious fundamentalism supports strong religious authority and has strong respect for civil authorities. Religious authoritarianism was associated with high Stage 4 DIT scores. Furthermore, beliefs that authority should not be questioned or scrutinized blocks the individual from making the transition to postconventional thinking. The main point of the article is that consistency across moral judgment, religious fundamentalism, and political identity produces highly predictive decisions about moral thinking and public policy issues. Reference Narvaez, D., Getz, I., Rest, J. R., and Thoma, S. J. 1999. “Individual Moral Judgment and Cultural Ideologies,” Developmental Psychology 35, pp. 478–488.

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STUDENT RESEARCH PROJECTS Research Project 7.1—Applying Ethics in Human Research Objective. Students will be able to assess and compare the knowledge of research ethics for human subjects by college students in psychology classes that teach research design. Type/Length of Activity. Out-of-class activity; variable. Directions. Students should contact psychology professors in three courses that teach sections of research design for human subject research. Explain to professors that their students may participate in an assessment of students’ ability to apply the ethical procedures and guidelines for human subjects to three research descriptions. The research descriptions will not adequately comply with the principles and guidelines in the handout. The assessments can be administered during class time with specified time limits or individually, with students discussing the ethical considerations of each. Students will need to make copies of the ethical principles and guidelines to distribute to students serving as their subjects. At the time of administration, read the descriptions of each of the research plans. Be prepared to answer questions that participants might ask. Three Ethical Principles The following ethical principles should be followed to plan and complete research with human subjects. 1. 2. 3.

Beneficence—maximizing beneficial outcomes and minimizing potential risk or harm. Respect—concern for autonomy of person and courtesy. Justice—fair procedures and fair distribution of costs and benefits.

These three ethical principles can be acted upon in five guidelines for scientific behavior. 1. Valid research design. Valid research designs must be used to accurately determine research results. Valid research designs consider theoretical orientation, possible data collection procedures, and previous research designs and results. 2. Identification of consequences. The potential risks and benefits of the research should be identified before beginning the research and measures should be taken to assure that they will not affect the subject or the research results. 3.

Selection of subjects. The research participants should: (a) be chosen based on the purpose of the study, (b) derive some benefit from participation, and (c) be free from coercive strategies that would influence their participation or the participation of disadvantaged subjects. Voluntary informed consent. Participants should be given adequate information about the study to make knowledgeable decisions about their participation. Informed consent should be obtained before the research begins, in language that is appropriate to potential subjects, and with the knowledge that they can withdraw at any time.

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Compensation for injury. The researcher is responsible for negative effects of the research and should compensate subjects for personal injury.

Research Plans These research plans are intended to assess students’ ability to apply the ethical principles given. Explain orally, or provide a written document for each of the research plans and ask students to decide which of the ethical principles have been supported and which have been neglected. Compare their answers with those provided below. Research Plan 1. This exercise is designed to assess the effects of competition in solving a Piagetian problem in logical thinking. Half of the subjects will be told that the research is investigating the problem-solving strategies used by subjects and the other half will be told that the investigation will identify the person who uses the best problem-solving strategies. Answer. This study requires that some information be withheld from the subjects. (Neither group has a clear idea about the purpose of the investigation.) The informed consent should include the information that subjects can choose not to participate because they will not know ahead of time what the research is all about. The consent should explain that a full disclosure of the information will be provided after the research is complete. Those uncomfortable with these parameters can refuse participation. Research Plan 2. You plan to compare the cognitive abilities of college sophomores with those of retired adults over 70 years of age. The sophomores will be recruited from college classes. Student participants will get an A in their course and non-volunteers will have their grade lowered. Retired people will be recruited from a retirement community by doing a door-todoor request for participants. Those who agree will be asked to complete some puzzles without explaining in detail what the study is designed to test. They probably would not be interested or understand the details anyway. Answer. In order for the comparison to be meaningful, comparable educational experiences, vision, test-taking skills, and motivation should be established. Thus, some screening procedures would be necessary as opposed to the recruitment strategies proposed here. Further, older people would probably be wary of letting a stranger come in at night for whatever reason. The sophomores in the psychology class are being coerced into participating in the study by the incentive of consequences to their grades. Research Plan 3. You plan to investigate the effects of watching television on the immediate and long-term behavior of children. Based on parental cooperation, one group will be exposed to television programs with violent content, a second group will be exposed to prime-time situation comedies, and a third group will be exposed to educational programs from the Discovery channel every day for a month. At the end of the month, and a year later, each group will be asked to complete a questionnaire about solving conflict with their classmates. Answer. Subject selection may be skewed, especially if a group of parents allows the viewing of violent programs versus educational programs. Other family characteristics may influence behavior patterns. Further, the long-term effects of watching violent programs could be very Santrock, Adolescence, 16e

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troublesome, and the researcher could be held responsible for deviant developmental patterns. It is unethical to set a child up for poor peer interaction. Wrap-Up. After completing the data collection, the answers should be analyzed to determine students’ ability to respond to the research plans. Students could be required to write a full research paper or a short report of the results. The information should be shared with the professors of each class and with the psychology class for which the research project was completed. Reference Sieber, J. E. 1990. “Three Exercises on the Ethics of Research on Humans.” In Activities Handbook for the Teaching of Psychology. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association, pp. 266–270.

Research Project 7.2—Assessing Students’ Level of Moral Development Objective. Following the completion of this project, students conducting the investigation will be able to compare the level of moral and ethical development demonstrated by selected college students in comparison to Kohlberg’s six stages. Type/Length of Activity. Out-of-class activity; 4 hours. Directions. Look for famous quotes or quotes by famous authors on the Internet. Numerous resources are available through Google. Choose one quote from each of Kohlberg’s stages as shown. Write each quote on a file card (do not provide the stage number), and label each quote randomly by an alphabetical letter. Find six college students (three female and three male) who are willing to rank the quotes from highest moral reasoning to lowest moral reasoning. Compare their answers to your answers. Also ask each participant to pick out the quote that best reflects his/her own beliefs. Record their answers. You can use the data sheet in the Student Handouts section of this Instructor’s Manual. Sample Quotes “Every disorder of the soul is its own punishment.”—Saint Augustine (Stage 1) “ ‘Am I living in a way which is deeply satisfying to me, and which truly expresses me?’ This I think is perhaps the most important question for the creative individual.”—Carl Rogers (Stage 2) “What you do not want others to do to you, do not do to others.”—Confucius (Stage 3) “My country right or wrong.”—Anonymous (Stage 4) “Morality is the observance of the rights of others.”—Dagobert D. Runes (Stage 5) “A world at peace will be one where the rights of every human being—dignity, liberty, and the basic rights of education and health care—will be respected.”—Kris Kristofferson (Stage 6)

1. 2. 3.

Why did you pick the quotes that you did? Do you think your choices influenced the results? How closely did the subjects reflect Kohlberg’s hierarchy? Some research findings suggest that Kohlberg’s six stages are more typical of male morality than female morality. Did your male subjects reflect Kohlberg’s rating more closely than the females did?

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4. 5.

Gilligan’s research suggests that females choose caring morality over justice morality, and that males prefer the reverse. Do your subjects’ choices reflect this gender difference? Evaluate the use of quotations in moral development research. What are the advantages and disadvantages?

Wrap-Up. Write a four-page research paper to explain your procedures and summarize your results. Include your quote choices and research results. Discuss possible gender differences in moral development and what you attribute these differences to. Be prepared to discuss your results in class.

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ESSAY QUESTIONS Review the guidelines for “Answering Essay Questions” before students respond to these questions. 1.

Define moral development and explain why thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are important aspects of the individual to understand.

What are the criticisms of Kohlberg’s theory? Explain their importance to contemporary dilemmas that adolescents might encounter.

Compare and contrast Kohlberg and Gilligan’s theories of moral development.

What are the similarities and differences between the behavioral and social cognitive perspectives of moral development?

Define altruism and discuss the roles that moral thinking and feeling play in expressions of altruism.

Outline the psychoanalytic explanation of moral development.

Explain the characteristics of character education, values clarification, cognitive moral education, and service learning. What are the strengths and weaknesses of each approach?

Characterize adolescents’ involvement in religion and whether their involvement relates to other aspects of their lives.

9. References Borba, M. 2001. Building Moral Intelligence: The Seven Essential Virtues that Teach Kids to do the Right Thing. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Gurian, M. 2000. The Good Son: Shaping the Moral Development of our Boys and Young Men. New York: Penguin Putman Inc. Hoffman, M. L. 2002. Empathy and Moral Development: Implications for Caring and Justice. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University.

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INTERNET ACTIVITIES Internet Activity 7.1 Honesty Students can go to the following Web page to take an honesty questionnaire: http://www.queendom.com/tests/career/honesty_access.html

Internet Activity 7.2 Parenting There are many websites devoted to parenting such as Parent’s Talk. Students can conduct research on the Web, gathering advice about how to parent children and adolescents so as to development strong moral and ethical values in their children and adolescents. After students have completed this task have them present their findings in class. You can write the parenting tips on the board and discuss the merits of each. http://www.parentstalk.com/

Internet Activity 7.3 Sports and Moral Development Controversy exists over whether or not involvement in sports enhances moral development in children and adolescence. Students can research the Web for several opinions and bring their results to class to discuss. Relevant websites include: Mass Youth http://www.mayouthsoccer.org/parents/promoting_social_moral_dev.aspx

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Resource Title

Resource Type

Lying

Video

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CHAPTER 8: FAMILIES INTRODUCTION The family portrait merely reflects a snapshot in time. In reality, reciprocal socialization results in constant change, as do all developmental processes. The family can be thought of as a number of subsystems. Each family member belongs to several subsystems. Interactions between family members can vary depending on who is present. Marital satisfaction also influences family functioning; happily married parents have better relationships with their adolescents. Parents and adolescents mature both independently and together. Relationships shift because: • • • • •

Puberty-enhanced cognitive abilities and idealistic thought influence adolescent change. Conflict increases between parents and adolescents as expectations are renegotiated. Alignment with peers results in increased independence and new ideas by adolescents. Assessments of work, marriage, personal health, and economic stability influence parents. Parenting patterns change due to early or later childbearing experiences.

Parents have a great deal of responsibility in socializing adolescents who are testing family and societal boundaries. Santrock recognizes parents as managers as they regulate opportunities with other people and settings. Parents adopt management styles that follow four patterns: • Authoritarian parenting—parent-centered, top-down management, restrictive, punitive. • Authoritative parenting—rules with negotiation, corrective guidance, nurturing. • Neglectful parenting—uninvolved, uninterested, unconcerned. • Indulgent parenting—involvement without guidance, avoiding management responsibility. Authoritative parenting is related to positive outcomes for children in families from a variety of cultural backgrounds. However, in some ethnic groups, for example Asian American families, a more authoritarian or training style has been associated with positive outcomes for children. Mothers’ and fathers’ roles have adjusted to fit societal expectations for work, family, and community involvement. Mothers continue to take a majority of household responsibility. Fathers’ roles in actively caring for their children improve child outcomes. Father involvement is most likely during leisure time activities. Moms and dads interact differently with their children. Moms socialize daughters to be obedient and restrict autonomy. Dads show increased attention to sounds, engage in more activities with sons, and work to improve their intellectual development.

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Cooperative parenting helps adolescents by increasing the likelihood of teens engaging in prosocial behaviors and competence in peer relations and decreasing the likelihood of engaging in risky behaviors. Cooperative parenting also helps to establish positive feelings toward both males and females. The idea that there is a large generation gap between parent and child resulting in a great deal of conflict is largely unsupported. While conflict between parent and child increases during the early adolescent period, it is not as severe or frequent as most would believe it to be. Increases in conflict in early adolescence is attributed to biological changes associated with puberty, increased idealism and logical reasoning, and social changes in parents associated with middle adulthood. Overwhelming though data supports the idea that the severity of conflict between parent and child is not severe and often involves trivial content. Establishing boundaries for independent and personal values leads to conflict between parents and adolescents. Expectations for autonomy are strongest for boys, democratic parents, white adolescents, and adolescents of single parents. Autonomy may be achieved quickly by going away to college or running away from home. Early parent-child relationships influence adolescents’ confidence, values, and enduring family connections. Establishing a balance between the need for independence and the requirement for emotional support allows adolescents to safely explore the complexities of their environment. When adolescents leave home, those with secure attachments have a well-integrated sense of self-acceptance, self-esteem, and selfefficacy. Teens with a dismissing/avoidant attachment end up in situations in which the parent and child mutually distance themselves from one another. Teens with a preoccupied/ambivalent attachment are overly attached both emotionally and physically to their parents. These attachment styles often continue over into emerging adulthood and further on. The majority of adults describe themselves as securely attached and thus are more likely to have positive romantic relationships. Insecure attachment in adulthood was related to increases in infidelity, lower levels of sexual satisfaction, and higher rates of chronic illnesses. Parents continue to provide support, financial and emotional, for their emerging adult children. A disequilibrium in family life occurs when emerging adults live at home or return to live at home. It requires considerable adaptation on both parts to deal with this disequilibrium. While at the same time of providing support to an adult offspring, middle-aged parents are typically also caring for and support their aging parents. This is referred to as the “sandwich” or “pivot” generation. Family processes in sibling relationships reflect contradictory feelings and interests. Adolescents engage in more conflict with siblings than with other peers, but the conflict typically subsides as they reach adulthood. Birth order may have an effect on sibling relationships. However, some researchers have found that the effects of birth order have been exaggerated. Sibling relationships tend to be positive and beneficial given equal availability of parent time and economic resources. The changing family in a changing society presents parents and adolescents with dilemmas. Some important conclusions are available to help explain changing family structure and relationships.

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• •

• • • •

Adolescents from divorced families experience adjustment problems, but they do cope. Unhappy marriages may be deemed more desirable than divorce if moving, changing schools, losing friendships, inept parenting, or subsequent financial conditions are severely disruptive. Diminished parenting skills and companionable relationships are typical following divorce. When divorced parents have a harmonious relationship and provide authoritative parenting, adjustment to divorce is improved. Adolescents’ adjustment before divorce, personality, the gender of the adolescent, the timing of the divorce, and custody influence adolescent adjustment after divorce. Divorced mothers have an economic loss two to five times higher than fathers.

Stepfamilies are characterized by family structure (stepfather, stepmother, blended, or complex) and relationship types (i.e., neo-traditional, matriarchal, and romantic). Adjustment difficulties in stepfamily formation are similar to those demonstrated by adolescents in divorced families. Boundary ambiguity, a lack of understanding about responsibility for tasks, increases uncertainty. Overall, adolescents experience more adjustment difficulties in stepfamilies than in intact families. Working parents question the effects of their job commitments on adolescent development. Research shows working mothers are not influencing negative outcomes per se. A number of positive results include socializing adolescents for adult roles. In addition, children and adolescents of working mothers have more egalitarian views of gender. The nature of the parents work has been found to play a larger role in adolescent development compared to whether or not parents work outside the home. Negative working conditions for either the mother or father have been associated with negative developmental outcomes. Latchkey children appear to cope successfully with being home alone if parents monitor and use authoritative parenting to help children cope. Many changes have occurred in adoptions in terms of the demographic composition of adopted children and adoptive parents. In general research has found that adopted children and adolescents are more likely to experience internalizing and externalizing mental health problems as well as attention problems. An on-going concern is whether adoptive parents should have connections with the biological parents. Many positive outcomes have been associated with open adoptions. Some gay or lesbian parents raise adolescents. The majority of these adolescents were born in the context of a heterosexual relationship, but research has found few differences in adolescents growing up with gay or lesbian parents and adolescents growing up with heterosexual parents. Cultural and ethnic similarities in parenting occur in the warm and controlling style. Differences include: characteristic family size, structure, and composition; reliance on family networks, and income and educational attainment.

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TOTAL TEACHING PACKAGE OUTLINE Chapter 8: Families HEADING I. FAMILY PROCESSES

II.

RESOURCE Learning Goal: 1 Image: 8-1 Discussion Topic: 8.1 Critical Thinking Exercise: 8.1 Short Scenario: 8.1 Research Article: 8.1 Research Project: 8.1

Reciprocal Socialization and the Family as a System

Research Project: 8.2 Essay Question: 1

Maturation Adolescent Changes Parental Changes Multiple Developmental Trajectories

Essay Question: 2

ADOLESCENTS’ AND EMERGING ADULTS’ RELATIONSHIPS WITH THEIR PARENTS

Learning Goal: 2 Lecture Topic: 8.1 In-Class Activity: 8.1 Research Article: 8.1 Relationship with Parents at Age 14 (Connect) Relationship with Parents at Age 16 (Connect)

Parents as Managers Parental Monitoring Adolescent Information Management

Discussion Topics: 8.2, 8.3, 8.4 In-Class Activity: 8.2, 8.4 Through the Eyes of Adolescents: Needing Parents as Guides

Parenting Styles Parenting Styles and Ethnicity Further Thoughts on Parenting Styles

Image: 8-2 Lecture Topic: 8.2 Discussion Topics: 8.3 In-Class Activity: 8.3 Short Scenario: 8.2 Essay Question: 3 Internet Activity: 8.1

Mothers, Fathers, and Coparenting Mothers, Fathers, and Adolescents Coparenting

Essay Question: 13

Parent-Adolescent Conflict

In-Class Activity: 8.2 Essay Question: 4 Video: Adolescent-Parent Conflict (Connect) Careers in Adolescent Development: Martha Chan—Marriage and Family Therapist

Autonomy and Attachment

Critical Thinking Exercise: 8.2 Research Project: 8.2 Essay Question: 5

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Autonomy

In-Class Activity: 8.2

The Complexity of Adolescent Autonomy Critical Thinking Exercise: 8.3 Gender, Culture, and Ethnicity Essay Question: 5 Developmental Transitions in Autonomy and Going Away to College Adolescent Runaways Conclusions

Attachment and Connectedness Secure and Insecure Attachment Adolescence

Image: 8.3 Critical Thinking Exercise: 8.3 Essay Question: 6

Attachment in Emerging Adults

Emerging Adult’s Relationships with Their Parents

Health and Well-Being Interlude: Strategies for Emerging Adults and Their Parents

Intergenerational Relationships

III.

IV.

SIBLING RELATIONSHIPS

Learning Goal: 3 Discussion Topic: 8.5 Short Scenario: 8.3 Essay Question: 7, 14

Sibling Roles Birth Order

Essay Question: 7, 8 Through the Eyes of Adolescents: Dealing with My Sister

THE CHANGING FAMILY IN A CHANGING SOCIETY

Image: 8-4 Research Article: 8.2 WWW: The National Parenting Center; www.tnpc.com

Divorced Families Adolescents’ Adjustment in Divorced Families Should Parents Stay Together for the Sake of the Children and Adolescents? How Much Do Family Processes Matter in Divorced Families? What Factors Are Involved in the Adolescent’s Risk and Vulnerability in a Divorced Family? What Role Does Socioeconomic Status Play in the Lives of Adolescents in Divorced Families?

Learning Goal: 4 Image: 8-5 Essay Question: 9 Internet Activity : 8.2 Through the Eyes of Emerging Adults: College Students Reflect on Growing Up in a Divorced Family

Stepfamilies Types of Stepfamilies Adjustment

Lecture Topic: 8.3 Essay Question: 10

Working Parents Research Article: 8.2 Working Parents and Adolescent Adjustment Essay Question: 11 Latchkey Adolescents Adoption Essay Question: 12 The Increased Diversity of Adopted Children and Adoptive Parents Developmental Outcomes for Adopted and Non-adopted Children Parenting Adopted Adolescents

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Gay and Lesbian Parents

Image: 8-6 In-Class Activity: 8.1

Culture and Ethnicity Cross-Cultural Comparisons Ethnicity and Parenting V.

SOCIAL POLICY, ADOLESCENTS, AND FAMILIES

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Learning Goal: 5 Discussion Topic: 8.6 Internet Activity: 8.3

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SUGGESTED LECTURE TOPICS Topic 8.1—Parenting as It Relates to Nature and Nurture Critics of current research explaining the influence of parents on child outcome probably have some validity. Parents don’t have the power to mold children, but their efforts are influential. Unfortunately, research before 1980 overstated the case for parental impact. The answer lies in complicated combinations of environmental factors, environmental factors influenced by genetic predisposition, genetic predisposition, and biological characteristics influenced by environment. Four research design strategies have emerged to investigate parental influence and other variables that may affect adolescent outcomes. One approach follows an additive model of behavior-genetics research and expands the investigation by documenting other environmental factors. Research on temperament and parenting suggests that the interaction between parents and children is bidirectional. Unfortunately, this approach too often does not adequately compare individuals with differing genotype or estimate the contributions of other environmental factors. A second research approach differentiates among children with varying genetic inclination to determine whether environmental changes influence different responses. • Difficult children elicit less positive interaction and parenting strategies than do easy children. Adopted children with genetic risk for antisocial behavior obtained less desirable parenting strategies than did children not at risk. • Children with a mentally ill parent who were not exposed to mistreatment by parents showed less disruptive behavior than did maltreated children in similar situations. • Adopted children of a biological parent with schizophrenia or history of criminality were more likely to develop maladaptive behavior if they were adopted into a dysfunctional home. The results suggest that genetically vulnerable children do well unless they are placed in environments with parenting approaches that trigger behavior disorders. The third approach examines parenting habits or behavior after identifying the characteristics of children participating in the study. Human and animal mother-child interactions serve as evidence. • •

•

Animal mothers showing more nurturing behavior (licking, facilitating nursing) had less timid offspring than mothers demonstrating less nurturing behavior. Genetically predisposed reactive offspring raised by calm mothers demonstrated skilled social behavior in large groups; reactive offspring raised by reactive mothers did not. Romanian orphans adopted within 6 months of birth show no effects of the hardship; orphans adopted later show inept neuroendocrine system function and less adaptability to daily life. Infants and children of parents successfully trained to be sensitive and responsive showed long-lasting positive behavior outcomes compared to children in control groups.

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The conclusions suggest that children demonstrate enduring effects of consistently experienced parenting that produce results affecting childhood and adolescence. The fourth line of contemporary research is to investigate other environmental conditions that may influence individual outcome. Predisposing genetic and environmental factors are reflected in the subsequent influential outcomes: • Adolescents select friends with characteristics similar to their own. • Peers are likely to influence everyday behavior, not enduring issues such as beliefs. • Parents actively encourage adolescents’ friendship selection. • Parent-adolescent relationships and parent availability influence susceptibility to peers. • Parents’ economic conditions, neighborhood choice, involvement in school, and parenting style influence parent-mediated socialization. Overall, main effects for heredity and environment have not been identified. Parents’ influence on the complicated interactions between inherited characteristics and parental behavior in relation to non-familial influences best explain how parents have an enduring impact on children. Reference Collins, W. A., Maccoby, E. E., Steinberg, L., Hetherington, E. M., and Bornstein, M. H. 2000. “Contemporary Research on Parenting: The Case for Nature and Nurture,” American Psychologist 55, pp. 218–232.

Topic 8.2—A Framework for Parenting Styles Providing a two-dimensional framework adapted from the work of Slater (1962) can enhance the discussion of parenting styles. Where a parent falls on the permissive-restrictive dimension in concert with where they fall on the warm-cold dimension may result in different types of behavior from their children. In a crude approximation to Slater’s work, the following twodimensional description is offered: Permissiveness x indifferent democratic x x neglectful permissive x x rejecting nonconformist x Cold Warm x demanding indulgent x x authoritarian protective x x abusive authoritative x Restrictive A description of the four parenting styles defined in the text can be derived from Slater’s more comprehensive approach. Examples of the types of behaviors parents engage in should be numerous, and an emphasis on the behaviors of the children they parent might help bring the point home. Disciplinary approaches are tied closely to parenting styles and could be presented at the same time. Parents using inductive techniques to discipline attempt to reason with their children Santrock, Adolescence, 16e

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and most often adopt an authoritative parenting style. This disciplinary style fosters compliance, encourages the development of empathy, and enhances self-control. Parents who use a powerassertive disciplinary style make use of physical rewards and punishment. They are most apt to adopt an authoritarian style, and their children are likely to behave when the contingencies are right, but may not know how to behave when the reinforcements and punishments are not clear. Parents who use loss of love as a disciplinary style isolate or ignore their children when they misbehave. They are more likely to adopt a permissive-indifferent parenting style. The latter two styles in combination produce children who are anxious and uncertain. Topic 8.3—Stages of Growth for a Stepparent and the Hansel and Gretel Syndrome Miller has proposed that the stepparent shift from outsider to parent is a gradual process that varies with each child. Miller proposes that in order to develop a parent/child relationship, a stepparent needs as many years with the child as the biological parent has had with the child. Thus, a five-year-old will develop a mature, parenting relationship with a stepparent by age 10. Miller proposes three stages of growth for stepparents. Healthy relationships move from Guest (Courteous), to Friend (Sharing), to Parent (Intimacy). Unfortunately, step-parenting stages can be negative and move from Intruder (Resentment), to Competitor (Hostilities), to Enemy (Hate). In the first stage, being warm, friendly, and interested helps a new stepparent to be perceived as a guest and be treated courteously. Negative personality characteristics, breaking established’ family rules, or making rules and disciplining increase perceptions of being an Intruder and being resented. With time, the stepparent’s status moves ahead into either a friend or a competitor. A friend is liked and trusted and is someone with whom to share. A “friend’’ stepparent is listened to with respect but the children may still reserve some affection, keep some possessions private, and not want the stepparent in a lawmaking role. In the third stage of parent or enemy, the child perceives the stepparent as a policy maker, comforter, disciplinarian, and emotional supporter. Some stepparent relationships, however, are quite dysfunctional (The Hansel and Gretel Syndrome). Forty-three percent of all fatal abuse cases occur in the homes of stepparents. A child living with a stepparent is almost 100 times more likely to be murdered than a child living with two biological parents. Of 508 solved Detroit homicides in 1972, blood relatives committed only 6 percent, but people related by marriage (e.g., spouses, stepparents, or in-laws) committed 19 percent. References Miller, D. M. 1984. “A Model for Stepfamily Development,” Family Relations 33, pp. 365–372. Pringle, H. 1989. “The Hansel and Gretel Syndrome,” Omni 38, p. 127.

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CLASSROOM DISCUSSIONS AND ACTIVITIES Discussion Topics Discussion 8.1—Good Parents Make Mistakes John and Linda Friel (1999) wrote a book entitled The Seven Worst Things that Parents Do. The same principles apply whether the child is two years old or 14 years old. At any age, the parent must be the manager, and the child must learn to cope with the demands of life. The behaviors that the Friels identify as unacceptable include: • Baby your child—no pressure, no expectations; the alternatives are reasonable expectations that include schedules, behavior guidelines, and a little struggle. • Put your marriage last—a Child Producing Unit with nothing left for the couple; the alternative is to design a family schedule for time as a couple and spouse’s priorities. • Push your child into too many activities—avoid personal time by scheduling structured group activities; alternatively, achieve a balance in family and community group activities. • Ignore your emotional or spiritual life—inability to connect with something beyond ourselves; the alternative is to develop humility and trust, take time for living, love. • Be your child’s best friend—no guts for management; alternatively, be the parent and accept that your child will get angry with you and get your own life. • Fail to give your child structure—no guidelines, no rules; the alternative is to provide external structure and actively help the child learn self-control strategies. • Expect your child to fulfill your dreams—push for your career choice; note that twin studies show importance of genetic predisposition, and a 1998 Harris Poll showed 62 percent of college students would not consider the same career as their parent. Ask students to explain how they would identify healthy versus unhealthy behavior in each of these areas. In other words, how exactly would they define “baby,” “last,” “too many,” “ignore,” “best friend,” “fail,” and “parent’s dream,” as opposed to typical community expectations or desirable parental involvement that fosters optimal potential? Where might students go to get suggestions if they don’t know how to decide on reasonable answers to these questions? References Friel, J. C., and Friel, L. D. 1988. Adult Children: The Secrets of Dysfunctional Families. Deerfield Beach, FL: Health Communications, Inc. Friel, J. C., and Friel, L. D. 1990. An Adult Child’s Guide to What’s “Normal.” Deerfield Beach, FL: Health Communications, Inc. Friel, J. C., and Friel, L. D. 1999. The Seven Worst Things Parents Do. Deerfield Beach, FL: Health Communications, Inc.

Discussion 8.2—What Could They Have Done Differently?

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Research shows that parents are at least partially responsible for a number of competencies, both academically and socially. Parenting practices have been described as influencing communication skills, academic achievement, personal relationships, community involvement, use of addictive substances, and even family relationships. Ask students to think about how their parents influenced each of these areas of their personal development. What might their parents have done differently? How do students think they might accomplish these outcomes with their children? Reference Barnes, G. M., Reifman, A. S., Farrell, M. P., and Dintcheff, B. A. 2000. “The Effects of Parenting on the Development of Adolescent Alcohol Misuse: A Six-wave Latent Growth Model,” Journal of Marriage and the Family 62, pp. 175–186.

Discussion 8.3—Shooting the Other Person Down Parent-child relationships and relationships with peers may include sentences that “shoot the other person down.” In parent-child relationships, these sentences can add fuel to bickering situations. Share these statements with students and discuss whether they have ever used or heard these kinds of statements. Discuss their manifest and latent meanings and generate healthier ones. • I don’t understand why you do these things. • How could you do such a thing? • I’ve never heard of such a thing. • How could someone with your brains and your background do such a thing? • I’m stumped; you really have confused me. • You are going too fast. Please go over it one more time so I’ll understand. • You should know how I’m suffering. • I cannot believe you are going to do that now, when . . . • I do not understand how one little _______________ is going to hurt you. • You never tell me what you’re thinking. • Do it for me. • You’ve offended me. • I demand an apology. Reference Dyer, W. 1978. Pulling Your own Strings. New York: Thomas Y. Crowell Co.

Discussion 8.4—The Nurture Assumption Judith Harris, in her controversial book The Nurture Assumption, challenges the belief that parents shape their children’s behavior. She does not believe that parents have any important long-term effects on their children. The only thing parents give their children is their genes. According to Harris, if parents also shaped their children they would be “too much like little clones.” Harris’ view, if correct, would make much of the psychology in the text wrong. The text covers the importance of attachment, parenting styles and family structure. Do those things really

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matter? According to Harris the answer is “No.” The “nurture assumption” is the belief that the most important part of the child’s environment is the home and the parents. Harris says this is a myth. She believes that the part of the child’s environment that shapes their behavior is outside of the home. It is their peers that are most important. Present this information to the students. Ask them what they think. Is Harris correct? Is the text wrong? Is there a middle ground? Reference Harris, J. R. 1998. The Nurture Assumption. The Free Press.

Discussion 8.5—Sibling Quotient How is your sibling-IQ? Answer the following questions about siblings, family size, and only children. 1. About what percentage of adolescents have no siblings? A. 25 B. 20 C. 12

2. Generally, siblings grow further apart during adolescence than they were during the schoolage years. A. True B. False 3. Which pair is most likely to experience intense sibling rivalry? A. sister-sister B. sister-brother

brother-brother

4. “Intense sibling loyalties’’ are more likely to develop when siblings suffer parental losses, and grow up together in emotionally trying conditions. A.

True

False

5. Which parenting response tends to decrease sibling-sibling aggression? A. physical punishment B. laissez-faire 6. The _________ child in the family was more often the favorite of the mother and the _________ child was least often a parental favorite. A. oldest; youngest B. oldest; middle C. middle; oldest D. middle; youngest E. youngest; oldest F. youngest; middle 7. Aggression between two siblings is more common when their ages are _________. A. more than five years apart B. three or four years apart C. less than three years 8. Physically active individuals are more likely to have ____________. A. an older brother B. a younger brother C. D. a younger sister E. no siblings

an older sister

9. The majority of adult siblings contact each other several times a year. A. True B. False 10. Adolescents report that a ______ has had the least influence in their lives.

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mother

father

friend

sibling

Answers: 1. C; 2. B; 3. C; 4. A; 5. B; 6. F; 7. C; 8. A; 9. A; 10. D. References Bank, S., and Kahn, M. D. 1982. “Intense Sibling Loyalties,” In M. E. Lamb and B. Sutton-Smith, Eds., Sibling Relationships: Their Nature and Significance Across the Lifespan. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Chadwick, B. A., and Heaton, T. B. 1996. Statistical Handbook on the American Family. Phoenix: Oryx Press. Chadwick, B. A., and Heaton, T. B. 1999. Statistical Handbook on the American Family, 2nd ed. Phoenix: Oryx Press. Cicirelli, V. G. 1982. “Sibling Influence Throughout the Lifespan.” In M. E. Lamb & B. Sutton-Smith, Eds., Sibling Relationships: Their Nature and Significance Across the Lifespan. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Felson, R. B., and Russo, N. 1988. “Parental Punishment and Sibling Aggression,” Social Psychology Quarterly 51, pp. 11–18. Harris, I. D., and Howard, K. I. 1984. “Correlates of Perceived Parental Favoritism,” Journal of Genetic Psychology 146, pp. 45–56. Longstreth, L. E., Longstreth, G. V., Ramirez, C., and Fernandez, G. 1975. “The Ubiquity of Big Brother,” Child Development 46, pp. 769–772. Simons, J. A. 1988. A sibling Quiz: Classroom Activity. Ankeny, IA: Des Moines Area Community College.

Discussion 8.6—The Perfect Family Discuss as a class, what would constitute the perfect family. What elements would this family have in terms of possible structure? What elements would this family have in terms of function? Get very specific (e.g., how the parents would discipline, socialize, and monitor the adolescent). How would these elements change depending on the age of the adolescent (e.g., how much monitoring would be appropriate for an 11-year-old versus a 16-year-old)? Would the sex of the adolescent make a difference? What other forces would influence the development of the adolescent besides the family? How much influence do parents have on their adolescent’s development?

In-Class Activities Activity 8.1—The Family as Context This investigation is designed as an in- and out-of-class activity. It is based on an ecological perspective and is designed to determine how parents rear their children in the context that child rearing occurs. Give students suggestions for collecting information from parents of two different families to establish (a) the parents’ assumptions about effective parenting methods (the how), and (b) the parents’ preferences for characteristics that their children will demonstrate as adults (the goals of parents and community). Santrock, Adolescence, 16e

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During the first class period, ask students to compose two open-ended questions to determine (a) parents’ strongest recommendations about raising children (three commandments), and (b) three characteristics parents want their children to achieve as adults. Then create a list of 10 parenting strategies (e.g., love plentifully, discipline effectively, listen readily) and up to 16 traits of children (e.g., hardworking, honest, curious) that are demonstrated by successful adults. List the strategies and traits in the form of a checklist. Participants will be asked to identify the three most important and three least important items on each list. Remind students about informed consent and participant confidentiality discussed in the introduction of the Instructor’s Manual. Students are to complete two interviews before the second class. During the second class period, begin the discussion with a review of important parentadolescent relationships and socialization factors from Chapter 9. Then ask students to explain what they learned from their interviews with parents. Were the results what they expected? What were the most important strategies and traits identified by parents? Did students note interesting comments or insights? Reference Bernt, F. M. 1999. “The Ends and Means of Raising Children: A Parent Interview Activity.” In L. T. Benjamin, B. F. Nodine, R. M. Ernst, and C. B. Broeker, Eds., Activities Handbook for the Teaching of Psychology: Vol. 4. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association, pp. 244–252. (Interview and checklist questions; survey data from four previous decades included)

Activity 8.2—Coping with Adolescents Divide the class into groups of three to six students and have them wrestle with common parenting situations. Have group members present individual views and reasons, and then try to reach a consensus. Below is a list of problems for discussion. You may give each group different situations and have them present their finalized position to the larger class. As an alternative, each group can resolve the same situations in order to save time to let students discover whether each group used similar solutions. • Your 13-year-old and your 15-year-old want to play Nintendo all the time. • The seventh-grade math teacher sends a note home saying that your child rarely does his homework and is easily distracted in class. • Your 13-year-old daughter wants to know why you won’t let her wear makeup, nylons, and earrings. She says all her friends do. • You find out that your sixth-grader has removed a couple of cans of beer from your refrigerator. • Your eighth-grader and his peers seem to delight in sprinkling their conversation with an assortment of swear words. • Your tenth-grader starts to insist that she will only wear certain expensive brands of jeans, shoes, and tops; and they are so expensive that your budget could not afford very much. • Your seventh-grader thinks she is old enough to date and is interested in a ninth-grade boy.

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A variation to this activity is to have students resolve these problems using a particular parenting style, such as authoritarian, permissive-indulgent, or authoritative. Reference Simons, J. A. 1987. How Would You Handle it?: A Classroom Activity. Ankeny, IA: Des Moines Area Community College.

Activity 8.3—Role-Playing Parenting Styles Ask students to come up with several typical parenting issues with adolescents or have them use the parenting problems in Activity 8.2. Ask two students to volunteer to role-play the parenting problem; one to be the parent and one to be the adolescent. If students are having difficulty acting out the adolescent and/or parent suggest that they act like a parent or child they know, or perhaps how they would have acted with their parents, or how they image themselves acting as a parent. The class can get involved as well. If a student is having trouble deciding how to respond in the role play, ask the class how they think the student should respond. Once the role-play is finished ask the students in the class to decide what style of parenting was represented. Was it the best way to handle the situation? Why or why not? Activity 8.4—Interviewing Parents You can invite one or more parents of an adolescent to class. Before their visit, help the students prepare questions for the parents based on a number of topics related to this chapter. The class can ask about parenting and discipline styles, and how these have changed as their adolescent has gotten older; the topics they argue about most with their adolescent; and (if there is more than one child/adolescent in the family) how the personality of the child affects parenting, sibling relationships, and the family structure.

Critical Thinking Exercises Exercise 8.1—Theoretical Foundations of Family Research Chapter 1 of Adolescence lays out five theories as a means of organizing and integrating what we know about adolescence. It is possible that one of these theories is more influential than others in contemporary research on families. Based on what Santrock explains about theories and families in Chapter 8, which theory appears to have been most influential on the sorts of research and thinking presented in the chapter on families? Circle the letter of the best answer, explain why it is the best answer, and why each of the other answers is not as appropriate. A. Psychoanalytic theories D. Ecological theories B. Cognitive theories E. An eclectic theoretical orientation C. Behavioral and social learning theories

Exercise 8.2—Autonomy and Attachment

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Contrary to previous explanations, needs for autonomy and attachment appear to be complementary influences on adolescent social development. Needs for autonomy push adolescents to discover their strengths and limitations, whereas needs for attachment keep them connected to adults who nurture and support their explorations. It is appropriate, therefore, to allow adolescents to have control over some aspects of their lives. Which of the following is an assumption, rather than an inference or an observation, that underlies advice based on these conclusions? Circle the letter of the best answer, explain why it is the best answer, and why each of the other answers is not as appropriate. A. The key limitation on adolescents’ ability to make good decisions is lack of knowledge. B. Adolescent autonomy develops in stages, not in all behaviors simultaneously. C. Adolescents who are securely attached to their parents experience emotional adjustment, social competence, and physical health. D. Attachment to parents promotes positive relationships with peers. E. Increased family connectedness is associated with more family conversation about interpersonal issues.

Answer Key for Critical Thinking Exercises Exercise 8.1 A.

This is not the best answer. One reason is that neither Freud nor Erikson is directly cited in the text. Although biological processes are responsible for maturation and the shift from parental affiliations to relative independence, no reference is made to the classic issues (e.g., Oedipal conflict based on biological foundations). Parents and nurturance are indicated as the predominantly influential agents.

This is not the best answer. Although cognitive factors are discussed in relation to understanding the socialization process and influencing parent-adolescent conflict, adolescent ideas are not discussed as occurring independently of parental goals and support. For example, one might expect something along the lines of Selman’s theory of perspective taking, or Dodge’s analysis of stages of information processing about interpersonal conflict, but these types of theories and analyses do not receive play.

This is the best answer. There is a long tradition of citing learning and modeling processes in characterizing the influences of parents on children. Specific arguments and summative comments repeatedly return to parent motivation or goal setting, rearing strategies or intervention, and support systems or reinforcement that parents provide their children.

This is not the best answer. Although there is an emphasis on systems of interacting individuals, the central theme is the control parents have over their children’s outcomes and successes in other spheres of life.

This is not the best answer, although it could be a possible second best. Each theory is recognized as serving a role in the explanation of family function, but in this chapter

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Santrock repeatedly cites behavioral or social cognitive processes in the development of parent-adolescent relationships. Exercise 8.2 A.

This is the assumption. This statement appears to assume that knowledge is the main factor determining the quality of decisions because it does not mention other influential factors (e.g., logical thinking, maturational limitations on adolescents’ decision making, or limitations in experience). The recommendation for reducing parent/adolescent conflict and improving decision-making skills is to engage in collaborative problem solving to promote the discovery of a solution that satisfies both parents and the adolescent. Further, wise parents relinquish control over areas in which the adolescent is able to make reasonable decisions.

This is an inference. Two research investigations explain that autonomy is an uneven personality dimension that is evident in various behaviors at differing stages of development. No specific data are provided for support of an observation or factor analysis.

This is an inference. Research has suggested this association through interpretation of correlational investigations repeated by numerous investigators.

This is an inference, for the same reason that “B” is an inference; the supporting evidence is correlational.

This is an observation. It is based on a time-sample “beeper study” conducted by Reed Larson and colleagues (1996).

Short Scenarios Scenario 8.1 Crystal is the oldest of five children, and there may be another sibling if her mother has the baby. That’s questionable because her mom, Angel, is drinking too much—again—and dating a mean man who often shoves her around. Crystal’s half-brothers and sisters are suffering from the chaos around the apartment they currently call home. The problem is that when her mom is on a drinking binge, Crystal is the only one who cooks or bathes the younger ones. Sometimes Crystal is so tired she doesn’t wake up early enough to get everyone off to school. Jim, the man that her mom is dating right now, makes everything worse. Lately, when he and Angel get totally wasted, or he verbally and physically abuses her, Angel walks out of the apartment. After this happens, Jim starts making sexual advances toward Crystal. Crystal wants to leave—permanently—but is afraid for the other girls and even her younger brother, Sam, who has started acting as a decoy when Jim starts beating up on his mom. Crystal feels paralyzed and hopeless. Sometimes she thinks about getting drunk and walking down the middle of the busiest street she can find. • Crystal is part of a single-parent family in which the reciprocal socialization process has required that she take on responsibilities beyond her years. Santrock, Adolescence, 16e

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• • •

Synchrony takes place in a dysfunctional way as Crystal takes care of family requirements and Angel maintains a dependent relationship. • Boundary ambiguity may be an ongoing issue as the home environment remains chaotic and roles appear to be reversed between Crystal and her mother. Crystal is missing numerous opportunities to learn how to have a fulfilling family life in her adult years: an understanding of functional roles, normal subsystems, dynamic and hierarchical maturational processes, and secure attachment, social competence, and the opportunity to observe successful maturational processes by a parent. As Crystal matures, she contemplates running away to avoid further exploitation. Crystal is probably experiencing unresolved/disorganized attachment. It is likely that social services professionals have not attended to the needs of Angel, Crystal, or the family in any meaningful way for years.

Scenario 8.2 Tom is the third of five children in the Johnson family. The oldest boy, Marshall, is just finishing law school. Twenty-one-year-old Brent is finishing a degree in geology and plans on a career with an oil company. Tom remembers what it was like for them in junior high and high school. His parents tended to keep close tabs on them and expected them to follow home rules, no questions asked. Even though they did really well in school, they both are rowdy—they like to fight. Marshall loves a good debate and Brent has a mean streak and a temper. He should do well in the oil fields. Tom, on the other hand, has not experienced the same stringent conditions. He isn’t sure why, but his folks have been communicative, supportive, and willing to negotiate curfews, high school trips, and resources like a car and stereo equipment. Tom sees himself as being very different from his older brothers, and he plans to earn a master’s degree in industrial/organizational psychology. His younger brother and sister have had it easy—they stay up late, goof around in school, and spend phenomenal amounts of money on junk without much concern for consequences. Not only do his folks let them get away with it, they often join his younger brother and sister! Tom suspects his younger siblings will be ski bums or perpetual students because of their narcissistic personalities. • •

• • • •

Tom’s parents used an authoritarian parenting style with the two oldest children. Marshall and Brent probably experienced physical punishment typical of the authoritarian style and, to some degree, imitated that approach with friends by engaging in physical contact to resolve differences. Tom experienced an authoritative parenting style as he grew up. Tom developed different interests and patterns of interaction and chose a career that depends on communication and negotiation skills. The younger two children seem to be experiencing a permissive parenting style, probably permissive indulgent. The younger children are likely to be much more social and easygoing than the older children in this family.

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• •

Tom’s parents’ style of parenting probably changed because they learned through experience, maturation, and economic circumstances. Tom’s older siblings had an impact on his perspective about the types of roles that he will play in his lifetime.

Scenario 8.3 This is the fifth interruption tonight. All she wants is a little TV time and to think about something other than her brothers. Erin is wondering how any girl could find either one of her brothers attractive or appealing. But they must, judging from the number of girls who have been calling the house since school started. Russ and Randy get everything—Russ has a car and Randy goes with him whenever he can come up with an excuse. They have plays, clubs at school, and movies or parties to go to on the weekend. Her folks spend endless amounts of time and money on them while they look at colleges and take high school trips. In the meantime, she has to struggle and beg for permission to go for pizza with her friends. The only good thing about having older brothers is that she has many opportunities to see what her options might be when she attends high school and starts thinking about college. Her brothers will need to grow up. Somebody better remind them that they will be on their own when it is time for her to go to college and move out on her own. Maybe they will introduce her to some interesting guys. • • •

• • •

•

Erin is experiencing sibling conflict with her brothers over attention and resources. She is learning about the resources available to her brothers as they engage in social activities and organizations associated with high school. Erin has an opportunity to learn how families respond to the attention adolescent females give to their male peers. It will probably influence the type of behavior that she demonstrates as she gets older. Her brothers are serving as important models for school achievement and involvement. Erin is learning about expectations by her parents and resources available from her parents as she nears high school graduation. Erin may be experiencing different expectations in her opportunities for autonomy as a result of her gender, her age, or both. Perceived but unexplained differences in treatment may be influencing the animosity that Erin feels toward her brothers. Erin is anticipating social and emotional support from her brothers as they establish new friendship networks and have the opportunity to help her along, an example of sharing and playing together.

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RESEARCH ARTICLES Article 8.1—Perceptions of Parental Involvement Locus of control has been associated with numerous areas of adolescent competence including academic achievement, leadership, progress in career decisions, and psychosocial deficits such as depression and drug use. Students identified as having an internal locus of control demonstrate more prosocial behavior and higher levels of competence in each area as opposed to students with an external locus of control. Previous investigations show that parenting practices leading to positive outcomes for adolescents depend on positive, high levels of parental involvement. Home-based involvement in completing homework and making career choices was associated with career achievement, as well as favorable attitudes toward school. Conversely, students who perceived their parents as having little concern but high levels of control revealed the highest levels of anxiety, depression, and delinquency. Several investigators have concluded that security and attachment to parents serve as protective elements that help to establish emotional stability. In general, emotional stability influences adolescents to be more secure and autonomous (Baumrind, 1991; Ryan and Lynch, 1989). The purpose of this investigation was to assess: (a) high school seniors’ perceptions of parental involvement in students’ lives; (b) high school seniors’ perceptions of parental control on discipline and career in their lives; and (c) the interaction of these to students’ locus of control (p. 375). The data for this analysis were obtained from the National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988 (NELS:88). The sample of students from which data were collected included 10,311 high school seniors. The data for this analysis were obtained from 1992 and 1994. The second follow-up student survey was collected by the National Opinion Research Center at the University of Chicago. The survey was administered to determine students’ attitudes, perceptions, and behavior as they reflected setting characteristics of school, leisure, peers, and family. Students were asked to explain their perceptions or “attributions” in relation to luck, chance, and planning-assessed locus of control. Students responded on a four-point scale to establish a score that reflected students’ perceptions of their lives. Parental involvement was assessed with a scale that used eight items from the second follow-up student survey. The questionnaire asked students to give their perceptions of their parents’ involvement in students’ education, career, and personal development. Students completed a parental control assessment to determine the extent to which students believed their parents were in control over students’ life decisions. Questions were answered on a five-point scale with “parents decide” on one end and “student decides for herself or himself” on the other end of the continuum. The data analysis followed a sequence of steps including factor analysis, bivariate correlations among variables, multiple regressions, and other analyses to assess the relationship between variables. A multiple regression and continuous scales were used to quantify parent versus student control, parental involvement, and the product term (conditional relationship) (p. 378).

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Perceptions of senior students clearly showed relationships between parental involvement and control on the locus of control scores for students. The results showed parents perceived as highly involved and having high-disciplinary control were associated with senior students with the highest scores on locus of control (.29). Students with the lowest scores on locus of control (–.13) were those with parents perceived as having lowest levels of involvement and high levels of disciplinary control. A .42 z-score difference occurred between high-involvement/highcontrol parents and low-involvement/high-control parents. The next-to-the lowest scores (–.08) by seniors were associated with perceived low-control/low-involvement parents. Parents perceived as moderately involved and having moderate control had students with intermediate scores on locus of control (.08). Thus, students who perceived parents as highly involved and having high levels of disciplinary control were those with the highest level of internal locus of control. The results also showed that career control and parent involvement had similar effects on locus of control scores. Students with the highest locus of control scores (.26) reported parents as being high in involvement and career control. Students with the lowest locus of control scores (–.18) perceived parents as being low in involvement and high in career control. Again, the difference between highest and lowest z-scores was .44. Seniors with moderate locus of control scores (.07) reported perceived involvement at moderate levels and moderate career control. Once again, students who perceived parents as highly involved and having high career control were seniors with the high levels of internal locus of control. Parental involvement, whether control or demands are high, moderate, or low, appears to be an influential variable in ensuring high internal locus of control and student development both academically and socially. Reference Trusty, J., and Lampe, R. E. 1997. “Relationship of High-school Seniors’ Perceptions of Parenting Involvement and Control to Seniors’ Locus of Control,” Journal of Counseling and Development 75, pp. 375–384.

Article 8.2—Parents’ Work Pressure and Adolescents’ Well-Being Current research suggests that parental work status alone has little consistent impact on adolescent psychological functioning. Work pressure defined as deadlines, demands, and fast pace does have an impact on employee health and well-being, and recent research suggests that it creates work stress for subsequent family interactions. Galambos et al. (1995) investigated the combined effects of mothers’ and fathers’ stress on parent-child relations and adolescent psychosocial outcomes. More recently, Repetti and colleagues (1994; 1997) concluded that mothers and fathers tend to withdraw from family interaction following stressful workdays, resulting in lower parent-adolescent conflict, but not necessarily higher levels of adolescent wellbeing. The current research was designed (a) to determine connections between parental work circumstances, family dynamics, and adolescent development, and (b) to determine whether associations between parent-adolescent conflict and psychological well-being would be stronger for offspring in early adolescence than in middle adolescence.

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The sample included 190 dual-earner families with first-born and second-born adolescent offspring participating in the first phase of the longitudinal study. Letters were sent home to all families of eighth-, ninth-, and tenth-grade students in each of 18 school districts in a northeastern state. The research was described as an investigation into the family life of the 1990s and specified the criterion for indicating an interest in study participation. Respondents included 197 initially eligible families, but seven were dropped due to inconsistency with the criteria for participation. The average ages were: mothers—39.9, fathers—41.8, first-borns—15, second-borns—12.5. Education of parents was 14.4, firstborns were 9.3, and second-borns were 6.7. Work hours for parents averaged 35.7 for mothers and 47.7 for fathers. A team of interviewers conducted separate home interviews with fathers, mothers, and the two siblings to complete the research. Families received a $100 honorarium after introductions and participation guidelines were completed. Interview duration was from two to three hours. The Work Pressure subscale of the Work Environment Scale was composed of a nine-item measure that parents completed. The scale asked parents to respond to questions about deadlines and rapid pace of work. For example, parents rated statements like, “It is very hard to keep up with your workload,” by responding on a four-point scale (1 = very true/4 = very untrue). The research controlled for occupational prestige to assure measurement of work pressure instead of mothers’ and fathers’ differential status. The National Opinion Research Center’s occupational prestige codes were used, and mothers and fathers were found to have similar levels of occupational prestige. Parents completed the 13-item Role Overload Scale to assess feelings of being overwhelmed by numerous commitments and not having enough personal time. They rated items such as, “I can’t ever seem to get caught up,” on a five-point scale (1 = strongly agree/5 = strongly disagree). Parent-adolescent conflict was measured with a single scale completed by the mother, father, and each sibling. Parents completed the measure twice, once for each adolescent. Adolescents completed the scale twice, once for each parent. Respondents reported how often they engaged in conflict with the target family member in 11 domains of activity (chores, curfew, school performance) on a scale from 1 (not at all) to 6 (several times a day). Adolescent psychological well-being was assessed with two measures: Harter’s (1988) fiveitem measure of general self-worth described two contrasting adolescents (one with low and one with high self-image) and asked respondents to indicate which was most like him or her and how much (sort of true/really true). The Center for Epidemiological Studies on Depression short form measure included 12 items such as, “I felt sad,” on a four-point scale (1 = rarely or none of the time/4 = most or all of the time). Respondents rated their past week’s feelings. Structure equation modeling was used to test the hypotheses. Analyses were completed to determine (a) the relationship between parent-adolescent conflict, with role overload controlling for work pressure, and (b) the relationship between adolescent well-being and parent-adolescent conflict, controlling for role overload. The results indicated that the greatest impact occurred between parent-younger-adolescent conflict and younger adolescent well-being. It was Santrock, Adolescence, 16e

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determined that pressure in the workplace served as the first domino in a sequence of interconnected work and family processes. High levels of work pressure were associated with increased feelings of role overload for mothers and fathers. Subsequently, high levels of role overload predicted greater parent-child conflict. Finally, high levels of conflict were related to lower levels of adolescent psychological well-being. These results were very similar across mothers and fathers. Higher levels of parent-adolescent conflict associated with lower levels of adolescent well-being applied equally well to both older and younger adolescents. In conclusion, “When parents’ occupational prestige is held constant, high levels of work pressure may heighten employed parents’ feelings of being overloaded, a psychological state that in turn may make them more apt to engage in conflict with their adolescent offspring” (p. 1459). In turn, conflict results in lower feelings of psychological well-being in adolescent offspring. References Crouter, A. C., Bumpus, M. F., Maguire, M .C., and McHale, S. M. 1999. “Linking Parents’ Work Pressure and Adolescents’ Well-being: Insights into Dynamics in Dual-earner Families,” Developmental Psychology 35, pp. 1453–1461. Galambos, N. L., Sears, H. A., Almeida, D. M., and Kolaric, G. 1995. “Parents’ Work Overload and Problem Behavior in Young Adolescents,” Journal of Research on Adolescence 5, pp. 201–223. Repetti, R. 1994. “Short-term and Long-term Processes Linking Job Stressors to Father-child Interaction,” Social Development 3, pp. 1–15. Repetti, R., and Wood, J. 1997. “The Effects of Daily Stress at Work on Mothers’ Interactions with Preschoolers,” Journal of Family Psychology 11, pp. 90–108.

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STUDENT RESEARCH PROJECTS Research Project 8.1—Parents in the Classroom Objective. Students will have an opportunity to learn about typical parenting processes and parents’ perspectives on the interaction that they experienced at different stages of their adolescents’ development. Type/Length of Activity. In- and out-of-class activity; variable, approximately four hours. Directions. At the beginning of the semester, students choose a stage of parenthood on which they would like to report and form work groups for each stage. Depending on the composition of the class, stages may be broad (prepubescent, early-, middle-, or late-adolescence) or identified by grade from fourth through twelfth. Each work group will find parents for a parent panel and conduct the class session on the day(s) of the panels. The instructor will schedule class periods for the panel presentations. Before the panel, students are required to read a current book on parenting of the instructor’s choice. Each student of the work groups is also expected to conduct an interview of a parent with a child in their respective age group and write a paper summarizing the issues raised in the interview. The following questions may be addressed: • • • • •

Did the parent raise issues that are recognized or addressed in the assigned parenting book? Did the parent discuss other contemporary issues often discussed in the popular press? What topics did the parent indicate as points of confusion? On which topics did the parent seem particularly confident? Overall, what was the parent’s attitude about his/her stage of parenthood and his/her responsibility for the adolescent?

Students in the given developmental age group are responsible for conducting the class on the day of the panel. Following the instructor’s introduction of him- or herself and an explanation of the purpose, students are responsible for conducting the class. Parents on the panel and members of the work group will sit facing the class. A member of the work group introduces parent presenters and members of the work group. Work group members present issues for the relevant age group and the findings from the interviews. Members of the work group should ask for parent comment and discussion about their own experiences. Work group members also should have open-ended questions prepared to encourage additional discussion. Wrap-Up. Allow 10 minutes at the end of the class for parents to make final comments and to thank parents for their participation. Reference Morahan-Martin, J. 1990. “Parent Panels: Bringing the Parent into the Childhood and Adolescent Course,” In V. P. Makosky, C.C. Sileo, L. G. Whitemore, C. P. Landry, and M. OL. Skutley, Eds., Activities Handbook for the Teaching of Psychology: Vol. 3. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association, pp. 123–125. Santrock, Adolescence, 16e

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Research Project 8.2—Investigating Adult Attachment Objective. Students will be able to explain attachment theory and apply it to personal life experience. Type/Length of Activity. Out-of-class activity; variable, four or more hours. Directions. Several university centers of research are presently involved in explaining attachment theory through investigations with children, adolescents, and adults. Research papers that describe the theoretical and scientific foundation for attachment theory and numerous measurement tools currently under investigation are described at educational websites such as the following: • •

Fraley, R. C., University of Illinois—Chicago http://www.psych.uiuc.edu/~rcfraley/attachment.htm UMass Adult Attachment Lab http://people.umass.edu/monaco/attachlab.html

First, read about past and current work investigating the measurement and theory of attachment. Then, develop a list of questions that you believe will target key attachment issues appropriate for young adults. Points to consider before designing a questionnaire: (1) Secure attachment in early childhood usually leads to secure attachment as an adolescent (Hamilton, 1995), and (2) adolescents and young adults encounter situations in everyday life similar to those designed by Mary Ainsworth in her research using the Strange Situation. After designing the questionnaire, make several copies, one of which will be given to your instructor with your report, the others will be used in your assessment process. Ask at least two young adults to complete the questionnaire you developed. Remind students about informed consent and participant confidentiality discussed in the introduction of the Instructor’s Manual. After they have completed the questionnaire uninterrupted, explain attachment theory and discuss their perspective on the type of attachment they have/had with a primary caregiver. Are the explanations by your participants similar or different? Did the questions establish the same conclusions? Wrap-Up. Prepare a summary of your results either in the form of a short paper to be given to your instructor, or as a brief report to be presented to the class. Distribute your questionnaire to the class. References Ainsworth, M. D. S., and Marvin, R. S. 1995. “On the Shaping of Attachment Theory and Research: An Interview with Mary D. S. Ainsworth” (Fall 1994). Monographs of the Society of Research in Child Development 60(2–3), Serial No. 244, pp. 3–21. Hamilton, C. E. 1995. Continuity and Discontinuity of Attachment From Infancy Through Adolescence. Paper presented at the biennial meetings of the Society for Research in Child Development, Indianapolis.

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Adapted from Skinner, P. J., and Clark, W. M. 2001. Instructor’s Manual to Accompany Human Development, 8th ed., by D. E. Papalia, S. W. Olds, and R. D. Feldman. Boston: McGraw-Hill Companies.

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ESSAY QUESTIONS 1.

How are the concepts of reciprocal socialization, synchrony, and the family as a system related to each other? How are they different?

What similarities and differences in maturation are taking place in the lives of adolescents and their parents, and how might they influence parent-adolescent relationships? Give examples.

Define and give examples of the four parenting styles described by Baumrind including the characteristic behavior of parents and children, and likely outcomes as adolescents and adults.

Describe some of the factors that contribute to the escalation of parent-adolescent conflict that typically occurs during early adolescence. 5. Distinguish between psychologically healthy and unhealthy methods of establishing adolescent autonomy. What factors contribute to adolescents achieving autonomy successfully?

Define the attachment categories and explain why attachment is an important topic in discussions of adolescent autonomy.

Compare and contrast the influence of siblings, peers, and parents on adolescents.

Present contrasting arguments for the claim that birth order is an important influence on adolescent personality.

List and discuss key factors that affect adolescent adjustment to divorce. When and why should parents stay together for the sake of their children?

10.

What challenges confront adolescents who find themselves living in stepfamilies?

11.

List and describe factors and contexts of parental employment that influence the development of children and adolescents in recent years.

12.

List and discuss reasons why adopted children have more psychological and school-related problems compared to non-adopted children.

13.

Compare and contrast mothers’ and fathers’ roles in parenting adolescents. Which factors influence the types of partnership parents establish with their spouses?

14.

What can parents do to facilitate positive sibling relationships? How do the relationships between siblings affect the parents?

References Bornstein, M. H., Ed. 1995. Handbook of Parenting, Vols. 1–4. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. Brody, G. H., Ed. 1996. Sibling Relationships: Their Causes and Consequences. Norwood, NJ: Ablex. Bronfenbrenner, U. 1986. “Ecology of the Family as a Context of Human Development: Research perspectives,” Developmental Psychology 22, pp. 723–742. Erera, P. I. 2002. Family Diversity: Continuity and Change in the Contemporary Family. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

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INTERNET ACTIVITIES Internet Activity 8.1 Parenting Styles There are many Web pages devoted to parenting styles, such as Kid Source. http://www.kidsource.com/better.world.press/parenting.html There is also a parenting-style quiz that students can take to see what parenting style they use, or would use if they had a child. This quiz is on the Pediatrics website. http://pediatrics.about.com/cs/quizzes/l/bl_prnt_style.htm Students can read about parenting styles before your lecture. Internet Activity 8.2 Divorce When you lecture about divorce, you may want to talk about the ways in which laws have changed to make a divorce much easier to obtain and how this has contributed in part to a rise in the divorce rate over the last several decades. Have students go to the Web page before your lecture. The website is Complete Case.com. http://www.completecase.com/ Internet Activity 8.3 Children’s Defense Fund Have students go to the Web page of the Children’s Defense Fund and read about the mission of the Children’s Defense Fund. Ask students to print out one of the recent press releases and bring it to class. As a class, discuss the press releases and the possible impact on child/adolescent development. http://www.childrensdefense.org

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Resource Title

Resource Type

Conflict with Parents

Video

Adolescent-Parent Conflict

Video

Adolescent and Parent Emotions

Video

Relationships with Parents at Age 14

Video

Relationships with Parents at Age 15

Video

Relationships with Parents at Age 16

Video

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ACTIVITIES TO ACCOMPANY CONNECT VIDEOS Adolescent-Parent Conflict Overview Dr. Lawrence Steinberg of the Department of Psychology at Temple University discusses the realities of parent-adolescent conflict. He says conflicts are a normative part of adolescent development. They are often about trivial issues rather than fundamental moral principles, and they are a result of the cognitive changes that occur in adolescence. Pre-Test 1. What causes the increase in parent-child conflict in early adolescence? a. The generation gap Incorrect. The generation gap is a stereotype. Most adolescents and their parents have similar beliefs. b. The cognitive changes in adolescence that involve becoming a more concrete thinker Incorrect. Adolescents are becoming more abstract in their thinking which may cause an increase in idealistic thinking. Their parents likely fall short of their ideals. c. The biological changes associated with puberty Correct. As children enter puberty, conflict increases due, in part, to hormonal changes. d. The social changes associated with adolescents such as becoming more attached to their parents Incorrect. Adolescents are focused on independence and autonomy and this can cause conflict between parents and adolescents. Post-Test 1. What are the typical things adolescents and their parents fight about? a. Religion Incorrect. Parents and adolescents do not usually fight about highly significant issues such as religion. b. Long-term plans and goals Incorrect. Parents and adolescents do not usually fight about highly significant issues such as long-terms plans. c. Keeping their bedroom clean Correct. Parents and adolescents usually fight about trivial issues such as cleaning up their room or turning down the stereo. d. Moral issues Incorrect. Parents and adolescents do not usually fight about highly significant issues such as moral issues. 2. How is this increased level of fighting related to cognitive changes that occur during adolescence? a. Adolescents are thinking in more concrete ways. Incorrect. Adolescents are thinking in more abstract ways that allow them to think more hypothetically. b. Adolescent thinking is characterized by a type of egocentrism that only allows them to view situations from their own perspective. Santrock, Adolescence, 16e

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Incorrect. Adolescents become more idealistic in their thinking and more able to think about hypothetical situations that can cause them to challenge their parents. c. Adolescents are thinking in more abstract and hypothetical ways. Correct. This type of thinking causes them to challenge their parents. This is an indication of cognitive growth. 3. What is gained when parents and adolescents have arguments rather than talking? a. Nothing. Arguing is always negative. Incorrect. Talking through differences teaches compromise. b. By insisting that the adolescent conform to the desires of the parent, the parent is teaching the adolescent discipline. Incorrect. Parents should compromise with their adolescents to teach them constructive problem-solving skills. c. The parents can use the argument to teach the adolescent about compromise and to develop healthy problem-solving skills. Correct. This is a constructive use of parent-adolescent conflict. d. Parents should always allow their adolescent to do what they want so they can become autonomous. Incorrect. Although adolescents are struggling with autonomy, parents still need to monitor their behavior. Relationship with Parents at Age 14 Overview Two 14-year-old adolescent girls describe their relationships with their parents. They talk about the difference between how they relate to their mother versus their father. Pre-Test 1. What is meant by reciprocal socialization? a. Parents shape and influence the behavior of their adolescents. Incorrect. Parents do shape and influence the behavior of adolescents, but the adolescents shape parents’ behavior as well. b. Adolescents shape and influence the behavior of their parents. Incorrect. Adolescents do shape and influence the behavior of parents but the parents shape the behavior of their adolescents as well. c. Schools determine how parents treat their adolescents. Incorrect. Schools do not determine how parents treat their adolescents. d. a and b together are reciprocal socialization. Correct. Parents shape and influence the behavior of adolescents and adolescents shape parents’ behavior as well. Post-Test 1. How would you characterize the relationship these girls have with their mothers? a. These girls seem to have an unhealthy relationship with their mothers. Incorrect. These girls appear to have healthy relationships with their mothers. b. Although the relationships seem healthy, these girls do not like their mothers. Incorrect. The girls do say that they like their mothers. Santrock, Adolescence, 16e

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c. Both girls seem to have a healthy relationship with their mothers. Correct. These girls appear to have healthy relationships with their mothers. d. Although these girls like their mothers, the relationships seem unhealthy. Incorrect. These girls appear to have healthy relationships with their mothers. Relationship with Parents at Age 16 Overview In this clip, three 16-year-old adolescent friends describe their relationships with their parents. They describe “normal” fights and they discuss differences between their relationships with their mothers versus their fathers. Pre-Test 1. According to Diana Baumrind, which style of parenting results in the best behavioral outcomes for adolescents? a. Restrictive and punitive parents Incorrect. Children of very restrictive and punitive parents tend to be anxious and have poor communication skills. b. Parents who are very involved with their adolescents but place few demands on their behavior Incorrect. Children of involved parents who place few demands on their behavior tend to lack self-control. c. Parents who are involved with their adolescents and have high expectations for their behaviors Correct. This style of parenting results in the best behavioral outcomes for adolescents. d. Parents who are not involved in their adolescents’ lives Incorrect. Children of neglectful parents tend to have the worst behavioral outcomes. Post-Test 1. How does the father’s role differ from the mother’s role as a parent? a. Mothers tend to have more interaction with their adolescents compared to fathers. Correct. Adolescents comment on seeing their mother more than their father. b. Fathers are usually the primary care takers of children and adolescence. Incorrect. Mothers are usually the primary care takers. c. In the majority of families, mothers and fathers share the parenting role equally. Incorrect. Mother’s usually take on more of the responsibilities of child rearing. d. Fathers do not have an important role as a parent. Incorrect. Although fathers may have less interaction with their children, they still play an important role in the adolescents’ lives.

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CHAPTER 9: PEERS, ROMANTIC RELATIONSHIPS, AND LIFESTYLES INTRODUCTION Peer relationships fill a requirement that cannot be addressed by parents or siblings. They offer a forum for expressing feelings, learning rules, and establishing intimacy not achieved in other arenas. Peer interactions are influenced by the contexts in which they happen (e.g., at school or at home) and by individual differences among peers (e.g., being very shy versus being very outgoing). • • •

Peer group relationships increase during middle and late childhood. Peers contribute to the environmental context for normal development. Peer influences can be both negative and positive.

Parents consciously and unconsciously influence the types of peer relationships established by their adolescent children. Early attachment histories influence later relationships with peers. Parents choose environments in which adolescents live, go to school, and recreate. Parents suggest strategies for establishing and maintaining peer relationships. After peer relationships are established, it is likely that pressure to conform will be experienced with both beneficial and detrimental consequences. Peers influence opposition to parents’ preferences in only some areas. Peer status is an aspect of peer relationships that is influenced by numerous adolescent characteristics. • Popular children are reinforcing, good listeners, enthusiastic, concerned, and confident. • Average children receive an average number of positive and negative nominations from peers. • Neglected children are unlikely to be nominated as a best friend, but are not disliked. • Rejected children tend to be impulsive and aggressive, and are disliked by their peers. • Controversial children are unpredictable, nominated both as best friends and as disliked. Popular children have a number of positive characteristics that contribute to their popularity status. Being popular is linked with many positive developmental outcomes. Neglected children are more likely to have serious adjustment problems including depression and delinquency.

Adolescents overcome deficits by becoming better listeners, learning how to join groups, or demonstrating self-control of disruptive behavior. Social cognition represents adolescents’ ability to draw on positive relationship-building behavior to establish good social problem-solving skills, and to interpret the social behavior of others. Boys with positive peer status were found to

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show better problem solving ability compared to boys with negative peer status. The ability to regulate emotions also contributes to successful peer relations. Conglomerate strategies for improving social skills include: • Discussing rationale, describing acceptable alternatives, and modeling appropriate skills. • Reinforcing demonstrations of self-control and establishing skills in stress management. • Engaging in social problem solving or decision making. Responding successfully to threatening encounters with bullies requires added support from adults. Friendships with peers provide the opportunity for adolescents to develop intimacy with someone who comes from the same place and time, and someone who sees things from the adolescent perspective. Friendships provide companionship, stimulation, physical support, ego support, social comparison, and intimacy/affection. Sullivan (1953) was the first to propose that adolescents require same-age friends to share intimacy; to bolster well-being; to engage in lighthearted companionship; and to promote social acceptance, tenderness, and sexual relations. Subsequent research supported Sullivan’s ideas. Intimacy and similarity are the two most important characteristics in friendships. Relationships with friends who are from markedly different age groups seem to result in more deviant behavior than same-age friendships. Other-sex friendships can be important in that they help adolescents learn about communication with opposite sex individuals and reduce anxiety about dating in other-sex relationships. However, opposite sex friendships often lead to increases in alcohol use and delinquency. Chronic loneliness is linked with several negative developmental outcomes including impaired physical and mental health and academic difficulties. Loneliness is associated with individual characteristics like low self-esteem and shyness and peer experiences like victimization and low social acceptance. Loneliness should be distinguished from desire for solitude. Groups provide adolescents with norms or rules that all members are expected to follow. They also afford an opportunity for group members to take on roles to accomplish designated goals. Distinctions between group characteristics result from differences in age or culture. • • •

• •

Children’s groups are often same-sex, based on chance (family friends or neighbors), and less structured than older groups progressing toward couples. Group membership in crowds (e.g., band membership) or cliques (e.g., jocks) contributes to a sense of affiliation, positive self-esteem, and support separate from parents. Crowds provide opportunities to establish an identity, even if only temporarily. Crowds offer the possibility of trying out different roles if adolescents float between them.

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•

With maturity, adolescents are increasingly able to shift affiliation from one group to another.

Youth organizations are important groups that facilitate adolescent development by setting high standards, supporting achievement, and increasing adolescent involvement in community. Parents agree that youth programs are beneficial, but that not enough of them are available to adolescents. Program location may have an impact on participation by low-income and minority youth. Programs that encourage youth-directed entrepreneurial activities promote youth initiative and enthusiasm. Peer groups are affected by gender and ethnicity. Boys associate in larger groups than girls and engage in competition and risk taking more than girls. Girls are more oriented toward interpersonal relationships and intimacy than boys. Peer group affiliation is often based on social class and ethnicity that may define the group. Ethnic minority youth may depend on peers for affiliation within the larger majority culture. Adolescents from different cultural backgrounds may have different patterns of peer relations. For example, Japanese adolescents seek autonomy later compared to American adolescents and therefore tend to spend less time with peers compared to American adolescents. Adolescents demonstrate serious heterosexual contact through dating. Dating and romantic relationships serve at least eight functions: recreation, status, socialization, intimacy, sexual experience, companionship, identity, and mate selection. Developmental changes in dating follow this sequence: • • • • •

Early dating helps adolescents to establish a sense of self and to identify acceptable behavior. Heterosexual groups and informal settings offer comfortable settings in which dating begins. First dates take place between 14 and 16 years of age; by 16 years, 90 percent have dated. About 50 percent of adolescents have a romantic relationship by tenth grade. Eleventh-/twelfth-grade females spend 10 times as many hours with boys as fifth-/ sixth-graders.

Much less research has been conducted with gay, lesbian, and bisexual youth. Research has revealed great complexity in the romantic possibilities of sexual minority youth. High levels of emotion that accompany romance influence both male and female adolescents and result in mood swings from day to day. Romantic relationships have been associated with positive and negative outcomes. Positive outcomes include higher levels of social acceptance and romantic competence. Negative outcomes include depression (for girls especially those who co-ruminate) and delinquency. Both negative and positive outcomes have been associated with dissolution of a romantic relationship. Negative outcomes include heavy drinking, marijuana use, and smoking. Personal growth is the most widely cited positive outcome.

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Most adolescents experience romantic love followed by affectionate love typical with age. Attachment history, death of a parent, divorce, siblings, and peers influence intimate relationships. Gender roles and cultural demands influence courtship processes. Dating scripts are models that individuals use to guide dating interactions. The male script is proactive whereas the female script is reactive. The values and religious beliefs of a culture dictate when dating begins. In emerging adulthood, changes take place in residence. Some emerging adults choose to live with their parents, some live with roommates, and some live by themselves. In addition, emerging adults can choose between a number of lifestyles and form many types of families. In recent years, marriage rates have declined in the United States, adults are staying single longer, and cohabitation rates have increased. Divorce rates increased from 1990 through 2008 despite the belief that divorce rates were declining. Divorce is more likely to happen among those who marry young, low education, and those with psychological problems and low levels of agreeableness and conscientiousness, among many other factors.

TOTAL TEACHING PACKAGE OUTLINE Chapter 9: Peers, Romantic Relationships, and Life Styles HEADING I. EXPLORING PEER RELATIONS AND FRIENDSHIP

Peer Relations Peer Group Functions Peer Contexts Individual Difference Factors Developmental Changes in Time Spent with Peers Are Peers Necessary for Development? Positive and Negative Peer Relations Family-Peer Linkages

RESOURCE Learning Goal: 1 Critical Thinking Exercise: 9.1 Short Scenario: 9.1, 9.2, 9.3 Lecture Topic: 9.1 Discussion Topic: 9.1, 9.3 Critical Thinking Exercise: 9.2 Video: Views on Family and Peers at Age 15 (Connect)

Peer Pressure

Image: 9-1 Discussion Topics: 9.3, 9.5 Critical Thinking Exercise: 9.2 Essay Question: 1 Internet Activity: 9.1

Peer Statuses

In-Class Activity: 9.2 Critical Thinking Exercise: 9.2 Research Article: 9.1 Research Project: 9.1 Essay Question: 2

Social Cognition and Emotion Social Cognition Emotion

Image: 9-2 Lecture Topic: 9.2 Short Scenario: 9.1, 9.3

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Chapter 9 Essay Question: 3 Strategies for Improving Social Skills

Friendship The Importance of Friendship Friendship in Adolescence Friendship in Emerging Adulthood

Intimacy and Similarity Intimacy Similarity Mixed-Age Friendships Other Sex Friendships

Lecture Topic: 9.2 Essay Question: 3 Images: 9-3 and 9-4 Discussion Topic: 9.4 In-Class Activity: 9.3 Short Scenario: 9.2, 9.3 Research Article: 9.2 Research Project: 9.1 Essay Question: 4, 5 Lecture Topic: 9.3 Short Scenario: 9.2 Through the Eyes of Adolescents: We Defined Each Other with Adjectives

Loneliness

Health and Well-Being Interlude: Effective and Ineffective Strategies for Making Friends

ADOLESCENT GROUPS

Learning Goal: 2 Short Scenario: 9.1, 9.2, 9.3 Research Article: 9.2 Research Project: 9.1

Groups in Childhood and Adolescence

Essay Question: 6 Image: 9-4

Cliques and Crowds

In-Class Activity: 9.1 Essay Question: 7 Video: Talking About Cliques at Age 15 (Connect)

Youth Organizations

Essay Question: 8

III.

GENDER AND CULTURE Gender Socioeconomic Status and Ethnicity Culture

Learning Goal: 3 Essay Question: 7

IV.

DATING AND ROMANTIC RELATIONSHIPS

Lecture Topic: 9.3 Discussion Topic: 9.2 In-Class Activity: 9.4 Critical Thinking Exercise: 9.3 Short Scenario: 9.2, 9.3 Research Projects: 9.1, 9.2 Essay Question: 9 Internet Activity: 9.2, 9.3

Functions of Dating

Learning Goal: 4 Short Scenario: 9.2, 9.3 Essay Question: 9

II.

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Types of Dating and Developmental Changes Heterosexual Romantic Relationships Romantic Relationships in Sexual Minority Youth

Learning Goal: 4 Image: 9-6 Discussion Topic: 9.6 In-Class Activity: 9.5 Short Scenario: 9.3 Essay Question: 9 Video: 15-Year-Old Girls’ Relationship with Boys (Connect)

Emotion, Adjustment, and Romantic Relationships Emotions in Romantic Relationships Dating and Adjustment Dissolution of a Romantic Relationship Romantic Love and Its Construction

Learning Goal: 4 Discussion Topic: 9.6 Essay Question: 10 Video: What Is Love? (Connect)

Gender and Culture Gender Ethnicity and Culture

Learning Goal: 4 Essay Question: 9

EMERGING ADULT LIFE STYLES Single Adults Cohabitating Adults

Learning Goal: 5 Images: 9-7 and 9-8 Careers in Adolescent Development: Susan Orenstein, Couples Counselor

Married Adults Marital Trends The Benefits of a Good Marriage Premarital Education Divorced Adults Gay and Lesbian Adults

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SUGGESTED LECTURE TOPICS Topic 9.1—Children Without Friends Children and adolescents who are unable to make friends or become a part of their peer group experience tremendous risk for long-term psychosocial difficulties. Research suggests that approximately six to 11 percent of grade school children and nearly 20 percent of adolescents are rejected by their peer group. The majority of students who drop out do so due to lack of peer acceptance. Several studies provide details about the circumstances that lead to students’ decisions to drop out of school. Gronlund and Holmlund noted that 46 percent of boys with low acceptance by peers stayed in school compared to highly accepted boys with an 81 percent completion rate. Females show a dramatic 65 percent rate of completion when identified as low acceptance students. Conversely, females with high acceptance had a completion rate of 96 percent. Kupersmidt conducted a six-year longitudinal study to identify the rate of dropping out. The reported rates for dropping out were 30 percent for rejected students, 10 percent for students identified as neglected, and 21 percent of students identified as average, but only 4 percent for students identified as popular. Rejected students clearly experienced the least favorable outcomes of limited peer affiliation. Teachers have the opportunity to observe students in the classroom, lunchroom, and unstructured settings. Direct observation of student interaction provides the clearest information about student involvement with peers. Teachers may begin by asking themselves the following questions: • Do peers ignore, avoid, or reject the adolescent? • Does the adolescent initiate interaction with others? Are the initiations socially appropriate? Do peers respond favorably? • Does the adolescent demonstrate misunderstandings of social cues or messages given by peers? • Does the adolescent make requests or tactfully communicate personal preferences? • Does the adolescent demonstrate an appropriate amount of assertiveness? • Does the adolescent demonstrate an overly aggressive manner with peers? • Does the adolescent disrupt classroom and/or unstructured activities? Students can benefit from cognitive-behavioral interventions to improve social skills. First, establish a rationale for learning social skills and developing skills to fit situations in which the adolescent is failing. Teach students to differentiate between skills so that they can use the best skill at the appropriate time and place. Learning and practicing appropriate social skills with peers, authority figures, and parents seems essential for generalizing skills in the future. It is important for teachers and other adults to provide positive feedback about the successful use of desirable skills early on. Ultimately, experiencing success with peers can greatly enhance the likelihood that students will establish a niche and subsequently develop competencies for fulfilling relationships. Santrock, Adolescence, 16e

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References Bullock, J. R. 2000. “Children Without Friends: Who are They and how can Teachers Help?” In E. N. Junn and C. J. Boyatzis, Eds., Child Growth and Development, 7th ed. Guilford, CT: Dushkin McGraw-Hill, pp. 97–101. Hazel, J. S., Schumaker, J. B., Sherman, J. A., and Sheldon-Wildgen, J. 1981. ASSET: A Social Skills Program for Adolescents. Champaign, IL: Research Press.

Topic 9.2—An Information-Processing Model of Social Acceptance Theorists who explain relationships from a social cognition view claim that immature or poorly functioning thought processes naturally result in antisocial or disordered social behavior. There are both Piagetian and information-processing variants of this theme. Selman (1980) explains that socially dysfunctional youths lag behind peers in their stage of social cognitive thought; whereas Dodge (1990) attempts to show that problems lie in the steps or processes of social cognition that youths follow. Kenneth Dodge (1983) explains that children (or people of any age) go through these five steps while processing social information about the world: • Decoding social cues—looking at the individual’s facial expression and body language, attending to tone of voice. • Interpreting—deciding what the cues might mean based on previous experience. • Deciding on a response—generating a variety of responses that might be made under the circumstances. • Selecting an optimal response—weighing the pros and cons of each alternative and choosing the one that will likely work best. • Enacting the chosen response—implementing the selected response, determining how well it worked, and if necessary, trying another response option. Socially skilled adolescents are able to quickly and accurately decode and interpret social cues, and successfully identify a variety of desirable responses that maintain positive relationships. They recognize that it may take time to establish a relationship and put forth the necessary effort. Unpopular adolescents often selectively attend to social cues, misinterpret what they observe, generate aggressive response alternatives, choose one that works quickly to get rid of a potential threat, and enact a response with little thought of the short-term or long-term consequences of their behavior. Resultant isolation and mistreatment by others limits the opportunity to interact with socially skilled models, supports negative interpretations about the intentions of others, and increases the intensity of hostile responses toward peers. Social skills training programs have been developed to teach appropriate social behavior in interacting with peers, parents, other adults, and authority figures. Successful behavior remediation usually requires simultaneous changes on the part of family and community members. References

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Dodge, K. A. 1983. “Behavioral Antecedents of Peer Social Status,” Child Development 54, pp. 1386– 1399. Dodge, K. A., Coie, J. D., Pettit, G. S., and Price, J. M. 1990. “Peer Status and Aggression in Boys’ Groups: Developmental and Contextual Analysis,” Child Development 61, pp. 1289–1309. Goldstein, A. P., Teaching Prosocial Competencies, Rev. ed. 1999. Champaign, IL: Research Press. Selman, R. L. 1980. The Growth of Interpersonal Understanding: Developmental and Clinical Analysis. New York: Academic Press.

Topic 9.3—Identity and Intimacy In early adolescence, the desire for independence clearly motivates adolescents to become separate from parents and to establish new skills through affiliation and conformity with peers. Erikson, however, describes the adolescent’s dilemma as “Identity versus Role Confusion,” or the identity crisis. Forming an identity represents a formidable task requiring a sense of independence and the confidence to differentiate oneself from peers and parents. The identity crisis may result from rapid changes in appearance, cognitive ability, emotions, or societal expectations. The successful adolescent represents one who successfully integrates these changes into a manageable set of personal guidelines after actively questioning and exploring alternatives. During the time of exploration, the adolescent is said to be in a psychological moratorium. Although the theory suggests that the stage will be completed by age 20, Erikson and others (e.g., Whitbourne) believe that it is a lifelong process. Adolescents also think about intimacy in personal relationships and are establishing required competencies to maintain intimate relationships with best friends and love interests. Erikson describes the crisis in young adulthood as one that occurs between “intimacy versus isolation.” He argues that only the individual with a secure identity can take a chance on entering a relationship that requires love. Young adults with a strong identity can and will enter into successful relationships with others. Failure in the previous stages, or the inability to successfully accomplish goals or achieve an identity, will result in withdrawal from personal relationships and establishing personal isolation. The capacity for intimacy results in the virtue Erikson identified as love. Realistically, adolescents work to resolve both issues during adolescence—with both stages under development. The identity crisis clearly begins during early adolescence and is quickly followed by new issues of intimacy. Whitbourne and colleagues (1992) conducted a 22-year longitudinal study to investigate changes in identity and intimacy of young adults from two cohort groups. They identified distinct patterns of age-related increases in identity and intimacy scores for 20- and 30-year-olds from both groups. No further changes in identity and intimacy scores were found after age 31. The final goal of adulthood appears to be the achievement of a sustainable balance between independence and intimacy. References Erikson, E. H. 1964. Insight and Responsibility. New York: Norton. Hergenhahn, B. R. 1995. An Introduction to Theories of Personality. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Santrock, Adolescence, 16e

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Whitbourne, S. K., Zuschlag, M. K., Elliot, L. B., and Waterman, A. S. 1992. “Psychosocial Development in Adulthood: A 22-year Sequential Study,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 63, pp. 260– 271.

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CLASSROOM DISCUSSIONS AND ACTIVITIES Discussion Topics Discussion 9.1—The Nature of Parent and Peer Influence A common stereotype of peer influence on adolescents is that peer influence inevitably places adolescents in conflict with their parents. An older term in the literature for this conflict is crosspressure. Interestingly, research has shown that parents and peers are well connected (Updegraff, 1999; Walker, Hennig, Krettenauer, 2000). Educational attainment and personal habits tend to be highly correlated between parents and peers. The stereotype, however, persists. A good way to discuss the nature of parent versus peer influence would be to consider in detail the classic work of sociologist Clay Brittain. Brittain presented teenagers with a series of hypothetical dilemmas in which an adolescent receives conflicting advice from parents and peers. In his research, he had participants decide which advice the adolescent should follow. A clever feature of Brittain’s research was that he presented subjects with the same dilemmas two weeks later, but reversed the advice parents and peers were giving them, and again had his participants decide which advice the adolescent should follow. If his respondents shifted their decisions in either the new peer- or parent-endorsed alternative, Brittain had a measure of parent or peer orientation. If his respondents continued to endorse the same solution despite the change in the group that endorsed it, Brittain had a measure of independence from parent or peer influence. Obtain a copy of Brittain’s research report. Read a sample dilemma to the class, and discuss with your students whether the dilemmas seem compelling to them as problems wherein peer and parent advice might clash. Review Brittain’s research design and strategy, and discuss its strengths and weaknesses. Finally, review his findings and relate them to more contemporary research. You will be able to show that research on this issue has been very consistent over the years; parent and teen influences are as likely to complement each other as they are to contradict each other. This discussion topic provides a point of departure for later discussions on conditions and factors that genuinely put peer influences in opposition to parents’ influences on their teenagers. References Brittain, C. V. 1969. “A Comparison of Rural and Urban Adolescents with Respect to Peer Versus Parent Compliance,” Adolescence 4, pp. 59–68. Brittain, C. V. 1967. “An Exploration of the Bases of Peer-compliance and Parent-compliance in Adolescence,” Adolescence 2, pp. 445–458. Updegraff, K. A., McHale, S. M., Crouter, A. C., and Kupanoff, K. 2001. “Parents’ Involvement in Adolescents’ Peer Relationships: A Comparison of Mothers’ and Fathers’ Roles,” Journal of Marriage and Family 63, pp. 655–668. Walker, L. J., Hennig, K. H., and Krettenauer, T. 2000. “Parent and Peer Contexts for Children’s Moral Reasoning Development,” Child Development 71, pp. 1033–1048.

Discussion 9.2—Liking, Loving, and Relating Santrock, Adolescence, 16e

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S. S. Hendrick and C. Hendrick have created, validated, and compiled considerable research with an instrument called “The Love Attitude Scale.” This is a device for determining which of seven different types of love predominates in the respondents’ love relationships. Try to obtain a copy of the scale from Hendrick’s book, Liking, Loving, and Relating (1992), and administer it to your class. Have your students score their responses. Depending on how shy and responsive your class is, you can collect the data as a basis for discussing the prevalence of different types of love among their cohorts, among younger adolescent cohorts, and among adult cohorts. The experience may also be the springboard for a discussion of methodological issues in the study of love (can you really use questionnaires to study it?), or the controversy about whether love and romance are appropriate topics for research. References Hendrick, S. S., and Hendrick, C. 1992. Liking, Loving, and Relating. Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole Publishing Co. Hendrick, S. S., and Hendrick, C. 1992. Romantic Love. Newbury Park, CA: Sage. Hendrick, S. S., and Hendrick, C. 1997. “Love and Satisfaction.” In R. J. Sternberg and M. Hojjat, Eds., Satisfaction in Close Relationships. New York: Guilford, pp. 56–78.

Discussion 9.3—Musical Inspirations Adolescent musical preferences can be analyzed to determine whether adolescents are making political or value-oriented statements that separate them from adults. You can engage the class in a very interesting activity by playing tapes or CDs of songs from the 1960s, 1970s, 1980s, and 1990s and having students analyze these songs in terms of (a) sexual themes; (b) conflict with or rebellion against adults; and (c) adolescent preoccupations (e.g., love, cars, sex). You can also mention some of the early accusations against rock music (e.g., being communist-inspired or an immoral influence on youth). Michael Walraven, who made this suggestion for a class activity in the instructor’s course planner for the fifth edition of Adolescence, recommends these songs: • Queen, “I’m in Love with My Car” • Jackson Brown, “Cocaine” and “Daddy’s Tune” • Joni Mitchell, “Big Yellow Taxi” • Stevie Nicks, “Stop Dragging My Heart Around” • Crosby, Stills, Nash, and Young, “Teach Your Children Well” • Bob Dylan, “The Times, They are a-Changing” • Cat Stevens, “Peace Train,” “Father and Son,” “Where Do the Children Play?” • Bob Seger, “Night Moves” Reference Walraven, M. G. 1993. Instructor’s Course Planner to accompany Adolescence, 5th ed., by J. Santrock. Dubuque: Brown and Benchmark, Publishers.

Discussion 9.4—Friendships

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Ask students to describe the first friendship they can remember and a more recent friendship. What did they do with their first friend? What did they know about that friend? What about their recent friend? How does the intimacy in the two friendships differ? How does this difference confirm or deny the developmental data presented in the text? Are there general characteristics for earlier or later friendships? Early friendships are generally based on proximity and similarity. Friendships later in life involve more intimacy than friendships early in life. Younger friendships might be expected to focus on play activities; friendships of older individuals might focus more on conversation, sharing ideas, and feelings. Students are likely to remember more details about their friends in junior high school and high school relative to their memories of specific activities. Because of the more intimate nature of friendships in the later years of school, they probably learned more about these people at the time. There is also a time compound to explain the difference. Reference King, M. B., and Clark, D. E. 1989. Instructors’ Manual to accompany Child Development: An Introduction, 4th ed., by J. Santrock and Yessen. Dubuque, IA: Wm. C. Brown Publishers.

Discussion 9.5—The Power of Peers Demonstrate the power of groups by reenacting the Asch conformity experiment. Asch presented a list of adjectives to participants, alternating a single word in the list, to describe a person. Participants then were asked to write a description of their impressions of the fictitious person. Example: John: “intelligent, skillful, industrious, _______, determined, practical, cautious.” The words used to fill in the blank were “warm, cold, polite, or blunt.” The paper summarized the results of his research. “Warm” was associated with generous and “cold” was associated with reliable, and the terms polite and blunt seemed to be associated with a variety of descriptors. The experiment is easily replicated, but you need to take care in recruiting class members to be your confederates. Use this experience to discuss the nature and influence of real conformity pressures in adolescents’ lives. Reference Asch, S. E. 1946. “Forming Impressions of Personality,” Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology 41, pp. 258–290.

Discussion 9.6—Teen Dating Violence Once adolescents start dating they may be at risk for dating violence. This type of violence includes psychological or emotional abuse such as being humiliated or insulted. It may also involve physical or sexual abuse. Between eight and 30 percent of adolescents have been victims of serious physical dating violence, and between 10 and 18 percent of female adolescents have been sexually victimized by a dating partner (Foshee et al., 2004a). A number of risk factors have been associated with dating violence among adolescence. Grover (2004) found that risktaking behaviors such as drug abuse and sexual promiscuity mediated the effects of social ties on Santrock, Adolescence, 16e

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victimization. She believes that the risky lifestyle leads to victimization. Foshee et al. (2004b) found that family violence predicts dating violence. Other variables related to dating violence include having a friend who has been a victim of dating violence, depression, and endorsing traditional gender roles (Foshee, et al., 2004a). Present this information to the class. Discuss the variables associated with dating violence and ask the class why and how those variables are related. For example, an adolescent with a friend who has been a victim of dating violence may end up in a peer group involved with this type of behavior, or may have dating partners who endorse and engage in this kind of behavior, or may participate in situations where they are at greater risk for victimization. References Foshee, V. A., Benefield, T. S., Ennett, S. T. , Bauman, K. E., and Sushindran, C. 2004a. “Longitudinal Predictors of Serious Physical and Sexual Dating Violence Victimization During Adolescence,” Preventative Medicine 39(5), pp. 1007–1016. Foshee, V. A., Benefield, T. S., Ennett, S. T. , Bauman, K. E., and Sushindran, C. 2004b. “The Association Between Family Violence and Adolescent Dating Violence Onset: Does it Vary by Race, Socioeconomic Status and Family Structure?” Journal of Early Adolescence 25(3), pp. 317–345. Gover, A. R. 2004. “Risky Lifestyle and Dating Violence: a Theoretical Test of Violent Victimization,” Journal of Criminal Justice 32(2), pp. 171–271.

In-Class Activities Activity 9.1—Student Reports on Crowds James Coleman demonstrated different peer crowds in high schools by asking students to name the groups in their school. Your students can attest to this as well. Have students list the major high school crowds that they can remember. Urge them to use the names that identified these crowds and to write brief descriptions of the individuals who belonged to each. Next, collect the lists of crowds from some or all of your students, or have them read their lists to the class. In either case, write the names down on a blackboard or overhead. Attempt to note whether students from different high schools report the same type of crowd, and keep track of the number of crowds reported by students. Finally, show that the number and types of crowds are similar from high school to high school. For example, there should be athletic crowds, academic crowds, rebellious crowds, burnout crowds, and political crowds. Whatever you find, explain students’ reports in relation to material in Adolescence on the nature, significance, impact, and function of adolescent crowds and Research Article 2, “Adolescent Peer Networks,” which follows. References Coleman, J. S. 1980. “The Peer Group,” In J. Adelson, Ed., Handbook of Adolescent Psychology. New York: Wiley.

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Urberg, K. A., Degirmencioglu, S. M., Tolson, J. M., and Halliday-Scher, K. 1995. “The Structure of Adolescent Peer Networks,” Developmental Psychology 31, pp. 540–547.

Activity 9.2—Psychometric Measures Have your students develop psychometric techniques to identify individuals who are popular, socially accepted, and have high status. You can suggest naturalistic observations of adolescent groups, and encourage students to define operational behaviors that reflect the underlying construct (e.g., number of times a person complies with someone else’s suggestions, time spent talking, seating arrangements). You can use this exercise to introduce the sociogram, or students can develop a paper-and-pencil measure of popularity. Whatever approach you encourage, have students think of ways to validate their instruments, and compare them with measures described in the literature. Reference Walraven, M. G. 1993. Instructor’s Course Planner to accompany Adolescence, 5th ed., by J. Santrock. Dubuque: Brown and Benchmark, Publishers.

Activity 9.3—The Importance of Peer Groups Start a class discussion about peer groups in high school. Many of the students in class will be only a few years out of high school, so their memories about the role of peers should still be fresh in their minds. You can ask them to discuss some of the following questions: •

What crowd were they a part of in high school? Do they remember the clique they hung around with? Was it a large or small group?

•

Did they have a best friend? Was this friend of the same sex? What sorts of things did they discuss?

•

What was dating like for them in junior high, and then high school? How did the experience of dating change as they got older? Do they remember going on group dates to avoid being alone with the person they liked?

•

Did any other peer groups in high school reject them? If so, what was that experience like?

•

Did they belong to any youth organizations?

Activity 9.4—Dating Ask students to remember their dating experiences in middle or junior high school and high school and compare those experiences with dating in college. Do their personal experiences fit the pattern of dating described in the text? You can also ask students to interview adolescents of different ages about their dating experiences. Do the experiences of these teenagers fit the pattern of dating described in the text?

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Activity 9.5—Preventing Teen Dating Violence Present students (if you haven’t already) with the information about teen dating violence in Discussion 9.6. Have students design a program for preventing teen dating violence. What risk factors would they target? What skills would they teach adolescents? How would they educate the adolescents? Where would this take place? Would parents be involved?

Critical Thinking Exercises Exercise 9.1—Theoretical Orientation In the first Critical Thinking Exercise of the previous chapter, you attempted to determine which of the five theoretical orientations that Santrock outlined in Chapter 1 of Adolescence was most influential in the chapter. Do the same again for Chapter 9: Which theoretical orientation seems to be most dominant in this chapter? Circle the letter of the best answer, explain why it is the best answer, and why each of the other answers is not as appropriate. A. Psychoanalytic theories D. Ecological theories B. Cognitive theories E. An eclectic theoretical orientation C. Behavioral and social learning theories Exercise 9.2—Peer Relationships It is important for anyone who wants to intervene in adolescents’ peer relationships to have accurate knowledge of the causes of successful or unsuccessful peer relationships. A limitation on research in this area presents a difficulty in doing experimental work that would provide direct evidence of causal relationships. The list below describes several relationships derived from research that have potentially useful applications in intervention. According to information in Adolescence, which of these is most clearly known to be based on a causal relationship? Circle the letter of the best answer, explain why it is the best answer, and explain why each of the other answers is not as appropriate. A. Six concentration camp children who lost their parents, but had intense attachments to each other, became relatively normal adults. B. Popular children are more likely than unpopular children to communicate clearly with their peers. C. D. E.

Negative-peer-status sixth-graders are less likely than positive-peer-status sixthgraders to generate alternative solutions to hypothetical problems. Students who show an interest in others, cooperate, and maintain communication enjoy better peer relations than those who do not. Early maturing girls are more likely to associate with girls older than they are and to engage in a number of deviant behaviors.

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Exercise 9.3—Dating and Romantic Relationships In Chapter 9, Santrock explores “Dating and Romantic Relationships”—social exchanges between adolescents in formal and informal dating contexts. Within the context of this section of the chapter, which of the following is an assumption, rather than an inference or an observation, we must make in order to accept the accuracy of Sherif’s findings? Circle the letter of the best answer, explain why it is the best answer, and why each of the other answers is not as appropriate. A. Although most 15-year-olds said they had a girlfriend of boyfriend in the past three years, most were not currently dating. B. Males followed a proactive dating script, and females followed a reactive one. C. Romantic relationships are often involved in an adolescent’s emotional experiences. D. Boys frequently discussed girls and sex. E. Adolescents with a secure attachment to parents are likely to approach romantic relationships expecting closeness, warmth, and intimacy.

Answer Key for Critical Thinking Exercises Exercise 9.1 A.

This is not the best answer. Psychoanalytic thinking importantly influences the material on friendship, but it makes no contribution to the other topics in the chapter. Attachment theory influences the discussion of romantic relationships. Dunphy’s theory has a strong maturational foundation.

This is not the best answer. Cognitive theories are particularly important in the discussion of popularity, social knowledge, and social information processing. Cognitive-behavioral theory contributes to strategies for improving adolescents’ social skills. Dating scripts are also examples of cognitive constructs used to understand adolescent peer relations. However, cognitive theories are absent in discussions of most other aspects of peer relations.

This is the best answer. Behavioral and social learning theories play a role in peer group functions, the analysis of popularity, and social strategies for improving adolescents’ social skills. There is also the implication that learning and social learning processes play a role in friendship, group formation, and youth organizations. Behavioral and social learning theory orientations seem to influence questions and research methods in each major topic area in the chapter.

This is not the best answer. Interestingly, in contrast to the analysis of families, the analysis of peer relations involves considerably less attention to interactions between social systems. The ecological orientation influences the material on ethnic minority adolescents’ peer relations, and the consideration of family-peer linkages discussed early in the chapter. In fact, this perspective appears to get the least play in Chapter 9.

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This is the second best answer. The foregoing arguments make the case for this alternative. All the perspectives contribute to Chapter 9.

Exercise 9.2 A.

This is not the best answer. In the context of the monkey findings, Freud and Dann’s case study of these six children is compelling, but it is nevertheless a case study and, therefore, not evidence that intense peer attachments have a causal influence on developmental outcomes.

This is not the best answer. The finding is essentially correlational, and therefore, it is not evidence that any specific behavior of popular children causes them to be popular.

This is not the best answer. Again, the finding is correlational, and it does not provide evidence of cause-effect relationships.

This is the best answer. This claim is supported by an experimental study in which socially deficient children were trained in these skills. Compared to a control, they became more sociable with their peers.

This is not the best answer. Even though the finding derives from a longitudinal study and the pattern of findings is compelling, the work is correlational.

Exercise 9.3 A. This is not the best answer because it is an observation. Most 15-year-olds had relationships within the previous four months, but fewer than 10 percent had a relationship that lasted longer than one year. B. This is not the best answer. This is an inference because examples are provided, but there are no data to indicate the consistency of this finding. C.

This is not the best answer because it is another observation. Romantic relationships explained one-third of females’ and one-quarter of males’ strong emotions, a significantly higher response than school, family, and same-sex peer relationships.

This is the best answer because it is an assumption. No further discussion of the topic is presented.

This is not the best answer. This is an inference. It is not supported by arguments that explain it specifically, and it is part of a larger argument that specific insecure attachment styles are likely to be related to adolescents’ romantic relationships.

Short Scenarios Scenario 9.1 Marsha just learned that she and Jessica were elected to the student council. She wonders if her peers elected her because they think she can do the job well or because she is a good listener with a pretty smile. Actually, it works best for Marsha to express moderate interest and concern Santrock, Adolescence, 16e

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and keep unusual ideas to herself. Marsha has found that she can stay relaxed and go along with others’ ideas for periods, but eventually, something happens that she cannot ignore. When she gets excited in either a positive or negative way she blows her cover as a “normal” person. She reasons that at least she isn’t a wallflower like some of the kids. It’s better to be noticed for taking a stand than to be ignored altogether. Of course, there are always those kids that everybody notices and everybody agrees are completely intolerable. How could someone not notice them? They are rude, mean, and obnoxious. Certainly, neither those who are ignored nor despised will ever be in a position to get on the student council. Even though it is sometimes a lot of work to keep her temper in check, it’s important to count to 10 and think of the other person’s point-of-view. Anyway, she must be doing well enough. She now has an opportunity to work with some of the other students on the council to accomplish something worthwhile. First, she will suggest some ways to show appreciation for the band members, chess club, and the athletic team. Then she will organize a community project. • Marsha wonders if she was elected for her academic abilities and potential to be a good representative or her knowledge of social cognition. • Marsha recognizes the behavior patterns associated with being popular: enthusiasm, concern for others, self-confidence, and avoiding impulsive, emotional outbursts. • Marsha may be labeled as a controversial adolescent because she does demonstrate some impulsive and disruptive behavior that calls attention to herself; the behavior may have a positive or a negative effect on her peers. • She recognizes that her behavior has some similarities to and differences from rejected students who are aggressive or shy. • Marsha describes some techniques that she uses to regulate her emotions, such as counting to ten and reasoning through explanations of her peers’ behavior. • Marsha will take part in the activities of the student council, an organization that can be described as a crowd of students working on the same activities. • She recognizes the opportunity that youth organizations have to influence her community and to acknowledge peers’ academic, artistic, and athletic achievements. Scenario 9.2 Lev already had three dates since the girls started joining Gene and him at the coffeehouse. It didn’t take him long to pick Sondra. Gene found the transitions through junior high and high school very interesting as both participant and observer, but Lev was always more interested in the girls than he was himself. Lev was the first one in the group to invite girls to join them occasionally for trips to a Saturday matinee, to meet friends for a hamburger and coke, or to attend a summer evening baseball game. In junior high, when groups of girls joined the guys, Gene would be peripherally involved with conversation or interaction that involved the girls. In his first year of high school, he began to find the other guys’ girlfriends more agreeable, but he wouldn’t spend his own money on them. A couple of the guys started planning dates for school dances. Lev seems to be enjoying his girlfriend, both as part of group activities, and on one-toSantrock, Adolescence, 16e

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one dates. Gene is beginning to get more interested in dating, but he has not yet found anyone who meets his expectations. He thinks his choices will improve when he transfers to a magnet school for math, sciences, and college preparation. • Gene seems to be at Dunphy’s stage 4; participating in fully developed mix-sex groups with close associations. • Lev is making the transition to Dunphy’s stage 5; he may be leading the crowd disintegration as he begins to establish group associations as couples. • Lev was possibly more socially oriented or matured at a faster rate than Gene, thus leading the progression of peer group relations. • The dating process began informally as a group, demonstrating early exploratory behavior of romantic relationships. • Gene is learning about socialization processes with girls in the group context. • Lev appears to be establishing intimacy and meaning in a single relationship. • Gene appears to be focused on some components of the status and achievement function of dating as he expresses a desire for specific characteristics in a dating partner. Scenario 9.3 Janet has good relationships with her parents and brother, and they talk and tease each other every day. It is rare for them to argue and become angry at each other for any period of time. Her parents are “doers” and have a lot of friends that they know from work and community volunteer work. As it happens, her parents also are friends with parents of her friends from clubs and organizations in which she has membership. Janet enjoys most of the members from these groups too. In grade school, Janet’s close friends were always girls. During her first year in middle school, some of the clubs like figure skating and hockey started doing things together after practice. Later in junior high, her parents let her go on “group dates” with friends from church or school. They went to arcades with video games, to the mall, and to ice cream stores. As a group, they occasionally helped with fundraisers for the skating teams. Last September Janet met Ryan, a new student who recently moved from San Francisco. They talk on the telephone almost every day, meet after school to work on homework a couple times a week, and go on a formal date every Saturday night. They often go to a game, party, or meet friends on weekends too. Neither of them takes the other for granted, but they both have plans for college and careers, and they have realistic expectations for a romantic relationship. • Janet appears to be securely attached to her parents and has a good sibling relationship. • Her positive family relationships appear to be carried forward into positive relationships with her peers. • The family has a pattern of community service and participation in community organizations. Santrock, Adolescence, 16e

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•

• • • • •

The family-peer linkage that Janet’s parents have established is strong, and her parents have a great deal of influence on the relationships Janet establishes with her peers. Janet’s participation in figure skating allows her to participate in a crowd focused on athleticism, achievement, and competition. The interaction between the figure skating and hockey teams followed Dunphy’s progression of peer group relations. Janet belongs to the 50 percent of students who have a date every week, and spends up to 10 hours a week with Ryan. The characteristics of the youth organization have led the adolescents to demonstrate initiative in achievement and to develop funding to support the teams. The function of dating for Janet and Ryan appears to include every function except serious courtship.

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RESEARCH ARTICLES Article 9.1—Popular Boys Little research has been completed to identify behavior profiles of different categories of popular children. Typically, children with high status on sociometric scales are characterized as “cooperative, sociable, assertive, sensitive, helpful, and constructive” (p. 14). Children with a controversial status are similar to popular children and are often nominated as “most liked,” as well as “least liked.” The behavior patterns associated with controversial students are not clearly understood. This investigation analyzed the behavior categories associated with popular and controversial children, specified as popular-prosocial and popular-antisocial boys. Comparisons were made across peer-raters and self-raters and between different ethnic backgrounds in relation to configurations of characteristic behavior. Participants were fourth through sixth grade boys from Chicago and North Carolina. A total of 59 classrooms and 948 students with 452 boys, 271 from urban Chicago and 181 from small town/rural North Carolina, participated in the study. Two measures were used to assess competence. The Interpersonal Competence Scale— Teacher (ICS–T) is an 18-item questionnaire using a seven-point Likert scale to assess Popularity (many friends), Olympian/Physical Competence (athletic, attractive), Affiliative (open, friendly), Academic (academic competence), Aggressive (argues, fights), and Internalizing (sad, shy). The Interpersonal Competence Scale—Self (ICS–S) is a 21-item questionnaire that uses a seven-point Likert type scale producing composite scores on the same six categories. Children in each classroom completed peer interpersonal assessments. They were asked to nominate classmates who were the best examples of the following nine descriptive items: Cooperative, Disruptive, Acts shy, Starts fights, Leader, Athletic, Gets in trouble, Good student, and Cool. Social Cognitive Maps (SCM) were used to assess social networks, and students identified specific groups and listed as many people as they could think of that spent time with those groups. Children identified by at least 50 percent of the group as affiliated were confirmed as part of the group. Social centrality was calculated by combining each child’s within-group centrality (Cw) with the centrality of his group (Cg). Surveys were administered in the classroom in the fall, and the students required approximately 40 minutes to complete the surveys. Teachers completed their questionnaires in the classroom at the same time. Configural analyses were performed to determine whether teachers identified profiles of prosocial and antisocial behavior of popular boys. The configurations provided the following results: • Model boys (popular prosocial)—above average on academic, affiliative, popular, and Olympian; below average on shy, aggressive, and internalizing. • Tough boys (popular antisocial)—above average on aggressive, popular, and Olympian; below average on shy and academic; average on affiliative and internalizing. • Low-academic boys (average popular)—below average on academic; above average on affiliative; average on popular, Olympian, shy aggressive, and internalizing. Santrock, Adolescence, 16e

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•

Passive boys (average popular)—above average on shy and academic; below average on aggressive; average on popular, Olympian, affiliative, and internalizing. • Bright-antisocial boys (unpopular antisocial)—above average on aggressive, academic, and internalizing; below average on affiliative, popular, and Olympian; average on shy. • Troubled boys (unpopular antisocial)—above average on aggressive and internalizing; below average on academic, affiliative, popular and Olympian; average on shy (pp. 17–18). Chi-square analyses did not identify an association between configuration and grade. Configurations were the same across the two research settings. Peer nomination scores showed the following results: • • • •

Model and tough boys were recognized as being cool and athletic. Tough and troubled boys were identified as antisocial. Model and passive boys were least often recognized for antisocial behavior. Model boys received the most votes for prosocial behavior (leadership and studiousness). Self-assessments showed the following results: • Tough boys had the highest self-evaluation of popularity. • Tough and troubled boys had the highest self-evaluations as aggressive. • Model and passive boys had the lowest self-evaluation of aggression. • Model and bright-antisocial boys had the highest self-evaluation of academic skill. The statistical analysis showed a high correlation between teacher and peer assessments. More European American (29 percent) than African American (24 percent) adolescents were model boys, though boys were over-represented by African Americans (18 percent) compared to European Americans (9 percent). The over-representation of African Americans as tough occurred to a greater extent in classrooms with students of both races than in classes of African American students alone. In both ethnic groups, the proportion of model boys was larger than the proportion of tough boys. Overall, model boys and tough boys were over-represented as central figures in their classrooms and cliques. The conclusion may be that a few early adolescents can be both popular and antisocial. Teachers, peers, and self-reports indicated consistent agreement about the characteristics that these groups demonstrate. The authors discussed the possibility that children make it difficult for African American boys to be popular, academic, and prosocial without being criticized for “acting white.” Finally, the context in which children find themselves influences the desirability of various social behaviors, even problem behavior. Reference Rodkin, P. C., Farmer, T. W., Pearl, R., and Van Acker, R. 2000. “Heterogeneity of Popular Boys: Antisocial and Prosocial Configurations,” Developmental Psychology 36, pp. 14–24.

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Peer relationships between adolescents have been investigated by examining the relationships between single factors, such as best friends, cliques, or crowds. In reality, these and other aspects of friendship operate simultaneously to influence the adolescent. In this investigation, researchers examined several aspects of adolescents’ networks by examining the influential effects of friendship lists, best friends, groups of friends, and social crowds. The sample included about 3,300 students across three school systems. System 1 (752 students) was about half as large as Systems 2 (1,330 students) and 3 (1,215 students). System 1 was attended primarily by white (69 percent) and African American (28 percent) students; System 2 was attended primarily by African American students (77 percent), and System 3 students were white (92 percent) and other minorities (8 percent). Questionnaires were given to the students during class time. The questionnaires included the following measures: • Friendship list—respondents were given a page with 10 spaces to list best friends in school, other close friends in school, and people with whom they spend time. • Network role—the NEGOPY computer program (Richards & Rice, 1981) and sociograms were used to help students nominate and categorize friends and group membership. • Social crowd—20 or more students were interviewed about the characteristics of crowds observed in each school; a crowd was included by identification of five or more students. The results represent outcomes in which two of the three systems demonstrated the identified effect and used p < .01 as the criterion for significance. The percentage of friends in school changed between schools. Adolescents appeared to become more discriminating in naming friends with each successive grade. As the grade increased, they made fewer choices and were identified as a mutual friend less often. Aspects of Network were assessed by looking at ethnic or gender and grade differences in relation to networks. •

• •

Friendship list—African American students in the minority had fewer mutual choices, and made and received fewer choices than white students in System 1. System 2, with African American students as the majority, had similar mutual, made, and received choices similar to the Chaldean students in the minority, whereas white and other minority students had fewer selections in all three categories. Fewer choices were made and received by older students. Female students made, received, and demonstrated more mutual choice making than did males. Best friends—Females were somewhat more likely to nominate a best friend than were male students. Friendship groups—Minority students were less likely to be members of cliques, and were thus more unconnected than majority students. Females were more likely to be clique members than male students. Male students were more likely to be unconnected.

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•

Social crowd—Five to seven crowds were identified in two of three systems. Student membership in crowds was 32 percent in System 1 and 51 percent in System 3.

Relationships between Levels of the Network were evaluated as follows: • •

•

Best friends with friendship groups and crowds—Best friends had a 92 to 97 percent chance of being in the same clique or group. Relationship between friendship groups and crowds—Adolescents were members of two or three crowds across the system. Three cliques—Popular, Jocks, and Burnouts—had more than one friendship group within the social crowd. Relationship between friendship list and groups and crowds—Analysis of friendship lists in relation to clique, loose group, and crowd showed females listed the same network roles and greater number of crowd friends more often than did male students.

In conclusion, the results support the assumption that peer networks are both complex and multifaceted. Studying any single aspect of the friendship network in isolation gives limited perspective of adolescent connection to peers. Ties to multiple friendship groups, for example, give adolescents better opportunities to move from one group to another if they are rejected or choose to do so. Further, these networks appear to be influenced by the climate of the school and community. Thus, the effects of ethnicity, grade level, and gender appear to be variable. The influence of these variables may change because of the age of the adolescent and the context in which the adolescent is assessed. Reference Urberg, K. A., Degirmencioglu, S. M., Tolson, J. M., and Halliday-Scher, K. 1995. “The Structure of Adolescent Peer Networks,” Developmental Psychology 31, pp. 540–547.

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STUDENT RESEARCH PROJECTS Research Project 9.1—Direct Observations of Adolescents in Groups Objective. Following completion of this project, students will be able to identify characteristic behavior patterns that lead adolescents to achieve popular, neglected, rejected, or controversial status with peers. Type/Length of Activity. Variable; 8 to 10 hours. Directions. Choose a class member with whom you will be able to coordinate your schedule to complete this assignment. As a team, identify a group of students that will meet at least weekly and will be available for observation by you and two college students who are not members of the group. Possible locations and adolescent groups for observation are community center patrons, YMCA/YWCA participants, high school student clubs, or church youth groups. Observers must obtain permission from setting supervisors, high school students, and parents before beginning the project. Also consult the university or college human rights committee to determine if further permissions are required for this nonintervention observation activity by college students. Begin by observing the group and identifying behavior that might lead you to identify the popular versus unpopular students. After the first observation, design an observation code based on one of the sections of Chapter 9 in the area of adolescent status, friendship, Dunphy’s peer group relations, or romance. Find the high school students before choosing the behavior. It may be impossible to find high school students or a setting that fits your preferred topic. Choose behavior based on the opportunities provided by the available group. Decide which observation method discussed in Chapter 2 will best document the occurrence of the behavior you identified and will answer your questions. Consider the observation tools included in the student handouts at the end of the Instructor’s Manual. Observe at least weekly to collect data as high school students participate in their groups. You may only need to observe as few as three times if students behave consistently across observations. More data may become necessary with increased variability from one observation to the next. Identify differences in types and frequency of behavior demonstrated by students in the group. In addition to the observations, consider collecting sociometric data from all of the students in the group. Compare the resultant behavior patterns demonstrated by each of the students with the sociometric data. Wrap-Up. Complete written and/or oral reports following the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (2001), which summarizes the methods, results, and conclusions from the observation and sociometric data. Be sure to include data to support your results and conclusions. Be prepared to compare information across settings to formulate hypotheses about context and personality as influential variables for high school student behavior.

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Research Project 9.2—Cyber Romance: Influential Factors in Online Relationships Objectives. Students will apply developmental concepts to online dating scenarios. Type/Length of Activity. Internet research and reaction paper; approximately 3 hours. Directions. First, browse the following websites: • Yahoo Personals http://yahoo.match.com/ • American Singles.com http://www.americansingles.com Then answer the following questions: 1. What personal characteristics would you choose to investigate as criteria in selecting a partner for a serious relationship? 2. Explain why these characteristics would be important to you. 3. Would specific characteristics differ if you wanted to develop a friendship, find a date, or develop a long-term relationship? If so, how? 4. How does delineating your qualifications for a partner in a personal advertisement relate to your own expectations or definition of a relationship? 5. How do you account for or explain the number of online romances that seem to have developed in recent years? Write a reaction paper to compare and contrast your expectations about establishing personal relationships with those assumptions that are the premise for entering into cyber romances. Wrap-Up. Discuss your conclusions in class and determine the degree of agreement you have with your peers. How might you explain similarities and differences in your conclusions? Reference Skinner, P. J., and Clark, W. M. 2001. Instructor’s Manual to Accompany Human Development, 8th ed., by D. E. Papalia, S. W. Olds, and R. D. Feldman. Boston: McGraw-Hill.

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ESSAY QUESTIONS Provide students with the guidelines for “Answering Essay Questions” before they respond to these questions. Their answers to these types of questions demonstrate an ability to comprehend and apply ideas discussed in this chapter. 1. Summarize what we know about conformity throughout adolescence, and evaluate the positive and negative influences conformity may have on adolescent social development. 2. What are the similarities and differences between adolescents identified as popular, neglected, rejected, and controversial? What experiences would youths from each group have during adolescence? 3. List and explain how factors associated with social cognition and emotional regulation influence peer relations. What does current research suggest to improve social skills based on these factors? 4. What are the functions of friendship? What theory and/or data in Chapter 9 explain or illustrate these functions? 5. Do mixed-age friendships promote or discourage positive developmental outcomes? Cite relevant data in your answer. 6. How do children’s groups differ from adolescents’ groups, and how do adolescent cliques differ from adolescent crowds? 7. Describe ethnic and cultural variations in adolescent peer groups, and trace implications for educators or other professionals interested in intervening in ethnic adolescent peer relations. 8. Describe the characteristics of youth organizations and explain how they benefit youth development. 9. Compare and contrast friendship and romance among adolescents. Cite relevant data that distinguish between early and later relationships. 10. What characterizes romantic love? Describe the influence of family relationships, typical adolescent emotions, and peer relations in romantic relationships. References Holland, A., and Andre, T. 1999. “Student Characteristics and Choice of High School Remembrance Role,” Adolescence 34, pp. 315–338. Patrick, H., Ryan, A. M., Alfeld-Liro, C., Fredricks, J. A., Hruda, L. Z., and Eccles, J. S. 1999. “Adolescents’ Commitment to Developing Talent: The Role of Peers in Continuing Motivation for Sports and Arts,” Journal of Youth Adolescence 28, p. 741. Sheridan, S. M., Hungelmann, A., and Maughan, D. P. 1999. “A Contextualized Framework for Social Skills Assessment, Intervention, and Generalization,” School Psychology Review 28, pp. 84–103.

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INTERNET ACTIVITIES Internet Activity 9.1 Peer Pressure Several websites give advice about how to deal with peer pressure. These include: Teen Advice: http://teenadvice.about.com/library/weekly/qanda/blpeerpressure.htm Kids Health: http://kidshealth.org/kid/feeling/friend/peer_pressure.html Have students go to these websites or they can find others. Tell them they are going to help a friend who is the parent of a teenager. The parent is worried he or she is having trouble dealing with peer pressure. In class, you can discuss the various techniques they have discovered to help adolescents deal with peer pressure. You can discuss the merits of each. Internet Activity 9.2 Dating Services on the Internet Many online dating services exist on the Internet, and adolescents have access to these services. In class, you can “Google” teen dating and see what comes up. You also can discuss in class the implications of adolescents having access to these services and the possible dangers involved. Internet Activity 9.3 Dating Advice There are websites that give teens advice about dating, such as: Links 2 Love: http://www.links2love.com/teens_links.htm Being Girl: http://www.beinggirl.com/article/teenage-dating-advice/ Have students do some research on the Web and read the information on these types of websites. Have them compile a list of advice for teens and discuss the advice in class. Ask students how they would feel if they had a son or daughter who wants to start dating. Do they think they would feel differently depending on the sex of the child? Was the information they read on the websites appropriate?

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Resource Title

Resource Type

Importance of Peers

Video

Friendship in Adolescence

Video

Views on Family and Peers at Age 15

Video

Gender Difference in Peer Relationships

Video

15-Year-Old Girls' Describe Friendships with Boys

Video

Cliques and Crowds

Video

Talking About Cliques at 15 Years of Age

Video

Dating

Video

Social Networking

Video

Attachment

Video

Who I Love at Age 19

Video

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Falling in Love - Heterosexual Couple

Video

Falling in Love - Lesbian Couple

Video

What Is Love? (Age 21, Female)

Video

What Is Love? (Age 21, Male)

Video

Interracial Relationship

Video

Transition to Marriage: Lesbian Couple

Video

Cohabitation Among a Lesbian Couple

Video

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ACTIVITIES TO ACCOMPANY CONNECT VIDEOS Views on Family and Peers at Age 15 Overview Two 15-year-old white females and one 15-year-old multicultural female discuss what is most important to them in their lives right now. All say family and friends, although Shena admits that her friends are more important to her than her family. Pre-Test 1. What is one of the developmental changes that occurs during adolescence in terms of peers? a. Adolescents spend more time with their peers compared to younger children. Correct. Adolescents spend more than twice as much time with their peers than with their parents on the weekends. b. Adolescents prefer to spend time by themselves versus spending time with their peers. Incorrect. Social isolation is associated with problem behaviors such as delinquency. c. Peer relations have a negative effect on adolescent development. Incorrect. Peer relations can be negative if peers reject an adolescent; however, most peer relations are positive, with increasing self-esteem and social skills. d. Peer relationships are completely unimportant in adolescence. Incorrect. Peer relationships are important for self-esteem, developing social skills, and getting emotional and social support outside of the family. Post-Test 1. What is most important to these girls? a. Themselves Incorrect. They do believe it is important to recognize their own needs but they agree that family and friends are important as well. b. Friends. Incorrect. They acknowledge that peers are very important, and they also agree that their family is important. c. Family. Incorrect. They acknowledge family is important, and they note that friends are important too. d. Family, friends, and themselves. Correct. They believe all three are important. Talking About Cliques at Age 15 Overview Two 15-year-old white females and one 15-year-old multicultural female describe the cliques in their school and what makes someone popular. They discuss that, although physical appearance is important, personality is also important. Pre-Test Santrock, Adolescence, 16e

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1. What is a clique? a. A clique is a small group of adolescents who form a group because they engage in similar activities. Correct. It is a group of about 5–6 adolescents, usually the same sex and age, who share the same interests. b. A large group of adolescents who engage in similar activities and have a reputation surrounding that activity. Incorrect. This is the definition of a crowd. c. A group of adolescents who hang around with each other because they live in the same neighborhood. Incorrect. Cliques form because the adolescents engage in similar activities. d. A clique is a group of mixed-sex adolescents who may vary widely in age. Incorrect. Members of a clique are usually the same sex and are similar in age. Post-Test 1. According to the girls in the video, what makes someone popular? a. Good looks Incorrect. Although they did mention that some popular kids are good looking, not all of the popular kids are good looking. b. Going along with the crowd Incorrect. The girls agree that being independent is important to being popular. c. Intelligence Incorrect. They did not mention intelligence as important to popularity. d. personality Correct. These girls agree that a good personality is most important when it comes to being popular. 15-Year-Old Girls’ Relationship with Boys Overview Two 15-year-old white females and one 15-year-old multicultural female talk about how their relationships with boys have changed since middle school. They discuss how boys are more mature in high school and are often easier to talk to than girls. Pre-Test 1. Which of the following is NOT a function of dating during adolescence? a. Recreation. Incorrect. Adolescents see dating as a source of enjoyment. b. Finding a marriage partner. Correct. Dating in adolescence is a way to explore intimacy and can be a context for sexual exploration. c. Socialization Incorrect. Dating teaches adolescents how to get along with others. d. Source of status Incorrect. Adolescents, as part of the social comparison process, evaluate the status of the people their peers date. Santrock, Adolescence, 16e

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Post-Test 1. How have relationships with boys changed for these girls now that they are in high school? a. They spend a lot less time with boys now that they are in high school. Incorrect. These girls indicate that they spend more time with boys now that they are in high school. b. Although they spend more time with boys, they are afraid to talk with them about their problems. Incorrect. These girls say that it is sometimes easier to talk with boys about their problems than it is to talk with another girl. c. Although they have relationships with boys now, they feel boys are much more immature than they are. Incorrect. These girls feel that boys are more mature in high school compared to junior high. d. They spend more time with boys, more time alone with boys, and more time talking about problems and issues with boys. Correct. They are spending more time with boys and are more comfortable disclosing information with boys. What Is Love? Overview A white, 19-year-old female, Kristin, is asked, “What is love?” Kristin responds that, although you can describe characteristics you love about someone, overall it is just a matter of, “Ya know.” Pre-Test 1. Romantic love can be defined as a. love with strong sexual and infatuation components. Correct. This is how Santrock defines romantic love. b. deep caring affection for a person. Incorrect. This is affectionate love. c. love that is usually seen in relationships that have lasted decades. Incorrect. Romantic love is common in the early stages of a relationship. d. love that one has for their parents or siblings. Incorrect. Affectionate love is the type of love one has for a family member. Post-Test 1. According to Kristin, love is a. easy to define. Incorrect. She had trouble defining love. b. something you consciously decide to do. Incorrect. She believes it is something you just know. c. a need and desire. Santrock, Adolescence, 16e

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Correct. She did say that love is a need and a desire. a clearly defined feeling. Incorrect. She did not think you could say specifically how love feels.

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CHAPTER 10: SCHOOLS INTRODUCTION Educators follow numerous strategies to promote learning: • Constructivist approach—teachers prompt students to take an active role in constructing a knowledge base and students collaborate to construct a solid foundation of knowledge • Direct instruction approach—a structured, teacher-centered approach. The teachers use directed and mastery learning strategies. The No Child Left Behind (NCLB) Act, signed into law in 2002, requires state-mandated testing in the schools to increase accountability. Although state-mandated testing may have a number of positive effects, critics of NCLB argue that this type of assessment is too narrow to accurately assess student progress. Several states have adopted the Common Core State Standards which specify specific information and traits that students should acquire by certain grade levels. Students making a transition from grade school to middle school, and then to senior high school, have both stressful experiences and beneficial outcomes. Students experience the top-dog phenomenon as they move from top to bottom positions between grade school and middle school. School changes provide students with the opportunity to gradually shift toward personal independence and responsibility. Fewer transitions, increased involvement in extracurricular activities, high-quality friendships, and parent support are correlated with good student adjustment and high self-esteem. Successful middle schools create settings that provide personal attention, involve parents, support rigorous instruction, and promote student health. The Carnegie Council proposed core social policy for improving adolescent education by creating learning environments that promote learning communities, curriculum standards, academic success, effective school personnel, student health, family involvement, and community-wide resources. Many high school graduates are ill prepared for college or the workplace. Educators believe that high schools need a new mission to better prepare students. Circumventing normal transition periods by dropping out of high school often leads to poor employment opportunities. While high school dropout rates have declined over the past several years, the dropout rate is still high among non-White Latino teens and teens residing in poor, inner-city neighborhoods. Adolescents drop out due to academic, economic, and personal/social reasons. Reducing dropout rates depends on personalized guidance through academic, social, cultural, and recreational activities throughout the school years. The transition to college or employment may equally difficult. This transition may cause similar issues with the top-dog phenomenon, involves a move to larger, more impersonal environment, more impersonal school structure, and more diverse student population. Advantages of this transition include feeling more grown up, independence from parents, more subjects to choose from, and a more intellectually challenging environment.. The transition from

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Chapter 10

college to work can be difficult. Many college graduates have difficulty obtaining a job, and if and when they do, they are likely to bounce from one job to the next. The social context of school changes as children go from preschool to elementary school to the secondary level. School characteristics appear to have both short- and long-term influences on students. • The authoritative strategy of classroom management encourages students to be independent yet cooperative and cognizant of classroom expectations. • The authoritarian strategy of class management encourages compliant, passive learners. • The permissive strategy of classroom management provides autonomy, but little structure for students learning self-control and academic skills. • School climates that project self-efficacy and positive expectations for students appear to have overall beneficial effects on academic performance and achievement. • Classroom environments need to be adjusted to meet the needs of adolescents. Teachers influence learning with enthusiasm, organization, adaptability, and cognizance of individual learner’s requirements. Parent and school cooperation must continue from grade school and middle school through high school to ensure positive outcomes for students academically and physically. Students in middle school interact with many peers on a daily basis. Popular or accepted students are more successful academically. Some children and adolescents are the victims of bullies. Teens who are most likely to be victims of bullies are often lonely, be anxious, socially withdrawn, and aggressive. Victims of bullies can suffer short-term and long-term negative effects including depression, suicide ideation, and suicide attempts. A new concern is over cyberbullying or bullying on the Internet. Involvement in extracurricular activities is associated with positive developmental outcomes including reducing the likelihood of school dropout, higher self-esteem, and lower rates of depression, delinquency, and substance abuse. Being involved in a breadth of experiences seems to more important than being intensely involved in a single activity. Socioeconomic status (SES) also has an enduring influence. Students from low-SES neighborhoods attend schools with lower graduation rates; fewer students going to college; and their schools have young, inexperienced teachers. Ethnicity and SES are often difficult to understand by themselves because many minority group members experience poverty. This is reflected in the finding that in one survey of 60 low-income schools, 80 to 90 percent of the student body was of an ethnic minority. Educational programs often reflect attitudes of institutional racism. Strategies for resolving these difficulties are complicated. Student relations in ethnically diverse classrooms may be achieved by creating jigsaw classrooms, encouraging positive personal contact, advocating perspective taking, promoting critical thinking and social problem solving, establishing cooperative school-community efforts, and advocating for knowledge and respect of ethnic attitudes. Cross-cultural comparisons of secondary schools have found several similarities, such as being divided into two or more levels, but have uncovered many differences as well. The US and Santrock, Adolescence, 16e

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Australia had the largest sports involvement. College attendance also differs, with Russia having the largest enrollment. Exceptional adolescents represent students who often require curriculum modifications and adult support to reach their full potential. Students with a learning disability most often have difficulties in reading, written language, and math. Students with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) have difficulties focusing on relevant environmental stimuli and show high levels of physical activity. Genetics is the best explanation for the cause of ADHD, but other causes lie in brain insults during the prenatal and postnatal period. Stimulant medications are effective in treating ADHD but concern over the overprescription of drugs like Ritalin have led to the increased use of treatment methods such as behavior management techniques, mindfulness, neurofeedback, and exercise. Adolescents with disabilities typically are included in regular education classrooms—the least restrictive environment. Inclusion in regular education classrooms ensures that all students have the same opportunities to learn both academically and socially. Adolescents who are gifted demonstrate characteristics of precocity, independence in learning, and internal motivation. Genetics and environmental influences likely contribute the development of giftedness. Programs for gifted students include special classes, enriched regular education settings, apprenticeship programs, and community internships. Educators and schools are continuously challenged to support diverse learners within local educational settings.

TOTAL TEACHING PACKAGE OUTLINE Chapter 10: Schools HEADING I. APPROACHES TO EDUCATING STUDENTS

II.

RESOURCE Learning Goal: 1 Lecture Topic: 10.1 Research Project: 10.2 Essay Question: 1

Contemporary Approaches to Student Learning

Lecture Topic: 10.1,10.2 Image: 10-1 In-Class Activity: 10.2 Short Scenario: 10.1 Research Article: 10.1 Essay Question: 1

Accountability

Learning Goal: 1 In-Class Activity 10.1 Discussion Topic 10.1 Essay Question: 2 Internet Activity 10.1

TRANSITIONS IN SCHOOLING

Learning Goal: 2 Critical Thinking Exercise: 10.1 Short Scenario: 10.2

Transition to Middle or Junior High School Improving Middle Schools

Lecture Topic: 10.2 Essay Question: 3, 4

The American High School

Learning Goal: 2

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Chapter 10 Discussion Topic: 10.1 In-Class Activity: 10.3, 10.4 Thoughts on School at Age 15 (Connect)

III.

High School Dropouts High School Dropout Rates The Causes of Dropping Out Reducing the Dropout Rate

Image: 10-2 Short Scenario: 10.1 Essay Question: 5

Transition from High School to College Transition from College to Work

Learning Goal: 2 In-Class Activity: 10.3 Short Scenario: 10.2 Essay Question: 3

THE SOCIAL CONTEXTS OF SCHOOLS

Learning Goal: 3 Lecture Topic: 10.1 In-Class Activity: 10.2 Discussion Topic: 10.3 Critical Thinking Exercise: 10.1 Research Article: 10.2

Changing Social Developmental Contexts

Research Articles: 10.1, 10.2 Research Project: 10.1, 10.2

Classroom Climate and Management

Short Scenario: 10.1 Research Article: 10.2 Research Project: 10.2 Critical Thinking Exercise: 10.3 In-Class Activity: 10.2 Essay Question: 6

Person-Environment Fit

Lecture Topic: 10.2 Critical Thinking Exercise: 10.2

Teachers, Parents, Peers, and Extracurricular Activities Teachers

Lecture Topic: 10.3 Discussion Topic: 10.2 Short Scenario: 10.1 Research Article: 10.1 Essay Question: 7 Through the Eyes of Adolescents: “You are the Coolest”

Parents and Schools Family Management Parental Involvement

Discussion Topic: 10.2 Critical Thinking Exercise: 10.1 Essay Question: 7

Peers

Learning Goal: 3 Image: 10-3 Research Article: 10.1 Internet Activity: 10.2 Health and Well-Being Interlude: Bullying Prevention/Intervention

Structure of Middle School Peer Statuses Bullying Friendship

Extracurricular Activities Culture Socioeconomic Status and Ethnicity The Education of Students from Low-Income Backgrounds Ethnicity in Schools

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Learning Goal: 3 Short Scenario: 10.1 Critical Thinking Exercise: 10.2 Essay Question: 8 Through the Eyes of Adolescents: Forensics Teacher Tommie

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Chapter 10 Lindsey’s Students Careers in Adolescent Development: James Comer, Psychiatrist Cross-Cultural Comparisons Secondary Schools Colleges IV.

Lecture Topic: 10.3

ADOLESCENTS WHO ARE EXCEPTONAL

Learning Goal: 4 Discussion Topic: 10.4 Short Scenario: 10.3 Research Article: 10.1 Essay Question: 9

Who Are Adolescents with Disabilities?

Learning Goal: 4

Learning Disabilities Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) Causes and Course of ADHD Treatment of ADHD Educational Issues Involving Adolescents with Disabilities

Image: 10-4 Internet Activity: 10.3

Adolescents Who are Gifted Learning Goal: 4 Characteristics of Children Who Are Gifted Essay Question: 10 Nature/Nurture Domain-Specific Giftedness Education of Children and Youth Who Are Gifted

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SUGGESTED LECTURE TOPICS Topic 10.1—Effective Educational Strategies The major goal of education may be to prepare adolescents for the next stage of development, either secondary education or employment; to prepare students for a life-long learning process; or to establish and maintain a cooperative democratic society. Whatever the purpose, schools and teachers have the opportunity to profoundly impact students’ lives. Effective instructional strategies help teachers increase educational effectiveness and provide opportunities for students to achieve these goals. Assessment helps students and teachers determine whether instructional strategies are effective. Regularly alternating assessment and intervention procedures keeps both teachers and students on track. An effective educational sequence looks something like this: • Assess students’ prior knowledge acquisition. • Clarify educational goals and expectations. • Promote awareness of learning styles through self-assessment. • Provide instruction about learning and memory strategies. • Ask students to monitor their study time and daily productivity. • Begin instruction by connecting students’ current knowledge and new information. • Ask students to write down the most important thing they learned that day/week. • Provide repetition to establish factual information and theories or principles. • Promote a community of learners with students teaching and learning with peers. • Assess accuracy of new knowledge through discussion and application exercises. • Reintroduce previous information relevant to current topics—ask questions or reintroduce key terms. • Query students’ understanding of material and instructional effectiveness through “Muddiest Point” (e.g., What was the muddiest point in this session? Angelo & Cross, 1993, p. 152.) • Demonstrate how information applies to students’ lives. • Discuss students’ perspective and their confidence in using the information. • Assess students’ ability to apply the information to their own lives. • Assess students’ overall performance. • Ask students to assess teachers’ performance. Angelo and Cross (1993) suggest that students establish a thorough understanding of material when teachers encourage and support them to be competent learners by: • being actively engaged • establishing realistic, high goals • using regular feedback • recognizing preconceived ideas and revising them when necessary • recognizing personal learning styles and improving them • applying new information to current experiences Santrock, Adolescence, 16e

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• •

explaining assessment criteria and procedures encouraging them to work consistently and prolifically with their peers and teachers.

Friedman and Fisher (1998) explain how effective teachers complete the instructional process. Individuals and groups of students rarely present exactly the same challenges. Teachers’ effectiveness depends on quickly determining and responding to the effectiveness of any given approach. Thus, successful instruction requires that teachers regularly assess and instruct to recognize how well teaching strategies fit the students with whom they are working. References Angelo. T. A., and Cross, K. P. 1993. Classroom Assessment Techniques: A handbook for College Teachers, 2nd ed. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, Inc. Friedman, M. I., and Fisher, S. P. 1998. Handbook on Effective Instructional Strategies: Evidence for Decision Making. Columbia, SC: The Institute for Evidence-Based Decision-Making Education, Inc.

Topic 10.2—Teaching at the Appropriate Cognitive Level Is it developmentally appropriate to assume that adolescents are capable of abstract reasoning and formal logic when designing teaching materials and strategies for junior high (middle) school, high school, and college students? One researcher, John Renner, says definitely not. He provides solid data to document the actual incidence of formal operations and to demonstrate the influence of courses that have assumed those abilities on the part of adolescents. It may be helpful to obtain a copy of the book by Renner and his associates (1976), and to study the data on the incidence of formal operations. Generally, Renner et al. found that less than 25 percent of high school students think at the formal-operational or transitional level. Over 70 percent of high school students are thinking at a fully concrete level. In order to solve complicated problems, students must be able to interact with objects, events, and situations that permit logical thought to develop. Renner et al. suggest physical science experiments including the conservation of solid amount, conservation of volume, reciprocal implications, elimination of contradictions, separation of variables, and exclusion. Summarize, from the text, strategies used in introductory physical science classrooms that assume students are formal operational thinkers versus those that assume students are concrete operational thinkers. Renner et al. also documented the changes in the incidence of formal operations associated with learning in each type of class. Combine your presentation of Renner’s research with any additional information you have about the success of science teaching in America today. Is Renner’s proposal the answer? If so, why are other nations so successful at teaching science to their teenagers? Determine, if you can, whether science teaching in other countries conforms to Renner’s suggestions. Reference Renner, J. W., Stafford, D. G., Lawson, A.E., McKinnon, J. W., Friot, F. E., and Kellogg, D. H. 1976. Research, Teaching, and Learning with the Piaget Model. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press.

Topic 10.3—American vs. Japanese Schools Santrock, Adolescence, 16e

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In Japan, everyone is able to read. Ninety-six percent of adolescents graduate from high school and 47 percent earn college degrees (Sauter & Hess, 2012) How do Japanese youth achieve such high educational standards? • First, the Japanese place importance on education at home. Many Japanese mothers devote their entire lives to assisting their children with their schoolwork. Japanese mothers play educational games, read to them, and lavish praise on their children as they master skills. • Second, formal education begins early for most Japanese children. Preschool environments in Japan are more controlled, formal, and skill-oriented than preschools in America. Japanese preschoolers learn three alphabets, learn to cooperatively manage daily living tasks, and begin the foundations of traditional school curriculum. • Third, school-age Japanese children show greater self-control over their school behaviors than do American schoolchildren. They spend an hour more each day and 63 more days each year in school than do American children, and many Japanese children attend a juku, where they receive private lessons after school. Then they go home and do a few hours of homework for their regular school. • Finally, by high school, serious Japanese students do little but study and attend school. They dedicate their lives to studying for extensive comprehensive college entrance exams that will determine their educational and career futures. The first nine years of education are compulsory public schooling. After that, many Japanese children attend a yobiko, a sophisticated private high school. A yobiko holds classes five and a half days a week, 210 days a year (Walsh, 1987). Their educational obsession may pay off with acceptance into Tokyo or Kyoto Universities, the most prestigious Japanese colleges.

Cultural Expectations Should Americans adopt many of the features of the Japanese school system? Many parents think that the stress of so much schooling would lead to violence or depression! Yet, there are more assaults on teachers in New York City schools than in all of Japan, and the suicide rate among teenagers is higher in the United States than it is in Japan (Chance, 1987). Adoption of the Japanese system in the United States might be unsuccessful for several reasons. First, Americans are accustomed to local control of school systems and seem to value diversity from one school system to the next. The Japanese model features excessive centralization and lack of diversity. Many Japanese believe that this aspect of their system needs to be changed (Walsh, 1987). Next, to imitate the Japanese educational system, an American parent would have to be willing to sacrifice their careers to thoroughly supervise and tutor their children (Chance, 1987). Few Americans would make this choice. However, if they did abandon their careers, business and industry would be shaken by the loss of strong, effective workers. Japanese parents also spend thousands of dollars on their children’s elementary and secondary school education to make them competitive for college (Walsh, 1987). To do this in the American Santrock, Adolescence, 16e

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culture would increase the differences in the education of the middle and upper classes and the education of the lower classes. A basic American tenet is to make educational opportunities available for all. In fact, not all Japanese families can afford good education for their children; about 29 percent of Japanese high school graduates go on to undergraduate college programs (another 12 percent enter special training schools). In America, about 55 percent of high school graduates go on to two- and four-year colleges. About 3 percent of Japanese college enrollment is in graduate college programs; in America it is about 11 percent (Walsh, 1987). Differences in Educational Climate and Student Outcome Stevenson and colleagues have studied extensively to identify differences in educational outcomes for Japanese, Chinese, and American children. After administering cognitive tests of verbal and performance ability, the children were given achievement tests to determine current levels of accomplishment. The results showed that at the first-grade level, American students scored higher on the cognitive tasks than the other two groups. At the fifth-grade level, students demonstrated similar cognitive abilities across the three groups; Japanese and Chinese students had gained on the American students. Also at fifth grade, achievement scores were very different across the three groups; Chinese students did best in reading, and Japanese students were best in math. American students, already behind the others academically in first grade, were far behind the other two groups in fifth grade. The explanation may have something to do with the following: First, in addition to increased hours (one per day) and days (60 to 65 per year) in school experienced by Asian children, a greater percentage of the school day is spent on academics (10 to 25 percent more time). Secondly, Asian students commit two to three times as many hours to homework each week. Interestingly, Japanese college years are as lax as the earlier schooling was intense and competitive. Many Japanese college students spend much of their time during college cutting classes, partying, getting drunk, and doing club activities (Walsh, 1987). Most American students study little through high school and then study much harder in college. Japanese students study very hard through high school and then do little studying in college. Although the average Japanese high school student knows more than the average American high school student, Japanese college students do little research and may achieve less creative thinking than their American counterparts (Walsh, 1987; Chance, 1987). What aspects of the American school system would be beneficial additions to the Japanese school system? Should American children attend after-school lessons like juku? What aspects of the Japanese school system would be good to adapt to the American school system? Would yobiko be better than the average public high school? Should the school year be lengthened to 210 days? Should school be held on Saturday mornings? Should the American college system be more lenient on issues such as cutting classes and partying? References Chen, C., Lee, S., and Stevenson, H. W. 1996. “Long-Term Prediction of Academic Achievement of American, Chinese, and Japanese Adolescents,” Journal of Educational Psychology 18, pp. 750–759.

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Sauter, M. B., and Hess, A.E.M. 2012. “The Most Educated Countries in the World,” 24/7 Wall Street, http://247wallst.com/special-report/2012/09/21/the-most-educated-countries-in-the-world/3/ Stevenson, H. W., and Lee, S. 1990. “Contexts of Achievement: A Study of American, Chinese, and Japanese Children,” Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development 55. Stevenson, H. W., Lee, S., and Stigler, J. W. 1986. “Mathematics Achievement of Chinese, Japanese, and American Children,” Science 231, pp. 693–699. Stevenson, H. W., Stigler, J. W., Leen, S., Lucker, G. W., Kitamura, S., and Hsu, C. 1985. “Cognitive Performance and Academic Achievement of Japanese, Chinese and American Children,” Child Development 56, pp. 718–734. Walsh, J. 1987. “U.S.-Japan Study Aim is Education Reform,” Science 235, pp. 274–275.

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CLASSROOM DISCUSSIONS AND ACTIVITIES Discussion Topics Discussion 10.1—Why School Reform Has Failed Robert Steinberg (1996) suggests that one of the biggest problems we face with adolescents today is their lack of interest in education. Examples of active resistance to education include the school walkout in Hershey, Pennsylvania (Hershey Chronicle, April 7, 1994), in response to an a announcement that the school year would be extended to make up for storm days; or blank stares, sleeping students, and active disengagement during class discussions. Steinberg suggests that educators cannot create a program that will engage students as long as student peer groups and parents themselves remain disengaged. The following solutions are worth discussion: • Refocus the discussion—recognize the issue as one that goes beyond the schools and only changing schools will not help. • Establish academic excellence as a national priority—clarify that education is the most important task of childhood and adolescence. • Increase parental effectiveness—be willing to address the high rate of “parent irresponsibility” or dysfunctional family environments in the United States. • Increase parental involvement in school—insist that parents be actively and meaningfully involved with schools and educational communities. • Make school performance really count—establish the importance of academic competence as a means of entering subsequent educational programs. • Adopt a system of national standards and examinations—make students and schools accountable for providing diplomas. • Develop uniform national standards for transcripts—use universally recognized measurement tools to document competence. • Eliminate remedial education at four-year colleges and universities—require collegelevel competencies to enter and remain in college. • Support appropriate school-sponsored extracurricular activities—make sure educational programs are devoting more time to academic instruction than extracurricular activities. • Limit youngsters’ time in after-school jobs—prevent students from putting their energy into jobs over education; limit jobs to 20 hours per week. Steinberg concludes that if we want to change what is happening in schools, we must change the context in which educators do their jobs. Reference Steinberg, R. 1996. Beyond the Classroom: Why School Reform Has Failed and What Parents Need to do. New York: Simon & Schuster.

Discussion 10.2—The Hidden Curriculum Santrock, Adolescence, 16e

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School climate often occurs as a point of discussion, especially when students demonstrate poor academic achievement, lack of involvement, and antisocial behavior. Factors that can be measured objectively and are believed to influence school climate include clearly stated educational goals and objectives, and efficient management of programs and budget. David Wren argues that institutional culture and climate are influenced by less conspicuous factors such as the dynamics in human relationships and the traditions or activities that the organization supports. The following implied messages might influence the hidden curriculum: • • • • • • • • • •

Students’ and educators’ understanding of administrative expectations School spirit transmitted through traditional activities, mottos, or mascots School emphasis on athletic versus academic achievement Expectations for daily patterns of behavior (compliant or chaotic) Parental involvement and expectations for students, teachers, and administrators Educators’ implicit goals and objectives incorporated into school curriculum Academic expectations based on anticipated post-secondary education or success Academic expectations for students from low and middle SES Academic expectations for male versus female students Religious affiliation that guides expectations in many aspects of life

Ask students to identify the types of hidden curriculum that operated at their high schools. How many different implied messages influenced their school climate? Have individual students identify which messages seemed most important. How did each student make that decision? Did implied messages contradict explicit information provided by teachers, administrators, or parents? Reference Wren, D. J. 1999. “School Culture: Exploring the Hidden Curriculum,” Adolescence 34, pp. 593–596.

Discussion 10.3—Guest Speaker Invite a middle school or high school teacher to class to discuss secondary education. The teacher can discuss many topics presented in this chapter, such as transitions in school, the role of parents, classroom size and climate, and teaching adolescents with disabilities. You can have the students prepare questions for the guest speaker before their visit. The following are a few suggestions: •

• •

What are some of the specific changes in students this teacher has observed that he/she believes is the result of the transition in school (elementary to middle school or middle school to high school)? How do students prepare for the transition from high school to work or college? What seems to be the most and least helpful? Do parents of students in your school play a big enough role in their sons’/daughters’ education? How could their involvement be improved? What do you think are the advantages of parental involvement in school?

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• • •

How many students do you teach in one day? What are the class sizes? Are they too large? What is the advantage of having a smaller class size? Do you have students with disabilities in your classroom? How does this affect your abilities to teach? What is the role of extracurricular activities at middle and high schools?

Discussion 10.4—Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) As a class, discuss the benefits and drawbacks of IDEA; specifically, the impact of mandating that adolescents with disabilities be educated in the least restrictive environment.

In-Class Activities Activity 10.1—Taking Sides on National Education Standards The issue of national educational standards continues to be a difficult one on which to establish agreement. The National Commission on Excellence in Education, in A Nation at Risk (1983), recommended that students complete basic high school requirements in order to be prepared for post-secondary activities. Their recommendations were that students should have four years of English; three years each of mathematics, science, and social studies; and a semester of computer science. Two years of a foreign language were recommended for any student going to college. The number of students who accomplished these recommendations was about 17 percent in 1990. Ask students to debate the issue about the value or importance of national standards versus state determined or local school governance over secondary education program requirements. Assign students to a group representing a particular position. Ask students to prepare by studying the recommendations for national standards, their own state requirements, and requirements of colleges identified as Tier 1 (e.g., Princeton, Stanford), Tier 2 (e.g., George Washington University, University of Kansas), Tier 3 (e.g., Mississippi State University, Oregon State University), and Tier 4 (e.g., University of North Texas, University of South Dakota) schools (U.S. News & World Report, 2002). Also look for academic reviews, popular press articles, and professional publications that discuss this issue. After students prepare to take a stand on the position they represent, ask them to engage in an in-class debate. References National Commission on Excellence in Education. A Nation at Risk: The Imperative for Educational Reform: A Report to the Nation and the Secretary of Education. United States Department to Education, Washington, D.C.: Author. U.S. News and World Report, America’s Best Colleges 2004. February 2004, http://www.usnews.com/usnews/rankguide/rghome.htm (NOTE: website not available, but this is a reference and should not be removed)

Activity 10.2—Mission and Policy

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Invite an administrator and program director from two school systems, or from a middle school and high school program, to describe their programs as guests in your class. Ask administrators to specifically discuss their school’s mission statement, goals, philosophy, school climate, parent participation, and community involvement. Ask the program directors to discuss the school curriculum, and any school-wide programs for discipline, motivation, or mentoring. Following the presentations, ask students to comment on the consistency between philosophy and implemented programs, and the advantages or disadvantages of each school’s approach. Activity 10.3—Your High School Experience Have students complete the following before having a class discussion on issues related to schools in the United States. Because you have completed high school, you were probably responsive to Santrock’s description of the difficulties North American schools have in educating adolescents. Think of three pros and three cons of your high school education. Try to identify the things you liked most and least about your school/teachers/courses. Three pros: _________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________ Three cons: _________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________ The text points out that the transition to junior high or middle school has a negative impact on academic performance and self-esteem. Recall your own experiences related to this transition along with factors that helped you adjust. Activity 10.4—The Perfect High School Have students work in groups to design the perfect high school. They can identify the features of a school that are related to high achievement and optimal social and emotional development. They can decide what the teachers are like, and what qualities they have that encourage high achievement. Use the following questions as a guide for developing the school. 1. What is the enrollment? 2. Describe the physical aspects of the school. What are the buildings like? 3. What is the climate of the school? How large are the classes? 4. Describe the teachers. What approach to educating students do these teachers have? How do they manage the classroom? 5. Describe the person-environment fit and how it applies in your school. Santrock, Adolescence, 16e

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6. 7. 8. 9.

What extracurricular activities are offered? How are the parents involved? How does the school encourage involvement? How is the progress of the students monitored? What other aspects of the school—faculty, students, parents, etc.—are important?

Critical Thinking Exercises Exercise 10.1—Developmental Issues in Education Review Chapter 1 of Adolescence, which discusses several issues concerning the nature of development. Some of the topics in Chapter 10 are paired with a developmental issue. Determine which pair represents the best match. Circle the letter of the best answer, explain why it is the best answer, and explain why each of the other answers is not as appropriate. A. transitions in schooling: early experience B. school and classroom size: nurture C. student-environment fit: biological processes D. interactions with teachers: periods of development E. parents and schools: discontinuity Exercise 10.2—Person-Environment Fit An important, though challenging, concept presented in Chapter 10 is person-environment fit in schools. Santrock addresses this idea specifically in a section of its own, but material elsewhere in the chapter also illustrates this. Listed below are several other topics contained in Chapter 10. Which one of them best illustrates the idea of person-environment fit? Circle the letter of the best answer, explain why it is the best answer, and explain why each of the other answers is not as appropriate. A. accountability D. the “I Have a Dream” Program B. direct instruction approach E. small classroom size C. effective middle schools Exercise 10.3—School Size and Climate Santrock discusses the effects of size and climate of schools on the affective and cognitive education of adolescents. In order to accept the findings, we must assume that one of the following statements is true. Which one of them is the crucial assumption, as opposed to an inference or an observation? Circle the letter of the best answer, explain why it is the best answer, and explain why each of the other answers is not as appropriate. A. More prosocial and possibly less antisocial behavior occurs in small schools. B. Low-response schools have higher crime rates than high-response schools. C. Standardized tests are valid measures of student achievement. D. The greatest gains in achievement occur when the class size is 20 or fewer students. Santrock, Adolescence, 16e

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An authoritative strategy will benefit students more than the authoritarian or permissive strategies.

Answer Key for Critical Thinking Exercises Exercise 10.1 A.

This is not the best answer. The material lacks a discussion about how early childhood experiences influence adolescents’ adaptations to secondary schools. A possible exception is the treatment of the top-dog phenomenon. Strictly speaking, however, this is not an example of the early experience issue.

This is the best answer. This section of text is clearly concerned with how variations in school environment correlate with variations in student achievement.

This is not the best answer. Although biological needs could be among the student requirements schools need to address in student-environment fit, no biological process is mentioned in the text, nor is it cited as a mechanism relevant to this interaction.

This is not the best answer. This section does not address the issue of different tactics teachers might use with various age groups, but it does recognize that teachers’ knowledge of developmental characteristics is one of several influential factors considered by successful teachers.

This is not the best answer. There may be discontinuity between parents and schools based on points discussed in the material, but that is not the point of discontinuity as it is discussed in Chapter 1. There is no discussion about how parents’ involvement in schools relates to discontinuities in development.

Exercise 10.2 A.

This is not the best answer. In fact, accountability results in schools teaching to tests and not focusing on other areas and skills, such as creativity and social skills. Accountability focuses on a curriculum that all students should take and is not concerned with alternative classes.

This is not the best answer. Direct instruction is a teacher-centered approach where mastery of academic skills is most important.

This is the best answer. A direct quote says it all: “The most striking feature was their willingness and ability to adapt all school practices to the individual differences in physical, cognitive, and social development of their students.”

This is not the best answer. The “I Have a Dream” Program is designed primarily for dropout prevention and non-college-bound youth.

This is not the best answer. The material in the text suggests that small classes can best achieve aptitude-treatment interactions, and focuses on achievement contrasts between students

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learning in small and large classrooms without discussing the mechanisms related to learning or adjustment. Exercise 10.3 A.

This is not the best answer. This is an inference, although there is no clear evidence that school size and academic achievement are related.

This is not the best answer. This is an observation. This point has been demonstrated statistically in comparisons of low- and high-responsive schools.

This is the best answer. This is a point one must acknowledge in order to accept the comparisons Santrock cites. There is no discussion of this point, but it is somewhat controversial.

This is not the best answer. It is an observation, a statement of the correlation between classes of 20 or fewer students demonstrating the highest levels of achievement.

This is not the best answer. This is an inference based on arguments about the authoritative, authoritarian, and permissive strategies of classroom management.

Short Scenarios Scenario 10.1 Loveland High has a history of incorporating innovative educational change. Student success has improved dramatically since educational staff, parents, and other community members decided to build an effective program. But it wasn’t always so. Loveland is in the poorest section of the city and students often do not get adequate amounts of food, sleep, or family support to get to school and be ready to learn. Before the joint effort began, students reached high school with a history of failure, and their educational experience was a nightmare. Students demonstrated typical outcomes. Some local pastors and parents decided that it was time to change the outcomes of their children by taking the lead in instituting a school-wide intervention. They talked to the school administrators about contacting some educators at a nearby university. They recommended taking out walls to prevent dead ends and blind spots and increasing the use of hall monitors to reduce the potential for student violence. Other educational researchers were interested in trying strategies such as preparing parents as classroom assistants in lower grades. The school instituted peer tutoring, jigsaw classroom strategies, age-differentiated tutoring for students, and cooperative learning. University and community members also worked together to set up a school-wide discipline program. After the discipline program was in place, they started talking with other community and business leaders to get students linked up with health services, recreation activities, and academic assistance after school and in the evening. Gradually, the whole community began to expect their youngsters to behave appropriately and to achieve academic success. Now, the school district is recognized statewide for its accomplishments. • Cooperative programs include administrators, teachers, and parents. Santrock, Adolescence, 16e

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• • • • • • •

Early educational experiences had a negative impact on later educational experiences. Low-SES students have poor educational outcomes due to academic failure, economic strain, and personal-social concerns. Typically, low-SES students have graduation rates of 50 percent or lower, high drug use, high incidences of pregnancy, and poor job prospects. They created a safe and effective teaching environment. Establishing parent, educator, and community cooperation was probably a key aspect of changing the expected outcomes for students attending Loveland High. Parental involvement and expectations are influential factors in altering student retention and success in school. One aspect of the educational environment that was not addressed was the importance of personalized counseling services and teacher training.

Scenario 10.2 Eric is getting ready to attend the job fair and college recruitment function at the high school with his son, Ty. Ty has almost finalized his decision about college, but he wants to talk to one more school representative who will be present this evening. He will probably go to a small private school on the West Coast. Recruiters have telephoned to encourage his attendance, help him find out about the majors he is considering, and schedule a summer orientation session. Eric reflects on the changes in education that have occurred over the past four generations for his family. Eric’s grandfather, Sylis, completed a professional degree in engineering before homesteading in the early 1900s, but Eric’s father, Lloyd, quit school by the eighth grade. There simply were no high schools to attend within 50 miles of his home in Montana, and the roads and transportation were not reliable enough to travel every day. Although some of Lloyd’s friends lived in town during the school months, Sylis needed Lloyd to help on the ranch. By the time Eric was in high school, reliable cars and snowplows made it possible for Eric to attend school through most of the winter. Many families now live in town during much of the winter so their children can regularly attend school and participate in extracurricular activities. Current distance education opportunities, like interactive video networks and online courses, help students access the advanced placement classes they need to enter college. Rural education certainly isn’t what it used to be. • • • • •

Ty is making the transition to college and will meet personally with a college recruiter. The high school is demonstrating some responsibility by holding the futures planning event. The small West Coast college has demonstrated a great deal of support for Ty to enroll and prepare for attendance in the fall. The transition from a rural area to the small school is facilitated by the personal approach taken by college staff members. Eric and Lloyd attended school before education was universally mandated across the United States.

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•

Ty has had the academic support he needs to prepare for college through distance education.

Scenario 10.3 Mrs. Johnson is the head teacher for an eighth-grade classroom of 20 students. Seventeen of the students are typical adolescents experiencing success as members of the oldest age group at the middle school and the anticipation of going to high school. Three of the students demonstrate very diverse abilities and learning styles in addition to their early adolescent challenges. Fortunately, Mrs. Johnson and the students have a full-time teaching aide to assist them. Monica, one of the students targeted for special services, is very persistent in her studies, and particularly so in math and science. She joins a high school science class every day to satisfy her quest for information and a challenge. Danny is a special student that requires teacher attention to keep him on track both socially and academically. He has difficulty paying attention to class activities whether he is in physical education or history. He often blurts out irrelevant questions and is preoccupied with his own agenda. Sam requires some special attention, as he demonstrates gradeappropriate skills in math, but has trouble comprehending and completing reading assignments. In response to the various demands of her regular and special students, Mrs. Johnson structures her classroom activities very carefully. She makes sure that classroom rules and performance expectations are reviewed weekly, and that lessons are presented with some lecture and discussion, demonstrations, or games like Jeopardy. • • • • • • • •

Mrs. Johnson has an inclusive classroom with a reasonable number of students. The special students place an added burden on the teacher, making it necessary that a teacher’s aide help support an effective educational environment. Monica is probably a gifted student, Danny is ADHD, and Sam is learning disabled. Mrs. Johnson provides clear expectations for classroom performance. Mrs. Johnson is including a variety of instructional activities to suit the needs of diverse learners. Lecture and discussion is appropriate for the higher-level students and abstract thinkers. Demonstrations are designed for the benefit of most students at this age, using hands-on activities to establish concepts for concrete thinkers. Jeopardy is a format that students enjoy, but essentially uses a drill and practice approach similar to the direct instruction strategy.

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RESEARCH ARTICLES Article 10.1—School-Based Prevention and Resilience Research previously focused on antisocial behavior was associated with (a) personality characteristics of the individual, (b) parenting practices experienced by adolescent delinquents, (c) antisocial behavior that develops because of peer group pressure, and (d) early childhood antisocial behavior that continue to escalate through childhood and adolescence. In an effort to reduce inappropriate behavior, new programs for these children and youth have responded to inadequate parenting practices, social-cognitive deficits, and school discipline issues. Unfortunately, programs that focus on a single context for behavior change often have limited positive effects. Miller et al. (1998) reviewed multi-element school-based prevention programs that emphasized conditions that promote student resilience. Prevention programs are designed to reduce the chances for students to continue antisocial behavior patterns and to build patterns that increase social competencies for coping with life. A consistently identified goal of these programs is to interrupt the events that often lead students to continue or to accelerate the use of antisocial strategies. A well-recognized point of disruption for students occurs as they make transitions from one education context to another (e.g., grade school to middle school). Students with academic and social deficits experience similar problems on a daily or hourly basis throughout the day. The ability to cope with transition depends greatly on the student’s ability to respond to new and changing academic and social demands. Responding to student requirements and interrupting the pattern of antisocial behavior depends on the following compensatory and protective resources: • • •

individual instruction to improve academic, social-cognitive, and self-management skills; parent instruction to establish prosocial parenting strategies and strengthen positive family relationships; and school-based programs that incorporate positive expectations between peers, adults, and instructional goals.

Programs reviewed included those that had been successfully replicated across several schools or districts, and valid measurement and design procedures had been used to document student outcome. Three classroom approaches included the I Can Problem-Solve program, the Improving Social Awareness & Social Problem-Solving program, and the Second Step program. The focus of these programs is to strengthen social-cognitive or emotional regulation skills of rejected children. The programs introduce successively more difficult hypothetical and real-life situations that the students must solve. The exercise requires interaction between participants to establish the confidence to apply the strategies at the right time and place. Research using control groups showed improvement that continued over a 2-year period. Longitudinal research showed both

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social and academic improvement in low-SES minority children, lower rates of behavior disorders, and improved reading scores compared to same-aged peers. School-wide approaches to prevention included restructuring the school environment, culture, and climate to avoid conditions that often led to frustration, alienation, and antisocial behavior. Three school-wide programs were reviewed—Project Achieve, Positive Action Through Holistic Education (PATHE), and the School Transitional Environment Project (STEP). Project Achieve prepares staff through in-service programs; PATHE promotes school reorganization at middle and high schools; and STEP supports reorganization to counteract the effects of transition in middle and high school. The common elements of these three programs are behavior management systems, increased contact between students and adults, and masteryoriented learning. They each have a component designed to increase home-school connections, and academic and social competence. Elements of the programs include: • • • • • • •

Constructing teams of parents, staff members, and administrators Involving nonacademic staff in program implementation Revising discipline and classroom management systems Changing group structure to promote access to responsive adults and model peers Creating student teams for learning communities Recruiting parental support Monitoring student progress and computer tracking of referrals

Longitudinal studies showed lowered levels of referrals for behavior difficulties, improved academic performance, higher self-esteem, improved attendance, lower stress levels, and better self-reports on adjustment. The review of three multi-setting approaches included the Child Development Program, the Families and Schools Together Program, and the Seattle Social Development Program. These programs include family services to improve child management skills, communication, and general family relations. Parents receive information about normal child and adolescent development as well as personal coping strategies. Teachers are provided training and ongoing consultation on classroom management strategies. Results showed decreased delinquency and drug use, improved community affiliation, positive responses about school, and increased respect for teachers. The results of these programs suggest that students, teachers, parents, and administrators can establish positive changes in school settings with their active participation. The combined strategies that establish student competence, increase parent involvement, and prepare teachers and administrators to maintain consistent and supportive school environments appear to be the required elements of sustained, effective school change. Reference Miller, G. W., Brehm K., and Whitehouse, S. 1998. “Reconceptualizing School-based Prevention for Antisocial Behavior with a Resiliency Framework,” School Psychology Review 27, pp. 364–379.

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Survey techniques have generally been used to collect information about teachers’ perceptions of cheating. This research suggests that questionnaires may not lead to realistic explanations of the behavior and judgments in which students are currently engaged. Four focus groups were used to collect information from these discussions about student perceptions on cheating. Students demonstrated very little concern about the information they were providing during the discussions. High school students demonstrated much less concern about describing their behavior than did college students. The authors questioned whether nonchalance toward cheating suggests the types of attitudes that will soon be evident on college campuses. Although the definitions of cheating may differ between settings and conditions, the climate on the school campus, attitudes implied by teachers, and expectations expressed by friends influence academic dishonesty. Phrases like, “cheating is just a daily kind of thing,” or, “it was a lot stricter for our parents,” suggest that ethical thoughts have a limited influence on the attitudes of students. One student reported, “Everyone looks at everyone else’s paper, and teachers don’t care. They let it happen . . . ” (p. 683). The availability of information over the Internet has made cheating and plagiarism an especially difficult issue in relation to academic dishonesty. Most students do not believe their teachers are familiar enough with the technology to recognize what they are doing. Others have no guidelines from instructors; thus, they use the information without properly referencing the resource. In addition to the ready access of papers from Internet sources, locally students create paper mills by cutting and pasting papers together that fit assignments and the cognitive ability of the purchaser. Students reported that there is little discussion about cheating by academic staff at schools. Some schools have written policies, but few seem to be enforcing them. Students reported that policies have little impact on cheating, and punishment for plagiarizing is not enforced. Some students reported uneasiness at cheating on assignments graded on a curve. None of the students in the focus groups indicated a willingness to report classmates they knew were cheating. Contextual variables do appear to influence cheating. Students believe that it is easier to cheat on factual material such as math and science than on tests for social sciences because answers are less obvious. High school students believe that the most important factor is teacher attitude. Most students do not believe that teachers care whether students cheat. One student reported, “I think part of it is motivated by how much respect you have for the teacher” (p. 685). Individuals from the focus groups suggest students believe cheating is a normal part of student life. Further, students believe it is difficult to be caught and that there is little teachers can or will do about it. Students did not see an end to cheating. While students suggested that cheating must be addressed at the societal level, the answer appears to lie within the fundamental ethics of individual students. Reference McCabe, D. L. 1999. “Academic Dishonesty Among High School Students,” Adolescence 34, pp. 681– 687.

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STUDENT RESEARCH PROJECTS Research Project 10.1—Building School–Community Relationships Objective. This project is designed to identify constructive strategies for, or barriers to, establishing effective relationships between middle and high school programs and community members. Type/Length of Activity. Small-group, out-of-class activity; variable. Directions. The project will require students to construct a survey that can be administered to community members in business, industry, and public service. The purpose will be to determine the type of contact that these members have with the school system and the possibility of establishing different types of relationships in the future. The survey should include at least four sections. First, ask respondents to explain the type of relationship they currently have with the school(s). Second, ask respondents to identify any additional activities in which they would like to participate. Third, ask respondents to suggest activities for school programs and/or students. Fourth, ask respondents to propose any new programs that might benefit both adolescents and the community. Possible responses for current involvement include: • Child or grandchild attends school • Attends competitive sporting, musical, or academic events • Attends productions or shows by students • Donates money to a club or team • Participates in a mentoring program • Participates in school fund-raising activities • Has a high school student intern/work-study • Has a student volunteer Generate questions that are appropriate to the community in which the survey will be administered. Following completion of the survey, you should compile a quantitative and qualitative analysis of the responses. Some questions that might be answered include the following: What types of relationships do schools have with community members? Were responses to questions consistent across respondents? What patterns emerged? If responses are generally positive, determine the types of relationship-building activities that occurred. Explain in order of their importance those that have benefited the school, community, and adolescents. Ask students to suggest how the effective system was established. If responses were somewhat negative, what suggestions do students have to improve school and community relationships? What potential benefits might result from change? What behavior must community members and adolescents engage in for change to occur? Wrap-Up. After completing the research report, students should be prepared to give a class report, write a brief article for the newspaper, or meet with school or chamber of commerce officials to explain their findings. Santrock, Adolescence, 16e

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Research Project 10.2—Best Practices in Education Objective. The project is designed to prepare students to objectively assess the quality of middle school and high school programs. Type/Length of Activity. Approximately 3 hours. Directions. Based on the information provided in Chapter 10, design a checklist of best practice strategies to improve and transform adolescent education in middle and high school grades. The checklist should include questions or measures that address factors discussed in the report Turning Points, by the Carnegie Council on Adolescent Development (1989), and influential variables identified by other researchers such as Joan Lipsitz (1984). Next, use the checklist to evaluate three websites that present best practice guidelines to the public. Websites that you might assess include the following: • Annenberg Institute for School Reform at Brown University, Box 1985, Providence, Rhode Island, 02912 http://www.annenberginstitute.org/ • Blue Ribbon Schools Program, U.S. Department of Education, Office of Intergovernmental and Interagency Affairs, 400 Maryland Avenue SW, 5E205, Washington, DC 20202-3521 http://www.ed.gov/offices/OERI/BlueRibbonSchools/ Determine how well the websites sustain the standards presented in the text. Make any changes to the checklist you think are necessary. Identify two schools in your state or community you would like to assess. You may be able to obtain a recent plan or report that explains the mission, goals, and activities followed by school administration and staff. School or district websites may suggest that the schools are following educational principles of best practice. Based on the information you are able to gather, determine how well each website explains or promotes goals and activities that satisfy the recommendations made by Santrock, the Carnegie Council, or the Annenberg Institute. Write a three-page paper describing the results of your assessment. Be sure to include a copy of the assessment tool you designed. Wrap-Up. Be prepared to distribute copies of your assessment guidelines, explain the results of the investigation, and discuss your quantitative and qualitative assessment of best practices in the schools with the members of your class. Finally, decide whether the collective evaluations made by class members concur or disagree with the criticisms made by the Carnegie Council in 1989.

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Why do youths drop out of school? What strategies provide the community support required to prepare youths for employment? List and define three classroom management styles and describe the type of student behavior that is likely to result from each style. What are the strategies that Eva Pomerantz suggests for increasing and improving parent involvement in schools? How do socioeconomic status and ethnicity influence educational outcomes for adolescents? List and define the two most common disabilities adolescents encounter in their classmates. Explain the characteristics of gifted adolescents and explain how school programs can be structured to support their educational requirements.

References Epstein, J. L. 2001. School, Family, and Community Partnerships: Preparing Educators and Improving Schools. Boulder, CO: Westview Press. Kozol, J. 1992. Savage Inequalities: Children in America’s Schools. New York: Harper Perennial. McGregor, G., and Vogelsberg, R. T. 1999. Inclusive Schooling Practices: Pedagogical and Research Foundations: A Synthesis of the Literature that Informs Best Practices about Inclusive Schools. Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes.

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INTERNET ACTIVITIES Internet Activity 10.1 No Child Left Behind The Web page for the U.S. Department of Education has a lot of information about the No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB). You can have students go to the Web page and read some of this information and print out at least one of the articles on the NCLB Act. Students can present the information from these articles in class. Or you can go to the Web page yourself and develop several questions for students to answer by going to this Web page. Their answers to these questions can be used to start a class discussion of NCLB. Some sample questions are listed below: • •

Is the NCLB act working? Why or why not? Present your evidence. How does the NCLB Act affect students with disabilities?

• What does the NCLB budget request mean for your state? http://www.ed.gov/nclb/landing.jhtml?src=pb Internet Activity 10.2 Bullying There are a number of resources on the Web about bullying. Tell students that they have to help a friend find a solution to her child’s problem with bullying at school. Discuss their solutions in class. Bullying online: http://www.bullying.co.uk/ MVP Parents: http://www.mvparents.com/ Internet Activity 10.3 Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) The National Institute of Mental Health has a Web page devoted to ADHD. Included on this site is information about signs and symptoms, diagnosis, and treatment. You can use this information to enhance your lecture on ADHD or you can have students do some research on the Web about this disorder and bring the information to class to discuss. http://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/topics/attention-deficit-hyperactivity-disorder-adhd/index.shtml

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Resource Title

Resource Type

Thoughts on School

Video

Thoughts on School at Age 15

Video

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ACTIVITIES TO ACCOMPANY CONNECT VIDEOS Thoughts on School at Age 15 Overview Three high school girls talk about high school and the newfound freedoms they have acquired. They are free to skip school, drive, and be friends with whomever they want. Pre-Test 1. Which of the following statements about American high schools is true? a. American high schools adequately prepare students for college. Incorrect. American high schools are not adequately preparing students for college. b. American high schools have very high expectations for students. Incorrect. High schools and parents do not have high expectations for students compared to other countries, such as some Asian countries. c. American high schools are not adequately preparing students for college. Correct. American high schools are not adequately preparing students for college. d. Communication among elementary, junior high, and high schools is sufficient. Incorrect. Communication is not sufficient between primary and secondary schools. Post-Test 1. The girls in the video mention all of the following things about high school except a. they have more freedom. Incorrect. These students like the freedom they have in high school. b. they can go off campus for lunch. Incorrect. These students like this as one of the freedoms of high school. c. friendships are more positive. Incorrect. These students mention this as an aspect of high school they like. d. academically high school is difficult. Correct. They do not mention anything about the academic rigor of the school.

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CHAPTER 11: ACHIEVEMENT, WORK, AND CAREERS INTRODUCTION The pace of global change influences adolescents to adapt to societal and academic pressure and to identify strategies for reaching their goals. Adolescents’ efforts to investigate roles for themselves have an ongoing influence and appear to be predictive of later success. Extrinsic motivation (encouraged or discouraged by external consequences) and intrinsic motivation (self-generated curiosity, challenge, or knowledge) represent two major factors that influence adolescent achievement. Motivation can be influenced by the degree to which adolescents believe they are self-determined and have personal choices and responsibilities. Interest and cognitive engagement are important factors that motivate adolescents to persist and master ideas. According to attribution theory, people are motivated to discover the underlying causes of their performance. Adolescents should be encouraged to attribute poor performances to internal factors such as lack of effort, rather than to external factors such as bad luck. These types of attributions will help adolescences become self-motivated to improve and develop a mastery orientation. Three types of mastery have been identified in response to a challenge: • • •

Mastery orientation—focus is on the task, show enthusiasm, generate solutionoriented strategies. Helplessness orientation—focus is on personal inadequacies, difficulties attributed to ability. Performance orientation—focus is on winning and success, not the process and skill development.

Mindset or the “cognitive view individuals develop for themselves” can influence achievement. Carol Dweck found that those who have a growth mindset in which a person believes he/she can change his/her own abilities through effort is related to higher academic achievement particularly in math activities. Self-efficacy is the belief in an ability to master a situation similar to mastery orientation. When parents and others have high expectations for an adolescent, that adolescent stands to benefit. Mentoring improves adolescents’ mastery in school. College students can be mentors for children and adolescents and play an important role in their lives. Teens who expect they will succeed are more likely to work hard to reach a goal. Parents’ expectations of their teen’s academic is related to the teen’s academic achievement. A special concern is that parents might set low expectations to protect the self-esteem of the child. Teachers’ expectations similarly influence adolescent’s academic achievement. Goal setting, planning, and self-monitoring helps adolescents to define manageable short- and long-term goals, set specific and challenging goals, and then measure progress toward those goals. Managing time effectively can help adolescents accomplish their goals. By setting priorities and Santrock, Adolescence, 16e

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creating time plans, adolescents can learn to manage their time. Delay of gratification can go a long in way in helping teens reach their goals. The famous marshmallow studies by Walter Mischel demonstrated that young children who were able to wait for an enhanced reward became more academically successful, had higher SAT scores and grade point averages, and coped better with stress. Adolescents sense of purpose and their relationships with parents, teachers, and mentors are also key to their achievements. Ethnicity and culture influence achievement by children and adolescents of minority groups. Cultural differences may influence students to demonstrate distinctly different goals and patterns of achievement. The influence of socioeconomic status, racial prejudice, conflicts in values between minority and majority cultures, and characteristics of mega-system schools in large cities are easily confused with “ethnic deficits.” Cross-cultural examinations of adolescent performance clarify the impact of teachers’ focus on academic subjects, number of days in school, parents’ expectations, and assistance for student achievement. U.S. students perform poorly in math and science in crosscultural comparisons of the top 25 percent of students. Obstacles to achieving goals for all adolescents include procrastination, perfectionism, anxiety, and protecting self-worth by avoiding failure. Adolescent employment has become increasingly common since the 1970s; somewhere between 80 and 90 percent of students combine school and work. Students typically work in fast-food restaurants (21 percent), retail stores (23 percent), as office assistants, or as unskilled laborers. Employment often has disadvantages. Students give up time for school activities, and studying, , resulting in lower grades in school. Teens also give up time with family but not time spent with peers. Working over 20 hours per week is associated with being less engaged in school and increases in substance use and delinquency. Many adolescents work while attending college. In 2011 41% of full-time and 74% of part-time college students work. Although working can help pay for college, it can negatively affect grades. The greater the number of hours worked the greater the chances of dropping out of college. Work and career-based learning provide opportunities to focus on specific career themes to prepare students for jobs or post-secondary education in specific occupations or fields. High schools are providing less and less vocational education that leads to high paying jobs. Therefore, much vocational training has moved to two year colleges. Co-op or internship opportunities are vital to the college process. Most employers expect college graduates to have some type of field experience. Emerging adults following many different career paths. A growing concern is the number of college graduates who have difficulty finding employment or are taking jobs that do not required a college degree. Additionally, the idea of a long-term career is disappearing due to cheap labor overseas and increasing technology. In the high school years, adolescents begin to think about careers more realistically and begin to explore different career possibilities. Adolescents usually need assistance in exploring, deciding, and planning appropriate career paths. William Damon argues that teens are very ambitious about their careers but often lack a Santrock, Adolescence, 16e

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plan to make their career choice happen. Adolescents further along in the identity crisis seem better able to make choices and set goals. Although expectations are high for attending college and working in a professional job, loose associations are made between these expectations, educational requirements, and future employment opportunities. Sociocultural contexts that influence career choices include: • Culture: Teens in many cultures experience anxiety about being able to obtain the education needed for their career choice. Career prospects are better in some countries than others. • Socioeconomic status—higher levels of education are associated with upward mobility. • •

•

Parents and peers—parents’ expectations push students into the wrong career; parents and peers influence career choice by exposure, example, and expectation. School influences—few counselors are available to help students find career opportunities; school counselors must cooperate with classroom teachers, parents, and community members. Gender—females have been socialized to have limited career goals and expectations; they need exposure to career options and life choices, particularly in technologybased fields. Ethnic minority adolescents—minority groups have been excluded from mainstream opportunities; minority adolescents need career awareness designed specifically for them.

TOTAL TEACHING PACKAGE OUTLINE Chapter 11: Achievement, Work, and Careers HEADING I. ACHIEVEMENT

RESOURCE Learning Goal: 1 In-Class Activity: 11.1 Critical Thinking Exercise: 11.1 Research Article: 11.1

The Importance of Achievement in Adolescence

Essay Question: 1

Achievement Processes

In-Class Activity: 11.2 Image: 11-1

Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation Essay Question: 2 Self-Determination and Personal Choice Internet Activity 11.1 Optimal Experiences and Flow Image: 11-2 Cognitive Engagement and SelfResponsibility Some Final Thoughts About Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation Attribution Mastery Motivation and Mindset Mastery Motivation

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Chapter 11 Mindset Self-Efficacy Expectations Adolescents Parents and Teachers

Essay Question: 2, 3 Careers in Adolescent Development: Jaime Escalante, Secondary School Math Teacher

Goal Setting, Planning, and Self-Monitoring/Self- Lecture Topic: 11.1 In-Class Activity: 11.1 Regulation Sustained Attention, Effort, and Task Persistence Essay Question: 4 Delay of Gratification Social Relationships and Contexts Parents Peers Teachers Mentors Sociocultural Contexts Ethnicity and Socioeconomic Status Culture Some Motivational Obstacles to Achievement Procrastination Perfectionism Anxiety Protecting Self-Worth by Avoiding Failure II.

WORK

Work in Adolescence

Sociohistorical Context of Work During Adolescence Part-Time Work in Adolescence

III.

Learning Goal: 1 Images: 11-3 and 11-4 Lecture Topic: 11.1 Critical Thinking Exercise: 11.2 Short Scenario: 11.1 Through the Eyes of Emerging Adults: Hari Prabhakar, Student on a Path to Purpose.

Learning Goal: 1 Discussion Topic: 11.3 Short Scenario: 11.1 Research Article: 11.2 Essay Question: 5 Internet Activity: 11.1; 11.2 Health and Well-Being Interlude: Strategies for Tackling Procrastination Learning Goal: 2 Lecture Topic: 11.1 Discussion Topics: 11.1, 11.2, 11.4 Short Scenario: 11.3 Research Article: 11.1 Research Project: 11.1 Short Scenario: 11.3 Essay Question: 8

Work Profiles of Adolescents Around the World Working During College

Learning Goal: 2 Image: 11-7 Essay Question: 9 Video: Balancing Work and School (Connect)

Work/Career-Based Learning High School College Work in Emerging Adulthood

Lecture Topic: 11.1 WWW: ERIC—Adult, Career and Vocational Education; http://www.ericacve.org/

CAREER DEVELOPMENT

Learning Goal: 3 Lecture Topic: 11.2 Discussion Topics: 11.3, 11.4, 11.5 Research Project: 11.1, 11.2

Developmental Changes

Essay Question: 6

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Chapter 11 Internet Activity: 11.3 Image: 11-8 Short Scenario: 11.2 Cognitive Factors

Careers in Adolescent Development: Grace Leaf, College/Career Counselor

Identity Development Social Contexts

Essay Question: 7 Image: 11-9

Culture Socioeconomic Status Parents and Peers

Essay Question: 7

School Influences

Lecture Topic: 11.1 Essay Question: 7

Gender Socioeconomic Status and Ethnicity

Lecture Topic: 11.3 Research Project: 11.3 Essay Question: 7 Critical Thinking Exercise: 11.2 Careers in Adolescent Development: Armando Ronquillo, High School Counselor/College Advisor

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SUGGESTED LECTURE TOPICS Topic 11.1—Lifelong Learning After adolescents make a choice about career goals, they must begin a series of activities that allow them to have the job and achieve career success. Schaie and Willis (1996) refer to this process as “early professional socialization.” Adolescents and young adults learn how to get along with co-workers, how to get along with managers and bosses, and how to promote their own welfare during the stabilization period. This overview will highlight three key aspects of promoting personal welfare: choose an employer that respects high personal and professional values, find a mentor to show the way, and make a commitment to lifelong learning. Workers take and keep jobs for a number of reasons. Galinsky, Bond, and Friedman (1993) asked workers employed within the last five years to rate the important reasons for taking the new position with the new employer. Workers rated the top five reasons as straightforward communication at the workplace, the influence the job had on personal and family life, the responsibilities of the job, the quality of the administration, and attributes of the supervisor. About 35 percent of workers rated salary as a highly important reason for accepting their jobs. In addition to asking appropriate questions during the job interview, potential employees can learn a lot about an employer by investigating staff turnover or profiling characteristics of current employees. Mentors provide valuable assistance to new workers and to those trying to establish a career. The roles they serve include coaching, protection, providing information, and sponsorship (Whitely & Coetsier, 1993). Coaching helps to develop job competence and interpersonal skills. As protectors, mentors help the new worker avoid pitfalls associated with political forces or difficult co-workers. As sponsors, mentors help their protégé make important contacts to work with influential people or advance to appropriately challenging roles. In each of these roles, mentors provide information that the protégé would not be able to acquire independently. Finding a mentor can be a tricky process, especially for women. Mentoring, however, does have big payoffs, including early career advancements, increased satisfaction with work, and overall increased gratification with career. Lifelong learning reflects the reality of employment expectancies of 40+ years—increased longevity and job obsolescence. As our society moves from an industrial to an information age, workers will be required to adjust to changing job expectations and changing technology (Naisbitt, 1984). Two important issues to consider are the rate at which available information expands and the speed at which information can be assessed. Technical and scientific information doubles every five years. This fact alone explains the need to continue learning through all available mechanisms in order to continue employment at a competitive level. Those who do not keep up, face the threat of decreased levels of employment (and pay) or unemployment. Employment success depends on identifying good employers, learning from experienced coworkers, and positioning oneself to take advantage of learning opportunities as they become Santrock, Adolescence, 16e

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available. Success depends on flexibility and persistence to achieve and maintain early dreams of a career. References Galinsky, E., Bond, J. T., and Friedman, D. E. 1993. The National Study of the Changing Workforce: Highlights. New York: Families and Work Institute,. Naisbitt, J. 1984. Megatrends. New York: Warner Books. Schaie, K. W., and Willis, S. L. 1996. Adult Development and Aging, 4th ed. New York: HarperCollins. Whitely, W. T., and Coetsier, P. 1993. “The Relationship of Career Mentoring to Early Career Outcomes,” Organization Studies 14, pp. 419–441.

Topic 11.2—Mothers and Their Powerful Sons McCullough has proposed an interesting explanation for the cause of learning to want achievement and power: a pushy mother. McCullough examined the lives of many male leaders and found their mother and her behavior to be a common thread among these men. • Douglas MacArthur’s mother, Pinky, accompanied Douglas to West Point. She set up residence in a hotel across the street from campus for his full four-year tenure there. • Franklin D. Roosevelt’s mother, Sara, moved to Boston while Franklin attended Harvard. • Frank Lloyd Wright’s mother, Anna, decided before Frank’s birth that he would be an architect. She hung engravings of cathedrals in his nursery. • The mothers of Presidents Harry Truman and Lyndon B. Johnson taught them to read before they were five years of age. In these, and many other cases, McCullough pointed out that these mothers made their sons the center of their lives. McCullough also pointed out that in all cases, the mothers had weak or uninspiring husbands and dominant fathers who provided possible models for their grandsons. McCullough believed that sons became these women’s vehicles to success. McCullough offers insight from Freud: “A man who has been the indisputable favorite of his mother keeps for life the feeling of a conqueror.” You should point out to your students that these men grew up with only the best education and resources. They were given the opportunities, support, and models to become all that they could. Ask the class to supply additional examples. (President Clinton? Newt Gingrich?) Also ask the class to apply the idea to high-achieving women. Finally, be sure to engage the class in a critique of McCullough’s method, and entertain a thorough analysis of the limitations of his proof. Reference McCullough, D. 1980. “Mama’s Boys,” Psychology Today, pp. 32–38.

Topic 11.3—The Rise and Fall of Fear of Success

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Matina Horner achieved widespread recognition for initiating an investigation of a phenomenon that many believed was a powerful explanation for achieving differences between men and women—fear of success. Horner noted that up until the time of her work, women’s achievement and motivation had been substantially ignored. In her attempt to develop norms on a projective measure for achievement, Horner found that women were much more likely to express motives to avoid success than to achieve it. The work was instantly influential, even though (perhaps predictably) subsequent criticism blunted its long-term impact. Nevertheless, a lecture on the rise and fall of Horner’s work is a useful way to teach about the way achievement motives are assessed, historical gender biases in the study of achievement motivation, and progress that has been made in comparing male and female achievement motives as a consequence of Horner’s work. A way to begin your lecture could be to introduce one of the incomplete stories that Horner used to measure motivation: “At the end of first-term finals, Anne (John) finds herself (himself) at the top of her (his) medical school class.” Have your students write their own versions of how this story turned out, which they can then compare to Horner’s and others’ findings. Give examples of Horner’s findings. (See the reference below.) Sixty-six percent of women’s story completions expressed fear of success in terms of fear of social rejection, worries about womanhood, or denial that the success had actually occurred; only 8 percent of males told similar stories about John (presumably, really themselves). Horner argued that such an achievement avoidance complex would go a long way toward explaining why women achieve less than men. Her work was flawed on methodological grounds. For example, men wrote stories about a man, women wrote stories about a woman. What would happen if they wrote stories about the opposite sex? Such a manipulation is necessary because subjects’ answers in Horner’s study may not have been true projections of their own motivations, but rather stereotypes about success. For example, if men wrote stories about women similar to women’s stories, there would be an alternative explanation for such stories. Subsequent work also challenged the claim that men rarely show fear of success themes in their stories. In one case, Lois Hoffman, in a more controlled study at the same university where Horner did her work, found a proportion of fear of success stories among men that was actually larger than for women. Consult the sources listed below for more details about this work. In addition, you can use your students’ answers for an instant comparison to the findings that you have been discussing. References Hoffman, L. W. 1974. “Fear of Success in Males and Females: 1965 and 1971,” Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 42, pp. 353–358. Horner, M. S. 1969. “Fail: Bright Women,” Psychology Today 2, pp. 36–38, 62.

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CLASSROOM DISCUSSIONS AND ACTIVITIES Discussion Topics Discussion 11.1—2006–2016 Employment Projections The U.S. Department of Labor statistics released projections for employment for the next decade in December 2007. Total employment is projected to increase by 10 percent. Over the previous decade (1996–2006), total employment grew at a slightly higher annual rate. These statistics promote knowledgeable career guidance, education and training programs management, and longrange employment trend analysis. Projections are provided for industry employment and occupational employment. Professional and business services and health care and social assistance occupations are projected to increase the fastest and to add the most jobs over the 2006–2016 decade. These sectors are projected to grow more than twice as fast as the overall economy. Construction is the only occupation within the goods-producing section that is projected to grow. The occupations projected to grow the slowest are office and administrative support occupations, production occupations, farming, fishing, and forestry occupations. The fastest-growing occupations are health and information technology occupations. The 10 fastest-growing occupations between 2006–2016 are: Occupation

Network Systems and Data Communications Analysts Personal and Homecare Aides Home Health Aids Computer Software Engineers, Applications Veterinary Technologies/Technicians Personal Financial Advisors Makeup Artists Medical Assistants Substance Abuse Counselors Skin Care Specialists

Percent Increase

53 51 49 45 41 41 40 35 34 34

The labor force is projected to increase by 8.5 percent. This is less than the 13.1 percent increase in the last decade. The demographics of the labor force are expected to change because of the aging and retiring of the baby-boomers (individuals born between 1946–1964). In 2016, the baby-boomers will be 52–70 years old; therefore, there will be a need to replace workers who retire. The number of workers in the 55 and older category is projected to grow by 46.7 percent. This is nearly 5.5 times the 8.5 percent growth expected for the overall labor force. Youths (those between the ages of 16 and 24) will decline in numbers, from 14.8 percent in 2006 to 12.7 percent in 2016. Prime-age workers (those between the ages of 25 and 54) also will lose share of the labor force, from 68.4 percent in 2006 to 65.6 percent in 2016. Asian and Hispanic labor forces are projected to increase, although non-Hispanic whites will still be the largest group, making up 79.6 percent of the labor force. Santrock, Adolescence, 16e

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References Bureau of Labor Statistics. Monthly Labor Review, December 2007. Bureau of Labor Statistics. U.S. Department of Labor, http://www.stats.bls.gov/.

Discussion 11.2—Hottest Jobs According to Julie Rawe, the 10 hottest jobs of 2000 plus are the following: 1. Tissue Engineers—Synthetic human tissue will be used to replace body pieces and parts such as intestine, liver, and heart tissue. 2. Gene Programmers—Genome maps will be altered digitally, allowing programmers to rewrite genetic code to prevent genetically based disease. 3.

Pharmers—Farmers will become pharmers as they raise genetically engineered versions of grain and livestock.

Frankenfood Monitors—Any food will be available in ample quantities, but hybrids could create problems with original food sources; who will make sure they don’t get out of hand? Data Miners—With the exponential increase in scientific and technical data, these people will make sure that information gets into the right hands. Hot-Line Handymen—Remote access diagnosticians will be needed for technophobes needing assistance with home electronics. Virtual-Reality Actors—The demand for interactive stories will put writers and actors to work creating dramas for audience participation. Narrowcasters—Advertisers will create messages just for you, enhance sales with olfactory stimulation, and beam messages directly to the brain. Turing Testers—Are you talking to a person or a machine? Artificial intelligence will be enhanced until consumers won’t be able to tell. (Proposed by Alan Turning in the 1950s) Knowledge Engineers—Knowledge and expertise will be encapsulated into software.

5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

10. Reference

Rawe, J. 2000. “What Will be the 10 Hottest Jobs?” Time 155, p. 72.

Discussion 11.3—Universal Performance Assessment Adolescents often take jobs that do not have any apparent relevance to the careers they hope to achieve. The following questions apply to any type of job by inquiring about the acceptability of overall trainee performance and about vocational, social-vocational, and social skills demonstrated on the job. Raters respond to the questions on a five-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1 (below average workers) to 5 (best workers). Consider these performance questionnaire items: Performance Questionnaire Santrock, Adolescence, 16e

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• Are you satisfied with the employee’s work? • How well does the worker complete tasks? • Does the employee satisfy your performance standards? The employee: • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

Works independently Works at a job consistently Works at an expected rate Completes acceptable work Carries out instructions Provides timely information about absence, tardiness, or desired time off Provides job-related information to other employees Does not disrupt or interrupt others Seeks clarification for instructions Gets necessary information Arrives at work on time Anticipates what needs to be done next Offers help to co-workers Responds appropriately to criticism Expresses appreciation to co-workers Conversation does not interfere with work Apologizes as necessary Acknowledges what others are saying Uses social amenities

Reference Curl, R. M., and Hall, S. M. 1990. Put That Person to Work: A Manual for Implementers Using the Coworker Transition Model. Logan, UT: Utah State University.

Discussion 11.4—Interest Inventory An important issue during early adulthood is beginning a career or at least a full-time job. Individuals are engaged in training, education, or on-the-job opportunities that lead them to their first career or job choice. One way to help students understand the tasks that must be completed at this stage is to ask them which occupations they find most appealing, and those that are the least appealing. Each student should list at least three in each category. After collecting the lists, arrange for someone from career development or academic counseling to come in and administer the Strong Campbell Interest Inventory or some other appropriate occupational interest measure. It may take some time to get the results back, so the administration of the survey may need to be done early if you want to use the results as part of a Santrock, Adolescence, 16e

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lecture or discussion. Once the results are back, give students their lists of occupational favorites and least favorites, and have them compare their choices with the choices indicated by the survey. Talk about the similarities, the differences, and any surprises. If you are unfamiliar with the use of an interest inventory, you may want to invite a career counselor to assist with the interpretation of the results and to answer any questions from students. Reference Temple, L. L. 1992. Instructor’s Course Planner to accompany Life-span Development, 4th ed., by J. W. Santrock. Dubuque: William C. Brown Communications.

Discussion 11.5—Career Counselor Invite a career counselor to class. The career counselor should ideally come from your campus. This counselor can discuss the services available on campus for career planning and placement. The class can prepare a list of questions before the visit. These questions can range from the services available to them to specifics about the transition from college to career.

In-Class Activities Activity 11.1—Identifying Personal Life Goals Have students examine their life goals by doing the following exercise. Spend approximately three minutes on each part to review this exercise. Each student needs four sheets of paper and approximately 20 minutes to complete the exercise. 1. At the top of the first paper write: What are my goals in life? Answer this question. 2. At the top of the second paper write: What do I want to do for the next three years? Answer this question. 3. At the top of the third paper write: If I had only six months, how would I choose to live my life? Answer this question. 4. Look over your three sets of answers. 5. At the top of the fourth paper write: What are my three most important goals? Answer this question. What kinds of goals (i.e., personal, career, family, community, social, or spiritual) did you choose? Were the same goals present on all your lists? How would your lists be different if you had done this exercise five years ago? Reference Simons, J. A., Irwin, D. B., and Drinnin, B. A. 1987. Instructor’s Manual to accompany Psychology: The Search for Understanding. St. Paul: West Publishing.

Activity 11.2—Styles of Expressing Achievement Santrock, Adolescence, 16e

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After reading about achievement, you may be able to estimate your own achievement need (nAch) level. The three main styles of expressing achievement (and each of these has three substyles) are the direct style, the instrumental style, and the relational style. In the direct achievement style, individuals confront tasks directly and want to achieve tasks through their own efforts. In the instrumental achievement style, individuals achieve by promoting themselves or others. In the relational achievement style, individuals achieve by contributing to the accomplishments of others (Lipman-Blumen et al., 1983). Preferences for different achievement styles develop throughout childhood and adolescence, although they can be modified during the adult years. Gender roles are one significant influence on achievement style preferences. More males are socialized to have a direct achievement style and more females are socialized to have a relational achievement style. Family members, friends, and cultural messages further shape and differentiate your achievement choices. Rate each of the substyles for how typical they are of your own achievement patterns (adapted from Lipman-Blumen et al., 1983). Use a zero if the style is very atypical of you, a one if you occasionally use the style, a two if you believe you are average in this pattern of behavior, and a three if you think that you often use the particular style. After rating the substyles, go back and rank the three major styles from one (most typical for you) to three (least typical for you). The worksheet is also available in “Student Handouts.” Rank

Rate

_____

Direct Style—I am an individual who likes to achieve and accomplish tasks by my own efforts. I confront tasks directly.

_____

Intrinsic Substyle—I tend to compare myself to some standard of performance excellence. For example, I am satisfied with As and Bs and would like to make the Dean’s list. I like to see “well written” on a paper I have done. I try to do work that meets the high standards set by my boss.

_____

Competitive Substyle—I tend to express achievement by trying to do better than others. For example, I like to get grades that are higher than other students in the class. It is as important to win an athletic competition as it is to do well. I like to hear that my ideas are better than others.

_____

Power Substyle—I like to be in charge of and have control over others in order to accomplish achievement goals. For example, I would like to organize and lead a study group in order to improve my grades. I would like to be chairperson of a student organization. I would like a career in management or another area in which I am in charge of other personnel.

_____

Instrumental Style—I tend to use others and myself as a way to meet my achievement goals.

_____

Personal Substyle—I often achieve by making use of my status, influence, reputation, and personal characteristics. For example, I try to dress for success in order to make a good impression on the people with whom I work. I would like to earn a doctorate degree because I think I would be better able to meet my goals if I could sign Ph.D. after my name. I would like to be on the dean’s list or an officer in state organizations because this would help me achieve more.

_____

Social Substyle—I tend to use networking to achieve my goals. For example, I plan to join a fraternity or sorority because other members can provide lifelong social and career connections. I think it is important to belong to lots of organizations because you meet people who are able to help you get things accomplished. I try to associate socially with people I admire and with whom I hope to work.

_____

Reliant Substyle—I tend to achieve by depending on others for direction. For example, before studying or writing papers I usually ask instructors and classmates what I should do and how I should do it. I think it’s important to get lots of input and feedback from others in order to know how to work on a task correctly. I often get advice on what to do from others rather than deciding goals by myself.

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Relational Style—I tend to achieve by contributing to the accomplishments of others.

_____

Collaborative Substyle—I tend to achieve through group effort that includes the sharing of both responsibility and credit. For example, I prefer classes in which projects are done in small groups with shared responsibilities and a common grade. I would rather co-author a paper than write alone. I like working on issues with a group of peers.

_____

Contributory Substyle—I tend to play a secondary role of helping others achieve. For example, I would be willing to work and financially support a spouse while he or she went to college. I like to offer suggestions in committees, but I would not enjoy being the chairperson of the committee. I would enjoy playing supportive roles in arenas such as politics and charitable organizations.

_____

Vicarious Substyle—I tend to satisfy my own achievement needs by identifying with the success of people who are important to me. For example, I have a lot of school pride when our athletic teams win. I would just as soon help my offspring accomplish something important as achieving that accomplishment myself. It is very satisfying to see a co-worker have great success—I feel like I identify with the co-worker’s achievements.

When you are finished with your rankings, evaluate how you feel about your individual pattern. Are you able to work on achievement in ways that are satisfying to you? How would you change school, work, and family situations to better fit your needs? Have you chosen career goals that will enable you to achieve in ways that fit your pattern? What kinds of changes would you like to make in your achievement styles? What kinds of changes have occurred over your life so far? Regardless of your current achievement styles, which substyle do you wish was your most prominent style? Can you identify achievement styles of your family members? Can you identify achievement styles of your friends? Do you have similar or dissimilar styles to family and friends? How do you think cultural and worldwide influences affect the prominence of different types of achievement styles from generation to generation? Reference Lipman-Blumen, J., Handley-Isakin, A., and Leavitt, H. J. 1983. “Achieving Styles in Men and Women: A Model, an Instrument, and Some Findings.” In J. T. Spence, Ed., Achievement and Achievement Motives: Psychological and Sociological Approaches. San Francisco: W. H. Freeman.

Critical Thinking Exercises Exercise 11.1—Theoretical Foundations of Motivation There are a variety of approaches to understanding motivation, but in terms of the perspectives outlined in Chapter 1 of Adolescence, one general perspective seems to have generated more theories than any other. Which is it? Circle the letter of the best answer, explain why it is the best answer, and explain why each of the other answers is not as appropriate. A. psychoanalytic D. ecological B. cognitive E. eclectic C. learning Exercise 11.2—Achievement by Adolescents of Diverse Ethnic Backgrounds Santrock indicates that research on ethnic minority adolescents’ achievement has been beset by conceptual and methodological problems that make it difficult to distinguish between ethnic Santrock, Adolescence, 16e

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differences and socioeconomic differences. Of the following statements that figure in his criticism, which statement represents an assumption that contemporary researchers have challenged, rather than an inference or an observation? Circle the letter of the best answer, explain why it is the best answer, and explain why each of the other answers is not as appropriate. A. The diversity that exists among ethnic minority adolescents is evident in their achievement. B. The relative impact of ethnicity and socioeconomic status on achievement can be analyzed separately. C. Ethnic minority individuals who have low achievement should be viewed as different, not deficient. D. Middle-class African American children have achievement expectations that are as high as middle class white children’s expectations. E. A majority of minority students in the United States attend school in the 50 largest school districts nationwide.

Answer Key for Critical Thinking Exercises Exercise 11.1 A.

This is not the best answer. Only one approach, the achievement motivation approach, resembles a psychoanalytic approach, in that it focuses on achievement motivation as a personality construct. But the bases of these approaches are related to a psychoanalytic approach only remotely, if at all.

This is the best answer. A majority of the theories seem to have a cognitive basis. Intrinsic/extrinsic motivational constructs refer to desires to be competent and interaction with reward; the mastery/helpless distinction refers to attributions people make about their ability to succeed.

This is not the best answer. Learning concepts appear to play a role in the analysis of intrinsic versus extrinsic motivation, but other ideas and theories draw on either personality or cognitive constructs.

This is not the best answer. The “Ethnicity and Culture” section involves an analysis of the influence of social systems adolescents inhabit and how the interactions of these systems influence achievement motivation. These explanations are clearly overshadowed by the cognitive approach.

This is not the best answer. The main reason for not choosing this alternative is that the cognitive perspective seems to have generated more theories than the others. One could certainly describe the area as eclectic, however.

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Exercise 11.2 A.

This is not the best answer. This is an inference supported by an example of diversity within the Asian American student population. Many students have strong academic performance whereas others demonstrate lower levels of achievement and motivation.

This is the best answer. This is an assumption. Graham’s research is cited as showing stronger differences in the impact of socioeconomic status than ethnicity, but does not suggest that the two factors do not overlap. Most researchers agree that socioeconomic status is usually confounded with ethnicity in studies of ethnic minorities.

This is not the best answer. This is an inference, based on the idea that low achievement expectations mean the same thing in ethnic minority youth as they mean in white majority youth.

This is not the best answer. This is an observation that was measured in the work by Sandra Graham.

This is not the best answer. This is an observation based on the information in the chapter that over 33 percent of African Americans and 33 percent of Latinos attended school in the 47 largest school districts in the United States.

Short Scenarios Scenario 11.1 Lanny dislikes the group projects more than anything else about the class requirements. Take this group he is involved with on this project—four people with four completely different types of motivation. The one guy, Paul, has said he doesn’t really care about the amount of time it takes; he is enthusiastic, and he wants to be sure the research project is done right. (Come on Paul—get a life!) Then there’s Vivian, who has said for about the tenth time that she doesn’t know anything about doing interviews or how to figure out reliability. (She’ll be a lot of help!) Harriet is very confident that they will find just the subjects they need and has made some good suggestions for dividing up the work (There is hope!) All Lanny cares about is getting it done in a reasonable amount of time and getting an “A” on the project. He has to have all As this semester to get the 3.75 GPA he needs to bag an acceptance to graduate school. • Lanny is not demonstrating a great deal of flexibility, tolerance of ambiguity, or appreciation for the diversity of the group members or their potential contributions. • Paul is demonstrating a mastery orientation by showing concern for excellent performance and displaying a positive effect. • Vivian is demonstrating a helpless orientation. In order to help her be successful, someone in the group will need to break down the project into small steps, identify pieces she is comfortable doing independently, and encourage her efforts. • Harriet has a mastery orientation, and demonstrates a high level of self-efficacy. Santrock, Adolescence, 16e

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• •

•

Lanny is demonstrating a performance orientation. She is very concerned with reaching a positive outcome, but is not interested in the process. Lanny is demonstrating a level of anxiety that may be due to concerns about achieving the desired outcome under the conditions of working in this group. This may be an unreasonable fear. However, since there are three other group members who want to succeed. Lanny may be exhibiting a maladaptive failure-avoiding strategy, nonperformance, as an excuse for his lack of skill at participating in group activities.

Scenario 11.2 Michelle remembers when she believed she could do anything—she even considered buying her own fishing boat and living on the ocean. Then she volunteered to help in a local campaign and realized that it was exciting to work with a lot of people who have a similar passion. She also visited New York on her high school senior trip and decided that she likes the fast pace of the city. Taking cabs instead of driving, living in the city instead of the suburbs, and dressing for concerts instead of hanging out at the bars fit who she is. As a business major in college, she met a few people who shared her enthusiasm for corporate America and discovered that lots of people make it work. She has just gotten a job with a major technology company. After a couple of years of work in the real world, she may decide to go to law school. She wonders how far up the corporate ladder she can go or whether she will be partner at a large firm. Either one would give her the excitement in her life that she desperately requires to feel alive! • •

• • • •

Michelle’s belief that she could do anything illustrates the developmental changes that take place in career development. Michelle changed her perspective about her employment interests from a solitary life on the ocean to a commitment as a campaign team member recognizing a career that may better fit with her personality. As Michelle worked on the campaign, she realized that she enjoyed being with a group of people who were similarly committed to a project or goal. Her exposure to New York helped Michelle move closer to the decision that she wanted to work as part of a larger group. Michelle attended college with a major in business to get closer to her goal of living in the city and working at a large corporation. According to Holland’s theory, Michelle demonstrates an enterprising personality type. Politics and management are two positions that are exemplary of this type of personality.

Scenario 11.3 Jeannie celebrated her birthday a little early this year and bought a new outfit for her birthday dinner. Usually this approach worked out fine, but this year everyone gave her presents instead of money. She wasn’t planning on working through the winter, but now she is working at a clothing store. Her first summer job was at a fast-food restaurant. She made quite a bit of money, Santrock, Adolescence, 16e

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but it wasn’t very glamorous. Last summer she worked for a garden center and lawn service. She loved the work, but was exhausted most of the time. The retail job should work out better now that she is back in school. Having a job has allowed Jeannie to make her own choices about clothes and entertainment, but these positions certainly aren’t things she would do long-term. After finishing college, she wants to be able to set her own hours and be flexible enough to have children and a career. Her mom was a teacher so family schedules worked together. Her dad worked for a business that required him to work most of the time. She really liked working with the landscape architects when she worked for the lawn service—maybe landscape architecture work or horticulture. She will talk to one of the architects she met last summer to learn more about it. • • • •

• • • •

Jeannie is working at a retail job, as do 20 percent of working adolescents. Her first job was as a fast-food worker, typical of 17 percent of adolescents; McDonald’s is the single largest employer of teenagers. As an unskilled laborer with the lawn service, she represented 10 percent of working adolescents. The benefits of the job are that it gives her autonomy from her parents in making clothing purchases and choosing to join her friends for expensive entertainment more frequently than when she depended on spending money from her parents. Jeannie has the goal of completing college (90 percent of adolescents have a similar goal) and having a flexible professional career. Jeannie is assessing the expectations and limitations of the careers her parents chose. Her exposure with the lawn service gave her an opportunity to learn about landscaping as a profession. Jeannie recognizes that more experience with the landscape architect may be helpful in making a career choice.

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RESEARCH ARTICLES Article 11.1—Adolescent Views of Work and Leisure Youths begin to consider choices for future roles during their adolescence. Sundberg and Tyler (1970) identified differences between adolescents in the Netherlands and the United States that reflected ideas about future roles in employment and leisure. Twenty-five years later, both countries have undergone major changes in the roles of men and women, with marked decrease in birthrate and increased participation by women of all ages in the workforce. The current investigation was designed to replicate the Sundberg and Tyler study in the United States and the Netherlands to determine the effects of societal change on 14- and 15-year-olds’ awareness of employment, leisure opportunities, and preferences. Participants included 522 adolescents—14- and 15-year-olds from three schools in the Netherlands and two Midwestern U.S. schools. Students were enrolled in three educational tracks that reflected honors, remedial, and regular students. About half of the students from both countries were in college preparatory classes. The current sample was matched to the original 1970 published Dutch and U.S. samples on age, sex, and educational level. Two measures were used to assess participants’ awareness and preferences for work and leisure activities. First, participants were asked to list all of the occupations that they could think of and to place a check mark by those that they believed to be appropriate for themselves. The same procedure was followed for leisure activities. Second, participants were randomly assigned to draw a picture of a man or a woman engaging in an activity and to write an explanation on the picture. Stiles, Gibbons, and Schnellmann’s (1988) guidelines were used for scoring representations of work, leisure, helping others, sexual emphasis, and gender role stereotyping. Comments on the drawings were scored for mentioning appearance, money, achievement, personal qualities, and feminine or masculine reflections. The 1993 results were strikingly different from those reported in the 1970 study. In the current study, adolescents in the Netherlands listed more occupations than were listed by adolescents in the United States. Girls listed more occupations than boys; boys identified more occupations as possibilities than did girls. Adolescents in the Netherlands listed more leisure activities than adolescents in the United States, and girls listed more leisure activities than did boys. Girls in the Netherlands listed the greatest number of leisure activities and identified the greatest number of occupations as possible for themselves. Drawings of the ideal person at work or taking part in leisure activities showed that significantly more U.S. than Dutch adolescents, and significantly more girls than boys, drew the ideal person at work. U.S. adolescents drew gender-role stereotypes significantly more often than Dutch adolescents. More U.S. than Dutch adolescents drew the person helping someone. U.S. adolescents depicted achievement and success more often than Dutch adolescents. Dutch adolescents were more likely to comment about the physical characteristics of the person. Adolescents from the Netherlands described internal qualities of the ideal person more often; feminine inner qualities were listed by Dutch adolescents more often than by U.S. adolescents. Santrock, Adolescence, 16e

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The results during the 1970 study indicated that U.S. adolescents were oriented toward leisure tasks more than Dutch adolescents. During the past 25 years, the cultural trend in the Netherlands has been that work is becoming less important and private lives more important than in the past. Currently, Dutch adolescents indicated that they associate adulthood with work, dullness, and stagnation. In the United States currently, adolescents drew pictures of the ideal person working, indicating a belief that work is associated with success, money, and “the good life.” Cars and clothes depicted materialism, while success in jobs, families, and other depictions indicated that the ideal person “has it all.” Female adolescents in the United States clearly showed women in dual roles, with 48 girls showing women at work compared to six girls in the Netherlands, where new patterns have not yet emerged. In both countries, males depicted women as sex objects. U.S. adolescents reflected a masculine image of the country as one that emphasizes ambition, earnings, and greater gender role differentiation. Dutch adolescents were more likely to mention inner qualities of caring and kindness. In general, U.S. adolescents appear to glamorize work, whereas Dutch adolescents place a high value on quality of life. Reference Stiles, D. A., Gibbons, J. L., and Peters, E. 199. “Adolescents’ Views of Work and Leisure in The Netherlands and the United States,” Adolescence 28, pp. 473–489.

Article 11.2—Work Access in Traumatic Brain Injury Work access and work return remain challenging issues for individuals with traumatic brain injury (TBI). Individuals with TBI represent some of the most difficult cases in rehabilitation. Two years post injury, the percentage of those who return to work are fewer than 40 percent of those with severe injuries (Glasgow Coma Scale 8 and below), 67 percent of those with moderate injuries (Glasgow Coma Scale 9 to 12), and 80 percent of those with mild injuries (Glasgow Coma Scale 13 to 15). Controversy over standardized treatment and outcome measures makes it difficult to determine comparability in outcome. Some analyses can be made, however, of treatment approaches relative to the impact of TBI on work return and easier- versus harder-toplace individuals within the program. The successful application of job placement strategies for individuals with traumatic brain injury suggests their suitability for application to any difficultto-place client requiring rehabilitation services. Individuals with TBI require individualized assessment and intervention strategies; no single model has shown to be effective across all clients with TBI. Before placement begins, a thorough assessment should include neuropsychological assessment, specific work goal information, financial status, and emotional-interpersonal functioning. Neuropsychological assessments determine the individual’s relative strengths and weaknesses through formal assessment and criterion-based job tryouts. Specific work variables to consider include the individual’s work goals, job complexity, the individual’s time on the job before injury, and the receptivity of the employer to establishing a mentoring relationship. Financial status refers to the requirement for careful evaluation of the client’s ability to benefit from employment versus the loss of Social Security and other subsidies necessary to support themselves and dependents following TBI. Provided the client and his or her rehabilitation counselor decide to begin job placement and Santrock, Adolescence, 16e

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training, several placement models have been investigated to determine their applicability to individuals with mild, moderate, or severe brain injury. • Job Tryout Prior to Model Choice—A job tryout gives individuals with TBI and rehabilitation counselors an opportunity to determine the appropriateness of an employment choice and the level of support required by the individual. • Model 1: Office-Based Advisement and Counseling—Individuals with mild to moderate injuries can benefit from a traditional vocational guidance model that assists with the job search through instruction on job seeking clubs, automated job lines, resumé preparation, and interview skills. • Model 2: Selective Placement by the Agency—The rehabilitation agency staff member provides a brokering-type service in which the counselor finds the job, contracts for additional on-the-job training if necessary, arranges for co-worker mentoring, and arranges accommodations for work-related impairment. • Model 3: Agency-Generated Job Site Support—The rehabilitation agency identifies a community member who can assist in job training as a paid mentor, contracts with the employer for a job sharing arrangement, or arranges for a job coach. • Model 4: Natural Support in the Workplace—Co-workers are prepared to provide job training and implement maintenance strategies with individuals requiring moderate to high levels of support initially; the individuals are likely to be able to maintain the job with intermittent co-worker support. A review of 51 clients showed that with increasing cognitive impairment on intelligence and neuropsychological testing, increasing levels of guidance, employment brokerage, and on-the-job support in the form of the co-worker-as-trainer were required. The need for co-worker-as-trainer support also reflected the level of employment to which the individual with TBI was trying to return (architect, computer database manager, or building remodel co-owner). The summary does not support a conclusion that any one approach is better than another, but that diversity in approaches allows individuals with TBI to receive the individualized rehabilitation package that fit their requirements. Reference Fraser, R. T., Cook, R., Clemmons, D. C., and Curl, R. M. 1997. “Work Access in Traumatic Brain Injury Rehabilitation: A Perspective for the Physiatrist and Rehabilitation Team,” Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation Clinics of North America 8, pp. 371–387.

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STUDENT RESEARCH PROJECTS Research Project 11.1—Comparing Career Sequences Objective. Students will identify differences in motivation, strategies of career development, and social contexts that have influenced individuals’ current positions and preferences in employment. Length/Type of Activity. Out-of-class activity; variable. Directions. Identify one or more individuals for each of the cohort groups representing individuals aged 20 to 25 years, 30 to 35 years, 40 to 45 years, and 50 to 55 years. (Spaces in age help guarantee that differences in patterns will be identified across cohorts.) Create a questionnaire that can be administered in a paper-and-pencil format or by personal interview. Questions may be generated to respond to your specific interests or to issues currently of interest in the employment research literature. Focus on at least some of the questions toward major sections in the chapter. Here are a few examples: 1. When you were in high school, what jobs or careers did you think about pursuing? 2. What influenced those choices? (Check all that apply) ✓ financial ability ✓ past educational experience ✓ family circumstances ✓ educational opportunities ✓ parents ✓ gender ✓ peers ✓ ethnicity 3. What educational experience did you have when you began working at each of the jobs you have had? 4. Has/Have your employer(s) paid for subsequent educational preparation? 5. What influenced you to stay at or leave each of the jobs? 6. How many hours per week do you typically work? 7. Are you part of management at your job? If yes, what level of management is your position? 8. What are your three favorite leisure activities? How often do you engage in these activities? 9. What would you have done differently if you had had all options available to you? 10. When do you intend to retire? What will you do (work/leisure) during retirement? Analysis. What do the responses to your questionnaire suggest? 1. Did subjects follow jobs or careers identified during high school? 2. 3. 4. 5.

What were the major influences for individual’s career choices? Were outcome differences characterized within cohort groups? Did you identify distinct patterns in educational or career development between the cohorts? Did you identify patterns reflective of the age of the respondent?

Wrap-Up. Write a five-page technical paper to explain the research project and be prepared to give an oral report in class. Santrock, Adolescence, 16e

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Research Project 11.2—Identifying Occupations Objective. Students will understand the diversity of occupations available to individuals who have not completed high school, and those who have completed high school, college, and advanced programs. Type/Length of Activity. Internet search; 1 to 2 hours. Directions. Individuals, states, and the federal government have an interest in getting and keeping people employed. As a result, a great deal of information about occupations and related topics is available on the internet. Compile information on the following topics using at least two search engines. 1.

Occupational clusters and job titles _________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________

Assessment inventories for interest and abilities _________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________

Career options based on interest _________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________

Preparation, qualifications, and licensure requirements for specific careers _________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________

Employer types (public, private, or self-employed) for specific careers _________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________

Likelihood of job obsolescence for specific careers _________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________

Typical salary ranges for specific careers _________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________

Identify the fastest-growing occupations _________________________________________________________________________

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_________________________________________________________________________ 9.

Identify employment projections for the future _________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________

10.

The best sites to help people investigate job options _________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________

Wrap-Up. How many occupations were identified? How many and what types of jobs were available to individuals with and without high school, college, and advanced-program degrees? How many occupations were unfamiliar? Were qualifications higher or lower than expected? Are final career decisions likely to be based on (a) the amount of money one will earn or (b) the opportunity to contribute to society? Research Project 11.3—Gender Difference in Careers Presented by Media Objective. Students will understand the influence of the media in presenting gender stereotyped career choices. Type/Length of Activity. Out-of-class activity; 1½ to 3 hours Directions: Watch three different television programs, paying attention to the careers held by men and women in the programs. You can watch any type of program (e.g., drama, sitcom, etc.). If you can, watch one older program (from the ‘60s or ‘70s) as well as current programs. Answer the following questions. Program #1______________________________ Current or older program_________________ Program #2______________________________ Current or older program_________________ Program #3______________________________ Current or older program_________________ 1. What careers do the men in the programs have? What about the women? Do these represent our stereotypes about careers held by men and women? 2. If you watched program(s) from a different decade, were the careers held by men and women in those programs more or less traditional compared to more recent programs? 3. Were the portrayals of careers held by men and women realistic? Why or why not. 4. For adolescents watching these shows, what information about careers and gender are they getting?

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ESSAY QUESTIONS Review the guidelines for “Answering Essay Questions” before students respond to these questions. 1. Explain why adolescence is a critical juncture in achievement. Indicate circumstances and experiences that can promote or inhibit a commitment to achievement at this time in life. 2. Compare and contrast any two approaches to understanding motivation. How are these approaches used to understand achievement among adolescents? 3. What are mastery, helpless, and performance orientations? How do they relate to intrinsic motivation, attribution, and self-efficacy? 4. How do goals influence adolescent achievement and what types of goals should they set? 5. 6. 8. 9.

List three groups of hard-to-motivate students likely to be identified in high school classes, and describe characteristic patterns of behavior they demonstrate. 7. How do social contexts of socioeconomic status, parental and peer standards, schools, and gender influence adolescent career choice? What were the research results that influenced educators to question the value of adolescent employment? List and describe recommendations for facilitating adolescents’ transition from school to work.

References Albom, M. 1997. “Tuesdays with Morrie: An Old Man, a Young Man and Life’s Greatest Lesson. New York: Bantom. Buckingham, M., and Clifton, D. O. 2001. Now, Discover Your Strengths. New York: The Free Press. Elkind, D. 2001. The Hurried Child: Growing up too Fast too Soon. New York: Perseus Publishing.

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INTERNET ACTITIVIES Internet Activity 11.1 Locus of Control You may want to talk about Locus of Control when you lecture on achievement. Students can take a Locus of Control test online. http://www.queendom.com/tests/personality/lc_access.html Internet Activity 11.2 Procrastination Procrastination is an obstacle to achievement to which many students can relate. Many websites offer advice about overcoming this particular trait. An example is listed below: Mindtools has an online procrastination test https://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/newHTE_99.htm Internet Activity 11.3 Quintessential Careers The Web page Quintessential Careers provides a wealth of information about career development. Many students will find a website like this useful since they are in the process of choosing a career. The website also provides several online tests students can take to help them make career decisions. http://www.quintcareers.com/online_assessment_review.html

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Resource Title

Resource Type

Motivation Orientation

Video

Non College-Bound Adolescents

Video

Balancing Work and School

Video

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ACTIVITIES TO ACCOMPANY CONNECT VIDEOS Balancing Work and School Overview About 80 percent of U.S. undergraduate students work while they are in college. Most of these working students identify themselves as primarily students, but a substantial minority identify themselves as workers who take college classes. Working, at least part-time, is a necessity for many students who need to support themselves, especially if they also have a spouse and children. But working can restrict students’ opportunities to learn and negatively influence grades. One recent national study found that as the number of hours worked per week increased, grades suffered and the number of classes, class choice, and library access decreased. Other research has found that as the number of hours college students work increases, the more likely they are to drop out of college. Thus, college students need to carefully examine the number of hours they work and the extent the work is having a negative impact on their college success. For many students, the alternative to work is borrowing to pay for education. Borrowing can leave students with considerable debt, but working long hours reduces the amount of time students have for studying and can decrease the likelihood that these students will complete their college degree. In this segment, 21-year-old Joel and his wife, Andrea, also 21 years old, discuss how they balance work, school, and parenting. They have one child and are expecting a second one. Pre-Test 1. According to the information in your textbook, most of the college students who work are __________. a. men Incorrect. The profile of the working student is not characterized by gender. b. women Incorrect. The profile of the working student is not characterized by gender. c. principally students; their focus is on college with their identity as workers being secondary Correct. The majority identify themselves primarily as students. d. professionals with full-time jobs who take college courses. Incorrect. This is a substantial minority of working college students. Post-Test 1. Given Joel and Andrea’s description of their daily schedules, and given what your textbook tells you about the importance of a college education and the effects of working on college student success, which of the following would you advise them to do? a. consider taking out substantial student loans so that they can work fewer hours. Correct. Incurring debt is burdensome, but it is likely to pay off in the end. b. drop out of school and return when their children are in middle school or high school. Santrock, Adolescence, 16e

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Incorrect. Young parents who postpone their education usually do not catch up financially to those who completed their education at a young age. c. continue doing just what they are doing. Incorrect. Balancing work, school, and child care on such a full schedule is unlikely to lead to long-term success and satisfaction. d. drop out of school every other semester to work full-time, then return to school the following semester, then drop out again, etc. Incorrect. This pattern is unlikely to result in student success and satisfaction.

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CHAPTER 12: CULTURE INTRODUCTION Culture defines and maintains a context for a group to live harmoniously by guiding values and behavior. Differences between cultures often result from lack of understanding or acceptance of new ideas. Ethnicity and culture have increasingly become a focus of study in adolescent development. School and neighborhoods afford adolescents contact with people from varied cultural and ethnic backgrounds. Most people tend to prefer the culture with which they have become most familiar, and believe that their values are correct, appropriate for everyone, and worth taking a stand to uphold. Adolescents are no different. However, understanding differences between cultures makes it possible for everyone to overcome feelings of cultural defensiveness. Cross-cultural comparisons provide researchers with information concerning the degree to which adolescent development is universal or culture-specific. Much of the research has focused on the individualistic and collectivistic dichotomy. Individualistic societies emphasize personal goals, whereas collectivistic societies emphasize group goals. Compared to adolescents in other industrialized countries, U.S. adolescents have more discretionary time. Western industrialized countries lack formal rites of passage compared to developing countries. Socioeconomic status (SES) and poverty are aspects of culture that reflect limited prestige, occupational position, educational attainment, economic resources, and power. SES correlates highly with self-esteem, mental health, parenting styles, and behavior expectations. Adolescent behavior patterns that differ between SES include reading, television viewing, and academic preparation. Those from a low SES background are more at risk for depression, low self-confidence, peer conflict, and juvenile delinquency. Those from a high SES background are more at risk for substance abuse and have more internalizing and externalizing problems than middle-income teens. Poverty permeates the lives of children and adolescents. Nearly 20 percent of adolescents live in poverty in the United States, and these adolescents primarily represent minority groups. Poverty affects the following outcomes: • Poor health conditions, inadequate housing, and inconsistent health care. • Violent, unsupportive, and unhealthy neighborhoods. • Inconsistent employment and chronic unemployment. • Increased stress reactions Multi-element programs for parents and their children, with sustained intervention procedures, appear to be beneficial for parents and family health. Youths participating in academic remediation, community service, and life-skills training also show beneficial outcomes. High rates of immigration have resulted in the growing proportions of ethnic minorities living in the United States. Adolescence is an important time for ethnic minority youth to Santrock, Adolescence, 16e

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develop an ethnic identity and understand their place in the larger culture. Immigrants face multiple stressors including language barriers, dislocation and separation from networks, acculturation to an individualistic society, and changes in SES status. Adolescence can be particularly important for ethnic minorities as they struggle with awareness of negative appraisals, conflicting values, and restricted occupational opportunities. Research has confused issues of ethnicity and SES. Thus, results that were influenced largely by SES were attributed to ethnicity. Negative stereotypes prevail and influence ethnic minority adolescents from middle SES homes, in spite of their resources. Much research supports the idea that ethnic minorities still experience prejudice, discrimination, and bias even today. Prejudice and discrimination results in many negative outcomes impacting mental health status. Television and other forms of mass media have had a phenomenal influence on adolescent development during the last half of the twentieth century. The mass media provides entertainment, information, sensation, mechanism for coping, gender-role models, and youth culture. • Teens 15- to 18-years old spend 11:23 hours exposed to media compared to 7:51 hours for teens 8- to 10-years old. • There has been a dramatic increase in media multi-tasking • Adolescents watch progressively less television and listen to more music than children. • Adolescents attend to media in print more than children. • Gender, ethnicity, SES, and intelligence are correlated with patterns of mass media use. Screen time has been associated with interfering in reading time, providing unrealistic expectations for life, presenting stereotypical, increasing weight gain, and exaggerated images of minority characters, and modeling violent and aggressive behavior. Overexposure to sex and violence appear to be the two most disturbing aspects of television entertainment. Correlational studies link playing violent video games with aggression and delinquents. Playing prosocial video games is correlated with prosocial behaviors, visuospatial skills, and attention control. Alternatively, television allows adolescents to have a broader perspective of life. Technology, computers, and the Internet and cell phones represent an aspect of life that almost everyone agrees is a requirement for employment in our society. The Internet is the most popular tool for accessing current information. E-mail, chat rooms, blogs, and social media are the primary online attractions for adolescents. Using Facebook to establish new relationships is related to poorer social adjustment and loneliness. Using Facebook to maintain current relationships is related to good social adjustment and less loneliness. Another concern about Internet use is the exposure to pornography and cyberbullying. A special concern about cell phone texting is sexting. Parents should monitor their teens use of electronic media. The Carnegie Council recommends responsible use of technology, thus requiring parental and community involvement.

TOTAL TEACHING PACKAGE OUTLINE

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Chapter 12: Culture HEADING I. CULTURE, ADOLESCENCE, AND EMERGING ADULTHOOD

RESOURCE Learning Goal: 1 Lecture Topic: 12.1

The Relevance of Culture for the Study of Adolescence and Emerging Adulthood

Discussion Topic: 12.4 In-Class Activity: 12.1, 12.2 Critical Thinking Exercise: 12.1 Research Article: 12.2

Cross-Cultural Comparisons Individualism and Collectivism How Adolescents Around the World Spend Their Time

Images: 12-1 Lecture Topics: 12.1, 12.2 Discussion Topic: 12.3 In-Class Activity: 12.2 Research Article: 12.1 Essay Question: 1 Critical Thinking Exercise: 12.2 Short Scenario: 12.1

II.

III.

Rites of Passage

Lecture Topic: 12.3 Discussion Topic: 12.1 Essay Questions: 1, 2

SOCIOECONOMIC STATUS AND POVERTY

Learning Goal: 2 Discussion Topic: 12.4 Short Scenario: 12.2 Internet Activity: 12.1

What Is Socioeconomic Status?

Learning Objective: 6 Essay Question: 3

Socioeconomic Variations in Families, Neighborhoods, and Schools

Learning Objective: 6 Essay Question: 3 Short Scenario: 12.2 Research Article: 12.1

Poverty What Is Poverty Like? Countering Negative Effects of Low Income and Poverty

Image: 12-2 Discussion Topic: 12.5 Critical Thinking Exercise: 12.3 Essay Question: 3 Internet Activity: 12.2 Health and Well-Being Interlude: The Quantum Opportunities Program and El Puente

ETHNICITY Immigration Adolescence and Emerging Adulthood: A Special Juncture for Ethnic Minority Individuals

Learning Goal: 3 Discussion Topic: 12.3 Essay Question: 4, 5 Careers in Adolescent Development: Carola Suárez-Orozco, Lecturer, Researchers, and Co-Director of Immigration Projects

Ethnicity Issues

Essay Question: 4

Ethnicity and Socioeconomic Status Differences and Diversity

Essay Question: 5 Internet Activity: 12.1 Through the Eyes of Adolescents: Seeking a Positive Image for African American Youth

Prejudice, Discrimination, and Bias

Image: 12-3

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IV.

THE MEDIA/SCREEN TIME AND TECHNOLOGY

Learning Goal: 4 Research Project: 12.1 Essay Question: 6

Media /Screen Time

Images: 12-4 and 12-5 Short Scenario: 12.3 Research Project: 12.1 Essay Question: 6 Internet Activity 12.3

Television Television and Violence Video Games Television, Video Games and Sex Television and Achievement

Discussion Topic: 12.2 Image: 12-6 Research Project: 12.2 Essay Question: 7

The Media and Music

Essay Question: 8

Digitally Mediated Communication The Internet The Digitally Mediated Social Environment of Adolescents and Emerging Adults

Short Scenario: 12.3 Essay Question: 9

Social Policy and the Media

Lecture Topic: 12.4 Essay Question: 10

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SUGGESTED LECTURE TOPICS Topic 12.1—Individualism versus Collectivism A fundamental aspect of culture that differs between groups is collectivism and individualism. Northern European cultures tend to follow an individualist approach whereas Asian, African, and South American cultures lean toward the collectivist approach. Individualist cultures expect people to be self-reliant, to become independent of family members, to have personal goals, and to be high achievers for their own purposes. Individualists do not depend on family members to open doors for them, but they do expect to be rewarded for expressing their opinions and doing what they personally believe is right. Individualists are not likely to divulge private information, and are not likely to be comfortable with someone other than a best friend giving private information to them. Individualists do not expect to give extensive amounts of time to benefit the group, but will work hard for results that benefit themselves. Collectivist cultures place a great deal of value on acceptance and support by the group. Collectivists expect to remain closely affiliated with immediate and extended family. Family members are expected to help pave the way for accomplishment because personal accomplishment benefits the group. Psychological closeness is achieved by openly expressing support for opinions and feelings that reflect those of the group. Children and adolescents study to reach their highest potential, and adults work hard for the company, and ultimately to benefit the group. Members of the group play down their individual goals, and place time and energy in activities that benefit the group. Members share ideas, materials, and personal resources in order to benefit the group. Individualism and collectivism appear to have inverse costs and benefits to self-esteem for individuals in each culture. Researchers tend to agree that the direct effect of collectivism produces, among other things, greater self-effacement, modesty, lack of choice, and pessimism. The benefits include connectedness to family and greater self-liking provided the individual is able to conform to expectations. Individualists, on the other hand, experience personal autonomy in decisions and choice in behavioral investment, with fewer long-term consequences for failure. The emphasis on personal goals, however, leads to friction between members of a group as personal goals take precedence over the expectations of others. Thus, careful regard for group versus individual consequences may require consideration before embracing a perspective dominated by either individualism or collectivism. References Brislin, R. W. 1994. “Individualism and Collectivism as the Source of Many Specific Cultural differences.” In R. W. Brislin and T. Yoshida, Eds., Improving Intercultural Interactions. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc., pp. 71–88. Tafarodi, R W., Lang, J. M., and Smith, A. J. 1999. “Self-esteem and the Cultural Trade-off: Evidence for the Role of Individualism-collectivism,” Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology 30, pp. 620–640. Tafarodi, R. W. and Swann, W. B. 1996. “Individualism-collectivism and Global Self-esteem: Evidence for a Cultural Trade-off,” Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology 27, pp. 651–672.

Topic 12.2—The Development of Culture and Adolescent Development Santrock, Adolescence, 16e

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In 1970, anthropologist Margaret Mead published a book aimed at trying to explain whether there was a generation gap between adolescents and adults in the United States. You probably will not want to lecture on the whole book, but you may find it useful to talk about Mead’s idea that the degree of conflict between generations may depend on the state of flux or transition typical of a culture. Mead’s ideas offer a way to show how cultural values may be involved in decisions researchers make about the optimal conditions of development and desirable developmental outcomes. Mead proposed three cultural states: postfigurative, cofigurative, and prefigurative. Consult her book for a full account of these cultural states. Briefly, postfigurative cultures are very traditional cultures that have not changed for many generations (e.g., the Amish); cofigurative cultures are those in competition with another, dominating culture, and losing (e.g., immigrant cultures); and prefigurative cultures are those in which indigenous change is the rule rather than maintenance of any sort of cultural status quo (e.g., modern United States). Mead believed generation gaps were most likely to be prevalent in the latter two cultural types. You can explore several issues against the backdrop of Mead’s idea, aside from the generation gap issue. For example, what light does this analysis shed on the predicament of ethnic minorities? What does it explain about relations between generations? About preparing adolescents for future worlds of work? What does it suggest about the nature of optimal parenting strategies? About the nature of optimal identity outcomes? Use this material as a platform from which to re-examine both issues you have already covered in the course from a cultural perspective, and to preview material you have yet to cover. References Mead, M. 1970. Culture and Commitment. San Francisco: Natural History Press. Mead, M. 1935. Sex and Temperament in Three Primitive Societies. New York: Morrow.

Topic 12.3—Psychosocial Maturity Greenberger and Sorenson published a paper on the concept of psychosocial maturity that ties in nicely with many themes of Santrock’s treatment of culture. The material is too vast for a single lecture, but you may wish to present the specific aspects of psychosocial maturity that Greenberger and Sorenson identified, and discuss this vis-à-vis the motivation to study cultural influences on adolescence as well the details of those cultural influences. Greenberger and Sorenson’s model is also a good framework within which to discuss the idea of adolescence and what it means to achieve adulthood. The authors suggest there are three areas of psychosocial maturity. Consider making a handout of these for your students, discussing with them how each of these areas relates to what they have already learned in the course about adolescent development, and what they are now learning in the course about cultural influences on adolescent development. Individual Adequacy •

Self-reliance ➢ absence of excessive need for social validation

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➢ sense of control ➢ initiative • Identity ➢ clarity of self-concept ➢ consideration of life goals ➢ self-esteem ➢ internalized values • Work orientation ➢ standards of competence ➢ pleasure in work ➢ general work skills Interpersonal Adequacy •

Communication skills ➢ ability to encode messages ➢ ability to decode messages ➢ empathy • Enlightened trust ➢ rational dependence ➢ rejection of simplistic view of human nature ➢ awareness of constraints on trustworthiness • Knowledge of major roles ➢ role-appropriate behavior ➢ management of role conflict Social Adequacy •

•

Social Commitment ➢ feelings of community ➢ willingness to work for social goals ➢ readiness to form alliances ➢ interest in long-term social goals Openness to sociopolitical change ➢ general openness to change ➢ recognition of costs of status quo ➢ recognition of costs of change Tolerance of individual and cultural differences ➢ willingness to interact with people who differ from the norm ➢ sensitivity to the rights of people who differ from the norm ➢ awareness of costs and benefits of tolerance

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Reference Greenberger, E., and Sorenson, A. N. 1974. “Toward a Concept of Psychosocial Maturity,” Journal of Youth and Adolescence 3, pp. 329–558.

Topic 12.4—Video Games and Violence The video game industry is one of the fastest-growing media industries, with sales increasing from $3.2 billion in 1995 to $7 billion in 2003. At the same time, video games have become more violent in nature and realistic in their presentation of that violence. “Shooter games” have become very popular with adolescents in the last decade (Smith et al., 2004). In a laboratory setting, correlational research has found that playing violent video games is related to an increase in aggressive behavior (Sherry, 2001). Does the violence that adolescents and children engage in while playing a video game lead to violence at home or in school? Interestingly, according to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, youth violence has been decreasing. Homicide rates among youths dropped substantially in the 1990s, from 20.5 to 11.7 per 100,000 for middle and late teenagers, and from 2.5 to 1.5 per 100,000 for early teens. However, recent school shootings by adolescents have gotten the attention of the media and have raised concerns in parents and lawmakers about the impact of violent video games. As a result, several states have enacted laws that limit sales of violent video games to minors. The impact of violent video games on the behavior of adolescents has become a topic of increasing interest to researchers. In 2001, the National Science Foundation gave grants totaling $5 million to four universities (Georgetown; the University of Texas at Austin; the University of California, Los Angeles; and Northwestern University, Evanston, Ill.) to study the impact of media on adolescents and children. One of the largest studies recently conducted to investigate the impact of video games surveyed 600 seventh- and eighth-graders and found large gender differences in usage. Boys played video games nearly three times as many hours per week as girls (boys: 13 hours; girls five hours). In addition, one-half of those boys surveyed preferred violent video games, while only 20 percent of the girls showed this preference. This study found a significant correlation between aggressive behavior and violent video game usage and between aggressive behavior and parental involvement in purchasing and playing games. Adolescents of parents who set limits on their behavior in respect to purchasing and playing video games showed less aggressive behavior (Gentile, 2004). References Gentile, D. A., Lynch, P. J., Linder, J. R., and Walsh, D. A. 2004. “The Effect of Violent Video Game Habits on Adolescent Hostility, Aggressive Behaviors and School Performance,” Journal of Adolescence 27(1), pp. 5-23. Sherry, J. 2001. “The Effects of Violent Video Games on Aggression: a Meta-analysis,” Human Communications Research 27(3), pp. 409-431. Smith, S. L., Lachlan, K., Pieper, K. M., Boyson, A. R., Wilson, B. J., Tamborini, R., and Weber, R. 2004. “Brandishing Guns in American Media: Two Studies Examining how Often and in What Context Firearms Appear on Television and in Popular Video Games,” Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media 48(4), pp. 584-606. Santrock, Adolescence, 16e

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Discussion Topics Discussion 12.1—Rites of Passage Rites of passage are always a popular topic in material on culture and in class discussions. Define the concept for your class and give some examples from the anthropological literature. For example, activities associated with rites of passage are designed to both notify the community that the individual is no longer a child and to prepare the youth for adulthood. Teaching youths about the behavioral expectations and rules of conduct traditionally has been the responsibility of the community. Ask your class if they think rites of passage exist in American culture. Some students may suggest the possibilities listed in Adolescence. Challenge them to think of others and to discuss whether Santrock’s and their own examples fit the definition of rites of passage. If your class concludes that there really is nothing like a universal American rite of passage, discuss the meaning or significance of its absence in American adolescents’ lives. References Kett, J. F. 1977. Rites of Passage: Adolescence in America 1970 to the Present. New York: Basic Books, Inc. Newton, M. 1995. Adolescence: Guiding Youth Through the Perilous ordeal. New York: W.W. Norton & Co.

Discussion 12.2—Television Violence Violence on television, cable television, films at the theater, video games, and popular music generate a great deal of discussion by parents, educators, and Congress. Difficulties in determining just how much influence media violence has on our population and rights to personal freedoms have influenced decision makers to take a hands-off approach to regulations. Numerous studies provide very interesting points for discussion: • • •

• • • •

The more hours that students watch television, the lower their scores on standardized tests (California Assessment Program, 1980). Parents heavily influence the type and length of television viewing (St. Peters, Fitch, Huston, Wright, & Eakins, 1991). The greatest amount of television violence occurs between 6:00 A.M. and 9:00 A.M. and between 2:00 P.M. and 5:00 P.M., when children are most likely to be watching (Donnerstein, Slaby, & Eron, 1994). A good predictor of the aggressiveness a 19-year-old will demonstrate is the level of violence in the programs he watched at age 8 (Eron, 1987). “Aggressive children prefer violent television, and the violence on television causes them to be more aggressive” (Eron, 1987, p. 438). In Canada and the United States, the homicide rate increased by 200 to 300 percent—10 to 15 years after the introduction of television (Centerwall, 1989). Prolonged and repeated exposure to violence lowers observer’s negative emotional reactions to the material (Linz, Donnerstein, & Penrod, 1984).

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References Bandura, A., Ross, D., and Ross, S. 1963.“Imitation of Film-mediated Aggressive Models,” Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology 66, pp. 3–11. California Assessment Program 1980. Student Achievement in California Schools. 1979–1980 Annual Report: Television and Student Achievement. Sacramento: California State Department of Education. Centerwall, B. S. 1989. “Exposure to Television as a Cause of Violence.” In G. Comstock, Ed., Public Communication and Behavior. San Diego: Academic Press, pp. 1–58. Centerwall, B. S. 1992. “Television and Violence: The Scale of the Problem and Where to go From Here,” Journal of the American Medical Association 267, pp. 3059–3063. Donnerstein, E., Slaby, R. G., & Eron, L. D. 1994. “The mass media and youth aggression.” In L. D. Eron, J. H. Gentry, & P. Schlegel, Eds., Reason to hope: A psychosocial perspective on violence and youth. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association, pp. 219–250. Eron, L. D. 1987. The Development of Aggressive Behavior From the Perspective of a Developing Behaviorism,” American Psychologist 42, pp. 435–442. Linz, D., Donnerstein, E., and Penrod, S. 1984. “Effects of Long-term Exposure to Violent and Sexually Degrading Depictions of Women,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 55, pp. 758–768. St. Peters, M., Fitch, M., Huston, A. C., Wright, J. C., and Eakins, D. J. 1991. “Television and Families: What do Young Children Watch with Their Parents?” Child Development 62, pp. 1409–1423.

Discussion 12.3—Panel Discussion: Reports from the Homeland Locate students and/or faculty on your campus from other cultures and arrange for them to hold a panel discussion before your class. Have them prepare answers to a series of common questions that they can address in whatever format you or your students find most comfortable. Some of the questions [Ms. Zaun used] are: 1. What types of foods are popular in your country? 2. What do teens typically do on the weekends and in the summer? 3. Why did you choose to come to the United States? If you have a chance to come back after you leave, will you? Why or why not? 4. What was your image of the United States before you came? How has it changed? 5. What part of the American culture can you relate to best? What is the biggest difference between the United States and your country? Reference Zaun, A. 1996. Cited in Kenniston, A., and Peden, B. Instructor’s Manual to accompany Adolescence, 6th ed., by J. Santrock. Boston: McGraw-Hill.

Discussion 12.4—Cultural Continuity Versus Cultural Discontinuity Introduce Ruth Benedict’s classic concept of cultural continuity versus cultural discontinuity. (Margaret Mead worked extensively with Benedict.) Then ask the class to discuss whether adolescents experience a continuous or discontinuous transition from adolescence to adulthood Santrock, Adolescence, 16e

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in the contemporary United States. Include in your discussion the possibility of social class, gender, and ethnic variations in the degree to which the transition is continuous or discontinuous. Reference Benedict, R. 1938. “Continuities and Discontinuities in Cultural Conditioning,” Psychiatry 1, pp. 161– 167.

Discussion 12.5—Welfare Invite a social worker from the Department of Human Services in your city to come and talk to the class about poverty and the welfare system. They can discuss the impact of welfare reform on families, the services available to needy families, and problems with the welfare system. The class can prepare questions for the speaker before the visit. Internet Activity 12.2 can help students prepare questions. Listed below are a few sample questions. 1. Describe the services such as food stamps, child care assistance, cash assistance, and energy assistance available to needy families. 2. How do families apply for assistance? Is assistance given on a sliding scale so families gradually lose assistance as their income from wages increases, or does assistance stop abruptly at a certain income level? 3. What kind of employment training is available? 4. Are women given help from the state to get child support payments? 5. What has been the impact of welfare reform? Has it been positive or negative?

In-Class Activities Activity 12.1—Individualism-Collectivism Orientation As adolescents experience increased ethnic diversity in school and community settings, they may find that their friends’ values about revealing personal information or resisting parental authority don’t match their own. Answer the following questionnaire. A student handout is available for this activity at the end of this manual. QUESTIONNAIRE Answer the following questions about your behavior at school and in the community. Strongly agree 5

Agree 4

Not sure 3

Disagree 2

I would offer my seat to one of my teachers in a crowded waiting room.

I prefer to explain openly how I feel about things.

I enjoy developing friendships with other students with whom I attend classes.

I am unassuming when I talk about things I have done.

I feel uncomfortable giving compliments to teachers from whom I will receive a grade.

If I want some help with homework, I explain that my parents are very demanding.

I prefer to tell a small lie about my opinions to save someone’s feelings or embarrassment.

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I can tell someone “No” when it is necessary.

To encourage participation in a school activity, I would let people know there is a door prize.

10.

I like being open and personal with students I know from class.

11.

It is important to be tight with a group of friends that I can count on in a fix.

12.

I like feeling that I have equal status with any of the popular kids.

13.

I appreciate the work and time that teachers put forth for students.

14.

If I have encouraged someone to get something done, I try to point out the benefits to the larger group of students.

Imagine yourself working with students from one of the following countries on a class project: Japan Taiwan

Mexico Peru

Brazil Venezuela

Greece India

Thailand Argentina

Hong Kong Philippines

Answer the 14 questions again with the foreign students in your group as you do this project for their country. Think about living there for a long time and wanting to have an enjoyable and worthwhile educational experience while you are there. Go through the questions again and rate your response (5–1) to each of them. Be sure to keep the first responses clearly identified from the second responses. Scoring Score the difference between the answers from the first pass and the second pass. Question Number 1. Give yourself a point if your number in the second pass is higher than the number in the first pass. 2. Give yourself a point if your number in the second pass is lower than the number in the first pass. 3. A point if the number is higher in the second pass. 4. A point if the number is higher in the second pass. 5. A point if the number is lower in the second pass. 6. A point if the number is higher in the second pass. 7. A point if the number is higher in the second pass. 8. A point if the number is lower in the second pass. 9. A point if the number is lower in the second pass. 10. A point if the number is higher in the second pass. 11. A point if the number is lower in the second pass. 12. A point if the number is lower in the second pass. 13. A point if the number is higher in the second pass. 14. A point if the number is higher in the second pass.

Students who scored six or more points are likely to understand the concepts of individualism and collectivism. It tends to help students be successful in cross-cultural educational, work, or community settings if they understand the emphasis on these two types of cultural orientation. Reference Brislin, R. W. 1994. “Individualism and Collectivism as the Source of Many Specific Cultural Differences.” In R. W. Brislin and T. Yoshida, Eds., Improving Intercultural Interactions. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc., pp. 71–88.

Activity 12.2—Cultural Differences in Achievement Motivation A way to illustrate how researchers have studied cultural differences in achievement motivation and cooperative versus competitive behavior is to expose your students to then apparatus and procedure Madsen used to study these attributes in Mexican village children and American children. The apparatus is easy to assemble. Tape a sheet of paper to a rectangular board. Screw

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an eyebolt into each corner of the board and put a piece of string through each eyebolt. Attach all four pieces of string to an empty sewing thread spool, and insert a sharp pencil through the spool. Four students participate in the experiment, each holding one of the pieces of string. Write each student’s name within separate circles on the piece of paper on the board. In the cooperation condition, all students receive a quarter if each student puts a pencil mark in each circle on the paper. In the competition condition, the student who places the most pencil marks in the circle with his or her name in it receives a quarter. How will your students perform? Find out, and then tell them that Mexican children showed more cooperation in the competition condition of the experiment than did American children. Discuss the students’ experience, both in the class and in their lives, and relate that to results from the Mexican children. If you happen to have students from other cultures in your class, be sure to get their input in the discussion. You may also want to include material from Urie Bronfenbrenner’s Two Worlds of Childhood: U.S. and U.S.S.R. about cooperation and competition among children, and the social structures and circumstances that either promote or inhibit cooperation and competition in these countries. Reference Walraven, M. G. 1993. Instructor’s Course Planner to accompany Adolescence, 5th ed., by J. Santrock. Dubuque: Brown and Benchmark, Publishers.

Critical Thinking Exercises Exercise 12.1—Exploring Culture through Ecological Theory Bronfenbrenner’s ecological theory is an excellent model for analyzing cultural influences on adolescence. However, practice is needed to accurately identify examples of the different systems specified by the theory. Which of the following correctly represents a system paired with a specific claim or finding from studies of culture’s influence on adolescence? Circle the letter of the best answer, explain why it is the best answer, and explain why each of the other answers is not as appropriate. A. Chronosystem: In comparison to the Ines Beag culture, the Mangaian culture allows adolescents much freedom to express their sexuality. B. Microsystem: Japanese adolescents spend 69 more days in school each year than American adolescents do. C. Exosystem: Students whose mothers graduated from college spend more time reading than students whose mothers did not graduate from college. D. Macrosystem: Low-income adolescents whose parents make sacrifices to provide necessary living conditions perform well in school compared to those whose parents do not do so. E. Mesosystem: Children who watch violent television shows tend to be more aggressive in play with their peers. Exercise 12.2— Individualism and Collectivism Santrock, Adolescence, 16e

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In Chapter 12, Santrock discusses individualism and collectivism. Which values below represent those held by individualistic societies, and which represent those held by collectivist societies? For each letter, specify which society holds that value and explain why. A. personal choice D. oriented toward the group B. respect and obedience E. oriented toward self C. self-esteem Exercise 12.3—Poverty In the section of Chapter 12 identified as “Poverty,” Santrock discusses the adverse conditions that youth in poverty experience daily. Santrock alludes to an assumption in contemporary thinking throughout this discussion. Which of the following statements represents this assumption, rather than an inference or an observation? Circle the letter of the best answer, explain why it is the best answer, and explain why each of the other answers is not as appropriate. A. The percentage of adolescents living in poverty in the United States is higher than in other countries. B. The psychological ramifications of poverty based on powerlessness and vulnerability have long-lasting negative effects. C. Two-generational programs have positive effects on parents but are not as beneficial for children. D. Youth-centered programs that emphasize healthy educational achievement and personal-social growth improve the lives of adolescent participants. E. Changing the outcomes of low-income children and adolescents will eradicate poverty.

Answer Key for Critical Thinking Exercises Exercise 12.1 A.

This is not the best answer. The comparison involves the influence of macrosystems on adolescent lives. In this case the variable is culture, and the influence is specific cultural proscriptions and prescriptions concerning acceptable and desirable sexual behavior.

This is not the best answer. This is a statement contrasting an aspect of Japanese culture and American culture, and therefore it is a statement about the macroculture of Japan.

This is not the best answer. This fact appears best described as a chronosystem, because mothers’ attendance or nonattendance at college occurred well before adolescents became involved in reading. If the information concerned mothers attending college during their children’s adolescence, it would be an exosystem (with respect to the adolescents).

This is not the best answer. This statement indicates that the quality of life in one microsystem (home) influences the quality of performance in another (school). This statement is about a mesosystem.

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This is the best answer. Exposure to an experience in one setting (microsystem) appears to influence children’s behavior in another setting. This is an example of a mesosystem.

Exercise 12.2 A.

Individualism. These societies believe personal choice is important so that children and adolescents develop autonomy.

Collectivism. These societies value respect and obedience in children and adolescents.

Individualism. These societies believe self-esteem is important so that children and adolescents develop autonomy.

Collectivism. These societies give priority to the larger group and the integrity of the group.

Individualism. These societies give priority to personal goals rather than group goals.

Exercise 12.3 A.

This is an observation. Santrock explains that 17 percent of adolescents in the United States live in poverty compared to 9 percent in Canada and 2 percent in Sweden.

This is an inference. Several arguments about the psychological effects of poverty are presented, including limited choice or control over jobs and life events. The explanations are not accompanied by data that explain the relative impact of these factors compared to middle-class youth, for example.

This is an inference. The positive outcomes of the two-generation programs are greater for parents than children, but quantitative effects of the program are not specified.

This is an observation. The Quantum program provides direct monetary reward for participation and the mentored students demonstrate a graduate rate twice that of nonparticipants.

This is the best answer. The assumption is that the factors that lead to poverty can be corrected and that poverty can be alleviated.

Short Scenarios Scenario 12.1 Sheila and Rayetta have been best friends since grade school. They grew up next door to each other in a condominium complex. Sheila’s family is predominantly of African American heritage and Rayetta’s is Northern European. They work hard in school, play in the band, and like to socialize with a group of smart, fun-loving friends from school. If it weren’t for their parents, Sheila and Rayetta would probably spend a lot more time goofing around. Through the years they have had a number of uncomfortable experiences at school and in the community, but they have learned a lot from them. For example, store owners may be rude to one or the other, or both Santrock, Adolescence, 16e

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depending on the owner’s ethnic background. Some retail people try to change the way they talk or the mannerisms they use depending on who is being addressed. Others don’t seem to know what to do. New kids at school have some interesting reactions too. Some are openly critical of their friendship, but others seem to be comfortable with their diversity. They continue as best friends through it all. Sheila and Rayetta have learned about and respect each other’s family values and traditions, and they see themselves as very much alike. • Sheila and Rayetta were in the position since childhood to learn about each other’s family culture. • Sheila and Rayetta are living in the same socioeconomic environment with parents who share similar values for their daughters’ academic achievement. • The girls were likely to have experienced cultural clashes as a result of their contact with settings that were predominantly influenced by either the African American or Caucasian culture. • Both girls are growing up in an individualistic society. • Sheila and Rayetta spend their time engaged in the activities of typical U.S. adolescents. Scenario 12.2 Josh is having an unusual moment of solitude while everyone else in the family is at the park. A baby is crying in one of the nearby apartments, but there is no indication of fighting. Josh wonders how he got so lucky. In spite of the fact that he never knew his dad, his mom, Tonya, and grandmother did an amazing job of taking care of him until he was able to do things for himself. His mom, Tonya, never had it easy. Tonya started supporting her mom when she was 16 because her dad died as a young man and her mother started having health problems. Tonya barely finished high school before she had Josh. Josh’s dad was killed in an accident as a young man. Tonya has worked at hotels and restaurants with few benefits and very long hours. She and his grandmother always kept after the other youngsters. His grandmother took them to public health services when they needed shots or medicine, waiting patiently, but always made sure they got what they needed. She was the model of good manners and persistence. His mom always made sure their clothes were clean and pressed. Tonya and his grandmother both monitored his TV time, homework, and friends. They helped him figure out tactful ways to deal with the gang members, and he was fortunate to be able to talk his way out of things and remain “friends.” He did well in school and now has an academic scholarship to attend UCLA. He has decided on a major in public relations. • •

•

Josh is the son of a single mother living in a two-generation family with his grandmother and siblings. Josh’s mother has experienced marginal economic conditions resulting from early family responsibilities, having children at a young age, foregoing college, singleparenthood, and low-paying jobs. The cooperative parenting by Josh’s mother and grandmother provided him with stable physical care and emotional support that he and his siblings required.

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• • •

Tonya and her mother put the requirements of the children above more self-centered activities by establishing clear academic and personal-social expectations of Josh. Both adults served as effective role models for good social skills and personal discipline. The combined influence of social skills, high intelligence, and the personal support by his mother and grandmother influenced Josh’s resilient personality.

Scenario 12.3 Nate, Mike, and their dad, Keith, are having a great discussion about the new CD Mike just purchased. Keith is perplexed at the “new sound” and laughs because he doesn’t understand the fascination. No matter. He and the boys enjoy sharing all the latest technology by purchasing and using it or discussing something they recently read. They watch less television and have music playing almost constantly when the teenagers are home. The family has gradually increased the number of computers in the family office to three, but their younger sister Erin is the only person who really uses the oldest one. Everyone enjoys competing to achieve the best performance on new computer games, but Mike usually wins. Nate likes to chat with other science fiction buffs online about the latest books. Keith works long hours on homework for the MBA he’s adding to his professional degree, collaborating with classmates on joint projects. Erin does not feel very comfortable with the machines and fiddles around occasionally. Both Nate and Mike plan to include computer science as part of their academic work in college. • • •

•

• •

Nate and Mike are demonstrating a typical increased interest in technology, music, and CDs. As television viewing declines, the average time that adolescents listen to music increases four to six hours per day. Keith may be guarding against the potential problems associated with the mass media and computers by maintaining discussions with the boys and keeping the computers in a central location in the home. The interest and knowledge that Nate and Mike demonstrate in computers and the Internet seem typical of males. In general, Nate and Mike, as males, would be more likely to own and use a computer than Erin, their sister. About 40 percent of youths go online to connect with a chat room. Like 82 percent of their peers, Nate and Mike believe that computer skills will be an important part of their livelihood.

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RESEARCH ARTICLES Article 12.1—Cross-Cultural Study of Family Adolescent socialization and competence are two goals commonly shared by parents across cultures. Two groups influential in achieving these goals are parents and peers, with either or both of them identified as prominent contributors to behavior misconduct. Correlates between adolescents and parents appear to be parenting style and level of conflict. Peers influence adolescents through peer norms and approval for misconduct, depending on age and degree of peer conformity. Research has led to the conclusion that combined family and peer factors influence deviant and antisocial behavior. In a cross-cultural context, different patterns of socialization and collectivism or individualism appear. Asian and African youths demonstrate interdependence and self-control or internalizing tendencies whereas European and American youth demonstrate individualism and independence or externalizing behavior. The current study examined cross-cultural similarities between adolescent conduct and factors related to family and peer influence. The four research questions were: 1. What cultural similarities and differences can be identified in the misconduct demonstrated by youths across cultures? 2. Do families of dissimilar cultures provide differing levels of protection following misconduct? 3. Do families and peers across cultures have the same level of influence over misconduct? 4. Do peers affect family influence on misconduct? Subjects included 591 seventh- and eighth-graders from middle-class families including 114 European Americans, 136 Chinese Americans, 155 Chinese in Taipei, Taiwan, and 186 Chinese in Beijing, China (p. 772). Middle-class youths were chosen based on the likelihood that those families would maintain preferred cultural practices. Data were collected from a representative sample of 405 mothers. Data were collected in junior high schools. Participants received questionnaires about the behavior they demonstrate, their attitudes, and their perceptions of parental and peer attitudes. The measures included the following scales: •

• •

Misconduct. The misconduct scale included three subscales that measured school misconduct (e.g., cheating, skipping school); antisocial behaviors (e.g., fighting, damaging property); and status-violating behavior (e.g., smoking, drinking alcohol). Parent-adolescent conflict. The frequency of arguments or fights with parents during the past month was identified with an eight-item five-point scale. Parental warmth. Adolescents rated level of acceptance and nurturing on a six-point scale.

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•

Perceived peer approval of misconduct. The perceived acceptance of behavior such as talking back to the teacher, cheating, or thrill seeking was measured on a sevenpoint scale. Perceived peer disapproval of misconduct. The perceived unacceptability of behavior such as lying to parents, cheating, or smoking, was assessed to determine if students perceived others as thinking badly of them.

The results were not as distinct between cultures as the experimenters expected. In the area of misconduct, adolescents from each setting reported engaging in some form of misconduct less than once in the previous year. An analysis of the subscales indicated that group differences did occur in the area of status-violating behavior. European Americans and Beijing Chinese scored higher on status violating than did Chinese American and Taipei Chinese. Males reported significantly more misconduct with notable differences occurring between antisocial behavior and school misconduct. Family and peer correlates to misconduct showed significant differences cross-culturally. The average levels of conflict between parent-adolescent pairs and peer approval for misconduct were higher for European American than for Chinese adolescents in Beijing and Taipei. Chinese American adolescents demonstrated a level of behavior between the European American and other two Chinese groups. Disapproval by peer groups was reportedly higher for the two Chinese groups than European and Chinese Americans. European American adolescents reported higher levels of parental warmth and monitoring than did the other groups. Across all four groups, gender differences were significant for males reporting higher parental monitoring and peer approval, and lower levels of peer disapproval. Monitoring levels reported by mothers were highest for European Americans, with Chinese American, Beijing Chinese, and Taipei mothers reporting the lowest levels of monitoring. All four groups of adolescents reported behavior patterns that were consistent with reports of risk factors and protective factors. The results showed that family relationships and peer sanctions for misconduct explained over 50 percent of the differences in adolescent behavior by European and Chinese Americans. Family relationship and peer sanctions explained about 20 percent of the variance in behavior for Taipei and Beijing Chinese. The most important explanation for the differences between the two American and two Chinese groups is the correlation between peer sanctions and adolescent misconduct. The results indicate very similar effects of parent and peer relationships on outcomes for adolescents across the four settings. Although differences between groups were small, the data show clearly different cultural influences by family and peers between the American and Chinese cultures. Chinese Americans demonstrated moderate levels of risk, suggesting that family relationships had both a direct and mediated effect on relationships with peers. The authors suggest that groups in cultural transition benefit from maintaining non-conflictual, communicative relationships with their children. Reference Chen, C., Greenberger, E., Dong, Q., Lester, J., and Guo, M. 1998. “A Cross-cultural Study of Family and Peer Correlates of Adolescent Misconduct,” Developmental Psychology 34, pp. 770–781. Santrock, Adolescence, 16e

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Article 12.2—Parent-Adolescent Conflict and Cohesion The change in parent-adolescent relations is a recognized aspect of adolescent development. Adolescents become more interested in establishing a sense of autonomy, more willing to openly disagree with their parents, increasingly interested in peer affiliation, and consequently more willing to push for changes in daily routines than in childhood. In spite of the potential for serious conflict, most parents and adolescents avoid destructive interaction patterns. Most developmentalists believe that it is healthy for adolescents to establish some independence while still under the supervision of parents. This paper investigated the degree to which adolescent efforts for independence resemble each other cross-culturally. Collectivist cultures are believed to respect the authority of parents and to discourage individual autonomy. Three large immigrant groups in the United States, with Mexican, Chinese, and Filipino backgrounds, follow the collectivism approach to family and commitment. Limited research actually documents family patterns in these groups to determine whether increased family commitment is correlated with decreased conflict and emotional distancing. Fuligni hypothesized that cultural belief systems actually influence adolescent behavior, as the adolescent becomes increasingly aware of them. 1. Cultural valuation of autonomy may influence adolescents’ beliefs about parental authority. 2. Adolescent regard for parental authority or cultural values may affect their willingness to claim independence. 3. The relative value of autonomy and parental authority provide guidance for the age at which parental control is relinquished. Students participating in the study attended tenth grade at two high schools, and sixth and eighth grade at two middle schools in California. About 1,340 students representing 84 percent of students enrolled participated in the study. Students completed self-report questionnaires given to them during social studies classes. Students indicated their ethnic background and where they and their parents were born. Students were classified as first (neither student nor parents born in the United States), second (at least one parent not born in the United States), or third generation or greater (student and parents born in the United States). Other characteristics of the group indicated that a majority of Mexican, Chinese, and Filipino students had immigrant parents; first-generation adolescents averaged age seven when they arrived in the United States. A larger percentage of Chinese and Filipino students than Mexican and European American students had mothers who worked outside the home; Filipino mothers held the highest status jobs. In the area of Beliefs and Expectations about Authority and Autonomy, three subscales included acceptability of disagreement with parents (openly arguing with either parent), endorsement of parental authority (disagreements over dating, curfew, friends), and expectations for behavioral autonomy (age at which limits are removed). In the area of Perceived Conflict and Cohesion with Parents, subscales included conflict (perception of conflict) and cohesion (warmth, support).

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The results were based on both cross-sectional and longitudinal data. A series of multifactor analyses of variance were completed to assess (a) ethnic affiliation, age, and gender; (b) differences between adolescents based on generational status; and (c) generational differences in relation to ethnic differences. The large sample size for the cross-sectional analysis allowed for results to be considered significant at the p < .01 level. The longitudinal data were consistent with crosssectional data in the area of grade differences at the p < .05 level of significance. Socioeconomic background, based on parents’ education and occupation, was not associated with beliefs and reports on parental relationships. Controlling for parents’ marital status did not influence the results of the study, and marital status did not interact with ethnicity. Overall, adolescents whose biological parents were separated demonstrated a greater willingness to disagree with their fathers and showed less cohesion with their fathers. Adolescents from Mexican, Chinese, and Filipino backgrounds, with traditionally collectivist cultures, reported beliefs and expectations consistent with greater parent authority. These adolescents expected to attain autonomy at a later age. Filipino students were less willing to disagree with their mothers, and Filipino and Mexican youth were less willing to disagree with their fathers compared with European American students. Chinese students expected to achieve autonomy at much later points in time. All four groups had similar expectations about parents’ authority to make rules about various aspects of their lives. Gender differences appeared as girls expected autonomy at a later age than did boys. Developmental trends were evident across the four groups. Students in tenth grade were more willing to disagree with both mothers and fathers than were younger adolescents. Older adolescents from all ethnic backgrounds reported less cohesion with mothers and fathers than did younger students. Students from second- or third-generation families were more willing to disagree with their parents than were first-generation students. Foreign-born adolescents expected later autonomy. First-generation adolescents were influenced by the age at which they had immigrated to the United States in expectations for autonomy. The younger the adolescent at the time of emigration, the earlier the youth expected autonomy. Overall, youths with non-European backgrounds were more likely to express beliefs and expectations consistent with respect for the authority of parents. European American youths placed more emphasis on individual autonomy. Youths with Filipino and Mexican backgrounds indicated less willingness to openly disagree with or contradict parents. Chinese students believed they would have the opportunity to participate in autonomous activities at a later age that did European American youths. As age of emigration decreased and generational categorization increased, adolescents reported increasingly similar beliefs about autonomy as those expressed by European American adolescents. Reference Fuligni, A. J. 1998. “Authority, Autonomy, and Parent-adolescent Conflict and Cohesion: A Study of Adolescents for Mexican, Chinese, Filipino, and European Backgrounds,” Developmental Psychology 34, pp. 782–792.

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STUDENT RESEARCH PROJECTS Research Project 12.1—Cross Cultural Portrayals of Adolescents in Magazines Objective. Upon completion of this project, students will be able to identify the influence of printed media on cultural standards of physical appearance and behavior. Type/Length of Activity. Out-of-class activity; variable. Directions. Begin this project by obtaining permission from the university human rights committee to conduct interviews with high school or college students. Identify 10 or 12 pictures from teen or young adult magazines, divided equally between males and females, and between two distinctly different cultures. Cultures may be from the United States, or from two different countries. Mount the pictures on separate poster board pages or manila folders in order to handle and display them easily. Ask interviewees to evaluate how well advertisements depict adolescents in each of the following categories: physical appearance, body message, clothes, facial expressions, personality, intelligence, activities, verbal comments, and sexuality. Prepare questions to help the interviewee get started. For example: • Do you think this adolescent pictured is attractive/unattractive? • Do you think this is typical ____________? • Does the person appear to be happy/sad/angry? • Do you think this adolescent is like yourself? Like your friends? After looking at all of the pictures, ask interviewees to rank them from most to least attractive, most like to least like him- or herself, and most to least typical of adolescents in the culture. Record the responses of interviewees. (You may distribute a sample data sheet at the end of the Instructor’s Manual to help students organize the information or suggest an approach to designing their own.) After interviews are complete, summarize the responses by picture and answering the following questions. • • •

Are the sexes and cultures depicted similarly in the advertisements? Are characteristics represented equally for each sex and culture? Compare the various group characteristics. What generalizations do these portrayals convey? • Compare your findings to those obtained with different pictures and interviewees. Are your findings similar or different? What might you conclude if they are similar? What might you conclude if they are different? Do differences sensibly relate to differences in the apparent purpose or style of the magazines? You might want to assign specific magazines to students so that you can explore the effects of the type of magazine on adolescent images or gender images (e.g., sports magazines vs. fashion magazines). Another variation is to have students evaluate two issues of the same magazine (a current issue and one more than 20 years old) to explore changes in images over the years. Wrap-Up. Include some actual pictures and have fellow students evaluate them. Discuss your favorite examples of stereotyping from the magazines you investigated. Santrock, Adolescence, 16e

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Research Project 12.2—Rating Television Programs for Stereotypes Objective. This project is designed to help students identify stereotypical and exaggerated behavior patterns of characters portrayed in popular television programs. Type/Length of Activity. Out-of-class activity; 6 to 8 hours. Directions. This research project will prompt you to look at television with a new perspective. Choose five prime-time television dramas and answer each of the questions suggested below about each program. Rather than simply giving short answers to each question, provide explanations for your answers. Also, be sure to note the information requested at the beginning of the data sheet included in “Student Handouts” before considering the rating of each show: 1. How stereotypical or realistic is the portrayal of the main character? 2. How stereotypical or realistic is the portrayal of other characters? 3. Do you think people in similar situations as the main and other characters of the show would have the same resources for responding to or solving their problems? 4. What was the problem that had to be solved in the show? Is this problem typical of problems faced by people in real life? 5. How realistic are the solutions depicted in the show? 6. Are villains realistically portrayed? 7. Is violence the main theme of the show? Summarize your observations of the five shows. For example, explain how realistically the show portrayed people solving problems, whether the problems portrayed were like problems “real” people face, and so on. Support your answers with appropriate summaries of the ratings collected across the five shows that you watched. Write a three-page paper using the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (2001) as a guide for manuscript preparation. Be sure to include an explanation of the importance of your investigation, a description of your procedure, graphs or tables to summarize the results that you obtained, and a discussion based on the data that you collected. Wrap-Up. Report your summaries individually or by group. Tabulate the quantitative aspects of student reports (e.g., whether the problems portrayed in shows were realistic). If students have watched the same episodes of the same shows, you have an opportunity to compare levels of agreement between ratings and to discuss the methodology of the project. Compile the data from the majority or all of the students, and use it to arrive at a conclusion about how realistically television dramas portray people solving problems.

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ESSAY QUESTIONS Review the guidelines for “Answering Essay Questions” before students respond to these questions. Their answers demonstrate an ability to comprehend and apply ideas discussed in this chapter. 1. Give examples of two cross-cultural findings suggesting that, in spite of contextual dissimilarities, adolescent similarity transcends cultural boundaries. 2. Define rites of passage, describe those that are common in the United States, and explain how rites of passage are similar or different in other countries. 3. Explain how socioeconomic status is correlated with physical and mental health, family composition, neighborhood, educational opportunities, and job status. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

What benefits do adolescents of the majority group experience from research investigating ethnic minority membership the majority culture? Describe the problem of research failing to distinguish between ethnicity and SES. List and define the major functions of media for adolescents. Compare and contrast the beneficial aspects of television with the concerns associated with programs containing violence and explicit sexual content. What aspects of music represent beneficial outcomes for adolescents? What is wrong with the conclusion that heavy metal music causes antisocial behavior? In what way has the Internet benefited adolescents, and what are three potential dangers to teenagers associated with availability of the Internet? What are the major concerns of policy makers and what are their recommendations for minimizing the potential dangers of access to the Internet?

References Anderson, D. R., Huston, A. C., Schmitt, K. C., Linebarger, D. L., and Wright, J. C. 2001. Early Childhood Television Viewing and Adolescent Behavior. Boston: Blackwell Publishers. Michael, R. T. 2001. Social Awakening: Adolescent Behavior as Adulthood Approaches. New York: Russell Sage Foundation. Strasburger, V. C., Wilson, B. J., Funk, J. B., Donnerstein, E., and McCannon, B. 2002. Children, Adolescents, and the Media. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. Taffel, R., and Blau, M. 2001. The Second Family: Reckoning with Adolescent Power. New York: St. Martin’s Press, Inc.

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INTERNET ACTIVITIES Internet Activity 12.1 U.S. Census Bureau The Web page for the U.S. Census Bureau has information on the population of the United States in terms of race, SES, and poverty. You can use this information to enhance your lecture. You can obtain information specific to your state or city. For example, below are some of the demographics of Denver, Colorado: Percent of Total Population Male 50.5% Female 49.5% White 65.3% Black 11.1% Hispanic 31.7% Asian 2.8% http://www.census.gov/ Internet Activity 12.2 Poverty and Welfare You can go to the U.S. Census Bureau and get poverty thresholds. For example, the poverty threshold for a two- person family is $13,540 (2007). http://www.census.gov/hhes/www/poverty/data/threshld/thresh09.html You can also go to the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services Office of Family Assistance page to find out information about assistance for families living in poverty. http://www.acf.hhs.gov/programs/ofa/ Internet Activity 12.3 Media There are many websites related to the effect of media on youth. Assign students a form of media and have them research the Web for information about the positive and negative impact of that form of media. Some useful sites: http://www.apa.org/science/about/psa/2003/10/anderson.aspx http://www.apa.org/news/press/releases/2000/04/video-games.aspx

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Resource Title

Resource Type

Ethnic and Racial Identity

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Ethnic and Racial Identity in Adolescence

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Defining Ethnic Identity

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CHAPTER 13: PROBLEMS IN ADOLESCENCE AND EMERGING ADULTHOOD INTRODUCTION The bio-psycho-social approach to adolescent problems examines how many factors interact. Adolescent problems may be explained by exploring several domains of development: • • • •

Biological factors—brain and genetic factors, malfunctions of the body; treatment by drug therapy. Psychological factors—distorted thoughts, emotional turmoil, inappropriate learning. Social factors—socioeconomic status and technological and religious influences. Bio-psycho-social—combined influence of biological, psychological, and social factors.

The developmental psychopathological approach investigates the developmental pathways of problems. The longitudinal design is often used to track changes in problems and identify risk and protective factors. Problems can be identified as being either internalizing, which occur when individuals turn their problems inward, and externalizing, which occur when individuals turn their problems outward. The types of problems that teens and emerging adults can experience are variable and are influenced by several demographic variables including gender, age, and SES. Those from low SES backgrounds were more likely to have problems and the type of problems they were more likely to have were externalizing. Those who had problems with parents including divorce, fewer adults in the home, or had received mental services were more likely to have problems. Other researchers examine protective factors including those that are internal to the person and external to the person.

Adolescents and emerging adults experience stressful circumstances that can affect their development. Sources of stress include major life changes, and when two or more major life changes occur in a cluster, illness is more likely. Daily hassles and uplifts are another way to assess stressors. Both approaches focus on the environmental stressor but tell us nothing about how the person perceives the stressor, their resilience to stress, or coping skills. Males are more likely to respond to stress with a “fight-or-flight” response whereas females are more likely to “tend and befriend.” Acculturative stress refers to the stress of moving into a new culture. Groups likely to be confronted with acculturative stress are also likely to be poor, a stressor itself. Coping skills work to manage and reduce stress. Effective coping skills include: • Problem-focused copings—facing one’s stressors head on • Emotion-focused coping—using emotion to manage stress (e.g., defense mechanisms) Santrock, Adolescence, 16e

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• •

Thinking positively—having a positive mood and avoiding negative thoughts Support—social support from family and/or friends works as a buffer to stress

The coping strategy used depends on the context. Multiple strategies may be used for a particularly stressful event or cluster of events. Resilience refers to a successful developmental outcome when faced with adversity. Resilience is related to a number of factors which include the individual, the family, and other adults outside the family. Adolescents take drugs to help them adapt to change, reduce tension, relieve boredom, and escape from stress. Positive consequences are temporary; long-term consequences include drug dependence, disorganization, and disease. Increased drug use during the 1960s peaked during the late 1970s, gradually declined until the 1990s, increased again during the early and mid-1990s, and has been declining since the late 1990s. In the United States, drug use increases in emerging adulthood. Alcohol is a potent drug and acts as a depressant, slowing down the brain’s activities. Alcohol is the most widely used drug, and the third leading killer in the United States. Reports indicate a gradual decline in alcohol use among adolescents. Binge drinking by high school seniors has declined from 41 percent in 1980 to 23.5 percent in 2014. For U.S. college students, binge-drinking rates are at about 37 percent. Alcohol-related problems among college students include injuries, missed classes, police encounters, and unprotected sex. Alcohol use correlates with heredity, peer relations, and, early onset of drinking, family influences, and education. Peer group association and family support clearly aids prevention of substance use. Other drugs include: •

•

• •

Hallucinogens—LSD creates perceptual changes, dizziness, nausea, rapid mood swings; marijuana produces excitement or depression, impairs verbal behavior and thought processes. Stimulants—cigarettes permanently impair lungs; older peers are effective prevention agents; peer groups help youths to keep it clean, stay healthy, and focus on positive social skills; cocaine produces euphoria followed by depressive feelings; amphetamines increase CNS activity; ecstasy induces hallucinogenic effects, euphoria, and brain damage with repeated use. Depressants—barbiturates, including tranquilizers, reduce anxiety; opiates, including morphine and heroin, reduce CNS activity, induce euphoria, and reduce pain and appetite; they are highly addictive. Anabolic steroids—testosterone derivative; numerous negative side effects; 1 percent of high school seniors report using anabolic steroids in the last 30 days. Inhalants—inhalation of ordinary household products; creates feeling of stimulation; usage has decreased in the 21st century.

Development typically includes the use of drugs (e.g., caffeine, alcohol, and cigarettes), but continued use to cope with stress has detrimental effects. Early use is usually associated with greater difficulties by adolescents. Lack of nurturance and conflict-ridden homes are associated with increased drug use. Parents who set limits are likely to have children who do not use drugs. Santrock, Adolescence, 16e

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Early intervention, peer-led and school-based programs, teacher training, social skills training, community-wide prevention efforts, and multi-element programs affect lower drug usage. Alcohol and other drug use typically declines in emerging and early adulthood. Early age of onset of drinking and a quick progression of drinking and using other substances is related to problem with substance abuse in early adulthood. Juvenile delinquency refers to unacceptable behavior including status offenses (running away) and criminal acts or index offenses (burglary or theft). Discussion about the treatment of adolescents in the legal system revolves around the age at which adolescents should be treated as adults. The treatment of adolescents between the ages of 13 and 16 is difficult due to differences in developmental maturity. When many delinquent behaviors occur over a 6-month period before the age of 15, the clinical diagnosis of conduct disorder may be made. There are many predictors of delinquency including conflict with authority, minor covert acts that are followed by property damage, minor aggression followed by fighting and violence, negative identity, low self-control and impulsiveness, egocentric bias, early initiation of aggression, low expectations and commitment to education, low academic achievement, negative peer group affiliation, low SES, lack of parental monitoring and support, ineffective discipline, older delinquent sibling, and poor neighborhood quality.. Strategies for reducing violence include: • • • •

Effective parenting practices—fair discipline, consistent monitoring and supervision, daily attention and involvement. Follow through with prevention—identify and act on prevention strategies Support educational systems—allow schools to work effectively with high-risk populations. Establish community network—partner with families, schools, service systems, churches.

Depression and suicide increase markedly during adolescence. Adolescents with major depressive disorder demonstrate sluggishness and despair to the point that daily function is impaired over a period of two weeks or longer. In addition to DSM-V symptoms, adolescents focus on morbidity. Adolescent depression may be short-lived or long-term, but adolescent patterns seem to predict those evident in adulthood. For many reasons females have higher rates of depression. Suicide is the third-leading cause of death in adolescents. Although females attempt suicide more often than males, males use more lethal means, and are therefore more likely to succeed. Risk factors for both depression and suicide include genetic predisposition, family patterns of the same behavior, poor family relationships, high parental control or expectations without emotional support, and lack of peer support. Treatment varies depending on the severity of depression. Cognitive-behavioral therapy and interpersonal therapy are recommended for mild cases. The addition of medication is recommended for more moderate and severe cases. Eating disorders most troublesome to adolescents include obesity, anorexia nervosa, bulimia, and binge eating disorders. Heredity has a predetermining effect on stature and eating patterns, but societal influence can result in poor body image and excessive weight gain or loss because it

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can entice adolescents to eat or to be thin, exercise too little or too much in relation to calorie intake, and encourage relationship difficulties with parents or peers. The problems experienced by adolescents typically are not isolated to one category. Programs that successfully reduce adolescent problems include early identification and intervention, intensive individualized attention, and multi-agency collaboration.

TOTAL TEACHING PACKAGE OUTLINE Chapter 13: Problems in Adolescence and Emerging Adulthood HEADING RESOURCE I. EXPLORING ADOLESCENT AND EMERGING Learning Goal: 1 ADULT PROBLEMS Lecture Topic: 13.2 Research Article: 13.1 Research Project: 13.2 The Biopsychosocial Approach Biological Factors Psychological Factors Social Factors The Developmental Psychopathology Approach

Critical Thinking Exercise: 13.1 Essay Question: 1

Characteristics of Adolescent and Emerging Adult Problems

Image: 13-1 Lecture Topic: 13.1 Research Article: 13.1 Research Project: 13.2

Stress and Coping

Discussion Topic: 13.1

Stress Life Events and Daily Hassles Sociocultural Factors

Coping What Is Coping? Problem-Focused and Emotion-Focused Coping Thinking Positively Support Contexts and Coping

II.

In-Class Activity: 13.1 Critical Thinking Exercise: 13.2 Essay Question: 2 Through the Eyes of Adolescents: All Stressed Out Careers in Adolescent Development: Luis Vargas, Child Clinical Psychologist Health and Well-Being Interlude: Coping Strategies in Adolescence and Emerging Adulthood

Resilience

Image: 13-2 Research Article: 13.2

PROBLEMS AND DISORDERS

Learning Goal: 2

Drug Use

Discussion Topic: 13.2 In-Class Activity: 13.2 Essay Question: 3 Video: Talking About Drugs at Age 14 (Connect)

Trends in Overall Drug Use

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Images: 13-3 and 13-4 Discussion Topic 13.2

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Chapter 13 Alcohol Alcohol Use in Adolescence and Emerging Adulthood Risk Factors in Alcohol Abuse

Hallucinogens LSD Marijuana

Stimulants Cigarette Smoking Cocaine Amphetamines

Image: 13-5 Research Project: 13.1 Internet Activity: 13.1 Image: 13-6 Lecture Topic: 13.3

Essay Questions: 4 Image: 13-7

Ecstasy

Depressants Anabolic Steroids Inhalants Factors in Adolescent and Emerging Adult Drug Abuse Early Substance Use Parents, Siblings, Peers, and Schools Emerging Adulthood and Early Adulthood

III.

Images: 13-8 and 13-9 Discussion Topic: 13.2 In-Class Activity: 13.3 Essay Question: 5

Juvenile Delinquency What Is Juvenile Delinquency? Antecedents of Juvenile Delinquency Effective Prevention and Intervention Programs

Image: 13-10 Lecture Topic: 13.1, 13.4 Discussion Topic: 13.3 In-Class Activity: 13.4 Short Scenario: 13.1, 13.2 Essay Question: 6, 7 Internet Activity: 13.2 Careers in Adolescent Development: Rodney Hammond, Health Psychologist

Depression and Suicide Depression Suicide

Learning Goal: 2 Images: 13-11 and 13-2 Discussion Topic: 13.4 Critical Thinking Exercise: 13.3 Short Scenario: 13.3 Essay Question: 8 Internet Activity: 13.3

Eating Disorders Overweight and Obese Adolescents Anorexia Nervosa, Bulimia Nervosa and Binge Eating Disorder Anorexia Nervosa Bulimia Nervosa Binge Eating Disorder

Discussion Topic: 13.5 Image: 13-3 Essay Question: 9 Internet Activity: 13.4

INTERRELATION OF PROBLEMS AND PREVENTION/INTERVENTION Adolescents with Multiple Problems Prevention and Intervention

Learning Goal: 3 Research Project: 13.2 Essay Question: 10

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SUGGESTED LECTURE TOPICS Topic 13.1—Adolescents with Conduct Problems in the Schools Children and youth with “behavior disorders” (BD) or severe emotional disturbance (SED), as defined in Public Law 94–142, represent a group of students that previously has received marginal acceptance in regular education classrooms. Children with SED are those identified as demonstrating: •

an inability to learn without apparent sensory deficits.

•

an inability to build or maintain personal relationships.

•

inappropriate behavior or feelings under normal circumstances.

•

pervasive unhappiness.

•

a tendency to develop physical symptoms of fear associated with persons or school problems.

•

a behavior pattern diagnosed as schizophrenic (Jensen, Clark, Walker, & Kehlen, 1991, p. 764).

Although students with BD are not recognized as an official group, together with SED children and youth they represent 6 to 10 percent of the student population. Criterion for identification of students with BD that influences their eligibility for services under IDEA includes (a) an inability to build or maintain personal relationships with peers and teachers, and (b) inappropriate behavior or feelings under normal circumstances. Yet these youth are placed in self-contained or non-inclusive programs, and the only classmates they are with are youth with the same difficulties. Clearly, these are precisely the youth who require daily interaction of sustained duration with socially competent peers in order to have models of more acceptable, normative behavior than their own. O’Neil (1995) argues that if we are to have an inclusive community, opportunities to learn and grow within it become essential. Not only are behaviorally disordered youths who spend their time only with each other unprepared to deal with the inclusive nature of the post-school world—the kind of world that we have prepared them for is not a pleasant one. Inadvertently, we have prepared them for a lifetime of maladjustment, inappropriate behavior, and interaction with dysfunctional peers. Four extensive reviews of academic and social skill research were completed in the last three decades. (Gottfredson, 1981; Hawkins, & Lishner, 1987; Silberberg & Silberberg, 1971; and Maguin & Loeber, 1996). Recently, Maguin and Loeber conducted a meta-analysis of naturalistic studies of the relationship between academic performance and delinquency. In an analysis of 118 intervention studies to improve academic performance and delinquency, the following four principle findings emerged: •

Poor academic performance was related to the amount and onset of delinquency, and the escalation in frequency and severity of offenses; improved academic performance was related to the reduction of offenses.

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•

Intelligence and attention problems functioned as common causes of poor academic performance and delinquency for males, but socioeconomic status did not appear to be a common cause.

•

Intervention studies showed that improvements in academic performance were correlated with the decreasing occurrence of delinquency.

•

The more successful interventions utilized law-related or moral education components for adolescents. Interventions for some school participants were more effective when self-control and social skills training procedures were combined with parent training.

In summary, the research provides evidence for pursuing both social competence and academic skill instruction, including students, peers, and teachers, in order to improve student outcomes in regular education classrooms. Few successful intervention demonstrations exist, however, because (a) few regular educators feel prepared to accept them, and (b) the behavior and academic requirements of students with BD/SED are not adequately served. The school’s orientation toward reintegration may be an even larger determinant, with administrators influencing the degree of support and training for reintegration (Rock, Rosenberg, & Carran, 1994). References Gottfredson, G. D. 1981. “Schooling and Delinquency.” In S. E. Martin, L. B. Sechrest, and R. Redner, Eds., New Directions in the Rehabilitation of Criminal Offenders. Washington, DC: National Academy Press. Hawkins, J. D., and Lishner, D. M. 1987. “Schooling and Delinquency.” In E. H. Johnson, Ed., Handbook on Crime and Delinquency Prevention. New York: Greenwood. Jensen, W. R., Clark, E., Walker, H. M., and Kehle, T. 1991. “Behavior Disorders: Training Needs for School Psychologists.” In G. Stoner, M. R. Shinn, and H. M. Walker, Eds., Interventions for Achievement and Behavior Problems. Silver Spring, MD: NASP, pp. 763–787. Maguin, E., and Loeber, R. 1996. “Is Poor Academic Performance a Cause of Delinquency?” In M. Tonry, Ed., Crime and Justice: A review of Research, Vol. 20. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, pp. 145–264. O’Neil, J. 1995. “Can Inclusion Work? A Conversation with Jim Kauffman and Mara Sapon-Shevin,” Educational Leadership 52, pp. 7–10. Rock, E. E., Rosenberg, M. S., and Carran, D.T. 1994. “Variables Affecting the Reintegration Rate of Students with Serious Emotional Disturbance,” Exceptional Children 61, pp. 254–268. Silberberg, N. E., and Silberberg, M. C. 1971. “School Achievement and Delinquency,” Review of Educational Research 41, pp. 17–33.

Topic 13.2—Alternative Ways of Looking at Society and “Troubled” Adolescents The two quotes below provide a framework for exploring the complex and changing roles psychologists, educators, politicians, and social critics have in shaping definitions of normal and abnormal development in adolescents. Paul Goodman, a social critic and contributor to Gestalt therapy, provides an interesting perspective on the 1950s and 1960s. Matthew Lipman, a philosopher and educator, comments on moral education in a book on elementary education reform in the 1980s and 1990s. Together these two commentaries provide a point of departure Santrock, Adolescence, 16e

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for a lecture/discussion of the nature, causes, and solutions to adolescent/society problems by helping us understand how social phenomena such as delinquency are defined. It is not an interesting question whether our present youth problems are fundamentally different from those of other times, whether they will blow over; whether the Beats are a fad and the delinquents no worse than in 1859. What I have tried to show, rather, is this: that such problems by their form and content, test and criticize the society in which they occur. The burden of proof as to who is “wrong” does not rest with the young but always with the system of society. (Goodman, 1958, pp. 237–238) A society that does not value a school environment (and often this is expressed just in terms of the amount of money invested in education) is a society that should openly accept its share of the blame for the amoral conduct of its children. (Lipman & others, 1980, p. 156)

These two quotes and the historical information on delinquency presented in the text provide a framework for asking such questions such as, “Who are delinquents?” and, “In what circumstances is this behavior normal, and in what circumstances is it abnormal?” These questions are not abstract and academic, but profoundly affect the way we understand and treat delinquency and other social problems. Topic 13.3—Marijuana Use and Abuse Cannabis sativa, or marijuana, has been cultivated for at least 5,000 years, but its use has never been as prevalent as in the last few decades. A 1985 National Institute on Drug Abuse survey reported that 62 million Americans had tried marijuana with 29 million using within the last year. In 1986, 5.1 million high school students (12 to 17 years old) had used marijuana (4.3 million in the past year; 2.7 million in the past month). In 1987, 16 percent of employed persons between 20 and 40 years old used marijuana within a month of when the survey was done. A 1988 study found detectable blood levels of marijuana in one-third of 1,023 patients treated for shock/trauma following accidents in Baltimore. In other words, marijuana is the most frequently used illicit drug in the United States. Although many persons think of marijuana as a harmless mind-altering substance, cannabis contains more than 400 chemicals, including 61 cannabinoids, 11 steroids, 20 nitrogenous compounds, 50 hydrocarbons, 103 terpenes, and benzopyrene. The effects of these components on the body are unknown. The primary psychoactive agent is THC, or tetrahydrocannabinol. In the 1970s, THC content of marijuana ranged from 1 to 3 percent, but in the 1980s more potent varieties of marijuana raised the THC content to between 5 and 15 percent. Tetrahydrocannabinol is fat-soluble, and it binds tightly to proteins in the blood. Therefore, tissues that are well supplied with blood, specifically the liver, spleen, lungs, kidneys, testes, and ovaries, quickly take up THC. THC reaches the brain within 14 seconds of being smoked. The half-life of THC is about 56 hours in first-time users and 28 hours in long-term users. THC may remain in body tissues for 30 days or more. In fact, cannabinoids may be found in the urine for up to 30 days after marijuana use.

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Most marijuana users report pleasant subjective effects of euphoria, joy, and lightheartedness. Users may believe they are more creative, philosophical, innovative, and carefree. However, some users report unpleasant effects such as anxiety, jitters, paranoia, hallucinations, and loss of energy and will. The greater potency of marijuana means that more users may experience toxicity, tolerance, and physical dependence. For those users who are physically dependent, withdrawal symptoms may occur within several hours to several days after last use. Withdrawal symptoms may include chills/shakes, restlessness, confusion, fearfulness, malaise, cannabis craving, sweating, insomnia, nausea, irritability, attention deficits, increased blood pressure, increased respiration, sleep disturbances, and vomiting. Medical consequences of high doses or long-term use of marijuana mostly affect the pulmonary system, the central nervous system, and the reproductive organs. Just a few of the medical complications of cannabis use are: tachycardia, laryngitis, bronchitis, tremors, decreased REM sleep, panic attacks, paranoia, memory impairment, lower sperm count, altered menstrual cycles, and fetal organ malformation and growth retardation. Perception of distance and time are impaired in a marijuana-intoxicated state, contributing to motor vehicle accidents. In addition, marijuana impairs learning new information. Reference Bartholomew, S. 1990. “Marijuana Abuse: Clinical Implications,” Physician Assistant. January, pp. 45– 52.

Topic 13.4—Super-Predators Since 1996, more than 24 teens have gone on shooting sprees in their high schools. The aggressive and antisocial behavior of adolescents has become a major issue in the United States. How can these adolescents or super-predators be identified before such crimes happen and what kinds of interventions are necessary? The determinants of this type of violence are complex. Determinants include attributes of the adolescent such as self-esteem that can be too high or too low and a lack of the social skills required to resolve conflict (Hill-Smith, et al., 2002). According to Conner (2002), a small percentage of aggressive children, or early starters, may be the type of children who, given the right circumstances, become super-predators in adolescence. These children demonstrate a range of aggressive behaviors such as physical fighting and fire setting across many settings. The family context of these adolescents may include aspects such as poor parenting, modeling of bad behavior, and financial stress (Hill-Smith, et al.). According to Conner, the parenting style specifically includes coercive parent-child interactions. This happens when the parent attempts to set a limit on the child’s behavior but the child is oppositional. When the parent persists, the child’s behavior escalates until the parent backs down. This teaches the child that escalating aggression allows them to avoid a request. Often this type of parenting will lead to harsh and inconsistent punishment by the parent to control the child. Social influences include peer relations that encourage dominance, low levels of social

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engagement, poor school curriculum, violent media messages, safety issues in the community, and availability of handguns (Greene, 2005). Intervention programs need to be comprehensive and include family, peers, media, and the community. Programs need to begin early; the effect of interventions diminishes as children get older. Verbal competency in the child is important. A child who cannot verbally express his feelings and frustrations may be at a higher risk for violent behavior (Conner, 2002). Psychologists have developed behavioral checklists for teachers to help them identify potentially violent students. Teachers also need to model conflict management strategies. The physical environment of the schools needs to foster control and encourage norms against violence. Communities and the media need to regulate highly violent media. Exposure to violent media may desensitize children, lead them to believe everyone is violent, and that violence is an acceptable solution. Finally, communities need to regulate adolescents’ access to handguns (Greene, 2005). References Conner, D. F. 2002. Aggression and Antisocial Behavior in Children and Adolescents: Research and Treatment. New York: The Guilford Press. Greene, M. B., 2005. “Reducing Violence and Aggression in Schools,” Trauma, Violence, and Abuse 6(3), pp. 236–254. Hill-Smith, A. J., Hugo, P. Hughes, P., Fonagy, P., and Hartman, D. 2002. “Adolescent Murderers: Abuse and Adversity in Childhood,” Journal of Adolescence 25(2), pp. 221–231.

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CLASSROOM DISCUSSIONS AND ACTIVITIES Discussion Topics Discussion 13.1—Stress and Coping Everyone, especially college students, is subject to stress. You can help students understand the physical effects of stress by asking them how they feel when they are stressed out. Make a list on the board of their answers. Symptoms of stress include: • Cardiovascular symptoms: headache, racing heart, cold sweaty hands. • Respiratory symptoms: shortness of breath, asthma attack, shallow breathing. • • • •

Gastrointestinal symptoms: upset stomach, nausea, constipation, diarrhea, and abdominal pain. Muscular symptoms: headache, back/shoulder pain, muscle tremors. Immunity symptoms: allergies, cold, flu, skin rash. Metabolic symptoms: increased appetite, cravings for tobacco, racing thoughts, difficulty sleeping, and anxiety.

Ask students what resources they have for dealing with stress and list these on the board. Resources include exercise, religion, friends, family, optimism, time management, good health, willingness to talk, social activities, and money. Reference Copper, C. 2004. Stress: A Brief History. Blackwell Publishers.

Discussion 13.2—Adolescent Drug Use You can demonstrate the strong divisions of opinion regarding adolescent drug use by inviting representatives of opposing groups (e.g., Teenage Alcoholics Anonymous and the National Organization for the Reform of Marijuana Laws [NORML]) to speak to the class. Ask representatives to discuss issues such as extent and causes of adolescent drug abuse and what should be done about it. A lively discussion can ensue concerning the following topics: 1. Must alcoholics abstain completely or is “controlled drinking’’ possible? (e.g., the Sobell controversy) 2. 3. 4.

Should marijuana be legalized? Should search-and-seizure raids for drugs be routinely conducted on student lockers? Should drug testing (e.g., urinalysis) be required for student athletes, employees, and so on?

Reference King, M. B., and Clark, D. E. 1990. Instructor’s Manual to accompany Children. Dubuque, IA: Wm. C. Brown Publishers.

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Discussion 13.3—Federal Resources on School Violence Press Release, April 24, 2000 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) Announces Inventory of Federal Resources on School Violence The Centers for Disease Control (CDC) today announced the release of an “Inventory of Federal Activities Addressing Violence in Schools,” a listing of more than 100 projects involving some 10 federal departments and more than 25 agencies. This inventory was compiled in the aftermath of last year’s Columbine school shooting in Littleton, Colorado, to answer the question of what the federal government is doing to respond to violence in our nation’s schools. This is the first-ever listing of federal projects that support strategies to help reduce violence in schools and that acquire and disseminate information about violence in schools. The inventory summarizes federally supported data collection and analysis, evaluation, research, research synthesis, program and resource development, and technical assistance. Each entry includes information on each project’s key contact, including telephone numbers and e-mail addresses. An Internet version of the inventory provides direct links to the different agencies’ websites. “Schools have an important role to play in violence prevention. This inventory can help schools find the resources they need to develop policies and programs to prevent school-related violence,” said CDC Director Jeffrey P. Koplan, MD, MPH. The inventory will be useful for school staff, community leaders, parents, policymakers, national organizations, and state, local, and federal agencies. The federal agencies identified their current and recently completed activities that either directly address the problem of violence that occurs on school property, on the way to or from school, or at school-related events, or indirectly address school violence by focusing on precursors of violence, factors associated with violence, or mechanisms for preventing violent behavior. “Violence is not a rare event for American youth,” says CDC health scientist Lisa Barrios, Ph.D., who compiled the inventory. “Homicide is the second leading cause of death for young people between the ages of 15 and 24, and suicide is the third leading cause of death in this age range. However, violence is rare in schools: less than one percent of all homicides and suicides among school-aged children (5–19 years of age) occur in or around school grounds or on the way to and from schools.” Despite the fact that the great majority of schools are violence-free, highly publicized recent school shootings—especially those involving multiple victims, have raised public concern about the safety of schools. This inventory was begun as an effort to learn more about the federal government’s response to the need for information about school-related violence. This inventory was published as special report in the April 2000 issue of the Journal of School Health. Copies are available online at http://www.cdc.gov/nccdphp/dash/shpps/

References Centers for Disease Control. 2000. Federal Resources on School Violence. Atlanta: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Division of Adolescent and School Health. Santrock, Adolescence, 16e

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Inventory of Federal Activities Addressing Violence in Schools. http://www.cdc.gov/nccdphp/dash/.

Discussion 13.4—Adolescent Suicide The rate of adolescent suicide continues to be an alarming statistic in a culture in which we believe that adolescents have everything they could possibly want. Suicide often results from long-term problematic family situations experienced by a youth and repeated or chronic depression followed by a highly stressful event. Family difficulties appear to be correlated with a push for impulse control, pressure to achieve, and withholding affection and emotional support. Precipitating stressful events include loss of a significant relationship or perceived failure. Warning signs that an adolescent is considering suicide include: • • • • • • • • • • • •

The adolescent makes statements such as, “I wish I were dead,” or, “I don’t have anything to live for.” The adolescent made attempts to commit suicide previously; four out of five completed suicides were preceded by at least one unsuccessful attempt. The adolescent exhibits a preoccupation with death in music, art, or personal writing. The adolescent has recently experienced the loss of a family member, pet, or boyfriend/girlfriend through death, abandonment, or break-up. The adolescent is experiencing serious family distress as a result of unemployment, serious illness, relocation, or divorce. The adolescent is experiencing disruptions in sleep and eating habits; personal appearance changes dramatically. The adolescent demonstrates declining grades and lack of interest or involvement in school activities that previously were important. The adolescent demonstrates marked changes in personality such as an outgoing nature shifting to a withdrawn manner. The adolescent expresses a pervasive sense of gloom, helplessness, and hopelessness. The adolescent has withdrawn from friends and family members, demonstrating feelings of alienation from significant others. The adolescent gives away valued possessions and seems to be getting things in order. The adolescent engages in a series of risky behaviors, accidents, or heavy drug or alcohol use.

Have students discuss what they would do if they were a high school teacher and suspected that a student of theirs was potentially suicidal. What obligations would they have to the student? What kinds of things could they do to help that individual? Should people have the right to take their own lives? Reference Santrock, J. W. 1987. Adolescence: An Introduction, 3rd ed. Dubuque, IA: Wm. C. Brown Publishers.

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There are hundreds of pro-anorexia nervosa, or pro-ana, websites on the Internet. These websites condone anorexia, calling it a lifestyle choice. In addition to the pro-ana websites, there are also pro-mia web sites, promoting bulimia nervosa. These are places where individuals with eating disorders get support for the continuation of the disorder. Discuss these websites with the class after your lecture on eating disorders. Ask students if they believe these websites might cause people to become anorexic or bulimic. What other factors, such as low self-esteem and a need to belong, might lead people to visit these websites?

In-Class Activities Activity 13.1—Daily Hassles and Uplifts Have students write down 10 daily hassles and 10 daily uplifts. Below is a list of hassles and uplifts from a sample of college students. Have students compare the lists. Hassles 1. Troubling thoughts about the future 2. Not getting enough sleep 3. Wasting time 4. Inconsiderate smokers 5. Physical appearance 6. Too many things to do 7. Misplacing or losing things 8. Not enough time to do the things you need to do 9. Concerns about meeting high standards 10. Being lonely Uplifts 1. Completing a task 2. Relating well with friends 3. Giving a present 4. Having fun 5. Getting love 6. Giving love 7. Being visited, phoned, or sent a letter 8. Laughing 9. Entertainment 10. Music Activity 13.2—Hooked on Cigarettes?

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How hooked are you on cigarettes? Answer the following questions; a score of seven or more indicates that you are highly dependent on nicotine. “A” responses score no points, “B” responses score one point, and “C” responses score two points. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

How soon after you wake up in the morning do you smoke? A. after 30 minutes B. within 30 minutes Do you find it hard to refrain from smoking in places where it’s forbidden? A. no B. yes Which of the cigarettes you smoke in the day is most satisfying? A. not the first B. first one in the morning How many cigarettes a day do you smoke? A. 1 to 15 B. 16 to 25 C. 26 or more Do you smoke more in the morning than during the rest of the day? A. no B. yes Do you smoke when you are so ill that you’re in bed most of the day? A. no B. yes How high is the nicotine content of the brand you smoke? A. low B. medium C. high How often do you inhale the smoke from your cigarettes? A. never B. sometimes C. always

Reference Henderson, N. 1989. “The Art of Quitting Smoking,” Changing Times, pp. 105–108. (Lakeside Pharmaceutical designed the quiz)

Activity 13.3—Prevention Program for Alcohol and Drug Use Have small groups of students develop a program to prevent alcohol and drug use among high school students. You can do this activity in conjunction with Internet Activity 14.1. Have students go to the Web to research prevention program for ideas. Students should consider the following in developing their programs: • Identification of at-risk youth • Type of intervention for at-risk youth • • • • •

Parent involvement/education Community awareness training Culturally-specific intervention Student assistance program for schools Coordination of prevention services in the community

Activity 13.4—Juvenile Delinquency Prevention Program or Alternative to Incarceration

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Have small groups of students develop a program to prevent juvenile delinquency or have them develop an alternative to incarceration. You can do this activity in conjunction with Internet Activity 13.2 if you have them develop an alternative to incarceration or they can go to the Web to help them get ideas for the prevention program. Students can consider the following while developing their programs: • Behavior management • Clinical intervention • Vocational training • Outdoor education • Outreach services in the community •

Family support

Critical Thinking Exercises Exercise 13.1—Genetic Predisposition for Adolescent Problems Santrock tells us that biological, psychological, and social factors are involved in adolescents’ problems and disorders. Yet with respect to one problem or disorder, he does not indicate the possibility of a biological factor. Which problem or disorder is it? Circle the letter of the best answer, explain why it is the best answer, and why each of the other answers is not as appropriate. A. B. C.

alcohol abuse other drug abuse juvenile delinquency

D. E.

depression suicide

Exercise 13.2—Sex Differences in the Response to Stress According to the text, males are more likely to respond to stress with the fight-or-flight response and females are more likely to “tend and befriend.” Which theoretical perspective would best explain this gender difference? Circle the letter of the best answer, explain why it is the best answer, and why each of the other answers is not as appropriate. A.

Psychoanalytic

Ecological

B. C.

Cognitive Learning

Eclectic

Exercise 13.3—Adolescent Depression Chapter 13 of Adolescence discusses various approaches to understanding depression in adolescence. Most of these approaches appear to share an assumption. Which of the following statements expresses that assumption, rather than an inference or observation? Circle the letter of

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the best answer, explain why it is the best answer, and why each of the other answers is not as appropriate. A. The roots of adolescent depression are to be found in infancy or childhood. B. Emotionally unavailable or depressed parents and parents experiencing divorce or financial difficulties, influence adolescent depression. C. By age 15, females have a higher rate of depression than males. D. Adolescent depression predicts adult depression. E. Not having a close relationship with a best friend increases depressive tendencies.

Answer Key for Critical Thinking Exercises Exercise 13.1 A. B. C.

D. E.

This is not the best answer. Santrock cites heredity as a risk factor for abuse, and states that there is increasing evidence of a genetic predisposition to alcoholism. This is the best answer. Santrock does not cite biological factors as a cause or determinant of other drug use. This is not the best answer. Two references are pertinent. One is Erikson’s speculation that the biological changes of puberty interact with social expectations to set the stage for a possible negative identity. Later in the chapter, Santrock briefly cites the possibility that hereditary factors cause both delinquency and problems in delinquents’ families associated with delinquency. This is not the best answer. Santrock briefly mentions that there are biogenetic explanations of depression. This is not the best answer. Santrock points out that the closer the genetic relationship is between a person and someone who has committed suicide, the greater the chance that person will also commit suicide.

Exercise 13.2 A.

This is not the best answer. The psychoanalytic approach focuses on unconscious processes and the development of the personality. It cannot explain a gender difference in response to a physical reaction. This is not the best answer. The cognitive approach focuses on the development of thought processes and how that affects behavior. It cannot explain a gender difference in response to a physical reaction. This is the best answer. The learning approach would explain this difference in terms of the ways in which males and females are socialized. Aggression is a more acceptable, and even expected, behavior in males; females are socialized to value relationships.

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This is not the best answer. The ecological approach involves an analysis of the influence of social systems adolescents inhabit and how the interactions of these systems influence behavior. It cannot explain a gender difference in response to a physical reaction. This is not the best answer. Although there are other factors besides socialization influencing male and female reactions to stress, the learning perspective provides a very plausible explanation. Biological factors are also at work.

Exercise 13.3 A.

This is the best answer. This point is not specifically discussed; it appears to be the reason why various researchers have looked for childhood precursors of adolescent depression.

This is not the best answer. This is an inference. These statements represent a conclusion from a number of studies. This is not the best answer. This is an observation indicating that by age 15, twice as many females are identified as depressed as are males. This is not the best answer. This is an inference. Although the statistical relationship is suggested, there are no data to explain the relationship between adolescent and adult depression. This is not the best answer. This is an inference, even though it looks like an observation. The reason we call it an inference is that it states a causal relationship, but the data appear to be correlational.

C. D.

Short Scenarios Scenario 13.1 Lana has just realized that she is in serious trouble. The judge has determined that she will live at a local residential program for girls until they decide to let her go. She will be allowed to go to her regular school and participate in community programs, but house parents will monitor everything. As it stands now, if she messes up again she will end up in the state juvenile detention center. As long as she can remember, her life has been like a roller coaster ride, but without as much control. Her father travels five days a week for his job. Her mother drinks too much and uses a lot of prescription medication to wake up in the morning and to sleep at night. Needless to say, her mom is not the most stable person in the world. Her dad does the best he can, but he often gets angry and doesn’t call when he is away. Lana has learned how to take care of herself. Since she was small, Lana has made her own decisions about her clothes, meals, free time, and friends. If her mother makes demands, she leaves the house. When she is drunk and physically abusive, Lana gets out of the way. Last month, though, her mom was really out of control, and Lana decided to run away for a few days. She didn’t go far, but she was able to disappear until the police raided the house in which she was staying. They were looking for drugs; Lana was high on ecstasy at the time. Santrock, Adolescence, 16e

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At the hearing, the problems with her mom became evident as well as her running away and drug use. Someone from her school showed up and talked about her arguments with peers and teachers. The only thing to do now is to go along with the program and tell them what they want to hear. • Lana’s father travels most of the time, thus he has been unavailable to provide nurturance, to establish a relationship, or to set limits and follow through on expectations. • Lana’s mother is engaged in substance abuse; thus, she models inappropriate drug use, poor problem-solving strategies, and cannot help Lana stay connected to the family. • The parenting style that has evolved is permissive indifferent; her parents had low expectations of her and limited commitment to her. • Lana has not experienced limits on her behavior, nor are there expectations for home or school responsibilities. • Neither parent has been available to talk with her about limits, being responsible, avoiding peers who might be a bad influence, or resisting peer pressure. • A dysfunctional family pattern repeated by each of the family members is escaping problems, avoiding, or not facing them. • Lana’s running away suggests an abusive interaction pattern between Lana and her mother. Scenario 13.2 Jeremy has just been arrested for manslaughter, but strangely, feels no fear or remorse. The dude should have thought twice about mugging him. As a small, funny looking kid, Jeremy was the victim of bullies most of his life. His dad was always a little embarrassed about Jeremy’s lack of stature and masculinity, and never spent much time with him. His mother always seemed to want to change him; she must have thought that with enough nagging it would finally happen. It was no better at school. He was always the last one picked for class sporting activities, and he wasn’t very smart or witty. He was a magnet for big, pushy kids who regularly teased him and seemed to control his life at school. His friends were either people who felt sorry for him or were other strange kids struggling to get through each day. People never saw him as someone they needed or wanted to have around. After being mugged for the third time on the way home from his job, Jeremy decided he would not take the mistreatment any longer. He bought a gun, learned how to use it, and carried it with him. That low-life mugger made a serious mistake, and Jeremy took care of himself for a change. •

•

Jeremy recognizes that it is strange that he feels no remorse for his actions. He recognizes right from wrong, but is protecting himself emotionally by not acknowledging his responsibility and overreaction to the severity of the crime. Jeremy has a history of being the “whipping boy,” being teased and mistreated by his peers.

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•

• • • • • • • • •

Jeremy was not well nurtured; his father rejected him and his mother was consistently critical, and probably verbally abusive; thus he developed a negative self-identity. Demands placed on Jeremy by his mother probably created a negative self-image. The bullies at school recognized his low self-esteem. His peers did not recognize Jeremy as an asset on a team or as a friend. Jeremy may think that killing the mugger will get him the attention and credit that he deserves. Any success that Jeremy had as a youngster does not seem to be in his current train of thought; the negative self-perception is dominant. Violence seems to be associated with having a handgun, so the outcome was predictable. It is not clear at what level of intelligence Jeremy is functioning, but the choices that he made suggest poor solution-generating and problem-solving skills. Lack of family and community connection probably contributed to his choosing a violent solution. Jeremy’s home experiences would have needed a strong, intervening force from outside of the family to stop the trajectory of events. School staff may have ignored his peer status or believed it was not severe.

Scenario 13.3 Adam has had a bad couple of weeks—or has it been a month? It seems like forever since he found anything funny or even smiled because he really felt happy. He hasn’t had any trouble sleeping, for sure. In fact, he hasn’t even wanted to leave his room. Although his grades still are in the passing range, they have gone down considerably since the beginning of the semester. He couldn’t possibly get into college now that he has messed up his grade point average. The teachers think he should be going to a major university. He has about 20 applications sitting in the corner and he started a few, but none of them are finished. The kids he knows think that staying here with each other is most appealing. He doesn’t think he can stand to do the same things and see the same people for his entire life. Adam doesn’t think he fits in anywhere. And then, what’s the point? His dad expects him to take over the business when he finishes anyway. So why not just maintain? If he did enough drugs it could be almost painless—almost. He would like to reinvent his life! In reality, it won’t happen. He is so tired—maybe he should go back to bed and think about it. • Adam is experiencing severe depression; symptoms are loss of interest in pleasurable events, excessive sleep, isolation, declining grades, guilt, poor concentration, and difficulty finishing tasks for over two weeks. • He sees his future goals as unreachable since he has let the grades slip. • Adam is experiencing a difficult challenge between peers and parents who want him to remain in his hometown to learn the business, whereas his teachers believe that he has a more exciting future after attending a challenging college program.

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• • • • •

•

Adam has goals that are different from his parents and peers, but doesn’t seem to have the necessary assistance to learn how to reach them. Adam is avoiding the responsibility of trying to effect change. Adam is using drugs to escape the situation, but recognizes that the escape is only temporary. Adam is 1 of 20 percent of youths who think about committing suicide each year. There is no mention of cognitive-behavior treatment or drug therapy, suggesting that this may be one of the first instances that severe depression has become completely evident. Without treatment or resolution of the problem, Adam will probably continue to face similar episodes throughout his adult life, if he doesn’t kill himself first.

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RESEARCH ARTICLES Article 13.1—Street Youth Relationships with peers and support from peers are repeatedly demonstrated as important factors in establishing social competence, having positive self-esteem and well-being, and establishing shields against the effects of stress. Adjustment problems are associated with poor social skills, deviant behavior, and peer rejection. Adolescents who use drugs, have sex, and/or smoke cigarettes usually have friends who do the same. Runaway youth are a group of adolescents that are particularly vulnerable to the influence of deviant peers and support groups of street youth. About 750,000 to 1.5 million youth run away from home each year and subsequently are acculturated to street life and the street economy by other street youth. This research was completed to identify groups of street youth, their culture, the means of survival, and potential strategies for intervention. Participants in the study were identified by interviewing youth at (a) fixed service sites (shelters and drop-in centers), (b) hang-outs (parks, alleys, fast food restaurants), and (c) natural street sites (street corners or highly populated blocks). Sampling took place along five major boulevards within a 12-square-mile area of Hollywood. Youths were eligible participants if they were 12 to 23 years of age, had lived on the streets without their families for two or more months, and met their subsistence needs by one of the following activities: prostitution or survival sex, pornography, panhandling, stealing, selling stolen goods, mugging, dealing drugs, and/or running scams or cons (pp. 658). About 750 youths served as full participants during five cross-sectional waves of data collection lasting two months for each wave between January 1993 and November 1994. Youth most likely to participate included 12- to 15-year-olds; youths least likely to participate were 19 to 23 years of age. Participants completed a 12-item screening instrument to determine their eligibility for the study. Eligible participants completed a 15- to 20-minute interview called the AIDS Evaluation of Street Outreach Project Street Intercept. Participants were given a $3 fast-food voucher for completing the screening instrument, and if they were eligible, $7 for completing the entire survey. Questions included: • • •

Who would you say you are most like or spend most of your time with? Where do you get money to support yourself? We don’t want to know the address, but what kinds of places have you lived in?

The results showed that youth ranged from 13 to 23 years old, with individuals 16 to 21 years old identified 80 percent of the time. The majority of youth were male (71 percent) and were older than females. About half were Caucasian and the other half were from minority ethnic groups. Youth reported living on the street in a squat, shelter, or abandoned building 75 percent of the time. About a third had some other place to stay at the time of the interview, but reported unpredictable housing during the past 12 months: •

70 percent had lived in their own house or apartment within the last 12 months

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•

62 percent had stayed with family or a relative

Two-thirds were living on the street or without a place of their own: • • • •

51 percent had been doing so for over a year 14 percent were without a place for 6 months 35 percent for less than 6 months 10 percent reported having been in prison during the previous 12 months

Their reports of personal similarity or identity indicated: • • • • • •

36 percent identified with punks/skinheads (anti-establishment) 14 percent with gang members 12 percent with loners 10 percent with hustlers (survival sex/prostitution) 7 percent with druggies 9 percent with other groups (1 or 2 percent each with deadheads, transgender/drag queens, gay/lesbian, and surfers/skaters)

Gang youth were the most likely (77 percent) and punks/skinheads were the least likely (35 percent) to use shelter services. Hustlers were most likely to have seen an outreach worker (84 percent). The research showed that street youth were heterogeneous and were characterized by distinctly different norms, values, and beliefs about their survival. Peer affiliation had a great deal of influence on their behavior, particularly on means of support. The results suggest that interventions that prevent youth from becoming acculturated to the streets are most likely to be successful. Reference Kipke, M. D., Unger, J. B., O’Connor, S., Palmer, R. F., and LaFrance, S. R. 1997. “Street Youth, Their Peer Group Affiliation and Differences According to Residential Status, Subsistence Patterns, and Use of Services,” Adolescence 32, pp. 655–669.

Article 13.2—Understanding Resilience Resilience described in the psychological literature refers to three types of phenomena: A.

B. C.

Individuals overcome the odds, in spite of their high-risk status (disadvantaged backgrounds), to achieve better-than-expected outcomes. Researchers explain outcome with an at-risk approach. Individuals adapt successfully to difficult life events (parent death, sustained poverty) and achieve stable lives. Researches analyze these individuals using a life trajectory approach. Individuals recover from traumatic childhood or adolescent experiences (floods, war, abuse) to achieve normal functioning. Resilience refers to the pattern of recovery the person demonstrates.

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Protective factors are constructs identified through previous research that influence positive outcomes that otherwise might not be achieved. Protective factors enhance opportunity for desirable outcomes, but do not guarantee them. They include: • Characteristics that make the individual appealing such as good personality and temperament, intellect, appealing to adults, talented, high in self-esteem and faith, and accepting of support. • Relationships with others that provide important personal connections including effective parenting, support at home, an adult advocate, and positive relationships with extended family members. • Community support reflects religious associations, good schools and community programs, and socioeconomic foundations. • Generally positive attachment including good fortune and timing. This investigation followed adolescents who had spent 2 to 12 months in a psychiatric hospital during middle adolescence through young adulthood. Each individual had experienced a serious disorder that led to hospitalization. The experiences that led to hospitalization were trauma resulting from abuse by their own family members. Eleven years after adolescent hospitalization, data were collected using semistructured one- to two-hour clinical research interviews about family and individual histories, current peer and family experience, school life, handling of feelings, and visions of the future (pp. 10–11). Individuals showing markedly better outcomes than expected were compared with individuals showing average outcomes. The narrative data were assessed from current and past interviews using a person-based follow-back design. Five content themes and a structural feature were markedly stronger for individuals who showed above average outcomes than average former patients: • Self-reflection—awareness of feelings and thoughts, reflections of current experiences. • Self-efficacy or agency—consciously deciding to use information toward effective parenting. • Self-complexity—recognizing multiple aspects of behavior and outcomes. • Persistence and ambition—moving ahead with education and seeking new alternatives. • Self-esteem—assessments reflect realistic self-evaluation and kinder self-regard. • Coherent narratives—recognizing events that led to hospitalization, describing hospitalization, and coherent descriptions of their lives since that time. The approach to trace back across narratives from average versus resilient young adults who previously were hospitalized for psychiatric disorders revealed more relevant information than the highly structured approaches used formerly. Characteristics of the adolescent narratives, such as coherence and reduced passive discourse, were special features revealed during analysis that differentiated resilient from average former patients.

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Reference Hauser, S. T. 1999. “Understanding Resilient Outcomes: Adolescent Lives Across Time and Generations,” Journal of Research on Adolescence 9, pp. 1–24.

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STUDENT RESEARCH PROJECTS Research Project 13.1—College Students and the Use of Alcohol Objective. Students will gain experience administering a survey and will be able to compare the behavior patterns of their own friends with national statistics. Type/Length of Activity. In- and out-of-class activity; 6 hours. Directions. Interview five friends about their history of alcohol use. (Students may respond to the questions themselves as one of the five individuals.) Use the interview questions listed below, record each person’s responses, and then answer the questions that follow. A data sheet is available at the end of the Instructor’s Manual. Questions for Participants 1. How often do you have a drink? 2. At what age did you first drink? 3. When you take a drink, how much do you drink? 4. Do you ever get drunk? 5. If you answered “yes” to question 4, how frequently? Questions for Observers 1. What is the average frequency of drinking in your subjects? What is the range among individuals? Are there large individual differences in frequency of drinking? Are there age or sex differences? 2.

What is the average age at which your subjects first drank? What is the range among individuals? Are there large individual differences in the age at which they started drinking? Are there age or sex differences? On average, how much do these subjects consume when they drink? What is the range among individuals? Are there large individual differences in the amount they drink? Are there age or sex differences? How often, overall, does this group get drunk? What is the range among individuals? Are there large individual differences in frequency of drunkenness? Are there age or sex differences? How does your data compare with data on alcohol use in adolescents presented in the text? Does your data support or refute the text?

Wrap-Up. Present and pool the data in class. Identify trends in the data, and discuss the findings. As a group, compile a list of recommendations for the school administration and/or the local city council that address problems of alcohol consumption in your community. Research Project 13.2—Investigating Websites Objective. Students will identify and assess Internet resources for professionals and/or consumers that facilitate the understanding of adolescent problems. Santrock, Adolescence, 16e

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Type/Length of Activity. Out-of-class assignment; approximately 3 hours. Directions. In Chapter 13, Santrock offers about 45 Internet sites for you to investigate and identify additional information about adolescent problems. Choose about 12 of them and print the first page to document the sites you visited. Be sure to find at least one site for each of the following topic areas. For each site, consider the following questions: 1. Is the site offered by a government, educational, professional, business, or consumer group? 2. Does the site present factual information that is well documented with references, or inferences with supporting arguments and content consisting predominantly of assumptions? 3. 4.

Explain the focus of the information. Are the major recommendations for professionals, parents, adolescents, or interested community members? What recommendations would you give others: (1) to look for information to write a term paper, (2) to get information to solve personal difficulties with youth, (3) to help a parent of an adolescent identify resources that could help to optimize his or her resources, outcomes, and quality of life for everyone?

Topic Areas • Characteristics of Adolescent problems/psychopathology • Resilience • Drugs and alcohol • Cigarette smoking • Juvenile delinquency • Depression and suicide • Preventing adolescent problems Wrap-Up. Be prepared to share your results and conclusions in class. If you are doing a semester paper, complete a traditional technical paper organizing the information you acquired (including extensive citations). An alternative final product is to create a website with original text and graphics and links to relevant sites created by other knowledgeable and professional sources.

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ESSAY QUESTIONS Review the guidelines for “Answering Essay Questions” before students respond to these questions. 1. Explain the biological, psychological, and sociocultural factors that contribute to adolescent problems, and give examples of each. Which two approaches are used to explain the relationship between these factors and adolescent problems? 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

9. 10.

Explain acculturative stress and the relationship of this type of stress to poverty. Define coping; list and define the different ways of coping. Describe trends in adolescent drug use over the past 10 years. Be sure to compare and contrast use trends of at least three different drugs. Describe the characteristic patterns of cigarette smoking by adolescents, and explain why it is both a short- and long-term problem. Describe the factors that lead to drug and alcohol use. What conditions influence adolescents to be casual drug users or to become drug abusers? Define the categorization of conduct disorder and summarize socioeconomic, culture, community, family, and sibling factors that lead to the identification of delinquency. Describe characteristics of youths at risk for engaging in school violence and recommendations for reducing violence. Define the term major depressive disorder, and explain the factors that are related to chronic depression observed during adolescence. Explain the proximal and distal experiences that influence suicide attempts. Define obesity, anorexia, and bulimia, and binge eating disorder and compare and contrast the behavior patterns associated with each eating disorder. Describe the types of serious multi-problem behavior that high-risk youth demonstrate. What strategies do successful programs employ to reduce adolescent problems?

References National Institute on Drug Abuse. 1999. The Sixth Triennial Report to Congress—Drug Abuse and Addiction Research: 25 Years of Discovery to Advance the Health of the Public. Washington, DC: National Institute of Health. Reid, J. B., Patterson, G. R., and Snyder, J. J. 2002. Antisocial Behavior in Children and Adolescents: A Developmental Analysis and the Oregon Model for Intervention. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Sells, S. P. 2001. Parenting Your out of Control Teenager. St. Martin’s Press, Inc. Takanishi, R. 1993. “Adolescence” [Special issue], American Psychologist 48(2), 1993.

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INTERNET ACTIVITIES Internet Activity 13.1 Alcohol Use and Abuse The National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism is a great resource. Many of your students may be experiencing problems associated with being in college and drinking. You can you use the information on this page to provide students with information about alcohol abuse and alcoholism. http://www.niaaa.nih.gov/ There is an alcohol abuse screening quiz at: http://alcoholism.about.com/od/tests/l/blquiz_alcohol.htm Internet Activity 13.2 Juvenile Delinquency The Andrew Glover Youth Program is a program in New York City. It offers an alternative to incarceration that involves court advocacy, youth workers, and a prevention program. You can have students research this program and others like it and present their findings in class. http://www.agyp.org/ Internet Activity 13.3 Depression There are many Web pages with information about depression. You can use this information to enhance your lecture or you can direct students to these and other Web pages. Psychology Information Online http://www.psychologyinfo.com/depression/ There are also a number of Depression Questionnaires available online: http://www.mentalhelp.net/poc/view_doc.php?id=973&type=doc&cn=Depression%20(Unipolar) http://www.mentalhealthamerica.net/mental-health-screen/patient-health Internet Activity 13.4 Eating Disorders There are many Web pages related to eating disorders. You can assign students an eating disorder to research or you can use information from the Web to enhance your lecture. The National Eating Disorder Association http://www.nationaleatingdisorders.org/ The National Eating Disorders Centre http://www.nedic.ca/

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Resource Title Impulsive Behavior

Juvenile Offenders

Obesity

Eating Disorders: Anorexia Specific

Talking About Drugs at Age 14

13 13

Marijuana Use Among Young Adults: Expert Interview

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Resource Type Video Video Video Video Video Video

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ACTIVITIES TO ACCOMPANY CONNECT VIDEOS Talking About Drugs at Age 14 (Connect) Overview Two 14-year-old mature adolescent girls express their views about drug use among teens. One girl says frankly that smoking a joint is no worse than drinking a glass of wine. Pre-Test 1. Marijuana is classified as what type of drug? a. Depressant Incorrect. Alcohol is an example of a depressant. b. Stimulant Incorrect. Nicotine is an example of a stimulant. c. Amphetamine Incorrect. An amphetamine is a type of drug classified as a stimulant. d. Hallucinogen Correct. Marijuana is classified as a hallucinogen. Post-Test 1. Which statement best reflects the attitude of these girls toward drug use? a. The girls in the video have a positive attitude toward drug use. Incorrect. The girls believe that using drugs can ruin your life. b. The girls in the video think drug use can ruin your life. Correct. They believe drug use is detrimental to people. c. The girls in the video have no strong opinions about drug use. Incorrect. These girls do have strong opinions about drug use. d. The girls in the video think drug use should be legalized. Incorrect. They did not mention anything about the legalization of drugs.

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