Test Bank For Using Educational Psychology in Teaching. Eleventh Edition by StudyGuide

TABLE OF CONTENTS Introduction: To Instructors ......................................................................................................... 4 Chapter 1: Educational Psychology: Understanding Learning and Teaching .............................. 5 Chapter 2: Cognitive and Language Development .................................................................... 20 Chapter 3: Personal, Social, and Moral Development ............................................................... 52 Chapter 4: Learner Diversity ...................................................................................................... 83 Chapter 5: Learners with Exceptionalities ............................................................................... 102 Chapter 6: Behaviorism and Social Cognitive Theory ............................................................ 133 Chapter 7: Cognitive Views of Learning ................................................................................. 160 Chapter 8: Complex Cognitive Processes ............................................................................... 198 Chapter 9: Knowledge Construction and the Learning Sciences ............................................. 230 Chapter 10: Motivation and Learning ....................................................................................... 251 Chapter 11: A Classroom Model for Promoting Student Motivation ........................................ 285 Chapter 12: Classroom Management: Developing Self-Regulated Learners............................. 306 Chapter 13: Learning and Effective Teaching ........................................................................... 336 Chapter 14: Increasing Learning Through Assessment ............................................................. 363 Chapter 15: Standardized Testing and Learning ........................................................................ 391 Chapter 1 Answers ................................................................................................................... 411 Chapter 2 Answers ................................................................................................................... 416 Chapter 3 Answers ................................................................................................................... 426 Chapter 4 Answers ................................................................................................................... 435 Chapter 5 Answers ................................................................................................................... 441 Chapter 6 Answers .................................................................................................................. 450 Chapter 7 Answers ................................................................................................................... 459 Chapter 8 Answers ................................................................................................................... 470 Chapter 9 Answers ................................................................................................................... 479 Chapter 10 Answers ................................................................................................................... 486 Chapter 11 Answers ................................................................................................................... 497 Chapter 12 Answers ................................................................................................................... 504 Chapter 13 Answers ................................................................................................................... 514 Chapter 14 Answers ................................................................................................................... 523 Chapter 15 Answers ................................................................................................................... 532

Chapter 1: Educational Psychology: Understanding Learning and Teaching

CHAPTER ONE EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY: UNDERSTANDING LEARNING AND TEACHING Expert Teaching and Student Learning Knowledge-Level Items 1.

Of the following factors, which contributes most to students’ learning and development? a. The curriculum that students follow b. The size of the classes students are in c. The students’ school facilities and extracurricular activities d. The students’ teachers

A person who is highly knowledgeable or skilled in a particular domain, such as physics, anesthesiology, or teaching is best describes as a(n): a. professional. b. expert. c. scholar. d. technician.

People’s professional knowledge and skills, social abilities, and personality attributes that contribute to a nation’s cultural and economic advancement, best describes: a. effective teaching. b. expert teaching. c. human capital. d. human learning.

Which of the following best describes expert teaching? a. Some people are natural teachers, and others are not. It is very difficult to acquire the skills needed to be an expert teacher without a great deal of natural ability. b. Some teachers possess more natural ability than others, but expertise can be acquired through study and practice. c. Expertise in teaching is acquired largely through experience in classrooms. d. Expert teaching in elementary schools is acquired through study and practice, but expert teaching in middle and secondary schools largely depends on teachers’ knowledge of content.

Chapter 1: Educational Psychology: Understanding Learning and Teaching

Higher-Level Items 5.

An elementary school decides to experiment with two different curriculum approaches to language arts. The first focuses on a whole language approach, and the second focuses on word-attack skills, such as phonics. If the schools’ results are consistent with patterns identified by research, which of the following is the most likely outcome? a. The whole-language approach will result in more student learning than will the approach emphasizing phonics in all the elementary grades. b. The approach emphasizing phonics will result in more student learning than will the approach emphasizing whole language in all the elementary grades. c. The approach emphasizing phonics will result in more student learning in the lower elementary grades, but the approach emphasizing whole language will result in more learning in the upper elementary grades. d. The effectiveness of either approach depends on the knowledge and skills of the teacher implementing the program; one is not necessarily better than the other.

Research has identified a number of positive outcomes for students taught by expert teachers compared to students taught by teachers with less expertise. Which of the following is not one of those best describes the outcome for students taught by expert teachers compared to students taught by teachers with less expertise? a. Students taught by expert teachers are less likely to have children out of wedlock than are students taught by teachers with less expertise. b. Students taught by expert teachers are likely to earn higher salaries that are students taught by teachers with less expertise. c. Students taught by expert teachers are more likely to come to school socially mature than are students taught by teachers with less expertise. d. Students taught by expert teachers are more likely to attend college than are students taught by teachers with less expertise.

Of the following, which statement most accurately describes the difference between expert teachers and their colleagues with less expertise? a. Expert teachers possess more professional knowledge and skills that do their colleagues with less expertise. b. Expert teachers have more experience than their colleagues with less expertise. c. Expert teachers care about their students more than their colleagues with less expertise. d. Expert teachers have degrees in specific fields, such as math or English, whereas less expert teachers do not have comparable degrees.

Chapter 1: Educational Psychology: Understanding Learning and Teaching

Essay Items 8.

Describe the difference between expert teachers and teachers with less expertise

A number of differences exist between a “good” school and a school that is less good. However, one difference is be more important than any other. What is this difference?

Educational Psychology, Expert Teaching, and Professional Knowledge Knowledge-Level Items 10.

The body of information and skills that is unique to an area of study, such as law, medicine, or teaching is best described as: a. professional knowledge. b. expert knowledge. c. background knowledge. d. formal knowledge.

11.

Of the following, which description is most characteristic of beginning teachers? a. They are realistic, sometimes even pessimistic, about the extent to which they’ll be able to help young people from disadvantaged backgrounds. b. They believe that they will be more effective than teachers now in the field. c. They are unsure of their commitment to teaching. d. They go into teaching for material rewards.

12.

Research indicates that effective teaching requires four kinds of professional knowledge. They include: a. knowledge of content, general pedagogical knowledge, knowledge of learners and learning, and knowledge of human relations. b. knowledge of content, pedagogical content knowledge, general pedagogical knowledge, and knowledge of learners and learning. c. pedagogical content knowledge, general pedagogical knowledge, knowledge of learners and learning, and knowledge of human relations. d. knowledge of teaching skills, knowledge of learning styles, knowledge of student learning, and knowledge of content.

13.

Teacher abilities such as questioning and the ability to organize a classroom so it functions smoothly would best be described as: a. knowledge of content. b. pedagogical content knowledge. c. general pedagogical knowledge. d. knowledge of learners and learning.

14.

The ability to find or create examples of topics so that the topics are meaningful to learners is best described as: a knowledge of content. 7 Copyright © 2020, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

Chapter 1: Educational Psychology: Understanding Learning and Teaching

b. pedagogical content knowledge. c. general pedagogical knowledge. d. knowledge of learners and learning.

15.

“You can’t teach what you don’t know” is a commonly stated maxim in teaching. Of the following, it most nearly describes: a. knowledge of content. b. pedagogical content knowledge. c. general pedagogical knowledge. d. knowledge of learners and learning.

16.

Reflective practice is defined as: a. the spontaneous problem-solving effective teachers employ. b. the confidence to communicate with parents, other teachers, and administrators. c. the process of conducting a critical self-examination of one’s practice and thinking. d. the accumulation of day to day interactions that engaged teachers use when working with struggling learners.

Higher-Level Items 17.

Look at the following statement: Research recognizes that students do not passively receive information from teachers (like tape recorders), but instead construct their own knowledge of the topics they study as they attempt to make sense of the information. You understand this statement and prepare and deliver your instruction with this idea in mind. Your understanding most closely relates to: a. knowledge of content. b. pedagogical content knowledge. c. general pedagogical knowledge. d. knowledge of learners and learning.

18.

Hector is a middle school earth science teacher. He knows his students have difficulty understanding the geology of different land forms in our country. Knowing this, he has gone to the Internet and found a number of colored pictures of young mountains, mature mountains, young rivers, old rivers, and the same for plateaus. Recognizing that his students have difficulty with this concept and finding a way to better assist their learning, best illustrates Hector’s: a. domain-specific prior knowledge. b. general pedagogical knowledge. c. general prior knowledge. d. pedagogical content knowledge.

Chapter 1: Educational Psychology: Understanding Learning and Teaching

19.

Gretchen wants to strengthen her American literature instruction during the next school year, so she enrolls in a master’s-level course that focuses on American classics, such as The Scarlet Letter and To Kill a Mockingbird. By enrolling in this course Gretchen is illustrating her desire to increase her: a. knowledge of content. b. general pedagogical knowledge. c. general prior knowledge. d. pedagogical content knowledge.

20.

After studying educational psychology, Jeff Curry understands that the thinking of his high school students is concrete, e.g., they are able to understand abstract concepts like density, nationalism, or symbolism, for examples, only after seeing concrete illustrations of them. Without these illustrations, they attempt to memorize formulas or definitions that have little meaning for them. Of the following, the teacher’s understanding would best be described as: a. knowledge of learners and learning. b. knowledge of content. c. pedagogical content knowledge. d. general pedagogical knowledge.

Use the following information for items 21 and 22. April Jackson’s students have difficulty understanding the concept pressure, tending to equate it with force. To try to help her students understand the difference, she stands with both feet on the floor and then stands with one foot on the floor. She then helps the students understand that the amount of force she exerts on the floor is the same on either one foot or both feet, but she exerts twice as much pressure on one foot, because the force is on a smaller area. 21.

Her ability to represent the concept pressure in this way best illustrates her: a. knowledge of content. b. pedagogical content knowledge. c. general pedagogical knowledge. d. knowledge of learners and learning.

22.

The way April represented her content—standing on one foot and then standing on two feet to show the students the difference between force and pressure is best described as a(n): a. simulation. b. model. c. case study. d. example.

Chapter 1: Educational Psychology: Understanding Learning and Teaching

Use the following information for Items 23–26. Kathy Krudwig, an educational psychology instructor, wants her students to understand the importance of teacher questioning as a means of involving students. She read a research study in which one group of teachers was trained to call on all their students as equally as possible, another group of comparable teachers received no training, and the results indicated that the trained teachers’ students achieved significantly higher than the other teachers’ students. She knows, however, that simply telling her students to ask many questions will be less effective than showing them something concrete, so she writes the following vignette and displays it on the document camera in her classroom. Mrs. Myers was having a difficult time getting her students to respond. She tried various high-interest activities, but they remained apathetic. Finally, she tried a direct approach. She told them that she was going to call on each of them whether or not they had their hand up. She reminded them that she was there to help them if they had trouble answering. At first the process was very difficult, and she was exhausted at the end of the day, but within a week, the attention level and involvement of her students had increased significantly.

Kathy also “practices what she preaches” by calling on all of her students as equally as possible. 23.

Of the following, the form of content representation best illustrated by the vignette Kathy displayed is best described as: a. an example. b. a case study. c. a simulation. d. a model.

24.

We see that Kathy understood that “simply telling her students to ask many questions will be less effective than showing them something concrete.” Kathy’s understanding in this instance is best described as: a. knowledge of content. b. pedagogical content knowledge. c. knowledge of correlational research. d. knowledge of learners and learning.

25.

Kathy’s ability to create her vignette to help her students reach her goal is best described as: a. knowledge of content. b. pedagogical content knowledge. c. general pedagogical knowledge. d. knowledge of learners and learning.

Chapter 1: Educational Psychology: Understanding Learning and Teaching

26.

Kathy’s practicing what she preached by calling on her own students best indicates her: a. knowledge of content. b. pedagogical content knowledge. c. general pedagogical knowledge. d. knowledge of learners and learning.

27.

Jack Ryan, a math teacher, uses lecture as his primary instructional strategy, and if his students are confused, he tries to explain the content even more clearly. Lucas Walsh, also a math teacher, uses a great deal of questioning with his students, varies his activities, and works hard to represent the content he teaches in ways that students can understand. Of the following, which is the most likely explanation for the differences between Jack’s and Lucas’s approaches to teaching? a. Lucas has more experience than does Jack. b. Lucas understands math better than does Jack. c. Lucas has more native ability than does Jack. d. Lucas possesses more professional knowledge than does Jack.

28.

“I’m going to have the children practice on long-vowel sounds and blends during skills block tomorrow,” Ava Goodwin, a kindergarten teacher, says to herself as she plans for the next week. “I don’t think I’ve spent enough time on basic skills the past few weeks.” Ava then spends more time on basic skills the next week. Ava’s concluding that she hasn’t been spending enough time on basic skills best illustrates which of the following characteristics of expert teaching? a. Decision making in ill-defined contexts b. Reflective practice c. Pedagogical content knowledge d. A body of specialized knowledge

29.

Raphael Sanchez represents the concept crustacean by showing his students a lobster, a crab, and shrimp and having them identify the characteristics they have in common. Which of the following is Raphael best applying by representing crustaceans in this way? a. Strategy 2: Linking abstract concepts to concrete representations from the National Council on Teacher Quality’s Six Strategies that Every New Teacher Needs to Know b. General pedagogical knowledge as a form of professional knowledge that all teachers should possess c. Principle 2: What students already know affects their learning, from the Top 20 Principles from Psychology for PreK-12 Teaching and Learning d. Principle 6: Clear, explanatory, and timely feedback to students is important for learning, from the Top 20 Principles from Psychology for PreK-12 Teaching and Learning

Chapter 1: Educational Psychology: Understanding Learning and Teaching

30.

Which of the following best illustrates Principle 5: Acquiring long-term knowledge and skill is largely dependent on practice from the Top 20 Principles from Psychology for PreK-12 Teaching and Learning? a. Grace Simek gives her 6th graders several examples of different types of figurative language, such as simile, metaphor, and personification. b. Luna Rodriguez tries to ask questions, such as “Why?” and “How do you Know?” as often as possible in her teaching? c. Dylan Jacobs is working with his 1st graders on adding and subtracting whole numbers. After his lesson he has the students work on a seatwork assignment for several minutes and monitors their efforts. d. Jack Toner always provides detailed explanations for frequently missed items on both his homework assignments and on his weekly quizzes.

31.

Mike Melvin, a 5th grade teacher, is working with his students on adding and subtracting fractions with unlike denominators. However, on his homework assignments he also includes some problems that involve adding and subtracting fractions with like denominators. Then, when he moves to multiplying and dividing fractions, he also includes a problem or two where students must add and subtract fractions, with both like and unlike denominators. Which of the following six essential teaching strategies that all new teachers need to know, from the National Council on Teacher Quality is Mike most nearly applying with his homework practice? a. Strategy 5: Distributing practice b. Strategy 2: Linking abstract concepts to concrete representations c. Strategy 4: Alternating problems with solutions provided and problems students must solve d. Strategy 6: Assessing learning

Essay Items 32.

Describe and provide an example of each of the kinds of knowledge professional teachers possess.

Items 33 and 34 are related. 33.

Paul Hernandez stands at the front of his classroom and smiles broadly as his seventh graders stroll in for their first meeting. This is the day he's been waiting for, and he feels ready. He is confident that his double major in history and geography will make him a stellar teacher. He feels especially lucky in that he's obtained an emergency certificate and hasn't been forced to waste time in teacher education classes. Which type of professional knowledge is Paul most likely to have? Explain.

Chapter 1: Educational Psychology: Understanding Learning and Teaching

34.

Paul explains that geography influences a great many things about our lives, such as the location of major cities, the economies of different areas, and the lifestyles people adopt. This material is very interesting to him, and he’s a bit surprised that his students don’t seem to share the same interest. Paul’s approach to instruction suggests that he lacks two forms of professional knowledge. What are they?

The Role of Research in Acquiring Professional Knowledge Knowledge-Level Items 35.

Which of the following is the best definition of research? a. The process of making decisions about the best way to represent the content that is being taught b. The process of systematically gathering information in an attempt to answer professional questions c. The process of requiring students to demonstrate that they have met specified standards, and holding teachers responsible for students’ performance d. The process of making changes in educational policy to more nearly meet the needs of students at all levels

36.

Which of the following statements most accurately describes the role of research in teaching? a. It is the mechanism expert teachers use to improve their practice. b. It is the process teachers use to help students understand abstract concepts. c. It is the mechanism expert teachers use to confirm commonsense understanding about teaching. d. It is the process teacher use to understand theoretical problems that don't have direct application in classrooms.

37.

Researchers will often investigate educational events, such as the impact of a certain teaching strategy on the achievement of students, using numerical data and statistical techniques. This process is best described as: a. qualitative research. b. quantitative research. c. descriptive research. d. longitudinal research.

38.

The use of surveys, interviews, or observations to identify people’s opinions and attitudes is best described as: a. quantitative research. b. correlational research. c. experimental research. d. qualitative research.

Chapter 1: Educational Psychology: Understanding Learning and Teaching

39.

Research that combines quantitative and qualitative approaches to trying to answer an educational question is best described as: a. descriptive research. b. correlational research. c. mixed-methods research. d. longitudinal research.

40.

Of the following, the best description of the type of research that is most commonly conducted by teachers in their classrooms is: a. descriptive research. b. correlational research. c. action research. d. experimental research.

41.

When conducting action research, after identifying and diagnosing a problem that is important to you, the next step is to: a. use the results of the study to generate additional research. b. implement the findings to solve or improve a local problem. c. generalize the findings to other action research settings. d. systematically plan and conduct a research study.

42.

Research in education has received a considerable amount of criticism over the years, with its lack of impact on classroom practice being one of the most important. Which of the following types of research has become prominent in response to these criticisms? a. Design-based research b. Qualitative research c. Action research d. Quantitative research

43.

Of the following, what is the best description of a theory? a. A series of related patterns that can be used as a basis for explanation and prediction. b. A large body of information that has limited value in the real world. c. An abstract description of events taking place primarily in the sciences. d. A series of descriptions and conjectures that don't have any basis in fact.

44.

Sets of related principles that are based on observations and are used to explain additional observations best define: a. pedagogical content knowledge. b. random assignment. c. research. d. theories.

Chapter 1: Educational Psychology: Understanding Learning and Teaching

45.

Of the following, the best description of the use of theories is to: a. rehearse and reflect. b. describe and correlate. c. explain and predict. d. inquire and experiment.

Higher-Level Items 46.

A research study indicating that teachers who use concrete examples to illustrate their topics have students who score higher on their achievement tests than teachers who represent the ideas abstractly best illustrates what kind of research? a. Qualitative research b. Quantitative research c. Descriptive research d. Longitudinal research

47.

Amanda Jones is an educational researcher who uses a series of case studies to investigate factors related to the success of members of cultural minorities in colleges and universities. The type of research that Amanda does can best be described as: a. quantitative research. b. action research. c. mixed-methods research. d. qualitative research.

48.

Luisa Hernandez is an educational researcher. She surveys everyone in the district to obtain their opinions about after-school enrichment programs. What type of research is best illustrated by Luisa’s efforts? a. Quantitative research b. Qualitative research c. Mixed-methods research d. Design-based research

49.

A research team from a nearby university collaborates with Felice Hernandez, a 5th grade teacher, to examine the impact of concept maps, on students’ reading comprehension. A series of studies are conducted with Felice’s, and each study’s design depends in part on the results of the previous study. Of the following, which type of research is best illustrated by this description? a. Quantitative research b. Qualitative research c. Action research d. Design-based research

Chapter 1: Educational Psychology: Understanding Learning and Teaching

50.

Nikki Yudin, a middle school teacher, has recently read articles suggesting that homework doesn’t increase student learning. So, she decides to investigate the question. In two of her classes she gives homework as always, and in two other classes she assigns no homework. She follows this practice for one 9-week grading period, and finds that the classes who did homework scored higher than her other two classes on her 9-weeks test. Which of the following types of research is best illustrated by Nikki’s study? a. Action research b. Qualitative research c. Mixed-methods research d. Design-based research

51.

Researchers observe a sample of teachers and find that those who ask large numbers of questions have students who are more attentive than those who spend more time lecturing and explaining. They also interview a selected sample of students to determine students’ emotional reactions to being asked large numbers of questions. Of the following which type of research is best illustrated by the researchers’ practices? a. Quantitative research b. Qualitative research c. Mixed-methods research d. Action research

52.

You understand the statements “People tend to display the same behaviors that they see other people display,” and “People are more likely to imitate the behaviors of famous people than people who are less famous.” You realize that the statements are related and you then realize why movie stars and athletes are used to help companies sell their products. Of the following, what best describes the two related statements? a. Combined, they illustrate components of a theory. b. Combined, they illustrate experimental research. c. Combined, they illustrate critical decision making. d. Combined, they illustrate pedagogical content knowledge.

53.

You have studied a theory that focuses on the way people learn, and you understand the theory thoroughly. Of the following, which statement best describes how you will use this understanding in the real world? a. It provides you with information about the way people learn that you know to be true for all cases. b. It allows you to predict what kind of practice will likely result in the most learning. c. It provides you with a set of teaching rules, which if properly applied will almost always work. d. It provides you with knowledge and understanding, even though it has limited application for classroom practice.

Chapter 1: Educational Psychology: Understanding Learning and Teaching

Essay Items 54.

Describe each of the following types of research and explain how they’re different: quantitative research, qualitative research, mixed-methods research, action research and design-based research.

55.

Describe the relationship between research and theory. Provide an example that illustrates the relationship between the two.

Teaching in Today’s Classrooms Knowledge-Level Items 56.

Statements that describe what students should know or be able to do at the end of a prescribed period of study are best described as: a. forms of accountability. b. standards. c. value-added models. d. assessments.

57.

Which of the following best explains why the Common Core State Standards Initiative (CCSSI) was developed? a. States wanted to ensure that all students graduate from high school with the skills and knowledge necessary to succeed in college, career, and life, regardless of where they live. b. Our federal government wanted to create a national curriculum that would be competitive with other advanced nations. c. States in our country wanted standards to focus to a much greater extent on the impact of technology on learning and teaching. d. Educational leaders wanted to create standards that would “level the playing field” for students who are members of cultural minorities.

58.

The process of requiring students to demonstrate that they have met standards, and making teachers responsible for ensuring that students do indeed meet the standards is best described as: a. value-added modeling. b. standards-based education. c. assessment. d. accountability.

Chapter 1: Educational Psychology: Understanding Learning and Teaching

59.

Which of the following best describes demographic trends predicted to exist over the next few years in our country? a. By the year 2026 more than half of the students in our country will be members of cultural minorities. b. By the year 2026, more than half country’s students will be of Hispanic background. c. By the year 2026, more than half of the students in our country will be students with exceptionalities. d. By the year 2026, more than half of the students in our country will be African American.

60.

Which of the following best describes the poverty rates in our country compared to other industrialized countries? a. The percentage of American families below the poverty line is consistently lower than in other industrialized countries. b. The percentage of American families below the poverty line is about the same as in other industrialized countries. c. The percentage of rural American families below the poverty line is lower than in other industrialized countries, but the percentage of urban American families below the poverty line is higher than in other industrialized countries. d. The percentage of American families below the poverty line is consistently higher than in other industrialized countries.

61.

Which of the following best describes experts’ estimates of the impact that technology will have on education over the next several years? a. Technology will present both potential benefits and challenges for teachers; technology is neither all good nor all bad. b. Technology will revolutionize teaching; in 10 years teaching won’t resemble the way it exists today. c. The influence of technology on teaching will largely be limited to using the Internet to access information. d. Research suggests that technology is having a negative impact on learning because of the amount of time students spend on activities such as texting and playing video games.

Higher-Level Items 62.

Teresa Walker is a second-grade teacher in a large urban elementary school. Her students take a state test near the end of the school year to determine their learning progress. Teresa’s year-end evaluation is determined in part by the amount her students improve, such as moving from the 50th to the 60th percentile in reading during the academic year. The overall process Teresa is experiencing best illustrates which of the following? a. Accountability b. High-stakes testing c. Pedagogical content knowledge d. Standards-based instruction 18 Copyright © 2020, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

Chapter 1: Educational Psychology: Understanding Learning and Teaching

Essay Items 63.

Explain why standards and accountability are so much a part of teaching in today’s schools in our nation.

64.

Describe the Common Core State Standards Initiative, and explain why it was developed.

65.

Describe the general process of teacher licensure and evaluation that virtually all teacher candidates will experience.

66.

Describe an important demographic trend that is occurring in our country and the implications this trend will have for teaching in the future.

Chapter 2: Cognitive and Language Development

CHAPTER TWO COGNITIVE AND LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT What Is Development? Knowledge-Level Items 1.

Of the following, what is the best definition of development? a. Changes that occur in human beings as they grow from infancy to adulthood b. The process of adjusting schemes to maintain a state of equilibrium c. Modifying environmental experience to fit existing schemes d. Physiological changes in an individual that result from genetic makeup

Which of the following is a principle of development? a. Development proceeds in discrete steps, like walking up a stairway. b. Development and learning are relatively independent. c. Children develop at about the same rate until they reach school age. d. Development depends on both heredity and the environment.

At the center of Bronfenbrenner’s model is/are: a. the individual. b. parents. c. the microsystem. d. the mesosytem.

In Bronfenbrenner’s model, the people and activities in the child’s immediate surroundings, which include parents, peers, school, and other influences such as television and the Internet, make up the: a. environment. b. microsystem. c. chronosystem. d. exosystem.

In Bronfenbrenner’s model, interactions between people and activities in the child’s immediate surroundings, such as interactions between peers, school, and the immediate neighborhood, make up the: a. microsystem. b. mesosystem. c. exosystem. d. macrosystem.

Chapter 2: Cognitive and Language Development

Societal influences, such as parents’ jobs, school systems, and workplace conditions, best describe which of Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological systems? a. Microsystem b. Mesosystem c. Exosystem d. Macrosystem

Higher-Level Items 7.

One eighth grader is a young woman, physically and emotionally mature, whereas her classmate is still a “little girl,” both physically and emotionally. Which of the following principles of development does this example best illustrate? a. Development proceeds in orderly and predictable patterns. b. Experience enhances development. c. People develop at different rates. d. Development depends on both heredity and the environment.

Fred Rogers encourages parental involvement in his students’ activities. He calls parents, has his students create a newsletter that goes to parents each month, and sends packets of work home to be signed and returned. Which of Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological systems is best illustrated by Fred’s efforts? a. Microsystem. b. Mesosystem. c. Exosystem. d. Macrosystem.

Michaels’s cultural background emphasizes individualism, autonomy, and self-reliance, whereas Chu’s culture emphasizes group cooperation and respect for authority. In Bronfenbrenner’s model, these influences on personal development would be classified as part of the: a. microsystem b. mesosystem c. exosystem d. macrosystem

10.

Jennifer is fortunate enough to go to a school that has a full-time school psychologist, school nurse, and small class sizes. Sonya’s school, however, is overcrowded, and the school psychologist only comes twice a week, because he has two other schools for which he is responsible. These influences on personal development would be classified in Bronfenbrenner’s model as part of the: a. microsystem. b. mesosystem. c. exosystem. d. macrosystem.

Chapter 2: Cognitive and Language Development

11.

Jenny Newhall, a first-grade teacher, demonstrates that air takes up space by pushing an inverted drink cup into a fish bowl of water. The students see that the cup doesn’t fill with water. Darlene explains that water doesn’t go into the cup because “the cup is tipped over.” Alysia says, “Air kept the water out. My dad and I were in the swimming pool, and when he tipped the cup, some air got out and water got in, but if he didn’t tip the cup, no water could get in.” Which of the following principles of development does this example best illustrate? a. Development proceeds in orderly and predictable patterns. b. Development depends on both heredity and the environment. c. People develop at different rates. d. Development occurs in a variety of domains.

Essay Items 12.

Describe the three general principles of development, and provide an example of each.

13.

Describe each of the systems in Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological model of personal development. Describe two important implications of Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological model of personal development, and provide an example to illustrate each.

14.

The Neuroscience of Learning and Development Knowledge-Level Items 15.

Research has uncovered a number of characteristics of our brains. Of the following, which is not one of those characteristics? a. The brain is our body’s most complex organ. b. The brain instinctively looks for patterns in the way the world works. c. The structure of the brain develops during childhood and remains largely unchanged after that time. d. Genetically determined electric circuits are the foundation of the nervous system.

16.

Brain nerve cells are called: a. neurons. b. dendrites. c. synapses. d. lobes.

17.

The components of neurons that transmit outgoing messages to other neurons are called: a. dendrites. b. lobes. c. synapses. d. axons.

Chapter 2: Cognitive and Language Development

18.

The components of neurons that receive incoming messages from other neurons are called: a. dendrites. b. lobes. c. synapses. d. axons.

19.

Of the following, the part of the brain most nearly responsible for much of human problem solving and language is the: a. dendrite branch. b. neural connection. c. synaptic center. d. cerebral cortex.

20.

The process of firing and insulating a neural circuit is best described as which of the following? a. Synaptic pruning b. Myelination c. Neural connectivity d. Neuroplasticity

21.

The process of eliminating synapses that are infrequently used is best described as which of the following? a. Myelination b. Neuroplasticity c. Neural reduction d. Synaptic pruning

22.

A misconception generated by a misunderstanding, a misreading or a misquoting of facts scientifically established by brain research best describes a: a. neuro-segment. b. critical period. c. neuromyth. d. neuro-fallacy.

23.

The finding that people who learn a foreign language later in life often speak with an accent is best explained by: a. the importance of optimal environments. b. the existence of critical periods. c. increased neural activity during language development. d. the effects of enriched environments.

Chapter 2: Cognitive and Language Development

24.

Research on critical periods in brain research most nearly suggests which of the following? a. Critical periods exist for humans but are flexible. b. The best time for the introduction of reading and math is 6 to 8 years. c. Critical periods provide critical “windows of opportunities” for developmental growth. d. Preschool should be a time of exploration and free play.

25.

Which of the following best describes the concept of neuroplasticity? a. The ability of the brain to rewire itself in response to experience b. The tendency of people to be left-brained or right-brained c. The tendency of the brain to look for patterns in the way the world works d. The ability of the brain to govern and determine a range of behaviors

26.

Several controversies exist with respect to neuroscience. Which of the following is not one of those controversies? a. The tendency of people to use neuroscience to explain behaviors and events it is incapable of explaining. b. The benefits or lack of benefits of added stimulation for cognitive development in young children c. The influence of experience on the physiology of the brain. d. The role of critical periods for development

Higher-Level Items 27.

Neuroscientists, psychologists, and educators generally believe that teenagers need firm and consistent home and school environments that support learning and development. Which of the following components of the physiology of our brains and nervous systems is most closely related to this conclusion? a. The neuron b. The cerebral cortex c. The prefrontal cortex d. The dendrite

Chapter 2: Cognitive and Language Development

Use the following example for Items 28 and 29. Jenny Newhall, a first-grade teacher, demonstrates that air takes up space by pushing an inverted drink cup into a fish bowl of water. The students see that the cup doesn’t fill with water. Darlene explains that water doesn’t go into the cup because “the cup is tipped over.” Alysia says, “Air kept the water out. My dad and I were in the swimming pool, and when he tipped the cup, some air got out and water got in, but if he didn’t tip the cup, no water could get in.” 28.

With respect to cognitive development, which of the following conclusions is most valid? a. Darlene is more “developed” than is Alysia, because she made a comment based on observation. b. Alysia is more “developed” than is Darlene, because she made a cognitively more sophisticated conclusion. c. Alysia is more “developed” than Darlene, because she is more mature. d. Both of the children are about equally developed, because they are both in the first grade, and children of the same age tend to be at about the same developmental level.

29.

With respect to the experience with air taking up space and the learning physiology of the brain, which of the following conclusions is most valid? a. Darlene will have more synaptic connections related to air taking up space than will Alysia. b. Both of the children will have about the same number of synaptic connections. c. Alysia will have more synaptic connections than will Darlene. d. The experience will result in more synaptic pruning for Alysia than it will for Darlene.

30.

Bruce is struggling with a word problem in math. The part of his brain that is most directly involved in his attempts is the: a. occipital lobe. b. temporal lobe. c. parietal lobe. d. cerebral cortex.

31.

Geraldo, a third grader, is creating a story map that identifies the feelings of the character in the story. His teacher’s goal is for all of her students to be able to draw inferences about characters’ feelings based on clues in the stories they read. The part of the learning physiology of Geraldo’s brain that will be most strongly influenced by these experiences are the: a. dendrites. b. synapses. c. axons. d. neurons.

Chapter 2: Cognitive and Language Development

32.

“I just attended the best workshop I’ve ever been to,” Suzanne exclaims to her friend, Molly. “They talked at length about being sure to adapt our instruction to our students’ preferred learning styles, and I’m trying to make sure I do that now as I plan.” Of the following, which is the best assessment of Suzanne’s efforts? a. Her efforts are likely to dramatically increase her students’ learning. b. Her efforts are likely to increase her student’s learning, but not dramatically. c. Her efforts are likely to significantly decrease her students’ learning. d. Her efforts are not likely to impact her students’ learning one way or the other.

33.

Which of the following is the most important implication of neuroscience for our teaching? a. Attempt to design our instruction so it’s consistent with students’ preferred learning styles. b. Encourage school leaders to organize the curriculum so content is presented during students’ critical periods for learning. c. Provide students with a great deal of practice with the content and skills they are attempting to acquire. d. Allow students to have input into projects, so right-brained and left-brained students can capitalize on their learning tendencies.

Essay Items 34.

Explain the learning physiology of the brain and explain how it is related to cognitive development.

35.

Describe three implications of neuroscience for our teaching, and provide an example to illustrate each implication.

Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development Knowledge-Level Items 36.

37.

The biological changes we see in individuals as a result of the interaction of their genetic makeup with the environment is called: a. learning. b. maturation. c. development. d. experience. According to Piaget, people's need for order, structure, and predictability is called: a. development. b. learning. c. maturation. d. equilibrium.

Chapter 2: Cognitive and Language Development

38.

Of the following, the best definition of a scheme is: a. the knowledge, procedures, and relationships that we use to understand the world. b. the orderly durable changes in a learner resulting from learning, experience, and maturation. c. a state of conceptual balance and order. d. the process of modifying environmental experience to fit present understanding.

39.

The process of changing existing schemes in response to new experiences is called: a. assimilation. b. accommodation. c. equilibration. d. maturation.

40.

A form of adaptation in which an experience in the environment is modified to fit an existing scheme is called: a. organization. b. accommodation. c. assimilation. d. maturation.

41.

The ability to mentally trace a line of reasoning back to its beginning is referred to as: a. reversibility. b. centration. c. transformation. d. systematic reasoning.

42.

The stage in which children are unable to remember physical objects that are no longer visible is called the: a. sensorimotor stage. b. preoperational stage. c. concrete operational stage. d. formal operational stage.

43.

The inability to interpret an event from another person's point of view is called: a. irreversibility. b. centration. c. egocentrism. d. assimilation.

44.

The tendency to focus on one perceptual aspect of an event to the exclusion of all others is called: a. egocentrism. b. irreversibility. c. transformation. d. centration.

Chapter 2: Cognitive and Language Development

45.

The ability to mentally record the process of change from one state to another–such as mentally recording a clay ball being flattened–is called: a. centration. b. reversibility. c. transformation. d. conservation.

46.

The idea that the "amount" of some substance stays the same regardless of its shape or the number of pieces into which it is divided is called: a. centration. b. equilibrium. c. transformation. d. conservation.

47.

The process of ordering of objects according to increasing length, weight, or volume is called: a. seriation. b. transformation. c. conservation. d. centration.

48.

When teachers work with children, Piaget would most strongly advocate which of the following? a. Hands-on experience b. Video and vicarious experience c. Texts with logical systematic teacher presentations d. Lectures and explanations of content to be learned.

49.

Of the following, which is the best description of the state of typical kindergartners' cognitive development? a. Their thinking is limited to the motor processing of information. b. Their thinking is dominated by their perception of concrete objects. c. Their thinking is logical if they are presented with concrete experiences. d. Their thinking is logical if they are able to work together in pairs or small groups.

50.

Most students during kindergarten and first grade are at what stage of cognitive development? a. Sensorimotor b. Preoperational c. Concrete operational d. Formal operational

Chapter 2: Cognitive and Language Development

51.

According to Piaget, the typical 10-year-old is in which stage of development? a. Sensorimotor b. Preoperational c. Concrete operational d. Formal operational

52.

According to Piaget, at which stage does symbolic thought emerge? a. Sensorimotor b. Preoperational c. Concrete operational d. Formal operational

53.

The ability to infer a relationship between two objects based on knowledge of their relationship with a third object is defined as: a. conservation. b. seriation. c. transitivity. d. centration.

54.

Which of the following is not a characteristic of formal thought? a. Thinking abstractly b. Thinking concretely c. Thinking systematically d. Thinking hypothetically

55.

According to Piaget, which of the following best describes the role of social interaction in cognitive development? a. Social interaction does not play a role in cognitive development. b. Social interaction provides a mechanism for learners to test their schemes against the schemes of others. c. Social interaction directly causes development by helping learners remain at equilibrium. d. Social interaction allows learners to work within their zones of proximal development.

56.

According to Piaget’s theory together with research examining the theory, which of the following best describes the thinking of adolescents? a. They are formal operational in their thinking in all areas except higher-level mathematics. b. They are concrete operational in their thinking in all areas. c. They are capable of formal operational thought, but most remain concrete operational outside in which they have significant experience. d. Because they are chronologically at the age of formal operations, they are formal operational in this thinking.

Chapter 2: Cognitive and Language Development

Higher-Level Items 57.

Brad always takes the same route to work each morning, parks in the same place, and returns home again the same way. I like it this way," he says. "I don't have to think about anything. I just go." The Piagetian concept most closely related to this illustration is: a. transformation. b. maturation. c. accommodation. d. equilibrium.

58.

Kerry understands of how the western United States was settled. He knows that large numbers of settlers came from Europe and tried to make a new life in the American West. His teacher, Mr. Rudy, notes in class that the settlers included some from Mexico and also some former slaves. Kerry now questions his own understanding. Which of the following Piagetian concepts is Kerry most clearly is displaying? a. Transformation b. Maturation c. Assimilation d. Disequilibrium

59.

Mrs. Ortega dresses very professionally for school each day, and the students even notice how nice she always looks. She is planning a unit on poverty in America, so on Monday, the day she begins the unit, she dresses in old, torn, and soiled clothes and marches into her classroom to the astonishment of her students. Of the following, the Piagetian concept most closely related to the students' reaction is: a. transformation. b. disequilibrium. c. reversibility. d. assimilation.

60.

Joe has just learned the characteristics of a circle and looks at his family as a circle, his friends as a circle, the loop around the city as a circle. This best illustrates Piaget's concept of: a. scheme. b. accommodation. c. transformation. d. reversibility.

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61.

Molina believes there are nine planets in the solar system, but she understands the characteristics of the solar system quite well. She knows, for example, that the outer planets—Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune—are large, gaseous, and cold. Now, her teacher explains that scientists are suggesting that a new planet-like body may exist beyond Pluto and that Pluto itself is no longer considered a planet. Molina considers this new information and during discussion in class states, “If there is another planet out there, it would have to be incredibly cold!” Piaget would say she: a. went through a process of transformation, seeing the process move from one point to another. b. illustrated seriation by adding an additional planet to her understanding. c. reached equilibrium through the process of accommodation. d. assimilated new information into an already existing scheme.

62.

Sally understands the concept feline based on examples, such as a mountain lion, cheetah, and leopard. She sees a picture of a bobcat and concludes that it is a feline even though it is much smaller than the other examples. This best illustrates Piaget's concept of: a. assimilation. b. accommodation. c. seriation. d. centration.

63.

Dr. Evans, an economics professor, once said, "The world is governed by economics." Later the faculty was told in a meeting about university enrollment problems and what effect these had on funding. Dr. Evans nods knowingly and mumbles, "Yes, economics rules the world." Piaget would say she: a. went through a process of transformation seeing the process move from one point to another. b. accommodated a scheme to include an additional example. c. assimilated an example into an already existing scheme. d. maintained equilibrium through the process of maturation.

Items 64-66 are related to each other. 64.

Tanya is 16 and is learning basic word processing in a class in her high school. In Piagetian terms the best description of her ability to use the word processing program would be called: a. a transformation. b. accommodation. c. maturation. d. a type of scheme.

Chapter 2: Cognitive and Language Development

65.

Tanya was using the Mac, and the school switched to the Windows operating system. She commented that it was really different, and much of what she did before had different commands, but she has now made the switch to Windows successfully. After Tanya changed her thinking, which of the following is the most accurate statement? a. Tanya adapted through the process of assimilation. b. Tanya adapted through the process of accommodation. c. Tanya adapted through the process of maturation. d. Tanya adapted as a result of social experience.

66.

Tanya is used to using the word processing program Word, and she is doing some work for her brother Mike, who has been using WordPerfect, a different word processing program. Tanya is quickly able to use WordPerfect for Windows with little difficulty, since many of the commands for it are the same as the commands for Word. Tanya's ability to use WordPerfect best illustrates: a. cognitive development as a result of maturation. b. learning as a result of social experience. c. the process of assimilation. d. the process of accommodation.

67.

Ms. Ramsay is discussing the Civil War with her students. She poses the question, “What would life have been like as a child during this time?” Her students are able to generate some plausible explanations. Using Piaget’s theory as a basis, at which stage of development, are her students most nearly demonstrating? a. Sensorimotor b. Preoperational c. Concrete operational d. Formal operational

68.

Teachers often comment that they can easily tell which students in their classes have had parents who have worked with them, such as reading to them, talking to them, and taking them to places, such as museums, compared to other students whose parents have been less involved. Of the following, the Piagetian concept most closely related to this description is: a. maturation. b. experience. c. transformation. d. centration.

Chapter 2: Cognitive and Language Development

69.

People sometimes argue that students shouldn't take professional education courses as undergraduates, because they aren't "meaningful." Colleges of education have responded to this criticism by having undergraduate students spend time in P-12 classrooms working with teachers in the real world. According to Piaget, of the following, the best explanation for the value of having P-12 students spend time in classrooms would be that it: a. helps preservice make the transformation from the university classroom to the real world of teaching. b. provides concrete experiences for the abstract concepts related to teaching and learning that teachers must understand. c. contributes to preservice teachers’ maturation, so they are more confident when they begin their work in the real world of classrooms. d. provides the necessary social interaction to improve preservice teachers' communication skills.

70.

We don't try to teach algebra to second graders. Based on Piagetian theory, which of the following is likely the best explanation for why we don’t? a. Experience: Second graders are qualitatively capable of dealing with algebra, but they lack the prerequisite experiences. b. Maturation: Students' thinking isn't mature enough to cope with the abstract thinking required in algebra. c. Symbolism: Second graders have not yet developed symbolic thought. d. Initiative: Second graders typically lack the initiative to study a topic such as algebra.

71.

Piaget's theory suggests that children are essentially egocentric when they're born and their egocentricity gradually declines as they develop. Of the following, the factor most influential in helping to reduce egocentricity would most likely be: a. social interaction. b. experience with the physical world. c. transformation. d. maturation.

72.

In the children's story Bambi, Thumper the rabbit is teaching Bambi about the forest, and Bambi has learned about flowers. They then encounter the skunk. "Flower," Bambi says, because the skunk somehow reminds him of a flower. "No, Bambi," Thumper laughs, "Skunk." "Flower!" Bambi insists. The Piagetian concept that most closely relates to Bambi's reaction is: a. transformation. b. assimilation. c. accommodation. d. maturation.

Chapter 2: Cognitive and Language Development

73.

Which of the following best illustrates qualitative differences in thinking? a. Dennis used to be able to solve only one algebraic equation but can now solve two simultaneous algebraic equations. b. Jennifer used to think that food disappeared when we ate it but now knows that our body changes it through digestion. c. Ann used to be able to find the longitude and latitude of points only on a plane map, but she now can find longitudes and latitudes on a globe. d. Al knows that force is a push or a pull, so he now concludes that magnets exert a force on some metal objects even though the magnet isn't touching the object.

74.

Charles is shown two rows of coins having six coins in each row. He concludes that the rows have the same numbers of coins. The coins in the second row are then spread apart as Charles watches so the second row appears longer. Charles then concludes that there are more coins in the second row. Which of the following Piagetian concepts does Charles' behavior best illustrate? a. Centration b. Accommodation c. Reversibility d. Transformation

75.

Isaac has a scheme for tree but not for electricity. What stage doesn’t Isaac’s thinking most nearly illustrate? a. Sensorimotor b. Preoperational c. Concrete operational d. Formal operational

76.

Ava lays out four wooden sticks on the table in front of her with the longest on the left, second longest next to the first stick, third longest next to the second stick, and shortest stick on the right. Piaget would say Ava’s ability most nearly illustrates: a. accommodation. b. centration. c. classification. d. seriation.

77.

Jerry, a first grader, sorts bolts into one pile, nuts that fit on the bolts in a second pile, washers that fit over the bolts in a third pile, and nuts that are too small to fit on the bolts in a fourth pile. Which of Piaget’s stages of development does this ability best illustrate? a. Sensorimotor b. Preoperational c. Concrete operational d. Formal operational

Chapter 2: Cognitive and Language Development

78.

Students are asked to conjecture as to what conditions would result in more girls choosing to take advanced science and mathematics courses. According to Piaget, students are able to handle this type of question at what stage of development? a. Sensorimotor b. Preoperational c. Concrete operational d. Formal operational

79.

Carrie's mother gives her three cookies as a snack. "I have only three cookies," Carrie protests. "I want more cookies." Her mother then breaks the cookies in half, they count the six pieces together, and Carrie stops protesting. Which stage of cognitive development is best illustrated by the fact that Carrie stops protesting? a. Sensorimotor b. Preoperational c. Concrete operational d. Formal operational

80.

Abigail is able to simplify the following mathematical expression: 4 + 7(2 – (-3)) - 7. Which stage of development is best illustrated by Abigail’s ability? a. Sensorimotor b. Preoperational c. Concrete operational d. Formal operational

81.

Mr. Smith is discussing the question, "What would life be like for us if we were living 100 years from now?" His students offer some insightful and original answers. Which stage of development is best illustrated by the students’ ability to deal with the question effectively? a. Sensorimotor b. Preoperational c. Concrete operational d. Formal operational

Use the following information for items 82-84. Ben Johnson is teaching the concept arthropod (insects, spiders, lobsters, crabs, shrimp, etc.) to his fifth graders. He wants them to understand that arthropods are cold blooded and have exoskeletons, three body parts, and jointed legs as characteristics. 82.

Using Piaget's work as a basis for his decision, which of the following would be the best example for teaching the concept? a. A lobster from a fish store b. A movie showing a "crabber" catching crabs in a crab pot c. A color picture of a shrimp swimming in the water d. A picture showing insects and their body parts

Chapter 2: Cognitive and Language Development

83.

After Ben shows several examples of arthropods, and the students appear to understand the concept—being able to identify the characteristics of arthropods in additional examples— he asks if Mrs. Edwards, the school principal, is an arthropod. Tina, one of Ben’s students, concludes that Mrs. Edwards is indeed an arthropod. When Ben asks Tina to explain why she thinks so, Tina responds, “Mrs. Edwards has jointed legs.” Of the following, which concept is Tina most nearly demonstrating with her reasoning about Mrs. Edwards? a. Centration b. Accommodation c. Transformation d. Seriation

84.

What stage of development is best illustrated by Tina’s thinking in this example? a. Sensorimotor b. Preoperational c. Concrete operational d. Formal operational

85.

Mrs. Wells is teaching her fifth graders to find the volume of rectangular solids using the formula V = l x w x h (length times width times height). They have difficulty with the problems, not seeming to be able to visualize the boxes when shown pictures of them in their textbooks. According to Piaget, which of the following would be the best solution to this dilemma? a. Wait until they are developmentally ready to deal with the abstraction in finding volume. (Wait and teach it in the sixth grade.) b. Show them an empty box, and put cubes in it until it is full to illustrate volume and the concept of “cube”. c. "Walk them through" several problems taken from their textbooks, being certain that they are successful at each step in the calculation. d. Give them pictures of boxes to help them better visualize the problem.

86.

Mr. Garvey is working on finding the volume of pyramids with his seventh-grade math class. His students have trouble distinguishing between the altitude of a face of the pyramid and the altitude of the pyramid itself. He then makes a pyramid out of cardboard, sticks a toothpick down the middle, and says, "Now this is the altitude of the pyramid itself." They then deal effectively with the problem. Based on this information, the best description of the stage of thinking Mr. Garvey's students are using is: a. preoperational, since they cannot correctly perceive the difference between the two altitudes. b. concrete operational, since they now understand and can now solve the problem. c. formal operational, since they are in the seventh grade, which typically makes them 12 years old. d. formal operational, since finding volumes requires the use of symbols, which is abstract.

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Use the following information for items 87 and 88. Mrs. Green teaches an eighth-grade physical science class with students of average to aboveaverage ability. The students are having a difficult time understanding the idea that ice melts at 32 degrees Fahrenheit and water freezes at the same temperature. They can't understand how a solid and a liquid can be at the same temperature when the material is the same. Mrs. Green explains, "Heat is required to change ice from the solid state to the liquid state. The energy is needed to break down the orderly arrangement of the molecules in the ice, even though the molecules don't move any faster." Her students still don't get it. 87.

Which of the following would be the most likely explanation Piaget would offer for the students' difficulty? a. The students are not yet chronologically at the age of formal operations, and this is a formal operational task. b. The students' maturation isn't to the point where they are ready to handle this topic. c. The students lack the ability to understand topics as sophisticated as Mrs. Green is trying to teach. d. The students lack the concrete experiences needed to understand the ideas involved.

88.

Using Piaget’s work as a basis for your conclusion, which of the following would be the best solution to Mrs. Green's problem? a. Describe the process of the change in molecular motion between a liquid and solid in more detail, so they see the difference. b. As a classroom activity, have the students observe some ice cubes as they're allowed to melt, and then describe what they see. c. Have them carefully read the explanation in their texts and then discuss the meaning of the text description. d. Have the students observe ice cubes as they’re allowed to melt, combined with showing them a model illustrating the molecular motion of ice and water.

Use the following information for items 89-92. A teacher brings a balance into the classroom and places it in front of the students as you see here. The balance has two blocks of different sizes on it. Block A is bigger than block B, but the balance is balanced. The blocks are solid cubes, and they cannot be compressed.

Chapter 2: Cognitive and Language Development

The teacher then presents the students with the following quiz questions. a. Block A is heavier than block B. T F b. Block A is more dense than block B. T F c. Suppose you have a fluid equal in density to block A and another equal in density to block B. The first fluid will float on the second fluid. T F d. Block A takes up more space than block B. T F Consider each of the quiz questions (a, b, c, and d), and decide at what level of development a student must be in order to answer correctly. 89.

Item a: a. preoperational b. concrete operational c. formal operational

90.

Item b: a. preoperational b. concrete operational c. formal operational

91.

Item c: a. preoperational b. concrete operational c. formal operational

92.

Item d: a. preoperational b. concrete operational c. formal operational

Chapter 2: Cognitive and Language Development

93.

Mrs. Solomon gives each of her third graders four wooden squares (each 1" by 1") and a piece of poster paper. They identify the wooden pieces as squares and conclude that they're all the same size. She has them put the squares together to form a larger square (2" x 2") and to draw a line around the larger square. They remove the wooden squares, and she asks them how much space the wooden pieces covered and leads them to conclude, "four squares." She asks them what they call the space and introduces the term area. She then tells them they have an area of "four squares." To reinforce the idea, she then asks them what the area of two blocks is and helps them to conclude, "two squares." Later they measure the squares to find that they’re 1” on a side, and she introduces the term “square inch.” Based on this information, which of the following is the best assessment of the developmental appropriateness of Mrs. Solomon's teaching of the concept area? a. Her instruction was developmentally inappropriate, because she shouldn't have told them they had an area of four squares. She should have had them generate the term area for themselves. b. Her instruction was developmentally inappropriate, because she should have also used a wooden space to put the squares on instead of poster paper. c. Her instruction was developmentally appropriate, because the students had concrete illustrations of both area and square. d. Her instruction was developmentally appropriate, because she reinforced the concept through teacher direction.

Essay Items 94.

Describe two characteristics each of preoperational thought, concrete operational thought, and formal operational thought.

95.

You're a high school teacher. Based on research examining Piaget’s theory, identify one of the most important implications of his theory for your teaching, and provide an example to illustrate your description.

96.

Gary is a fourth grader in school early in the school year. He has above-average ability according to intelligence tests. One day Mrs. Winton, Gary's teacher gave the class a math test, and Gary did quite poorly on it. Gary was devastated but resolved to try harder on the next test. Given the information in the example, what would be the best explanation for Gary's performance on the test, according to Piagetian theory?

97.

Children typically are not allowed to start school if their birthday falls past a certain date (e.g., turning 5 by the first of October). Historically, this hasn't always been the case. Explain how this policy could be the result of Piaget's influence.

Chapter 2: Cognitive and Language Development

98.

Two kindergarten teachers were joking about their ages. Patti is older than Jeanna. Jeanna, however, is taller. The children consistently conclude that Jeanna is older than Patti. On the basis of Piagetian theory, explain why the children would conclude that Jeanna is the older of the two.

99.

Identify two ways in which neo-Piagetian views of development differ from Piaget’s original descriptions of development.

100. Describe four suggestions for applying Piaget’s theory in classrooms that teachers can use to promote cognitive development with their students, and provide a classroom example of each. Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory of Cognitive Development Knowledge-Level Items 101. Of the following, which description best outlines the characteristics of a sociocultural view of development? a. Emphasis in experience and the need for equilibrium embedded in a cultural context in influencing development b. Emphasis on social interaction, language, and cultural context in influencing development c. Emphasis on culture, transformation, and conservation in influencing development d. Emphasis on assimilation, culture, and language in influencing development 102. Of the following, which theorist most stresses the importance of social support and language in cognitive developmental growth? a. Chomsky b. Bandura c. Piaget d. Vygotsky 103. Which of the following concepts undergirds Vygotsky's perspective on learning? a. Culture and language b. Adaptation and accommodation c. Assimilation and proximity d. Adaptation and equilibrium 104. Which of the following are essential to Vygotsky's view of development? a. Social interaction and activity b. Close emotional relationships with adults and peers c. Adaptation through experimentation d. Individual trial and error and experimentation

Chapter 2: Cognitive and Language Development

105. The concepts and symbols, such as numbers and language, which allow people to think, solve problems, and function in a culture, are best described as: a. forms of internalization. b. types of scaffolding. c. examples of private speech. d. types of cognitive tools. 106. The process through which learners incorporate external, society-based activities into internal cognitive processes is best described as: a. assimilation. b. accommodation. c. internalization. d. transformation. 107. Private speech is most likely to occur when: a. the task is difficult. b. the task requires a verbal answer. c. the task is familiar. d. the task is simple. 108. Of the following, private speech is most likely to increase when: a. the learner is bored. b. the learner feels isolated. c. the learner is confident. d. the learner is challenged. 109. The process of using language to describe the steps needed to reach a goal is called: a. social interaction. b. private speech. c. maturation. d. equilibrium. 110. Of the following, which best describes Vygotsky’s concept of zone of proximal development? a. Tasks learners can complete if they’re given help b. Children’s awareness of how much they understand c. Tasks learners can complete on their own d. The extent to which learners are able to internalize the knowledge of others 111. Which of the following is the best definition of scaffolding? a. Providing assessment to identify the students’ zones of proximal development b. Assisting the development of disadvantaged learners with early intervention experiences c. Providing social experiences for youngsters that reduces egocentricity d. Providing instructional assistance that allows a learner to proceed through the zone of proximal development 41 Copyright © 2020, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

Chapter 2: Cognitive and Language Development

112.

According to Vygotsky, students can benefit from help if: a. they are at the stage of concrete operational or higher. b. their inner speech is developed past preoperational. c. tasks are in their zones of proximal development. d. they are capable of transformation and reversibility.

113. The name given to the instructional assistance that allows the learner to progress through the zone of proximal development is: a. accommodation. b. assimilation. c. maturation. d. scaffolding. 114. Which of the following is the best description of an important difference between Piaget's and Vygotsky's views of development? a. Piaget believed that development is innate, whereas Vygotsky believed it resulted from interactions with the environment. b. Piaget believed language merely aided in disrupting equilibrium, whereas Vygotsky felt it was central in advancing intellectual functioning. c. Vygotsky considered social interaction a means for testing schemes, whereas Piaget felt it was the means for acquiring language and culture. d. Vygotsky's notion of active experimentation is absent from Piaget's framework for learning and development. Higher-Level Items 115. Jonas is using a strategy for solving problems while doing his homework. He thinks as he is working on one of the problems, “Let’s see. The first step is to determine what I already know from the problem. I need to write that down. Next, I will write down what it is I need to know.” The statement in quotes best illustrates which of Vygotsky’s concepts? a. Private speech b. Internalization c. Scaffolding d. Zone of proximal development 116. "Let's see. First, I need to hit the space bar to wake the computer up. When the screen comes on, I move the mouse over the Word icon and click to bring up my word processing program. This is what Stephanie told me to do," Aubrey, a beginning computer user, mutters to herself as she sits down to work on her computer. Of the following, which concept from Vygotsky’s work is Aubrey best illustrating? a. Internalization b. Social interaction c. Private speech d. Rehearsal

Chapter 2: Cognitive and Language Development

Use the following information for items 117-119. Joe, Karen, and Judy all second graders, are working with subtraction when regrouping is involved, such as 34 -7

25 -8

Mrs. Johnson, the children's teacher, provides them with help. As she tries to guide the students through the problems, Joe still has difficulty. Karen is able to solve the problems with Mrs. Johnson’s guidance but is still unable to do them on her own. Judy is able to do problems with regrouping without assistance. 117. Using Vygotsky’s work as a basis for your conclusion, the task is in which student’s (or students’) zone of proximal development? a. Joe b. Karen c. Judy d. Joe and Karen 118. The task—solving the problems—is still beyond which student’s (or students’) zone of proximal development? a. Joe b. Karen c. Judy d. Karen and Judy 119. The task—solving the problems—is below which student’s (or students’) zone of proximal development? a. Joe b. Karen c. Judy d. Karen and Judy 120. Darlene can do her math problems when her dad helps her, but she becomes quite frustrated when she has to try to do them alone. Of the following, which is the best description of her experience with her task—doing her math problems? a. The task is below her zone of proximal development because she needs help to be able to solve them. b. The task is beyond her zone of proximal development because she becomes frustrated. c. The task is within her zone of proximal development because her dad’s help is beneficial. d. The task is beyond her zone of proximal development because external aid is necessary.

Chapter 2: Cognitive and Language Development

Use the following vignette for items 121-126. Esteban and Pepe work with their father, Luis, on their vegetable farm in south Texas. “We are very careful,” Luis emphasizes, as he shows Esteban and Pepe how to stack tomatoes in crates so they won’t bruise. “We call it primacita,” he says. “It’s what we mean when we first put a layer of the large, not-yet-ripened ones on the bottom, and we work our way to the top.” He then guides the boys as they try to stack tomatoes correctly. Under their dad’s watchful eye Esteban looks at tomatoes, and with a few suggestions from Luis, stacks the least ripe on the bottom, and the ones more nearly ripe above them. “No, that one is too ripe,” Luis cautions Pepe as he puts a ripe tomato on the bottom. “This one should go there,” their father continues. “No, that green one should be on the bottom of the next crate,” Luis cautions Pepe a bit later as he begins to put a green [unripe] tomato on the top layer of a crate. A couple days later, Luis smiles from a distance as he watches Esteban stacking tomatoes the way he has directed them. Pepe is also stacking tomatoes correctly with Esteban’s help. 121. Of the following which best describes how Vygotsky would interpret this event? a. Esteban individually constructed his knowledge, whereas Pepe’s knowledge was socially constructed. b. Learning for both Esteban and Pepe occurred within the context of a social situation. c. Esteban was at equilibrium, but Pepe’s equilibrium was disrupted when Esteban told him he was stacking the tomatoes incorrectly. d. Esteban was guided by a more knowledgeable other—his father—but Pepe didn’t receive guidance from a more knowledgeable other. 122. Which of the following conclusions is most valid with respect to Esteban’s and Pepe’s zones of proximal development, and the boys initially learning to stack tomatoes? a. The task was within Esteban’s zone of proximal development, but it was beyond Pepe’s zone. b. The task was within Pepe’s zone of proximal development, but it was below Esteban’s zone. c. The task was below both boys’ zones of proximal development. d. The task was within both boys’ zones of proximal development. 123. According to Vygotsky, of the following, the best description of what occurred when the boys ultimately incorporated their understanding of how to stack tomatoes is: a. internalization. b. enculturation. c. transformation. d. accommodation.

Chapter 2: Cognitive and Language Development

124. The term primacita, which Luis, the boys’ father, used to represent the process of correctly stacking the tomatoes is best described as: a. private speech b. a form of scaffolding. c. an example of development. d. a cognitive tool. 125. Of the following, which would Vygotsky interpret is the best example of development? a. Esteban correctly stacking tomatoes after a couple days. b. Luis showing the boys how to stack tomatoes so they won’t bruise. c. Pepe correctly stacking tomatoes with Esteban’s help. d. The boys’ father emphasizing that they needed to be careful. 126. Which of the following best describes the scaffolding provided in the event? a. Esteban’s father provided scaffolding for both boys, but Esteban didn’t initially benefit from the scaffolding. b. Esteban’s father provided scaffolding for both boys and they both initially benefited from the scaffolding. c. Esteban received no scaffolding, but Esteban’s father provided scaffolding for Pepe. d. Esteban’s father provided scaffolding for both boys, but only Esteban initially benefited from it. 127. After helping her students understand the concept equivalent fraction, Joni Wilson, a fourth-grade teacher, shows her students how they can use that knowledge to determine how they can share the cost of a pizza that is cut into different-sized slices. With effort and guidance from Joni, the students are now able to apply the ideas. Which one of the following ideas from Vygotsky’s theory does this scenario best illustrate? a. Acquiring cognitive tools helps people function effectively in a culture. b. Self-talk gradually evolving into inner speech over time. c Thought and language becoming interdependent as development advances. d. Children developing more fully when tasks are below their zones of proximal development. 128. Of the following, which teacher is best applying the idea that cognitive tools help people think, solve problems, and function effectively in a culture? a. Mr. Lincoln tells his students that they have done so well that they can talk quietly among themselves for the last 10 minutes of the period. b. Mrs. Sanchez shows her second graders how they can represent their favorite color of jellybean on a bar graph so they can understand practical uses of bar graphing. c. Mr. Brush demonstrates a corner kick in soccer. d. Ms. Yudin begins each of her lessons with a demonstration that arouses the students’ curiosity, so they will pay better attention during the lesson.

Chapter 2: Cognitive and Language Development

129. Alana is having trouble learning how to follow the steps involved in creating macros to make her word processing more efficient. She has carefully read the manual, which specifically outlines the steps involved, and has taken additional notes, but she is still struggling with the process. Of the following, which suggestion is most nearly consistent with what Vygotsky would suggest to Alana with her challenging task? a. Have someone explain why each step is important. b. Talk herself through each of the steps. c. Write the steps down. d. Reread the manual that describes how to create macros. 130. Which one of the following best illustrates a task that is within a student’s zone of proximal development? a. Logan, a ninth grader, uses correct grammar and punctuation when he writes persuasive essays. b. Maya is practicing her serve in tennis. She watched a video that illustrated the correct technique, and she is practicing to perfect the technique so it will be more effective when she plays. c. Seth has trouble balancing chemical equations. His teacher sat with him and offered assistance, but he was still unable to do it. “I just don’t get it,” he comments. d. Sophie is learning to create certain effects with her PowerPoint slides. She can create the effects she wants when her instructor sits with her, but she has trouble on her own. 131. Of the following, which teacher is providing the least amount of scaffolding? a. Ms. Page takes her kindergarteners on a field trip to the zoo, and when they return, she asks them to describe some of the animals they saw. b. Mr. Evans demonstrates how to shoot a jump shot in basketball, and he then critiques his players’ shooting techniques as they practice. c. Ms. Williams gives her students a set of questions to ask themselves as they work on word problems in math and then asks them to describe which step they are on as they solve word problems during seat work. d. Mrs. Reynolds gives her students a graphic organizer to use when they analyze a story. Essay Items 132. Explain and give an example of how language, social interaction, and culture interact in Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory of development. 132. The response should include the following: - According to Vygotsky, development occurs as a direct result of social interaction that uses language to help developing individuals acquire the cognitive tools of their culture. - The example of Yu’pik people having 99 different concepts for ice, whereas, for the most part, mainstream Americans have only one or a very few, illustrates development in a cultural context.

Chapter 2: Cognitive and Language Development

Use the following information for items 133-136. A kindergarten teacher is working with her students on basic skills. She has written the following information on the board: it _________ a wonderful p __ t _ filled with g ___d t _ m _ s and good friends at the animal h __ se She had the children turn to their partners, confer for a minute, and then called on individuals to offer corrections for parts of the sentence, such as capitalizing the first word, correctly spelling “the,” and putting a period at the end of the sentence. She then called different children to the board to fill in the missing letters, so the sentence read as follows: It was a wonderful party filled with good times and good friends at the animal house. In the process she used questioning to help the students understand blends, such as ou in house, and other rules such as silent e in times. When the children struggled, she provided cues that helped them continue to make progress. 133. Identify two types of scaffolding in the example. 134. Was the task in the children’s zones of proximal development? Explain why it was or was not. 135. What evidence would be necessary to determine if internalization occurred? 136. Describe two ways in which the activity illustrated the basic relationships between language, social interaction, and culture. 137. Describe four suggestions teachers can follow when applying Vygotsky’s work with their students. Language Development Knowledge-Level Items 138. Which of the following best describes the relationship between language development and cognitive development? a. Language development and cognitive development are interdependent; the development of either depends on the development of the other. b. Cognitive development depends on language development, but language development does not depend on cognitive development. c. Language development depends on cognitive development, but cognitive development is independent of language development. d. Cognitive development and language development are independent; they both develop separately from the other.

Chapter 2: Cognitive and Language Development

139. The use of one-word utterances that carry as much meaning for a child as a complete sentence is called: a. holophrasic language. b. "fine-tuned" language. c. overgeneralized language. d. undergeneralized language. 140. At which of the following ages would we be most likely to hear a child using holophrases? a. Two years of age b. Three years of age c. Four years of age d. Five years of age 141. A child using a word to refer to a broader class of objects than is appropriate is best described as: a. holophrasic speech. b. overgeneralization. c. semantics. d. syntax. 142. A central component of language development that deals with the meanings of words and word combinations is called: a. inner speech. b. syntax. c. language tuning. d. semantics. 143. The rules of language that we use to put words together into meaningful sentences is called: a. syntax. b. semantics. c. grammar. d. inner speech.

144. Of the following, which is most important in using language to learn? a. Native intelligence b. Prior knowledge and experience c. A supportive peer group d. Positive personality characteristics 145. Of the following, which language skill typically develops first? a. Listening b. Speaking c. Reading d. Writing 48 Copyright © 2020, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

Chapter 2: Cognitive and Language Development

146. Which of the following language skills is typically the most difficult to develop? a. Listening b. Speaking c. Reading d. Writing Higher-Level Items 147. A first-grade teacher has a class with many English language learners (ELLs) in it. A number of these students have trouble correctly pronouncing English words, so the teacher makes a special effort to speak slowly and clearly. She also provides concrete examples of basic concepts, such as door, classmate, girl, clock, jacket, lunch, hour, and many others to give students concrete reference points to which they can attach their language. The teacher’s efforts best illustrate which of the following? a. The interdependence of language development and cognitive development b. The importance of listening for language development c. The fact that language development depends more on cognitive development than vice versa d. The importance of vocabulary for early language development. 148. Josh says, “Apple” which means to him, “That’s an apple.” Which of the following does this best illustrate? a. A simile b. An overgeneralization c. A holophrase d. An undergeneralization 149. Jenny says, “Park!” meaning, “I want to go to the park.” This language behavior best illustrates: a. overgeneralized speech. b. undergeneralized speech. c. "fine-tuned" speech. d. holophrasic speech. 150. Jonah, a two-year-old, sees a dog in a park and says “kitty.” Jonah is illustrating: a. a holophrase used in early language. b. overgeneralization of the word kitty. c. a semantic description of the word kitty. d. egocentric language development.

Chapter 2: Cognitive and Language Development

151. His mother chuckles as she listens to Joseph say "Dumptuck" to every moving vehicle he sees. Joseph's language pattern best illustrates: a. undergeneralization. b. overgeneralization. c. reinforcement. d. corrective feedback. 152. Pia says, “Here kitty,” when she wants her kitty to come to be fed. Then, seeing a cat walk across a sidewalk, her mother says, “What’s that?” Pia then says, “Kitty.” Of the following, which best describes Pia’s language pattern? a. Overgeneralized speech b. Undergeneralized speech c. Semantic speech d. Syntactical speech 153. From Piaget's developmental point of view, overgeneralization in language occurs when: a. a preoperational child is reinforced for "cute" behaviors that are grammatically incorrect or invalid. b. a child inappropriately assimilates information into an already existing scheme. c. a child creates a new scheme when an existing scheme is already valid. d. a child uses one or two words to communicate an idea that adults would communicate with an entire sentence. 154. Mrs. Almagro’s third graders are learning a great many new ideas and the terms that go with them, such as living thing, plot, fraction, and community. This important component of language development is best described as: a. generalization. b. syntax. c. synapse. d. semantics. 155. In about the first grade, children begin to learn rules of grammar, such as understanding that “He went to the store,” is correct, whereas, “He goed to the store,” is not. Which of the following best describes the aspect of language development involved in understanding that the first sentence is the correct grammatical form? a. Syntax b. Generalization c. Semantics d. Transformation

Chapter 2: Cognitive and Language Development

Use the following case study to respond to items 156-158. Four first-grade teachers are attempting to promote language development in their children. Mrs. Edenfield has her children read a story about fish in their reading groups, and she then has them tell her about the story, including what they see in the pictures. Mrs. Hester brings a snake to class, has the students look at and touch the snake, and she tells them all about snakes, pointing out its various parts and telling them how snakes eat, lose their skin, and move. Mrs. Gonzalez shows the students a videotape about hawks and eagles that shows the birds soaring, catching prey, and feeding their young. She asks the students to tell her what they see in the videotape, and asks them to compare birds of prey to other birds. Mr. Briggs has Cynthia, one of her students, bring her hamster to school, and the students feel and pet the hamster and describe what they see and feel. They then read a story about a hamster named Henry, and Mr. Briggs has them tell him about the events in the story. 156. Based on this vignette, the teacher’s lesson that would be most effective for promoting language development was: a. Mrs. Edenfield. b. Mrs. Hester. c. Mrs. Gonzalez. d. Mr. Briggs. 157. Based on this vignette, the teacher’s lesson that would be least effective for promoting language development was: a. Mrs. Edenfield. b. Mrs. Hester. c. Mrs. Gonzalez. d. Mr. Briggs. 158. Suppose the teachers in the vignette each have a large number of students in their classes for whom English is not their first language. Which teacher is probably most effective for promoting language development with these children? a. Mrs. Edenfield. b. Mrs. Hester. c. Mrs. Gonzalez. d. Mr. Briggs. Essay Items 159. Describe holophrases, overgeneralization, and undergeneralization, and explain how they relate to language development. 160. Explain semantics and syntax, and explain how they relate to language development. 161. Identify the most important way in which teachers can promote language development with their students. 51 Copyright © 2020, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

Chapter 3: Personal, Social, and Moral Development

CHAPTER THREE PERSONAL, SOCIAL, AND MORAL DEVELOPMENT Personality Development Knowledge-Level Items 1.

Which of the following is the term that best describes our attitudinal, emotional, and behavioral responses to experiences in our environment? a. Temperament b. Self-regulation c. Extraversion d. Personality

Researchers generally describe personality as being composed of five relatively independent traits. Which of the following is not one of those traits? a. Self-absorption b. Neuroticism c. Agreeableness d. Conscientiousness

The relatively stable, inherited characteristics that influence the way one responds to social and physical stimuli best defines: a. social skills. b. temperament. c. development. d. morality.

Which of the following environmental factors is likely to have the greatest influence on personality development? a. Peers b. Siblings c. Parents d. Teachers

Which of the following, which combination of factors is likely to have the greatest impact on personality development? a. Early experiences, the media, and parents b. Peers, experiences with the real world, and heredity c. The media, parents, and nutrition d. Temperament, parents, and peers

Chapter 3: Personal, Social, and Moral Development

Of the following, which set of characteristics are we most likely to see in children of authoritarian parents? a. Confident, high self-esteem, secure b. Introverted, disagreeable c. Creative, artistic, social d. Immature, anxious, uncertain

According to general patterns identified by research, children who are immature, impulsive, unmotivated, and lack self-control are most likely raised by: a. authoritarian parents. b. permissive parents. c. authoritative parents. d. uninvolved parents.

If children behave in ways that are consistent with patterns identified by research, they are most likely to be introverted and disagreeable when parents have which of the following sets of characteristics? a. High expectations and high responsiveness b. High expectations and low responsiveness c. Low expectations and high responsiveness d. Low expectations and low responsiveness

Authoritative parents tend to provide: a. low expectations and low responsiveness. b. high expectations and low responsiveness. c. low expectations and high responsiveness. d. high expectations and high responsiveness.

10.

Which of the following best describes the results of research examining the parenting styles of members of cultural minorities? a. The most effective parenting styles are those that emphasize high expectations, strict discipline, and hard work, such as the stereotypical “Tiger Mother.” b. The most effective parenting styles are those that allow children to set their own expectations combined with high levels of warmth and emotional support from parents. c. The most effective parenting styles are those that don’t impose expectations on their children, instead allowing them to grow and develop at their own rates. d. The most effective parenting styles are those that emphasize high expectations combined with high levels of warmth and emotional support from parents.

Chapter 3: Personal, Social, and Moral Development

11.

Which of the following best describes the relationship (or lack of relationship) between personality and school achievement? a. Conscientiousness is related to school achievement in students of all ages, but no other personality traits are linked to school achievement. b. Emotional stability—the opposite of neuroticism—is related to school achievement in students of all ages, but no other personality traits are linked to school achievement. c. Openness and conscientiousness are linked to school achievement in both younger students and in adolescents. d. Personality and school achievement are not related to each other.

12.

Which of the following best describes the relationship (or lack of relationship) between personality and workplace achievement? a. High job performance is related to high conscientiousness and low neuroticism. b. Workplace achievement is related to agreeableness, but workplace achievement is not related to any other personality traits. c. High job performance is related to emotional self-regulation, but job performance is not related to other personality traits. d. Personality and workplace achievement are not related to each other.

Higher-Level Items 13.

Which of the following best describes the relationship between temperament and overall personality development? a. Personality development is determined by the combination of genetically determined temperaments and life experiences. b. Personality development is largely determined by our genetics, as evidenced by examples of people who have been either outgoing or shy essentially all of their lives. c. Personality development is largely determined by our life experiences. d. Personality development is largely determined by the home environments in which we’re raised.

14.

Aiden generally demonstrates positive personality traits. For example, he is agreeable, open, and conscientious. If his personality characteristics are consistent with general patterns identified by research, his parents are likely to be: a. authoritarian. b. authoritative. c. permissive. d. uninvolved.

Chapter 3: Personal, Social, and Moral Development

15.

Zach, a 9th grader, is studying for a test on the solar system with his friend and classmate, Maria, he comments, “I just saw an interesting article that said that winds on Neptune are sometimes more than a thousand miles an hour. That’s unbelievable. How can wind blow that hard?” Why do you want to know something like that?” Maria asks. “That isn’t going to be on the test. Oh, I don’t know, it just seemed interesting. We think we have hard winds here on Earth, but they aren’t even close,” Zach shrugs with a smile. “Okay, let’s get back to work.” If Zach’s behaviors are consistent with patterns identified by research, which of the following is the best assessment of his academic achievement? a. Zach is likely to be a high achiever, because he demonstrating the personality characteristic openness. b. Zach is likely to be a lower achiever because he is drifting off task—thinking about information that won’t be on the test—as he studies with Maria. c. Zach is likely to be a high achiever, because he is demonstrating the personality characteristic extraversion. d. Zach is likely to be a high achiever, because he is demonstrating the personality characteristic agreeableness.

16.

Nancy Gonzalez formally emphasizes positive personality traits, such as openness, agreeableness, and conscientiousness with her students. She explains each of the traits, and she reminds them that a strong link exists between these traits and success both in school and in the workplace after the school years. Today, she does a formal learning activity on the topic. She displays the following two vignettes on her document camera. Henry is very conscientious about doing his homework, even when he isn’t crazy about the topic the class is studying. When he is involved in group work, he is courteous and doesn’t butt in when one of his classmates is talking. When the class moves to a new topic, Henry often reads ahead and sometimes goes to the Internet to read a bit more about it. Henry is doing well in school, and his classmates respect him. Oliver is often reprimanded by his teachers because he frequently forgets to bring required materials to class and has to ask them if he can borrow a pencil or some paper. And, he will periodically fail to do his homework, so he doesn’t get credit for it. When he works in groups, he sits quietly and rarely makes a contribution to group discussions. Oliver isn’t doing very well in his classes.

Nancy has the students discuss the vignettes, and as they summarize the discussion they conclude that Oliver is his own worst enemy—doing poorly is his own fault.

Chapter 3: Personal, Social, and Moral Development

Using suggestions for supporting students’ personality development as a basis, which is the best assessment of Nancy’s efforts? a. It is effective, because she formally emphasizes positive personality traits with her students. b. It is effective because she is using concrete examples and discussion to teach positive personality traits c. It is ineffective, because she should reinforce students for displaying positive personality traits. d. It is effective because she explains each one of the traits and how they’re linked to success. 17.

Tanya Rogers, a world history teacher, comments enthusiastically to her class as they’re studying the American Revolutionary War, “I’ve been doing a lot of studying about the French Revolution and how it compares to ours, and there are a number of parallels, such as revolts against absolute monarchs, oppressive taxes, and economic hardship.” “She’s always talking about something she’s studying,” Steve whispers to Carter. “I’ve never had a teacher so gung ho.” Which of the following suggestions for supporting students’ personality development is best illustrated by Jennifer’s behavior? a. Learn about students as people. b. Use concrete examples and discussions to teach positive personality traits. c. Use an authoritative classroom management style. d. Model positive personality traits.

18.

Mike is an impulsive and immature first-grade child. He seems to lack control, isn’t particularly conscientious and is disagreeable. If Mike’s parents are consistent with general patterns identified by research, their parenting styles are most likely which of the following? a. Authoritarian b. Authoritative c. Permissive d. Uninvolved

19.

As teachers we try to promote healthy personality development in our students. Which of the following is likely to be the most effective way to promote this personality development? a. Describe desirable personality traits, such as openness, agreeableness, and conscientiousness for students, and explain why desirable personality traits lead to higher achievement, both in school and in the workplace. b. Praise students when they demonstrate desirable personality traits, such as openness, agreeableness, and conscientiousness, and reprimand students when they display undesirable personality traits. c. Make displaying desirable personality traits one of your classroom rules. d. Model desirable personality traits, such as openness, agreeableness, and conscientiousness.

Chapter 3: Personal, Social, and Moral Development

20.

Keith is attempting to use his classroom management system to help promote healthy personality development. He focuses on a balance between rules and structure and student choice and input in decision making. He uses consequences that are related to the student infraction and tries to be firm but fair. Keith best illustrates which type of classroom management style? a. Authoritarian b. Authoritative c. Permissive d. Uninvolved

Essay Items 21.

Explain how temperament can influence overall personality development and provide an example to illustrate your explanation.

22.

Alvaro’s parents ask about his homework every night after school, and Alvaro comments to his friends, “My parents won’t let me get away with anything. If I didn’t study hard and do my homework, they would be all over me. ‘You won’t make it in college if you aren’t willing to work,’ they keep saying. They’re good though. My mom helps me with my math if I get stuck, and they always come to my soccer games and band concerts.” Assuming that Alvaro fits patterns identified by research, describe the personal characteristics that he is likely to acquire. Explain why he is likely to acquire these characteristics.

23.

Describe the relationship between personality and school achievement.

Development of Identity Knowledge-Level Items 24.

People’s sense of self, what their existence means, and what they want in life best describes their: a. self-concept. b. self-worth. c. temperament. d. identity.

25.

People’s cognitive assessment of their physical, social, and academic competence best describes their: a. self-concept. b. self-worth. c. temperament. d. identity.

Chapter 3: Personal, Social, and Moral Development

26.

Of the following, which statement best describes how Erikson’s term psychosocial was derived? a. It was derived from Erikson’s belief that psychological factors, such as personality and temperament, combined with social factors, such as emotional intelligence, to explain moral development. b. It was derived from an integration of identity and Erikson’s belief that a primary motivation for human behavior was social and reflected a desire to connect with other people. c. It was derived from Erikson’s belief that the individual, the microsystem, parents, and peers combined to create a fully functioning personality. d. It was derived from Erikson’s belief that the development of a set of personal beliefs and values was essential for identity formation.

27.

According the Erikson, which of the following is the best definition of a crisis? a. A time when mastery and success are required to enjoy feelings of competence. b. A time when continuous love and support are needed to develop a sense of selfesteem. c. A time when challenging activities are needed to develop feelings of self-efficacy. d. A time when individuals are vulnerable to certain psychological challenges.

28.

Which of the following describes one of Erikson’s beliefs? a. People will remain at a certain stage until they resolve the crisis at that stage. b. People develop socially because of qualitative changes in their thinking. c. Despite differences in other areas, everyone has the same basic needs. d. Resolution of a crisis results from accommodation of new experiences.

29.

Erikson identified the first psychological challenge in a person’s life as: a. autonomy vs. shame and doubt. b. trust vs. mistrust. c. initiative vs. guilt. d. industry vs. inferiority.

30.

“An exploratory and investigative attitude results from meeting and accepting challenges” characterizes which stage of psychosocial development? a. Autonomy vs. shame and doubt b. Initiative vs. guilt c. Industry vs. inferiority d. Identity vs. confusion

31.

Initiative vs. guilt for the preschool-aged child is analogous to which stage for the elementary-aged child? a. Identity vs. confusion b. Autonomy vs. shame and doubt c. Trust-mistrust d. Industry vs. inferiority

Chapter 3: Personal, Social, and Moral Development

32.

“Enjoyment of mastery and competence comes through success and recognition of accomplishments” characterizes which stage of psychosocial development? a. Autonomy vs. shame and doubt b. Initiative vs. guilt c. Industry vs. inferiority d. Identity vs. confusion

33.

According to Erikson, the crisis of identity vs. confusion typically occurs during: a. the early elementary school years. b. the upper elementary years. c. the high school years. d. young adulthood.

34.

Regarding states of identity development, the state in which individuals aren’t developmentally ready to make choices is: a. identity diffusion. b. identity foreclosure. c. identity moratorium. d. identity achievement.

35.

Regarding states of identity development, the state in which individuals adopt the positions of others, such as parents, is: a. identity diffusion. b. identity foreclosure. c. identity moratorium. d. identity achievement.

36.

Which of the following best describes the identity status model? a. Identity development is more successful if students’ parents have high professional status. b. Identity development proceeds from the development of trust for young children to generativity in mature adults. c. Identity development progresses from identity diffusion to identity achievement on a continuum. d. Identity development advances when students’ status increases as their achievement continually increases.

37.

Which of the following best describes a narrative approach to identity development? a. Identity development involves the process of connecting memories of past experiences to their imagined futures. b. Identity development progresses in a narrative from identity diffusion to identity achievement. c. Identity development reflects the process of resolving identity crises in positive and productive ways. d. Identity development proceeds in a narrative involving the simultaneous achievement of positive self-esteem and positive self-concept. 59 Copyright © 2020, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

Chapter 3: Personal, Social, and Moral Development

38.

Which of the following statements most accurately defines sexual identity? a. Students’ self-constructed definition of who they are with respect to gender orientation b. The gender to which an individual is romantically and sexually attracted c. A cognitive appraisal of an individual’s ability to attract a member of the opposite sex d. An emotional sense of their romantic and sexual self-worth

39.

Research indicates that LGBTQ students are at greater risk for problems ranging from depression and substance abuse to suicide. Which of the following is the most significant factor contributing to these problems? a. Teachers’ indifference to the problems of LGBTQ youth b. Lack of desirable personality traits in LGBTQ youth c. Difficult temperaments in LGBTQ youths, which result in problematic peer relationships and academic difficulties. d. Negative messages about being LGBTQ, with primary sources being school, the Internet, and peers.

40.

Which of the following is the most accurate description of transgender students? a. Adolescents who are initially attracted to members of the opposite gender but later find they’re physically attracted to members of their own gender. b. Students whose sense of personal identity does not correspond with the gender assigned to them at birth c. Students whose identity development reverses itself after appearing to have reached a state of identity achievement. d. Students who haven’t resolved the “Q” aspect of the LGBTQ description.

41.

Individuals’ perceptions of the relative worth of the groups to which they belong best describe which of the following? a. Self-concept b. Cultural identity c. Cultural self-worth d. Collective self-esteem

42.

Which of the following best describes the concept of ethnic identity? a. An individual’s sense of self-worth with respect to the ethnic group to which the individual belongs and the pride the individual takes in belonging to this group b. An individual’s sense of belonging to an ethnic group, defined by one’s cultural heritage, and including attributes such as values, traditions, and language. c. A cognitive appraisal of the competence and abilities associated with a particular ethnic group and the contributions the group makes to society. d. The collective personality of a particular ethic group including the group’s extraversion, openness, and conscientiousness. 60 Copyright © 2020, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

Chapter 3: Personal, Social, and Moral Development

43.

Which of the following statements best describes the relationship between self-concept and self- esteem? a. Self-concept is an emotional reaction to the self, whereas self-esteem is a cognitive appraisal of one’s competence. b. Self-concept describes individuals’ perceptions of their self-worth, whereas selfesteem describes individuals’ perception of their identity. c. Self-esteem is an emotional reaction to the self, whereas self-concept is a cognitive appraisal of one’s competence. d. Self-concept and self-esteem are synonymous, and the two terms can be used interchangeably.

44.

Of the following, which most strongly contributes to a positive self-concept? a. A history of success in a particular domain, such as math, athletics, or music b. Positive personality characteristics, such as openness, agreeableness, and conscientiousness c. Supportive parents who provide positive feedback about achievement and personal character d. A positive identity achievement as described by the identity status model.

45.

According to research, which of the following approaches to improving students’ selfconcepts is likely to be most effective? a. Design an unstructured program where students determine their own goals. b. Design a structured program in which major emphasis is placed on interpersonal and intrapersonal intelligence. c. Design a program in which students are involved in activities designed to improve self-esteem. d. Design a structured program in which students experience genuine progress toward academic goals.

Chapter 3: Personal, Social, and Moral Development

Higher-Level Items 46.

Mrs. Stewart watches as Jimmie, one of her kindergartners, puts an art paper in his folder. He then begins to straighten up the paints and brushes in the art area, and in the process, he tips over a baby-food-sized jar of paint onto the tabletop. Of the following, which would be Mrs. Stewart’s best response to Jimmie’s initiative, using Erikson’s work as your basis for answering? a. “Jimmie, I think you were doing a very nice job of straightening up our art area. It certainly needed it. Clean up the paint now, and then you can go back to your seat.” b. “Jimmie, I really appreciate your attempt to clean up the art area. It certainly needed it. Go back to your seat now while I clean this up.” c. “Jimmie, I know our art area certainly needs cleaning up, and I appreciate your attempt to do it, but remember our rule that says we don’t play with the materials until we’re given permission to do so.” d. “Jimmie, I really appreciate your attempt to clean up our art area, but you must be careful when you do it, so that you don’t spill the paint. Please return to your seat now while I clean this up.”

47.

Natasha has questions about her own ability and exhibits a lack of confidence with respect to her competence. Based on this information, which of the following psychosocial stages is she most nearly struggling to resolve? a. Autonomy vs. shame and doubt b. Initiative vs. guilt c. Industry vs. inferiority d. Trust vs. mistrust

48.

Kelly Reed, 32, is an interesting person. She has been married for 8 years, and her husband often comments on how unselfish and giving she is. She works for an industrial real estate firm and is progressing nicely in her career. Her boss has praised her for her progress and her tendency to be a “self-starter.” On the other hand, Kelly is very jealous of her husband and thinks he may even cheat on her, although she has no evidence to support the feeling. She thinks her boss “blows smoke at her” and is trying to take advantage—professionally only; no personal advances. Based on this information and Erikson’s theory, which of the following crises has Kelly least well resolved? a. Trust vs. mistrust b. Initiative vs. guilt c. Industry vs. inferiority d. Intimacy vs. isolation

Chapter 3: Personal, Social, and Moral Development

49.

Amanda, age 2 and a half, is very pleased with herself. She runs to her mother, falls into her arms, pauses momentarily, and then runs away again. She seems to love going to the store, because she is allowed to walk beside her mother without having her hand held. This scenario best illustrates Amanda attempting to resolve the psychosocial challenge at which of the following stages of psychosocial development? a. Trust vs. mistrust b. Autonomy vs. shame and doubt c. Initiative vs. guilt d. Industry vs. inferiority

Use the following information for items 50 and 51. You have an eighth grader, Adam, who you can’t seem to “get going.” He never volunteers a response in class and won’t agree to do special projects unless required. However, he turns in his required work on time and without prodding, and the work is always acceptable or better in quality, and his past records show that he has been an average to above-average student. Adam is a good, “normal” boy who seems to relate well to his classmates. Overall, he doesn’t seem unhappy. 50.

Using Erikson’s work as a basis, which of the following would be the best explanation for Adam’s behavior? a. He, being at the age of the identity vs. confusion crisis, is not developing a sense of identity and as a result shows his listlessness in class. b. He didn’t successfully resolve the industry vs. inferiority crisis and as a result of his feelings of inferiority compensates by not trying. c. He hasn’t developed a sense of autonomy and because he doubts himself, he won’t try to accomplish anything in school. d. He didn’t successfully resolve the initiative vs. guilt crisis, and the guilt feelings are dealt with by doing only what others ask of him and no more.

51.

Again using Erikson’s work as a basis, of the following, the best action for you as a teacher working with Adam would be to: a. talk to him, discuss what he wants to be and as a result of your genuine caring help him develop a sense of identity. b. show personal interest in him and strongly reward his successes in order to help him increase his sense of self-worth. c. strongly compliment and support anything he undertakes on his own. Play down failures that might result. d. encourage other reliable and outgoing students to include him in group work to help him develop a sense of trust in other people.

Chapter 3: Personal, Social, and Moral Development

52.

You’re a fifth-grade teacher. Of the following, the best application of Erikson’s work would be to: a. help your students develop a basic sense of trust, for without it a person cannot move to the next stage of development. b. help your students experience as much success on reasonably challenging tasks as possible, to help them develop a sense of competence. c. help your students begin to develop a sense of identity because they will soon experience the identity vs. confusion crisis. d. encourage your students to complete tasks on their own to help them resolve the autonomy/shame and doubt psychosocial challenge.

53.

Which of the following statements best illustrates Erikson’s psychosocial challenge of identity vs. confusion? a. “Sometimes I think I would like to settle down with Jerry, but I’m not sure I want to give up my lifestyle.” b. “Oh, I don’t know. Someday I’ll figure out who I am.” c. “I’ve never been able to do this stuff. I’m just no good at it.” d. “If we don’t worry about what’s happening to these kids, who will?”

54.

Mr. Jones, 42, is a hard worker, seems reasonably sure of himself, and enjoys a reputation as an innovator and competent professional in his company. However, he is rarely home, is nearly estranged from his wife, and as a result spends little time with his children, although he always encourages them to do well and tries to be a good model for them, so they will “make it in life.” He usually stops by the local hangout on the way home from work each day, “for a little bracer before I face the music,” he grins self-consciously. Of the following, the best description of his behavior would be an imperfect resolution of which crisis? a. Industry vs. inferiority b. Initiative vs. guilt c. Identity vs. confusion d. Intimacy vs. isolation

55.

Karen appears to have a good “grip on life.” She accepts herself for what she is and recognizes and accepts her strengths and weaknesses. She feels a sense of satisfaction in what she is as well as what she has accomplished. Erikson would describe this as best illustrating a positive resolution of which of the following crises? a. Industry vs. inferiority b. Intimacy vs. isolation c. Generativity vs. stagnation d. Integrity vs. despair

Chapter 3: Personal, Social, and Moral Development

56.

“I’m good at math,” Kailyn thinks to herself as she solves a complex word problem. “I wish I was as good at French. I just can’t pick up the nuances in its pronunciation. . . . Oh, well, can’t be good at everything,” she concludes, which reflects her generally good feeling about herself. Which of the following is the best analysis of Kailyn’s self-concept and/or her selfesteem? a. Kailyn has a positive self-concept with respect to math but negative self-concept with respect to French. b. Kailyn has a positive general self-concept and also positive self-esteem. c. Kailyn has a generally positive self-concept. d. Kailyn has generally positive self-esteem in math, but generally negative selfesteem in French.

57.

Liesha is in kindergarten and is a bit behind her classmates academically in math and reading. If she is typical for children her age, which of the following will be her most likely assessment of herself? a. She will have a negative self-concept of her ability and low self-esteem. b. She will have a negative self-concept of her ability but high self-esteem. c. She will have a positive self-concept of her ability but low self-esteem. d. She will have a positive self-concept of her ability and high self-esteem.

Use the following information for items 58 and 59. A researcher has conducted a study on self-concept. He gives students a series of self-report surveys that investigates their self-concepts in a variety of domains, and he then compares their self-concepts to their academic achievement. 58.

Of the following, which is the most likely correlation between academic self-concept in a particular domain, such as math, and academic achievement in that domain? a. Slightly negative b. Positive and strong c. Positive but weak d. Virtually no correlation

59.

Of the following, which is the most likely correlation between athletic self-concept and academic achievement in the researcher’s data? a. Slightly negative b. Positive and strong c. Positive but weak d. Virtually no correlation

Chapter 3: Personal, Social, and Moral Development

Use the following vignette for items 60 and 61. Four teachers are describing their efforts to improve the academic self-concepts of their learners. Mrs. Aldrich states, “I try to give my students some independence, and I let them help me decide on the learning activities that we’re going to conduct.” Mr. Tichy says, “We do activities that focus directly on self-concept. I have them write essays on topics like, ‘How I know that I’m good at school activities,’ and ‘How I would sell myself to an employer.’” Mr. Collins emphasizes, “I try to make sure that the kids are successful. Success is the key. If they’re successful, their self-concepts will improve.” Mrs. Gomez says, “I agree that success is important, but alone, it isn’t enough. The kids must succeed in something they think is challenging and important. Success in something trivial won’t do it.” 60. If the teachers’ success is consistent with patterns identified by research, the teacher likely to be most successful is: a. Mrs. Aldrich. b. Mr. Tichy. c. Mr. Collins. d. Mrs. Gomez. 61. If the teachers’ success is consistent with patterns identified by research, the teacher likely to be least successful is: a. Mrs. Aldrich. b. Mr. Tichy. c. Mr. Collins. d. Mrs. Gomez. Essay Items 62.

Gary is a fourth grader in school early in the school year. He is a bit above average according to intelligence tests. One day, Mrs. Winton, Gary’s teacher, gave the class a math test, and unfortunately Gary did quite poorly on it. Gary was devastated, but resolved to try harder on the next test. How would Erikson explain Gary’s devastation over his grade on the test?

63.

Describe the concept of ethnic identity, and explain why it is important for members of cultural minorities.

64.

Describe four suggestions that teachers can apply in their attempts to promote identity and self-concept development in their students. Provide an example of each.

Chapter 3: Personal, Social, and Moral Development

Social-Emotional Development Knowledge-Level Items 65.

Growth in the ability to recognize and manage emotions, set and achieve positive goals, understand and establish positive relationships with others, and make responsible decisions best describes which of the following? a. Identity development b. Psychosocial development c. Social-emotional development d. The development of emotional self-esteem

66.

Of the following, which statement most accurately describes the relationship between social-emotional development and academic achievement? a. Students who are well developed social and emotionally are more satisfied with school, but their achievement is similar to their less well-developed peers. b. Students who are well developed social and emotionally are more satisfied with school, but their achievement is lower than their less well-developed peers. c. Students who are well developed social and emotionally are more satisfied with school, and their achievement is generally higher than their less well-developed peers. d. Social-emotional development is related to personal self-esteem but it isn’t related to satisfaction with school or academic achievement.

67.

Which of the following is the best description of emotions? a. Feelings that are short-lived, intense, and specific b. Attitudes that result in general reactions to life experiences c. Behavioral responses to unpleasant experiences in the environment d. Enduring feelings that result from highly stimulating personal experiences

68.

Understanding our thoughts and emotions best describes with of the following? a. Self-concept b. Self-monitoring c. Self-management d. Self-awareness

69.

The processes we use to control and express our emotions best describes which of the following? a. Emotional self-regulation b. Emotional referencing c. Emotional monitoring d. Emotional intelligence

Chapter 3: Personal, Social, and Moral Development

70.

An understanding of social and ethical norms for behavior as well as the ability to take others’ perspectives and feel empathy for people from a variety of backgrounds and cultures best describes which of the following? a. Social awareness b. Social referencing c. Social regulation d. Social control

71.

The ability to understand social interactions best describes which of the following? a. Social awareness b. Social cognition c. Social referencing d. Social control

72.

The ability to establish and maintain healthy and rewarding relationships with diverse individuals and groups best describes which of the following? a. Social regulation b. Social referencing c. Relationship skills d. Social control

73.

The ability to ability to use vocal and nonverbal cues to evaluate ambiguous events and regulate behaviors accordingly best describes which of the following? a. Social referencing b. Social awareness c. Relationship skills d. Social control

74.

The the capacity to feel what you infer others are feeling best describes which of the following? a. Social referencing b. Social awareness c. Personal awareness d. Empathy

75.

Of the following, which is the best definition of perspective taking? a. The ability to feel guilt or shame about an unkind act directed toward another person b. The ability to understand the thoughts and feelings of others c. The ability to resolve conflicts in ways that benefit everyone involved d. The ability to respond dispassionately when mistreated by someone

76.

The ability to make constructive choices about personal behavior and interactions with others, based on an understanding of the consequences of our actions, best describes which of the following? 68 Copyright © 2020, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

Chapter 3: Personal, Social, and Moral Development

a. b. c. d.

Social-emotional regulation Social referencing Relationship skills Responsible decision making

77.

Of the following, which group initially has the most influence on social-emotional development? a. Peers b. Siblings c. Parents d. Other adults, such as extended family

78.

Peers influence social-emotional development in three ways. Which of the following is not one of those ways? a. Attitudes and values b. Self-regulation c. Opportunities to practice social skills d. Emotional support

Higher-Level Items 79.

Ava is out for a jog in the early evening and suddenly a small dog runs toward her barking loudly. Ava’s heart rate jumps, she is fearful, she quickly thinks of what she might do to protect herself, and she runs into a convenience store that happens to be nearby. Of the following, which is the best description of Ava’s experience? a. She is experiencing the cognitive, physiological, and behavioral components of emotions. b. She is demonstrating the personality trait, neuroticism, since the dog is small and not likely a serious threat. c. She is demonstrating self-regulation, since she quickly thinks of what to do and runs into the convenience store. d. She is demonstrating an authoritative temperament, because she is quickly able to adapt to her experience.

80.

Gina has a classmate who is periodically rude to her and will even make rather insulting remarks about her appearance or the way she dresses. “Sometimes I’d like to just slap her face,” she comments to a close friend, but she keeps herself in check and essentially ignores the rudeness and remarks. 69 Copyright © 2020, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

Chapter 3: Personal, Social, and Moral Development

Gina’s behavior best illustrates an application of which of the following social-emotional learning goals? a. Agreeableness b. Social awareness c. Self-management d. Relationship skills 81.

You’re in a conversation with two acquaintances and one of the makes a remark to you that seems insensitive and demeaning. You flush with anger, and you have a strong impulse to verbally lash back at the person. You hold yourself in check, however, deciding to talk to the person later and in private, because lashing back would create an awkward social situation. Of the following, you holding yourself in check, best illustrates: a. emotional self-regulation. b. introversion. c. agreeableness. d. social referencing.

82.

Megan, a well-behaved, high-achieving seventh grader, has become close friends with Julia and Dana, fun-loving girls who sometimes disrupt class with their antics. Julia and Dana are more interested in having fun than in studying, and their grades reflect their lack of effort—they are barely passing. If Megan’s behavior is consistent with patterns identified by research, which of the following is the most valid prediction? a. Since Megan is high achieving and well behaved, she will not be influenced by Julia and Dana. b. Megan’s grades will decline, but her behavior will be unaffected. c. Megan’s behavior will decline, but her grades will be unaffected. d. Megan’s grades and behavior will both decline.

83.

Enrique gets along well with his classmates, and his social skills are well developed. On the other hand, Carter doesn’t get along with the other students and says other students pick on him for no reason. If the boys’ attitudes and academic achievement fit patterns identified by research, which of the following is the most valid conclusion? a. Enrique will be more satisfied with school than will Carter, and his achievement will be higher. b. Enrique will be more satisfied with school than will Carter, but his and Carter’s achievement will be similar. c. Enrique will be more satisfied with school than will Carter, but Carter’s achievement is likely to be higher than Enrique’s. d. We can’t make any conclusions about Enrique’s and Carter’s satisfaction with school and achievement based on the information above.

84.

Rodrigo handles himself well in social situations well, being particularly adept at “understanding where the other person is coming from.” He’s empathetic, and is well liked by his peers.

Chapter 3: Personal, Social, and Moral Development

Based on this information which of the following social-emotional learning goals is Sophia best applying? a. Self-awareness b. Social awareness c. Self-management d. Relationship skills 85.

Sophia handles difficult social situations well, is empathetic, and is well liked by her peers. Based on this information, of the following, which is the most valid conclusion we can make about her? a. She has developed a positive resolution of the initiative vs. guilt crisis. b. She is skilled at perspective taking. c. She is a high academic achiever. d. She has a well-developed identity.

86.

You’re in an enjoyable conversation with two friends, and one makes a strongly worded political statement. You notice the other turn down his eyes and become silent. You decide to get off politics as quickly as possible, so you change the subject of the discussion. Of the following, your actions best illustrate which of the following aspects of socialemotional learning? a. Social referencing b. Perspective taking c. Self-management d. Responsible decision making

87.

Gavin works very effectively in groups and is skilled at diffusing disagreements among members of the group when they are doing groupwork. Of the following, which is the most valid conclusion we can make about him? a. He is skilled at social problem solving. b. He has successfully resolved the industry vs. inferiority crisis. c. He is a high academic achiever. d. He has successfully accomplished identity achievement.

88.

Four students are involved in a discussion about a social activity after school. “I don’t understand why you want to go to Vito’s (a popular hangout for students) all the time,” Garrett comments to Luke. “I’m not that crazy about it. There isn’t that much to do there.”

Chapter 3: Personal, Social, and Moral Development

“On the other hand, it’s close to Luke’s house,” Ian replies, “so I can see why he would like to go there. It makes sense.” “That’s okay,” Luke adds. “Anything is fine with me.” “Well, suppose we go to Vito’s tonight, and then we go to Garrett’s house on Friday. He has suggested that we come and see his new video game,” Cody offers. The student who best demonstrates perspective taking is: a. Garrett. b. Ian. c. Luke. d. Cody. 89.

Lucas comes from a low-income family. His single mom talks about how important school is even though she is unable to spend a lot of time with her children because she works two jobs to make ends meet. A number of the students in Lucas’s neighborhood regularly skip school and don’t spend a great deal of time studying. Lucas, however, has become close friends with Jordan and Bill, two other students at the school, and they often hang out together. In fact, they are the people he spends most of his time with when he isn’t at home. They are hard-working, conscientious students who get good grades. With respect to social-emotional learning, which of the following best describes the likely outcome of these influences on Lucas? a. Lucas’s neighborhood will be the primary influence on his social development, so he is unlikely to become a high achiever. b. Lucas will be a hard working student in school, but when he gets home, the influence of his neighborhood will result in decreased efforts on his part. c. Lucas will likely study and become a high achiever in spite of his family background and neighborhood. d. Lucas will likely become a high achiever, primarily because of his mom’s influence.

90.

Karen is a well-liked by her friends. She and her friends like to party, but if she sees that they’re drinking a bit too much, she stops, so she can be the “designated driver.” She’s also reliable. For instance, if she says she’ll send you a link to an interesting article, she does, and if she says she’ll call you back the next day, she does. Of the following, which social-emotional learning goal is Karen best applying? a. Self-management b. Relationship skills c. Social awareness d. Responsible decision making

Essay Items 91.

Chapter 3: Personal, Social, and Moral Development

92.

Identify and explain four obstacles to healthy social-emotional development.

93.

Describe three suggestions teachers can apply as they attempt to promote social-emotional development in their students.

Development of Morality and Social Responsibility Knowledge-Level Items 94.

Societal norms and appropriate ways of behaving in specific situations are called: a. moral conventions. b. personal norms. c. social conventions. d. societal expectations.

95.

According to research examining children’s thinking about moral, conventional, and personal domains, how old must children be in order to distinguish among the three domains? a. Three years old b. Five years old c. Seven years old d. Ten years old

96.

Which of the follow suggested that moral development begins with external morality and gradually moves to internalization? a. Bruner b. Chomsky c. Erikson d. Piaget

97.

According to Piaget, the stage of moral development in which individuals view rules as fixed and permanent and enforced by authority figures is defined as: a. external morality. b. autonomous morality. c. reflective morality. d. internal morality.

98.

Of the following, the most central features of Kohlberg’s research technique are: a. identity crises. b. moral dilemmas. c. stages. d. ethics.

99.

Of the following, which stage of moral reasoning most emphasizes ethical decisions based on the immediate consequences for the individual? a. Punishment and obedience 73 Copyright © 2020, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

Chapter 3: Personal, Social, and Moral Development

b. Interpersonal harmony c. Law and order d. Social contract 100. People who make ethical decisions based on the consequences for themselves are operating at: a. the preconventional level of ethics. b. the conventional level of ethics. c. the postconventional level of ethics. d. the concrete operational level of ethics. 101. Ethical reasoning that concerns the judgments and opinions of others is characteristic of: a. the preconventional level of ethics. b. the conventional level of ethics. c. the postconventional level of ethics. d. the principled level of ethics. 102. The two Kohlberg stages that are based on following social conventions and norms are: a. punishment and obedience and market exchange. b. social contract and universal principles. c. market exchange and interpersonal harmony. d. interpersonal harmony and law and order. 103. Maintaining an orderly society is characteristic of which stage of moral reasoning? a. Punishment and obedience b. Market exchange c. Interpersonal harmony d. Law and order 104. According to Kohlberg, conventional reasoning depends on: a. preoperational thought. b. concrete operational thought. c. formal operational thought. d. a combination of preoperational thinking and a resolution of the industry vs. inferiority crisis. 105. Carol Gilligan suggests that the “morality of caring” proceeds through three steps. Which of the following is not one of those steps? a. A focus on an individual’s own needs b. Care for another in response to that person’s caring for the individual c. Care for others who are not able to care for themselves d. Recognizing that personal relationships are interdependent and extending compassion to all of humanity. 106. Of the following, which best describes Carol Gilligan’s criticism of Kohlberg’s work?

Chapter 3: Personal, Social, and Moral Development

a. His work fails to adequately consider the ways in which emotions influence morality. b. His work fails to adequately consider the ways in which gender influences morality. c. His work fails to adequately consider the ways in which culture influences morality. d. His work fails to adequately consider the ways in which learner exceptionalities influence morality. 107. To encourage the development of a morality of caring, Carol Gilligan recommends that teachers do which of the following? a. Reinforce students with praise and other rewards when they display behaviors that demonstrate caring. b. Use acceptable forms of punishment, such as timeout, when students display behaviors that indicate a lack of caring. c. Create a curriculum that provides students with opportunities to think and talk about moral issues involving caring. d. Invite guest speakers involved in caring professions, such as doctors, nurses, and ministers into class to discuss the importance of caring. 108. The painful emotion aroused when people recognize that they have failed to act or think in ways they believe are good, is best described as: a. shame. b. guilt. c. distress. d. empathy. 109. The ability to experience the same emotion someone else is feeling is described as: a. empathy. b. compassion. c. distress. d. guilt. 110. The ability to understand shame, guilt, and empathy, in ourselves as well as others is best described as: a. moral development. b. emotional intelligence. c. ethical reasoning. d. morality of caring. 111. When young people feel ashamed or guilty about something that they have done, which of the following is the most valid conclusion? a. They have low self-esteem. b. They will develop aggressive tendencies. c. Their social development will be impaired. d. Their moral development has advanced.

Chapter 3: Personal, Social, and Moral Development

Higher-Level Items 112. Three of the following choices would be considered immoral acts. Which one would be considered a violation of a social convention? a. Spreading a rumor that results in a classmate being socially ostracized b. Not sending a thank you card to someone who has given you a gift c. Purposely bumping a smaller classmate and making him drop his books d. Copying a classmate’s homework assignment 113. Norton has recently had his left ear pierced and is now wearing an earring. Mrs. Edwards, his homeroom teacher, thinks he looks ghastly, but she says nothing to Norton. Norton’s decision to wear the earring best fits in which of the following domains? a. The moral domain b. The conventional domain c. The personal domain d. Both the moral and the personal domains Use the following information for items 114 and 115. Ernesto sees one of his peers push another child down and then kick him in the leg. Ernesto concludes that this was an immoral act. 114. According to research examining moral development, Ernesto must be at least how old in order to make this conclusion? a. Three years old b. Five years old c. Seven years old d. Ten years old 115. Of the following, which is the most likely way that Ernesto learned that pushing others down and kicking them is immoral? a. His parents explained that some acts are bad. For example, his parents told him that pushing someone down is unacceptable. b. He observed the consequences of different acts. For example, he observed that someone is often punished for pushing others down. c. His teacher had a system of rules in her class. For example, she had a rule forbidding pushing and hurting others. d. He watched other students. For example, he saw that most children didn’t push others down.

Chapter 3: Personal, Social, and Moral Development

Use the following information for items 116 and 117. Mrs. Lucci is working with one of her students while the rest of her fifth graders are completing a seat-work assignment in math. “Did Mrs. Lucci tell us to skip number six?” Gary whispers. “Shh! You’re not supposed to talk without permission,” Andrea says, pointing to the rules posted on the bulletin board. “But he needs to know so he can do his work,” Krystal replies. “Yes, she said, skip number six.” The students then go back to work on their assignment. 116. Which student or students demonstrated external morality? a. Gary b. Andrea c. Krystal d. Both Gary and Andrea 117. Which student or students demonstrated autonomous morality? a. Gary b. Andrea c. Krystal d. Both Gary and Krystal 118. “It’s okay to cheat on examinations. Everyone does it . . . “ is reasoning at which of Kohlberg’s stages? a. Punishment and obedience b. Market exchange c. Interpersonal harmony d. Law and order 119. Critics of capital punishment make the following argument: “Capital punishment is not a deterrent to crime. The only real deterrent is the certainty of being apprehended, being quickly tried, and jailed.” From this argument, we could infer that the critics view people as operating primarily at which stage of moral reasoning? a. Punishment and obedience b. Market exchange c. Interpersonal harmony d. Law and order

Chapter 3: Personal, Social, and Moral Development

120. A secondary science teacher complains about his students’ inclination to cheat on his tests. “They think it’s a game,” he comments perplexed. “It’s whatever they can get away with.” Based on this information, his students are at which ethical stage? a. Punishment and obedience b. Market exchange c. Interpersonal harmony d. Law and order 121. Thinkers who are concerned only with how some activity would affect them and would be unable to consider how the event might affect others would be best described as: a. preconventional. b. conventional. c. post conventional. d. empathetic. 122. We’ve heard of the moral ethic “An eye for an eye, and a tooth for a tooth.” This notion best fits Kohlberg’s stage of: a. punishment and obedience. b. market exchange. c. Interpersonal harmony d. Law and order 123. Sharon feels it’s right to share with Kathy because Kathy shares with her, but she doesn’t want to share with Judy, Heather, and Cheryle as well. Of the following, which best describes the stage of moral development at which Sharon is thinking? a. Punishment and obedience b. Market exchange c. Interpersonal harmony d. Law and order 124. Ken, 14, in an incident of vandalism, breaks a window in an abandoned warehouse. “I can’t believe I did that,” he reacts later. “I don’t know what I thought I was getting out of it. It wasn’t even fun. I’ll never do that again.” In the absence of any other information, we would describe Ken as being at which ethical stage? a. Punishment and obedience b. Market exchange c. Law and order d. Social contract

Chapter 3: Personal, Social, and Moral Development

125. “I have an absolute rule that is inviolable in my class,” an eighth-grade English teacher comments to a colleague. “They may not say or do anything to hurt one of their classmate’s feelings. Kids need to feel safe, or they won’t be willing to speak up.” If we view this as an ethical matter, the English teacher is operating at which moral stage? a. Punishment and obedience b. Market exchange c. Interpersonal harmony d. Social contract 126. Consider the example of a person who picks up a beer “for the road” in spite of an “Open Container Law” (a law prohibiting open containers of alcohol in motor vehicles). He no longer does this when his kids are along. “I don’t think it’s a good idea anymore,” he concludes. “I don’t want to set a bad example for the kids.” His reasoning in this case would best be described as being at what stage? a. Punishment and obedience b. Market exchange c. Interpersonal harmony d. Law and order 127. You’ve found that a student is reasoning at Kohlberg’s Stage 3, and you want to deter him from inappropriate behavior. Using Kohlberg’s work as a basis, which of the following would be the best way to handle an incident? a. Punish the behavior. b. Suggest that if he will refrain from the behavior for a certain period, he will receive a reward. c. Ask if his friends encourage or tolerate such behavior. d. Discuss with him what kind of a chaotic society we would live in if people behaved the way he did. 128. Jon steals a canned soft drink in a convenience store after school, but afterward when his parents learn of the incident, he thinks, “That was awful. I shouldn’t have done it. My parents were really hurt that I would do such a thing.” In the absence of any further information, which of the following best describes the stage of moral development at which Jon is reasoning? a. Punishment and obedience b. Market exchange c. Interpersonal harmony d. Law and order 129. Karen Johnson, a middle school teacher, says the rules we establish are agreements that we make that are good and fair for all students, and therefore we must honor them. Which of Kohlberg’s stages does this best illustrate? a. Market exchange b. Interpersonal harmony c. Law and order d. Social contract 79 Copyright © 2020, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

Chapter 3: Personal, Social, and Moral Development

130. Billy gives Cal a candy bar in return for a comic book. If Billy were at Kohlberg’s Stage 3 [interpersonal harmony], he would view the behavior as “ethical” if it was: a. rewarding for him. b. rewarding for both him and Cal. c. what he thought was expected of him. d. consistent with a principle about fairness. 131. Montel, in response to reading about the declining morals in this country, states, “I’m going to pay my income tax anyway. What would happen to the country if everybody cheated?” His reasoning best illustrates which stage? a. Punishment and obedience b. Market exchange c. Law and order d. Social contract Use the following information for questions 132 and 133. Bill, during the course of a tennis match in a local tournament, develops a severe blister on his right foot. He asks James, his opponent, if James would mind if he goes to his car to get some tape to put on the blister. Bill says it will take less than 5 minutes. “I’m sorry,” James responds. “The book says only a 2-minute injury timeout in a match.” 132. James feeling justified in responding the way he did suggests that his thinking is at which stage of moral reasoning? a. Market exchange b. Interpersonal harmony c. Law and order d. Social contract 133. If James had said, “Sure, go ahead. I know it’s no fun playing with a blister,” he would have been operating at which of the following stages of moral reasoning? a. Market exchange b. Interpersonal harmony c. Law and order d. Social contract

Chapter 3: Personal, Social, and Moral Development

Use the following information for Questions 134 and 135. Mrs. Ossi solicits and receives significant input from her students on her classroom rules. “These are what we agreed upon,” she emphasizes, “so it is important that we all honor them as the guidelines for our behavior in here. This will help us all learn as much as we can.” 134. Mrs. Ossi’s thinking best illustrates which of the following stages? a. Market exchange b. Interpersonal harmony c. Law and order d. Social contract 135. According to Kohlberg’s theory, Mrs. Ossi is likely to be most successful if she teaches: a. first graders. b. third graders. c. fifth graders. d. eighth graders. Use the following information for items 136 and 137. Ashley, Donna, Paige, and Charlotte are planning a sleep over, and they are considering who else they should ask. “How about Jasmine?” Ashley wonders. “No, she talks too much,” Charlotte counters. “I’d feel really bad if you had a sleep over and didn’t invite me,” Paige adds. “Her feelings will really be hurt.” “So?” Charlotte shrugs. “Plus, she’ll never find out.” “I think it’s okay,” Donna adds. “She’s actually funny, and I like her.” 136. Based on the evidence in the vignette, the one whose moral development is most advanced is: a. Ashley. b. Paige. c. Charlotte. d. Donna. 137. Based on the evidence in the vignette, the one whose moral development is least advanced is: a. Ashley. b. Paige. c. Charlotte. d. Donna.

Chapter 3: Personal, Social, and Moral Development

Essay Items 138. Explain the differences between the moral, conventional, and personal domains, and provide an example to illustrate these differences. Use the following vignette for items 139-141. You’re a teacher, and you’re in an informal conversation with a group of students in your room. The kids are comfortable with you and are very open about their behaviors in their classes. The discussion happens to turn to the issue of cheating. “I have to admit that I cheat in there,” Leroy admits, in reference to Mrs. Cosby’s class. “Everybody is doing it.” “So do I,” Tanya shrugs. “Cosby is always grading papers or something when we have tests. We could cheat right under her nose, and she'd never catch us.” “I don’t,” Antonio says. “When Mrs. Cosby talked to us about rules at the beginning of the year, she had us help her with our rules for the class, and we agreed that we would be honest and never cheat.” “I don’t either,” Jasmine adds. “‘Behave honestly at all times’ is on our list of rules.” The discussion continued. 139. Which student (or students) best illustrates Piaget’s description of external morality? Explain. 140. Which student (or students) best illustrates Piaget’s description of autonomous morality? Explain. 141. Identify Kohlberg’s stage of moral reasoning for each of the students in the vignette. Explain. 142. Describe Gilligan’s primary criticism of Kohlberg’s work, and offer an example to illustrate the criticism. 143. Explain how emotions relate to moral development. 144. Describe four suggestions teachers can apply for promoting moral development in students, and provide an example of each.

Chapter 4: Learner Diversity

CHAPTER FOUR LEARNER DIVERSITY Culture Knowledge-Level Items 1.

The group and individual differences we see in our students is best described as: a. ethnicity. b. socioeconomic status. c. culture. d. learner diversity.

Of the following, which is the best definition of culture? a. A person’s ancestry and the way individuals identify with the nation from which they or their ancestors came b. The knowledge, attitudes, values, and customs that characterize a social group c. Beliefs, values, and behaviors that reject the values of mainstream society d. The anxiety experienced by members of a group resulting from concern that their behavior might confirm a stereotype

Individuals’ ancestral heritage, language, value system, and customs best describe which of the following? a. Diversity b. Culture c. Ethnicity d. Race

Shared biological traits, such as bone structure and skin, hair, and eye color, best describe which of the following? a. Culture b. Race c. Ethnicity d. Genetics

Which of the following statements illustrates the relationship between culture and ethnicity? a. Culture and ethnicity are unrelated. b. Culture and ethnicity are the same thing. c. Culture is a part of ethnicity. d. Ethnicity is a part of culture.

Chapter 4: Learner Diversity

Which of the following is not a component of ethnicity? a. Customs and traditions b. Language c. Value systems d. Socioeconomic status

People who migrate to another country, typically with the intent of living there permanently best describe which of the following? a. Members of cultural minorities b. Refugees c. English language learners d. Immigrants

Which of the following is the most accurate statement describing the relationship between immigrants and crime rate? a. Immigrants commit significantly more crimes per capita than do people born in the United States. b. Immigrants commit about the same number of serious crimes, such as armed robbery, as people born in the United States, but they commit significantly more minor crimes, such as petty theft. c. Immigrants are less likely to commit crimes than people born in the United States. d. The crime rate for immigrants and people born in the United States is about the same.

Which of the following best describes the impact of immigration on our country? a. Our country needs immigrants; their impact is generally positive. b. Immigrants will often do work native born people are unwilling to do, but they are a drain on our country’s social services. c. Immigrants don’t have a significant impact on our country one way or the other. d. Our country should restrict immigration; their impact is generally negative.

10.

People who come to the United States because they are fleeing unsafe conditions in their home countries best describe which of the following? a. Immigrants b. Refugees c. Members of cultural minorities d. Migrants

Chapter 4: Learner Diversity

11.

If they fit general patterns identified by research, which of the following parents are most likely to provide their children with supplementary science materials? a. African Americans b. Hispanic Americans c. Chinese Americans d. Native Americans

12.

According to research examining student achievement, which of the following is the best explanation for the high academic achievement of Vietnamese and Laotian refugees when they settle in the United States? a. Their parents communicate values that emphasize achievement. b. They have high levels of native intelligence. c. They have learning styles that are compatible with instruction as it typically occurs in American classrooms. d. They typically enter the United States fluent in English, so language is not a problem for them.

13.

The tendency of some groups to adopt beliefs, values and behaviors that reject the values of mainstream culture best describes: a. minority alienation. b. cultural inversion. c. accommodation without assimilation. d. oppositional peer cultures.

14.

Which of the following is the most accurate statement describing the existence of oppositional peer cultures? a. Some research supports the contention that oppositional cultures exist and impede the achievement of Black and Hispanic students, but most does not. b. Research generally supports the contention that oppositional peer cultures exist in high poverty areas with significant populations of Back and Hispanic students. c. Research indicates that oppositional peer cultures are common in schools with large numbers of students who are members of cultural minorities. d. No evidence of any kind supports the contention that oppositional peer cultures exist.

15.

Research indicates that which of the following is most strongly correlated with the lower achievement of members of cultural minorities? a. The existence of oppositional peers cultures among members of cultural minorities b. The lack of effective school leadership in schools with higher percentages of cultural minorities c. The existence of stereotype threat in schools with higher percentages of cultural minorities d. Poverty rate differences between White and Black students’ schools

Chapter 4: Learner Diversity

16.

Which of the following tend to be characteristics of schools in high poverty areas attended by high percentages of minority students? 1. They are often staffed by inexperienced teachers who lack the professional knowledge and skills needed to meet the unique needs of minority students. 2. Schools may lack adequate facilities, and incidents of violence and disruption are more frequent. 3. Parents of students in these schools may have fewer resources that can be used to benefit their children’s education. 4. Teachers in these schools sometimes have low expectations for students of color. a. 1, 2, 3, 4

17.

b. 1, 2, 4

c. 2, 3, 4

d. 3, 4

For which of the following groups is stereotype threat likely to be the most pernicious? a. Minority students who form oppositional peer cultures b. Minority students who are high achievers in an area, such as math c. Nonminority boys in an area where minorities typically excel, such as basketball d. Girls in athletics, such as tennis or soccer

Higher-Level Items 18.

Pedro is a boy living in a small Mexican village. Every day he rises early, for he must walk the 2 miles to his school. He has breakfast of beans and bread made from ground corn, leaves the house, and begins his trek. He likes the walk, because he can wave to Papa toiling daily in the cornfields that provide the food and income for the family. When Pedro comes home from school, he often plays soccer with his friends in the village, and after dinner his mother usually plays songs on a guitar while Papa sings. The activities Pedro is involved in, such as playing soccer and listening to his mother and father play and sing, best illustrate which of the following? a. His culture b. His ethnicity c. Stereotype threat d. Oppositional peer culture

Use the following information for items 19 and 20. Rafael, a recent immigrant from Mallorca, an island in the Mediterranean off the coast of Spain, is very proud of his Spanish heritage. He usually speaks Spanish at home and loves evenings and weekends where he basks in the laid-back, relaxed lifestyle and lack of concern about time that are characteristic of the way he grew up. However, he never misses school, turns in all his assignments, is always on time for school and is doing very well in his classes. 19.

Rafael’s Spanish heritage and identification with Mallorca best describes his: a. race. b. ethnicity. c. diversity. d. assimilation. 86 Copyright © 2020, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

Chapter 4: Learner Diversity

20.

Of the following, Rafael is best illustrating: a. a resistance culture. b. accommodation without assimilation. c. stereotype threat. d. a cultural mismatch.

Use the following information for items 21and 22. Mrs. Henderson states to her second graders, “All right everyone, let’s put our math papers away now.” Don, a White student, puts his math materials away, while David, an African American student, does not. 21.

According to research examining cultural differences, if the students’ behavioral patterns are typical of White and African American students, which of the following is the most likely explanation? a. David is more likely to be disobedient than is Don, so he is more likely to disregard the directive. b. David is more likely to “misread” Mrs. Henderson’s directive, not interpreting it as a command, than is Don. c. David is less likely to be attentive than is Don, so he is more likely to not hear the directive. d. David is more likely to socialize with his peers than is Don, so he is more likely to be off-task than is Don.

22.

Of the following, which is the most important factor causing the issue in Mrs. Henderson’s classroom? a. Stereotype threat b. A resistance culture c. A cultural mismatch d. Cultural bias

23.

Kirsten is experiencing a great deal of anxiety about her first Algebra II test. “I know that Mr. Dade has a reputation for being tough, and everyone thinks that girls are no good in math. I’ll do terrible, and he’ll think, ‘Sure, she’s a girl; she can’t do math.’ I can hardly breathe.” Kirsten is experiencing: a. a resistance culture. b. a cultural mismatch. c. gender bias. d. stereotype threat.

Chapter 4: Learner Diversity

24.

Which of the following is the most effective statement for countering the possibility of stereotype threat with a group of high-achieving African American students? a. Nice job on the quiz everyone. More than half the class got an A or a B, and the rest of you will probably do as well on our next quiz. b. Keep up the good work. You’re all smart kids, and it is showing in your test scores. c. Keep studying as hard as you’ve been studying. We’re going to show the school what a great class this is. d. Nice job on the quiz, everyone. Your effort is paying off, and you’re continuing to improve your understanding.

Essay Item 25.

Research indicates that schools with high concentrations of Black and Hispanic students tend to serve high poverty areas, and students in these schools achieve at lower rates than do their White and Asian peers. Cite four aspects of these schools that can help account for the lower achievement of the students attending them.

Linguistic Diversity Knowledge-Level Items 26.

Students who participate in language assistance programs to help ensure that they attain English proficiency and meet the same academic content and achievement standards that all students are expected to meet best describe which of the following? a. Cultural minority students b. English language learners c. Diverse students d. Oppositional peer culture students

27.

Of the following, which is the best description of English language learners (ELLs)? a. Students who are skilled in speaking, reading, and writing English b. Children who are bilingual c. Students who understand basic grammar, punctuation, and spelling in English d. Students whose first or home language is not English

28.

The number of students attending American P-12 schools, whose first language is not English, is rapidly increasing. Projections estimate that by the year 2030 the numbers will be: a. slightly less than 20% of the school population. b. more than a third of the school population. c. more than half of the school population. d. more than three fourths of the school population.

Chapter 4: Learner Diversity

29.

Three of the following programs are types of ELL programs. The one that is not an ELL program is a(n): a. immersion program. b. assimilation EL program. c. maintenance EL program. d. ESL pullout program.

30.

One type of ELL program is called immersion. When using immersion: a. teachers instruct learners only in their native tongue. b. teachers instruct learners in both languages. c. teachers instruct learners only in English. d. teachers instruct learners in their native tongue and then transition to English.

31.

Which of the following is the most accurate description of maintenance bilingual programs? a. It builds on language skills that children already bring with them to class through their native language. b. It can be used effectively when several different languages are spoken in a classroom or school. c. It maximizes language development, although studies show initial losses in math and reading due to the catch-up time involved in learning English. d. It will be needed less and less in the future as the influx of non-English-speaking students decreases.

32.

Which of the following best describes the primary disadvantage of maintenance bilingual programs? a. They maintain the native language at the expense of English. b. They require teachers who speak two languages. c. They place unreasonable learning demands on students. d. They maintain outmoded and ineffective ways of thinking about the world.

33.

Teachers adapting content instruction to best meet the learning needs of ELL students best describe which of the following? a. Maintenance programs b. Transitional programs c. Sheltered English programs d. Immersion programs

34.

Programs that build on language skills that children already bring with them to class through their native language best describes which of the following? a. Maintenance programs b. Immersion programs c. Transitional programs d. ESL pullout programs

Chapter 4: Learner Diversity

35.

Which of the following best describes the primary advantage of maintenance bilingual programs? a. Students become literate in two languages. b. Students have increased exposure to English. c. It is an easy program to deliver. d. It helps students learn content.

36.

An ELL program in which students learn to read in first language, and teachers give supplementary instruction in English as a second language best describes which of the following? a. An immersion program b. A maintenance program c. A transitional program d. A sheltered English program

37.

A variation of standard English that is distinct in vocabulary, grammar, or pronunciation refers to: a. an accent. b. a dialect. c. a deviation. d. an inflection.

38.

Of the following, the best definition of a dialect is: a. a variation in English usage that lacks both the structure and complexity of standard English. b. a variation in English usage that lacks the structure but not the complexity of standard English. c. a variation in English usage that is an immature form of standard English. d. a variation in English usage that is distinct in vocabulary, grammar, or punctuation.

39.

According to research examining linguistic diversity, which of the following is the best practice for dealing with children who use nonstandard English dialects in your classroom? a. Accept the children’s use of dialects without correcting them to prevent feelings of rejection. b. Accept the children’s use of dialects until you think they are comfortable in the class, and from that point on, correct them when their English is nonstandard. c. Accept the children’s use of dialects, and then offer alternatives that are standard English usage. d. Require correct use of standard English as part of your classroom routines, and reinforce students when they use standard English.

40.

Bidialecticism is best defined as: a. the ability to switch back and forth between two forms of a language. b. the ability to understand two forms of a language. c. the ability to recognize two forms of a language. d. the ability to talk in one form of a language but write in another. 90 Copyright © 2020, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

Chapter 4: Learner Diversity

41.

Ogbu’s concept of accommodation without assimilation is best described as: a. the view that minority students can experience school success while retaining the characteristics of their culture. b. the view that members of cultural minorities are most successful if they combine the characteristics of their culture with White American values. c. the view that cultural minorities are most successful if schools adapt instruction to accommodate their unique learning styles. d. the view that minority students are most successful if they acquire the learning styles of White American students.

Higher-Level Items 42.

David Nalbandian, a third grader, has recently come to the United States from Armenia. He is quickly learning English on his own, since all of his instruction is in English and his school provides him with no extra support with learning English. The EL program he is in is best described as: a. an immersion program. b. a transitional EL program. c. a sheltered English program. d. a maintenance EL program.

43.

Estella, a native Spanish speaker who is in the first grade, is learning to read in both Spanish and English. Her teacher also teaches science in Spanish part of the time and in English at other times. The EL program she is in is best described as: a. an immersion program. b. a transitional EL program. c. a sheltered English program. d. a maintenance EL program.

44.

Andrei, whose native language is Russian, gets all of his instruction in English except for one period a day. During that period he goes to another room and works with a teacher who helps him with pronunciation, grammar, vocabulary, and oral comprehension in English. The EL program he is in is best described as: a. an immersion program. b. an ESL pullout program. c. a sheltered English program. d. a maintenance EL program.

Chapter 4: Learner Diversity

Use the following information for items 45 and 46. About a third of Susan Fisher’s students are not native English speakers. When students encounter new terms in their reading, such as cave, party, tarmac, or exciting, she illustrates them with concrete examples, and she has labeled common objects around the room, such as table, chair, clock, bulletin board, window, wall, and others in both their native languages and in English. She speaks slowly and clearly when she reads her students stories, and she refers to pictures in the books as additional examples. Susan also frequently comments on how lucky they are to have so much diversity in their backgrounds and emphasizes how much they learn from each other. 45.

Her efforts best illustrate what kind of ELL program? a. An immersion program b. An ESL pullout program. c. A sheltered English program d. A maintenance EL program

46.

Susan’s emphasis on how lucky they are and how much they learn from each other can also be described as an attempt to implement: a. a transitional ELL program. b. culturally responsive teaching. c. bilingual education. d. an immersion program.

Essay Items 47.

Mrs. Bodin, a 7th grade teacher with a large number of cultural minorities in her classes, has “Food Friday” twice a month. On “Food Friday” students bring in a food item of their choice that is an authentic part of their culture. The students also make a short presentation about the item, and other information about their culture. She then conducts a discussion of the presentation with questions such as, “What is one thing you learned from the presentation?” directs the questions to a variety of students, and gives them plenty of time to answer. After the discussion she comments, “Just think about everything we learn from each other. We’re very fortunate to have so many different cultures represented in our class.” She then comments, “You all earned your promptness points for the day. Very well done.” She has a system where students earn points that can be used for privileges if they are in class and working on a “Do Now” exercise that she posts at the beginning of each period when the bell rings. Based on the information in the case study, describe three actions that Mrs. Bodin demonstrated that applied suggestions for capitalizing on culturally responsive teaching with her students.

48.

Describe and illustrate four suggestions for capitalizing on culturally responsive teaching with your students and provide an example of each.

Chapter 4: Learner Diversity

Gender Knowledge-Level Items 49.

Which of the following are characteristics of girls? 1. They are more extroverted than boys. 2. They have slightly higher self-esteem than boys. 3. They develop motor skills at an earlier age than boys. 4. They are more trusting than boys. a. 1, 2, 3, 4

b. 2, 3, 4

c. 1, 2, 4

d. 1, 3, 4

50.

With respect to gender, research suggests that three of the following are characteristic of the school curriculum and boys’ experiences. Which one is not a characteristic of the school curriculum and boys’ experiences? a. Boys are portrayed in stories as warm and sensitive. b. The main characters in video games are usually male. c. Computer programs are strongly oriented toward boys. d. Male characters in literature are described as strong and adventurous.

51.

Culturally and socially constructed conceptions of what it’s like to be female or male and how each behaves best describes which of the following? a. Gender identity b. Gender role c. Gender stereotype d. Gender behavior

52.

In terms of genetic differences between boys and girls that could impact their learning in various subjects, which of the following is most accurate according to research? a. Boys are innately superior in math but are innately inferior in reading. b. Girls are innately superior in elementary school but fall behind later. c. Girls are innately superior in most subjects but are discriminated against in school. d. Innate differences between boys and girls are very small.

53.

Which of the following are true gender-related differences in achievement? 1. Girls generally score higher on the SAT than do boys. 2. In math, girls are initially better at basic skills such as counting, arithmetic computation, and basic concepts, but fall behind boys later on. 3. Girls score higher on measures of reading and writing ability than do boys. 4. More bachelor’s degrees are earned by men than by women. a. 1, 2, 3, 4

b. 2, 3, 4

c. 1, 3, 4

d. 2, 3

Chapter 4: Learner Diversity

54.

Which of the following is not true according to research on gender differences? a. Males are more likely to be found in remedial and special education classes. b. Males receive lower grades in school. c. Males score lower on tests such as the SAT and ACT. d. Males earn proportionally fewer bachelor’s and master’s degrees.

55.

Research indicates which of the following contribute to girls’ gender-stereotyped belief that they aren’t supposed to excel in math? 1. Their past performance in math 2. Their mothers’ gender-stereotyped attitudes 3. Their fathers’ gender-stereotyped attitudes 4. The behavior of their teachers a. 1, 2, 3, 4

56.

b. 2, 3, 4

c. 1, 2, 4

d. 1, 2, 3

Which of the following are examples of sexual harassment? 1. Touching of a sexual nature 2. Making comments, jokes, or gestures that have sexual overtones; 3. Displaying sexually explicit pictures 4. Spreading sexual rumors, such as suggesting that an individual had been involved in some sex act a. 1, 2, 3, 4

b. 1, 2, 3

c. 1, 2, 4

d. 1, 3, 4

57.

A form of sexual violence involving non-consensual sexual touching or a forced sex act, such as rape, forced oral sex, or sodomy best describes which of the following? a. Sexual harassment b. Sexual stereotype c. Sexual assault d. Sexual predation

58.

Which of the following best characterizes sexual harassment and particularly sexual assault? a. It is an abuse of power. b. It is the lack of self-regulation. c. It is the result of gender stereotyping. d. It is moral underdevelopment

Higher-Level Items 59.

Albert believes that since he is a boy he is supposed to be strong and in charge, but he isn’t supposed to reveal uncertainties about himself. This belief is best described as: a. gender stereotyping. b. gender-role identity. c. gender self-efficacy. d. gender-specific behavior. 94 Copyright © 2020, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

Chapter 4: Learner Diversity

60.

Kelli and John are prekindergartners. If the children are consistent with patterns of development identified by research, which of the following would be the most valid prediction? a. Kelli’s verbal ability will be superior to John’s. b. John’s verbal ability will be superior to Kelli’s. c. Their verbal abilities will be about equal. d. No prediction of verbal ability differences can be made as early as prekindergarten.

61.

Sandra and Robert are both fourth graders. If their math achievement fits typical patterns for boys and girls, which of the following is most likely? a. Their achievement will be about even now, but Sandra will fall behind when they are in high school. b. Sandra’s achievement will be slightly higher than Robert’s now, but she will fall behind later in school. c. Robert’s achievement will be higher now, and the gap will be wider when they are in high school. d. Their achievement will be about even now, and it will remain about even through high school.

62.

Janet and Peter are in the second grade. If their reading achievement fits typical patterns for boys and girls, which of the following is most likely? a. Janet is slightly more likely to have problems with reading than is Peter. b. Janet is much more likely to have problems with reading than is Peter. c. Peter is much more likely to have problems with reading than is Janet. d. They are equally likely to have problems with reading.

63.

Don James, a chemistry teacher, attended a series of workshops designed to make him aware of gender stereotypes in secondary math and science. As a result, he makes a conscious effort to eliminate the stereotype of math and science as the domain of male students, and he consciously makes an effort to improve his female students’ attitudes toward math and science. If his results are consistent with research outcomes in the area, which of the following is most likely? a. His female students’ attitudes toward math and science are likely to become more positive. b. His female students’ attitudes toward math and science are likely to become more negative. c. No change in the attitudes of his female students is likely. d. His female students’ attitudes toward math and science are likely to become more positive, but at the same time his male students’ attitudes will become more negative.

Essay Item 64.

Describe three suggestions that can help teachers as they attempt to eliminate gender bias and gender stereotyping in their teaching, and provide an example of each.

Chapter 4: Learner Diversity

Socioeconomic Status Knowledge-Level Items 65.

Three of the following are included in the definition of socioeconomic status (SES). Which of the following is not included within the definition? a. Parents’ level of education b. Parents’ intelligence c. Parents’ occupation d. Parents’ income

66.

Which of the following statements related to socioeconomic status and inequality are true? 1. The divorce rate for college graduates is much lower than the rate for people without college degrees. 2. Out-of-wedlock births are much lower for college graduates than for women with only a high school education. 3. The out-of-wedlock birth rate for college educated African American women has fallen, but the rate for high school educated Whites has risen. 4. Children in low SES families are more likely to have high levels of lead in their blood. a. 1, 2, 3, 4

b. 1, 3, 4

c. 1, 2, 4

d. 1, 2, 3

67.

Socioeconomic status exerts the most powerful influence on learning and achievement at which level? a. Upper class b. Middle class c. Working class d. Lower class

68.

Which of the following best describes the percentage of families below the poverty line in the United States compared to other industrialized nations? a. Much greater in the United States than in other industrialized nations b. About the same in the United States as in other industrialized nations c. Slightly less in the United States than in other industrialized nations d. Much less in the United States than in other industrialized nations

69.

Which tends to be true of students from lower socioeconomic status homes? a. They have fewer school-related background experiences than students from higher SES backgrounds. b. They are unable to learn in general education classrooms and usually are placed in classes for students with exceptionalities. c. They tend to gravitate to activities out of the academic mainstream, such as sports, music, and art. d. They tend to have more fully developed social lives than students from higher SES backgrounds.

Chapter 4: Learner Diversity

70.

Of the following, low SES parents tend to place the greatest emphasis on: a. autonomy and initiative. b. affiliation and sensitivity. c. achievement and independence. d. conformity and obedience.

71.

According to research, which of the following generalizations is the most accurate comparison of high- and low-SES parents? a. In interacting with their children, low-SES parents are more likely to give reasons for their directions than are high-SES parents. b. In interacting with their children, low-SES parents are less likely to give reasons for their directions than are high-SES parents. c. In interacting with their children, low- and high-SES parents are equally likely to give reasons for their directions.

72.

According to research, what is the most common characteristic of parents of highachieving students? a. The parents talk to their children about their expectations for achievement. b. The parents restrict the number of extracurricular activities that their children are allowed to participate in. c. The parents help their children with their homework. d. The parents communicate with school officials to be certain that their children are not placed in classes beyond their ability.

73.

The lack of enough material possessions or money to maintain an adequate quality of life best describes which of the following? a. Low SES b. Underclass c. Homeless d. Poverty

74.

Of the following, which is the most significant factor leading to homelessness? a. Member of cultural minority b. Non-native English speaker c. Poverty d. Working class

75.

The description “students who are in danger of failing to complete their education with a level of skills necessary to succeed in today’s society” best describes which of the following? a. Low-SES students b. Cultural minority students c. Students with ineffective learning styles d. Students at risk

Chapter 4: Learner Diversity

76. Which of the following best explains why educators prefer the term at risk to the term underachiever? a. The term underachiever suggests that an inherent deficiency exists in the character of the students. b. The term at risk has the political advantage of being able to solicit increased school funding. c. The term underachiever places an inappropriate emphasis on high grades and performance compared to others. d. The term at risk more nearly describes the long-term consequences of school failure. 77.

If they fit general patterns identified by research, which of the following are factors related to students at risk? 1. Female 2. Member of a cultural minority 3. Low SES 4. Non-native English speaker a. 1, 2, 3, 4

b. 1, 3, 4

c. 2, 3, 4

d. 3, 4

78.

Of the following, which most strongly contributes to the development of resilience? a. The nurturing of a caring adult. b. A variety of experiences in the preschool years. c. Positive identity with cultural attitudes and values. d. An instinctive desire to succeed.

79.

Of the following, which school practice is most likely to promote resilience? a. Uncompromising academic standards b. Clear and focused lectures c. Ability grouping in all grades d. Direct instruction practices

80.

Which of the following school characteristics is not related to student resiliency? a. High and uncompromising academic standards b. Strong personal bonds between teachers and students c. Extracurricular activities d. Emphasis on authoritarian discipline

81.

Which of the following is the most significant factor in promoting student resilience? a. The teacher-student relationship b. An authoritarian classroom management style c. An interactive teaching style d. Close communication with parents

Chapter 4: Learner Diversity

Higher-Level Items Use the following vignette for items 82 and 83. Jackie is a fifth grader at Landmark Elementary School—a school near an affluent neighborhood in a suburb of a major city. Jackie, who lives with her divorced mother—a high school dropout with a steady job as a $10/hour minimum wage housekeeper—has a limited experiential background. In a discussion of the “Old West,” for example, she asked what a saddle horn was, as Mrs. Markham talked about the western saddles the cowboys used. Also, she had never heard of the wild turkey, thinking of turkey as what we eat on Thanksgiving. However, Jackie “picks up” new ideas in class more quickly than most of her classmates, and she periodically asks questions atypical of fifth graders, such as, “Wouldn’t our country be better off if some of the money we spent on war materials was spent on educating poor people instead?” 82.

Based on the information in the case study, we would conclude that Jackie’s socioeconomic status is: a. lower class. b. working class. c. middle class. d. upper class.

83.

Based on information in the case study and research on school dropouts, if Jackie fits patterns typical for students with her background and socioeconomic status, which of the following is the most valid prediction? a. She is much less likely to drop out of school than is a typical classmate. b. She is slightly less likely to drop out than is atypical classmate. c. The likelihood of Jackie dropping out is about the same as that of a typical classmate. d. Jackie is more likely to drop out than is a typical classmate.

84.

Marcella’s mom graduated from high school, beauty school, and got a job in a salon. The two, Marcella and her mom, live in an apartment that they rent and make do with her mom’s $19,000 yearly salary. To which of the following socioeconomic classes does Marcella’s family belong? a. lower class. b. working class. c. middle class. d. upper class.

Chapter 4: Learner Diversity

85.

Jan Healy, a new teacher, is hired to teach in an urban school and wants to know what she should emphasize as she attempts to promote resilience in her students placed at risk. Which of the following is most important for her to emphasize? a. Allow the students to work individually, such as on worksheets and computer drilland-practice activities. b. Help students acquire understanding and skills using interactive teaching. c. Expect student apathy and boredom; be prepared to maintain high levels of classroom discipline. d. Decrease expectations to ensure that students will be successful.

86.

Gerry Giordano is teaching in a school with a large number of students placed at risk. Which of the following interventions is likely to be most effective for promoting resilience in his students? a. Increase the number of quizzes given, and provide detailed feedback for all items. b. Emphasize the importance of getting A’s and B’s, and praise the students for their high grades. c. Slightly relax the standards for classroom management and discipline, and tell the students you understand where they’re coming from. d. Give the students more opportunity to work individually and respond to written materials, such as worksheets.

Use the following information for items 87 and 88. Donna Keenan, Enita Barrett, Keith Van Nagel, and Joe Lynch all teach in an urban school with large numbers of students who are at risk. Donna works very hard with her students. She carefully explains each of her topics, and gives the students plenty of seat work to provide them with practice with the topics they’re studying. Enita attempts to provide her students with successful experiences, so she tells them exactly what will be on all of her homework and quizzes. She is careful to avoid exercises and quiz items that might be too hard for the students, and she emphasizes that once they have something memorized, they have it forever. Keith attempts to motivate his classes by using the most successful students as role models for the others. He posts the students’ scores for each quiz on the board and reminds the students that if they work hard, they could also have their name on the board. He says that learning to work on their own will help them learn self-discipline, so he has the students spend much of their class time on individual seat work. Joe starts his lessons with a question or problem taken from the school or neighborhoods around the school. He then uses questioning to guide his students into an understanding of the concept or skill he is trying to help is students develop. He gives the students a quiz each Thursday, and they discuss the quizzes in detail on Fridays.

Chapter 4: Learner Diversity

87.

If the students’ achievement in each class is consistent with patterns identified by research, the teacher who is most likely to be successful in in promoting resilience in his or her students is: a. Donna. b. Enita. c. Keith. d. Joe.

88.

If the students’ achievement in each class is consistent with patterns identified by research, the teacher who is least likely to be successful in promoting resilience is: a. Donna. b. Enita. c. Keith. d. Joe.

Essay Items 89.

Research in neuroscience indicates that children growing up in poverty have high levels of the stress hormone cortisol in their systems. Explain how the presence of cortisol impacts student learning and development.

Use the following vignette for items 90 and 91. Henry Martinez, whose native language is Spanish, is a fifth grader who came to Roni Davidson’s class a month after school began. As she did with any new student, Roni checked on Henry’s background, so she could try to better meet any special needs that he might have. She found that his parents were divorced shortly after they had immigrated to this country from the Philippines. Henry lives with his mother, who is transferred regularly in her job as a government liaison for minority federal programs. Henry has attended four different schools in the last 3 years. In a letter to the school, Mrs. Martinez expressed concern over the frequent moves, but said she couldn’t afford to give up her $40,000-a-year job. She also proudly pointed out that Henry was an all-star on his youth soccer team at the last school he attended. Henry speaks of her and his two younger sisters often, frequently citing examples of some of the fun things they do together on the weekends and the interesting stories his mother reads to them in the evenings. 90.

Consider the description of Henry Martinez. Identify two characteristics that tend to make Henry a student at risk.

91.

Now identify one characteristic for Henry that is unlike typical students at risk. The response should state that Henry comes from a middle class socioeconomic background. This is atypical for students at risk.

92.

Describe four suggestions you can apply for promoting resilience in your students, and provide an example of each.

Chapter 5: Learners with Exceptionalities

CHAPTER FIVE LEARNERS WITH EXCEPTIONALITIES Intelligence Knowledge-Level Items 1.

The statement “the ability to acquire and use knowledge, solve problems and reason in the abstract, and adapt to new situations in the environment” most closely relates to a description of: a. intelligence. b. learning style. c. field dependence/independence. d. achievement.

Which of the following factors has the greatest influence on intelligence test performance? a. Experience b. Gender c. Birth order d. Temperament

Which theorist suggests that intelligence consists of eight relatively independent factors? a. Binet b. Sternberg c. Gardner d. Guilford

Of the following, which best describes the difference between fluid intelligence and crystallized intelligence? a. Fluid intelligence is a single-trait theory of intelligence, whereas crystallized intelligence is a multiple-trait theory of intelligence. b. Fluid intelligence is culture independent, whereas crystallized intelligence is culture dependent. c. Fluid intelligence strongly depends on background experience, whereas crystallized intelligence doesn’t consider background experience. d. Fluid intelligence places primary emphasis on the environment, whereas crystallized intelligence places primary emphasis on heredity.

Using Gardner’s theory as a basis, which of the following would be most necessary for effective counselors? a. Logical-mathematical intelligence b. Linguistic intelligence c. Visual-spatial intelligence d. Interpersonal intelligence

Chapter 5: Learners with Exceptionalities

Which of the following would be Gardner’s primary criticism of existing intelligence tests? a. They are too difficult for most students. b. They are culturally biased against certain minorities. c. They are not developmentally appropriate. d. They ignore certain important dimensions.

Of the following, which is the primary criticism of Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences? a. Evidence doesn’t exist to support the idea of multiple intelligences. b. Gardner’s theory fails to consider the role of a centralized working memory. c. Gardner’s theory fails to consider the role of experience in intelligence. d. Gardner’s theory fails to consider the role of personal learning style in intelligence.

Intelligent behavior has two important characteristics—the ability to cope effectively with novel experiences and the ability to solve problems efficiently and automatically. This best describes the views of which of the following people? a. Gardner b. Guilford c. Sternberg d. Binet

In his more recent work, Robert Sternberg emphasizes three distinct types of intelligence. These types include: a. artistic, functional, and evaluative. b. theoretical, conceptual, and functional. c. analytic, creative, and practical. d. analytical, functional, and evaluative.

10.

Which of the following would be Sternberg’s primary criticism of existing intelligence tests? a. They place too much emphasis on logical thinking. b. They ignore strategies for adapting to the environment. c. They de-emphasize essential facts that all students need to know. d. They disregard cultural differences among students.

11.

Which of the following is the most accurate statement of Sternberg’s view of intelligence? a. Intelligence is made up of fluid and crystallized abilities uninfluenced by school and culture. b. Schools should be sure that all students know factual information that is part of our day-to-day culture. c. The ability to function in the real world is an indicator of intelligent behavior. d. Nature is more important than nurture in shaping intelligence.

Chapter 5: Learners with Exceptionalities

12.

Consider the issue of “nature/nurture” in intelligence. Which of the following statements is most accurate according to researchers? a. Intelligence is determined primarily by genetics, and it is only minimally alterable by experience. b. Intelligence is determined primarily by the environment, with genetics having only a minimum impact. c. Genetics and the environment both make major contributions to intelligence. d. Intelligence is determined primarily by genetics when children are young (such as preschool age), but later the environment is much more important.

13.

Consider attempts to improve intelligence by providing enrichment experiences. According to researchers, which of the following is the most accurate statement? a. Attempts to improve intelligence have been largely unsuccessful. b. Attempts to improve intelligence have resulted in short-term improvement, but long-term effects on intelligence have been negligible. c. Attempts to improve intelligence have been reasonably successful with adults but not with school-aged or preschool children. d. Attempts to improve intelligence have been reasonably successful with adults, school-aged, and preschool children.

14.

Within-class ability grouping is most commonly used in which of the following? a. Reading b. Writing c. Social studies d. Science

15.

Of the following, which is the most accurate summary regarding teachers’ beliefs about ability grouping? a. Most elementary teachers endorse the Joplin plan. b. Most elementary teachers endorse the practice of ability grouping. c. Most elementary teachers feel that ability grouping hinders their instruction. d. Most elementary teachers argue that ability grouping hurts students’ self-esteem.

16.

Consider the effects on students of being labeled “intellectually slow” or “academically weak,” compared to students with similar characteristics who are not labeled. Which of the following is the most accurate statement according to research? a. Labeled students achieve higher than comparable peers because of the extra help they receive in special programs. b. Labeled students achieve about the same as comparable peers who have not been labeled. c. Labeled students achieve lower than comparable peers who have not been labeled.

Chapter 5: Learners with Exceptionalities

17.

Consider teachers’ reactions to students labeled “intellectually slow” or “academically weak,” compared to students with similar characteristics not so labeled. Based on research, which of the following is the most accurate statement? a. Because they’re identified, teachers’ provide more attention and support for labeled students than for comparable peers. b. Teachers provide less attention and support for labeled students than for comparable peers. c. Teachers provide about the same structure and support for labeled students and their comparable peers.

18.

Research indicates that ability grouping often has negative effects on students placed in low-ability groups, resulting in lower than expected achievement. Which of the following best explains these results? a. Organizing instruction is more difficult for low-ability students than it is for highability students, and as a result, achievement is lowered. b. Low-ability students are usually more fearful of their teachers, and as a result, achievement is lowered. c. Teachers tend to have lowered expectations for low-ability students, and as a result, their instructional efforts are lowered. d. Teachers of low-ability students tend to have less access to materials that enhance learning, and as a result, achievement is lowered.

19.

Consider the engagement rates of low- and high-ability groups. Based on research results, which of the following is most accurate? a. Low-ability students spend more time than high-ability students in on-task behaviors. b. Low-ability and high-ability students tend to spend about the same amount of time in task-related behaviors. c. Low-ability students tend to spend less time than do high-ability students in taskrelated behaviors.

20.

Placing middle and high school students in different curricula on the basis of aptitude and achievement, best describes which of the following? a. Between-class ability grouping b. Within-class ability grouping c. Cross-class ability grouping d. Tracking

21.

Which of the following is not a problem associated with ability grouping? a. Low-ability groups are stigmatized by peers as well as teachers. b. There is potential for placement in the wrong group. c. Placement in a group tends to be inflexible. d. Low-ability groups are often given work that is too difficult.

Chapter 5: Learners with Exceptionalities

22.

Which of the following are commonly expressed criticisms of ability grouping? 1. Within-class grouping creates logistical problems, because different lessons and assignments are required. 2. Improper placements occur, which tend to become permanent. 3. Members of low-ability groups are often stigmatized by being labeled as low achievers. 4. Grouping students by ability makes them less successful. a. 1, 2, 3, 4

b. 1, 2, 3

c. 1, 3, 4

c. 1, 3

23.

“Students’ approaches to learning, problem solving and processing information” best describes: a. intelligence. b. culture. c. socioeconomic status. d. learning style.

24.

From the perspective of learning styles, which of the following approaches is best described as viewing information being studied or the problems being solved as a means to understanding the content? a. Metacognitive approaches to processing information b. Deep approaches to processing information c. Surface approaches to processing information d. Developmental approaches to processing information

25.

From the perspective of learning styles, research indicates that performance goals are most closely associated with which of the following? a. Surface approaches to processing information b. Deep approaches to processing information a. Metacognitive approaches to processing information d. Developmental approaches to processing information

26.

Based on research, which of the following is the most valid implication of learning style research for the way we teach? a. We should be aware that students are different and vary the way we teach. b. We should try to match our instruction to the individual learning styles of our students. c. We should assess our students’ learning styles and group students according to the assessment results. d. We should try to do as much cooperative learning as possible, to capitalize on learning style differences.

Chapter 5: Learners with Exceptionalities

Higher-Level Items 27.

Stacy Drew uses a considerable amount of cooperative learning in her class. As often as possible, she also has her students both write about the topics they study and draw pictures of some aspect of the topic. Of the following theorists, whose work is she most nearly attempting to apply? a. Piaget b. Binet c. Gardner d. Sternberg

28.

We have all met people who seem to be very adept at getting along with other people, even though our perception is that they are only modestly “bright.” Which of the following provides the most valid explanation for this phenomenon? a. Socioeconomic factors strongly influence students’ school achievement and the likelihood of their success after the school years. b. Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences suggests that the eight different intelligences he describes are relatively independent. c. Some people score high on the verbal component of intelligence tests, but low on performance components. d. Sternberg’s theory of intelligence emphasizes adaptive ability as an indicator of intelligent behavior.

29.

A teacher who is attempting to use Sternberg’s triarchic theory of intelligence as a basis for thinking about student ability would be most likely to do which of the following? a. Emphasize reading and math, even if it means slightly less emphasis on content areas, such as social studies, art, and music. b. Include more music, drama, and art into the curriculum. c. Use carefully prescribed ability grouping. d. Emphasize the real-world aspects of the topics being taught.

Use the following case study for items 30-32. Tony, a high school junior, has a somewhat difficult time in school compared to his peers, particularly with complex reading, math—and particularly word problems—as well as other areas that aren’t concrete and tangible. In spite of high motivation, he still struggles, and new situations and problems “throw him” more than they do his classmates. In order to succeed, he needs a lot of practice, and his approach is somewhat more “mechanical” than that of his peers. He comments, “I need to be able to ‘see it’ to understand it. Some of these ideas are just too abstract for me. Who cares about what would have happened if the Crusades had been more successful for Christianity? I can get it though, if I get enough practice.” When he gets frustrated, he retreats to his room, where he plays his guitar, and he has even done some of his own arrangements. Tony is also very skilled at working with people, and some of his peers turn to him as an arbitrator when clashes occur in club and other organizational meetings. 107 Copyright © 2020, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

Chapter 5: Learners with Exceptionalities

30.

If we were asked to assess Tony’s intelligence according to researchers’ and experts’ traditional conceptions of intelligence, which of the following is the most valid prediction? a. He will probably score lower on a test of intelligence than his typical peers. b. He will probably get a score on an intelligence test that is similar to that of his typical peers. c. He will probably score higher on an intelligence test than his typical peers. d. We don’t have enough evidence in the case study to assess his intelligence based on researchers’ traditional conceptions of intelligence.

31.

Consider Tony’s intelligence according to Gardner’s theory of intelligence. Based on information in the case study and Gardner’s work, which of the following statements is most valid? a. Tony would be described as low in intelligence according to each of Gardner’s dimensions of intelligence. b. Tony would be described as high in intelligence according to each of Gardner’s dimensions of intelligence. c. Tony would be described as high in intelligence for some of Gardner’s dimensions and unintelligent for the rest of the dimensions. d. Tony would be described as low in intelligence for some dimensions, high in intelligence for others, and information is lacking for the rest of the dimensions.

32.

Consider Tony’s intelligence according to Sternberg’s triarchic theory of intelligence. Based on the case study and Sternberg’s work, which of the following statements is most valid? a. He is probably a bit lower in intelligence than his peers. b. His intelligence is probably about similar to that of his peers. c. He is probably a bit higher in intelligence than his peers. d. His intelligence is much higher than his peers.

Use the following case study for items 33 and 34. Jackie is a fifth grader at Landmark Elementary School—a school near an affluent neighborhood in a suburb of a major city. Jackie, who lives with her divorced mother—a high school dropout with a steady job as a minimum wage housekeeper—has a very limited experiential background. In a discussion of the “Old West,” for example, she asked what a saddle horn was, as Mrs. Markham talked about the western saddles the cowboys used. Also, she had never heard of the wild turkey, thinking of turkey as what we eat on Thanksgiving. However, Jackie “picks up” new ideas in class more quickly than most of her classmates, and she periodically asks questions atypical of fifth graders, such as, “Wouldn’t our country be better off if some of the money we spent on war materials was spent on educating poor people instead?”

Chapter 5: Learners with Exceptionalities

33.

Based on the information in the case study, which of the following is the most valid prediction? a. Jackie will get a lower score than will her peers on some sections of traditional intelligence tests. b. Jackie will score about the same as typical fifth graders on all sections of intelligence tests. c. Jackie will score higher than typical fifth graders on all sections of intelligence tests. d. We can’t make any predictions about Jackie’s performance on an intelligence test based on the information in the case study.

34.

Based on the information in the case study and traditional conceptions of intelligence, which of the following is the best description? a. Jackie is lower in intelligence than most of her peers. b. Jackie’s intelligence is about comparable to that of her peers. c. Jackie is higher in intelligence than most of her peers. d. We don’t have enough evidence in the case study to assess Jackie’s intelligence.

Essay Items 35.

Describe the primary difference between traditional (psychometric) views of intelligence and views offered by researchers, such as Gardner and Sternberg.

36.

Describe four ways in which teachers can apply the research on ability grouping in their classrooms.

The Legal Basis for Working with Students Having Exceptionalities Knowledge-Level Items 37.

Public Law 94-142 is referred to as the: a. No Child Left Behind Act. b. Education for all Children: Birth to 21 Act. c. Individuals with Disabilities Education Act. d. Student Support Services for Success Act.

38.

The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act was passed in: a. 1955. b. 1975. c. 1995. d. 2005.

39.

Which of the following is not a provision under IDEA? a. Free and Appropriate Public Education b. Educate children in the least restrictive environment. c. Develop an individualized education program of study for each student. d. Provide extra before- and after-school assistance for all special needs learners. 109 Copyright © 2020, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

Chapter 5: Learners with Exceptionalities

40.

The guarantee of parents’ rights to be involved in identifying and placing their children in special programs, to access school records, and to obtain an independent evaluation if they are not satisfied with the one conducted by the school is referred to under IDEA as: a. legal aid. b. least restrictive environment. c. due process. d. individual education program.

41.

Which of the following is the most accurate description of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA)? a. Students with exceptionalities should be taught in as normal a school setting as possible that still meets the students’ special academic, social, and physical needs. b. Students with exceptionalities should be given as much extra academic assistance as necessary to accommodate their special learning needs and help them compete acceptably with non-exceptional students. c. Students with exceptionalities should be provided with the extra counseling services needed to help them maintain self-esteem and learn to cope with their physical, emotional, and academic exceptionalities. d. Students with exceptionalities must be taught by teachers with the special education and training needed to help these students reach their maximum potential.

42.

Three of the descriptions below are provisions that fall within amendments to IDEA. Which one is not a provision of these amendments? a. Reduce the special education paperwork burden by deleting short-term objectives and benchmarks from IEPs. b. Conduct instruction for non-native-English-speaking students with learning problems in their native languages. c. Create discipline provisions that allow districts to remove students who “inflict serious bodily injury” from the classroom to an alternative setting during the appeals process. d. Establish methods to reduce the number of students from culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds who are inappropriately placed in special education.

43.

Of the following which is the most controversial provision of IDEA 2004, the third amendment to IDEA? a. The provision for allowing districts to remove students who may injure other students b. The provision for allowing veteran teachers to demonstrate their qualifications by means other than a test c. The provision that calls for including students with disabilities in accountability systems d. The provision for establishing methods to reduce the number of students from diverse backgrounds who are inappropriately placed in special education.

Chapter 5: Learners with Exceptionalities

44.

The process of placing students with exceptionalities in the school’s academic curriculum, extracurricular activities, and other experiences alongside students not having exceptionalities best describes which of the following? a. Inclusion b. Home-school placement c. Adaptive fit d. Natural proportions

45.

The process of designing instructional materials and activities to make content accessible to all learners best describes which of the following? a. Adaptive fit b. Inclusion c. Mainstreaming d. Universal design for learning

46.

The process of having general education teachers, special educators, outside services providers, and families work as a team to provide services for learners with exceptionalities best describes which of the following a. The home-school placement component of inclusion b. The restructuring teaching and learning component of inclusion. c. The age- and grade-appropriate placement component of inclusion d. The principle of natural proportions component of inclusion

47.

The process of educating all students in the grade they would be in if they didn’t have an exceptionality best describes which of the following? a. The home-school placement component of inclusion b. The restructuring teaching and learning component of inclusion c. The age- and grade-appropriate placement component of inclusion d. The provide multiple means of engagement principle of UDL

48.

The process of having learners with exceptionalities attend the same school they would have attended if they didn’t have an exceptionality best describes which of the following? a. The principle of natural proportions component of inclusion b. The home-school placement component of inclusion c. The provide multiple means of engagement principle of UDL d. The provide multiple means of representation principle of UDL

49.

The process of making content relevant to students’ lives, emphasizing choice and autonomy, when possible, and creating a learning environment that’s safe, orderly, and free of distractions best describes which of the following? a. The principle of natural proportions component of inclusion b. The provide multiple means of representation principle of UDL c. The age- and grade-appropriate placement component of inclusion d. The multiple means of engagement principle of UDL

Chapter 5: Learners with Exceptionalities

50.

Which of the following is a provision of inclusion? a. Students with special needs will be placed on a regular school campus. b. Students with special needs will be placed in separate school campus settings. c. Students with special needs will be given paraprofessionals for each of their classes. d. Students with special needs will be given free and available legal advice as needed.

51.

The design of buildings, environments, and products to ensure that all people can access the building or environment, or use the product best describes which of the following? a. Inclusion b. Access for exceptionalities c. Universal design d. Adaptive fit

52.

Of the following, which is the best description of an individualized education program (IEP)? a. A written statement describing the process of making content relevant to students’ lives and creating a learning environment that’s safe, orderly, and free of distractions b. A written statement that provides a framework for delivering a free and appropriate education to every eligible student with a disability best describes which of the following c. The process of designing instructional materials and activities to make content accessible to all learners d. The process of having general education teachers, special educators, outside services providers, and families work as a team to provide services for learners with exceptionalities

53.

The process of looking for differences between (1) intelligence- and achievement test performance, (2) intelligence-test scores and classroom achievement, or (3) subtests on either intelligence or achievement tests best describes which of the following in attempting to identify learners who may have exceptionalities. a. The discrepancy model of identification b. The response to intervention model of identification c. The inclusion model of identification d. The universal design for learning model of identification

54.

The process of first using instruction documented as effective for all students, then providing extra support when a learning problem surfaces, and then including intensive one-to-one help and perhaps a special needs assessment, in attempting to identify learners who may have exceptionalities best describes which of the following? a. The discrepancy model of identification b. The response to intervention model of identification c. The restructuring teaching and learning model of identification d. The universal design for learning model of identification

Chapter 5: Learners with Exceptionalities

Higher-Level Items Use the following case study to answer Items 55-59. Mr. Roberts’s observations of Hector Sanchez, one of his sixth graders, indicate that Hector may have a learning disability. Hector, a native-Spanish-speaking child who speaks hesitant English, is given a widely used and validated intelligence test in English by certified special education officials to diagnose his possible exceptionality. Because he scores low on the vocabulary section of the test compared to the other sections, he is diagnosed as having a learning disability. An IEP for Hector is prepared by Mr. Roberts and the exceptional student specialists in the school, and it is immediately implemented to help Hector as much as possible. Part of the IEP calls for Hector being placed in a resource reading program for one hour a day. (He is mainstreamed the rest of the day.) Hector’s mother meets with the school officials, learns about the IEP, and objects to the placement, saying, “There’s nothing wrong with my boy.” She requests Hector’s school records and test results. The school offers the name of a person who could do an independent evaluation of Hector but refuses to release their test results on the grounds of keeping the test administrator’s identity confidential. 55.

According to IDEA, the school’s refusal to release the records was: a. against the law because of the provision guaranteeing parental involvement. b. against the law because of the provision guaranteeing minority protection, since Hector is a cultural minority. c. within the law, since Hector was found to have a disability. It would have been against the law if no disability was found. d. within the law, since Hector was mainstreamed for most of the school day (only in a resource program for an hour a day).

56.

The school officials violated a specific provision of IDEA in their handling of Hector’s case. Of the following, the best description of the violation is: a. placing Hector in a resource reading program. b. officials’ offering the name of an independent evaluator. c. mainstreaming Hector for most of the day. d. giving Hector the test in English.

Chapter 5: Learners with Exceptionalities

57.

Consider the school officials’ use of an intelligence test as a basis for making their assessment of Hector. Based on IDEA, which of the following is the most accurate statement about using intelligence tests for placement in special programs? a. The use of intelligence tests is within the law if the tests are validated and widely used. b. The use of intelligence tests is against the law for purposes of making decisions about placement in special programs. c. The use of intelligence tests is within the law if they are supplemented by other measures, such as classroom performance. d. The use of intelligence tests is within the law if they are given by certified personnel.

58.

Consider the school officials’ offering of an independent evaluator to diagnose Hector’s possible exceptionality. Based on IDEA, which of the following is the most accurate statement? a. The offer was within the law. b. The offer is prohibited by the law. c. The law doesn’t speak to the offer of an independent evaluation.

59.

Consider the development and implementation of Hector’s IEP. Based on IDEA, which of the following is the most accurate statement? a. The development and implementation of the IEP were done according to the law. b. The development of the IEP was against the law, since Mr. Roberts—a regular teacher rather than a certified special education specialist—was involved in the process. c. The development and implementation of the IEP were against the law, since it called for Hector being removed from the general education classroom for part of the day. d. The development and implementation of the IEP were against the law, since Hector’s mother didn’t participate in its development.

60.

Ryan, a 4th grader, has severely impaired motor skills, so handwriting is very difficult for him. As an accommodation, he is provided with voice-recognition software as an alternative means of personal expression. Which of the following is best illustrated by this accommodation? a. The multiple means of action and expression principle of Universal Design for Learning b. The multiple means of representation principle of Universal Design for Learning c. The restructuring teaching and learning component of inclusion d. The multiple means of engagement principle of Universal Design for Learning

Chapter 5: Learners with Exceptionalities

61.

Tonya Allen, a general education teacher, has 24 students in her third grade class, 5 of whom are learners with exceptionalities. Upon further analysis, school officials then remove two of her students with exceptionalities, and place them in a different third grade class. With respect to the components of inclusion, which of the following is best illustrated by placing two of her students with exceptionalities in a different class? a. Home-school placement b. The principle of natural proportions c. Age- and grade-appropriate placements d. Restructuring teaching and learning

62.

Mrs. Morgan has found that Layla appears to be struggling in her class. She has provided Layla with extra-small group support, but Layla continues to struggle. She then provides Layla with one-to-one help, and also has her teaching assistant work with Layla. In spite of her efforts, Layla is still not keeping up with her classmates, so Mrs. Morgan initiates a referral with school leaders. Which of the following is best illustrated by the process Mrs. Morgan has followed? a. The multiple means of engagement principle of UDL b. The restructuring teaching and learning component of inclusion c. The discrepancy model of identifying students with exceptionalities d. The response-to-intervention model of identifying students with exceptionalities

Essay Items 63.

Describe and explain the five provisions of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act.

64.

Describe and explain the four components of inclusion.

65.

Describe and explain the three principles on which Universal Design for Learning is grounded.

Exceptionalities and Learning Problems Knowledge-Level Items 66.

A general malfunction of mental, physical, or psychological processes is the definition of which of the following terms? a. Handicap b. Disability c. Disorder d. Dysfunction

Chapter 5: Learners with Exceptionalities

67.

A condition imposed on a person’s functioning that restricts the individual’s abilities is the definition of which of the following terms? a. Handicap b. Disability c. Disorder d. Dysfunction

68.

If your class is consistent with the typical patterns in the school population, as a “regular” classroom teacher, you can expect about what percentage of your students to receive special education services? a. 3% b. 13% c. 23% d. 33%

69.

If you have students with exceptionalities in your classes, into which of the following categories are they most likely to fall? a. Students with visual impairments b. Students with intellectual disability c. Students with learning disabilities d. Students with behavioral disorders

70.

Approximately what proportion of learners with exceptionalities are diagnosed as having learning disabilities? a. About 1 of 10 b. About 1 of 5 c. More than a fourth d. More than a third

71.

Students who display brain-based difficulties in reading, writing, math, organization, focus, listening comprehension, social skills, motor skills or a combination of these are best described as displaying which of the following? a. Learning disabilities b. Intellectual disabilities c. Emotional and behavior disorders d. Disorders on the autism spectrum

72.

Of the following, which is the best description of students with attentiondeficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)? a. Students who display serious and persistent age-inappropriate behaviors that result in social conflict and personal unhappiness b. Students who are impulsive, have difficulties maintaining attention, and have an inordinate need for supervision c. Students who have significant limitations both in intellectual functioning and in adaptive behavior d. Students who have difficulty with reading, writing, reasoning, listening, or math 116 Copyright © 2020, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

Chapter 5: Learners with Exceptionalities

73.

A cluster of problems characterized by communication deficits and impaired social relationships and skills best describes which of the following? a. Specific learning disabilities b. Intellectual disabilities c. Autism spectrum disorders d. Emotional and behavior disorders

74.

According to the American Association on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities, which of the following is the best description of intellectual disabilities? a. Subaverage general intellectual functioning b. Impairment in ability to adapt to the requirements of the everyday world c. Subaverage general intellectual functioning and impairment in ability to adapt to the requirements of the everyday world d. Subaverage general intellectual functioning or impairment in ability to adapt to the requirements of the everyday world

75.

Adaptive behavior consists of which of the following? 1. Conceptual skills, such as concepts of time and number and basic literacy 2. Practical skills, such as personal and health care, use of money, schedules and routines, and basic safety. 3. Basic physical skills, such as the ability to walk on a balance beam and skip rope 4. Social skills, such as basic interpersonal skills, social awareness and social problem solving a. 1, 2, 3, 4

b. 2, 3, 4

c. 1, 2, 3

d. 1, 2, 4

76.

Which of the following statements is the most accurate description of students who have emotional and behavior disorders? a. Serious and persistent age-inappropriate behaviors that result in social conflict and personal unhappiness b. Persistent inattention and hyperactivity often associated with difficulty in a single skill area, such as reading c. Persistent classroom management problems often leading to or resulting from school failure d. Persistent impairment in ability to adapt to the requirements of the everyday world, often associated with low self-esteem

77.

Which of the following are characteristic of an externalizing behavior disorder? 1. Uncooperativeness 2. Social withdrawal 3. Hyperactivity 4. Defiance a. 1, 2, 3, 4

b. 1, 3, 4

c. 1, 2, 4

d. 1, 4

Chapter 5: Learners with Exceptionalities

78.

Which of the following are characteristic of an internalizing behavior disorder? 1. Anxiety 2. Guilt 3. Depression 4. Hostility a. 1, 2, 3, 4

b. 2, 3, 4

c. 1, 2, 3

d. 1, 3

79.

Although estimates vary, which of the following is the best estimate of the percentage of children ages 3–21 served under IDEA are diagnosed with this emotional and behavior disorders? a. About 5% b. About 10% c. About 15% d. About 20%

80.

Which of the following are indicators of potential suicide? 1. An abrupt decline in the quality of schoolwork 2. Comments about the glory of an afterlife 3. Withdrawal from friends and school activities 4. Neglect of personal appearance and personality changes a. 1, 2, 3, 4

b. 1, 2, 3

c. 1, 3, 4,

d. 2, 3, 4

81.

A condition characterized by alternative episodes of depressive and manic states is best described as: a. a learning disability. b. bipolar disorder. c. autism spectrum disorder. d. emotional disorder.

82.

Another term used for speech disorders is: a. expressive disorders. b. receptive disorders. c. language disorders. d. learning disorders.

83.

Approximately what percentage of the total population has some sort of vision loss? a. 10 b. 20 c. 30 d. 40

Chapter 5: Learners with Exceptionalities

84.

Which of the following is not an instructional adaptation that researchers suggest for students with hearing disabilities? a. Frequently checking for understanding b. Increased self-regulatory journaling c. Incorporating more hands-on experiences d. Orienting yourself so students can see your face.

Higher-Level Items 85.

Jennifer was born hearing impaired, which was diagnosed when she was an infant. She has been wearing a hearing aid since she was 2 years old, and her hearing impairment hasn’t affected her school achievement. Of the following, which best describes Jennifer’s condition? a. She has a handicap. b. She has a disability and a handicap. c. She has disability but not a handicap. d. She has neither a disability nor a handicap.

86.

Adam’s score on the WISC-III (an individualized intelligence test) is above average, but he tends to be disorganized and often fails to complete assignments. He also sometimes reverses words, such as reading was when the word is actually saw, and he frequently loses his place when he reads. Of the following, which is his most likely learning problem? a. A learning disability b. Mild intellectual disability c. Attention deficit/ hyperactivity disorder d. A behavior disorder

Use the following vignette to answer Items 87 and 88. Mark has a learning disability in math. He is the only student with a learning disability in Mrs. Radecki’s third-grade class. In an effort to help Mark (and the rest of the class), Mrs. Radecki strongly encourages the class to be "strategic" in memorizing their multiplication facts. She comments, "Now we all know the twos, threes, and fours. All the fives either end in a five or a zero. So take a minute each morning, and have your mom or dad review the twos, threes, and fours, and then spend five more minutes going over the sixes and sevens. Tomorrow, I’ll tell you how to practice on the eights and nines." She then sends a letter home with the students describing what she wants the parents to do in working with their children.

Chapter 5: Learners with Exceptionalities

87.

Which of the following is the most assessment of Mrs. Radeki’s actions? a. Mrs. Radecki’s approach will be effective with Mark but it will be ineffective with the rest of the class. b. Mrs. Radecki’s approach will be effective with both Mark and with the rest of the class. c. Mrs. Radecki’s approach will be ineffective with Mark but it will be effective with the rest of the class. d. Mrs. Radecki’s approach will be relatively ineffective with both Mark and the rest of the class.

88.

Suppose Mrs. Radecki encourages the students to learn their multiplication facts but doesn’t offer a "strategy." Which of the following is the most accurate assessment of this action? a. Out of necessity, Mark would probably develop some strategies on his own, while the rest of the class would not. b. Both Mark and the rest of the class would likely develop some strategies on their own. c. Neither Mark nor the rest of the class would be likely to develop strategies on their own. d. The rest of the class would be likely to develop some strategic behaviors on their own, while Mark would not.

89.

Donna and John are two students in your second-grade class. If they are consistent with patterns identified by research, which of the following is the most accurate statement? a. Donna and John are about equally likely to be diagnosed as having ADHD (attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder). b. Donna is slightly more likely than John to be diagnosed as having ADHD. c. John is slightly more likely than Donna to be diagnosed as having ADHD. d. John is much (three to four times) more likely than Donna to be diagnosed as having ADHD.

90.

You notice that Krista, one of your students, rarely finishes her homework. In class, you notice that she is often squirming in her seat and looking around the room while you’re talking, and she sometimes "drifts off" even when you’re speaking directly to her. Concerned, you check her records and talk to her previous teachers. You see that she was given the WISC-III (an individualized intelligence test), and her score was slightly above average. Her other teachers comment that the patterns you’ve observed existed in their classes as well. Based on this information, which of the following most accurately describes the patterns you’ve observed in Krista’s behavior? a. She is mildly intellectually handicapped. b. She is behaviorally disordered. c. She has a communication disorder. d. She has an attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder.

Chapter 5: Learners with Exceptionalities

91.

Rodney, a new student in your school, is described as having a mild intellectual disability and he is in your class. If he fits the characteristics for this description, which of the following is the most accurate statement? a. His intellectual functioning will be about average, but he will have difficulty with a particular basic skill, such as reading, and his IEP will focus on extra assistance in this area. b. While his intellectual functioning will be about average, he will have trouble functioning effectively in the general education classroom, and his IEP will focus on helping him develop basic social skills. c. His intellectual functioning will be significantly limited, and his IEP will focus on his mastering basic academic skills—reading, writing, and math. d. His intellectual functioning will be limited, and his IEP will focus both on basic academic skills—reading, writing, and math—as well as the skills needed to function in society.

92.

Tony is a shy fifth grader who is very reluctant to speak in class even when called on by the teacher. He seems somewhat withdrawn, and his mother, in a concerned phone call to Mrs. Stoddard, Tony’s teacher, said Tony often describes himself as “sad.” His grades are quite low. However, Tony always obeys the classroom rules and rarely has any conflicts with his classmates. Based on this information, the best description of Tony’s characteristics is that: a. he has an emotional and behavior disorder. b. he has an attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. c. he has a learning disability. d. he has a communication disorder.

93.

Tristan gets into frequent scuffles with his classmates but doesn’t seem to be aware that he is often hurtful and behaves in socially unacceptable ways. He struggles with his studies but can handle them if provided with enough structure. When he becomes frustrated, he will be disruptive and doesn’t consider the feelings of his classmates. His teacher often places him in timeout because he is unable to follow classroom rules. Which of the following is Tristan’s most likely problem? a. He has a learning disability. b. He has an attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. c. He is mildly intellectually handicapped. d. He has an emotional and behavior disorder.

Chapter 5: Learners with Exceptionalities

94.

In a class of 30 students is Almaro Gonzalez, a Cuban-American boy, whose parents make a combined income of $48,000 per year; Sonja Jackson, an African American student, whose mother is an administrative assistant and whose father is an electronics technician, who make a combined income of $55,000 a year; Walter Johnson, an African American student whose parents are divorced and whose mother is a janitor making $25,000 a year, and Christopher Montecino, a Mexican-American boy whose parents make a combined income of $50,000 as language specialists. If this class is consistent with statistical patterns identified by research, the student least likely to be classified as having an exceptionality would be: a. Almaro. b. Sonja. c. Walter. d. Christopher.

95.

You have a student in your class who has been diagnosed with bipolar disorder. If he fits patterns identified by research, which of the following is most likely? a. He will also have a learning disability in reading and writing. b. He will also have a learning disability in math. c. He will also have attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. d. He will also be mildly intellectually handicapped.

Use the following information for items 96 and 97. 96.

Erin has trouble with communication, and her language is underdeveloped. She insists on doing basic activities, such as the way she starts writing on her paper, in exactly the same way every time. She also hangs her coat inside out on the hanger in the classroom every day. Of the following, Erin’s behavior most nearly suggests which of the following? a. A learning disability b. Mild intellectual disability c. Autism spectrum disorder d. Bipolar disorder

97.

As Erin’s teacher, which of the following is the most important initial adaptation that you can make to best meet her needs? a. Do as much cooperative learning as possible to help her develop her communication abilities. b. Develop a set of routines to make the classroom environment as predictable as possible. c. Work with her one-on-one to help her develop her language. d. Have an older student work with her in a peer-tutoring situation.

Chapter 5: Learners with Exceptionalities

98.

You notice that Maya, one of your second graders, rarely speaks, even on the playground when she is with other children. In fact, rather than speaking, she will often use a gesture. Her behavior suggests that she might have: a. a language disorder. b. a learning disability. c. bipolar disorder. c. autism spectrum disorder.

99.

Gitana, a girl in your first-grade classroom, often says a “b” sound in place of an “l” sound. Which of the following is the most valid conclusion about Gitana’s disability? a. She has a hearing loss. b. She has an a fluency disorder. c. She has a voice disorder. d. She has an articulation order.

100. Kyra, one of your students, seems to be attentive in class, but she continues to ask about the directions you’ve given, even when you have written them on the board. You also notice that she tends to be less attentive when you work problems or exercises on the chalkboard. Based on this information, which of the following is the best possible explanation for Kyra’s behavior? a. She is behaviorally disordered. b. She has ADHD. c. She has a learning disability. d. She has a visual impairment. 101. Sophie, one of your students, has a visual disability. You have seated her at the front of the room, and she has a magnifying aid that she uses for her reading. Which of the following should you be careful to avoid in working with Sophie? a. Having her work with other students, where her disability will be obvious b. Doing things for her that she can, with training, do alone c. Having her participate in outside activities where she could fall and get hurt d. Having her participate in learning activities where she might be unsuccessful 102. Keon, one of your students, seems confused when you are giving directions or explanations (he frowns and looks puzzled) but seems much more certain when you write the information on the chalkboard. He is also quite reluctant to participate in question-andanswer activities in class, although his reading and writing are at least average. Based on this information, which of the following is the best explanation for Keon’s behavior? a. He is hearing impaired. b. He is mildly intellectually handicapped. c. He has a learning disability d. He has ADHD.

Chapter 5: Learners with Exceptionalities

Essay Items 103. Explain why special educators use people-first language when discussing learners with exceptionalities. 104. Define disability and handicap. Provide an example that illustrates how they are different. 105. Describe the controversy related to the over- or under-representation of members of cultural minorities in special education. Students Who Are Gifted and Talented Knowledge-Level Items 106. Which of the following characteristics is most likely to be found in students who are gifted and talented? a. High personal standards for achievement b. Low motivation for challenging tasks c. Decreased social skills d. Increased emotional disorders 107. Louis Terman and his colleagues found several characteristics of people who were gifted. Which of the following is not one of those characteristics? a. The gifted people were healthier than were their peers. b. The gifted people were more likely to be loners than were their peers. c. The gifted people’s language skills were more developed than were the skills of their peers. d. The gifted people were better able to work independently than were their peers. 108. Which of the following is a myth surrounding gifted and talented students? a. Gifted and talented students learn abstract ideas more quickly than their peers. b. Gifted and talented students have better memories than their peers. c. The language skills of gifted and talented students is more advanced than their peers. d. Gifted and talented students don’t have the social and emotional needs typical of their peers.

Chapter 5: Learners with Exceptionalities

Higher-Level Items 109. Based on characteristics of students who are gifted and talented, which of the following students is least likely to be gifted? a. When Josh, a second grader, reads a narrative story that he has written, his characters are complex, and he uses similes and other vivid language in his descriptions. b. Audrey enjoys being alone, but she is healthy, well adjusted, and enjoys doing difficult Sudoku puzzles. c. Jim, a third grader, periodically makes comments in class that are not typical for a student his age, such as, d. Angela, a fourth grader, has well-developed self-regulation skills and good study strategies. She always goes in her room after evening meal and does her homework without having to be reminded by her parents, and she gets excellent grades. 110. John, a White student, and Dario, a Hispanic student in Mrs. Stevens fifth-grade class, both do high-quality schoolwork. John, in fact, is a model student. He follows directions, his work is extremely neat, and he is never a management problem. Dario, although a bit sloppy in some of his homework, has a great imagination, and often offers a perspective that the other students don’t think of in discussing problems and issues. He can be slightly disruptive, although not a serious management problem. John and Dario scored similarly on achievement tests in the fourth grade. Based on this information, if Mrs. Stevens’s class is consistent with patterns identified by research, which of the following is most likely? a. John is more likely to be identified as gifted than is Dario. b. Dario is more likely to be identified as gifted than is John. c. John and Dario are equally likely to be identified as gifted. d. Neither John nor Dario is likely to be identified as gifted, since we have no evidence that either has taken an intelligence test. 111. Programs for the gifted often focus on acceleration. Which of the following is the best example of an acceleration program? a. Learning centers in science for first graders b. Dual-enrollment courses in high school c. Academic competitions, such as math competitions between schools d. Independent studies where teachers work with students one-on-one Essay Item 112. Describe the two most common programs for gifted and talented students. Provide an example of each.

Chapter 5: Learners with Exceptionalities

Teachers’ Responsibilities in Inclusive Classrooms Knowledge-Level Items 113. General education classroom teachers have three important responsibilities in working with students who have exceptionalities. Which of the following is not one of those responsibilities? a. Collaborating with special education professionals to best meet the needs of learners with exceptionalities b. Specifying the number of learners with exceptionalities who will be in their classes c. Modifying their instruction to best meet the needs of students with exceptionalities in their classes d. Promoting social integration and development of learners with exceptionalities 114. Before a student with a possible learning problem is referred for a special education evaluation, the general education classroom teacher is expected to: a. analyze the problem and try alternative instructional strategies. b. check the student’s records for evidence of previous problems, referrals, or evaluations. c. form a prereferral team to evaluate the problem. d. plan testing strategies to solve the problem. 115. Three of the following choices are involved in the process of identifying students who may have exceptionalities. Which one is not part of that process? a. Assessing students’ performance in specific areas of the curriculum b. Documenting learning problems and attempts to solve them c. Assessing the extent to which students can perform everyday school tasks, such as completing assignments d. Implementing classroom management plans for students with behavior disorders 116. Of the following, which best describes students with exceptionalities with respect to their self-regulatory skills? a. Learners with exceptionalities have generally well-developed self-regulatory skills, largely as strategies they use to accommodate their disabilities. b. Learners with exceptionalities have poorly developed self-regulatory skills, and they are usually pulled out of regular education classes in an effort to help compensate for the lack of these skills. c. Learners with exceptionalities have poorly developed self-regulatory skills, but with patience and support they can acquire these skills. d. Learners with exceptionalities have poorly developed self-regulatory skills, and it is unlikely that they can develop these skills, so alternative steps to support their learning should be used.

Chapter 5: Learners with Exceptionalities

117. With respect to instruction that is effective for students with exceptionalities, which of the following statements is most accurate? a. Effective instruction for students with exceptionalities requires more seatwork than instruction that is effective with other students. b. Effective instruction for students with exceptionalities needs to be one-on-one, whereas effective instruction for other students can be conducted in both large and small groups. c. Effective instruction for students with exceptionalities involves avoiding calling on these students to prevent their exceptionality from being exposed to other students. d. Classroom management and instruction approaches that are effective with students having exceptionalities tend to be the same ones that are effective with other students. 118. Three of the following are effective teaching strategies for working with students having exceptionalities. Which not an effective strategy? a. Modeling solutions to problems and assignments b. Teaching in small steps and providing detailed feedback on assessments c. Putting students with exceptionalities in the same group when doing groupwork activities d. Calling on students with exceptionalities as often as you call on other students during learning activities 119. Which of the following statements best describes effective instruction for students with exceptionalities? a. With extra support such as one-on-one help, instruction that is effective with students in general is also effective with students having exceptionalities. b. Instruction that is effective with students in general is also effective with students having exceptionalities if a special education specialist is in the room to supervise the instruction. c. Instruction that is effective with students in general is also effective with students having exceptionalities, and students are expected to adapt their learning strategies so they can succeed. d. Effective instruction for learners with exceptionalities is different from effective instruction in general, and teachers need special training to learn how to conduct this instruction.

Chapter 5: Learners with Exceptionalities

120. Three of the following choices are adaptations that research indicates are effective for working with students having exceptionalities. Which one is not considered to be an effective adaptation? a. Carefully model solutions to problems and other assignments. b. Teach in small steps, and provide detailed feedback on homework. c. Teach learning strategies, such as outlining, summarizing, and self-questioning. d. Avoid calling on students with exceptionalities to prevent possible embarrassment. 121. Students with exceptionalities sometimes lack the social skills needed to interact effectively with their classmates. Which of the following is likely to be the most effective way to help them initially acquire these skills? a. Praise them, and provide other rewards when they display acceptable behaviors. b. Use accepted forms of punishment, such as timeout, when they fail to display the skills. c. Call parents, and solicit the parents’ help when the students fail to behave in acceptable ways. d. Model social skills for students, and coach them as they practice the skills. Higher-Level Items 122. Which of the following best describes the likelihood of you, as a regular education teacher, having students with exceptionalities in your classes? a. It is somewhat unlikely unless you teach in a school with large numbers of lowincome students. b. It is somewhat likely if you teach in an urban school, but unlikely if you teach in a suburban school. c. It is highly likely if you teach in an urban school, but unlikely if you teach in a suburban or a rural school. d. It is a virtual certainty regardless of whether you teach in an urban, a suburban, or a rural school. 123. Because of his uneven academic performance in your class, you suspect that Justin, one of your students, has a learning disability. Of the following, which is the first step you should take in attempting to get additional help for him? a. You must first report your findings to the exceptional student specialists in your school. Once you have filed your report, your responsibility has been met. b. You must first report your findings to the exceptional student specialists in your school, and if diagnosis confirms an exceptionality, Justin will be removed from your classroom and placed in a special class. You will be expected to accommodate his needs the best you can until he is removed. c. You must first report your findings to the exceptional student specialists in your school. If diagnosis confirms an exceptionality, you will be expected to accommodate your instruction to meet Justin’s needs as effectively as possible. d. You must first describe the problem including how it is affecting Justin’s academic performance, strategies you’ve tried to solve it, and how well the strategies have worked. 128 Copyright © 2020, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

Chapter 5: Learners with Exceptionalities

124. Which of the following is the most accurate illustration of curriculum-based assessment? a. In order to help in making the decision about whether or not to place Kelly in a resource class for exceptional students, she is given an individualized intelligence test. b. In an effort to assess Ron’s reading comprehension, he is given a test that consists of a series of paragraphs in which he is asked to find the main idea. c. In an effort to assess Jeff’s understanding of science concepts, Mrs. Grimm goes to Jeff’s records and looks at his Stanford Achievement Test results in science. d. Suspecting that P.J. may have a vision problem, he is given a vision screening test by a county health official. 125. Don has had a problem with staying on task, completing assignments, using effective learning strategies, and controlling the impulse to shout out in the middle of his teacher’s explanations. He finally overcomes these issues, however, and now his achievement is quite high. Which of the following is the best explanation for Don’s behaviors? a. Don initially lacked self-regulation. b. Don has an intellectual disability. c. Don was misclassified as a student with an exceptionality. d. Don has an externalizing behavior disorder. Use the following information for items 126 and 127. Four teachers each have learners with exceptionalities in their classrooms, and each is attempting to adapt instruction to best meet the students’ needs. Mr. Robinson works hard to help his students learn study strategies, such as outlining, highlighting descriptions of examples in the information his students read, summarizing, and self-questioning. Mrs. Lake goes over each math homework assignment with her students and gives the students feedback on problems that are frequently missed. After completing learning activities, Mrs. Weber gives her students a seatwork assignment, and then works with her students having exceptionalities in a small group to help them complete the seatwork assignment. Mr. Edwards is careful to no call on his students with exceptionalities when he is conducting learning activities because he is concerned about damaging their self-esteem if they are embarrassed when they’re unable to answer. 126. The teacher who is most effective in adapting instruction to meet the needs of his or her students with exceptionalities is: a. Mr. Robinson. b. Mrs. Lake. c. Mrs. Weber. d. Mr. Edwards

Chapter 5: Learners with Exceptionalities

127. The teacher who is least effective in adapting instruction to meet the needs of his or her students with exceptionalities is: a. Mr. Robinson. b. Mrs. Lake. c. Mrs. Weber. d. Mr. Edwards 128. Morton, a student in Mr. Mussi’s secondary social studies class has a learning disability in writing. Writing is a critical component of his class plan. Which of the following is not an adaptation that experts would consider desirable for Morton? a. He might decide to keep writing assignments for Morton to a minimum. b. He might provide Morton with additional time to write. c. He might allow Morton to type on a computer as opposed to handwriting assignments. d. He might allow Morton to dictate his “writing” into a tape recorder. Items 129 and 130 are related. 129. Greg, one of your students, has been diagnosed as having an exceptionality. If your class is typical of patterns identified by research, which of the following is the best description of your other students’ attitudes toward Greg? a. The other students are unlikely to notice that Greg has an exceptionality. b. The other students will know that Greg has an exceptionality, but this knowledge won’t impact their behavior one way or the other. c. The other students will know that Greg has an exceptionality, and they will react negatively to him. d. The other students will know that Greg has an exceptionality, and they will react sympathetically to him, treating him with compassion. 130. If Greg’s confidence and self-esteem are typical of patterns for students with exceptionalities as identified by research, which of the following is the most likely description? a. Greg will be virtually unaware of his exceptionality and will behave as a typical fifth grader. b. Greg will be aware of his exceptionality, but it won’t significantly impact his confidence and self-esteem one way or the other. c. In an effort to compensate for his exceptionality, Greg’s confidence and self-esteem are likely to be slightly higher than that of average students in his class but lower than the brightest students in his class. d. Greg will be aware of his exceptionality, and his confidence and self-esteem are likely to be adversely affected by the negative attitudes of his peers.

Chapter 5: Learners with Exceptionalities

131. Tommy, one of your students, stutters. His exceptionality has been identified, and he works with a speech therapist twice a week. Which of the following is the most important responsibility you have in working with Tommy? a. Model behaviors indicating that Tommy is an integral part of the class and should be accepted as such. b. Avoid ever calling on Tommy for fear of embarrassing him in case he will be unable to form the words for the answer. c. Avoid any discussion of students with exceptionalities to prevent attention being focused on Tommy’s speech problem. d. Be sure that verbal interaction in the class is limited to prevent Tommy from being put at a disadvantage. 132. Promoting the social integration and development of students with exceptionalities is an important role for the general education classroom teacher. Which of the following is likely to be the most important strategy for promoting social integration of students with exceptionalities? a. Avoid any discussion of exceptionalities in your classroom, and behave as if all students are very similar. b. Openly discuss and provide information about exceptionalities, and remind students that learners with exceptionalities want to have friends and be accepted just as everyone does. c. Identify and quickly reprimand any student who mistreats a student with an exceptionality, and use this student as an example of unacceptable behavior in your classroom. d. During cooperative learning activities, place your students with exceptionalities together, so they will feel comfortable in offering their ideas in the group activity. 133. You have six students with exceptionalities in your class of 24. You are designing a cooperative learning activity, and you want to break your class into groups of four. Of the following, which is the most desirable way to place your students with exceptionalities in the groups? a. Place one student with an exceptionality into each of the six groups. b. Place two students with exceptionalities into three of the groups, and organize the other three groups as you normally would. c. Place three students with exceptionalities into two groups, and organize the other four groups as you normally would. d. Since you are trying to treat your students with exceptionalities the way you would treat any other student, don’t consider exceptionalities when organizing your groups.

Chapter 5: Learners with Exceptionalities

Essay Items 134. You almost certainly will have learners with exceptionalities in you class or classes. You are responsible for collaborating with other professionals to best meet the needs of these students, and you are also responsible for adapting your instruction when they are mainstreamed into your class. There is a third important responsibility that you have to each of these students. Identify this responsibility, and give a specific, classroom example of how you would meet the responsibility. 135. Explain how effective teaching for students with exceptionalities compares to effective teaching for students at risk. 136. Collaborating with other professionals is one of general education teachers’ responsibilities in working with students having exceptionalities. Describe five different forms in which this collaboration can take place.

Chapter 6: Behaviorism and Social Cognitive Theory

CHAPTER SIX BEHAVIORISM AND SOCIAL COGNITIVE THEORY Behaviorist Views of Learning Knowledge-Level Items 1.

Which of the following is the most valid description of learning from a behaviorist point of view? a. Sensations paired together enough times that they become associated b. Increases in behavior as a result of anticipating desirable consequences c. Changes in behavior as a result of observing similar behaviors in others d. Changes in observable behavior occurring as a result of experience

Which of the following statements is most consistent with a behaviorist theoretical orientation? a. Learners construct their own understanding. b. People strive for equilibrium. c. Learning is contextual. d. Learning is observable.

Of the following, which is most critical to the educator who subscribes to a behaviorist view of learning? a. Observable behavior b. Effective modeling c. Thought processes d. Appropriate emotions

Classical Conditioning Knowledge-Level Items 4.

Classical conditioning most nearly focuses on: a. involuntary responses. b. practiced behavior. c. skilled movements. d. thought processes.

In classical conditioning, the event that causes an instinctive or reflexive physiological or emotional response is referred to as the: a. unconditioned response. b. unconditioned stimulus. c. conditioned stimulus. d. conditioned response.

Chapter 6: Behaviorism and Social Cognitive Theory

In classical conditioning, a learned physiological or emotional response is referred to as a(n): a. unconditioned response. b. unconditioned stimulus. c. conditioned stimulus. d. conditioned response.

In classical conditioning, the unconditioned and conditioned stimuli must occur at essentially the same time. We refer to this connection as: a. proximity. b. pairing. c. contiguity. d. connectivity.

The meat presented to the dogs in Pavlov’s experiments is best described as a(n): a. unconditioned stimulus. b. conditioned stimulus. c. conditioned response. d. unconditioned response.

What concept describes the situation when a stimulus related to the conditioned stimulus elicits the conditioned response all by itself? a. Extinction b. Reinforcement c. Discrimination d. Generalization

10.

What concept describes a learner giving different responses to related but not identical stimuli? a. Reinforcement b. Vicarious conditioning c. Discrimination d. Generalization

11.

Which of the following is most likely to result in extinction of a response? a. Some but not all stimuli trigger responses. b. The conditioned stimulus occurs repeatedly in the absence of the unconditioned stimulus. c. A stimulus similar to the conditioned stimulus produces the conditioned response. d. A response is followed by a stimulus that increases the likelihood of the response recurring.

Chapter 6: Behaviorism and Social Cognitive Theory

Higher-Level Items 12.

13.

Luis has been very nervous when giving oral reports. However, Mrs. Jackson several oral reports in her class. Now Luis is becoming less and less nervous each time he has to give an oral report. Of the following, the concept that best explains Luis’s becoming less nervous is: a. discrimination. b. extinction. c. negative reinforcement. d. generalization. Ivanna Robinson, a sixth-grade teacher, notices that Camila, a new student, appears quite ill at ease in her class. She decides to try to make her feel more comfortable, so each day when Camila comes in, Ivanna spends a few seconds with her, smiles and puts her arm around Camila’s shoulder. After a period of time she notices that Camila appears to feel much better when entering the classroom. Ivanna’s efforts most closely relate to an application of which of the following? a. Negative reinforcement b. Classical conditioning c. Positive reinforcement d. Vicarious learning

Use the following vignette or items 14-17. Karen is going to the dentist, but she doesn’t know what to think—she has no experience with dentists or dentists’ offices. Her dad takes her to the dentist and then goes and gets a cup of coffee while she has the dental procedure. She initially doesn’t have a reaction to being in the dentist’s office, but the dental procedure is noisy and a little painful, leaving Karen uncomfortable. Now, whenever Karen goes into the dentist’s office she is nervous. 14.

In the preceding example, the best description of the neutral stimulus is: a. the dentist’s office. b. Karen’s discomfort. c. the dental procedure. d. Karen’s being nervous.

15.

In the preceding example, the unconditioned stimulus is: a. the dentist’s office. b. the dental procedure. c. Karen’s dad. d. Karen’s being uncomfortable.

Chapter 6: Behaviorism and Social Cognitive Theory

16.

In the preceding example, the conditioned stimulus is: a. the dental procedure. b. the dentist’s office. c. Karen’s dad. d. Karen’s feeling uncomfortable. .

17.

In the preceding example, the best description of the conditioned response is: a. the dental procedure. b. the dentist’s office. c. Karen’s dad. d. Karen being nervous.

Items 18–21 are based on the following scenario. Diego is a conscientious and hard-working student with a good attitude. Because of his excellent work in world history, he has been placed in AP American history for the eleventh grade. He is a little uneasy, but Mrs. Clark, his American history teacher, is standing at the door of the room the first day and asks the students their names as they come in. After Diego introduces himself, Mrs. Clark smiles broadly and says, “Oh, Diego, I’m very happy to have you in here. Mr. Dickens told me about your excellent work last year.” Diego feels a big sense of relief. Maybe the year would be okay after all. Each morning Mrs. Clark greets Diego with the same positive manner as he comes into class. Now when Diego walks into American History, he is comfortable as he anticipates the class activities. Consider this as a case of classical conditioning, and respond to the following items. 18.

In this situation, the best description of the unconditioned stimulus would be: a. Mrs. Clark’s manner. b. world history class. c. American history class. d. Mr. Dickens.

19.

The best description of the unconditioned response would be Diego’s: a. conscientiousness. b. excellent work in world history. c. uncertainty. d. relief.

20.

The best description of the conditioned stimulus would be: a. world history class. b. Mrs. Clark’s greetings. c. American History class. d. Mr. Dickens’s description of Diego’s work.

Chapter 6: Behaviorism and Social Cognitive Theory

21.

The best description of the conditioned response would be Diego’s: a. good work habits. b. comfort. c. uncertainty about American History. d. relief.

Use the following information for Items 22-24. Maria is moving from elementary school, where she was comfortable, into the sixth grade in Riverside Middle School, and she is a little uncertain about it. In order to help make the transition, Maria’s mother drives her to school the first few days. Maria’s mother drops her off the first day, and Maria waves to her mother as she walks toward the school. Mrs. Rodriguez greets her at the entrance of the main building, smiles, and shakes her hand. Seeing Mrs. Rodriguez smile reassuringly, Maria relaxes and feels better. During the first week, Mrs. Rodriguez greets Maria each day with the same reassuring manner. Now Maria jumps out of the car and is cheerful about running into the school when her mother drops her off. Consider this a case of classical conditioning with the conditioned response being Maria’s cheerfulness when she runs into Riverside Middle School, and identify the best description of each of the following: 22.

The unconditioned stimulus would be: a. the elementary school Maria attended. b. Riverside Middle School. c. Maria’s mother’s support. d. Mrs. Rodriguez’s reassurance.

23.

The unconditioned response would be: a. Maria’s comfort in the elementary school. b. Maria’s relaxing and feeling better. c. Maria’s uneasiness in anticipating the middle school. d. Maria’s secure feeling with her mother.

24.

The conditioned stimulus would be: a. Riverside Middle School. b. Maria’s elementary school. c. Mrs. Rodriguez’s reassurance. d. Maria’s riding to school with her mother.

25.

Ramona was nervous when she had to get up in front of her English class to recite a poem and is now nervous when she has to give a report in world history class. Of the following, the concept that best explains her nervousness in world history is: a. generalization. b. discrimination. c. extinction. d. satiation. 137 Copyright © 2020, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

Chapter 6: Behaviorism and Social Cognitive Theory

26.

Alan is uncomfortable and nervous when working in a business meeting, but he is not uncomfortable when working with a small group. Of the following, the concept that best explains why he is not nervous when working with a small group is: a. generalization. b. discrimination. c. unconditioned responding. d. extinction.

Essay Items 27.

Russell is a fourth grader, and it is early in the school year. He is a bit above average according to intelligence tests. His teacher has math from 9:30–10:30 each morning. One day she gives the class a math test, and unfortunately Russell does very poorly on it. He’s devastated, choking back tears when he sees the score. Russell is determined to try harder for the second test. However, when the time comes to take it, he wakes up in the morning with a pain in his stomach. His mother, not sure what is wrong, lets him stay home from school. Now, whenever a math test is scheduled, Russell tells his mother that morning that he doesn’t feel well, and she lets him stay home. He tells her later, however, that he feels better, and he then goes to school after lunch. Classical conditioning is illustrated in the case study. Carefully describe the classical conditioning portion, and identify specifically the concepts involved in your explanation.

28.

You’re sitting in the workroom of your school with a faculty member who has just said, “I got sick of the students’ continually talking today, so I fixed them. I doubled their homework assignment. I had assigned the odd problems at the end of the section, and now they get to do all the problems.” You comment courteously, “I’m not sure that’s a good idea.” “Why not?” your colleague retorts. “It stopped the talking.” Using classical conditioning as a basis for your response, explain why using homework as a form of punishment is not a good idea.

29.

Describe three suggestions teachers can apply to use classical conditioning as a tool to promote positive emotions in students and provide an example of each.

Operant Conditioning Knowledge-Level Items 30.

Operant conditioning relies most heavily on the events that: a. occur most directly before eliciting a behavior. b. initiate a behavior. c. occur simultaneously with a behavior. d. occur following a behavior.

Chapter 6: Behaviorism and Social Cognitive Theory

31.

Of the following, the person most associated with operant conditioning is: a. Bandura. b. Pavlov. c. Skinner. d. Freud.

32.

The term most closely associated with the idea of stimulus-response-consequence (S1-R-S2) is: a. vicarious learning. b. social cognitive theory. c. classical conditioning. d. operant conditioning.

33.

An increase in a behavior as the result of a consequence that follows the behavior best describes: a. extinction. b. punishment. c. reinforcement. d. generalization.

34.

The process of increasing a behavior by presenting a consequence is: a. positive reinforcement. b. negative reinforcement. c. presentation punishment. d. removal punishment.

35.

Teachers consciously try to praise students for good work and desirable behavior. Praise is intended as: a. contiguity. b. a conditioned stimulus. c. a positive reinforcer. d. a form of modeling.

36.

Using a more frequent or more desired activity as a reinforcer for a less frequent or less preferred activity is an application of the: a. Premack Principle. b. First Law of Practice. c. Principle of Contiguity. d. Law of Effect.

37.

The Premack principle is an application of: a. reinforcement. b. punishment. c. extinction. d. discrimination.

Chapter 6: Behaviorism and Social Cognitive Theory

38.

Reinforcing successive approximations of a desired behavior is referred to as: a. satiation. b. discrimination. c. generalization. d. shaping.

39.

Of the following, which type of schedule of reinforcement is the most appropriate to use in the classroom because it encourages persistence and high rates of response? a. Continuous b. Fixed-interval c. Fixed-ratio d. Variable-ratio

40.

The process used when a behavior is strengthened with the removal of an aversive stimulus is: a. positive reinforcement. b. negative reinforcement. c. presentation punishment. d. removal punishment.

41.

Of the following, which concept is being illustrated when we ignore a behavior and it eventually disappears? a. Punishment b. Reinforcement c. Shaping d. Extinction

42.

The elimination of a response as a result of non-reinforcement is called: a. satiation. b. extinction. c. discrimination. d. punishment.

43.

The major difference between negative reinforcement and punishment is: a. negative reinforcement decreases behavior a person intended to increase, whereas punishment intentionally decreases behavior. b. punishment is a behavioral decrease, whereas negative reinforcement is a behavioral increase. c. negative reinforcement is something emotional, whereas punishment is something physical, such as picking up trash or sweeping floors. d. negative reinforcement is used to shape behavior, but punishment is rarely used for shaping.

Chapter 6: Behaviorism and Social Cognitive Theory

44.

A decrease in behavior as a result of the elimination of something desirable is an illustration of: a. presentation punishment. b. removal punishment. c. negative reinforcement. d. positive reinforcement.

45.

The technique of taking away a previously given reinforcer is referred to as: a. presentation punishment. b. negative reinforcement. c. response cost. d. vicarious conditioning.

46.

Three of the following choices are considered to be ineffective forms of punishment. Which one is viewed as an acceptable form of punishment? a. Physical punishment b. Embarrassment c. Class work d. Timeout

47.

A reinforcer occurring so often that it loses its ability to strengthen behaviors results in: a. extinction. b. discrimination. c. conditioning. d. satiation.

48.

In the application of operant conditioning, the events that immediately precede or induce behaviors are referred to as: a. punishers. b. consequences. c. reinforcers. d. antecedents.

49.

The first step in applied behavior analysis is to: a. identify target behavior. b. establish a baseline for target behavior. c. measure changes in the target behaviors. d. select reinforcers.

50.

For which of the following groups is applied behavioral analysis most commonly used? a. Learners who have difficulty in a particular content area, such as reading or math b. Learners who need help with higher-level skills, such as critical thinking c. Learners who are talented in a certain area, such as music or art d. Learners who display specific behaviors teachers want to change

Chapter 6: Behaviorism and Social Cognitive Theory

51.

The strategy used to identify antecedents and consequences that control a behavior is referred to as: a. investigative analysis. b. functional analysis. c. behavioral analysis. d. operant analysis.

52.

Which of the following is a criticism commonly directed at behaviorist theories? a. Behaviorism cannot explain higher-order learning. b. Behaviorism only works with young children. c. Behaviorism only works with students from some cultures. d. Behaviorism allows the learner too much independence.

Higher-Level Items 53.

Rodrigo continues to improve in spelling because he has been receiving happy-face stickers when his scores on spelling quizzes improve. Of the following, which is the best description Rodrigo’s improvement as a result of receiving the stickers? a. Positive reinforcement b. Negative reinforcement. c. Satiation. d. Response cost.

54.

Schools often give certificates to students, which parents are encouraged to stick on the bumpers of their cars. The certificates typically say something such as: MY CHILD IS AN HONOR ROLL STUDENT AT WESTVIEW ELEMENTARY SCHOOL. The certificates are intended as: a. classical conditioners. b. vicarious reinforcers. c. positive reinforcers. d. negative reinforcers.

55.

Mr. Lynch has always used his “mean face” to stop undesirable behavior in his first graders. However, even though he looks at Grayson with this face each time Grayson talks out of turn, Grayson is talking more than ever now. Of the following, which is the best description of the “mean face” for Grayson? a. It is a positive reinforcer. b. It is a negative reinforcer. c. It is a presentation punisher. d. It is a conditioned stimulus.

Chapter 6: Behaviorism and Social Cognitive Theory

56.

Jolene does not turn in her homework regularly. Her teacher is particularly concerned because without regular practice she will fall behind, and she is a talented student in math. Jolene is given a token for every homework assignment she completes. When she has eight tokens, she gets two bonus points on her math average. She is now doing her homework regularly. This example best illustrates which concept from operant conditioning? a. Conditioned stimulus b. Conditioned response c. Positive reinforcement d. Negative reinforcement

57.

Of the following, the statement that best illustrates the Premack principle is: a. “We are now five minutes into our break. If you keep talking we’ll miss it altogether.” b. “As soon as you’ve finished your seat work, I’ll let you start on your art projects.” c. “Let’s run through our examples once more. What is 7 times 8?” d. “That’s a good start, Steve. Now let’s try to finish the problem.”

58.

You get into your car and turn the ignition key. The seat belt buzzer goes off, you fasten your seat belt, and the buzzer stops buzzing. Of the following, fastening your seat belt best illustrates a behavior resulting from: a. positive reinforcement. b. negative reinforcement. c. presentation punishment. d. classical conditioning.

59.

A major city developed a plan to increase carpooling among its citizens. According to the plan, any car with two or more people in it was allowed to pass through toll booths without paying the toll. The plan worked; carpooling increased. The plan is best described as an application of: a. positive reinforcement. b. removal punishment. c. classical conditioning. d. negative reinforcement.

60. You have had a heavy workout, and your muscles are achy and tired. You take some pain reliever to ease your discomfort. You find that taking the pain reliever works, and you’re now taking more of it. Of the following, taking the pain reliever best illustrates a behavior resulting from: a. positive reinforcement. b. negative reinforcement. c. presentation punishment. d. removal punishment.

Chapter 6: Behaviorism and Social Cognitive Theory

61.

When the students in the class sit without asking questions, Mr. Toner stops and just stares at them until someone asks a question. As soon as someone asks a question, he stops staring at them. He finds it’s working, and the students are now asking more questions. He is applying which of the following to increase question-asking behavior? a. Positive reinforcement b. Negative reinforcement c. Presentation punishment d. Removal punishment

62.

Glen and Bill extort lunch money from some of the smaller kids in the class. One morning before school they caught Rick and said threateningly, “C’mon, wimp, hand it over,” as one stood on each side of him. Rick shook his head, no, but Glen and Bill started pushing him around. Finally, after repeated refusals, Rick handed them the money, and they left. The next week the same thing happened again. Rick refused and struggled briefly, but then handed them the money with a sigh, and they again left, giving each other “high fives.” Encountering Glen and Bill again later in the week, Rick faced the inevitable and just handed them his lunch money. The best explanation for why Rick gives up his lunch money more quickly now is: a. he is being punished with removal punishment for giving it up. b. he is being punished with presentation punishment for giving it up. c. he is being negatively reinforced for giving it up. d. giving up the money has become a conditioned response.

63.

Jason is a chronic talker in Mr. Ayala’s class. Because of his talking, he is a “thorn in Mr. Ayala’s side,” and is even making Mr. Ayala’s teaching more stressful. Mr. Ayala gave him a referral to the office near the end of the class on Monday, and he gave him another yesterday (Wednesday) about halfway through the class. Jason begins talking at the beginning of the period today, and Mr. Ayala immediately gives him a referral and Jason leaves for the office. The best explanation for Mr. Ayala’s behavior (giving referrals) is: a. he—Mr. Ayala—is being negatively reinforced for giving referrals, since Jason is removed from the class. b. he—Mr. Ayala—is being punished, because Jason is no longer learning. c. giving referrals has become a conditioned response for Mr. Ayala. d. he—Mr. Ayala—is giving referrals because Jason’s behavior is now extinct.

Chapter 6: Behaviorism and Social Cognitive Theory

64.

Mrs. Dean’s algebra students typically have a difficult time with word problems, often getting lost in the process. She wants to keep them from giving up, so when they first start doing them, she gives a point on the problem if they just manage to get the problem started. Later, she requires that they get the problem “set up” correctly in order to get any points, and finally they must solve the problem to earn points. Mrs. Dean’s procedure is most precisely described as: a. increasing a behavior through classical conditioning. b. increasing a behavior through negative reinforcement. c. increasing a behavior through extinction. d. increasing a behavior through shaping

65.

Mrs. Green is working with Julia, a very shy and non-communicative first grader. Every time Julia gives any sort of response in a class activity, Mrs. Green praises her liberally. Of the following, the best description of Mrs. Green’s technique would be called: a. negative reinforcement. b. continuous reinforcement. c. variable-ratio reinforcement. d. variable-interval reinforcement.

66.

Mrs. Thornton wants her students to study diligently, and she wants to reinforce them for their hard work. So, she gives a quiz every Friday in her pre-algebra class, and she always returns the quizzes on Monday. Of the following, for the students who do well on the quiz, the quiz best illustrates: a. a form of continuous reinforcement. b. a form of shaping. c. a fixed-interval schedule of reinforcement. d. a variable-ratio schedule of reinforcement.

Use the following information for Items 67 and 68. Mrs. Preston and Mrs. Martinez want their students to conscientiously do their homework. Mrs. Preston collects homework three days a week, but the students don’t know which days she will collect it. Mrs. Martinez collects it on Mondays, Wednesdays, and Fridays. Both teachers score and return the homework each day after giving it. 67.

For the students who are successful in Mrs. Preston’s class, this practice best illustrates: a. continuous reinforcement. b. fixed-ratio reinforcement. c. fixed-interval reinforcement. d. variable-interval reinforcement.

68.

For the students who are successful in Mrs. Martinez’s class, this practice best illustrates: a. continuous reinforcement. b. fixed-ratio reinforcement. c. fixed-interval reinforcement. d. variable-interval reinforcement. 145 Copyright © 2020, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

Chapter 6: Behaviorism and Social Cognitive Theory

69.

Mrs. Sussman has her ninth-grade government students respond to an essay item on each one of her tests. When students write a particularly clear response to an item, she often writes a note to them at the bottom of the page complimenting them on their good work. This practice best represents which of the following? a. Implementing a variable-ratio form of reinforcement b. Implementing a variable-interval form of reinforcement c. Implementing a fixed-interval form of reinforcement d. Implementing a fixed-ratio form of reinforcement

70.

Mrs. French is implementing a system to encourage “on-task” behavior when her students are doing seat work. She has a timer that “beeps” every five minutes. If, each time the timer beeps, all the students are conscientiously working, the class is given free time to play games and work at the computer the last half hour of the day. Of the following, the best description of Mrs. French’s technique would be called: a. continuous reinforcement. b. fixed-interval reinforcement. c. variable-interval reinforcement. d. variable-ratio reinforcement.

71.

Steve, a fourth grader, is working on a drill-and-practice activity with a computer. Suddenly the screen flashes: “Congratulations, Steve! You just solved the last four problems in a row without an error.” Steve smiles to himself and continues his work. A few minutes later the screen again flashes: “Terrific, Steve! You have done it again. You solved four more problems without an error.” In the absence of any other information, this example best illustrates: a. continuous reinforcement. b. variable-interval reinforcement. c. variable-ratio reinforcement. d. fixed-ratio reinforcement.

72.

A second-grade team in an elementary school is concerned about the sloppy work their students are turning in, so they implement a reinforcement schedule strategy to promote neater work. In the process, each time students turn in a neatly written paper, Mrs. Oakes gives them a star. Mrs. Barber gives stars after they turn in three neatly done assignments in a row. They implement this process for a month and then they both stop giving the stars. Research patterns indicate which of the following is most likely to be correct? a. Neat work will appear sooner in Mrs. Oakes’s class but will also become sloppy again sooner. b. Neat work will appear sooner in Mrs. Oakes’s class and will remain neat longer. c. Neat work will appear sooner in Mrs. Barber’s class and will remain neat longer. d. Neat work will appear at about the same time in both classes but will remain longer in Mrs. Barber’s class.

Chapter 6: Behaviorism and Social Cognitive Theory

73.

The first week of class Marty repeatedly talks out of turn. Mr. Adams, his fifth-grade teacher, decides to pretend Marty isn’t talking and doesn’t react at all. Surprisingly, in a few weeks, Marty has stopped talking out of turn in class. Of the following, which concept from operant conditioning best explains Mary’s behavior? a. Negative reinforcement b. Presentation punishment c. Satiation d. Extinction

74.

Ben is the class clown. Mr. French, his biology teacher, decides to pretend Ben isn’t even there. Over time Ben stops acting like a clown in class. Of the following, which concept from operant conditioning best explains why Ben stops acting like the class clown? a. Extinction b. Positive reinforcement c. Presentation punishment d. Negative reinforcement

75.

Karen, a fifth grader, waves her hand energetically, eager to answer Mr. Healy’s question. She continues her efforts, but Mr. Healy calls on another student each time. This process continues for the next two days with the same results. The third day Karen sits quietly, not raising her hand. Focusing on Karen’s behavior, the case study best illustrates: a. the negative reinforcement of a behavior. b. non-reinforcement resulting in extinction of a behavior. c. the elimination of a behavior through classical conditioning. d. the elimination of a behavior through presentation punishment.

76.

Sara, a seventh grader, is eager to respond to questions in class, and regularly raises her hand to respond. However, in spite of her efforts, Mr. Edwards calls on one of her classmates each time. This process continues for the next two days with the same results. The third day Sara sits quietly, not raising her hand. Focusing on Sara’s behavior, the case study best illustrates: a. the negative reinforcement of a behavior. b. the elimination of a behavior through classical conditioning. c. non-reinforcement resulting in extinction of a behavior. d. the elimination of a behavior through satiation.

77.

Suzy, a fifth-grader, loves to chew gum in class, which is against the rules. Now each morning when Suzy comes in, Mrs. Myers offers her some gum and says pleasantly, “I want you to chew this the whole period.” Suzy complies. The next time Suzy chews gum, Mr. Myers repeats the process. Suzy has new chewed gum in class since that time. Mrs. Myers’s strategy would be best described as an application of which of the following? a. Shaping b. Removal punishment c. Satiation d. Negative reinforcement

Chapter 6: Behaviorism and Social Cognitive Theory

78.

Kevin is a “full of life” seventh grader who seems to rejoice in bugging Mrs. Wilson. One of his habits is to “basketball” a crumpled piece of notebook paper into the wastebasket. When he misses, he then gets up regardless of the learning activity, retrieves his paper and puts it in the basket. Exasperated, Mrs. Wilson keeps him for a half hour after school during which they “play basketball.” “Let’s see how long it takes you to get 30 into the basket,” she announces evenly when they are alone together. “Go ahead and start.” Kevin then throws crumpled paper from his desk until he had gotten 30 into the basket. Each time he missed one, Mrs. Wilson has him get up from his desk, retrieve the paper, deposit it, and then go back to his desk to try it again. Of the following, the concept that best illustrates the technique Mrs. Wilson is implementing is: a. negative reinforcement. b. classical conditioning. c. extinction. d. satiation.

79.

Timeout is the process of seating a student away from other students with the goal of eliminating unacceptable behaviors by preventing them from receiving reinforcers from other students. It best illustrates which of the following concepts from operant conditioning? a. Positive reinforcement b. Negative reinforcement c. Presentation punishment d. Removal punishment

80.

Mr. Anderson uses timeout as a technique in his classroom. When students misbehave, they are sent to an area to the side of the class, where they can still see what is going on, but they can’t interact with any other student. Depending on the infraction, students spend a designated number of minutes in the “timeout” area with the goal of eliminating the misbehavior. Mr. Anderson’s technique most nearly illustrates use of which of the following? a. Presentation punishment b. Removal punishment c. Positive reinforcement d. Vicarious punishment

81.

Mrs. Esser, upon seeing Kevin whispering to his neighbor, walks over to him and puts her finger to her lips, signaling “Shhh.” Kevin stops whispering. Focusing on Kevin’s whispering, this incident best illustrates which of the following? a. Negative reinforcement b. Removal punishment c. Presentation punishment d. Positive reinforcement

Chapter 6: Behaviorism and Social Cognitive Theory

82.

Antonio is a gifted athlete who loves to play football. In his enthusiasm for sports, however, he has let his schoolwork slip, has found himself ineligible, and has been dropped from the football team. Being dropped from the team best illustrates: a. satiation of a behavior. b. presentation punishment of an undesired behavior. c. negative reinforcement of an undesirable behavior. d. removal punishment of an undesired behavior.

83.

Luke hits his dog. Mom decides that when he hits the dog, he won’t be allowed to play with his iPad that day. His hitting behavior has decreased. Luke not being able to play with his iPad best illustrates which of the following concepts in operant conditioning? a. Positive reinforcement b. Negative reinforcement c. Presentation punishment d. Removal punishment

84.

At Plains High School, students who are tardy to class are given “Yard Patrol” after school. Yard patrol amounts to requiring the students to clean up any trash found on the school grounds. As it turns out, the strategy is moderately successful; fewer students are tardy to class. Which of the following concepts from operant conditioning is best illustrated by the school’s strategy? a. Negative reinforcement b. Presentation punishment c. Satiation d. Extinction

85.

Assertive discipline is a behavioral approach to classroom management. Assertive discipline suggests that a teacher state rules in clear, simple, concise terms, and the first time the student breaks the rule, his/her name is written on the board. Each infraction thereafter results in a check by the name, and four checks leads to 1/2 hour of detention. The strategy is generally quite successful; students tend to break fewer rules when it is used. Of the following, which concept in operant conditioning is best illustrated by this strategy? a. positive reinforcement. b. negative reinforcement. c. removal punishment. d. extinction.

86.

My 10-year-old nephew, Brandon, is allowed an hour of computer game time each day. Each time he talks back to his mother, 15 minutes of his game time is deducted. He talks back much less frequently now. My sister’s strategy best illustrates which of the following concepts from operant conditioning? a. Negative reinforcement. b. Presentation punishment. c. Response cost. d. Satiation. 149 Copyright © 2020, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

Chapter 6: Behaviorism and Social Cognitive Theory

87.

Sheila, a junior in high school, is talking to her friend Ann on the phone. “Are you ready for Friday night’s game?” Ann asks her excitedly. “I’m not going to be able to go,” Sheila responds, crestfallen. “My folks won’t let me go out for a month. I goofed around too much, so I flunked both physics and history, and they’re berserk. They told me I have to stop goofing around. I don’t know what to think. I can’t even go out with Tim, and I don’t know how he’s going to react.” I Not letting Sheila go out and not letting her date Tim best illustrate which of the following concepts from operant conditioning? a. Positive reinforcement b. Presentation punishment c. Negative reinforcement d. Removal punishment

88.

Patrick hits his mother. She decides that when he hits her she will put him down and not carry him (he likes to be carried). His hitting behavior has decreased. Mom’s putting Patrick down best illustrates which of the following concepts from operant conditioning? a. Presentation punishment b. Removal punishment c. Positive reinforcement d. Negative reinforcement

Use the following information to answer Items 89 and 90. Diegosha learns from examples such as “tall man” and “fast horse” that tall and fast are adjectives. He then encounters “beautiful sky” in a sentence and concludes that beautiful is an adjective. Later, Diegosha sees “beautifully written” as part of a sentence, and says, “Beautifully is not an adjective.” 89.

Based on the information we have, Diegosha’s saying “adjective” when he sees beautiful best describes: a. a classically conditioned response. b. negative reinforcement. c. discrimination. d. generalization.

90.

Again, based on the information we have, Diegosha saying, “Beautifully is not an adjective” best describes: a. a classically conditioned response. b. positive reinforcement. c. discrimination. d. generalization.

Chapter 6: Behaviorism and Social Cognitive Theory

Essay Items 91.

Russell is a fourth grader, and it is early in the school year. He is a bit above average according to intelligence tests. His teacher has math from 9:30–10:30 each morning. One day she gave the class a math test, and unfortunately Russell did very poorly on it. He was devastated, choking back tears when he saw the score. Russell was determined to try harder for the second test. However, when the time came to take it, he woke up that morning with a pain in his stomach. His mother, not sure what was wrong, let him stay home from school. Now, whenever a math test is scheduled, Russell tells his mother that morning that he doesn’t feel well, and she lets him stay home. He tells her later, however, that he feels better, and he then goes to school after lunch. Operant conditioning is involved in the case study. Carefully describe the operant conditioning component including an identification of the concepts involved.

92.

Suppose that you have a student who is acting out in your class. Describe the steps you would follow in designing an applied behavior analysis plan to help the student learn to behave more acceptably.

93.

Describe four suggestions teachers can apply to help them use operant conditioning as a tool when working with students, and provide an example of each.

Social Cognitive Theory Knowledge-Level Items 94.

Social cognitive theory is best described as a view of learning that: a. emphasizes the social interactions that occur among students in classrooms. b. emphasizes the ways that students perceive and think about problems. c. emphasizes the strategies that students use to solve interpersonal problems. d. emphasizes the effects of observing others on students’ thoughts and behavior.

95.

Which of the following statements most accurately describes a comparison between behaviorism and social cognitive theory? a. Behaviorism focuses on behaviors that have direct causes outside the learner, whereas social cognitive theory focuses on changes in behavior resulting from observing others. b. Behaviorism focuses on stimuli and responses, as well as reinforcers and punishers, but social cognitive theory does not consider reinforcers and punishers. c. Behaviorism emphasizes the role of feedback in the form of reinforcers and punishers on learners’ behaviors, but feedback is not a part of social cognitive theory. d. Behaviorism emphasizes stimuli and responses that result in observable changes in learner behavior, whereas social cognitive theory emphasizes changes in observable behavior that result from reinforcers and punishers.

Chapter 6: Behaviorism and Social Cognitive Theory

96.

Social cognitive theory and behaviorism differ in their views of reinforcement and punishment. This difference is reflected in the fact that social cognitive theory: a. emphasizes the role of expectations in interpreting reinforcers and punishers. b. more strongly emphasizes reinforcers and tends to ignore punishers. c. more strongly emphasizes the direct effects of reinforcers on behavior. d. more strongly emphasizes the effects of different schedules of reinforcement on behavior.

97.

Reciprocal causation is a term must closely associated with: a. classical conditioning. b. operant conditioning. c. social cognitive learning. d. social constructivism.

98.

The direct imitation of behavior observed in others is called: a. modeling. b. contiguity. c. generalization. d. potency.

99.

The process of people observing the consequences of other’s actions and adjusting their own behavior accordingly is referred to as: a. symbolic modeling. b. vicarious learning. c. operant conditioning. d. cognitive modeling.

100. Of the following, which is not a process involved in learning from models? a. Retention b. Demonstration c. Reproduction d. Attention 101. Adapting behavior as a result of observing the consequences of another person’s behavior is called: a. modeling. b. positive reinforcement. c. vicarious learning. d. reinforcement potency. 102. Self-regulation can best be described as the process in which students: a. use models to know how and when to act. b. use the consequences of peers’ behaviors to decide appropriate behavior. c. use thoughts and actions to reach academic goals. d. use vicarious learning to learn cognitive strategies.

Chapter 6: Behaviorism and Social Cognitive Theory

103. Of the following, which is the most important characteristic of an effective goal? a. It is set by the teacher rather than the students. b. It is challenging but realistic. c. It is realistic vs. overly optimistic. d. It is mental vs. tangible. 104. Of the following, the most effective way teachers can promote self-assessment is to: a. provide frequent quizzes and tests. b. encourage students to check their answers on their assignments before handing them in. c. encourage students to work with and compare their performance to other students. d. provide grades that help students know how they are doing in comparison to other students. 105. Which of the following statements best describes cognitive behavior modification? a. It combines behaviorist principles and learners’ thoughts. b. It focuses on behavioral change but rejects behaviorist principles. c. It emphasizes learners’ thoughts and disregards observable behavior. d. It emphasizes the influence of teacher modeling on changes in learners’ behaviors. Higher-Level Items 106. Mrs. Alvarez, a first-grade teacher, is walking among her students as they are doing an art project. She comments to Natalie, “Oh, your bird is so colorful. I really like the reds.” Janine, who sits at the same work table as Natalie quickly picks up a red crayon and starts adding more red to her bird. Janine’s behavior best illustrates: a. symbolic learning. b. vicarious learning. c. reciprocal learning. d. reinforced learning. 107. Nathan makes the honor role for this grading period, and he—and other students who make the honor roll—are given certificates that parents can stick on the bumpers of their cars. The certificates say: MY CHILD IS AN HONOR ROLL STUDENT AT WESTVIEW ELEMENTARY SCHOOL For the students in the class—other than those who receive the certificates—the certificates are intended as: a. positive reinforcers. b. negative reinforcers. c. classical conditioners. d. vicarious reinforcers.

Chapter 6: Behaviorism and Social Cognitive Theory

108. You turn in an assignment, but your teacher doesn’t grade or return it, and you then exert less effort on your next assignment. Using social cognitive theory as a basis, of the following, the best explanation for your effort on the second assignment is: a. you have been negatively reinforced for turning in the first assignment, so you exerted less effort on the second assignment. b. the nonoccurrence of an expected reinforcer for the first assignment served as a punisher for the second assignment. c. the lack of an appropriate model for the first assignment resulted in no behavior that could be imitated for the second assignment. d. the lack of feedback after your first assignment resulted in a negative emotional arousal effect on the second assignment, and as a result, your effort was reduced. Use the following information for items 109 and 110. Steve, an 11th grader, happens to bring a copy of The Great Gatsby with him to his physics class. Mr. Horton, his physics teacher, compliments him on his range of interest and his taste in American literature. Ann, one of Steve’s classmates, is there when Steve and Mr. Horton are having their conversation. She asks Steve if she can borrow The Great Gatsby, and she begins reading it. 109. Of the following, Ann’s request best illustrates a behavior resulting from: a. classical conditioning. b. positive reinforcement. c. negative reinforcement. d. vicarious learning. 110. Consider Mr. Horton, Steve, and Ann. Based on the information in the example, which of the following statements is most accurate? a. Steve was a model for Ann. b. Mr. Horton was a model for both Steve and Ann. c. Mr. Horton was a model for Steve but not Ann. d. Mr. Horton was a model for Ann but not Steve. Use the following information for items 111 and 112. “I really like the way Andy is working so quietly,” Mrs. Evertson says to her second graders in an attempt to encourage diligent effort in her students on a seat-work assignment. 111. Of the following, Mrs. Evertson’s comment best illustrates an attempt to apply which of the following with the students other than Andy in her class? a. Positive reinforcement b. negative reinforcement. c. Vicarious reinforcement d. Continuous reinforcement

Chapter 6: Behaviorism and Social Cognitive Theory

112. Consider Mrs. Evertson, Andy, and the rest of the students. Which of the following is the most accurate statement? a. Mrs. Evertson is attempting to be a model for Andy as well as the rest of the students. b. Mrs. Evertson is attempting to use Andy as a model for the rest of the students. c. Mrs. Evertson is attempting to be a model for Andy but not necessarily for the rest of the students. d. Mrs. Evertson is attempting to be a model for the rest of the students but not necessarily for Andy. Use the following example for Items 113–115. “Thomas, Antonio, we speak only when we’re given permission when we’re in a discussion,” Ms. Parado reprimands, as Thomas and Antonio are whispering during a learning activity. The boys stop whispering. Isaac who has also been whispering to Joe while watching Ms. Parado out of the corner of his eye, also stops. 113. With respect to Thomas and Antonio, Ms. Parado’s reprimand best illustrates a: a. negative reinforcer. b. vicarious punisher. c. presentation punisher. d. removal punisher. 114. With respect to Isaac’s behavior, the reprimand best illustrates a: a. negative reinforcer. b. vicarious punisher. c. presentation punisher. d. removal punisher. 115. The modeling outcome that Ms. Parado’s reprimand has on Isaac can be best described as: a. learning new behaviors. b. suppressing an emotion. c. facilitating an existing behavior. d. strengthening an inhibition.

Chapter 6: Behaviorism and Social Cognitive Theory

Use the following example for Items 116 and 117. Jeff has just watched Dr. Zhivago—the classic story of a Russian physician and poet, set during the Russian Revolution, and his love affair with Lara, the subject of his poems—for the first time in his life. He finds his eyes getting moist and he feels almost as if he wants to rush forward to help when he watches Zhivago, overwhelmed with tears streaming down his cheeks, try to catch Lara as she walks down a Moscow street. 116. The modeling outcome best illustrated in the case study is a(n): a. emotional arousal effect. b. facilitating existing behaviors effect. c. strengthening inhibition effect. d. weakening inhibition effect. 117. The type of modeling illustrated in the example is best described as: a. direct. b. concrete. c. symbolic. d. synthesized. Use the following example for items 118 and 119. Nikki wants to learn how to serve effectively in tennis, but she doesn’t quite know how to begin. She watches a DVD of Serena Williams’s serve, seeing the power and smoothness of her swing. She carefully watches Serena serve and also listens carefully as Serena describes how difficult it was to learn to serve. “Why don’t you study Roger Federer’s serve?” Nikki’s coach, Mrs. Cooper suggests. “It’s so easy and fluid. It seems so natural for him.” Nikki rents a DVD of Roger Federer’s serve and does as Mrs. Cooper suggests. She incorporates some of Roger’s techniques into her serve, but she returns to Serena’s and her serve looks more like Serena’s now. 118. Two forms of modeling are illustrated in the example. Of the following, the best description of the two forms is: a. direct and symbolic. b. direct and concrete. c. direct and synthesized. d. symbolic and synthesized. 119. The modeling outcome best illustrated in the example is a(n): a. learning new behaviors effect. b. arousing emotions effect. c. strengthening inhibition effect. d. weakening inhibition effect.

Chapter 6: Behaviorism and Social Cognitive Theory

120. Emily watches her older brother while he plays soccer. She then goes out to soccer practice and tries to play like he does. What type of modeling does this illustrate? a. Direct modeling b. Vicarious modeling c. Symbolic modeling d. Synthesized modeling 121. Caden, a second grader, reads a story about Robin Hood shooting an apple off his son’s head, and he tells his dad that he wants to shoot a bow and arrow. Of the following, this request best illustrates a behavior caused by: a. direct modeling. b. indirect modeling. c. symbolic modeling. d. synthesized modeling. 122. Lori says to her boyfriend, Fred, “C’mon, let’s dance,” as a DJ began another set. “Wait a minute. . . . Not right now. We’re having fun talking,” he comments dispassionately. “Aww,” Lori continues. “You’re such a good dancer. You can do any of these better than the other people out there.” Fred shrugs and smiles at Lori’s enthusiasm. Two other couples then go out to the dance floor as Lori and Fred continue chatting and glancing across the floor. “Okay, let’s go,” Fred says, pulling Lori onto the floor. Of the following, the best explanation for Fred’s wanting to dance is: a. seeing the other couples dance weakened Fred’s inhibition about dancing. b. seeing the other couples dance facilitated an existing behavior in Fred. c. Fred learned the dance step from watching the other couples dance, so he learned a new behavior. d. Lori’s enthusiasm heightened Fred’s enthusiasm, so an emotional arousal effect took place. Use the following information for items 123 and 124. A group of people is watching a guitar soloist play a difficult piece of music. After a particularly impressive display of skill, someone in the audience stands and begins to applaud. The rest of the audience then stands and applauds as well. 123. Of the following, the type of modeling best illustrated by the audience’s applause is: a. direct. b. symbolic. c. synthesized. d. abstract.

Chapter 6: Behaviorism and Social Cognitive Theory

124. The modeling outcome best illustrated in the example is best described as a(n): a. emotional arousal effect. b. facilitating existing behaviors effect. c. strengthening inhibition effect. d. weakening inhibition effect. Items 125 and 126 are related to each other. 125. People standing at a red light see an individual cross a street against the light and then they do they do the same. This best illustrates: a. direct modeling. b. indirect modeling. c. symbolic modeling. d. synthesized modeling. 126. The modeling outcome best illustrated in this example is: a. learning a new behavior. b. facilitating an existing behavior. c. changing an inhibition. d. arousing an emotion. 127. Six-year-old Dylan observes his brother kick the basketball after missing a shot and hears his father cuss after making a mistake. When he tries to shoot a basketball and misses the hoop, he kicks the ball and cusses. Dylan’s behavior best illustrates: a. direct modeling. b. indirect modeling. c. symbolic modeling. d. synthesized modeling. 128. On career day Mrs. Rockman invites in non-stereotypical role models (such as male nurses and female engineers) to speak to her students. Of the following, the most likely reason Mrs. Rockman does this is that she realizes a model’s effectiveness depends on: a. perceived similarity. b. perceived competence. c. perceived status. d. perceived reward.

Chapter 6: Behaviorism and Social Cognitive Theory

129. Prominent athletes are often recruited to endorse certain products, even though they don’t necessarily know anything about the product—such as an athlete endorsing a type of underwear. The athletes prove to be very effective models; as a result of their endorsements, the sales of the products typically increase. We can best explain this tendency with social cognitive theory by saying: a. the athletes are effective models because they’re rich. b. the athletes are effective models because they have high status. c. the athletes are effective models because people perceive the athletes as similar to themselves. c. the celebrities and athletes are effective models because they’re usually physically attractive. Essay Items 130. Mrs. Barber announces to her third graders at the beginning of math, “Congratulations, James. Because you’ve been so good about bringing your math work all week, I’m giving you this certificate,” and she handed James a certificate, which said: JAMES IS A MATH WHIZ. CONGRATULATIONS ON YOUR CONSCIENTIOUS MATH WORK. Mrs. Barber Identify one concept from behaviorism and two concepts from social cognitive theory that Mrs. Barber is attempting to apply with her comment and this certificate. Explain. 131. A middle-age man who has become a little rotund would like to get in shape but is reluctant, since he hasn’t worked out for a long time, and he has long ago lost his “athletic appearance.” At the urging of friend, he finally goes to a fitness club near where he lives just to take a look. Upon arriving at the club he is surprised to see several people about his age and build laboring over the machines and free weights. The man is now consistently working out. Using social cognitive theory as a basis, provide a detailed explanation for the man’s behavior. Include the type of modeling, the effectiveness of the modeling, and the modeling outcome, and in your explanation. 132. A nursery school teacher spends some time each day reading stories such as The Little Engine That Could (a story of a little locomotive that chugged up a hill saying, “I think I can, I think I can.”). Using social cognitive theory as a basis, explain why a teacher would choose to read stories such as these. 133. Identify the four processes involved in learning from models, and provide a classroom illustration of each. 134. Describe four suggestions we can follow to apply social cognitive theory in our classrooms, and provide an example of each. 159 Copyright © 2020, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

Chapter 7: Cognitive Views of Learning

CHAPTER SEVEN COGNITIVE VIEWS OF LEARNING Cognitive Learning Theory Knowledge-Level Items 1.

Statements about an area of study that are generally accepted as true are best described as: a. propositions. b. inferences. c. generalizations. d. principles.

Of the following, which statement best describes cognitive learning theories? a. Theories that explain learning in terms of changes in observable behavior that occur as a result of having experiences in the real world b. Theories that explain learning in terms of people’s thinking and the processes involved in acquiring, organizing, and using knowledge c. Theories that explain learning in terms of people’s needs for autonomy and connectedness with others in a social environment d. Theories that explain learning in terms of the interaction between genetics and the environment and the influences they have on people’s thoughts and feelings

The idea that people construct their own knowledge rather than record knowledge as recording device might do is a: a. learning principle. b. instructional principle. c. learning theory. d. planning principle.

Which of the following is not a principle of cognitive learning theories? a. Social interaction facilitates learning. b. Learning and development depend on learners’ experiences. c. Learners construct their own knowledge. d. Learning is a change in observable behavior.

Of the following, which statement most closely relates to a principle of cognitive learning theory? a. New learning depends upon positive reinforcement. b. Learning is primarily a function of effective modeling. c. Learning is primarily a process of meeting learners’ needs. d. New learning depends on current understanding.

Chapter 7: Cognitive Views of Learning

a. Learners construct understanding more effectively if they are involved in social interaction. b. Learners construct understanding based on their existing understanding. c. Learners construct understanding based upon teachers’ knowledge. d. Learners construct understanding that makes sense to them. 7.

Principles of cognitive learning theory most strongly emphasize which of the following? a. Learners’ emotions b. Teachers’ reinforcers c. Learners’ prior knowledge d. Teachers’ modeling

A theory that describes how information enters our memory system, is organized, and finally stored has historically been described as: a. social cognitive theory. b. figure-ground theory. c. learning and teaching theory. d. information processing theory.

Which of the following best describes a model as it’s used with respect to human memory? a. A miniature representation of something, such as globe representing the Earth b. A representation that allows us to visualize what we can’t observe directly c. A mental process that we use as a framework for thinking about human memory d. A socially constructed process that we later internalize as individuals

10.

The term model as it’s used in reference to the model of human memory most closely relates to: a. a miniature representation of something, such as a model airplane. b. a model of the atom, such as we see in science classes. c. a person or process to be imitated, such as an effective “role model.” d. a process to be followed, such as a schematic diagram used in electrical wiring.

11.

The model of human memory is composed of three major components. They are: a. attention stores, memory stores, and retrieval stores. b. cognitive processes, attention stores, and metacognition. c. memory processes, encoding processes, and metacognitive processes. d. memory stores, cognitive processes, and metacognition.

Chapter 7: Cognitive Views of Learning

Higher-Level Items 12.

Jeremy is trying to install a ceiling fan in his work area, but he’s a little uncertain about how to proceed. He asks Steve if he can lend a hand, Steve describes where he wants to put it, they talk about it, and finally they get it installed successfully. Of the following, the principle of cognitive learning theory that is best illustrated by this example is: a. to make sense of their experiences, learners construct knowledge. b. social interaction facilitates learning. c. learning is a change in observable behavior. d. the knowledge people construct depends on what they already know.

13.

In an effort to understand what they aren’t able to understand in any other way, all societies and cultures throughout history have developed systems of beliefs about life, its origins, why they were here and what happens to them after they die. Greek and Roman mythology are examples of this process. The cognitive learning principle that best explains why societies and cultures would make these efforts is: a. learning and development depend on experience. b. people want their experiences to make sense. c. knowledge people construct depends on what they already know. d. social interaction facilitates learning.

14.

Students sometimes come up with unique, and at times, seemingly bizarre—at least to teachers—comments or answers to questions. Of the following, which description best explains why students come up with these comments or answers. a. They remember these ideas, because they were reinforced for them by their teachers sometime in the past. b. Students develop misconceptions primarily because of the influence of their peers. c. They come up with these ideas, primarily because “off the wall” comments have been modeled for them, and modeling is one of the most powerful influences on learning. d. They construct these ideas on their own because the ideas make sense to them.

Chapter 7: Cognitive Views of Learning

15. Naomi, a second grader, is able to solve the following problem: 38 –5 correctly getting 33 as an answer. However, when given 24 –6 she gets 22 as an answer, reasoning that when we subtract, we subtract the smaller number from the larger number. The cognitive learning principle that is best illustrated in Naomi’s thinking is: a. to make sense of their experiences people construct knowledge. b. positive reinforcers contribute to learning and development. c. the knowledge learners construct depends on what they already know. d. social interaction facilitates learning. Items 16 and 17 are related. 16.

Cal believes that when you drop two objects of different weights, such as a baseball and a golf ball, the heavier one—the baseball—will fall faster. His teacher drops the two balls, and they hit the floor simultaneously. Cal, however, retains his belief, and continues to assert that the baseball fell faster than the golf ball. Of the following, which cognitive learning principle best explains why Cal retains his belief in spite of evidence to the contrary? a. Learning and development depend on experience. b. People want their experiences to make sense. c. Learning depends on positive reinforcers. d. Social interaction facilitates learning.

17.

In an attempt to understand Cal’s thinking, his teacher questions him and asks him why he continues to believe that heavier objects fall faster than lighter objects. Cal responds by saying that he dropped a piece of paper and a book and the book hit the floor before the paper did. Using this additional information, of the following, which cognitive learning principle best explains why Cal continues to believe that the baseball fell faster than the golf ball? a. The knowledge learners construct depends on what they already know. b. The knowledge learners construct depends on whether or not they’re reinforced. c. Learners want their experiences to make sense. d. Social interaction facilitates learning.

Chapter 7: Cognitive Views of Learning

18.

Using principles of cognitive learning theory as a basis, of the following, which is the best explanation for why learners construct the knowledge that they do, whether or not it’s correct? a. The knowledge they construct has been modeled for them. b. They have been reinforced for constructing their own knowledge. c. The knowledge they construct has been explained to them by their teachers. d. The knowledge they construct makes sense to them.

19.

Young students periodically make surprising conclusions, such as, “Most houses in France are made out of plaster of Paris.” Based on the principles of cognitive learning theory, which of the following is the most likely reason students make these conclusions? a. Teacher presentations often aren’t clear, so students develop misconceptions. b. Teachers often fail to adequately reinforce students for the correct conclusions that they make. c. Students create these conclusions because the conclusions make sense to the students. d. Students create these conclusions based on seeing similar conclusions modeled by other students.

20.

Using principles of cognitive learning theory as the basis for your conclusion, of the following, what is the most likely reason that students’ conclusions about the topics they study vary so greatly? a. Their working memory capacities are different, and students’ constructions depend on the capacity of their working memories. b. Their background knowledge varies, and their constructions of understanding depend on their background knowledge. c. Teachers’ explanations often aren’t clear, so students are unable to construct understanding based on the explanations. d. Teachers usually lecture, and students can’t construct understanding if teachers lecture.

Use the following vignette for items 21-23. Monica, age three, doesn’t touch plants because her mother, Teresa, in an effort to prevent her from pulling the leaves off the plants in the house warns her not to touch the plants. Teresa also touches a plant and says, “Ouch, hot!” When Monica tentatively moves to touch a plant, Teresa gently taps Monica’s fingers and says, “No, hot.” The next day Monica walks by a plant, points, and says, “Hot,” and Teresa smiles at her and says, “Yes, hot.” Monica also says to Teresa one day, “Girls wear glasses but boys don’t.” “That’s an interesting idea,” Teresa smiles. “Why do you think that?” “You have glasses, and Gramma has glasses, but Daddy doesn’t.”

Chapter 7: Cognitive Views of Learning

“Let’s look at these pictures,” Teresa says, and she then goes to a mail-order website in which some of the female models are wearing glasses but others aren’t, and some of the male models are wearing glasses but others aren’t. “Look at him. . . . He’s wearing glasses,” Teresa says as Monica sits on her lap looking at the pictures. “And look at her. . . . Does she look like a girl?” “Yes,” Monica replied. “Is she wearing glasses?” “No.” Monica then decides that both girls and boys wear glasses, but she also decides that girls have long hair and boys have short hair after looking at the pictures. Teresa smiles to herself and decides to pursue the idea of hair length at a different time. 21.

Which of the following best illustrates the cognitive learning principle, “To make sense of their experiences, learners construct knowledge?” a. Monica’s initially concluding that girls wear glasses but boys don’t. b. Monica’s concluding that plants are hot after Teresa touched a plant and said, “Ouch, hot!” c. Monica’s concluding that plants are hot after Teresa taps her fingers. d. Monica’s walking by the plant, pointing, and saying, “Hot.”

22.

Which of the following best illustrates the cognitive learning principle, “the knowledge learners construct depend on what they already know”? a. Monica’s concluding that plants are hot. b. Monica’s tentatively moving to touch the plant. c. Teresa’s saying, “No, hot,” as Monica moved to touch the plant. d. Monica’s concluding that girls wear glasses but boys don’t.

23.

Which of the following best illustrates the cognitive learning principle, “social interaction facilitates learning”? a. Monica’s concluding that plants are hot after hearing Teresa say, “Ouch, hot!” b. Monica’s concluding that plants are hot after Teresa says, “No, hot.” c. Monica’s deciding that both boys and girls wear glasses. d. Monica’s deciding that girls have long hair but boys have short hair.

Items 24 and 25 are related. 24.

Mrs. Everett is teaching her class about adjectives and has shown students the following passage: Tim and Sharon went to their favorite hangout to meet their best friends, Quin and Sancha. They had fun and listened to some new music.

Mrs. Everett helps them recognize that favorite, best, and new are adjectives, and the students see that each of the adjectives appears in front of the noun. Mrs. Everett then gives the students a second short passage (below) and asks the students to identify the adjectives: Bill and Katie, with her brown hair blowing in the brisk wind, went in his new car to the game. The game was incredibly exciting, and their team barely won.

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Anya identifies brown, brisk and new as adjectives, but she doesn’t recognize that exciting is also an adjective, since it follows the noun instead of appearing in front of it. Of the following, which principle of cognitive learning best explains why Anya would fail to recognize that exciting is an adjective? a. Learners construct knowledge with the support of more knowledgeable peers. b. Knowledge that is constructed depends on what learners already know. c. Social interaction facilitates learning. d. Learning depends on practice and feedback. 25.

Mrs. Everett sees that several of her students fail to recognize that exciting is an adjective, so she gives the students another passage in which some of the adjectives appear before the noun and others follow the noun. Then, when she assesses the students, she sees that nearly all of them are able to identify adjectives that appear before nouns as well as those that follow nouns. Of the following, which principle of cognitive learning theory best explains why the students would now have a better understanding of adjectives? a. Learning and development depend on learners’ experiences. b. Learners construct knowledge with the support of more knowledgeable peers. c. Social interaction facilitates learning. d. Learning depends on practice and feedback.

26.

Josh, a third grader, reads fluently—recognizes words and speaks them correctly and clearly—but struggles with comprehending what he has read. So, his mother goes to the Internet and downloads a number of exercises where students read a passage and are then asked a series of questions related to the passage. His mother has him complete one of the exercises each evening, and Josh’s reading comprehension is now much improved. Which of the following principles of cognitive learning theory is being best illustrated by Josh’s experience? a. Acquiring long-term knowledge and skill is largely dependent on practice. b. People want their experiences to make sense. c. The knowledge people construct depends on what they already know. d. Social interaction facilitates learning.

Essay Items 27.

Define learning from a cognitive perspective, and explain how the definition differs from the way learning is defined from a behaviorist perspective.

28.

Describe and provide an example of the six principles of cognitive learning theory.

29.

Describe each of the components in the human memory model and explain its role in learning.

30.

Explain how the model of human memory provides us with information about each of its components. Offer two examples to illustrate your explanation.

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Memory Stores Knowledge-Level Items 31.

Three of the following statements are characteristics of sensory memory. Which one is not a characteristic of sensory memory? a. Its capacity is virtually unlimited. b. It holds information in unorganized form. c. Information is quickly lost if it isn’t processed. d. Information can be retained in it if rehearsed.

32.

Three of the following statements are characteristics of working memory. Which one is not a characteristic of working memory? a. Limited capacity b. Holds information in unorganized form c. The conscious component of the memory stores d. Contains a visual and verbal processor that work independently

33.

Three of the following statements are characteristics of long-term memory. Which one is not a characteristic of long-term memory? a. The conscious component of the memory stores b. Permanent information store c. Stores information in the form of schemas and images d. Virtually unlimited capacity

34.

The memory store that briefly holds incoming stimuli from the environment until they can be processed is called: a. sensory memory. b. working memory. c. semantic memory. d. long-term memory.

35.

In the model of human memory, which of the following is not a memory store? a. Long-term memory b. Sensory memory c. Schematic memory d. Working memory

36.

According to descriptions of the model of human memory, the information store that holds an exact copy of stimuli for a very brief period of time is referred to as: a. sensory memory. b. working memory. c. short-term memory. d. long-term memory.

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37.

Which of the following statements is true of sensory memory? a. It can hold a limited amount of information. b. Information in it is in the form of concepts and rules. c. Information in it has been assigned meaning. d. It holds information for a very short period of time.

38.

The memory store that is limited by both how long information is held and the amount of information that can be held is: a. attention. b. sensory memory. c. working memory. d. long-term memory.

39.

According to a description of the model of human memory, we refer to the conscious part of our memory system as: a. sensory memory. b. episodic memory. c. long-term memory. d. working memory.

40.

The process we use to combine separate items into larger and more meaningful units in working memory is called: a. chunking. b. encoding. c. activation. d. rehearsal.

41.

In working memory, the supervisory system that controls the flow of information to and from the other components is called: a. the phonological loop. b. the visual-spatial sketchpad. c. the central executive. d. the sensory register.

42.

In working memory, the short-term storage system for words and sounds is called: a. the visual-spatial sketchpad. b. the central executive. c. the sensory register. d. the phonological loop.

43.

Historically, the part of our memory system that temporarily holds information until it can be processed has been called: a. episodic memory. b. semantic memory. c. meaningful memory. d. short-term memory. 168 Copyright © 2020, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

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44.

The amount of mental activity imposed on working memory is described as: a. maintenance rehearsal. b. meaningfulness. c. cognitive load. d. dual-processing.

45.

Cognitive load is primarily a concern for which of the following memory stores? a. Sensory memory b. Episodic memory c. Long-term memory d. Working memory

46.

Cognitive load can be reduced by all of the following except: a. chunking. b. automaticity. c. rehearsal. d. dual processing.

47.

Learning or practicing information or operations to the point where they can be used with little mental effort is referred to as: a. encoding. b. retrieval. c. automaticity. d. perception.

48.

According to the model of human memory, we encode to and retrieve information from: a. semantic sensory memory. b. episodic sensory memory. c. long-term memory. d. working memory.

49.

The form of knowledge that includes concept names, facts, dates, and other organized bodies of information is best described as learning: a. declarative knowledge. b. procedural knowledge. c. situational knowledge. d. conditional knowledge.

50.

Sets of interconnected ideas, relationships, and procedures that represent the way knowledge is stored in long-term memory are often called: a. perceptions. b. stimuli. c. images. d. schemas.

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51.

The number of relationships that a new item of information has to other items of information in long-term memory gives us an indicator of the new information’s: a. structure. b. meaningfulness. c. organization. d. perception.

52.

The meaningfulness of a schema describes: a. the extent to which the schema can be visualized in sensory memory. b. the extent to which the schema can be rehearsed in working memory. c. the extent to which learners have conditional and procedural knowledge related to the schema. d. the extent to which its elements are interconnected in long-term memory.

53.

The fact that students organize the information they study in the form of schemas has important implications for teaching. Which of the following is the most important implication of this fact? a. Students should be presented with relationships among ideas as well as the ideas themselves. b. Students should be allowed the discover ideas on their own. c. Students should only be presented ideas that can be illustrated with concrete materials. d. Students should be encouraged to rehearse items in the same form they’re presented.

54.

One of your students has been diagnosed with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Of the following, which is most likely impaired for this student? a. The central executive in working memory b. The phonological loop in working memory c. The visual-spatial sketchpad in working memory d. The rehearsal loop in working memory

55.

The cognitive processes, governed by the central executive in working memory, which are responsible for purposeful, goal-directed behavior, best describes which of the following? a. Encoding b. Meaningfulness c. Executive functioning d. Schematic processing

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Higher-Level Items 56. We see a flashlight whirling in a darkened room. We tend to see a “circle of light” for an instant as the flashlight whirls around. This tendency to briefly see the “circle of light” most closely relates to: a. sensory memory. b. working memory. c. long-term memory. d. Phonological memory. 57.

Research indicates that “multiple questioning” (asking a second question before the student can respond to the first) is an ineffective teaching behavior. Of the following, which is the best explanation for this research finding? a. Asking two questions overloads working memory, so learners can’t make sense of the questions. b. Asking two questions exceeds the capacity of the visual-spatial sketchpad, so one question at a time should be asked. c. The memory trace in sensory memory for the first question is lost as soon as the second d. It’s impossible for two questions to be meaningful to each other, so one question at a time should be asked.

58.

You’re reading a sentence. The first part of the sentence is briefly held in your memory system until you can interpret the total sentence. The part of your memory system that briefly holds the information is: a. sensory memory. b. episodic memory. c. working memory. d. semantic memory.

59.

Which of the following is least related to the other three? a. Sensory memory b. Working memory c. Automaticity d. Chunking

60.

Your employer has just instituted new eleven-digit identification numbers. Your number, for instance is 65819032548. You remember the number, however, as 6581-9032-548. This strategy best illustrates the process of: a. rehearsal. b. elaboration. c. chunking. d. attention.

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61.

Research indicates that when teaching a new skill, and particularly when teaching the skill to young children, we should proceed in short steps followed by extensive practice. Doing so helps prevent overloading students’ memories. To which of the following components of our memory system does this research result most closely relate? a. sensory memory. b. working memory. c. metacognitive memory. d. long-term memory.

62.

Kelly tends to be a bit disorganized. She forgets to bring papers home, and fails to write down assignments when given by her teacher. She seems somewhat oblivious in class and often catches herself drifting off. Of the following, Kelly’s issues most closely relate to deficits in which component of our information processing system? a. The phonological loop b. The visual-spatial sketchpad c. Executive functioning d. Long-term memory

63.

You’ve read this item, and you’re sitting thinking about it. The place in your information processing system where this thinking takes place is: a. sensory memory. b. working memory. c. long-term memory. d. episodic memory.

64.

Mrs. Amos’s students understand fractions, and she is now working with them on the addition and subtraction of fractions. She models the process for adding fractions with like denominators, and she then gives the students several practice examples. She follows by demonstrating what equivalent fractions are and gives the students several examples where they determine whether the fractions are equivalent or not. She then models the process for finding equivalent fractions and again gives them several examples to practice on. She continues with this process for the addition of fractions with unlike denominators and repeats the process for the subtraction of fractions. Which of the following best describes what Mrs. Amos is attempting to accomplish with her procedure? a. She is trying to avoid overloading the students’ sensory memories by not presenting too much information at a time. b. She is attempting to have the students rehearse the process for forming equivalent fractions by modeling the process for them. c. She is trying to avoid overloading the students’ working memories by giving them time to practice each step before moving on to another step. d. She is giving the students time to practice to promote their metacognition.

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Use the following information for items 65 and 66. 65.

You’re in the process of writing an essay that makes and defends an argument. The part of your working memory system that helps you decide what evidence to use to defend your argument is: a. the central executive. b. the phonological loop. c. the visual-spatial sketchpad. d. the rehearsal loop.

66.

As you’re writing, you temporarily hold information in your memory system until it can be included in your essay. The part of your working memory system that performs this function is: a. the central executive. b. the phonological loop. c. the visual-spatial sketchpad. d. episodic memory.

67.

We read a convoluted statement such as, “I know that you are not unaware of my inability to speak German.” Of the following, which statement best explains why we struggle to try to figure out exactly what the speaker meant? a. The statement exceeds the capacity of sensory memory. b. The statement exceeds the capacity of long-term memory. c. The statement cannot be processed with our maintenance rehearsal strategies. d. The statement imposes a heavy cognitive load on working memory.

68.

Research indicates that expert teachers have their students practice routines, such as how to turn in papers, make transitions, and line up for lunch and dismissal, to the point where they can perform the routine essentially without thinking about it. Using the model of human memory as a basis, which of the following is the best explanation for the effectiveness of well-established routines? a. The routines reduce the cognitive load on the teacher’s and the students’ working memories. b. The routines increase the capacity of sensory memory. c. The routines are forms of declarative knowledge that are encoded and stored in students’ central executive. d. The routines reduce the amount teachers have to think about in their long-term memories.

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69.

You’re driving home from class, and when you get close to home you realize that you don’t remember making some of the turns necessary to get home. Which of the following is the best explanation for why you can’t remember making the turns? a. Your route home never made it into long-term memory, so you are unable to retrieve the information. b. Your phonological loop in working memory didn’t make the decision about making the turns. c. You made the turns automatically, so you are unable to remember the process of turning. d. Driving imposed too heavy a cognitive load on your working memory, so you can’t remember making the turns.

Items 70 and 71 are related. 70.

Mike Davis, the teacher in the case study that introduced the chapter, has given his students the task of writing a paragraph in which they must embed at least two examples each of simile, metaphor, and personification. Miguel thinks to himself, “I’ll start with a simile, because thinking of examples of similes is the easiest, and then I’ll put in a metaphor and then an example of personification.” Of the following, Miguel’s thinking best illustrates actions in which component of our information processing system? a. The central executive in working memory b. The phonological loop in working memory c. Schemas in long-term memory d. The visual-spatial sketchpad in working memory

71.

Santiago, Jennifer, and Steve, three students in Jim Hendrick’s—one of Mike Davis’s colleagues—class, are discussing examples of figurative language, and Jennifer speaks up, “Wait, this is a little too much. You’re talking about literal and figurative and metaphor and simile and personification. Mr. Hendricks went a little too fast for me when he was explaining it, so I got sort of mixed up.” Using the characteristics of the memory stores as a basis, which of the following is the best explanation for Jennifer’s statement above [Wait. . . Mr. Hendrick went a little too fast for me when he was explaining it, so I got sort of mixed up.]? a. Procedural knowledge Jennifer didn’t pay close enough attention to Jim’s [Mr. Hendricks] explanation, so she got mixed up. b. Conditional knowledge Jim’s explanation didn’t get into Jennifer’s sensory memory, so some of the explanation was lost. c. Declarative knowledge Jennifer’s long-term memory capacity wasn’t great enough to accommodate Jim’s explanation. d. Episodic knowledge Jim’s explanation imposed too heavy a cognitive load on Jennifer’s working memory, so she got mixed up.

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72.

Steve knows the rule “To make plural nouns possessive, you add an apostrophe if the noun ends in s, and you add an apostrophe s if the noun doesn’t end in s.” As part of an essay he included the sentence, “Many students’ art works were displayed in the front hall of the art gallery, and the women’s and men’s works were displayed behind them.” Knowing the rule required what kind of knowledge? a. Procedural knowledge b. Conditional knowledge c. Declarative knowledge d. Episodic knowledge

Use the following information for items 73 and 74. Mrs. Shaw displayed the following problem on the board: A coat originally priced for $60 is marked down 20%. After a week at the marked down price, no one has purchased the coat, so the store marks the sale price 50% off. What is the final price of the coat? 73.

Katilyna looks at the problem and says, “In changing a percentage to a decimal, move the decimal point left two places.” The term that best describes the kind of knowledge Katilyna is demonstrating with her comment is: a. episodic knowledge. b. procedural knowledge. c. declarative knowledge. d. working knowledge.

74.

Katilyna then successfully solves the problem. The term that best describes the kind of knowledge that Katilyna is demonstrating in solving the problem is: a. sensory knowledge. b. episodic knowledge. c. declarative knowledge. d. procedural knowledge.

75.

Ryan, a beginning music student, knows the notes on the treble clef. However, because of this understanding he misinterprets the line names of the bass clef. According to the model of human memory, which of the following is the most likely reason why the misconception persists? a. Ryan’s sensory memory is overwhelmed. b. Ryan lacked declarative knowledge about the treble clef c. Ryan’s misconception is embedded in an existing schema. d. The information about the treble clef never became encoded into Ryan’s long-term memory.

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76.

You want your students to understand the relationships between Marco Polo’s trip to the Far East, the Crusades, the Portuguese exploration around the tip of Africa, and Columbus’s voyage to the new world. If, after learning about the separate events, the students can successfully describe the relationships, the best description of what they have constructed is: a. a meaningful schema. b. different types of procedural knowledge. c. conditional knowledge. d. rehearsed knowledge.

77.

Jackson, one of your history students comments, “The French and Indian War in the mid 1750s was so costly for the British that they started imposing heavy taxes on the American colonies, which contributed to the American Revolutionary War that started in 1775.” David, another one of your students, says, “Our book says The French and Indian Wars in the Americas lasted from about the mid 1750s to the early 1760s. The Revolutionary War started in 1775 and went to 1783.” Which of the following statements best describes the difference in the meaningfulness of Jackson’s and David’s schemas? a. Jackson’s schema is more meaningful than is David’s, since it describes relationships in information. b. David’s schema is more meaningful than is Jackson’s, since it also includes the ending date of the Revolutionary War. c. Jackson’s schema is more meaningful than is David’s, since it is stored in his longterm memory. d. David’s schema is more meaningful than is Marcos’s, since he got the dates of the wars from his textbook.

Essay Items 78.

Identify the memory stores in the model of human memory, and describe the characteristics of each.

79.

Identify two of the most important ways in which we can apply an understanding of working memory’s limitations in our teaching.

80.

Describe the concept of cognitive load. In your answer include which memory store cognitive load is most associated with, the two factors that contribute to cognitive load, and one way we as teachers can reduce load.

81.

Explain why automaticity is so important for teachers and learners, such as questioning skills being automatic for teachers, and knowing math facts being automatic for learners. Base your explanation on the characteristics of working memory.

82.

You are attempting to explain the model of human memory and the implications it has for the way we learn to a friend. Describe how your central executive, phonological loop, and visual-spatial sketchpad work together to create the explanation. 176 Copyright © 2020, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

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83.

Explain why meaningful learning is so important. Include the relationship between meaningful learning and cognitive load in your explanation.

84.

Research indicates that students write better-quality essays when they use computers than when they handwrite the essays, but only if they are skilled at using a computer. If they aren’t skilled, the quality of their essays is lower than when they’re handwritten. Using the human memory model as a basis, explain specifically why the quality of the essays is lower if students aren’t skilled with using computers.

Cognitive Processes Knowledge-Level Items 85.

Which of the following best describes the process of consciously focusing on a stimulus? a. Attention b. Perception c. Rehearsal d. Encoding

86.

The process by which we first attach meaning or interpretation to our experiences is called: a. attention. b. perception. c. rehearsal. d. retrieval.

87.

The two most important factors that impact our perception are our background experiences and our: a. attitude. b. expectations. c. self-esteem. d. rate of development.

88.

When we repeat information to ourselves several times without actively adding new meaning, we are engaging in which of the following cognitive processes? a. Perception b. Encoding c. Rehearsal d. Retrieval

89.

The process of repeating information over and over, either out loud or silently, without altering its form is called: a. visualization. b. maintenance rehearsal. c. elaboration. d. dual-processing.

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90.

The process of representing information in long-term memory is called: a. attention. b. perception. c. encoding. d. retrieval.

91.

Which of the following is not a strategy for promoting meaningful encoding? a. Imagery b. Elaboration c. Activity d. Rehearsal

92.

When we expand on existing schema by adding new knowledge, we are most directly engaging in which of the following strategies for promoting meaningful encoding? a. Imagery b. Elaboration c. Activity d. Rehearsal

93.

Mnemonics promote learning because they capitalize on which of the following strategies for promoting meaningful encoding? a. Attention b. Organization c. Retrieval d. Elaboration

94.

Which of the following best describes the use of mnemonic devices? a. The process of clustering information into coherent patterns in an effort to aid encoding b. The process of repeating information over and over without altering its form c. The process of putting the learner in the most cognitively active role possible to aid encoding d. The process of forming associations that don’t exist naturally in the content

95.

A strategy for promoting meaningful encoding that involves the clustering information into coherent patterns is referred to as: a. activity. b. organization. c. elaboration. d. rehearsal.

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Higher-Level Items 96.

Research indicates that teachers are more effective if they vary the tone, loudness, and pitch of the delivery during the course of a lesson. Using the model of human memory as a basis, the teachers’ strategy most closely relates to: a. their attempts to capture students’ attention. b. their attempts to ensure that students perceive information accurately. c. their attempts to help students elaborate on their schemas. d. their attempts to help students organize information in working memory.

97.

Research indicates that calling on all the students in your classes equally and by name is an important factor in their learning. Using the human memory model as a basis, this strategy most nearly capitalizes on the characteristics of which of the following? a. Organization b. Elaboration c. Encoding. d. Attention.

98.

You’re in a noisy restaurant, but you have essentially “tuned out” the surroundings. Suddenly, you turn your head at the sound of your name. Which of the following is the best explanation for this phenomenon? a. We attend to all the information that enters sensory memory, but some of it is quickly lost. . b. Our attention must be captured before information enters sensory memory. c. The sound of our name is a particularly effective attention getter. d. Information must be meaningful before it can enter sensory memory.

99.

While Mr. Lindsey was giving clear and detailed explanation for a social studies assignment, Missy was finishing homework due for her next class. When the class began the assignment, Missy didn’t know what to do. Based on our understanding of the human memory model, Missy was lost because: a. her sensory memory was overloaded by the details of Mr. Lindsey’s explanation, so she missed some of it. b. we only attend to some of the information that enters sensory memory, and Missy apparently didn’t attend to Mr. Lindsey’s directions. c. she didn’t perceive the directions accurately in her sensory memory. d. Missy was confused by Mr. Lindsey’s directions.

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100. Mrs. Otero wants to teach her students that snakes are smooth, dry, and clean, rather than slimy, as many students believe. Using the model of human memory as a basis for her instruction, which of the following would be the best way to begin her lesson? a. Explain carefully that snakes are actually dry, smooth, and clean, and not at all slimy. b. Review information about other vertebrates. c. Show a movie in which snakes are seen crawling along in dry dirt. d. Bring a snake to class, and hold it up for the children to see and feel. Use the following information for items 101–103. Mr. Lopez wants his students to understand percentages and the conversion of decimals to percentages. 101. Using the human memory model as a basis, the first thing he needs to do in his lesson is to: a. be certain that the students are paying attention. b. be certain that students encode the information into long-term memory. c. be certain that students correctly perceive the information. d. be certain that he doesn’t go too fast, to prevent overloading working memory. 102. Again using the human memory model as a basis, the second thing Mr. Lopez needs to do is to: a. be certain that they actively encode information into long-term memory. b. be certain that the students correctly perceive what percentage means. c. have the students rehearse common equivalents such as 5/8 = 62.5%. d. give the students plenty of practice in converting decimals to percentages so that working memory isn’t overloaded. 103. Again, in using the human memory model as a basis, ultimately Mr. Lopez will want the students to: a. rehearse the information on decimals and percentages to help retain the information in working memory. b. accurately perceive what decimals and percentages are. c. develop a schema for converting decimals to percentages to be stored in long-term memory. d. chunk information about fractions in working memory to reduce cognitive load. Feedback: Chunking information helps reduce cognitive load, but it isn’t the ultimate goal of information processing. 104. A motion picture film is actually a series of still pictures, but we “see” the movie as continuous action. This fact most closely relates to which of the following? a. Rehearsal b. Retrieval c. Attention d. Perception

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105. When the sentence “Tall in the the saddle” is written on the board or displayed on a document camera, we tend to read it as “Tall in the saddle.” Of the following, our tendency to miss the second “the” in the phrase best illustrates: a. inability to discriminate among closely related stimuli. b. information entering sensory memory even though we aren’t consciously aware of it. c. expectations affecting our perception. d. overloading working memory so some information is lost. Use the following information for items 106 and 107. Mrs. Lonzo is working on the concept of static electricity in her physical science class. “Now, let’s take a look,” she says as she steps quickly over to her file cabinet and takes out an inflated balloon and a wool sweater. “Watch.” She then rubs the balloon vigorously with the sweater as she asks, “Who doesn’t have hairspray in their hair?” She steps over to Michelle, who has raised her hand, and holding the balloon over her hair says, “What do you notice here? . . . Vicki?” “The balloon is making Michelle’s hair stick up,” Vicki responds to the giggles of the class. “Michelle’s hair is attracted to the balloon,” Ron adds. 106. In assessing the way Mrs. Lonzo began her lesson—holding the balloon over Michelle’s hair—based on our understanding of the human memory model, we would conclude that her procedure was: a. effective because doing what she did would be an effective attention-getter. b. ineffective because she didn’t begin by having students rehearse their prior knowledge. c. effective because her demonstration wouldn’t overload the students’ working memories. d. ineffective because she didn’t determine if the stimulus was encoded in the students’ sensory memories. 107. Of the following, the difference in Vicki’s and Ron’s responses most closely relates to differences in: a. the way they perceived the demonstration. b. the way they attended to the information. c. the way the information entered their sensory memories. d. the way they rehearsed the information.

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108. Mr. Hall, in beginning a lesson on insects, shows the students a large colored picture of a grasshopper. He then starts his lesson by asking, “What do you see in this picture? Carla?” He continues by asking several students to describe what they observe in the picture. Based on applications of the human memory model, which of the following would be the best explanation for why Mr. Hall would choose to ask the type of questions he did? a. He was attempting to help students retain the information in working memory through rehearsal. b. He was attempting to help the students retain the information in their sensory memories. c. He was using elaboration as a strategy to promote meaningful encoding. d. He was checking the students’ perceptions of his picture. Use the following information for items 109 and 110. We Google a business to find its phone number. Typically, we repeat the number a few times until we dial the number and then later forget it. 109. The process of repeating the number a few times, dialing it, and then forgetting it best illustrates: a. retaining the information in working memory through rehearsal. b. retaining the information in sensory memory through rehearsal. c. retrieving the information from long-term memory. d. finding meaning in the stimulus through attention. 110. However, in this case, the next day, even though we haven’t thought about it, amazingly we remember the number. Which of the following is the best explanation for why we remember? a. It was retained in sensory memory. b. Our central executive helped us retain the number. c. It has somehow been retained in working memory. d. It was encoded into long-term memory. 111. Nancy remembers the date of the signing of an international peace treaty because the date of the signing happened to fall on her birthday. Of the following, the factor that most closely relates to her ability to remember the date is: a. imagery. b. meaningfulness. c. perception. d. attention.

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Use the following information for items 112 and 113. You want your students to memorize multiplication facts, and you choose to use flash cards in the process. They have had concrete experiences with the facts, and you now want them to be able to recall the facts essentially without thinking about them. 112. The primary strategy learners’ typically use when drilling with flashcards is: a. attention. b. chunking. c. rehearsal. d. retrieval. 113. The primary reason we would employ the strategy illustrated by use of flashcards is to facilitate: a. chunking to reduce cognitive load. b. automaticity to reduce cognitive load. c. elaboration to enhance encoding. d. imagery to enhance encoding. 114. Maya Williams begins each of her biology classes by writing an outline on the board that identifies the topics to be covered in the day’s lesson. As each is presented and discussed, she refers the students to the outline and what will be discussed next. Of the following, Joan’s procedure best illustrates an attempt to utilize which of the following encoding strategies? a. Elaboration b. Imagery c. Organization d. Mnemonics Items 115-117 are related. 115. Ryan meets a great girl at a party. She gives him her email address. He really wants to follow up with her, so he says the email address over and over in his head, which works, because he remembers it the next day. Which of the following is best illustrated by Ryan’s actions? a. Rehearsal, to retain the information in working memory b. Chunking, to combat the limits of working memory c. Rehearsal, to “brute force” the email address into his long-term memory d. Elaboration, to promote encoding the email address into his long-term memory

Chapter 7: Cognitive Views of Learning

116. Cameron meets Kelsey at the same party, he also thinks she’s great, and she gives Cameron her email address, which is icecream2@yahoo.com. Cameron imagines taking Kelsey with him to a Dairy Queen and getting a double cone. Cameron’s efforts best illustrate which of the following encoding strategies. a. Maintenance rehearsal b. Organization c. Reinforcement d. Elaboration 117. Which one, Ryan or Cameron, is more likely to remember the email address? Why? a. Ryan, because he rehearsed the email address several times. b. Cameron, because it was more meaningful to him. c. Ryan, because he was attracted to Kaylee. d. Cameron, because he kept Kelsey’s email address in his sensory memory. Use the following information for items 118-123. Jack is using several different strategies to help him improve his understanding of physics. First, he reviews topics that have already been covered in class, and then he creates concept maps based on his notes, and he uses mnemonics to remember key terms. Then, he identifies examples from his own personal experiences to help him better understand the important concepts, and, when he can, he visualizes some of the ideas, such as balls being thrown from one person to another, and objects being pushed across surfaces. Finally, he solves several practice problems, and then checks the answers at the back of the book so see if his solutions are correct. 118. Which of the following strategies for promoting meaningful encoding is Jack most capitalizing on when he first reviews topics already covered in class? a. Organization b. Imagery c. Elaboration d. Schema activation 119. Which of the following strategies for promoting meaningful encoding is Jack most capitalizing on when he initially creates concept maps of the ideas he is studying? a. Organization b. Imagery c. Elaboration d. Schema activation 120. Which of the following strategies for promoting meaningful encoding is Jack most capitalizing on when he identifies examples from his own experiences? a. Organization b. Imagery c. Elaboration d. Schema activation 184 Copyright © 2020, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

Chapter 7: Cognitive Views of Learning

121. Which of the following strategies for promoting meaningful encoding is Jack most capitalizing on when he visualizes ideas, such as balls being thrown from one person to another? a. Organization b. Imagery c. Elaboration d. Schema activation 122. Which of the following strategies for promoting meaningful encoding is Jack most capitalizing on when he uses mnemonics to help him remember important terms? a. Organization b. Imagery c. Elaboration d. Schema activation 123. Of the following, which best explains why first solving problems before looking at the answers in the back of the book is important? a. First solving the problems and then looking at the answers helps Jack retain information in sensory memory. b. First solving problems and then looking at the answers helps Jack rehearse the information. c. First solving problems and then looking at the answers puts Jack in a cognitively active role. d. First solving problems and then looking at the answers helps prevent interference. 124. You have a friend whose phone number is 246-1478. You easily recall the number when you want to call her, because you remember that the last four digits of the number form an ‘L’ on the touch tone dialing system. Of the following, this best illustrates: a. retention of the information in working memory. b. encoding into long-term memory through rehearsal. c. encoding the information into long-term memory through organization. d. encoding the information into long-term memory through imagery. 125. Suppose we’re beginning the study of motivation, our instructor knows we don’t have any background with respect to the topic, and he wants us to understand different theories of motivation. As we begin, he presents us with the following: Motivation ___________________|_______________________ | Intrinsic _______|________ | | Cognitive Humanistic Motivation Motivation Theory Theory

| Extrinsic | Behaviorism

Chapter 7: Cognitive Views of Learning

Of the following, using the hierarchy best illustrates an attempt to capitalize on which of the following encoding strategies? a. Elaboration b. Organization c. Schema activation d. Rehearsal Use the following information for items 126 and 127. Henry James is teaching his students about the eastern and western states of the United States. He prepares a chart, which is outlined as follows:

Geography

Climate

Economy

Lifestyle

Eastern States Western States He assigns teams of two to gather information about each of the cells in the chart (such as the geography of the western states). The students provide the information; Henry helps them put it in the chart. 126. Henry’s use of a chart in his lesson best illustrates his attempts to capitalize on which of the following encoding strategies? a. Schema activation b. Organization c. Elaboration d. Rehearsal 127. Having the students gather information, organize it, and put the information in the chart is an effective teaching strategy. Of the following, which statement best explains why having the students gather the information will be effective? a. When the students are gathering the information, they’re in cognitively active roles. b. The process of gathering the information is an example of elaborative rehearsal. c. When the students are gathering the information, it is retained in their sensory memories. d. When the students are gathering the information, they are creating mnemonic devices to help them remember it.

Chapter 7: Cognitive Views of Learning

128. You are about to begin your day’s learning activity. The students are watching you and are ready to begin. Research indicates that an effective beginning point in the learning process is review in the form of statements such as, “Okay, now describe in your own words what we did yesterday,” to serve as a springboard for the day’s lesson. Using review in this way best illustrates an attempt to capitalize primarily on which of the following strategies for promoting meaningful encoding? a. Organization b. Imagery c. Elaboration d. Schema activation 129. After reading a major section of a chapter in her text, Marisa then writes an answer to each of the self-check questions at the end of the section. After writing her answer, she clicks on the item to receive feedback. Her friend Helen also reads each section of the text. She then reads the self-check questions and clicks on the items and reads the feedback. Marisa consistently scores higher on the tests and quizzes. Of the following, based on what we know about making information meaningful, which is the best explanation for why Marisa scores higher than does Helen? a. Marisa's perception of the questions is more accurate than is Helen's. b. Marisa puts herself in a more cognitively active role than does Helen. c. Marisa attends to the quiz and test questions better than does Helen. d. Marisa avoids overloading her long-term memory more effectively than does Helen. 130. Mrs. Chang is working with her students on the processes involved in solving simultaneous equations in algebra. As she models solutions, she calls on as many different students as possible and asks them to explain why each of the steps is important. Of the following, which best explains why having her students provide explanations is more effective than simply modeling the solutions? a. Having the students explain helps the students rehearse the information in their long-term memories. b. Having the students explain keeps the information in their sensory memories. c. Having the students explain helps Mrs. Chang retrieve important information for the students. d. Having the students explain puts them in cognitively active roles.

Chapter 7: Cognitive Views of Learning

131. Mr. Smith has a girl named Katherine in his class. He is very good about knowing his students’ names and calls on all of them regularly. One weekend he was at a social event and Katherine was there as well. He recognized her and prepared to introduce her to his wife. Much to his embarrassment he couldn’t remember her name. Information processing theorists would suggest the best explanation would be which of the following? a. He never got her name encoded into long-term memory, so he was unable to retrieve it. b. He had encoded Katherine’s name in the context of his class, and the social event was a different context. c. The social event caused his perception to screen out her name. d. Her name was not meaningful to him. 132. You run into a person that you once knew very well, but you haven’t seen the person in a long time. You have a casual conversation, and you go home to tell your roommate, trying for all you’re worth to remember her name but not being able to. Which of the following is the most likely reason you can’t remember the person’s name? a. The name is in long-term memory, but you cannot retrieve it. b. The name was in working memory, and you have forgotten it. c. The name never was encoded into long-term memory, so you lost the memory trace. d. You’re long-term memory was overloaded by all your experiences since you last saw the person, so you’ve forgotten her name. 133. Larry learns about classical conditioning on Monday. On Wednesday his instructor covers operant conditioning. Larry studies both carefully, but in a quiz on Friday Larry’s understanding of operant conditioning confuses his understanding of classical conditioning. Larry’s problem best illustrates: a. interference. b. a lack of attention. c. sensory memory overload. d. ineffective rehearsal. 134. Rosario has been using Word as a word processing program, and he understands it quite well. He has also learned how to create PowerPoint slides, and he also understands it well. However, now Rosario’s understanding of PowerPoint’s commands confuses his understanding of some of the Word commands. Rosario’s problem best illustrates: a. sensory memory overload. b. long-term memory overload. c. interference. d. encoding failure.

Chapter 7: Cognitive Views of Learning

135. Research indicates that closely related concepts are often most effectively taught together, rather than teaching one and then teaching the other. Of the following, the best rationale for using this technique is to: a. be certain that the examples are perceived accurately. b. prevent interference by emphasizing differences. c. capitalize on two different types of attention-getting stimuli. d. put the students in the most cognitively active roles possible. 136. As a teacher, you’re aware of the possibility of interference in your students. Of the following, which teacher question is likely the most effective in helping prevent interference? a. “What is another example of our idea?” b. “What would happen if we changed the first half of our problem?” c. “How does this example illustrate our idea?” d. “How is this different from yesterday’s topic?” 137. You have a class of 28 students who come from a variety of ethnic backgrounds and whose experiences vary widely. You want to begin teaching the students about the American Revolutionary War. Using the human memory model and your understanding of instructional adaptations for background diversity as a basis for your teaching, which of the following is the best way to begin the lesson? a. Write the word Revolution in large letters on the board, and ask the students to tell you what the word means to them. b. Write the term Revolution in large letters on the board, and tell the students that the Revolutionary War was one of the most significant events in American history and that it is very important that they all understand it. c. Write the term Revolution in large letters on the board, tell the students that they are going to begin studying the Revolutionary War, and then tell them that the war resulted in American independence from Great Britain. c. Write the word Revolution in large letters on the board, and tell the students that many countries had revolutions, such as America, France, and many others.

Chapter 7: Cognitive Views of Learning

138. You have a class of students whose backgrounds are diverse. You want them to understand that pressure is the amount of force that is exerted on a certain area. You have assessed their understanding of the concept pressure by asking them questions, and you have found that understanding varies widely among the individual students. Some equate pressure with force; others can state the definition, but they seem to merely have it memorized; and others have only vague understandings of the concept. Using the human memory model and your understanding of the implications of background diversity for learning, which of the following is the most effective? a. Write the equation Pressure = force/area on the board, define force and area for the students, and explain that force “over” area means that you divide the force by the area. b. Stand up in front of the class on both feet and then on one foot. Have the students compare the force you exert on the floor and the amount of area you’re standing on in both cases. Lead them to conclude that you exert twice as much pressure on one foot as you do on two feet. c. Explain that pressure is the amount of force on a certain area and then explain that if you exert a lot of force on an area, such as one square inch, the pressure will be greater than if you exert a small force on the same area—the one square inch. d. Have the students who can give the definition of pressure explain to the rest of the class what pressure means to them. 139. You have a class that is composed of 14 African Americans, 5 White Americans, 3 Japanese Americans, and 2 immigrant students from the former South Vietnam. You are beginning a discussion of World War II with your history students. You begin by asking the students to tell you what they think caused the war in the Pacific theater. Kevin Hendricks immediately says, “The bombing of Pearl Harbor.” “Sort of,” Kristi Sukawa responds, “but America was threatening to cut off the flow of oil from the East Indies to Japan. That’s what really caused the war.” The factor best illustrated in Kevin’s and Kristi’s comments is the impact diversity has on: a. retrieval and forgetting. b. the contents of students’ working memories. c. students’ attention and rehearsal. d. students’ prior experiences. Essay Items 140. A health club advertises its telephone number as 2HEALTH rather than 243-2584. Provide two reasons explaining why the health club would advertise the number in this way using the human memory model as a basis for your explanation.

Chapter 7: Cognitive Views of Learning

141. Suppose you have taught your students about adjectives, and now you want to teach the students comparative and superlative forms of adjectives. (A dog is a larger animal than a cat. [comparative form] Of a mouse, cat, and dog, the dog is the largest. [superlative form]). You want to use the human memory model as a basis for your teaching. (1) Describe specifically [use a specific example] what you would do first in the lesson. (2) Describe specifically what you would do second in the lesson. [Again, use a specific example or question.] (3) Describe at least one strategy you could use to promote meaningful encoding in the lesson. Metacognition: Knowledge and Control of Cognitive Processes Knowledge-Level Items 142. Learners’ knowledge and control over mental processes, such as attention, communication, and memory are best described as their: a. perception. b. encoding. c. learning. d. metacognition. 143. Learners’ awareness of and their ability to control the strategies they use to remember information are best described as their: a. metamemory. b. cognition. c. elaboration. d. retrieval. 144. With respect to developmental differences in metacognition, which of the following statements is most accurate? a. Young children are not as metacognitive as their older peers, and they are generally unable to learn metacognitive strategies until they become more mature. b. Young children are not as metacognitive as their older peers, but with formal instruction and practice, they can be taught metacognitive strategies. c. Young children are typically about as metacognitive as their older peers, but they tend to not use the strategies. d. Young and older students tend to be similar with respect to metacognition; the primary developmental difference between them is in their working memory capacity.

Chapter 7: Cognitive Views of Learning

Higher-Level Items Items 145 and 146 are related. 145. Felyce, an eighth grader, sits near the back of the room in her history class. She has found herself “drifting off” lately, so she asks Mrs. Ruiz, her teacher, if she can move and sit at the front of the room, since there is one empty desk in the front. “Sure,” Mrs. Ruiz responds. Of the following, Felyce’s behavior best illustrates: a. an encoding strategy. b. meta-attention. c. a mnemonic device. d. selective perception. 146. Felyce sits in front of Isaac, who tends to be the class clown, often making whispered jokes that are genuinely funny, but causing her to miss some of Mrs. Ruiz’s explanations in American history class. Finally, before class one day Felyce turns to Isaac and says, “Isaac, your jokes are really funny, but I’m missing some of what Mrs. Ruiz is saying. Would you mind not whispering when she is talking?” Isaac is actually sensitive and understanding, and he agrees to stop the joking in Mrs. Ruiz’s class. Which of the following best describes Felyce’s behavior? a. Elaboration b. Meta-attention. c. Emotional control d. Selective perception. 147. Older students often recognize the need for taking notes whereas younger students do not, so we see older students taking notes but don’t see younger ones doing it. Of the following, this observation is most closely related to which of the following concepts related to information processing? a. Attention b. Perception c. Metamemory d. Rehearsal 148. Leah and Owen are studying together for the next day’s quiz. “What are you doing?” Owen asks. “I always try to solve the sample problems before I read the solutions they give us in the book. I remember the procedures better that way than if I just read over the solutions they give,” Leah responds. Of the following, Leah’s comment and behavior best illustrate: a. metamemory. b. meta-attention. c. organization. d. elaboration.

Chapter 7: Cognitive Views of Learning

149. Four students comment after they walk out of one of their college lectures. “I didn’t get a thing out of it today,” Emma comments. “I was up half the night, and I couldn’t stay awake.” “I moved up to the front of the room, so I could see the screen better,” Ryan responds. “He’s always showing stuff on the document camera, and I’ve had a hard time seeing the small print in some of his lectures.” “I love this stuff,” Mia comments. “This is a great class, and he makes it very interesting. I like seeing how European history has influenced our own history.” “Yuk,” Lucas retorts. “I feel just the opposite. I’m just waiting for this class to be over. He’s a good instructor, but I have no interest in European history.” The student who most nearly demonstrates metacognition is: a. Emma. b. Ryan. c. Mia. d. Lucas. Essay Items 150. Describe four important findings that have resulted from research examining metacognition. 151. Explain how metacognition varies with respect to gender, linguistic diversity, cultural diversity, and learners with exceptionalities. 152. With respect to metacognition, identify two developmental differences that exist between older students and those who are younger. Using Educational Psychology in Teaching: Suggestions for Applying Information Processing and the Model of Human Memory with Your Students Knowledge-Level Item 153. Six suggestions for applying information processing and the model of human memory with students were offered in the chapter. Which of the following is not one of those guidelines? a. Conduct reviews to activate schemas and check perceptions. b. Reinforce students for insightful responses to questions. c. Develop learners’ background knowledge with high quality-representations of content. d. Interact with students to promote cognitive activity and reduce cognitive load.

Chapter 7: Cognitive Views of Learning

Higher-Level Items 154. Sophia Jenkins, an American history teacher is working with her students on our country’s expansion to the west during the 19th century. “Okay,” she begins. “Yesterday, we talked about two important factors that influenced the migration westward. What were they. . . Mia?” Of the following, the suggestion for applying information processing with students that Sophia is best demonstrating when she asked her students to identify two factors that influence the migration westward is: a. Conduct reviews to activate schemas and check perceptions. b. Begin learning activities with attention-getting experience. c. Develop learners’ background knowledge with high quality-representations of content. d. Model and encourage metacognition. Use the following vignette for items 155 and 156. Claribel Torres is working with her second graders on the concept of place value, such as the difference between 10’s and 1’s. She gives them interlocking cubes and has them form 21 and 12 with the cubes, writes 21 and 12 on the board, and then directs, “Show me this two, pointing at the 2 in 21.” She watches to see that the students hold up two groups of 10 cubes, she displays the two groups of 10 on her smart board, and she directs, “Show me this two,” pointing to the 2 in 12. Again, she watches to see that the students hold up two separate cubes. “Now, tell me the difference between this two,” pointing to the 2 in 21, “and this two,” pointing to the 2 in 12, . . . Ethan.” “That two . . . is two groups of ten,” Ethan responds, point to the 2 in 21, “and that two is just two cubes by themselves,” he continues, pointing to the 2 in 12. Claribel gives the students some additional examples, in each case asking them to explain the differences after the demonstration. 155. Of the suggestions for applying information processing and the model of human memory with students, which is Claribel best demonstrating by giving the students cubes and having them form numbers such as 21 and 12? a. Conduct reviews to activate schemas and check perceptions. b. Model and encourage metacognition. c. Develop learners’ background knowledge with high-quality representations of content. d. Interact with students to promote cognitive activity and reduce cognitive load

Chapter 7: Cognitive Views of Learning

156. Of the suggestions for applying information processing and the model of human memory with her students, which is Claribel best demonstrating with questions, such as asking her students to explain the difference between the 2 in 21 and the 2 in 12? a. Conduct reviews to activate schemas and check perceptions. b. Begin learning activities with attention-getting experiences. c. Develop learners’ background knowledge with high-quality representations of content. d. Interact with students to promote cognitive activity and reduce cognitive load. Use the following vignette for items 157-159. Karen Haughy, an English teacher, is working with her students on verbals, verb forms that act as nouns and adjectives. She has Jayden, one of her students get up and run back and forth across the classroom. She then displays the following on her document camera. Jayden was running across the classroom. Running is a very good form of exercise, and athletes, such as running backs in football, have to be in very good physical shape.

Karen continues, “What do you notice about the two sentences we see displayed here?” She calls on several students to make observations. She then guides them with her questions to notice differences in the way ‘running’ is used in the sentences, eventually concluding that it is first used as a verb, then as a noun, and finally as an adjective. 157. Of the suggestions for applying information processing and the model of human memory with her students, which is Karen best demonstrating by having Jayden run back and forth across the classroom? a. Conduct reviews to activate schemas and check perceptions. b. Begin learning activities with attention-getting experiences. c. Develop learners’ background knowledge with high-quality representations of content. d. Interact with students to promote cognitive activity and reduce cognitive load. 158. Of the suggestions for applying information processing and the model of human memory with her students, which is Karen best demonstrating by displaying the short paragraph showing ‘running’ being used first as a verb, then as a noun, and finally as an adjective? (Jayden was running across the classroom. Running is a very good form of exercise, and athletes, such as running backs in football, have to be in very good physical shape.) a. Conduct reviews to activate schemas and check perceptions. b. Begin learning activities with attention-getting experiences. c. Develop learners’ background knowledge with high-quality representations of content. d. Interact with students to promote cognitive activity and reduce cognitive load.

Chapter 7: Cognitive Views of Learning

159. Of the suggestions for applying information processing and the model of human memory with her students, which is Karen best demonstrating by calling on several students to make observations and then guiding them with her questions to identify the different ways that ‘running’ was used in the sentences? a. Begin learning activities with attention-getting experiences. b. Interact with students to promote cognitive activity and reduce cognitive load. c. Develop learners’ background knowledge with high-quality representations of content. d. Model and encourage metacognition. 160. Chloe Patel, a social studies teacher wants her students to understand factors leading to the American Civil War. She prepares the following chart for her students, and then has them make observations and comparisons of the information in the chart.

Of the suggestions for applying information processing and the model of human memory with her students, which is Chloe best demonstrating by preparing her chart for the students? a. Capitalize on meaningful encoding strategies. b. Interact with students to promote cognitive activity and reduce cognitive load. c. Conduct reviews to activate schemas and check perceptions. d. Model and encourage metacognition.

Chapter 7: Cognitive Views of Learning

161. “The first thing I ask myself when I try to solve word problems,” Liam Johnson, a math teacher, comments to his students as he displays a word problem on the board, “is ‘what is the problem asking for,’ and then, if possible, I try to draw a diagram or picture of the problem to help me visualize the problem.” Of the following, the suggestion for applying information processing with students that Liam is best demonstrating is: a. Conduct reviews to activate schemas and check perceptions. b. Begin learning activities with attention-getting experience. c. Interact with students to promote cognitive activity and reduce cognitive load. d. Model and encourage metacognition. Essay Items 162. Select one of the four following topics, and using information processing and the model of human memory as a guide, describe specifically how you would teach your students this topic. (Hint: Remember the suggestions for applying information processing and the human memory model in your teaching.) 1. Your students understand subtraction without regrouping, and now you want to teach them subtraction with regrouping. 2. You have taught your students about force, and now you want to teach them about work. 3. You have taught your students about the skeletal system, and now you want to teach them about the circulatory system. 4. You have taught your students about the Jamestown Colony, and now you want to teach them about the Plymouth Colony. 163. Describe six suggestions that you can use as you apply information processing and the human memory model in your teaching. Provide an example of each.

Chapter 8: Complex Cognitive Processes

CHAPTER EIGHT COMPLEX COGNITIVE PROCESSES Concept Learning Knowledge-Level Items 1.

A mental structure that categorizes a set of objects, events, or ideas is: a. a concept. b. a principle. c. a theory. d. a fact.

Another name for characteristics of a concept is: a. attributes. b. prototypes. c. exemplars. d. nonexamples.

The rule-driven theory of learning concepts places emphasis on understanding a concept’s: a. characteristics. b. prototypes. c. exemplars. d. rules.

Early concept learning research found that learners quickly identify the essential characteristics of a concept and classify examples accordingly. This research finding most closely relates to which of the following? a. Behaviorist theories of concept learning b. Social cognitive theories of concept learning c. Exemplar theories of concept learning d. Rule-driven theories of concept learning

The most highly typical instances or illustrations of concepts are best described as: a. attributes. b. exemplars. c. features. d. characteristics.

When teaching a concept, teachers should present "nonexamples" in order to help students avoid: a. irrelevant attributes. b. negative instances. c. overgeneralizing. d. undergeneralizing.

Chapter 8: Complex Cognitive Processes

We know that using “good” examples is critical in concept learning. Which of the following is the best description of what makes a “good example” a “good one”? a. The examples are in pictures rather than words. b. The examples are something the students have had experience with. c. The characteristics of the concept are observable in the example. d. The examples are something that arouses emotion.

Which of the following statements is most consistent with the effective teaching of concepts? a. Direct instruction of a concept’s characteristics is the most critical component of teaching concepts. b. Providing learners a prototype of a concept will best allow them to transfer to new instances. c. Presenting examples as well as nonexamples of concepts best facilitates transfer to new instances. d. Allowing learners to generate their own understanding of the characteristics of a concept will best facilitate transfer.

Higher-Level Items 9.

Upon seeing an elderly man with white hair, a beard, and a bit of a belly, a toddler shouts, “Look Mama, SANTA!” With respect to concept learning, she identified the white hair, beard, and belly as: a. prototypes. b. exemplars. c. characteristics. d. mental representations.

10.

Having grown up in southern Florida, my friend Avery was stunned by how many trees there are in central Pennsylvania. In his mind, he equated tree with Palm trees and Mangroves. For him, Palm trees and Mangroves are best described as: a. elements. b. exemplars. c. characteristics. d. attributes.

11.

The view that people construct concepts using the best representations/examples of a category, such as constructing the concept reptile using an alligator, lizard, snake, and turtle, most closely relates to which of the following? a. Exemplar theory of concept learning b. Social cognitive theory of concept learning c. Information processing theory of concept learning d. Rule-driven theory of concept learning

Chapter 8: Complex Cognitive Processes

12.

Exemplar theories of concept learning are likely to be most effective for explaining how students learn which of the following concepts? a. Herbivore b. Socialist c. Rectangle d. Direct object

13.

Jared’s understanding of the concept canine is represented by his images of a dog, wolf, and coyote, which he has stored in his memory. His understanding of the concept canine is best explained by: a. rule-driven theory of concept learning. b. behaviorist theory of concept learning. c. exemplar theory of concept learning. d. social cognitive theories of concept learning.

Use the following information for items 14–17. Four teachers are teaching the concept adjective to their students. Mrs. Vargas writes the words big, small, pretty, and happy on the board, and she then says, “All these words describe, or modify, nouns, so we call them, ‘adjectives.’” She then has the students offer some additional examples of words they believe are adjectives. Mr. Jordan has the students offer examples of words they believe are adjectives, and makes comments, such as “Yes, good example,” when students offers a word, such as large, and he then follows up by saying, “Now use the word in a sentence.” He provides corrective feedback when the students offer an example of any other part of speech, reminding them that adjectives are parts of speech that describe nouns. Mrs. King gives the students the definition, “Adjectives are parts of speech used to describe, modify, or limit nouns,” and then says, “For instance, in the sentence, ‘Alfred took the sharp scissors up to the teacher,’ the word sharp tells us about, or describes, scissors.” She then gives the students some additional words, such as small, new, high, and openly, having them classify small, new, and high as adjectives and openly as an adverb. Mr. Lanier, presents the students with a short passage: Joe was working on a tough experiment. As he worked, his lab partner, Karen, designed a new process to use running water to try to carefully solve some of their worst problems. Her strategy was very effective, and they were both extremely excited about the results.

Mr. Lanier has the students look at the words tough, lab, new, running, worst, and effective, and with his guidance and discussion, they conclude that they all modify nouns. They then state the definition, “Adjectives are parts of speech, which modify nouns,” and he writes the definition on the board.

Chapter 8: Complex Cognitive Processes

14.

Based on the information in the vignette, which of the following best illustrates a characteristic of the concept adjective? a. Part of speech b. Sharp scissors c. Openly d. Modify nouns

15.

Based on the most prominent theories of concept learning, and using the information from the four teachers in this vignette, which of the following is the best explanation for the way learners are most likely to learn the concept adjective? a. They construct the concept based on exemplars of adjectives, such as the word beautiful. b. They form the concept adjective in each of the four teachers’ lessons by being reinforced for correctly identifying examples of adjectives. c. They construct the concept based on the well-defined rule for classifying adjectives. d. They identify examples based on imitating their teachers as the teachers model classifying adjectives in sample sentences.

16.

Based on the suggestions for applying theories of concept learning with students, the teacher who most effectively taught the concept was: a. Mrs. Vargas. b. Mr. Jordan. c. Mrs. King. d. Mr. Lanier.

17.

Based on the suggestions for applying theories of concept learning with students, the teacher who least effectively taught the concept was: a. Mrs. Vargas. b. Mr. Jordan. c. Mrs. King. d. Mr. Lanier.

Use the information below for items 18 and 19. Look at the short paragraph below that is designed to illustrate the concept adjective. (The examples of adjectives in the paragraph are underlined.) Susan was watching a new video. The video was quite exciting, and she enjoyed it. In it she saw this very small ant quickly haul what appeared to be a gigantic leaf back to the anthill.

18.

Using this short paragraph, of the following, to understand the concept adjective most effectively, which would be the most important nonexample? a. Was b. Video c. Quite d. She

Chapter 8: Complex Cognitive Processes

19.

Look at short paragraph again. Of the following, which was most important for providing an adequate variety of examples of the concept adjective? a. New b. Exciting c. Small d. Gigantic

20.

Oliver Henricks is teaching his students the concepts metaphor and simile. He has prepared several examples of each, he presents the examples, they discuss the examples, and they form a definition of each concept. He then supplies the term metaphor and links it to its definition and then introduces the term simile and links it to its definition. Oliver chose to teach the concepts metaphor and simile together. Based on guidelines for promoting concept learning, which of the following is the best reason that he would choose to teach the concepts together? a. Since simile and metaphor are closely related, examples of one could serve as nonexamples for the other. b. Teaching the concepts together would provide less for Oliver to remember, so teaching them together would be less likely to overload his working memory. c. Teaching the concepts together would help him reinforce the students for correctly identifying similes and would also help reinforce them for correctly identifying metaphors. d. Teaching the concepts together would make it easier for Oliver to model classifications of the concepts.

21.

You are teaching the concept living thing to your first graders and have presented the students with the following examples: themselves, a cat, a dog, a lizard, a fish, and a bird. Using the guidelines for promoting concept learning as a basis, of the following, the most important example to show them in addition would be: a. one of their parents. b. a snake. c. a whale. d. a tree.

Chapter 8: Complex Cognitive Processes

Items 22-26 are related. 22.

You want your students to understand the concept work, which is the combination of the force exerted on an object and the object’s movement. To help them understand the concept you have your students slide one of their books across their desks, you lift up your chair, and you blow on a piece of paper, so it flutters in front of you. You also push on your writing board to demonstrate that you’re exerting a force, but no work is being done because the writing board doesn’t move. Which of the following suggestions for promoting concept learning with your students are you best illustrating with your efforts in this case? a. Promote meaningful learning by defining the concept and linking it to related concepts. b. Provide a variety of examples and nonexamples of the concept. c. Interact with students to promote cognitive activity. d. Carefully explain the concept and also explain the concepts force and pressure. Feedback: Explaining concepts is not one of the guidelines for promoting concept learning.

23.

You decide it’s important to have the students first slide a book across their desks, followed by lifting up a chair, and then blowing on a piece of paper so it flutters in front of you. In doing so, which suggestion for promoting concept learning with your students are you best illustrating with your efforts? a. Promote meaningful learning by defining the concept and linking it to related concepts. b. Provide a variety of examples and nonexamples of the concept. c. Sequence the examples beginning with the most typical and ending with those least familiar. d. Interact with students to promote cognitive activity.

24.

Think about the example of having students push a book across their desks to illustrate the concept work. By using an example such as this, of the following, which guideline for promoting concept learning with your students are you best illustrating? a. Promote meaningful learning by defining the concept and linking it to related concepts. b. Reinforce students for correctly identifying examples of the concept work. c. Interact with students to promote cognitive activity. d. Present the examples in a real-world context.

Chapter 8: Complex Cognitive Processes

25.

After presenting the examples—having the students slide their books across their desks, lifting up the chair, blowing on the paper, and pushing on the board—you ask them to look for common features in the examples, and you ask questions that guide them to conclude that you’re exerting a force in each case, and that movement occurs in the first three cases. You discuss the difference between the first three examples and the fourth one, and lead the students to conclude that both force and movement exist in the first three, but no movement exists in the fourth. You then help the students arrive at the idea that work involves force and movement. Of the following, which guideline for promoting concept learning with your students are you best demonstrating with your actions in this case. a. Promote meaningful learning by defining the concept and linking it to related concepts. b. Reinforce students for correctly identifying examples of the concept work. c. Interact with students to promote cognitive activity. d. Present the examples in a real-world context.

26.

After discussing the examples, you state “The work you do on an object is the force, push or pull, you exert on the object combined with the object’s movement.” You continue by saying, “Force, work, and pressure are all related to each other, but they aren’t identical. We’ve discussed ‘work’ today, and tomorrow we’ll review ‘force’ and also discuss ‘pressure.’” Of the following, which of the guidelines for promoting concept learning with your students are you best illustrating with your efforts? a. Promote meaningful learning by defining the concept and linking it to related concepts. b. Provide a variety of examples and nonexamples of the concept. c. Sequence the examples beginning with the most typical and ending with those least familiar. d. Present the examples in a real-world context.

27.

Consider the following concepts: square (plane figures with four equal sides and four equal angles), acid (solutions that taste sour), direct object (parts of speech that receive the action of the verb), and democracy (government by people, usually by elected representatives, or a state so governed). Based on our understanding of concepts and the way students learn them, which one would be most difficult for middle school students to learn? a. Square b. Acid c. Direct object d. Democracy

Essay Items 28.

Describe rule-driven and exemplar theories of concept learning, and provide an example of each.

29.

Chapter 8: Complex Cognitive Processes

30.

Describe four suggestions that teachers can apply to help their students learn concepts. Provide an example of each.

Problem Solving Knowledge-Level Items 31.

Of the following, which is the best description of a problem? a. A state that exists when an individual is faced with an idea that he or she doesn’t understand. b. A state that exists when an individual has a goal but lacks an obvious way of achieving the goal. c. A state that exists when individuals disagree about basic concepts, ideas, or goals. d. A state that exists when an individual’s understanding of an idea includes the construction of misconceptions.

32.

If your classroom is typical, your students are least likely to come to you with experiences with which of the following? a. Instruction in the use of specific algorithms b. The domain-specific knowledge they need to solve problems c. Practice in solving ill-defined problems d. Practice in solving well-defined problems

33.

All things being equal, which of the following is the best predictor of ability to solve a given problem successfully? a. Metacognitive regulation b. Problem-solving strategies c. Domain-specific knowledge d. Ample time to solve the problem

34.

Three of the following are suggestions for helping our students become better problem solvers. Which of the following is not a suggestion for helping our students learn to solve problems? a. Describe the characteristics of expert problem solvers to use as models for novices. b. Teach a specific set of strategies to help students improve their problem-solving abilities. c. Help students understand a problem-solving model that can be applied to a variety of domains. d. Focus on training students to persevere when they work on difficult problems.

35. The first step in problem solving is to: a. identify the problem. b. devise a plan. c. implement the plan. d. evaluate the results.

Chapter 8: Complex Cognitive Processes

36.

Which of the following is the most comment obstacle to effectively identifying problems? a. The tendency to get distracted and think too divergently b. The tendency to give up prior to identifying a problem c. The tendency to rush to trying a solution before the problem is defined d. The tendency to lack effective efficacy and to become anxious

37.

In a general approach to solving problems, the first step is typically to identify the problem goal. The next step is to: a. select a strategy. b. represent the problem. c. implement the strategy. d. evaluate the results.

38.

As you follow the steps involved in solving problems, after you have implemented a strategy, the next step is to: a. represent the problem. b. evaluate the results. c. attend to the details in the question. d. assess your domain-specific knowledge.

39.

A rule that prescribes a specific set of steps for solving a problem is best described as a(n): a. strategy. b. mnemonic. c. heuristic. d. algorithm.

40.

Of the following, teachers can best help students learn to understand written math problems by encouraging them to: a. memorize a wide variety of algorithms. b. brainstorm solutions to problem. c. draw pictorial representations of problems. d. rehearse the solutions to common problem types.

41.

Which of the following is not effective as a heuristic? a. Convergent thinking b. Means-end analysis c. Working backward d. Drawing analogies

42.

Drawing analogies is referred to as a problem-solving: a. heuristic. b. algorithm. c. rule. d. prototype.

Chapter 8: Complex Cognitive Processes

43.

Which of the following best describes people who are experts? a. People who have a great deal of general knowledge. b. People who have natural ability in a particular area, such as athletics, music, or mathematics. c. People who are very good at solving ill-defined problems. d. People who are highly knowledgeable or skilled in a specific domain.

44.

Which of the following is not a characteristic of deliberate practice? a. The practice emphasizes the development of basic facts, such as 6 x 9 = 54. b. Practice is goal directed. We identify the skills we want to improve and we practice those skills extensively. c. The practice focuses on understanding and sense making. d. The practice is conducted in real-world settings.

45.

Which of the following is the least effective way to develop students’ problem-solving abilities? a. Reinforce students’ use of algorithms. b. Present a variety of examples. c. Capitalize on social interaction. d. Present problems in real-world settings.

46.

Which of the following is the best definition of worked examples? a. Problem solutions modeled by teachers and expert students b. Problems with step-by-step completed solutions c. Ill-defined problems that are solved using algorithms d. Problems that are solved in cooperative groups, followed by whole-class discussions of the solutions

47.

Which of the following is the least effective strategy for promoting problem solving expertise in students? a. Analyzing worked examples b. Visually representing problems c. Developing lessons with questioning d. Emphasizing the importance of right answers

48.

Worked examples are primarily a benefit to learners who: a. lack self-efficacy. b. lack experience with the procedure. c. lack motivation to solve problems. d. lack contextualized knowledge.

Chapter 8: Complex Cognitive Processes

49.

Of the following, which is the best definition of creativity? a. A characteristic associated with people who are gifted or talented in a specific area b. The ability to produce original works or solutions to problems that are productive c. The ability to create clever ideas that other people are unable to create d. A characteristic of working memory that involves automatic encoding of information

50.

Which of the following is a characteristic of problem-based learning? a. Lessons begin with an ambiguous problem, and the learning activity focuses on defining the problem. b. Learners are allowed “free reign,” so they develop both content knowledge and effective strategic problem solving without your outside influence. c. A concluding lecture is used to tie together the work done by the students. d. The teacher guides student’s efforts with questioning and other forms of scaffolding as they work toward solving a problem that is the focus of the learning activity.

51.

With respect to expertise, which of the following statements is most accurate? a. If a person is an expert, he or she will have background knowledge in a wide variety of domains. b. A person may be highly skilled in one domain, such as math, but lack skills in another domain, such as writing. c. Experts are people who have highly developed skills and knowledge in mathematics and related fields, such as computer science. d. Experts are people who are able to think creatively in a variety of areas.

Higher-Level Items 52.

Which of the following is the best example of a well-defined problem? a. Your eighth graders won’t consistently turn in their homework. b. You have a doctor’s appointment, but you don’t know how to get to her office. c. Your colleagues’ disagreements are having a negative effect on the morale in your department. d. You want to make a career switch but don’t know what direction to take.

53.

Of the following, the best example of a well-defined problem is: a. chemistry students’ finding the molecular weight of an unknown compound. b. nutrition students’ planning well-balanced meals on a budget. c. PE students’ designing their own effective personal fitness plan. d. English students’ writing a personal autobiography.

54.

Which of the following content domains found in schools is least likely to have welldefined problems to consider? a. Economics b. Algebra c. Chemistry d. Geometry 208 Copyright © 2020, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

Chapter 8: Complex Cognitive Processes

55.

Which of the following is the best example of an ill-defined problem? a. 24 x 13 = b. How many miles can a car drive on a tank full of gas if the vehicle gets 25 miles to the gallon and the tank holds 16 gallons? c. What is the best way to increase the security of our home? d. If a three-pound bag of confectioner’s sugar contains 120 tablespoons, how many cups does it have?

56.

Of the following, the best example of an ill-defined problem is: a. students’ planning a strategy to combat the problem of homelessness in their city. b. students’ devising proofs of a geometry problem. c. students’ writing a paragraph to demonstrate knowledge of grammar and punctuation. d. students’ computing the number of calories in different meals.

57.

Jordan is solving problems in her third-grade math lesson. She got an answer that was different from the other students in the class. She can’t seem to understand, even with others’ explanations, how everyone else set up and solved the problem. She can’t see it any way other than the erroneous way she initially solved it. In attempting to implement the steps in solving problems, Jordan is most nearly demonstrating an inability to: a. identify the problem goal. b. implement a strategy. c. evaluation results. d. attend to the problem.

58.

Using the FOIL (first, outside, inside, last) is a method used to multiply binomials, such as (2x + 3) (5x-4), which would be solved as 10x - 8x + 15x – 12 = 17x -12. With respect to selecting strategies for solving problems, this method would be best classified as a(n): a. heuristic. b. procedure. c. process. d. algorithm.

Chapter 8: Complex Cognitive Processes

Use the following information for items 59 and 60. Felicita is shopping for a computer, so she asks herself what she should think about in making her selection. She considers a number of factors such as price, speed, main memory, and size of hard drive, but she hasn’t yet made up her mind about which computer to buy. Alfredo wants to know how long it will take him to drive from New Orleans to San Antonio. He knows they are about 500 miles apart, and he thinks he can average 60 miles an hour, depending on the number of times he stops for a break, so he hopes that he can make the drive in a little more than 8 hours. Karl is building a roof over his deck, which is shaped like a trapezoid. He looks up the formula for finding the area of a trapezoid and then calculates the number of square feet of lumber that he will need. Matt has been assigned a research paper in his English class. When he is assigned writing projects, he always first identifies a topic, either a topic that is interesting to him or the topic assigned by his teacher. He then goes to the Internet and other sources to gather information about the topic. He then creates an outline that will guide him as he writes the paper, and he follows the guide as he writes his paper. 59.

The individual who best illustrates using an algorithm in solving his or her problem is: a. Felicita. b. Alfredo. c. Karl. d. Matt.

60.

The individual who best illustrates using a heuristic in solving his or her problem is: a. Felicita. b. Alfredo. c. Karl. d. Matt.

61.

Of the following, which individual most nearly demonstrates the characteristics of expertise. Mary has a considerable experience with Microsoft PowerPoint, and she is able to create very effective PowerPoint presentations. Phil is an avid reader. He reads at least one novel a week and sometimes as many as two or three novels in a week. Jan is interested in world events, and she regularly reads several newspapers, such as the New York Times, the Washington Post, or the Wall Street Journal. David is a very well-liked teacher. His students describe him as very personable, and students regularly comment about how much fun they have in his classes. a. Mary. b. Phil. c. Jan. d. David.

Chapter 8: Complex Cognitive Processes

62.

In her math class, Melanie is provided a number of strategies designed to help her solve word problems. One of those strategies is to draw a picture or diagram of the problem. In her science class, recently, Mrs. Gonzalez, her teacher, gives her a problem to solve, and she immediately drew a picture of the problem. Last night, Melanie was asked to arrange the seating for her sister’s wedding reception, and she started by drawing a picture of all of the tables in the room. With respect to steps in the problem solving process, drawing a picture best illustrates which of the following? a. Represent the problem b. Using an algorithm c. Applying a component skill d. Selecting a strategy

63.

You want your students to develop expertise in solving word problems that involve addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division of fractions with both like and unlike denominators? Of the following, which is the most effective approach to helping your students develop their expertise? a. Have students practice one skill, such as addition, until students are confident with the ability; then move to subtraction, multiplication, and division, being sure that students understand each before moving to the next skill. b. Have students solve addition and subtraction problems together and then move to multiplication and division problems. c. Have student solve a mixture of problems in no particular order, such as a couple involving addition, then some involving division, multiplication, and subtraction. d. Have students first practice solving problems with like denominators and then have students practice problems with unlike denominators.

64.

Chapter 8: Complex Cognitive Processes

65.

Jesse is teaching his students how to solve Sudoku problems. He tells them how to solve them and then provides several examples that show the steps involved in solving them. In doing so, Jesse is best illustrating: a. teaching metacognitive strategies. b. providing worked examples. c. modeling critical thinking. d. illustrating elaborative questioning.

66.

Ella is working on a word problem, and she’s tried a few solutions, but she’s still struggling. Then, she remembers that her teacher presented a problem like it in class, so Ella goes into her notes, studies the problem her teacher presented, uses it as a guide, and finally solves the problem. Which of the following heuristics did Ella use to ultimately be successful? a. Means-ends analysis b. Hill climbing c. Trial and error d. Drawing analogies

Use the following example to answer items 67–69. Mr. Wilson has presented his students with the following problem: We have a quart of pure alcohol. If we add a cup of water to the alcohol, what percent of the new mixture is alcohol?

He then asks, “What do we want in this problem?” “We want the total amount of the mixture we have together,” Grayson suggests. “I think we should add up the total amount we have and then find out how much of that is alcohol,” Eva suggests. After some discussion, the class decides that the mixture is 75% alcohol. “I don’t think that’s right,” Kathy observes. “We have 5 cups of mixture altogether, and only one of those cups is water.” 67.

Mr. Wilson’s question: “What do we want?” best illustrates his attempt to help his students with which step in the problem-solving process? a. Identifying the problem goal b. Selecting a strategy c. Implementing the strategy d. Evaluating the results

68.

Eva’s comment is most closely related to which step in the problem-solving process? a. Identifying the problem goal b. Representing the problem c. Selecting a strategy d. Evaluating the results

Chapter 8: Complex Cognitive Processes

69.

Kathy’s comment is most closely related to which step in the problem-solving process? a. Identifying the problem goal b. Representing the problem c. Selecting a strategy d. Evaluating the results

70.

Of the following, which individual best illustrates creativity? a. After seeing a TV character using a particularly clever phrase, Sancha uses the phrase with his friends, hoping to impress them with his wit. b. Rick is making spaghetti for Suzanne, a girl he wants to impress. He has no way of straining the spaghetti until he sees a piece of screen-door screen, which he washes and then uses as a strainer. c. Jerome’s running shoes are starting to get smelly from sweat, so he washes them and then wears them for his run that afternoon even though they’re still damp from the washing. d. Dana decides to redecorate his room, so he removes his bed, puts his mattress on the floor, hangs fishing net from the ceiling, and puts in dim lighting to create a feeling of intimacy like his friend Bill has done.

Use the following example to answer items 71-74. Jim Bolton is attempting to use a problem-solving approach in his Business Law class. He presents his students with a case study taken from a widely publicized event that illustrated uncertainty in whether or not a large business is in compliance with government regulations. He models an analysis of the case study, including the process of identifying the problem goal, representing the problem, selecting and implementing a strategy, and evaluating the results. He then presents the students with another case study and has them attempt to apply the steps he has modeled. In this second case study, which is slightly different from the first, the students—with Jim’s guidance—determine that their task is to determine why the second business is not in compliance. Again with his guidance, the students decide that they will first identify the regulations that might be relevant to the information in the second case study. The students then work in pairs to identify the regulations that they believe the company is violating and why they believe the company is violating these regulations. Finally, Jim conducts a wholeclass discussion in which the students offer different views about whether or not their conclusions are valid. 71.

Of the following, which strategy for improving our students’ problem solving abilities is Jim best applying by using his original case study as the framework for teaching problem solving in business law? a. Present problems in real-world contexts. b. Develop students’ expertise with worked examples. c. Capitalize on social interaction. d. Encourage sense making.

Chapter 8: Complex Cognitive Processes

72.

Of the following, which strategy for improving our students’ problem solving abilities is Jim best applying by modeling an analysis of his first case study including all the steps involved in the analysis. a. Present problems in real-world contexts? b. Develop students’ expertise with worked examples. c. Capitalize on social interaction. d. Encourage sense making.

73.

Of the following, which strategy for improving our students’ problem solving abilities is Jim best applying by having his students work in pairs to analyze the second case study and identify the regulations they believe the company is violating and why they believe the company is violating those regulations? a. Present problems in real-world contexts. b. Develop students’ expertise with worked examples. c. Capitalize on social interaction. d. Encourage sense making.

74.

Of the following, which strategy for improving our students’ problem solving abilities is Jim best applying by conducting a whole-class discussion, the goal of which is to have the students offer different views about whether or not their conclusions are valid? a. Present problems in real-world contexts. b. Develop students’ expertise with worked examples. c. Capitalize on social interaction.

Use the following information for items 75 and 76. Look at the following teachers’ goals and the learning activities they use to help their students reach the goals. Scott, a science teacher, wants his students to understand that weight doesn’t affect the frequency of a simple pendulum, so he has his students attach different numbers of paper clips to strings of the same length to demonstrate that the frequency doesn’t change. Helen, a math teacher, has her students work in pairs to solve a series of problems, such as: You have eaten one piece of a pizza cut into 8 pieces, and one piece of another same-sized pizza cut into 6 pieces. How much pizza did you eat? Vicki, an English teacher, wants her students to determine the characteristics of novels considered to be classics, so during the school year they read a series of novels such as Moby Dick, A Tale of Two Cities, and The Scarlet Letter, and they work to devise a plan to examine characteristics of the novels that might lead to them being considered classics. Jared, a geography teacher, wants his students to know the names of all the countries in North and South America and their capitals, so he gives them blank maps and has them fill in the countries and locate and name their capitals.

Chapter 8: Complex Cognitive Processes

75.

The teacher who most nearly uses a problem-based learning approach is: a. Scott. b. Helen. c. Vicki. d. Jared.

76.

The teacher who least nearly uses a problem-based learning approach is: a. Scott. b. Helen. c. Vicki. d. Jared.

Essay Items 77.

Describe the difference between well-defined and ill-defined problem solving, and give an example of each.

78.

Identify two challenges in teaching problem solving, and explain why they are so challenging.

79.

Describe deliberate practice, and explain why it is important. Then, identify and describe the characteristics of deliberate practice.

80.

Given the classic cannibal-missionary problem that follows, and illustrate each of the steps of the general problem-solving strategy presented in your text. Three cannibals and three missionaries must cross a river. Their boat can only hold two people. The cannibals cannot outnumber the missionaries on either side of the river at any time, and each missionary and each cannibal can row the boat. Explain how all six can get across the river without the missionaries being eaten by the cannibals?

81.

Describe four suggestions teachers can apply as they attempt to help their students become better problem solvers, and provide an example of each.

The Strategic Learner Knowledge-Level Items 82.

Cognitive operations that go beyond the normal activities required to carry out a task are called: a. concepts. b. academic rules. c. principles. d. strategies.

Chapter 8: Complex Cognitive Processes

83.

Highlighting parts of the text you feel are important is best described as a(n): a. academic rule. b. concept. c. principle. d. strategy.

84.

All of the following are examples of strategies except: a. concept learning. b. elaborative questioning. c. summarizing. d. highlighting.

85.

Which of the following is most closely related to strategic learning? a. Modeling b. Rehearsal c. Perception d. Metacognition

86.

On which theory of learning is strategic learning most nearly based? a. Behaviorism b. Social cognitive theory c. Information processing d. Constructivism

87.

Techniques students use to increase their understanding of written materials and teachers’ presentations are described as: a. critical thinking skills. b. study strategies. c. problem-solving abilities. d. processing strategies.

88.

Research that has been done on study strategies has focused primarily on the ways students learn from: a. written materials. b. modeled activities. c. cooperative activities. d. class discussions.

89.

Of the following, the study strategy that is most likely to be misused, with the result being a lack of meaningful encoding is: a. highlighting. b. self-questioning. c. summarizing. d. representing tasks with hierarchies and outlines.

Chapter 8: Complex Cognitive Processes

90.

Research indicates that, of the following, the most common study strategy is: a. elaborative questioning. b. highlighting. c. summarizing. d. note taking.

91.

Which of the following is the most important in a study strategy’s effectiveness? a. The act of performing the strategy (such as the act of taking notes). b. The detail involved in the strategy (such as taking comprehensive notes). c. The memorization involved in the strategy (such as memorizing notes after they’re taken). d. The decision about what is important (such as deciding what and what not to write down).

92.

According to research, which of the following is likely to be the most effective study strategy? a. Underlining b. Summarizing c. Note taking d. Highlighting

93.

If a student’s study habits are consistent with patterns identified by research, which of the following is likely to be the least effective study strategy? a. Highlighting b. Note taking c. Summarizing d. Self-questioning

94.

One means to assist learners in their note taking is to: a. provide summarized notes. b. provide your lecture notes. c. provide guided notes. d. provide complete notes.

95.

Based on the human memory model, what is the best explanation for why summarizing facilitates learning? a. It serves a comprehension-monitoring function. b. It serves an imagery function. c. It serves an attention-focusing function. d. It serves a sensory memory function.

Chapter 8: Complex Cognitive Processes

96.

Of the following, which is the best description of critical thinking? a. The ability to reflect on a tangible or intangible item in order to form a judgment b. The ability to use discernment, analysis, and evaluation in thinking c. The ability and inclination to use all the senses in gathering and organizing information d. The ability and inclination to make and assess conclusions based on evidence

97.

Explanations for events that invoke plots or schemes by governments or other powerful actors for nefarious motives best describe which of the following? a. Fake news b. Conspiracy theories c. Sound bites d. Post truth

98.

Circumstances in which objective facts are less influential in shaping public opinion than appeals to emotion and personal belief best describe which of the following? a. Belief preservations b. Fake news c. Emotion regulation d. Post truth

99.

Deliberate misinformation that uses exaggerated and attention grabbing headlines for political, economic, or social gain best describes which of the following? a. Sound bites b. Post truth c. Conspiracy theories d. Fake news

100. The tendency of individuals to focus on information that supports their beliefs and ignore evidence that disputes these beliefs best describes which of the following? a. Conspiracy theories b. Confirmation bias c. Fake news d. Post truth

Chapter 8: Complex Cognitive Processes

Higher-Level Items 101. Of the following which student is being most “strategic” in his or her approach to studying? a. Enrique carefully reads the chapter and then goes back and rereads it. b. Madena reads a paragraph, realizes that she has drifted off, and then reads the paragraph again. c. Antonio looks at the chapter outline and then reads the chapter. d. Carla reads a section of the chapter and then writes two or three summary sentences about the section. 102. Four students are studying about factors leading up to World War I in their world history texts. They are having a test on the topic on Friday. Which student is most directly displaying metacognition? a. Karen stops herself after every page she reads and asks herself if she’s understood what she’s read. b. Peggy reorganizes her notes every day after class. c. Bob conscientiously does his homework every day. d. Carolina Googles information about Archduke Ferdinand, because she knows his assassination is considered to be the trigger that touched off the War. 103. You want to teach your students to summarize. You have a passage two pages long that you want them to practice on. According to research on teaching the process, which of the following is the most effective? a. Have the students highlight the information they think is important in each paragraph. b. Have the students skim the material and identify the paragraph in the passage that they think is most important. c. Have the students write down the first sentence of each paragraph. d. Have the students generate and write down key terms they think capture the essence of the passage.

Chapter 8: Complex Cognitive Processes

104. Josh is studying behaviorism, so he creates the following to help him keep the ideas straight:

Of the following, Josh’s strategy best illustrates: a. note taking. b. concept mapping. c. using text signals. d. summarizing 105. Three of the following are considered to be text signals. Which one is not a text signal? a. A concept map provided within a textbook chapter b. An outline presented at the beginning of the chapter c. An important definition in bold print within a chapter d. A series of end-of-chapter comprehension questions 106. Based on information processing and the model of human memory, what is the best explanation for why text signals are likely to facilitate learning? a. They primarily serve to elaborate on the information being presented. b. They primarily serve to organize the information being presented. c. They primarily serve to attract readers’ attention. d. They primarily serve to help retain information in sensory memory. 107. Mr. Small wants his students to learn to take effective and meaningful notes on their own. Of the following, the best way to help them in this process would be to: a. tell them to listen to important points while he lectures and take notes on those points. b. remind them to take comprehensive notes and then review them later. c. provide a written guide upon which the students can elaborate as he lectures. d. tell them at different points in the presentation that they should be writing the information down in their notes.

Chapter 8: Complex Cognitive Processes

Use the following case study to answer items 108 and 109. Four students are discussing the use of highlighting as a strategy for making reading from their textbooks more meaningful. “I highlight the first sentence of nearly every paragraph, because that’s supposed to be the topic sentence,” Karen comments. “Then I return later and focus on them.” “I highlight passages that I think are important,” Joanne adds. “I look for key terms, examples, and statements that connect different topics. I try not to highlight too much.” “I highlight practically whole chapters,” Brad counters. “I read along with it as I’m highlighting. I think it helps.” “I highlight a lot too,” Tiffany adds. “If I highlight, then I don’t have to read it so carefully, and I can listen to music while I study.” 108. Based on the information in the example, the student whose strategy is likely to be most effective is: a. Karen. b. Joanne. c. Brad. d. Tiffany. 109. Based on the information in the example, the student whose strategy is likely to be least effective is: a. Karen. b. Joanne. c. Brad. d. Tiffany. 110. LaTeisha doesn’t like world history particularly well, but she has developed a strategy to help her understand the content. She reads the assignment, writing down terms she believes are important as she reads. Then, she rereads the assignment and relates the terms to each other with linking words or phrases. LaTeisha’s strategy best illustrates which of the following? a. Summarizing b. Note taking c. Concept mapping d. Highlighting

Chapter 8: Complex Cognitive Processes

Items 111 and 112 are related. 111. You are studying for an exam that will assess your understanding of information processing and human memory. Based on research examining study strategies, which of the following is likely to be most effective? a. To put yourself in a positive frame of mind, put on some soothing music while you study, such as some smooth jazz. b. Spend some time, such as a half hour, studying the memory stores, then some time, such as another half hour studying the cognitive processes, and so on. c. Carefully study one aspect of the human memory model, such as the memory stores, and then turn to the second component, such as the cognitive processes. d. Create some flash cards with the definitions of all the components, such as working memory and long-term memory on them. 112. It’s Monday and you’re preparing to study for your exam, which will be Friday. If you base your study on research results, which of the following is the most effective approach? a. Study for an hour on Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday, and Thursday. b. Study for two hours on Monday and another two hours on Wednesday. Take a break Thursday to let your understanding settle and assimilate. c. Study for an hour on Monday, another hour Tuesday, take a break Wednesday, and study two hours Thursday to be sure that everything is fresh in your mind. d. Study for an hour Tuesday and then study carefully for three hours Thursday to be sure all your learning has been consolidated. 113. Jalen has very strong political ideas, and he frequently cites evidence that supports his ideas. When his friend, Damon, offers evidence that contradicts his ideas, he tends to dismiss what Damon has to say, and cites the evidence supporting his ideas as the reason for dismissing Damon’s evidence. Which of the following best describes the tendencies in Jalen’s thinking? a. Critical thinking b. Metacognition c. Problem solving d. Belief preservation 114. Nick believes in the tooth fairy. His friend, Joe, explains to him that his parents are really the tooth fairy. If Nick’s behavior is consistent with many learners’ behaviors, he will be likely to: a. conclude that Joe is correct. b. retain his belief in the tooth fairy. c. question his belief in the tooth fairy d. gather contradictory evidence.

Chapter 8: Complex Cognitive Processes

115. You are teaching your students about participles, verb forms that behave as adjectives, and you’re analyzing the following sentence. Lily has just put the finishing touches on her term paper. Of the following, which teacher question will be most effective for promoting critical thinking in students? a. What is the participle in this sentence, Shannon? b. What do you see in the sentence, Nathan? c. What is the definition of a participle, Dylan? d. How do you know finishing is a participle, Carolina? Use the following example for items 116 and 117. Ms. Wang is working on simplifying arithmetic expressions with her pre-algebra class. She has explained the rule for simplifying expressions, has demonstrated the process, and has had the students work two examples. She now displays the following problem for her students: 4 + 9(6) - 6 + 8/2 =

“What do you see in the problem, . . . Wyatt?” Ms. Wang asks. “We have to add, multiply, subtract, and do that 8 slash 2 part,” Wyatt responds after looking at the problem for several seconds. “What does 8/2 mean, . . . Mason?” “It means 8 divided by 2,” Mason answers. “What are we trying to do in the problem, . . . Carter?” “Simplify the problem . . . find the answer,” Carter responds. “So, what do we do first in the problem to solve it, . . . Grace?” Ms. Wang asks. “We multiply the 9 and the 6.” “And why do we do that, . . . Layla?” 116. Of the following, the question that requires the most critical thinking on the part of students would be: a. What do you see in the problem? b. What are we trying to do in the problem? c. So, what do we do first to solve it? d. And why do we do that? 117. Of the following, the question that least promotes critical thinking in the students would be: a. What do you see in the problem? b. What would we do if there was an x instead of a + between 6 and 8? c. What does 8/2 mean? d. What do we do first in the problem to solve it?

Chapter 8: Complex Cognitive Processes

Look at the following example, and answer items 118 and 119 in the context of critical thinking. Mrs. Nickerson’s students are analyzing a table illustrating the average global temperature for the years 1960-2015. She begins by asking, “What do we have here?” “A graph showing temperatures over the last 50 years,” Marianne replies. “What do you notice in the data?” Mrs. Nickerson asks. After students make several observations, Rafael notes, “The temperatures are increasing, particularly in the last 20 years.” “Why would Rafael say that?” Mrs. Nickerson responds. “For one thing, the five hottest temperatures are all in the last 20 years,” Vicki responds. After some additional discussion, Mrs. Nickerson asks, “What are we doing here?” “We’re looking for trends in the data,” Sebastian responds. 118. The question that most nearly promotes critical thinking is: a. What do we have here? b. What do you notice in the data? c. Why would Rafael say that? d. What are we doing here? 119. The student who is most nearly demonstrating metacognition is: a. Marianne. b. Rafael. c. Vicki. d. Sebastian. 120. Madison Winters is trying to help her students develop their study skills. She provides her students with guidelines for effective note taking, and then plays a 15 minute video episode that illustrates a person delivering a lecture, takes her own notes, and has the students take notes. She displays her notes and some of the students’ notes—after covering their names to preserve anonymity—and the class discusses the student notes and how they could be improved. Of the following, which suggestion for helping students become strategic learners and critical thinkers is Madison best applying with her efforts? a. Explicitly teach and have students practice study strategies. b. Model critical thinking and use questioning and discussion to promote critical thinking in our students. c. Use assessment with feedback as learning tools. d. Have students work in groups to practice study skills. Essay Items 121. Describe three factors that detract from our ability to think critically. Explain why the factors negatively influence our critical thinking abilities.

Chapter 8: Complex Cognitive Processes

122. Describe three suggestions that teachers can apply as they attempt to promote strategic learning in their students, and provide an example of each. Transfer of Learning Knowledge-Level Items 123. The ability to apply previous learning to new situations best describes: a. metacognition. b. study strategies. c. critical thinking. d. transfer. 124. The ability to apply knowledge or skills learned in one context to a wide variety of different contexts is best described as: a. positive transfer. b. specific transfer. c. general transfer. d. global transfer. 125. The ability to apply information in a context similar to the one in which it was originally learned is best described as: a. positive transfer. b. specific transfer. c. general transfer. d. global transfer. 126. According to cognitive views of learning, of the following, the concept that is most important in facilitating transfer is: a. reinforcement. b. rehearsal. c. expectations. d. meaningfulness. 127. Three of the following are factors that affect transfer. Which one is not a factor that affects transfer? a. Similarity between learning situations b. Reinforcement of basic skills c. Depth of original understanding d. Learning context 128. According to cognitive theories of learning, which of the following does not positively affect transfer? a. The number of times an answer is reinforced. b. The depth of understanding and practice. c. The quality of learners’ experiences. d. The context into which learners’ experiences are embedded. 225 Copyright © 2020, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

Chapter 8: Complex Cognitive Processes

129. Of the following, the factor that is most important in facilitating the transfer of concepts is: a. giving students a chance to actively rehearse definitions of the concepts. b. demonstrating that what they are learning is important. c. providing a variety of high-quality examples. d. beginning lessons with attention-getting demonstrations. 130. Of the following, which is least likely to influence transfer of learning? a. Placing emphasis on learner metacognition b. Rehearsal of important concepts and definitions c. The variety of content representations that are used d. Similarity between the learning situation and the target situation Higher-Level Items 131. Carl Andriesse has taught his fifth graders about the concepts metaphor and simile. He gave them several examples of each, and they also formed a definition of each. He then supplied the term metaphor and linked it to its definition and then introduced the term simile and linked it to its definition. The next day, Mr. Andriesse’s students could identify new examples of similes and metaphors on a worksheet. This ability most closely relates to: a. learning facts. b. strategic learning. c. critical thinking. d. transfer of learning. 132. In her math class, Melanie is provided with a number of strategies designed to help her solve word problems. Drawing a picture or diagram of the problem is one of those strategies. Recently, in her science class, Mrs. Rios, her science teacher, gave a problem to solve, and she immediately drew a picture of the problem. Last night, Melanie was asked to arrange the seating for her sister’s wedding reception, and she started by drawing a picture of all of the tables in the room. By being able to utilize a drawing to help her with both science and the wedding reception seating arrangement, Melanie is best demonstrating: a. strategic learning. b. metacognition. c. transfer of learning. d. critical thinking 133. Jorge has found that the knowledge he has of the structure of Spanish, his native language, has helped him learn English structure and syntax. Of the following, Jorge’s experience best illustrates: a. general transfer. b. specific transfer. c. accommodation. d. global transfer.

Chapter 8: Complex Cognitive Processes

134. Students in an educational research class study single-subject experimental design as one of their topics. Sometime later they use a single-subject design in a research project for their psychology class. Of the following, this best illustrates: a. specific transfer. b. general transfer. c. global transfer. d. strategic transfer. 135. Educational leaders at one time believed that studying courses such as Latin were effective because they disciplined the mind and made learning of other content areas, such as mathematics, more efficient? If this belief had been correct, it would illustrate: a. specific transfer. b. general transfer. c. strategic transfer. d. long-term memory transfer. 136. Research indicates that some dispositions, such as the tendency to remain open-minded and look for evidence, the inclination to consider sources of opinions, and the ability to reserve judgment apply in a variety of contexts. These dispositions best illustrate: a. general transfer. b. specific transfer. c. concrete transfer. d. total transfer. Use the following information for items 137-139. First graders are shown pictures of a dog, cat, horse, and deer as examples of the concept mammal. 137. Of the following, they are most likely to transfer the concept—identify an example as a mammal—to: a. cow. b. bat. c. whale. d. kangaroo. 138. Of the following, they are least likely to transfer the concept to: a. cow. b. bat. c. mouse. d. squirrel.

Chapter 8: Complex Cognitive Processes

139. Of the following, the factor affecting transfer that is most nearly operating in items 137 and 138 is: a. similarity between learning situations. b. depth of original understanding. c. learning context. d. emphasis on metacognition. Use the following information for items 140 and 141. Mr. Lucas wants his students to understand the concept reptile, and he shows them large colored pictures of an alligator sunning itself beside a stream, a lizard in some bushes, a snake in a tree, and a chameleon in some grass. On a quiz a few days later, he shows students colored pictures of a crocodile with his tail in a pond, a rattlesnake on the plains, a sea turtle in the ocean, and a lizard in the desert, together with a series of other animals, such as a cockroach, a mouse, and an eagle, which they will not identify as reptiles if they understand the concept. Most of the students correctly identify the crocodile, rattlesnake, and lizard as reptiles, but many fail to correctly identify the sea turtle as a reptile. 140. Of the following, the factor affecting transfer that is most likely the reason that the students fail to identify the sea turtle as a reptile is: a. lack of similarity between the two learning situations. b. inadequate variety of examples. c. inadequate original understanding/meaningfulness. d. lack of emphasis on metacognition. 141. Mr. Lucas’s conscious effort to show the animals in their natural habitats, such as the alligator beside the stream and the lizard in some bushes, best illustrate his attempts to capitalize on which of the following factors that affect transfer? a. Similarity between learning situations b. Depth of original understanding/meaningfulness c. Real-world application d. Emphasis on metacognition 142. Mr. Deleon attempts to help his students understand the concept of inertia by relating it to why people are required to wear seatbelts in their cars. Mrs. Evans has her students solve a variety of word problems that involve decimals and percents, such as finding the percent decrease of an item marked down in a retail store. Mr. Leander has his students practice study skills not only in English, but also in geography and science. Of the following, the teachers are most nearly attempting to capitalize on which factor that promotes transfer? a. Similarity between learning situations b. Learning context/real-world application c. Meaningfulness/depth of understanding d. Emphasis on metacognition

Chapter 8: Complex Cognitive Processes

143. Students on a math test perform well on a set of computational problems, such as, “15% of 43 =” but are not able to solve word problems in which the same computational skills were required, such as “A shirt originally priced at $43 has been marked down 14%. What is the sale price?” Of the following, the most likely reason for this problem is: a. students hadn’t sufficiently rehearsed the computations to the point where they were automatic, and as a results their understanding didn’t transfer. b. the teacher failed to provide enough drill and practice with the computational problems, and as a result the students’ understanding didn’t transfer. c. the algorithms for the computations were not encoded in the students’ long-term memories, so the students’ abilities didn’t transfer. d. the practice context and the problem-solving context were not similar enough to allow transfer to occur. 144. Linda is new to personal computing and yesterday learned a new “quick” command in EXCEL. She used “control-c” to copy part of the spreadsheet and “control-v” to paste it elsewhere. Last night she was working on a paper in the lab and decided to reorder the paragraphs. She used “control-c” and “control-v” in the Word program. Of the following, the factor most influencing her transfer of learning is: a. similarity between the two learning situations. b. motivation involved in the learning experiences. c. meaningfulness/depth of understanding d. emphasis on metacognition Essay Items 145. Describe the difference between general and specific transfer, and provide an example of each. 146. Describe and illustrate each of the four factors that affect transfer of learning. 147. Providing a variety of high-quality examples embedded in context is arguably the most important thing a teacher can do to promote transfer. Using cognitive learning theory as a basis, explain why this might be the case. 148. Describe three suggestions teachers can apply to help promote transfer in our students, and provide an example of each.

Chapter 9: Knowledge Construction and the Learning Sciences

CHAPTER NINE KNOWLEDGE CONSTRUCTION AND THE LEARNING SCIENCES Knowledge Construction Knowledge-Level Items 1.

With respect to the idea that people construct knowledge, which of the following is the most accurate statement? a. People construct knowledge because they have been reinforced for demonstrating the knowledge they construct. b. People construct knowledge because they observe others construct knowledge that is similar. c. People construct knowledge to be consistent with information they read or hear. d. People construct knowledge in an attempt to make sense of their experiences.

Which of the following best describes the difference between cognitive constructivism and social constructivism? a. Cognitive constructivism is based on cognitive learning theory, such as information processing, whereas social constructivism is based on social cognitive theory. b. Cognitive constructivism emphasizes construction of understanding based on discussion that reinforces thinking, whereas social constructivism emphasizes discussion without the use of reinforcers. c. Cognitive constructivism emphasizes individual imitation of modeled behaviors, whereas social constructivism emphasizes vicariously learned behaviors of groups. d. Cognitive constructivism focuses on individual, internal constructions of understanding, whereas social constructivism emphasizes shared perspectives, which are then internalized by individuals.

Which of the following is a characteristic of a learning community? a. Learners seek as much knowledge as they can from their teachers. b. Teachers provide the content guidelines, present information, and reinforce student learning. c. Students work independently to construct their own individual knowledge. d. Students interact with teachers and each other to help everyone learn.

Which theorist is most closely associated with cognitive constructivism? a. Skinner b. Piaget c. Vygotsky d. Bronfenbrenner

Chapter 9: Knowledge Construction and the Learning Sciences

Which theorist is most closely associated with social constructivism? a. Skinner b. Piaget c. Vygotsky d. Bandura

Social interaction is reported to assist learners in many ways. Which of the following is an essential content learning benefit consistent with social constructivist views of learning? a. Increasing motivation b. Developing interpersonal skills c. Appropriating understanding d. Self-regulatory processing

Cognitive apprenticeships generally include three of the following components. Which one do they not typically include? a. Increasing complexity b. Modeling c. Direct instruction d. Scaffolding

A view of learning suggesting that learning is social in nature and cannot be separated from the context in which it occurs is defined as: a. cognitive constructivism. b. situated cognition. c. cognitive apprenticeship. d. community of learners.

“Learning as it exists in real-world settings and how learning may be facilitated both with and without technology” best describes which of the following? a. Cognitive constructivism b. Situated cognition c. Appropriated understanding d. The learning sciences

10.

Learning scientists have come to several conclusions about learning and teaching. Which of the following is not one of those conclusions? a. Learning requires feedback and appropriate reinforcement. b. Useful learning requires deep conceptual understanding. c. Schooling must shift its focus from teaching to learning. d. Learners’ brains function in collaboration with the rest of their bodies.

Chapter 9: Knowledge Construction and the Learning Sciences

11.

Of the following, which statement most nearly captures the primary emphasis of the learning sciences? a. Learning should be practiced to automaticity. b. Learning should be applied to real-world settings whenever possible. c. Learning should be thoroughly and frequently assessed, and learners should be given informative feedback. d. Learning should be positively reinforced with rewards that learners view as desirable.

12.

The idea that cognition (our thinking) depends on characteristics of our physical bodies, and our bodies significantly influence the way we process information best describes which of the following? a. Cognitive constructivism b. Situated cognition c. Embodied cognition d. The learning sciences

Higher-Level Items Items 13 and 14 are related. 13.

Joanne Anderson is working with her students on the process of adding fractions with unlike denominators and she carefully demonstrates the process of finding a lowest common denominator and then adding the fractions, such as in the following example: (3) 1 + (4) 2 = 11 (3) 4 (4) 3 12

Joanne then gives her students a series of problems to solve, such as the one below: 1 +1 = 2 3

Tricia, one of her students gets 2/5 as an answer by adding the numerators and then adding the denominators. Of the following, which is the most likely reason for Tricia getting the answer she did. a. Tricia constructed this answer, because she had been reinforced in the past for constructing similar answers. b. Tricia constructed this answer because she had seen similar answers modeled for her by her peers. c. Tricia constructed this answer because it made more sense to her than did 5/6—the correct answer. d. Tricia constructed this answer because adding the numerators and then the denominators was simpler than following the procedure for adding fractions with unlike denominators.

Chapter 9: Knowledge Construction and the Learning Sciences

14.

With additional modeling and several more examples, Tricia gradually developed an understanding of the process of adding fractions with unlike denominators and was then able to solve problems on her own. Of the following, how would a cognitive constructivist interpret Tricia’s development? a. Tricia’s increased understanding was a direct result of the social interaction between her, Ava, and her classmates. b. Tricia’s equilibrium was disrupted as a result of Ava’s explanation and modeling, and, individually, she reestablished it when she learned the procedure for adding fractions with unlike denominators. c. When Tricia was eventually able to add fractions with unlike denominators, she received positive reinforcers for getting the correct answers, and as a result of the reinforcement, she continued to answer correctly. d. Ava developed a community of learners in her classroom, and the influence of the learning community helped Tricia learn the procedure for adding fractions with unlike denominators.

15.

Lily, age 3, is coming down a short stairway, trips, falls, and bruises her arm. When her mother asks if she’s okay, she responds, “I’m tired.” Her mother always says to her when she has an accident, “Oh, you must be tired.” Based on constructivist views of learning, of the following, which process involved in knowledge construction does this scenario best illustrate? a. Learners construct understanding that makes sense to them. b. Learners construct understanding by working on authentic tasks. c. Learners construct new understanding based on their existing understanding. d. Learners construct understanding more effectively if they are reinforced for the conclusions they make when they interact with others.

16.

Ms. Fodea starts her first-period geometry class. Each student is to investigate a packet of geometrical forms, identify similarities and differences in the shapes, and make generalizations if possible from their explorations. Students sit at their desks examining the different plastic shapes, comparing them, measuring their lengths and angles, computing perimeters and surface areas, and recording their observations. As the students work, and Ms. Fodea circulates among them, from a cognitive constructivist perspective, which of the following should she most strongly emphasize? a. Making sure that students know the names of the shapes and the formulas for finding their areas. b. After working individually for several minutes, having the students work with a partner to compare what they have found. c. Making positive comments about the students’ efforts as she watches them work. d. Encouraging the students to individually apply existing knowledge of geometric shapes to find patterns in their observations.

Chapter 9: Knowledge Construction and the Learning Sciences

17.

A teacher has students involved in a problem-solving activity in math. From a social constructivist perspective, which of the following is most important in the learning activity? a. Encourage students to all use the same procedure in solving problems. b. Encourage students to memorize formulas as they use them, quiz them to ensure that they know the formulas, and provide positive feedback for those who do well on the quizzes. c. Encourage students to question each other about procedures and findings, and discuss the findings as a whole group. d. Encourage students work individually on solving the problems, and then provide teacher feedback on problems that are most frequently missed.

Use the following information for items 18 and 19. Two students are arguing about the difference between the concepts force and work. (A force is any push or pull, and work is the combination of force and movement.) “I’m doing work,” Avery argues, as he holds a soft drink bottle out in front of him. “No,” Luciana responds. “You’re not moving. The bottle is totally still, and doing work requires both force and movement, so you’re doing no work.” “Yes, but I’ll get tired,” Avery retorts. “I can’t get tired if I don’t do work.” “Yes you can. You’re just exerting a force. . . . Now I’m doing work,” Luciana counters as she slowly lifts the bottle from the table over her head. “We have to be able to describe the difference between simply holding the bottle and moving the bottle.” “So, I can do no work and still get tired?” Avery nods uneasily. “Yes,” Luciana smiles. “We can get tired just by exerting a force.” 18.

Which of the following best describes the change in Avery’s thinking from a cognitive constructivist perspective? a. Avery didn’t understand the difference between the concepts force and work, and his understanding developed because he imitated Luciana’s thinking. b. Avery’s equilibrium with respect to the concepts force and work was disrupted, and he—individually—reestablished it by changing his thinking. c. Avery’s equilibrium with respect to the concepts force and work was disrupted, and he re-established it as a direct result of his conversation with Luciana. d. Avery didn’t understand the difference between the concepts force and work, and his understanding evolved as a direct result of the dialogue with Luciana.

Chapter 9: Knowledge Construction and the Learning Sciences

19.

Which of the following best describes the change in Avery’s thinking from a social constructivist perspective? a. Avery didn’t understand the difference between the concepts force and work and his understanding developed because he imitated Luciana’s thinking. b. Avery’s equilibrium with respect to the concepts force and work was disrupted, and he—individually—re-established it by changing his thinking. c. Avery’s equilibrium with respect to the concepts force and work was disrupted, and he re-established it as a direct result of his conversation with Luciana. d. Avery didn’t understand the difference between the concepts force and work, and his understanding evolved as a direct result of the dialogue with Luciana.

20.

On a standardized vocabulary test, children were asked, “Which of the following would you expect to take you to the hospital if you were injured?” and they were given, “ambulance,” “car,” “airplane,” and “truck” as choices. Ambulance was the correct answer, but several Inuit children in a remote village in the Arctic selected airplane as a choice because airplanes were the only form of motorized transportation that came into their village. Of the following, which theory would provide the best explanation for the Inuit children’s choice? a. Social cognitive theory b. Sociocultural learning theory c. Cognitive apprenticeship d. Cognitive load theory

Items 21-23 are related. 21.

Judy Norquist frequently reminds her students that “We’re all in this together, and we’re all here to help each other learn.” During a math lesson, she presents the problem: One shirt that sells for $40.00 is marked 30% off, and another that sells for $36.00 is marked 20% off. Which shirt is now more expensive?”

She has the students turn to a partner and discuss a proposed solution to the problem for one minute, and explain their thinking in the process. After the pairs have worked together, Judy conducts a whole-group discussion of their solutions. Which of the following is Judy most strongly promoting in her classroom? a. Sociocultural learning theory b. Cognitive constructivism c. A community of learners d. Situated cognition

Chapter 9: Knowledge Construction and the Learning Sciences

22.

As she prepares problems, such as One shirt that sells for $40.00 is marked 30% off, and another that sells for $36.00 is marked 20% off. Which shirt is now more expensive?”

Judy comments to herself, “The only way kids are going to get to be good problem solvers is if they get lots of practice in solving real-world problems like this one.” Of the following, Judy’s belief in the need to solve real-world problems most nearly applies ideas related to: a. sociocultural learning theory. b. a community of learners. c. cognitive apprenticeships. d. situated cognition. 23.

Periodically, Judy will give her students problems that are challenging enough so that they struggle. When they do, she models the thinking needed to attack the problems, uses questioning to guide them through solutions to similar problems, and emphasizes that they put their increasing understanding into words in each case. As their understanding increases, she continues to give them increasingly challenging problems. Which of the following is Judy most nearly applying with this approach to problem solving? a. A cognitive apprenticeship b. Sociocultural learning theory c. Cognitive constructivism d. Situated cognition

24.

Kaylee Johnson, a 5th grade teacher, emphasizes that, “We’re all here to help everyone in our class learn as much as possible.” She encourages everyone to participate in learning activities and emphasizes student-student interaction. She also comments, “The thinking involved in our discussions are as important as the answers we get.” Kaylee’s approach to teaching and learning best illustrates which of the following? a. Embodied cognition b. Cognitive apprenticeship c. Situated cognition d. A community of learners

25.

Research indicates that people tend to perceive distances they’ve walked as farther when they’re carrying something heavy than if they’re walking unencumbered. Of the following, phenomena such as this research result best illustrate which of the following? b. Perceived cognition c. Embodied cognition a. Cognitive load d. Social cognition

Chapter 9: Knowledge Construction and the Learning Sciences

Essay Items 26.

Identify two important differences between cognitive and social constructivism, and provide an example of how these differences might appear in a classroom.

27.

Describe the characteristics of a community of learners, and provide an example of each.

28.

Explain how cognitive apprenticeships are both similar to, and different from, traditional apprenticeships.

29.

Provide a novel example of a cognitive apprenticeship that could be illustrated in a classroom setting. Include the content under study by the learners, characteristics of the expert and of the apprentice, and discuss how one of the components of cognitive apprenticeships could be demonstrated in the example.

30.

Describe four conclusions that learning scientists have made about learning and teaching, and give an example of each.

Misconceptions: When Learners Construct Invalid Knowledge Knowledge-Level Items 31.

Which of the following statements best describes the relationship between misconceptions and the process of knowledge constructivism? a. Knowledge construction emphasizes social interaction, and misconceptions are socially constructed. b. Knowledge construction emphasizes application in the real world, and misconceptions exist in the real world. c. Knowledge construction includes both an individual (cognitive constructivism) and social (social constructivism) component. d. Knowledge construction is the only way we can explain why people create and retain misconceptions.

32.

People sometimes construct knowledge that makes sense to them but is inconsistent with evidence or commonly accepted explanations. In these cases they have constructed: a. an authentic task. b. a situated idea. c. a socially constructed idea. d. a misconception.

33.

Of the following, which is the best description of a misconception? a. An idea that makes sense to an individual but is inconsistent with evidence or commonly accepted explanations b. An idea that is important in one culture but is not important in another culture c. An idea that people understand in the abstract but can’t apply in the real world d. An idea that is held by students but is not held people outside the classroom

Chapter 9: Knowledge Construction and the Learning Sciences

34.

Which of the following is the best example of a misconception about teaching and learning? a. Regardless of what teachers tell students, the students are going to create ideas that make sense to them. b. The best way to help learners understand an idea is to carefully explain the idea to them. c. Teachers sometimes inadvertently reinforce students for undesirable behaviors. d. Students are likely to imitate behaviors they see displayed by others.

35.

Which of the following is the most likely reason that misconceptions exist? a. Students have been reinforced for the misconception in the past. b. Students have seen the misconception repeatedly modeled by their teacher. c. Students have prior experiences that are consistent with the misconception. d. Students’ parents also hold the same misconception.

36.

Which of the following is the most likely reason that learners’ misconceptions are hard to change? a. Schools often teach misconceptions as part of the curriculum in the early grades. b. Teachers often hold their own misconceptions about content and share that knowledge with learners. c. Misconceptions make sense to the individual, and changing the misconception is disequilibrating. d. Parents often undermine information schools teach with their own misconceptions.

Higher-Level Items 37.

Of the following, which is the best explanation for the existence of misconceptions? a. People construct misconceptions because they see the misconceptions modeled for them. b. People construct misconceptions because they have been reinforced for believing the misconceptions in the past. c. People construct misconceptions because the misconceptions make sense to them. d. People construct misconceptions because the misconceptions allow them to apply knowledge in the real world.

38.

The construction of misconceptions is related to the principles of cognitive learning theory. Of the following, which principle best explains why people construct misconceptions? a. Learners construct understanding that makes sense to them. b. Social interaction facilitates learning. c. Meaningful learning occurs within real-world tasks. d. Learning requires practice and feedback.

Chapter 9: Knowledge Construction and the Learning Sciences

39.

The kindergarten students at Fleming Island Elementary School believe that Mrs. Reynolds is older than Mrs. Alvaro, even though the opposite is true. When asked why they think so, the children point out that Mrs. Reynolds is taller. Of the following, which factor that contributes to misconceptions is most likely the cause of the children’s misconception in this example? a. Appearance b. Language c. Society d. Modeling

40.

Karen believes in the “gambler’s fallacy.” This is the erroneous belief that if you flip a coin, for instance, and get five heads in a row, you then have a greater than 50% chance to get a tail on the next flip of the coin. The best way to modify this misconception is to: a. provide Karen with explanation about the laws of probability. b. tell Karen that there is an independent chance to get a head or a tail each flip. c. give Karen a coin and some recording paper and flip coins to collect data. d. tell Karen she holds a misconception and sometime later she may be ready to remedy her knowledge.

41.

Katrina, a second grader, believes that 1/4 is a larger quantity than 1/3, and you believe it is because she sees that 4 is larger than 3. Of the following, which is the most effective way to help her eliminate this misconception? a. Explain that the numbers are in the denominator, and when numbers are in denominators, larger numbers represent smaller quantities. b. Ask her to provide as complete an explanation as possible for why she thinks 1/4 is a larger quantity than 1/3. c. Write 1/3 and 1/4 on the board, and explain that the 1/3 means the quantity is one third of a larger quantity and the 1/4 is one fourth of a larger quantity, so the one fourth must be smaller. d. Fold a piece of paper into fourths and another identical piece of paper into thirds, and show her that the 1/3 is larger than the 1/4.

Essay Items 42.

Explain the relationship between misconceptions and constructivist learning theory.

43.

Explain why misconceptions are so resistant to change.

44.

Identify three factors that contribute to people’s construction of misconceptions, and provide an example of each.

Chapter 9: Knowledge Construction and the Learning Sciences

Using Educational Psychology in Teaching: Suggestions for Helping Students Construct Valid Knowledge Knowledge-Level Items 45.

Which of the following best describes how teachers’ roles will change when basing instruction on knowledge construction, social influences on learning, and the learning sciences? a. Teachers will need to provide lectures with clearer language and more precise descriptions of content than they would if using traditional instruction. b. Teachers will need to use more positive reinforcement of students and less negative reinforcement of students than they would if using traditional instruction. c. Teachers will need to use more essay tests and fewer multiple-choice tests than they would if using traditional instruction. d. Teachers will need to use more questioning and less explaining that they would if using traditional instruction.

46.

Which of the following are suggestions for helping students construct valid knowledge? 1. Provide students with experiences that promote deep understanding. 2. Consistently reinforce appropriate behaviors. 3. Connect content to the real world. 4. Make interaction an integral part of instruction. 5. Eliminate misconceptions with clear explanations. 6. Promote learning with assessment.

a. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6

b. 1, 3, 4, 6

c. 1, 3, 5, 6

d. 1, 3, 5

47.

“Wisdom can’t be told” is an idea pioneered many years ago, which suggests that lecturing and explaining are often ineffective for promoting deep understanding in students. Which of the following suggestions for helping students construct valid knowledge is most closely related to the idea “wisdom can’t be told”? a. Provide students with experiences that promote deep understanding. b. Connect content to the real world. c. Make interaction an integral part of instruction. d. Promote learning with assessment.

48.

Which of the following best describes an instructional application of the process of knowledge construction? a. Learning is hierarchical. b. Learning is increased through multiple representations of content. c. Learning is increased through the accumulation of specific items of information. d. Learning is increased when appropriate reinforcement schedules are used.

Chapter 9: Knowledge Construction and the Learning Sciences

49.

Which of the following teacher strategies is least consistent with instruction based on the process of knowledge construction? a. Asking students questions b. Providing well-organized explanations c. Guiding students in learning activities d. Monitoring students as they work in groups

50. Which of the following is not an effective suggestion for helping students construct valid knowledge? a. Provide students with experiences that promote deep understanding. b. Connect content to the real world. c. Match topics with content found on standardized assessments. d. Make interaction an integral part of instruction. 51.

Which of the following statements is consistent with assessment designed to promote learning in a constructivist environment? a. Classroom assessments cannot capture students’ true understanding, and therefore assessment should generally be avoided. b. Formative classroom assessments should be used in constructivist learning environments, but summative assessments should be generally avoided. c. Summative classroom assessments should be used in a constructivist learning environment, but formative assessments should be avoided. d. Both formative and summative assessments are valuable in gauging students’ true understanding, and both should be used as part of assessment.

52.

The process of gathering information and making decisions about students’ learning progress best describes which of the following? a. Knowledge construction b. Effective teaching c. Information processing d. Assessment

53.

Of the following, which is the most important advantage of making interaction an integral part of instruction? a. It puts students in cognitively active roles. b. It allows teachers to appropriately reinforce students’ thinking. c. It allows teachers to capitalize on students’ emotions. d. It holds students accountable for their own learning.

54.

Which of the following is an example of a formative assessment? a. Teacher observations of group work b. A graded social studies homework assignment c. An oral presentation describing a student’s independent study project d. A multiple-choice final given to all students

Chapter 9: Knowledge Construction and the Learning Sciences

Higher-Level Items 55.

Which of the following is the least accurate description of the teacher’s role in instruction based on social influences on learning and knowledge construction compared to teachercentered learning activities, such as lecture? a. Teachers’ roles will change from presenting and explaining information to guiding student understanding. b. Teachers’ roles will become less important in instruction based on social influences on learning and knowledge construction, since instruction based on these principles requires that students take more responsibility for their own learning. c. Teachers’ roles in planning will be more complex for instruction based on social influences on learning and knowledge construction, because teachers will need to plan for social interaction and the learning environment in addition to goals and learning activities. d. Teachers will need more expertise when grounding instruction in social influences on learning and knowledge construction, because instruction based on these principles is more complex and sophisticated than are teacher-centered learning activities, such as lecture.

56.

Suggestions for helping students construct valid knowledge would suggest that we, “Treat verbal explanations skeptically.” Of the following, which is the most accurate interpretation of this suggestion? a. Since learners construct their own knowledge, we should never use verbal explanations in our teaching. b. Don’t conclude that our students understand an idea because we’ve explained it to them, even if our explanation is very clear. c. Avoid using verbal explanations when teaching basic ideas, such as simple concepts, rules, and procedures, but use verbal explanations to help students understand complex and abstract ideas. d. Use verbal explanations if we are slightly unsure of ourselves with respect to our own understanding, because we can then avoid questions from students that might require us to think “on our feet.”

57.

Which of the following least illustrates a learning activity based on suggestions for helping students construct valid knowledge? a. Geography students use longitude and latitude to describe how to tell a friend to find a remote camping location in the mountains. b. Math students look at manufacturing costs and the prices marked on a series of soap products to determine the percentage of profit. c. Science students discuss reasons why a can of pork and beans explodes—if a hole isn’t poked in the can—when placed in a campfire. d. Language arts students rewrite a series of sentences, each of which contains grammatical errors.

Chapter 9: Knowledge Construction and the Learning Sciences

58.

If an instructor is basing his or her instruction on the idea that learners construct their own knowledge, which of the following is most important? a. To provide a variety of high-quality examples b. To explain topics carefully and thoroughly c. To give students a chance to rehearse information d. To organize students into cooperative groups

59.

Which of the following is the most important classroom application of the fact that students’ constructions of understanding are likely to vary? a. Be sure that explanations are very clear, so that students are less likely to misinterpret the explanations. b. Make an effort to individualize instruction, so that students are less likely to be confused by their peers. c. Develop topics with questioning, so that you are able to assess the extent to which students’ constructions are valid. d. Be sure students know important facts.

60.

The use of high-quality examples has been strongly emphasized when basing instruction on the idea that learners construct their own knowledge. Which of the following most effectively explains why examples are so important? a. Examples ensure that students will be working on real-world tasks. b. Examples help clarify teachers’ explanations, and explanations are essential when basing instruction on social influences on learning and knowledge construction. c. Examples help prevent teachers from overloading students’ working memories. d. Examples provide the experiences students use to construct their understanding of the topics they study.

Use the following information to answer items 61 and 62. As part of a unit on “Smart Shopping,” Halima Al-Kouri opens her junior high ESL class by handing out several copies of ads she had clipped from newspapers. Students work in samelanguage groups to figure out from the ads what the best bargains are. Students can use handheld calculators if they wish. As students answer questions, they are encouraged to explain their thinking to each other. Halima praises their efforts and then conducts a whole-class discuss to summarize the results. 61.

From a social constructivist perspective, which of the following is the best assessment of Halima’s lesson on Smart Shopping? a. It was effective because students were organized into same-language groups. b. It was ineffective, because students were allowed to use hand-held calculators. c. It was effective because the tasks integrated math with reading. d. It was effective because students were encouraged to explain their thinking to each other.

Chapter 9: Knowledge Construction and the Learning Sciences

62.

Using the suggestions for helping students construct valid knowledge as a basis for responding, which of the following statements is the best assessment of what Halima did in her learning activity? a. This is an effective activity, because it provides a real-world task and capitalizes on student-student interaction. b. This is an effective activity, because Halima praised their efforts. c. This is an ineffective activity, because Halima has not provided sufficient context for the topic. d. This is an ineffective activity, because students haven’t been provided with adequate examples.

Use the following information for items 63 and 64. Mrs. Bastuba has taught the principle, “Less-dense materials float on more-dense materials,” by illustrating it with demonstrations, such as showing that oil floats on water, because oil is less dense than water, and ice floats in water because ice is less dense than water. The students can state the principle, and she is now working on some applications with them. She drops an ice cube into a cup of water and another ice cube into a cup of alcohol, and the students observe that the ice floats in the water but sinks in the alcohol. 63.

Of the following questions, which is least consistent with suggestions for helping students construct valid knowledge? a. “Do you think the density of alcohol is greater or less than the density of water, and why do you think so?” b. “Explain how the density of water compares to the density of alcohol.” c. “How does the density of different substances relate to flotation?” d. “What are the chemical formulas for ice and for alcohol?”

64.

Katrina concludes that the ice is more dense than the alcohol (because it sank in the alcohol). After Katrina makes her conclusion, which of the following teacher actions is most consistent with suggestions for helping students construct valid knowledge? a. Say, “That’s an excellent conclusion, Katrina. Very well done.” b. Ask, “What do you think we should do next with the ice cube?” c. Ask, “How do you know that the ice cube is more dense than the alcohol?” d. Say, “Describe again what the ice cube is made of.”

Chapter 9: Knowledge Construction and the Learning Sciences

65.

Using suggestions for helping students construct valid knowledge as a basis for answering, of the following, which is the most important problem with using explanations as the primary way of developing student understanding? a. Explanations tend to be inaccurate, so students develop misconceptions about the topics they study. b. Teachers rarely use examples when they provide explanations, so students are unable to construct understanding. c. Explanations rarely include information about the real world, so students aren’t involved in real-world tasks. d. Explanations reduce the amount of interaction teachers have with students.

66.

Of the following, which is the best example of a real-world task? a. Students rewrite sentences to correctly indicate the possessive form of nouns. b. Students write a paragraph in which the rules for spelling and grammar are applied correctly. c. Students write an editorial for the school newspaper. d. Students write a one-paragraph summary of a section in their geography book.

67.

Of the following, which is the poorest example of a real world task? a. Students rewrite sentences to correctly indicate the possessive form of nouns. b. Students write a paragraph in which the rules for spelling and grammar are applied correctly. c. Students write a persuasive editorial for the school newspaper. d. Students write a friendly letter to a pen pal.

68. Which of the following best illustrates a real-world task for first graders learning about “living things”? a. Missy provides a big poster board matrix that shows the classes of living things, talks about it at circle time, and then hangs it in the classroom for later reference. b. Laura has the learners draw pictures of various living things. They draw pictures of plants and animals and hang them around the classroom as examples of living things. c. Donna has her class learn about plants and animals. For the animal section the class adopts a hamster to take care of, and for the plant unit each child is given seeds to plant and tend. d. Kate brings in age-appropriate factual books about plants and animals. She reads them, has the learners read and look at them, and then has each child do a retelling of what they learned from their favorite of the books.

Chapter 9: Knowledge Construction and the Learning Sciences

Use the following information for items 69-71. Judy Norquist frequently reminds her students that, “We’re all in this together, and we’re all here to help each other learn.” During a math lesson, she presents the problem, “One shirt that sells for $40.00 is marked 30% off, and another that sells for $36.00 is marked 20% off. Which shirt is now more expensive?” She has the students turn to a partner and discuss a proposed solution to the problem for one minute, and then has individuals suggest solutions, emphasizing that they explain their thinking in the process. 69.

Of the following, which principle of cognitive learning theory is Judy best applying in her lesson? a. To make sense of their experiences, learners construct knowledge. b. Knowledge that learners construct depends on what they already know. c. Social interaction facilitates learning. d. Learning and development depend on learners’ experiences.

70.

Of the following, the suggestion for helping students construct valid knowledge that Judy is most strongly applying by using problems such as “One shirt that sells for $40.00 is marked 30% off and another that sells for $36.00 is marked 20% off. Which shirt is now more expensive?”

to help them understand ideas, such as percent decrease is: a. Connect content to the real world. b. Reinforce students for demonstrating deep understanding of the problems. c. Make interaction an integral part of instruction. d. Promote learning with assessment. 71.

In spite of Judy’s efforts to promote a community of learners and capitalize on cognitive apprenticeships, Judy’s students struggle with the difference between percent decrease and percent increase, such as a 50% decrease from 40 is 20, but a 50% increase from 20 is only 30. Using the principles of cognitive learning theory as a basis, which of the following is the most likely reason for the students’ struggles? a. The differences between percent increase and percent decrease don’t make sense to the students. b. The students never get a chance to capitalize on social interaction to help them understand the differences between percent increase and percent decrease. c. The students don’t get a chance to practice with real-world problems. d. Judy doesn’t effectively model the differences between percent increase and percent decrease.

Chapter 9: Knowledge Construction and the Learning Sciences

Use the following information for items 72 and 73. Four teachers are teaching the rule for punctuating nonessential clauses to their language arts students. Kimberly Cobb displays six sentences on the overhead, three of which contain essential clauses and three others that contain nonessential clauses. She points out the clauses, models correctly punctuates them, and explains why they are punctuated in this way. She then gives the students several sentences for practice, directing them to correctly punctuate the clauses in the sentences. Cassie Greene presents a paragraph that contains three underlined essential clauses and three other italicized nonessential clauses, each punctuated correctly. The class discusses the common features of the underlined and italicized clauses, and, with Cassie’s guidance they arrive at a rule for punctuating essential and nonessential clauses. Cassie then directs the students to write a paragraph containing at least three examples of essential clauses and three other examples of nonessential clauses, all punctuated correctly. Steve Smith presents several sentences that contain essential clauses and other sentences that contain nonessential clauses. He directs the students to look for clauses in the sentences that have commas around them, and he guides them to conclude that the clauses set off by commas are not essential, whereas those that don’t have commas around them are essential. He then gives the students some additional sentences to punctuate correctly. Keith Sanderson presents a passage in which several examples of essential and nonessential clauses are embedded. He asks the students to describe the passages, and after they have made several observations, he punctuates the sentences properly, explaining the rule in the process. He then gives the students some additional sentences, which contain essential and nonessential clauses, and directs them to punctuate them correctly. 72.

The teacher who best applies suggestions for classroom practice based on social influences on learning and the process of knowledge construction is: a. Kimberly. b. Cassie. c. Steve. d. Keith.

73.

The teacher who least nearly applies the suggestions for suggestions for helping students construct valid knowledge is: a. Kimberly. b. Cassie. c. Steve. d. Keith.

Chapter 9: Knowledge Construction and the Learning Sciences

Use the following information for items 74 and 75. Four teachers are teaching the concepts of adjective and adverb phrases to their language arts students. Mrs. Mariadaga presents a two-paragraph passage that contains three underlined adjective phrases and three italicized adverb phrases. The class discusses the common features of the phrases and what they modify and describes adjective and adverb phrases. The students then write a paragraph containing at least one adjective and one adverb phrase. Mr. Bush displays several sentences—some of which contain adjective phrases and others of which contain adverb phrases—on the overhead. He points out the adjective phrases, underlines them, and points to the noun they modify. He does the same thing with the sentences containing the adverb phrases. He then gives the students several sentences for practice, directing them to underline the phrase in each case, identify it as an adjective or adverb phrase, and circle the word it modifies. Mr. Moy presents several sentences that contain underlined adjective phrases. He asks the students to look for the word that each modifies and identify it as a noun or a verb. He then asks them what the phrases that modify nouns must be, and when no one answers he asks them what modifies nouns. They respond, “Adjectives,” and he points out that these are adjective phrases. He does the same thing with adverb phrases, and he then gives them several sentences, has them identify the adjective and/or adverb phrase and identify the word the phrases modify in each case. Mrs. Evans presents a passage in which several examples of adjective and adverb phrases are embedded. She asks the students to describe the passages, and after they have made several observations, she underlines the adjective phrases, pointing out that they modify a noun in each case. She circles the noun they modify to be sure that the students focus on the relationship between the noun and the phrase. She repeats the process with the adverb phrases and then gives the students some sentences and directs them to identify the adjective and adverb phrases and the words they modify. 74.

The teacher’s instruction that most nearly applies the suggestions for suggestions for helping students construct valid knowledge is: a. Mrs. Mariadaga. b. Mr. Bush. c. Mr. Moy. d. Mrs. Evans.

75.

The teacher’s instruction that least nearly applies the suggestions for suggestions for helping students construct valid knowledge is: a. Mrs. Mariadaga. b. Mr. Bush. c. Mr. Moy. d. Mrs. Evans.

Chapter 9: Knowledge Construction and the Learning Sciences

76.

Shana Boer is teaching the concept arthropod to her students. She displays the definition, “Arthropods are cold-blooded animals with an exoskeleton, three body parts, and jointed legs.” She then shows students outline drawings of a lobster, a spider, a beetle, and an ant, telling the students that they’re arthropods. Which of the following is the best assessment of her lesson as an application of the suggestions for suggestions for helping students construct valid knowledge? a. It is consistent with the suggestions for classroom practice since she provided a variety of examples of the topic (her drawings of the arthropods). b. It is inconsistent with the suggestions for classroom practice, since she provided the examples instead of having the students find the examples for themselves. c. It is inconsistent with the suggestions for classroom practice, since understanding the concept arthropod isn’t a real-world task and therefore shouldn’t be taught. d. It is inconsistent with the suggestions for classroom practice, since she merely told the students that the examples were arthropods, and there didn’t appear to be any discussion in the lesson.

Use the following information for items 77 and 78. Jaclyn Lincoln, a fourth-grade teacher, wants her students to identify the correct verb in sentences such as “Andrea and Jose (is, are) the fastest runners on the girls’ and boys’ track teams.” She has the students complete a series of exercises in which they have to identify the correct verb, the class goes over the exercises, and Jaclyn provides corrective feedback. Avery Boyd, a math teacher, wants his students to be able to simplify arithmetic expressions, such as 3 + 5(8 -2) – 7. He models the process, explains each step, and then has the students solve several additional problems. They discuss the problems, and Avery has the students identify each step in solving the problems and explain why the step is necessary. Richard Dodd, a social studies teacher, wants his students to understand how geography, economy, and recreational patterns are interrelated. He shows the students a map that illustrates different geographic regions, such as mountains and plains, a matrix comparing the economies of the areas, and pictures illustrating the recreational patterns in these areas. The students look for relationships in the information, and with Richard’s help derive conclusions about the influence of geography and economy on recreational patterns. Lisa Hogan, a science teacher, wants her students to understand the characteristics of the solar system. She lists the planets and their distances from the sun on the board and explains that the first four planets are called the inner planets and the other four are called the outer planets. She then provides information about each of the planets, such as their size, density, and periods of rotation on their axes. Providing students with experiences that promote deep understanding is one of the suggestions for suggestions for helping students construct valid knowledge. 77.

The teacher who most effectively follows this suggestion is: a. Jaclyn. b. Avery. c. Richard. d. Lisa.

Chapter 9: Knowledge Construction and the Learning Sciences

78.

The teacher who least effectively follows this suggestion is: a. Jaclyn. b. Avery. c. Richard. d. Lisa.

79.

As part of a unit on percents and decimals, Katie Guzman gave her students ads from three different newspapers, each advertising the same products. Students then determined the cost per ounce for products such as orange juice and canned vegetables. After the students completed their calculations, Katie led a whole-class discussion in which the students explained their thinking and decided which products actually were the least expensive per ounce. During the discussion Katie periodically smiled and made comments, such as “Good analysis,” when students demonstrated a clear understanding of the topic. Based on the suggestions for classroom practice based on social influences on learning and the process of knowledge construction, which of the following descriptions is the best assessment of Katie’s lesson? a. It was ineffective, because Katie gave the students the newspaper ads instead of having the students find the ads themselves. b. It was ineffective, because Katie should have had the students complete the activity in small groups instead of conducting a whole-class discussion. c. It was effective, because students were reinforced for clear thinking. d. It was effective, because it provided a real-world task and used a considerable amount of social interaction.

Essay Items 80.

Explain how your role as a teacher will change when grounding your instruction in constructivist views of learning, compared to traditional instruction, such as lecture.

81.

Describe four suggestions for suggestions for helping students construct valid knowledge and provide an example of each.

82.

Explain why assessment is so essential when grounding instruction in constructivist views of learning.

83.

Jennifer Clower wants her students to understand that when we exert a force on an object, it accelerates. She explains acceleration, such as objects’ speeding up as they fall to the earth, but she is uneasy about the extent to which the students understand the concept acceleration. So, she demonstrates force and acceleration by pulling a small cart across the front of the classroom using a spring scale that exerts a constant force. She also holds a tennis ball above her head and drops it and then shows a computer simulation that illustrates the acceleration of the dropped ball in slow motion. Jennifer explains that as the distances between the images of the ball get greater and greater, the ball is accelerating. Assess Jennifer’s lesson using the suggestions for suggestions for helping students construct valid knowledge as the basis for your assessment.

Chapter 10: Motivation and Learning

CHAPTER TEN MOTIVATION AND LEARNING What Is Motivation? Knowledge-Level Items 1.

Which of the following is the best definition of motivation? a. The process involved when people seek to meet their personal needs b. The process involved when goal-directed activity is instigated and sustained c. The process involved when people increase their behavior to receive reinforcers and avoid punishers d. The process involved in which people seek to be all they can be and become selfactualized

Which of the following is not true of motivated students? a. They tend to have higher grades. b. They learn content almost effortlessly. c. They have more positive attitudes toward school. d. They persist on difficult tasks.

Of the following, extrinsic motivation is best described as: a. motivation to complete a activity that meets a need for safety. b. motivation to complete a task as the means to an end. c. motivation to complete a task because it enhances self-efficacy. d. motivation to complete an activity because it results in a feeling of competence.

Which of the following is the best description of intrinsic motivation? a. Motivation to complete a task as a means to an end b. Motivation to complete a task to meet a need for intellectual achievement c. Motivation to engage in an activity for its own sake d. Motivation to complete a task to meet the need for relatedness

Which of the following is considered to be an activity that is intrinsically motivating? a. An activity that illustrates performance compared to others b. An activity that displays high performance c. An activity that will result in reinforcement d. An activity that is inherently interesting

Students engrossed in the unusual results of a lab experiment best illustrate the intrinsically motivating effects of: a. curiosity. b. autonomy. c. utility value. d. expectation for success. 251 Copyright © 2020, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

Chapter 10: Motivation and Learning

Which of the following task characteristics is not associated with intrinsic motivation? a. Task challenge b. Task ease c. Task novelty d. Task autonomy

Which of the following statements most accurately describes the relationship between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation? a. People high in intrinsic motivation are generally low in extrinsic motivation. b. People who are low in intrinsic motivation are generally high in extrinsic motivation. c. People who are high in intrinsic motivation are also generally high in extrinsic motivation. d. People can be high in one and low in the other, high in both, or low in both.

An intense form of intrinsic motivation in which an individual is completely absorbed, focused, and concentrating on a challenging activity best describes which of the following? a. Grit b. Utility c. Motivation to learn d. Flow

10.

Which of the following best describes the concept motivation to learn? a. The tendency to find topics intrinsically interesting and engaging b. The tendency to find topics meaningful and worthwhile c. The tendency to increase efforts to learn as a result of positive reinforcement d. The tendency to engage in an activity because equilibrium has been disrupted

11.

Of the following, the person most closely associated with the concept of extrinsic motivation is: a. Piaget. b. White. c. Pavlov. d. Skinner.

12.

Research examining the use of rewards in classrooms suggests that which of the following statements is most likely to be true? a. Since using rewards to increase motivation is controversial, they are not commonly used in classrooms. b. Offering rewards for participating in intrinsically motivating activities will sustain and increase motivation for those tasks. c. Rewards can be effective for encouraging participation in tasks that are not initially intrinsically interesting. d. Using rewards to communicate that competence is increasing can decrease motivation because it sends a low-ability message. 252 Copyright © 2020, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

Chapter 10: Motivation and Learning

13.

Of the following, which would be least recommended for the use of rewards in an attempt to motivate students to learn? a. Use rewards to increase participation in activities that are not initially intrinsically interesting. b. Base rewards on participation in a learning activity, not on the quality of work. c. Use rewards to communicate increasing competence. d. Avoid using rewards to control students’ behavior.

14.

Which of the following is not a reward typically given in elementary school classrooms? a. Consumable items b. Teacher praise c. Trophies d. Entertainment

15.

Which of the following is not a reward typically given in middle and secondary school classrooms? a. Teacher comments on papers b. Free time to talk to classmates c. High test scores or good grades d. Public displays of reward or praise

16.

Cognitive and social cognitive views of motivation focus on each of the following except: a. learners’ beliefs. b. learners' need to understand. c. learners’ expectations for success. d. learners’ needs for positive regard.

17.

Of the following, the person most associated with cognitive views of motivation that stress students’ need to understand is: a. Skinner. b. Maslow. c. Piaget. d. Combs.

18.

Of the following, beliefs and expectations most closely relate to: a. behaviorist views of motivation. b. humanistic views of motivation. c. psychoanalytic views of motivation. d. cognitive and social cognitive views of motivation.

Chapter 10: Motivation and Learning

19.

Which theoretical view of motivation suggests that individuals in communities of learners are more motivated than they would be in a classroom environment that is competitive or provides less support? a. Behaviorist b. Cognitive c. Sociocultural d. Humanistic

20.

Which of the following descriptions is most consistent with a sociocultural view of motivation? a. Students are motivated by the need to receive rewards and avoid punishers. b. A positive learning environment provides motivational scaffolding that encourages learners to engage in activities that they would not do on their own. c. Students have an innate need to become competent, and they will be motivated to engage in activities that allow them to develop their competence. d. People have an innate need for unconditional positive regard, and their motivation increases when they are treated with courtesy and respect.

21.

Which of the following people would be most likely to say that we are motivated by a need for personal growth and development? a. Skinner b. Maslow c. Piaget d. White

22.

Of the following, the concept most closely related to the foundation of humanistic views of motivation is: a. the self. b. reinforcement. c. competence. d. self-efficacy.

23.

According to humanistic views of motivation and management, one suggestion for application of humanistic views of motivation for classrooms is for teachers to handle their problem students by: a. first building a personal relationship with them. b. warning them before punishing any infractions of rules. c. establishing rules for the class at the beginning of the school year. d. trying to understand their need for achievement.

Chapter 10: Motivation and Learning

Higher-Level Items 24.

Based on research examining factors that impact motivation, which of the following statements is most likely to increase learners’ intrinsic motivation? a. “Well done. You’ve finished all your problems, so you can go back to the reading corner and read any book you want.” b. “Well done. I like it when people are willing to participate in a new activity.” c. “Well done. Everyone has completed their seat work, so we won’t have homework tonight.” d. “Well done. Word problems can be tough, and you are improving a great deal in solving them.

25.

David Moore tries to start each of his lessons with a demonstration, such as dropping two objects of unequal weight and seeing them hit the floor at the same time. Which of the following best describes David’s attempts? a. He is trying to capitalize on learners’ extrinsic needs to feel competent. b. He is trying to capitalize on learners’ intrinsic needs for intellectual achievement. c. He is trying to capitalize on the intrinsically motivating effects of curiosity. d. He is trying to capitalize on the intrinsically motivating effects of autonomy.

26.

Sengi Fumalaro begins the study of inertia in his physical science class by swinging a cup of water attached to a string around his head and asks–as the cup of water is swinging–why the water does not fly out of the cup. Of the following, on which is Sengi most nearly trying to capitalize? a. The motivational effects of students’ beliefs about ability b. The intrinsically motivating effects of curiosity c. The intrinsically motivating effects of a safe and orderly learning environment d. The intrinsically motivating effects of students’ needs for intellectual achievement

27.

Which of the following is the best illustration of intrinsic motivation? a. Brad does trigonometry problems, because, “I want to understand stuff, like the way buildings are built.” b. Sue studies hard so, “I can maintain my A average in trig.” c. Janet does her homework faithfully, because, “I need a scholarship to be able to go to college.” d. Rick works hard in algebra, because, “I need to understand algebra, so I can take more advanced math courses later.”

Chapter 10: Motivation and Learning

28.

Your students are involved in an activity that they appear to be interested in. You decide to also offer a reward in an attempt to further enhance their interest and motivation. According to research examining rewards and intrinsic motivation, which of the following is most likely in the long term? a. The offer of a reward will further increase students’ interest and motivation. b. The offer of a reward will decrease students’ interest and motivation. c. The offer of a reward is unlikely to affect students’ interest and motivation one way or the other. d. The offer of a reward will enhance students’ creativity and task orientation.

29.

Mrs. Jacobson and Mr. Lucas have their students involved in problem-solving activities. They each have a wide range of problems, and the students can choose those they attempt to solve. In an attempt to motivate her students, Mrs. Jacobson offers students a reward for each problem solved correctly. Mr. Lucas does not. If their students’ behaviors are consistent with patterns identified by research examining the impact of rewards on choice of tasks, which of the following is most likely? a. The students in Mrs. Jacobson’s class will select more difficult problems to solve than will the students in Mr. Lucas’s class. b. The students in Mr. Lucas’s class will select more difficult problems to solve than will the students in Mrs. Jacobson’s class. c. The students in Mrs. Jacobson’s class will initially select easier problems to solve, but as they practice, they will select increasingly difficult problems. d. The offer of the reward will have little effect one way or the other on the problems the students in either class choose.

30.

John is engrossed in taking apart and putting together his block train. Which theorist would be most likely to say John has a need for order, predictability, and an understanding of the way the world works? a. Piaget b. Skinner c. Freud d. Bandura

31.

“Aha! I’ve figured out what I need to do to get the computer to run this program. I’ll be right with you. I want to go back in the lab and see if it will work on my assignment.” The theory of motivation that best explains why a student would make such a statement is: a. behaviorist. b. cognitive. c. humanistic. d. sociocultural.

Chapter 10: Motivation and Learning

32.

In an effort to help students feel a sense of autonomy, their teacher asks them whether they would prefer taking their short quiz at the beginning or end of the class period. What general view of motivation would most advocate this procedure? a. Behavioral b. Cognitive c. Humanistic d. Sociocultural

33.

James is misbehaving in Norma Washington’s class. After the third incident, Norma removes James from the group and puts him in a time-out area. The next day Norma greets James warmly and treats him as if his past behavior was irrelevant. If Norma is using humanistic views of motivation to guide her decision, which of the following statements best describes her efforts? a. Norma is trying to communicate unconditional positive regard for James. b. Norma is attempting to negatively reinforce James for desirable behaviors. c. Norma is trying to model effective responses to people for James. Feedback: Modeling is a social cognitive theory concept. The example says that Norma is using humanistic views of motivation to guide her efforts. d. Norma is trying to reduce James’ anxiety about being back with the group.

For items 34–51, mark “a” if the statement or quote most closely relates to humanistic views of motivation, mark “b” if it most closely relates to behaviorism, mark “c” if it most closely relates to cognitive or social cognitive views of motivation, and mark “d” if it most closely relates to sociocultural views of motivation. 34.

“I often make statements like ‘I’m going to make you think on this one,’ and then I try to help them get it.”

35.

Challenge is one of the key characteristics of motivating activities, because learners view challenging activities as worthwhile.

36.

“Joe is the class clown. He acts this way to get the attention of his buddies.”

37.

“I’m a good writer, and I work hard on my assignments. So, I usually get A’s on my assignments.”

38.

“I try to promote the idea that ‘We’re all in this together,’ with my students. We’re all here to help each other learn.”

39.

“You need to try something other than grades to motivate these kids. Try giving them free time or a pizza party if they turn in their work.”

40.

“Our understanding of motivation will never be complete if we don’t take kids’ feelings into account when we plan and teach.”

Chapter 10: Motivation and Learning

41.

“Call on all the kids, so they’ll feel like they’re a part of our classroom community.”

42.

“When they give you a right answer, genuinely praise them. You want to try to get them to feel good about themselves.”

43.

“I try to convince them that they can do it if they try hard enough, so the first thing I work at is getting them to try. Then I try to convince them that their effort will pay off on problems they view as useful outside of the class.”

44.

“I have a chart on the wall with all the kids’ names on it. Whenever they turn in their homework, no matter how inaccurate it may be, they get to put a red star by their name. If they do it and they get 7 or more out of 10 right, they get to put a blue star by their name.”

45.

“I always try to start a lesson with something unexpected. It keeps the kids interested.”

46.

“We’d like you to work with Mr. Z. The kids think he hates them, and consequently they don’t like him, so they won’t do their work.”

47.

“I try to give my kids’ tests back to them the next day. Immediate feedback is a nice bonus for the the ones who did well.”

48.

“I try to do an appropriate amount of group work. Kids will sometimes do more work in groups than by themselves, because the other kids push them along.”

49.

“Kids need to succeed on activities that are important to them. If they can’t do the work or if they don’t think the activity is worthwhile, they won’t try.”

50.

“I always try to tell the kids why we’re studying the particular topic we’re on. Even if they don’t quite agree, I think they try harder when I tell them why. ”

51.

“Children come to school for more than just academics. For some of these kids, school is a haven, an escape from some of the dangers they face, and even a chance for a hot meal.

Essay Items 52.

“Timeout,” or the removal of a student from the body of the class, has been demonstrated as an effective deterrent for inappropriate behavior. Explain why “timeout” works on the basis of humanistic theories of motivation.

53.

Research indicates that specific praise (praise that not only tells the learner that the answer was commendable, but also identifies what about the answer made it commendable) is superior to general praise (praise that merely notes that the answer was commendable). Which view of motivation—behaviorist, cognitive, or humanistic—would best explain why specific praise is preferable to general praise? Explain why.

Chapter 10: Motivation and Learning

The Influence of Needs on Motivation to Learn Knowledge-Level Items 54.

An internal force or drive to attain or to avoid a certain state or object is best described as a: a. goal. b. need. c. expectation. d. belief.

55.

In Maslow’s hierarchy, which of the following is a deficiency need? a. The need for competence b. The need for autonomy c. The need for safety d. The need for self-actualization

56.

According to Maslow, which of the following is a growth need? a. The need for self-esteem b. The need for self-actualization c. The need to preserve a sense of self-worth d. The need for autonomy

57.

Having a clear perception of reality and accepting self, others, and the world are characteristics of: a. self-actualization. b. self-esteem. c. self-awareness. d. self-efficacy.

58.

The needs for competence, control, and relatedness are most closely related to: a. attribution theory. b. expectancy x value theory. c. self-efficacy theory. d. self-determination theory.

59.

Which of the following is the best description of competence? a. The need to act on and control one’s environment b. The ability to function effectively in the environment c. The ability to reach one’s full potential and be all one can be d. Independence and an individual’s ability to alter the environment when necessary

60.

The concepts of autonomy and competence most closely relates to which of the following? a. The need for self-determination b. The need to preserve self-worth c. The need to avoid failure d. The need to derive pleasure from novel or unique events 259 Copyright © 2020, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

Chapter 10: Motivation and Learning

61.

Independence and an individual’s ability to alter the environment when necessary best describes which of the following? a. Self-actualization b. Competence c. Autonomy d. Self-worth

62.

The desire to be accepted and judged positively by others is best described as: a. the need for belonging. b. the need for self-actualization. c. the need for approval. d. the need to preserve a sense of self-worth.

63.

Which of the following statements is most likely to be true of students in different cultures? a. Achievement and parental approval are important to members of cultural minorities, but not to mainstream students. b. Achievement and parental approval are important to Asian American students, but not to other students. c. Achievement and parental approval are important to students in elementary schools, but not to older students. d. Achievement and parental approval is important to virtually all students.

64.

Of the following, the term that is often used interchangeably with the term self-worth is: a. self-confidence. b. self-efficacy. c. self-esteem. d. self-determination.

65.

In our society, which of the following tends to be most closely associated with our sense of self-worth? a. Our self-schemas b. Our perceptions of our ability c. Our perceptions of our self-efficacy d. Our perceptions of others’ reactions to us

66.

Which of the following best describes older students’ views of the relationship between effort and ability? a. They believe that effort and ability are essentially synonymous. b. They believe that ability is alterable, and effort increases ability. c. They believe that expending effort is an indicator of low ability. d. They believe that high-ability students tend to be hard workers.

Chapter 10: Motivation and Learning

Higher-Level Items 67.

Butler Elementary School provides free breakfast for children from low SES families. Of the following, which best explains why providing the breakfast is important for learner motivation? a. It establishes the expectation that school will be an inviting place to study. b. It reinforces students for behaving properly and following school rules and procedures. c. It helps create the perception of a learning community in the classroom. d. It meets a survival need according to Maslow’s hierarchy of needs.

68.

According to Maslow, which of the following needs will predominate if there is a conflict among needs? a. Need to spend time at concerts and museums b. Need to stay informed about events in the world c. Need to belong to a family d. Need to be seen as a fully functioning individual

69.

Mrs. Baker is concerned about Jane being left out by her peers, so she gives Jane the job of class librarian in an attempt to increase the number of interactions between Jane and her classmates. Mrs. Baker was most concerned with what level of Maslow’s hierarchy? a. Belonging b. Safety c. Self-actualization d. Self-esteem

70.

Mrs. Diaz understands Maslow’s theory and attempts to apply it in her work with her students. Of the following, which is the most important application of Mrs. Diaz’s attempts to apply Maslow’s work with her students? a. Providing children with a chance to explore and gather experience b. Providing a midmorning snack in case children haven’t eaten at home c. Giving the children ample opportunities for success in classroom activities d. Providing ample verbal praise for accomplishments

71.

Which of the following statements would best be explained using Maslow’s hierarchy of needs? a. An individual’s first reaction to others, including teachers, is usually an assessment of how intelligent or competent they are. b. An individual’s first reaction to others, including teachers, is usually an assessment of the extent to which they flatter and reinforce the individual. c. An individual’s first reaction to others, including teachers, will usually be an assessment of how interesting and engaging they are. d. An individual’s first reaction to others, including teachers, will usually be an assessment of how nice or caring they are.

Chapter 10: Motivation and Learning

72.

Our first reaction to others is usually at an emotional, personal, and “human” level. This is best explained by: a. Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. b. the need for self-determination. c. the need to preserve our sense of self-worth. d. the need to be reinforced by others.

73.

Kathy is an avid reader, and she loves reading great literature. In fact, the more she reads, the greater her interest appears to be. Using Maslow’s hierarchy as a basis, which of the following best explains Kathy’s tendency? a. Kathy is a self-actualized individual. b. Kathy’s growth needs have been met. c. Kathy’s belonging need has been met. d. Kathy is compensating for low self-esteem by being an avid reader.

74.

Research indicates that statements, such as, “You’re writing is really improving. I can see that you’ve been working hard, and it’s paying off,” can increase intrinsic motivation. Which of the following best explains this research result? a. People’s needs for self-determination b. People’s needs to protect their self-worth c. People’s needs to be reinforced. d. People’s needs to be in a social environment

75.

Joanne Castle asks students to suggest which topic they would like to study first, second, third, and so on. Javier Sanchez carefully describes the content and format of his quizzes in an effort to reduce test anxiety. Jim West gives quizzes back the day after he gives them, so the students will understand how they did and why. Clarence Williams makes a concerted effort to point out the value of what the class is studying for their success in the future. The teacher whose efforts most nearly meet students’ needs for self-determination is: a. Joanne. b. Javier. c. Jim. d. Clarence.

Chapter 10: Motivation and Learning

76.

Jennifer Dussette, a middle school teacher, liberally praises her students for their efforts, even if they are unsuccessful, and praises their answers to both difficult and easy questions. Using students’ needs for self-determination as a basis, which of the following is the best assessment of Jennifer’s efforts? a. It is likely to be effective because she is attempting to help the students believe they have high ability, so it is likely to increase the students’ sense of self-worth. b. It is likely to be ineffective because students may perceive praise for answering easy questions as indicating that Jennifer believes they are not competent. c. It is likely to be effective because it helps meet the students’ need for relatedness. d. It is likely to be ineffective because her general praise provides no information about the utility value of what the students are learning.

77.

Cassie Green asks her students to help her with decisions about the rules and procedures they will follow to make their classroom function smoothly. Cassie incorporates much of what the students offer into her final list of rules and procedures. Of the following, which description best explains the effectiveness of Cassie’s efforts? a. Students’ beliefs about their capability b. Students’ perceptions of their self-worth c. Students’ needs for self-determination d. Students’ beliefs about utility value

78.

Research indicates that challenging tasks are intrinsically motivating. Of the following, which description best explains the intrinsically motivating effects of challenge? a. People’s needs for self-actualization, because challenging tasks increase students’ perception that they’re becoming self-actualized b. People’s goals, because challenging goals generally lead to a high-performance orientation in learners c. Behaviorist theory, because learners are likely to perceive challenging goals as reinforcing, whether or not they’re successful d. People’s needs for self-determination, because meeting challenges indicates that competence is increasing

79.

Of the following, which is likely to best meet students’ need for relatedness? a. A teacher who reinforces students for participating in learning activities, whether or not the students are successful. b. A teacher who spends time with students outside of class in an effort to help students meet high expectations. c. A teacher who carefully explains assignments and uses a variety of high-quality examples to clarify the topics they’re studying. d. A teacher who creates learning activities easy enough so all students can succeed the first time they try.

Chapter 10: Motivation and Learning

80.

Which of the following assessment practices is most effective for helping students meet their need for self-determination? a. Increase the number of assessments, and provide detailed feedback for all items. b. Publicly recognize students who score high on assessments, so they can serve as role models for other students. c. Keep the number of assessments during a grading period to a minimum to avoid damaging students’ sense of self-worth. d. Avoid telling students how they will be assessed to increase the sense of challenge in assessments.

81.

Students sometimes make a point of not studying for tests and telling their peers that they haven’t studied. According to self-worth theory, which of the following is the best explanation for this kind of behavior? a. They are attempting to meet their need for relatedness with their peers. b. They are attempting to maintain their sense of autonomy by choosing not to study. c. They are attempting to meet their belonging need by identifying with their peers. d. They are attempting to preserve the perception that they have high ability.

Use the following information for items 82 and 83. After their teacher returned a test, students are commenting on the results. Seeing a C+, Ken shrugged, “Not bad, particularly when you consider how hard I studied. I didn’t crack a book on this one.” “I don’t get it,” John added. “I got a B and I didn’t know what was going on. I must have been good at guessing or something. I don’t know how I did it.” “I just can’t do this stuff,” Korri sighed, throwing up her hands in exasperation. “I guess I’m just not cut out for chemistry,” she added, seeing the D on her paper. Seeing a C, Pam noted, “I knew this test was going to be a bear, and I just didn’t study enough. Next time I’ll be ready.” 82.

The student whose reaction can be best explained by self-worth theory is: a. Ken. b. John. c. Korri. d. Pam.

83.

The student who is in the most danger of engaging in “self-handicapping” strategies is: a. Ken. b. John. c. Korri. d. Pam.

Chapter 10: Motivation and Learning

Use the following information for items 84 and 85. Older students, such as those in middle and high schools, tend to view working hard as an indicator of low ability, so they will sometimes avoid studying to preserve the perception that they have high ability. Four teachers are aware of this tendency and take steps to change their views. Vicki Barnhart frequently tells students that working hard is very important, and they must work hard if they are going to be successful in life. Nick Evans posts his students’ test scores on the board and tells those who did poorly to start giving the ones who score high a run for their money. Whenever opportunities come up, Mike Brown tells his students about how hard he works and says he is getting a lot smarter as a result. Norma Layton offers her students help sessions after school and tells them that anyone who is struggling with a topic should come in for extra help. 84.

The teacher who is most likely to overcome the students’ tendencies to view working hard as an indicator of low ability is: a. Vicki. b. Nick. c. Mike. d. Norma.

85.

The teacher who is least likely to overcome the students’ tendencies to view working hard as an indicator of low ability is: a. Vicki. b. Nick. c. Mike. d. Norma.

Essay Items 86.

Using Maslow’s hierarchy of needs as a basis, explain the meaning of the statement, “We are personal, social, emotional creatures before we’re intellectual ones.” What implications does this statement have for our teaching?

87.

Explain why praising a student for a genuine accomplishment can help meet the student’s need for self-determination.

88.

Describe what teachers can do to help overcome older students’ tendencies to view working hard as an indicator of low ability, and explain why the actions are likely to be effective.

89.

Describe four suggestions teachers can follow as they attempt to capitalize on learners’ needs to increase motivation to learn. Provide an example that illustrates each of the suggestions.

Chapter 10: Motivation and Learning

The Influence of Beliefs on Motivation to Learn Knowledge-Level Items 90.

A cognitive idea we accept as true without necessarily having definitive evidence to support it is best described as a(n): a. need. b. expectation. c. belief. d. goal.

91.

Of the following, which is the best description of an expectation? a. A belief about a future outcome b. A belief about a person’s capability c. A belief about a cause of performance d. A belief about the effectiveness of a goal

92.

Of the following, which is the best description of a fixed mindset? a. The belief that intelligence is essentially fixed and stable over time b. The belief that intelligence is unstable and can be increased with effort c. The belief that intelligence is a single trait rather than a construct composed of several factors d. The belief that intelligence depends on a combination of factors from both heredity and the environment

93.

Of the following, which is the best description of a growth mindset? a. The belief that intelligence is essentially fixed and stable over time b. The belief that intelligence is unstable and can be increased with effort c. The belief that intelligence is composed of several factors as opposed to being a single trait d. The belief that intelligence depends primarily on heredity rather than the environment

94.

Which psychologist proposed the concept of self-efficacy? a. Bandura b. Skinner c. Erikson d. Maslow

95.

A student’s beliefs related to his or her capability of succeeding on a specific task is called: a. self-esteem. b. self-concept. c. self-efficacy. d. self-awareness.

Chapter 10: Motivation and Learning

96.

Which of the following is a characteristic of low self-efficacy learners? a. They expend high effort on challenging tasks. b. They control stress and anxiety when goals aren’t met. c. They discard unproductive strategies. d. They focus on feelings of incompetence.

97.

Research indicates that past performance and verbal persuasion both influence an individual’s self-efficacy. Which of the following is an additional factor indicated by research to influence self-efficacy? a. Modeling b. Academic self-concept c. Learning style d. Ethnicity

98.

Of the following, factors that influence a student’s sense of self-efficacy, which is most important? a. Past performance b. Modeling c. Teacher expectations d. Other students’ perceptions

99.

Of the factors influencing a student’s sense of self-efficacy, which of the following is least under teacher control or influence? a. Past performance b. Modeling c. Verbal persuasion d. Psychological state

100. With respect to motivation, “the benefits, rewards, or advantages that individuals believe may result from participating in an activity” best describes which of the following? a. Beliefs about intelligence b. Beliefs about capability c. Beliefs about value d. Beliefs about causes of performance 101. The importance an individual attaches to doing well on a task because it allows people to confirm (or disconfirm) beliefs they have about themselves is best described as: a. attainment value. b. task value. c. utility value. d. expectancy value.

Chapter 10: Motivation and Learning

102. The belief that a topic, activity, or course of study will be useful for meeting future goals best describes: a. expectation for success. b. self-efficacy. c. attainment value. d. utility value. 103. The concept of utility value is most closely related to which of the following theories? a. Expectancy x value theory b. Goal theory c. Attribution theory d. Self-determination theory 104. The consideration of what an individual must give up to engage in a task best describes which of the following? a. Beliefs about utility value b. Beliefs about attainment value c. Beliefs about cost d. Beliefs about future outcomes 105. Research indicates that students tend to view the causes of their successes and failures as being due primarily to four factors. They are: a. ability, effort, luck, and task difficulty. b. aptitude, effort, interest, and luck. c. interest, motivation, aptitude, and achievement. d. values, interest, aptitude, and achievement. 106. You have a student who seems to have “given up,” and she won’t try no matter how much effort you make. According to attribution theory, she most likely has been attributing her lack of success to: a. lack of ability. b. lack of effort. c. bad luck. d. tests and assignments that are too hard. 107. Which of the following theories best explains the idea that people are motivated to understand why they perform the way that they do? a. expectancy x value theory. b. goal theory. c. attribution theory. d. self-determination theory.

Chapter 10: Motivation and Learning

108. Of the following, the term most closely related to the concept of attribution is: a. need. b. reinforcer. c. explanation. d. achievement. 109. Beliefs explaining causes of performance best describe which of the following? a. Needs b. Expectancies c. Mindsets d. Attributions Higher-Level Items 110. “How are you going to do on the test?” Misty asks Alvenia as they walk into the classroom just before a test. “Fine, I think. I’m generally good at solving word problems, and I know being able to solve word problems is important for some of the more advanced courses we’ll be taking. Mr. Garcia said that this whole test would be problem solving.” Of the following, Alvenia’s comment is best explained by: a. behaviorist views of motivation. b. expectancy x value theory. c. attribution theory. d. self-determination theory. 111. Olivia loves tennis and wants very much to be a good tennis player. However, she has taken several lessons, and she is struggling to acquire the fundamentals of the game. Using the role of expectations in motivation to learn as the basis, of the following, which best describes her future motivation to learn to play tennis? a. Her motivation will increase because she loves tennis. b. Her motivation will increase because she wants very much to be a good tennis player. c. Her motivation will decrease because her expectations for success have not been met. d. Her motivation will decrease because her need for autonomy hasn’t been met.

Chapter 10: Motivation and Learning

112. Promoting motivation to learn with low achievers is particularly challenging for teachers. Using learners’ beliefs as a basis for the explanation, which of the following best explains why promoting motivation to learn with these students is so difficult? a. Low-achieving students’ needs for relatedness are rarely met, and lack of relatedness detracts from motivation to learn. b. Low-achieving students are often punished for misbehavior, and the punishment detracts from their motivation to learn. c. Low-achieving students rarely get to the level of growth needs in Maslow’s hierarchy, and meeting growth needs is essential for motivation to learn. d. Low-achieving students have a history of failure, so their expectation for success is low, and low success expectations detract from motivation to learn. 113. One of your students with a growth mindset scores poorly on one of your tests. If his behavior is consistent with research examining mindset, which of the following is most likely? a. He will avoid challenging tasks in the future to protect his self-esteem. b. He will develop a sense of learned helplessness. c. He will view his lack of success as lack of effort and will try harder in the future. d. He will consciously avoid trying, so he can attribute lack of success to lack of effort rather than lack of ability. 114. You have a student who has a fixed mindset, and he is struggling in your class. He scores poorly on one of your tests. Based on this information, which of the following is most likely? a. He will engage in self-handicapping behaviors, such as not studying, to avoid perceptions of low ability. b. He will seek help from you, explaining that he is struggling with your class, and that he needs help. c. He will seek help from his peers who are succeeding in your class, since they are effective models for him. d. He will view his lack of success as lack of effort and will try harder in the future. 115. You have a number of students in your class who make comments indicating that they have fixed mindsets. Of the following, which is likely to be most successful in helping change their beliefs about ability? a. Explain to students that evidence indicates that intelligence can be altered with effort, and cite research saying that experience creates new neurons in the brain. b. Model the belief that you get smarter with effort with statements such as, “I’ve been really studying Spanish, and I’m getting a little smarter in it all the time.” c. Use some of the hard-working students in the class as examples of how work can lead to success and achievement. d. Display students’ test scores on the board and point out that those will the highest scores are usually the ones who work the hardest.

Chapter 10: Motivation and Learning

116. Damien is improving a great deal in math, and he feels as if he can solve even tough problems now, such as those involving three or more steps. When he encounters a difficult problem, he persists and is generally able to solve it. Of the following, which best explains Damien’s persistence in solving difficult problems? a. His sense of autonomy b. His need to preserve his self-worth c. His self-efficacy d. His social responsibility goals 117. Dexter is given a set of physics problems to do. According to research examining selfefficacy, of the following, which will have the strongest influence on his beliefs about his capability of solving the problems? a. Seeing solutions successfully modeled by his teacher. b. Seeing solutions successfully modeled by his peers. c. His success on solving physics problems in the past. d. His teacher’s conviction that he is capable of solving physics problems. 118. Which of the following is the most likely reason why modeling increases self-efficacy? a. Seeing others succeed is a positive emotional experience for the observer. b. Modeling provides information about how a skill is performed. c. Modeling provides opportunities for positive attributions. d. Modeling reinforces appropriate behaviors. 119. Mrs. Castaneda calls Dominic to the board and has him explain a solution to a math word problem. “Very good job, Dominic,” she smiles after he’s finished. Ava, one of Dominic’s classmates, who has been a bit uncertain about how to solve similar problems, now concludes that she can do the problems assigned for homework. In this situation, which of the following is most influencing Ava’s sense of self-efficacy? a. Past performance b. Modeling c. Verbal persuasion d. Physical or emotional state 120. Mr. Rivas is concerned about some of his students’ tendency to be text anxious. In an effort to reduce their anxiety, he says evenly, “I know there are items on this test that are going to be challenging, and you’ll need to think carefully about them. . . . So, you have as much time as you need on the test. Do your best, and good luck.” In this situation, Mr. Rivas’s students’ self-efficacy is most likely to be influenced by which of the following factors? a. Past performance b. Modeling c. Verbal persuasion d. Emotional state

Chapter 10: Motivation and Learning

121. “Your reasoning is good,” Mr. Krathwohl comments in response to Bessie’s frustration as she tries to solve a perplexing algebra problem. “But you’re missing one little piece of information. I know that you can do it. Try the problem again. You can do it.” Of the following, the theory that best explains Mr. Krathwohl’s attempts to increase Bessie’s motivation to continue trying is: a. expectancy x value theory. b. self-efficacy theory. c. goal theory. d. self-determination theory. 122. Simone is a high-efficacy student, and Cal is a low-efficacy student. They both encounter a challenging assignment. Which of the following best describes how they will respond to the challenge of the assignment? a. Simone will continue with a particular strategy longer than will Cal. b. Simone will feel more stress than Cal if they are unable to solve the problem. c. Simone will more quickly try to find an easier problem to solve than will Cal. d. Simone will continue trying to solve the problem longer than will Cal. 123. “I’m really working hard on this term paper,” Jana comments to her friend, Lee. “I think I’m a good writer, and I’m thinking about majoring in English in college, so I need to prove to myself that I can do it.” Using learners’ beliefs as a basis, which of the following best explains why Jana is motivated to do well on her term paper? a. Doing well on the term paper will be reinforcing for her, since reinforcers increase behavior. b. Doing well on the paper will help her meet her self-esteem need because a good grade will increase her self-esteem. c. Doing well on the term paper has high attainment value for her, since it will confirm her beliefs about her writing ability. d. Doing well on the paper will help her meet her need for of self-determination, because her sense of autonomy will be increasing. 124. “I work really hard on my math,” Mike, a middle school student, comments. “I know that math courses in high school are tough, so the better I understand it now, the better I’ll understand it when I get to the tough classes.” Using learners’ beliefs as a basis, which of the following best explains why Mike is motivated to study math? a. Doing well in math will be reinforcing for him, since reinforcers increase behavior. b. Doing well in math will help him develop his sense of self-worth, since it will suggest he has high ability in math. c. Doing well in math has high utility value for him, since he sees it as useful for meeting future goals. d. Doing well in math will help him meet his need for self-determination, because it will give him a feeling of autonomy.

Chapter 10: Motivation and Learning

125. “I’m going to drop French,” Dana says to her friend, Judy. “I’m taking calculus, AP English, and physics this year, which is difficult, and French is overwhelming me. I know French is important for college, and I’m fairly good at it, but my grades are going down in my other subjects because I’m spending so my time on French. Which of the following is the best explanation for Dana’s decision to drop French? a. The attainment value for French is not high enough for Dana, so she isn’t motivated to study it. b. French doesn’t have high utility value for Dana, so she is not motivated to study it. c. Studying French doesn’t help Dana meet her need for competence, so she is not motivated to study it. d. Dana believes that the cost of taking French is too high, so she is not motivated to study it. Use the following example, and answer items 126-130 on the basis of students’ beliefs about the causes of their performance (their attributions). Their teacher has returned a test, and the students are commenting on the results. Seeing a B, Owen shrugs, “Pretty darn good, particularly when I didn’t even open my book for this one. “I don’t get it,” Andrew adds. “I got a C+ and I didn’t have a clue about what was on the test. I must have been good at guessing or something. I don’t know how I did it.” “I just can’t do it,” Sage sighs, throwing up her hands in exasperation. “I guess I’m just not cut out for chemistry,” she adds, seeing the D on her paper. Seeing a C, Kaylee sighs, “I knew this test was going to be tough, and I just didn’t study enough. Next time I’ll be ready.” 126. The student whose attribution has a locus outside the learner is: a. Owen. b. Andrew. c. Sage. d. Kaylee. 127. The student who most nearly attributes performance to a stable cause is: a. Owen. b. Andrew. c. Sage. d. Kaylee. 128. The student who is in the greatest danger of developing “learned helplessness” is: a. Owen. b. Andrew. c. Sage. d. Kaylee.

Chapter 10: Motivation and Learning

129. The student who is most likely to feel guilty about his or her performance is: a. Owen. b. Andrew. c. Sage. d. Kaylee. 130. The student whose attribution is most likely to lead to increased achievement is: a. Owen. b. Andrew. c. Sage. d. Kaylee. 131. Mary failed Spanish twice. She said, “What is the use? Even if I repeat it, I won’t pass. I just can’t do it.” These statements best illustrate the concept of: a. learned helplessness. b. low self-worth. c. extrinsic locus of control. d. relatedness. Essay Items 132. Explain why the “x” in expectancy x value theory is important for explaining people’s motivation. Offer an example to illustrate your explanation. 133. Several differences exist between the way students who are high in self-efficacy approach and think about tasks compared to students who are low in self-efficacy. Identify four of those differences. 134. Provide an example of when you were successful on a task, and describe how/why you were successful. Provide an example of a time when you were not successful on a task, and describe how/why. Classify your attributions based upon attribution theory as discussed in your text. 135. Describe three suggestions teachers can follow for applying the influence of beliefs to increase students’ motivation to learn, and provide an example of each. The Influence of Goals on Motivation to Learn Knowledge-Level Items 136. An outcome an individual hopes to achieve is best described as a(n): a. expectation. b. need. c. belief. d. goal.

Chapter 10: Motivation and Learning

137. Which of the following goals are most commonly set by students who lack self-confidence and have low self-efficacy? a. Mastery goals b. Performance-approach goals c. Performance-avoidance goals d. Social goals 138. At what grade level is a student’s tendency to adopt performance goals likely to be the highest? a. Kindergarten b. 1–4 c. 5–8 d. 9–12 139. Goals that focus on demonstrating ability, particularly as it compares to others, are called: a. ability goals. b. performance goals. c. learning goals. d. achievement goals. 140. Which of the following is a typical performance goal? a. To increase understanding b. To outperform peers c. To improve personal performance d. To master a task 141. When a learner adopts a goal orientation that is characterized by an emphasis on concerns about looking incompetent or being judged unfavorably, that learner is said to have adopted a: a. mastery-avoidance goal. b. performance-avoidance goal. c. mastery-approach goal. d. performance-approach goal. 142. The most detrimental type of goal orientation for learning outcomes is a: a. social goal. b. performance-avoidance goal. c. mastery goal. d. performance-approach goal.

Chapter 10: Motivation and Learning

143. Of the following, which is accurate regarding social goals and motivation to learn? a. The relationship between social goals and motivation to learn is generally high and positive. b. The relationship between social goals and motivation to learn is generally high and negative. c. The relationship between social goals and motivation to learn varies and may be either positive or negative. d. The relationship between social goals and motivation to learn is generally low and positive. 144. The ability to develop and sustain passion and commitment to achieving long-term goals best describes which of the following? a. Flow b. Self-determination c. Self-efficacy d. Grit Higher-Level Items 145. Which of the following is the best example of a performance goal? a. To try to solve each of the sample problems in the book before reading the solution the authors offer b. To get one of the two or three highest grades in the class on the next quiz c. To write the definition of each boldfaced term in the text d. To do all the homework assignments for the next week 146. Which of the following is the best example of a social goal? a. Rosabella helps Georgia with her homework in algebra several days a week. b. Nathan and Wyatt continually compete to see which one can get higher test scores in world history. c. Kelsey and Issac both working hard to become good writers. d. Grace rarely says anything during group work because she doesn’t want to look “dumb” in front of her classmates. 147. One of the characteristics of some middle school children is the wish to make minimal contributions and to be successful without exerting much effort when tasks are easy. These characteristics best relate to which of the following types of goals? a. Mastery-avoidance b. Social responsibility c. Work-avoidance d. Performance-avoidance

Chapter 10: Motivation and Learning

148. Marcus puts off studying until the last minute, hoping the exam will be easy. Unfortunately, it is more challenging than he anticipated, and he doesn’t do well on it. Which of the following goal orientations is Marcus most nearly demonstrating? a. Work-avoidance b. Mastery-avoidance c. Performance-approach d. Performance-avoidance Use the following information for items 149-154. Five students are working on a group presentation for their geography class. They are to present geographical factors that influence the politics and economies of countries in the Middle East. The following illustrates their thinking as they prepare to get together to work on the project. “My dad reads all the time,” Nile thinks. “He’s really up on current events. I get him to help us, and our presentation will be the best in the class.” “This should be interesting,” Misty thinks. “I don’t know much about the Middle East, and there’s so much going on over there now. And, Mr. Carver expects us to do a good job. We need to make a presentation he’ll like.” “I hate this,” Sylvia grimaces to herself. Misty and Nile are so smart. What can I do? They’ll think I’m the dumbest one in the group. I’m just going to stay quiet.” “Great,” Malisa thinks. “I love group work. We get to talk a lot, and we should be able to get this done pretty easily. And, Misty and Nile are smart, so they’ll probably be able to do most of the work.” “I don’t know anything about the Middle East,” Antonio thinks. “I’ll get on the Internet and find some stuff. I don’t want the others to think that I’m not doing my part. 149. Of the following, the student whose thinking best illustrates a mastery goal is: a. Nile. b. Misty. c. Sylvia. d. Malisa. 150. Of the following, the student whose thinking best illustrates a social responsibility goal is: a. Nile. b. Sylvia. c. Malisa. d. Antonio. 151. Of the following, the student whose thinking best illustrates a performance-approach goal is: a. Nile. b. Misty. c. Sylvia. d. Antonio.

Chapter 10: Motivation and Learning

152. Of the following, the student whose thinking best illustrates a performance-avoidance goal is: a. Nile. b. Misty. c. Sylvia. d. Malisa. 153. If they are consistent with patterns identified by research, which student of the following is likely to be the highest achiever? a. Nile b. Misty c. Sylvia d. Malisa 154. If their thinking is consistent with patterns identified by research, which of the following students is most likely to have a fixed mindset? a. Nile b. Misty c. Malisa d. Antonio 155. If the students’ thinking is consistent with patterns identified by research, which of the following is likely to have the strongest performance orientation in his or her goals? a. Julie, a first grader b. Don, a fourth grader c. Evelyn, a seventh grader d. Michael, a ninth grader 156. Morton is determined to improve his work and is setting a goal to help him improve in prealgebra. Which of the following is the most effective goal for him? a. To solve and explain all the homework problems before the next test b. To get an A on the next test c. To get a higher score on the test than Rosario, the buddy he studies with who sits behind him d. To pay attention all the time in class 157. Which of the following best illustrates the characteristics of effective goals? a. I am going to study harder in all of my classes. b. I am going to get a B or better on my next test. c. From now on I am going to study for understanding instead of memorizing definitions. d. I am going to paraphrase the definition of each of the boldfaced terms in the next chapter.

Chapter 10: Motivation and Learning

158. Steve struggles with Algebra II, and even considered dropping it after doing poorly on a weekly quiz. In spite of his struggles he concludes, “I’m going to hang in. I think I can get it if I’m willing to work hard enough.” He then redoubles his efforts, and in spite of getting a low C in his first grading period, he is down doing much better and earns a high B in the second grading period. “I’m actually starting to understand this stuff,” he concludes with satisfaction. Of the following, Steve is most nearly demonstrating which of the following? a. Self-determination b. Grit c. Autonomy d. A performance goal Essay Items 159. Describe each of the types of goal orientation, provide an example of each, and explain how they can affect learner motivation. 160. Describe three suggestions teachers can follow to capitalize on the influence of goals to increase students’ motivation to learn, and give an example of each. The Influence of Interest and Emotion on Motivation to Learn Knowledge-Level Items 161. In motivation theory, “A person’s ongoing affinity, attraction, or liking for a domain, subject area, topic, or activity” is best described as: a. self-efficacy b. self-determination c. personal interest d. situational interest 162. In motivation theory, “A person’s current enjoyment, pleasure, or satisfaction generated by the immediate context” is best described as: a. self-actualization. b. self- efficacy. c. personal interest. d. situational interest. 163. Which of the following is a suggestion research indicates that can be used to increase student interest? a. Provide real-world tasks. b. Provide easily accomplished tasks. c. Provide abstract, complicated tasks. d. Provide tasks with no correct answer.

Chapter 10: Motivation and Learning

164. Of the following, which is the most important for developing personal interest in a topic? a. Reinforcement for studying the topic b. A peer who models interest in the topic c. A well-developed level of prior knowledge d. High self-esteem 165. Research indicates that three of the following can increase situational interest in students. Which of the following is not likely to increase situational interest? a. Building lessons around real-world tasks b. Reinforcing students for performing well in quizzes c. Personalizing the topics the students are studying d. Using concrete examples to illustrate the topics the students are studying 166. A general uneasiness and feeling of tension relating to a situation with an uncertain outcome best describes: a. expectations. b. beliefs. c. self-fulfilling prophesies. d. anxiety. 167. Which of the following best describes the relationship between anxiety and motivation to learn? a. Anxiety is damaging for motivation and achievement, and it should be avoided if possible. b. Some anxiety can be beneficial for motivation and achievement, but too much can be damaging. c. A high level of anxiety increases motivation and achievement and is desirable when learners are first developing skills but not when the skills are well developed. d. A high level of anxiety increases motivation and achievement because it makes students work hard and develop competence. 168. Which of the following describes the primary problem that highly test-anxious students encounter? a. They use effective learning strategies when they study, but they forget to apply the strategies in tests. b. They expect to succeed when they study, but the testing atmosphere detracts from their expectations. c. They understand the content when they study, but they develop mental blocks in tests. d. They don’t learn the content very well in the first place, which increases their anxiety.

Chapter 10: Motivation and Learning

Higher-Level Items 169. Karen has been interested in the arts, including the symphony, ballet, and visual arts for quite some time. She is taking a course in art history, simply “because it is so intriguing.” Which of the following statements best explains Karen’s motivation in her art history course? a. Her self-efficacy in art history is high. b. Studying art history has high utility value for her. c. She has high personal interest in the arts. d. She has high situational interest in art history. 170. You are teaching a topic that you believe is important for your students to understand, but the students are not initially interested in it. Of the following, which is most effective for increasing your students’ situational interest in the topic? a. Offer your students a series of rewards for studying the topic. b. Explain that the topic is very important for their development, and encourage them to take the topic seriously. c. Put the students in groups, and have the groups each identify two reasons why studying the topic might be important. d. Model your interest in the topic by explaining why the topic is so interesting and important to you.

Chapter 10: Motivation and Learning

Use the following information for items 171 and 172. The English teachers at Lakeshore Middle School are working with their students on figurative language such as similes, metaphors, and hyperbole, and how language can make writing more engaging. Jennifer Daniels explains what figurative language is and why it is important for making writing more attractive. She defines each of the types of figurative language, such as hyperbole, metaphor, and simile, and she then shows the students a written passage, points out different examples of figurative language in it, and carefully explains which type of figurative language the example is, and why it is an example. Delaney Cross carefully explains what figurative language is and tells the students that it can be used to make writing more attractive. She presents examples, such as “That’s the most beautiful song in history,” “He is a paragon of virtue,” and “Her smile is like a breeze on a summer day,” as examples of hyperbole, metaphor, and simile, respectively. Kevin Solano writes a series of vignettes about the school and the students, such as, “Lakeshore is the most stupendous school on the planet, and its students are gems that sparkle like the stars.” The class discusses the vignettes and with Kevin’s guidance identifies parts such as, “Lakeshore is the most stupendous school on the planet” as examples of hyperbole, “its students are gems” as examples of metaphor, and, “sparkle like the stars” as examples of simile. He then has the students work in pairs to write a short passage in which as many examples of figurative language as possible are embedded. Chris Floyd defines different types of figurative language for students and then reads them a passage from their textbook in which several examples of figurative language are embedded. He has students follow along in their textbooks as he reads. He tells his students to stop him when they think they see an example that appears in the story, asks students to identifies the example, and explain why it is an example of figurative language. He then writes a series of examples on the board and has the students identify them as hyperbole, metaphor, simile, and so on. 171. The teacher who is the most likely to create situational interest in the students is: a. Jennifer. b. Delaney. c. Kevin. d. Chris. 172. The teacher who is the least likely to create a high degree of situational interest in the students is: a. Jennifer. b. Delaney. c. Kevin. d. Chris.

Chapter 10: Motivation and Learning

173. You have studied very hard for a test that you know will be challenging, and you know the content very well. However, you are a bit nervous when you go into the test. If your performance is consistent with patterns identified by research, which of the following is the most likely result? a. Your nervousness will seriously detract from your performance on the test. b. Your nervousness will detract from your performance on the test, but it won’t be serious. c. Your nervousness won’t impact your performance on the test one way or the other. d. Your nervousness will improve your performance on the test. Use the following information for items 174 and 175. You have a highly test-anxious student in your class, and the student asks you for advice about how to cope with her anxiety. 174. Of the following, what is the most effective advice you can give the student? a. Put all the important definitions on note cards, and practice with the definitions until they’re automatic. b. Outline the chapter, and then read the chapter carefully. Reread the chapter before the test. c. When studying for the test, connect examples to definitions, and find relationships among the topics that will be covered on the test. d. A few minutes before the test begins, take several slow, deep breaths to settle down, and then tell yourself that you will do well on the test. 175. Which of the following is the least effective advice you can give the student? a. Put all the important definitions on note cards, and practice with the definitions until they’re automatic. b. Outline the chapter, and then read the chapter carefully. Reread the chapter before the test. c. When studying for the test, connect examples to definitions, and find relationships among the topics that will be covered on the test. d. A few minutes before the test begins, take several slow, deep breaths to settle down, and then tell yourself that you will do well on the test.

Chapter 10: Motivation and Learning

Use the following example to answer items 176-178. Mrs. Wood, a first-grade teacher, and Mrs. Augmon, an eighth-grade teacher, use praise in an attempt to motivate their students. They are very liberal with their praise, strongly complimenting their students in class discussions whether or not the students’ answers demonstrate thought and insight. 176. If the effects are consistent with patterns identified by research, which of the following is the most likely outcome of the teachers’ techniques? a. It will be more effective in Mrs. Wood’s class than in Mrs. Augmon’s. b. It will be more effective in Mrs. Augmon’s class than in Mrs. Wood’s. c. It is likely to be quite effective in both classes. d. It is likely to be ineffective in both classes. 177. Judy is a high-achieving student in Mrs. Wood’s class. She responds to an easy question, and Mrs. Wood liberally praises her. If Judy’s reaction is consistent with patterns identified by research, what is her most likely perception of Mrs. Wood’s effusive praise? a. She will accept the praise at “face value,” i.e., a good answer to the question. b. She will question Mrs. Wood’s sincerity, since Mrs. Wood effusively praises all the students. c. She will think Mrs. Wood views her as a low-ability student, since she was praised for an easy answer. d. She will have no reaction to the praise. 178. Kristy is a 7th grader in Mrs. Augmon’s class. She responds to an easy question, and Mrs. Augmon liberally praises her. If Kristy’s reaction is consistent with patterns identified by research, what is her most likely perception of Mrs. Augmon’s effusive praise? a. She will accept the praise at “face value,” i.e., a good answer to the question. b. She will think Mrs. Augmon views her as a high-ability student, since she praised her effusively. c. She will think Mrs. Augmon views her as a low-ability student, since she was praised for an easy answer. d. She will have no reaction to the praise. Essay Items 179. Describe three ways in which teachers can help their students cope with anxiety. 180. Describe four ways in which positive emotions influence motivation to learn. 181. Describe the relationship between negative emotions and motivation to learn. 182. Describe four suggestions teachers can apply for capitalizing on the influence of interest and emotion to increase students’ motivation to learn, and provide an example of each.

Chapter 11: A Classroom Model for Promoting Student Motivation

CHAPTER ELEVEN A CLASSROOM MODEL FOR PROMOTING STUDENT MOTIVATION Creating a Mastery-Focused Environment Knowledge-Level Items 1.

Which of the following best describes a mastery-focused classroom? a. Emphasis on achievement, high grades, and positive comments on report cards b. Emphasis on effort, continuous improvement, and increased understanding c. Emphasis on reinforcing students for conscientious effort and earning good grades d. Emphasis on reports to parents that students are behaving and competing well with their peers

Which of the following best describes a performance-focused classroom? a. Emphasis working hard and meeting challenges b. Emphasis on continuous improvement and increased understanding c. Emphasis on providing feedback about understanding and viewing ability as alterable and increasing with effort d. Emphasis on earning high grades and competing well with other students in the class

Which of the following best describes the difference between mastery-focused and performance-focused classroom environments? a. High grades are more strongly emphasized in mastery-focused than in performancefocused classroom environments. b. Assessment is more likely to be used to provide feedback about learning progress in mastery-focused than in performance-focused classroom environments. c. Value is more likely to be placed on demonstrations of high ability in masteryfocused than in performance-focused classroom environments. d. Ability is more likely to be viewed as fixed in mastery-focused than in performance-focused classroom environments.

Which of the following is characteristic of a performance-focused classroom? a. An emphasis on improvement b. Ability as incremental c. Entity view of ability d. Effort toward understanding

Chapter 11: A Classroom Model for Promoting Student Motivation

A teacher strongly emphasizes deep understanding of content and improvement in her class. This emphasis most strongly illustrates which of the following? a. A mastery-focused classroom environment b. A self-regulated classroom environment c. A performance-focused classroom environment d. A challenge-focused classroom environment

Which of the following is the best example of a performance goal statement? a. I really want to learn how to do these problems. b. I know I am not great at piano, but if I keep practicing I will get better. c. I want to score a 650 on my Math SAT. d. I don’t have to win the marathon; I simply want to run it in a time consistent with my ability.

Of the following, which best identifies the emotional architecture for the model for promoting student motivation? a. Reinforcement for effort and achievement b. The teacher-student relationship c. Intrinsic motivation d. Practice and feedback

Higher-Level Items 8.

Which one of the following teacher statements most promotes a mastery-focused rather than a performance-focused classroom? a. “Let’s try hard now. I want to see a lot of A’s and B’s on the next test.” b. “Very well done. Every person in the class improved on their scores compared to the last quiz.” c. “Very good, everyone. Over half the class got either an A or a B on the last test.” d. “C’mon now. Let’s give some of these top students a run for their money on this assignment.”

Ted Holmquist repeatedly makes comments such as, “Mistakes are a normal part of learning, so don’t feel badly when you make a mistake. Remember, our goal is to really understand this stuff, not just memorize a few terms.” Of the following, which statement best describes Ted’s efforts? a. He is attempting to increase his students’ performance. b. He is attempting to create a mastery-focused classroom environment. c. He is attempting to create a classroom environment in which students perform better than students in other classes. d. He is attempting to model desirable behaviors for the students.

Chapter 11: A Classroom Model for Promoting Student Motivation

10.

Mr. Jensen is trying to motivate her fifth graders. He posts all of the “best” work on the bulletin board and gives out the “best grade of the week” award on Fridays because she feels these strategies will motivate the learners to do their best. Which of the following is most consistent with Mr. Jensen’s behavior? a. He is modeling a mastery-focused classroom environment. b. He is enhancing student self-efficacy. c. He is creating a performance-focused classroom. d. He is promoting a humanistic view of motivation.

Essay Items 11.

Describe four differences between a mastery-focused and a performance-focused classroom environment.

12.

Explain why the student-teacher relationship is so essential for student motivation to learn.

13.

Describe the components and the variables in the Model for Promoting Student Motivation.

The Teacher: Personal Qualities That Increase Motivation to Learn Knowledge-Level Items 14.

A teacher believes he can get all students to learn, regardless of background experiences or ability. This belief most closely describes which of the following? a. Teacher personal self-worth b. Personal teaching efficacy c. Personal teacher expectations d. Teacher caring

15.

Which of the following is an outcome of low personal teaching efficacy? a. High student challenge b. High teacher motivation c. High teacher burnout d. High student efficacy

16.

Which of the following best describes high collective efficacy? a. Schools in which most of the teachers believe that they can get all students to learn. b. Schools in which teacher expectations for low achievers are identical to their expectations for high achievers. c. Schools in which most of the teachers have a high sense of self-worth. d. Schools in which students are frequently reinforced for desirable behaviors.

Chapter 11: A Classroom Model for Promoting Student Motivation

17.

Which of the following is the most effective way to demonstrate that teachers are enthusiastic about the topics they’re teaching? a. Consistently demonstrate high levels of energy and animation during learning activities. b. Routinely tell students that the topics are interesting and challenging. c. Present topics in ways that are entertaining for the students. d. Communicate to the students their own genuine interest in the topics they teach.

18.

Of the following, the most effective way to communicate caring to students is to: a. smile at them frequently. b. compliment them on personal characteristics. c. spend time with them. d. be enthusiastic in class.

19.

Which of the following is not considered to be an important personal quality of a caring teacher? a. Shows respect and politeness to all students b. Praises students whether or not they try c. Helps with personal problems d. Values individuality

20.

Of the following, which is the most important way to communicate to students that you care about them? a. Demonstrate that you respect them by holding them to high standards. b. Avoid being too critical of their work, which could possibly damage their selfesteem. c. Avoid teaching topics that aren’t relevant to their lives. d. Give homework assignments on which all students can consistently succeed.

21.

Of the following, which is the most effective way to communicate to students that you expect them to participate and succeed? a. Routinely remind them that you have high expectations. b. Express your belief in their ability to succeed. c. Model your own interest in the topics you’re teaching. d. Call on all of them as equally as possible.

22.

Of the following, which best describes a difference in the ways teachers treat perceived high achievers compared to the way they treat perceived low achievers? a. They provide high achievers with less feedback about their work, since they believe high achievers are already competent. b. They call on high achievers more often than low achievers, because they expect high achievers to be able to answer. c. They spend more time with low achievers than with high achievers, because they believe low achievers need more help. d. They praise low achievers more often than high achievers, because they believe low achievers need more reinforcement. 288 Copyright © 2020, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

Chapter 11: A Classroom Model for Promoting Student Motivation

23.

Of the following, which is the most accurate statement regarding how teachers differentially treat high- and low-achieving learners? a. Teachers provide more explanations to lower-achieving learners than they do higher-achieving learners. b. Teachers place lower-achieving learners further away from them in the classroom than they do higher-achieving learners. c. Teachers ask more questions of, and wait longer for, answers from lower-achieving learners than higher-achieving learners. d. Teachers provide lower-achieving learners more feedback than they do higherachieving learners.

24.

The concept of self-fulfilling prophecies most closely relates to: a. teacher modeling and enthusiasm. b. teacher caring. c. teacher expectations. d. personal teaching efficacy.

25.

When teachers have low expectations for students, the students may inadvertently exert less effort and ultimately perform less well than when teachers’ expectations are higher. Of the following concepts, which one best explains this reduced effort and performance? a. Self-efficacy b. Self-regulation c. Self-fulfilling prophecy d. Self-monitoring

26.

Jamie is a low achiever and Rick is a high achiever in Mrs. Winston’s class. If Mrs. Winston’s behavior is consistent with patterns identified by research, which of the following is most likely? a. She will call on Jamie much more often than she will call on Rick (such as twice as often). b. She will call on Jamie slightly more often than she will call on Rick. c. She will call on Rick more often than she will call on Jamie. d. She will call on both students about equally.

Chapter 11: A Classroom Model for Promoting Student Motivation

Higher-Level Items 27.

Jo Preston and Damien Martinez, two fifth-grade teachers, are talking in the teachers’ lounge after school. “My students are impossible," Jo sighs. “They don’t do their homework, their parents won’t answer the phone when I call, and most of them don’t know their basic math facts.” “I think we should make them learn whether they want to or not,” Damien responds. “I think if we’re good enough, we can get all of them to learn. Some will learn more than others, but we can get every one of them to learn more than they are now. I tell them, ‘Don’t try to slip sloppy work past me, because I’m just going to make you do it over.’ It’s surprising. Some of them are a lot sharper than we give them credit for.” Damien’s comments best illustrate which of the following variables from the Model for Promoting Student Motivation? a. Personal teaching efficacy b. Modeling and Enthusiasm c. Order and safety d. Task comprehension

28.

“Now, isn’t this beautiful,” Mr. Wilson smiles with a wave of his hand after reading an excerpt of poetry to his class. “Here we see how someone’s ability to use language is able to move us to joy and almost tears in the same passage.” “Wilson loves this stuff,” Oliver whispers to Layla, after Mr. Wilson’s comment. “I’m not as crazy about it as he is, but I gotta admit; his class isn’t that bad.” Oliver’s reaction is most likely the result of: a. Mr. Wilson’s modeling. b. Mr. Wilson’s expectations. c. Mr. Wilson’s use of reinforcers with his students. d. Mr. Wilson’s meeting his students’ deficiency needs.

29.

Jason Long and Helen Drake, two junior high teachers, are talking in the teachers’ lounge. “I have made a commitment to my class,” Jason comments. “If I ever do anything that breaks one of our rules, I’ve told the class to remind me of it, and I’ll try to do better.” The variable in the Model for Promoting Student Motivation that Jason’s comment best illustrates is: a. personalization. b. modeling. c. task comprehension. d. involvement.

30.

Paula Baker comments, “I try to get ‘up’ for my students in math. When I move around and stay active, they stay more interested in the lesson.” The variable in the Model for Promoting Student Motivation that the example best illustrates is: a. modeling and enthusiasm. b. personal teaching efficacy. c. teacher expectations. d. teacher personalization. 290 Copyright © 2020, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

Chapter 11: A Classroom Model for Promoting Student Motivation

31.

Mrs. Crafton spends a lot of time with her students both before and after school. The variable in the Model for Promoting Student Motivation that best relates to her tendency to spend extra time is: a. enthusiasm. b. caring. c. involvement. d. personalization

32.

Ms. Adams sends electronic pictures to the parents of students in her Family and Consumer Sciences class. The pictures portray students engaged in class activities (such as making an omelet). She includes a personal note about the picture to each family. Of the following, Ms. Adams’s behavior best illustrates: a. order and safety to meet students’ needs for equilibrium. b. caring to meet students’ relatedness needs. c. personal teaching efficacy to communicate beliefs about learning and teaching. d. modeling and enthusiasm to communicate genuine interest.

Use the following vignette to answer items 33 and 34. Daryl Brando conducts help sessions for his math students every morning before school. He tells them that he will also help them after school if they want to come in and see him. 33.

The variable in the Model for Promoting Student Motivation that Daryl’s efforts best illustrate is: a. modeling. b. caring. c. personalization. d. feedback.

34.

Of the following, the theory of motivation that best explains the value of Daryl’s efforts is: a. expectancy x value theory. b. self- efficacy theory. c. self-worth theory. d. self-determination theory.

35.

Elesha Cox is very concerned about her students’ self-esteem. To prevent them from experiencing failure, she will sometimes accept low-quality work from her students. “Sometimes they don’t put in as much effort as I would like,” she notes, “but they’ll get better.” Of the following, which is the best assessment of Elesha’s practice for increasing learner motivation? a. It is effective, because experiencing success is important for motivation. b. It is ineffective, because accepting work that reflects lack of effort indicates lack of caring. c. It is effective, because students will eventually improve their learning strategies. d. It is ineffective, because student self-esteem isn’t related to motivation.

Chapter 11: A Classroom Model for Promoting Student Motivation

36.

Sandra Kirk calls on all her students as equally as possible, and when someone fails to respond, or responds incorrectly, she asks another, prompting question that helps the student give an acceptable answer. The variable in the Model for Promoting Student Motivation that this behavior most closely relates to is: a. enthusiasm. b. modeling. c. expectations. d. caring.

37.

“Wow, that is terrific work,” Mrs. Magyar emphasizes. “You always make the greatest illustrations for your stories!” Mrs. Magyar and her fourth-grade student, Darlene, are looking through Darlene’s crayon and water color drawings during art class. Darlene sits listlessly and seems uninterested in continuing to work at all. “Honey, just put some yellow right in there for the sun and that’ll be super,” Mrs. Magyar suggests. Darlene obediently picks up a yellow crayon and colors the sun yellow. “Excellent!” Mrs. Magyar again responds, and she then moves on to chat with other students while Darlene sits and stares out the window. According to research on teacher actions that influence learner motivation, of the following, which is the best assessment of Mrs. Magyar efforts to motivate Darlene? a. It is ineffective, because she communicates low expectations by praising minimal effort. b. It is effective because she is enthusiastic in her interactions with Darlene. c. It is ineffective because she shouldn’t have made a suggestion to Darlene about coloring the sun. d. It is effective because she spent individual time with Darlene.

38.

A teacher calls on John only rarely, gives him little time to respond before turning the question to someone else, and he provides sketchy feedback to his answers. The teacher’s behavior is most likely the result of which of the following? a. The teacher’s low expectations for John. b. The teacher’s perception of John’s efficacy. c. The kinds of topics the teacher teaches. d. John’s past attitude in responding to questions.

Essay Items 39.

Describe each of the four teacher personal qualities in the Model for Promoting Student Motivation, and include a specific example that illustrates each.

40.

Describe four suggestions that you can apply to capitalize on your personal qualities to increase students’ motivation to learning, and provide an example of each.

Chapter 11: A Classroom Model for Promoting Student Motivation

Learning Climate: Creating a Motivating Classroom Environment Knowledge-Level Items 41.

Of the following, which is the most effective way to set the tone for a safe and orderly learning environment? a. Consistently enforce procedures and rules for acceptable behavior. b. Tell students that you respect them and want them to respect you in return. c. Remind students of the need to treat each other as they expect to be treated. d. Reinforce students for desirable behaviors.

42.

Of the following, which has the most important influence on learners’ self-efficacy? a. Past performance on similar tasks b. Modeling success on similar tasks c. Hearing teachers express confidence in their ability to complete the task d. Feeling positive, safe, and comfortable in the classroom environment

43.

Of the following, the variable in the Model for Promoting Student Motivation that has the greatest likelihood of increasing learners’ perceptions of their own competence is: a. order and safety. b. enthusiasm. c. modeling. d. challenge.

44.

Which of the following is least likely to help learners be successful in learning activities? a. Develop lessons with questioning. b. Make clear lectures your primary mode of instruction. c. Provide a variety of high-quality examples of the topics students study. d. Make assessment an ongoing part of instruction.

45.

Success in learning activities is important for students. However, to be most effective, success should be combined with an additional variable in the Model for Promoting Student Motivation if motivation is to be increased as much as possible. That variable is: a. teacher caring. b. teacher enthusiasm. c. task comprehension. d. challenge.

46.

Student motivation increases when they understand what they’re learning and why they are learning it. Which of the following variables in the Model for Promoting Student Motivation is best illustrated by this description? a. Teacher caring b. Teacher expectations c. Task comprehension d. Challenge

Chapter 11: A Classroom Model for Promoting Student Motivation

47.

Teachers are urged to provide students with a reason for studying the topics they’re studying. Providing rationales most closely relates to which variable in the Model for Promoting Student Motivation? a. Modeling b. Task comprehension c. Order and safety d. Involvement

Higher-Level Items 48.

“I start school right off the bat by setting up my rules for the year, and I spend the first 10 days of school enforcing them until they get to be a pattern,” Sophia Miranda comments during a conversation in the teachers’ lounge early in the school year. The variable in the Model for Promoting Student Motivation that the example best illustrates is: a. caring. b. modeling. c. introductory focus. d. order and safety.

49.

“Jason,” David Jensen, a fifth-grade teacher, says sternly after Jason has snickered at Marvin when Marvin struggles to answer a question. “We stay completely quiet when one of our classmates is attempting to answer a question.” The variable in the Model for Promoting Student Motivation to which David’s admonishment most closely relates is: a. task comprehension. b. personal teaching efficacy. c. order and safety. d. teacher expectations.

50.

“I like to use a lot of questioning in my class. I won’t ever leave kids who’ve answered incorrectly until I get an acceptable answer from them,” Juan Perez comments to Anita Hargrove, a friend and colleague. The variable in the Model for Promoting Student Motivation that the example best illustrates is: a. success. b. personalization. c. task comprehension. d. modeling and enthusiasm.

Chapter 11: A Classroom Model for Promoting Student Motivation

51.

On Wednesday morning, after the school’s team had won an exciting basketball game on Tuesday night, Kevin Davis is working with his class on adjectives. He has introduced his lesson and then continues by writing, The game was very exciting, and we pulled out a thrilling victory in the last minute

on the board. “What is one adjective in the sentence. . . . Karen?” Kevin asks. “. . .” “What do we know about the game?” “ . . . It was exciting,” Karen says hesitantly. “Yes, good,” Kevin smiles. "So, what is one adjective?” “. . . Exciting?” Karen says hesitantly. “Yes,” Kevin smiles. "Exciting describes the game, which is a noun, so exciting is an adjective.” Of the following, Kevin’s questioning (asking, “What do we know about the game?” and, “So, what is one adjective?”) best illustrates an attempt to capitalize on which variable in the Model for Promoting Student Motivation? a. Modeling and enthusiasm b. Success c. Feedback d. Introductory focus 52.

“I think you kids have really got this stuff,” Tammy Horton says to her geometry class, “so I’ve fixed up a couple of problems that will make you think. Let’s see if you can come through on them for tomorrow.” The variable in the Model for Promoting Student Motivation that Tammy’s comment best illustrates is: a. enthusiasm. b. challenge. c. task comprehension. d. success.

53.

Barbara keeps falling down but insists that she will become an excellent skater. Of the following, the variable in the Model for Promoting Student Motivation best illustrated by Barbara’s efforts is: a. strategy use. b. metacognition. c. task comprehension. d. challenge.

54.

Increasing students’ perception of competence and autonomy are important for learner motivation. Of the following, perceptions of competence and autonomy are best increased by: a. learning environments in which teachers are enthusiastic. b. learning activities that focus on learner self-esteem. c. success on tasks students view as challenging but doable. d. reinforcement for completing assignments consistently and conscientiously.

Chapter 11: A Classroom Model for Promoting Student Motivation

55.

The concept of utility value–the belief that knowledge or skills learned in school will be valuable outside the immediate classroom–most closely relates to which of the following variables in the Model for Promoting Student Motivation? a. Task comprehension b. Challenge c. Introductory focus d. Strategy use

56.

When students understand what they’re supposed to be learning and why they’re supposed to learn it, their perceptions of autonomy can also increase. The value of these increased perceptions is best explained by: a. expectancy x value theory. b. self-worth theory. c. self-determination theory. d. self-efficacy theory.

57.

As Ron Hanson and his class are discussing the factors leading up to World War II, Ron routinely asks, “Now, why do you suppose we want to study this topic? Why do you think it’s important?” The variable in the Model for Promoting Student Motivation that is best demonstrated by Ron’s questions is: a. teacher expectations. b. personalization. c. task comprehension. d. challenge.

58.

“When I give the kids an assignment, I tell them exactly what I want, why we’re doing the assignment, and how many points it’s worth,” Kelly Evans comments to one of her friends. “They’re trying harder now than they did before.” The variable in the Model for Promoting Student Motivation that Kelly’s comment best illustrates is: a. order and safety. b. positive classroom climate. c. task comprehension. d. success.

Essay Items 59.

An orderly and safe learning environment is essential for both learning and motivation. Suggest two reasons that explain why order and safety are important, and provide two suggestions as to how order and safety can be achieved in working with students.

60.

“Geography influences the way we live,” Hector Gonzalez says to his students as they compare the influence of geography on lifestyles in Minnesota and California. “It influences the way make money, how we spend our leisure time, and even the way we dress. This is why we study it, and we’ll look for these relationships in all the rest of our units.” Which component and what variable of the Model for Promoting Student Motivation are best illustrated by Hector’s statements? Explain. 296 Copyright © 2020, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

Chapter 11: A Classroom Model for Promoting Student Motivation

61.

Explain why challenge is such an important variable for promoting student motivation. What theory of motivation best explains the motivational effects of challenge?

62.

Describe four suggestions we can follow for creating a motivating classroom environment, and include an example of each.

Instructional Variables: Developing Interest in Learning Activities Knowledge-Level Items 63.

Of the following, the instructional variables in the Model for Promoting Student Motivation are most oriented toward which of the following? a. Maintaining student interest in learning activities b. Developing student self-regulation c. Attracting students’ attention d. Increasing students’ sense of self-worth

64.

Beginning lessons with an attention-getting activity that provides an umbrella for the content to follow best describes which of the following variable in the Model for Promoting Student Motivation? a. Goal setting b. Task comprehension c. Introductory focus d. Personalization

65.

Student involvement is important for motivation. Of the following, which strategy is most effective for increasing student involvement? a. Explain topics thoroughly and accurately. b. Remind students that you have high expectations for them. c. Use open-ended questions that ensure students’ successful answers. d. Be sure that students understand what they’re supposed to be learning and why.

66.

Of the following, which is least effective for promoting student motivation by increasing involvement in learning activities? a. Reinforcing students for acceptable behavior b. Asking open-ended questions c. Using hands-on activities d. Using student group work

67.

Of the following, which is the most important characteristic of effective feedback? a. It provides information that improves learning. b. It provides information intended to increase self-esteem. c. It provides positive reinforcement for students’ efforts. d. It provides clear explanations of the topics students are studying.

Chapter 11: A Classroom Model for Promoting Student Motivation

68.

Of the following, which is most important for increasing learner motivation after having given them a test or quiz? a. Make positive statements about their performance on the assessment. b. Provide detailed feedback about their responses to items on the assessment. c. Remind students that performance on assessments is important for moving on to the next grade or for graduating from high school. d. Identify the people who performed the best on the assessment, so that they’re models for the rest of the students.

69.

The variable in the Model for Promoting Student Motivation that best fits the description “information about learning progress” is: a. task comprehension. b. introductory focus. c. personalization. d. feedback.

70.

According to research, which of the following would be typical of urban school classrooms? a. A learning environment where the students are challenged b. High teacher expectations for student learning c. High levels of student autonomy d. Emphasis on control of student behavior

Higher-Level Items 71.

Ron Cheek begins a lesson on longitude and latitude by saying, “There’s a party at Santioni’s (a popular hangout for students), and you have some friends from another part of the city that you would like to invite, but they don’t know the exact location of the place. How can we help them find Santioni’s? . . . This is what we’re going to focus on today. ” The variable in the Model for Promoting Student Motivation that is best illustrated by Ron’s efforts is: a. involvement. b. introductory focus. c. success. d. challenge.

Chapter 11: A Classroom Model for Promoting Student Motivation

72.

Mrs. Rios starts a lesson with her second graders by saying, “We’ve gotten really good at subtracting, but now I’m stuck. I have thirty-two stickers,” as she writes 32 on the board, “but I gave eighteen of them away,” and she writes 18 on the board under the 32. “I can’t figure out how many I have left, because the eight is bigger than the two. What am I going to do?” The problem best illustrates Mrs. Rios’ attempt to promote motivation by capitalizing on which of the following variables in the Model for Promoting Student Motivation? a. Introductory focus b. Order and safety c. Success d. Reinforcement

73.

In many drivers’ education classes, the teachers include the viewing of “The Film.” “The Film” includes footage from several accident scenes with voiceover telling the viewer how and why the accident happened. Mr. Marino has decided to use “The Film” to start his unit on safe driving. Using the Model for Promoting Student Motivation as a basis, which of the following best explains why “The Film” is likely to be effective for promoting student motivation? a. “The film” will address learning climate variables. b. The film will directly facilitate goal setting. c. The film will address introductory focus. d. The film will assist in feedback to the learners.

74.

As often as she can, Cheryl Eng puts the students’ names, the class, and the school in her examples when she teaches. She comments that this is an aid in getting their attention. The variable in the Model for Promoting Student Motivation that the example best illustrates is: a. involvement. b. enthusiasm. c. personalization. d. modeling.

75.

Dan Parker comments, “Kari, congratulations on our win yesterday. She made six stops in our victory over Landon yesterday. Now let’s look at how Kari’s numbers relate to the different scales of measurement that we are studying today.” (Kari is the goal keeper on the school’s soccer team.) Of the following, the variable in the Model for Promoting Student Motivation best illustrated by the way Dan introduced scales of measurement is: a. involvement. b. strategy use. c. personalization. d. caring.

Chapter 11: A Classroom Model for Promoting Student Motivation

76.

David Crouch has given his students their own mini writing boards. When they practice math problems, each student does the problem on his or her writing board, holds it up, and David walks by to see how they did and gives them feedback. The variable in the Model for Promoting Student Motivation that David is most nearly attempting to capitalize on is: a. introductory focus. b. involvement. c. modeling. d. enthusiasm.

77.

A teacher wants to get more involvement from her class in their study of Beethoven and decides to try to reach the goal through questioning. Based on research examining the involvement of students in learning activities, which of the following is the best question for promoting student involvement? a. “How does Beethoven’s work compare to that of the other people we’ve studied so far?” b. “Identify one or two of Beethoven’s most famous works.” c. “At what time in history did Beethoven live?” d. “What was Beethoven’s ethnic background.”

Use the following information for items 78-80. (This is the same vignette as was used for item 51, but the questions are different.) On Wednesday morning, after the school’s basketball team had won an exciting game on Tuesday night, Kevin Davis begins his language arts class by writing, The game was very exciting, and we pulled out a thrilling victory in the last minute

The sentence Kevin wrote on the board was an attempt to capitalize which of the following variables in the Model for Promoting Student Motivation? a. Personal teaching efficacy b. Task comprehension c. Modeling and enthusiasm d. Personalization

Chapter 11: A Classroom Model for Promoting Student Motivation

79.

The theory of motivation that best explains why Kevin’s example (his sentence on the board) was likely to be effective is: a. behaviorism. b. expectancy x value theory. c. self-efficacy theory. d. self-determination theory.

80.

Kevin’s statement, “Yes . . . Exciting describes the game, which is a noun, so exciting is an adjective,” after Karen’s hesitant response best illustrates his attempt to capitalize on which of the following variables in the Model for Promoting Student Motivation? a. Teacher expectations b. Introductory focus c. Modeling and enthusiasm d. Feedback

81.

Ron Adams, a 6th grade teacher, responds, “Yes . . . ‘her gaze was like a burning fire’ is a simile because the sentence compares gaze to a fire and uses the term ‘like’,” after Camila, one of his students, responds hesitantly during his lesson on figurative language. Ron’s response best illustrates his attempt to capitalize on which of the following variables in the Model for Promoting Student Motivation? a. Teacher expectations b. Introductory focus c. Modeling and enthusiasm d. Feedback

82.

Which of the following best explains the need for feedback in increasing learner motivation? a. Behaviorism b. Cognitive load theory c. Humanistic motivation theory d. Constructivism

83.

Feedback helps meet learners’ desires to understand why they perform the way they do on assessments. Which of the following theories of motivation best explains this need? a. Attribution theory b. Self-determination theory c. Expectancy x value theory d. Self-worth theory

Chapter 11: A Classroom Model for Promoting Student Motivation

Use the following information for items 84-87. Roxana Mendez pours water into one transparent plastic drink cup and an equal amount of alcohol into another identical cup. She then drops an ice cube into each cup, and to the students’ surprise—because they didn’t know that one of the cups contained alcohol—the cube floats in the first (the water) and sinks in the second (the alcohol). Smiling at their reaction, Roxana says, “Today, our task is to figure out what is happening here. First, what do you notice? . . . Larry?” “The ice is floating there (pointing at the first cup), but it isn’t there (pointing at the second)." “What else?” Roxana continues. “. . . Brigitte?” “Both the liquids look the same.” “Yes, they do,” Roxana nods. Roxana then continues questioning as she did with Larry and Brigitte, guiding the students to conclude that the liquids in the cups must be different. As the lesson comes to closure, Gary whispers to Edna, "Mrs. Mendez really digs this stuff," and Edna nods in agreement. 84.

Of the following, which best describes Roxana’s thinking as she planned to begin her lesson by dropping the ice cubes into the two cups of liquid? a. Roxana wanted to capitalize on the motivating effects of high personal teaching efficacy. b. Roxana wanted to capitalize on the motivating effects of learner self-regulation. c. Roxana wanted to capitalize in the intrinsically motivating effects of curiosity. d. Roxana wanted to capitalize in the intrinsically motivating effects of challenging goals.

85.

Which theory of motivation best explains the motivating effects of Roxana’s demonstration? a. Expectancy x value theory b. Self-determination theory c. Attribution theory d. Self-worth theory

86.

Of the following, Roxana’s lesson beginning—dropping the ice cubes into the liquids and saying “Today, our task is going to be to figure out what is happening here”—best illustrates an attempt to capitalize on which of the following variables in the Model for Promoting Student Motivation? a. Task comprehension b. Challenge c. Personalization d. Introductory focus

Chapter 11: A Classroom Model for Promoting Student Motivation

87.

Of the following, the variable in the Model for Promoting Student Motivation that the type of questions Roxana asked (e.g., First, “What do you notice?”) best illustrates is: a. involvement. b. challenge. c. personalization. d. personal teaching efficacy.

Use the following information for items 88 and 89. In order to assess their progress toward his goals, Sam Malone quizzes his students frequently. He returns the quizzes the day after they’re given and spends several minutes discussing the frequently missed items. He invites anyone with other questions about any quiz item to see him after school. “You’re improving all the time,” Sam periodically comments after discussing a quiz. “You’re getting to the point where you really understand this stuff.” 88.

Of the following, the variable in the Model for Promoting Student Motivation that Sam’s efforts best illustrate is: a. modeling. b. expectations. c. personal teaching efficacy. d. feedback.

89.

The value for student motivation of Sam commenting, “You’re improving all the time,” and “You’re getting to the point where you really understand this stuff,” is best explained by which of the following theories? a. Humanistic views of motivation b. Expectancy x value theory c. Self-determination theory d. Self-worth theory

90.

Oscar is one of the lowest achievers in Mrs. Edgar’s class. Which of the following is the best form of feedback to give him as he receives the results of a quiz? a. “Well done. You improved four points over your last quiz score.” b. “Well done. You scored in the top half of the class on this quiz.” c. “Well done. You got a B on this quiz. This is your highest score so far.” d. “Well done. If you keep up the good work, you’ll soon be doing as well as your buddy Carter here.”

Chapter 11: A Classroom Model for Promoting Student Motivation

Use the following information for items 91-93. Zabrina Simpson introduces a lesson on present perfect tense by displaying the following three sentences on the board and saying, “Now let’s try to figure out what these sentences have in common.” We have worked on grammar in this class for two weeks. Mrs. Evenson has come into our room twice so far this week.

[Mrs. Evans is the school principal.] Karen was absent for two days last week. [Karen is a girl in the class.]

She then continues, “What do you see that’s different about the third sentence compared to the first two? . . . Sue?” 91.

Zabrina’s question (“What do you see that’s different about the third sentence compared to the first two?”) is most likely an attempt to capitalize on which of the following variable in the Model for Promoting Student Motivation? a. Teacher expectations b. Challenge c. Involvement d. Task comprehension

92.

Zabrina’s question (“What do you see that’s different about the third sentence compared to the first two?”) also is an attempt to capitalize on a second variable in the Model for Promoting Student Motivation. Of the following, which variable is best illustrated by her question? a. Metacognition b. Personal teaching efficacy c. Caring d. Success

93.

Zabrina’s choice of examples (her sentences) best illustrates an attempt to capitalize on which of the following variables in the Model for Promoting Student Motivation? a. Success b. Task comprehension c. Challenge d. Personalization

94.

Charlie Golgoski wants his students to understand adjectives, and he displays the following sentence on the overhead: Running is very good exercise.

Charlie also wants to capitalize on the motivating effects of involvement as much as possible. Of the following, what is the most effective question Charlie can ask to promote involvement in his students? a. “What can you tell us about the sentence? . . . Terrell?” b. “What is an adjective in the sentence? . . . Terrell?” c. “From the sentence, what do we know about exercise? . . . Terrell?” d. “Terrell, what is the adjective in the sentence?” 304 Copyright © 2020, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

Chapter 11: A Classroom Model for Promoting Student Motivation

95. Of the following, which variable in the Model for Promoting Student Motivation is likely to be most important for increasing motivation to learn in members of cultural minorities? a. Personalization b. Task comprehension c. Feedback d. Introductory focus Essay Items 96.

Identify three strategies you can use to capitalize in introductory focus. Provide an example of each.

97.

Which variable in the Model for Promoting Student Motivation is particularly important for working with students having diverse backgrounds, and particularly with members of cultural minorities? Explain why this variable is so important.

98.

Describe four suggestions that you can use in your efforts to capitalize on the instructional variables in the Model for Promoting Student Motivation to increase your students’ motivation to learn. Provide a concrete example of each.

Chapter 12: Classroom Management: Developing Self-Regulated Learners

CHAPTER TWELVE CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT: DEVELOPING SELF-REGULATED LEARNERS Goals of Classroom Management Knowledge-Level Items 1.

“Actions teachers take to create an environment that supports and facilitates both academic and social-emotional learning,” best describes: a. classroom organization. b. basic teaching skills c. effective teaching. d. classroom management.

Of the following, which is typically beginning teachers’ greatest concern? a. Their knowledge of the content they teach b. Their skills, such as questioning c. Their ability to manage their classrooms d. Their repertoire of teaching strategies

Which of the following statements best describes why classroom management is so challenging for teachers? a. Most students tend to be rebellious, so teachers must be able to cope with their behaviors. b. Many teachers focus on classroom management when they should instead be focusing on classroom discipline. c. Teaching and learning are complex processes that require simultaneously responding to different classroom events. d. Many teachers focus on instruction when they should instead be focusing on classroom management.

Three of the following statements are reasons why effective classroom management is so important. Which one is not a reason? a. Public and professional concerns about classroom management b. Policy makers’ concerns about the achievement of minority students c. The complexities of classroom life d. The influence of orderly classrooms on learning and motivation

Chapter 12: Classroom Management: Developing Self-Regulated Learners

Of the following, which best describes the relationship between learning, motivation, and well-managed classrooms compared to classrooms where students are less orderly? a. Students learn more and are more motivated to learn in well-managed classrooms. b. Students learn more in well-managed classrooms, but their motivation is slightly decreased. c. Students’ motivation is increased in well-managed classrooms, but they learn slightly less. d. Low-achieving students learn more in well-managed classrooms, but highachieving students learn slightly less.

The ability to direct and control our actions and emotions best describes: a. metacognition. b. personal development. c. perspective taking. d. self-regulation.

Which of the following statements best describes the relationship between classroom management and the development of learner self-regulation? a. Development of learner self-regulation is an important goal for well-managed classrooms. b. Development of learner self-regulation is possible with high achievers but not with low achievers. c. Development of learner self-regulation is part of classroom discipline but not classroom management. d. Development of learner self-regulation is not related to classroom management.

Students’ abilities to set personal goals and use their thought processes and behaviors to reach the goals best describe which of the following? a. Social problem solving b. Self-regulated learning c. Social self efficacy d. Metacognitive monitoring

At the initial developmental stage of self-regulation, students attempt to reach goals to: a. receive rewards and avoid punishers. b. develop a sense of autonomy. c. increase their self efficacy. d. become self actualized.

10.

Which of the following is not considered to be a part of self-regulation? a. Self-motivation b. Reward achievement c. Delay of gratification d. Self-socialization

Chapter 12: Classroom Management: Developing Self-Regulated Learners

11.

Three of the following statements are suggestions for developing learner self-regulation. Which one is not a suggestion for developing learner self-regulation? a. Emphasize the relationship between self-regulation and learning. b. Solicit student input into procedures that promote self-regulation. c. Teach self-regulation as a concept, and link consequences to actions. d. Reward students during learning activities when they demonstrate self-regulation.

12.

A classroom environment in which learners feel physically and emotionally safe and their needs for belonging and relatedness are met, best describes: a. a productive learning environment. b. a well-disciplined classroom. c. a classroom with well-established routines. d. a positive classroom climate.

13.

The most important factor in creating a positive classroom climate is a: a. caring and supportive teacher. b. set of well-established routines. c. system of reliably enforced rules and procedures. d. well-developed program of communication with parents.

14.

The amount of time a teacher or school designates for a topic or subject matter area is called: a. allocated time. b. instructional time. c. engaged time. d. academic learning time.

15.

The correlation between allocated time and learning is: a. positive but low. b. positive but high. c. negative but low. d. negative but high.

16.

The amount of time left after routine management and administrative tasks are completed is called: a. allocated time. b. instructional time. c. engaged time. d. academic learning time

17.

The amount of time students are engaged and successful is called: a. allocated time. b. instructional time. c. engaged time. d. academic learning time.

Chapter 12: Classroom Management: Developing Self-Regulated Learners

18. Consider the concept academic learning time. Of the following, the one most closely related to the concept is: a. success. b. structure. c. specific praise. d. skills. 19. Of the following, the one most closely related to engaged time is: a. teacher organization. b. student attentiveness. c. student success. d. teacher expectations. Higher-Level Items 20.

It’s a hot Friday afternoon in August, and you’re looking forward to a great weekend. Your boss comes in and says, “I’m not going to pressure you, but I’m in a bit of a jam. If you’ll work tomorrow and Sunday, I’ll give you a week off with pay in November.” You decide to go to work Saturday and Sunday. Of the following, you deciding to go into work on Saturday and Sunday best illustrates: a. impulse control. b. negative reinforcement. c. intrinsic motivation. d. delay of gratification.

Chapter 12: Classroom Management: Developing Self-Regulated Learners

Use the following information for items 21-23. Joe Edwards is trying to develop self-regulation in his students. To help reach his goal, he displays the following vignettes on his document camera. Andy always brings his books, notebook, and pencils to school. He has a checklist that he uses to mark off each of his items and to be sure that he’s done and understands his homework in each class. If he isn’t sure that he understands a part of his homework, he asks the next day. Andy is doing well in school, and he’s learning a lot. He says his classes are interesting, and his teachers respect how conscientious he is. Jordan is often in trouble with his teachers because he often forgets to bring either his book, or his notebook, or his pencil to class. He sometimes forgets to do his homework, and he often leaves it in his locker, so he doesn’t get credit for the assignment. Mr. Williams, Jordan’s teacher, called his mom because he was so flaky, and now he can’t watch TV for a week. Jordan isn’t doing very well in some of his classes. He says he’s bored, and he doesn’t feel like he’s learning very much.

21.

Joe’s use of the vignettes to illustrate the relationship between actions and consequences best illustrates which of the following in his efforts to promote self-regulation in his students? a. Joe’s examples are evidence of his high personal teaching efficacy. b. Joe is demonstrating high teacher expectations. c. Joe is attempting to teach self-regulation as a concept. d. Joe is attempting to demonstrate that he cares about his students.

22.

During the discussion of the vignettes, the students conclude that being conscientious—one aspect of directing actions and emotions [self-regulation]—is important if students want to do well in school. Of the following, this conclusion best relates to which suggestion for promoting self-regulation in students? a. Emphasizing the relationship between self-regulation and learning b. Soliciting student input into class procedures that include self-regulation c. Modeling self-regulation and a mastery focus d. Providing a concrete mechanism to help students monitor goal achievement

23.

Joe also makes it a point to always return quizzes and tests the day after they’re given. “You have to turn your homework in on time, so I have to return your tests on time,” he says to his students. Based on his comments, which of the following best describes Joe’s efforts to promote self-regulation in his students? a. Joe is attempting to demonstrate high personal teaching efficacy. b. Joe is attempting to demonstrate that he cares about his students. c. Joe is attempting to communicate high expectations for his students. d. Joe is attempting to model self-regulation for his students.

Chapter 12: Classroom Management: Developing Self-Regulated Learners

24.

Terri Richter strongly emphasizes the need for her students to feel emotionally safe enough to offer their ideas and say what they think without fear of ridicule or embarrassment. She has a rule requiring that students treat each other with courtesy and respect, and she explains why it is important. Of the following, Terri is most nearly attempting to: a. develop self-disciplined students. b. create a system of automatic rules and procedures. c. create a positive classroom climate. d. develop learners’ self-concepts and sense of self-worth.

25.

Wanda Fisher wants her students to understand that they don’t call their classmates nasty names, because they recognize that name calling hurts other people’s feelings. Of the following, which is Wanda most nearly attempting to develop? a. A withit learning community b. Time available for learning c. A positive classroom climate d. Self-disciplined students

26.

Which of the following best describes the relationship between learner self-regulation and a positive classroom climate? a. Both self-regulation and a positive classroom climate are developed by teachers who are experts at classroom discipline. b. Systematically teaching self-regulation creates helps create environments that lead to a positive classroom climate. c. Self-regulation tends to primarily promote increased academic learning, whereas positive classroom climates tend to primarily promote improved student attitudes. d. Self-regulation tends to be essentially cognitive, whereas positive classroom climates tend to be affective or emotional.

27.

Students in your class appear to have difficulty understanding the concept of probability. An increase in which of the following will increase student achievement by the greatest amount? a. Engaged time b. Instructional time c. Allocated time d. Academic learning time

28.

Sally Harvey, an eighth-grade, middle-school math teacher, typically spends about 7 minutes after the bell rings taking roll, handing out papers, and writing assignments on the board. Karen Walters, who teaches in the room next to Sally, has a “do now” exercise written on the board, which the students complete while she takes role and completes other beginning-of-class routines. Based on this information, of the following, which conclusion is most valid? a. Sally’s allocated time is greater than Karen’s. b. Sally’s engaged time will be greater than Karen’s. c. Karen’s allocated time is greater than Sally’s. d. Karen’s instructional time will be greater than Sally’s. 311 Copyright © 2020, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

Chapter 12: Classroom Management: Developing Self-Regulated Learners

Essay Items 29.

Self-regulation includes six different components. List and explain the components.

30.

Identify four suggestions for helping your students develop self-regulation, and provide an example of each.

31.

Explain why a positive classroom climate is so important in classrooms. What is a key feature of a positive classroom climate?

32.

Describe each of the different types of time that exist in classrooms, and explain how they relate to learning.

Planning for Classroom Management Knowledge-Level Items 33.

Based on research examining classroom management, which of the following is the best advice for beginning teachers with respect to classroom management? a. Try to prevent management problems before they occur. b. Develop a series of techniques that will stop misbehavior immediately. c. Consistently enforce rules and procedures. d. Structure lessons so that all of your explanations are clear and concise.

34.

Ideally, which of the following is not a part of effective classroom management? a. Quickly and completely stopping student misbehavior when it occurs. b. Taking developmental differences into account when planning for classroom management. c. Creating a system of well-established routines. d. Creating a clear and understandable system of rules.

35.

Of the following, which best describes the relationship between classroom management and effective instruction? a. Well-managed classrooms and effective instruction are interdependent; it’s virtually impossible to have one without the other. b. Classroom management is more important with young children, whereas effective instruction is more important with older students. c. Classroom management is more important at the beginning of the school year, but effective instruction becomes increasing important as the school year progresses. d. Classroom management and effective instruction are not related to each other, because classroom management focuses on student behavior, and effective instruction focuses on student learning.

Chapter 12: Classroom Management: Developing Self-Regulated Learners

36.

Which of the following best describes the relationship between effective classroom management and effective instruction? a. Classroom management and effective instruction depend on each other. Both are simultaneously important. b. Effective instruction depends on effective classroom management, but effective classroom management does not necessarily depend on effective instruction. c. Effective classroom management depends on effective instruction, but effective instruction does not necessarily depend on effective classroom management. d. Classroom management and effective instruction are not related to each other. Some teachers are effective managers but ineffective instructors and vice versa.

37.

Research indicates that classroom management is the biggest concern facing beginning teachers. As a beginning teacher, which of the following is likely to be most effective for reducing classroom management problems? a. Telling the students you’re committed, such as telling them that you care about them and that you want them to learn b. Being well organized, such as having your materials ready and giving the students an exercise to complete while you take roll c. Demonstrating competence, such as describing your background for the students, so they’ll have confidence in your teaching ability d. Involving students, such as organizing your class into cooperative groups the first day

38.

Which of the following are characteristics of instruction that promote well-managed classrooms? 1. Making transitions quickly and smoothly 2. Preparing materials in advance 3. Starting classes and activities on time 4. Quickly recognizing incidents of misbehavior 5. Creating well-established routines

a. 1, 2, 3, 4 39.

b. 2, 3, 4, 5

c. 1, 3, 4, 5

d. 1, 2, 3, 5

Instruction that helps promote orderly classrooms has several characteristics. Which of the following is not one of those characteristics? a. Starting on time b. Preparing materials in advance c. Establishing routines and procedures d. Recognizing high achievers for their good work

Chapter 12: Classroom Management: Developing Self-Regulated Learners

40.

Developing a sense of personal autonomy as they move from their family to the school setting, and creating a predictable school environment because it mirrors the stability the students hopefully experience in the home is most important for which of the following? a. Kindergarteners b. Fifth graders c. Ninth graders d. Twelfth graders

41.

Which of the following best describes characteristics of elementary students that are important considerations for classroom management? a. Students in these grades respond well to specific consequences for breaking rules. b. Students in these grades need rules that make sense to them and are concretely taught. c. Students in these grades are strongly influenced by peers. d. Students in these grades have strong needs for belonging and social acceptance.

42.

Which of the following is the least advisable suggestion regarding the establishment of classroom rules? a. Include student input into the development of rules and procedures. b. Rules should always be generated by the teacher. c. State rules positively. d. Use concrete examples to illustrate rules and procedures.

43.

Which of the following are the cornerstones of an effective classroom management system? a. The combination of a cognitive and a behavioral approach to management b. A well-defined set of logical consequences and desists c. A firm and democratic teacher d. A clear system of rules and procedures

44.

The way the teacher collects homework assignments during class time would best be described as: a. a rule. b. assertive discipline. c. a procedure. d. conditional knowledge

Chapter 12: Classroom Management: Developing Self-Regulated Learners

45.

Which of the following statements best describes the difference between classroom procedures and classroom rules? a. Students are often reinforced for following classroom rules, but they aren’t reinforced for following classroom procedures. b. Classroom procedures describe acceptable behaviors, whereas classroom rules describe unacceptable behaviors. c. Classroom procedures describe routines to be followed, whereas classroom rules describe standards for acceptable behavior. d. Classroom procedures focus on a management approach to developing an orderly classroom, whereas classroom rules focus on a discipline approach to developing an orderly classroom.

46.

Which of the following statements is most accurate according to research examining classroom rules? a. Rules are unnecessary if teachers are caring and effective. b. Rules are important for low achievers but they are generally unnecessary for high achievers. c. Rules are important for creating an orderly classroom environment. d. Rules are necessary in classes that focus on basic skills but are not in classes that focus on higher-order thinking.

47.

Providing rationales for rules and procedures is essential. Which of the following best describes the reason for providing rationales? a. Providing rationales suggests that the world is an orderly place that makes sense. b. Students are likely to refuse to obey rules if teachers don’t give them reasons for the rules being important. c. Rules provide observable measures, which allow compliance with them to be reinforced. d. Rationales for rules contribute to student problem solving, which is an important part of social development.

48.

Which of the following is the most accurate description of the need for monitoring classroom rules? a. Rules don’t need to be monitored if they are carefully taught at the beginning of the year. b. Procedures need to be monitored to be sure they’re followed by the students, but monitoring rules is less important. c. Rules need to be monitored in classes of low-achieving students, but they don’t need to be monitored in classes of high-achieving students. d. Rules must be carefully monitored and discussed throughout the school year for all students.

Chapter 12: Classroom Management: Developing Self-Regulated Learners

49.

Three of the following statements are suggestions for physically arranging an elementary classroom. Which one is not a suggestion for physically arranging an elementary classroom? a. Be sure you can see all your students. b. Be sure the students can see the board, overhead, and other displays. c. Make sure that students can easily access commonly used materials without disrupting their classmates. d. Be sure students are seated next to peers with whom they want to work in groups.

50.

Which of the following best describes the results of research that has examined the physical arrangement of middle and secondary classrooms? a. Traditional arrangement of desks in rows is most effective for maintaining an orderly classroom environment. b. A semicircle facing the teacher is the most effective for maintaining an orderly classroom environment. c. Seating students who work together on groups near each other is most effective for maintaining an orderly classroom environment. d. No one physical environment is necessarily superior to any other in middle and secondary classrooms.

51.

Research provides several suggestions for beginning the school year. One is to begin with eye-catching and motivating learning activities early in the year. To which suggestion is this strategy most related? a. Plan structured instruction b. Establish expectations c. Teach rules and procedures d. Begin communication with parents

52.

Based on the description of suggestions for beginning the school year, which of the following is the least-effective suggestion? a. To establish expectations, explain requirements and grading systems. b. Teach rules and procedures, and monitor them carefully. c. Intervene and discuss each infraction of rules. d. Use as much groupwork as possible to promote student involvement.

Chapter 12: Classroom Management: Developing Self-Regulated Learners

Higher-Level Items Use the following information for items 53 and 54. Ken Jamison is sometimes a bit disorganized in his teaching, but he has a system of rules and procedures, which he attempts to implement when his students misbehave or go off task during his learning activities. Joe Reynolds carefully plans his instruction, he uses high-quality examples in his learning activities, and he encourages as much student involvement in his lessons as possible. Sandra Gupton presents clear lectures in her teaching. “If I explain it carefully, they’ll get it,” she reasons. Karen Haughy uses PowerPoint presentations as her primary method of instruction. She presents information on the PPT slides and the students copy the information into their notes. 53.

The teacher that is least likely to have classroom management problems—off-task behavior and/or inattention—is: a. Ken. b. Joe. c. Sandra. d. Karen.

54.

The teacher that is most likely to have classroom management problems—off-task behavior and/or inattention—is: a. Ken. b. Joe. c. Sandra. d. Karen.

55.

Juanita Perez typically spends about 5 minutes after the bell rings taking roll, handing out papers, and writing assignments on the board. She then begins her lesson. Rafael Jiminez, who teaches in the room next to Juanita, has a “warmup activity” displayed on his document camera every day when the students walk into the classroom. They begin the warmup activity without being told while he completes his beginning-of-class routines, and when the students finish the activity, he immediately begins the day’s lesson. Based on the evidence we have in the vignette, which of the following is the most valid conclusion? a. Juanita is a more effective teacher than is Rafael. b. Rafael is a more effective teacher than is Juanita. c. Rafael’s students like his class better than Juanita’s students like her class. d. Juanita is more likely to have classroom management problems than is Rafael.

Chapter 12: Classroom Management: Developing Self-Regulated Learners

56.

Judy Bishop, an eighth-grade math teacher, typically spends about five minutes at the beginning of the period, taking roll and gathering the materials she will use for the day. When she has her materials ready, she says enthusiastically, “All right everyone, look up here, and let’s begin.” Carola Rodriguez, one of Judy’s colleagues, has her materials waiting on her desk and has an assignment waiting for students as they enter the room. The students immediately begin the assignment, since they’re used to having an assignment on the board every day. Carola watches the students as they complete the assignment, they briefly discuss it, and she moves into the day’s topic. Based on this information, which of the following conclusions is most valid? a. Carola has planned more effectively than has Judy. b. Judy is a more effective teacher than is Carola. c. Carola is a more effective teacher than is Judy. d. Judy has a more productive learning environment than does Carola.

57.

Every day, students in Ling Yan’s math class come into class and check their homework independently. After students have checked their homework, Ling goes over the problems that students missed. This component of Mr. Yan’s math class best illustrates: a. classroom rules. b. assertive communication. c. a routine. d. classroom discipline

58.

Sam Good, a new fourth-grade teacher, wants to prevent classroom problems before they occur, so he is planning carefully. As he plans his management system, which of the following is the best advice? a. Consider both the characteristics of students and the physical environment. b. Ask other beginning teachers how they’re planning their management systems. c. Design a token reward system, and have a catalog of rewards. d. Be stern, don’t smile, and be tough for the first few months.

59.

“I try to give my kids enough freedom so I don’t quash their initiative but enough structure so they feel secure,” Donna Ayers comments. If Donna is designing a management system to most effectively take the developmental characteristics of her students into account, she most likely teaches: a. first grade. b. seventh grade. c. tenth grade. d. twelfth grade.

Chapter 12: Classroom Management: Developing Self-Regulated Learners

60.

Brad Everett realizes that social acceptance is important to his students, so he creates a rule forbidding any form of social rejection in his class. Taking this characteristic of his students into account suggests that Brad most likely teaches: a. kindergarteners. b. second graders. c. fourth graders. d. eighth graders.

Respond to items 61-65 based on the following vignette. Two married couples are friends, and all four teach. Sarah is a first-grade teacher; her husband, Don, teaches eleventh-grade English; Diane is an eighth-grade math teacher; and her husband, Al, teaches fifth grade. Assume their students’ characteristics are consistent with patterns identified by research. 61.

The firm hand of a caring teacher who sets clear limits for acceptable behavior is most important for whose students? a. Sarah’s b. Don’s c. Diane’s d. Al’s

62.

While it’s important to present clear and explicit rules in all cases, the teacher for whom explicit teaching, practicing, and reinforcing of rules is most important is: a. Sarah. b. Don. c. Diane. d. Al.

63.

The teacher who is most likely to have problems with capricious and "flaky" behavior on the part of the students is: a. Sarah. b. Don. c. Diane. d. Al.

64.

The teacher whose students are most likely to break rules because they simply forget is: a. Sarah. b. Don. c. Diane. d. Al.

Chapter 12: Classroom Management: Developing Self-Regulated Learners

65.

The teacher whose students most need to develop a sense of industry and self-assurance is: a. Sarah. b. Don. c. Diane. d. Al.

Use the following vignette for items 66 and 67. Four first-year teachers are planning for the beginning of the school year. Justin McCall, nervous about classroom management, carefully plans a system of rules and procedures that he will use to begin his class. Julia Winters is confident in her knowledge of her content, and her experience suggests that her instruction is effective. As a result, she believes classroom management won’t be an issue, so she spends little time planning for classroom management. Joe Weiss is a veteran of the business world who has just gotten into teaching. Because he has considerable experience working with people, he spends his time learning the school policies and setting up his computer to make his grading and reporting as efficient as possible. Angela Boyer eagerly anticipates her first day, but being new, she is somewhat uneasy, so she carefully prepares both her rules and procedures and her first week’s lessons. 66.

If the teachers’ situations are consistent with patterns identified by research, the teacher who is least likely to have classroom management problems is: a. Justin. b. Julia. c. Joe. d. Angela.

67.

If the teachers’ situations are consistent with patterns identified by research, the teacher who is most likely to have classroom management problems is: a. Justin. b. Julia. c. Joe. d. Angela.

68.

Amy Carlson is a beginning seventh-grade teacher and wants to maximize student attention by modifying the seating arrangement in her class. According to research, which of the following is the best decision? a. Leave the seats in rows for most instruction. Have them form a circle for discussions. b. Arrange students in “families” based upon their achievement level. c. Consider the physical environment and number of students, and then experiment to see what works best for everyone. d. Allow the students to give the names of three other students that they would like to work with, and structure groups on that basis.

Chapter 12: Classroom Management: Developing Self-Regulated Learners

69.

Without any announcement from the teacher, students come into class, take their seats, take out their workbooks, and begin working exercises written on the board. The aspect of classroom management best illustrated in this description is: a. effective use of classroom rules. b. effective use of classroom procedures. c. ineffective use of a structured environment. d. an application of operant conditioning.

70.

Students in Mrs. Wood’s first grade class finish a worksheet while she is working with a reading group. When individuals are finished, they get up from their desks and deposit the worksheet in a folder at the front of the room. Mrs. Wood continues working with the reading group without saying anything to the students doing the worksheet. This process best illustrates which of the following? a. A classroom procedure b. A classroom rule c. Assertive discipline d. Teacher organization

71.

Gary Melandez starts the very beginning of the year by presenting and teaching his rules. One of his rules says, “Bring all needed materials to class each day.” He presents the rule, provides examples, and then asks students to identify each of the materials they should bring. He then demonstrates getting ready for school by speaking aloud and gathering the materials that have been identified. Of the following, the best prediction of the grade level Gary teaches is: a. first grade. b. fifth grade. c. seventh grade. d. tenth grade.

72.

Michael Abraham begins his year by outlining his expectations and then hands out a relatively short list of rules and procedures that he wants students to follow throughout the year. He carefully explains why each rule and procedure exists and asks students in each case if they believe the rule is fair and sensible. In a few cases, the students disagree with a portion of a rule, but Michael again explains why the rule is necessary and how it can contribute to the students’ learning. Finally, the students agree that the list is fair and acceptable. Of the following, the best prediction of the grade level Michael teaches is: a. first grade. b. fifth grade. c. seventh grade. d. tenth grade

Chapter 12: Classroom Management: Developing Self-Regulated Learners

73.

Based on the suggestions for preparing effective rules, which of the following rules is best stated? a. Do not speak unless you are called on by the teacher. b. Bring all necessary materials to class every day. c. Avoid embarrassing your classmates. d. Don’t leave your desk until you’re given permission.

74.

Consider the classroom rule, “Always come to class prepared.” Which of the following is the best assessment of the rule? a. It is effective as written. b. It would be more effective if it was longer. c. It would be more effective if it was stated more specifically. d. It would be more effective if it avoided words such as “always.”

75.

Consider the school rule: “Always walk as you move through the hallways.” Which of the following is the best assessment of the rule? a. It is effective as written. b. It is ineffective because it is too short. c. It is ineffective because it isn’t clear. d. It is ineffective because it doesn’t specify the desired behavior.

Use the following information for items 76 and 77. Ditan Otero wants his students to bring finished seat-work assignments to the front of the room and put them in folders with their names on them. He demonstrates what he wants them to do by sitting in a student desk, writing on a paper, getting up and taking the paper to the front and putting it in a folder with his name on it. He asks his students to describe what he has done, and he reminds them that they are to do the same thing with their work. Then, Ditan goes back to the desk, writes on a second piece of paper and puts it in a book on the desk. Again, he asks the students to describe what he has done, and asks them if it was acceptable and why it was or was not. The students explain that it was not, because he was supposed to take the paper to the front of the room and put it in his folder. “Excellent, everyone,” he comments at the end of the discussion. “You know exactly what we’re doing, and it makes sense.” 76.

Which of the following best describes Ditan’s actions when he wrote on the paper, took it to the front of the room, and put it in the folder? a. He was modeling a classroom procedure. b. He was modeling a classroom rule. c. He was modeling a form of withitness. d. He was modeling an adaptation of the physical environment.

Chapter 12: Classroom Management: Developing Self-Regulated Learners

77.

Which of the following best describes the approach Ditan took to helping his students learn to put their completed worksheets away efficiently? a. He used a behaviorist approach, because his behaviors (writing and putting the paper in his folder) were observable. b. He used a behaviorist approach, because he praised the students for understanding “what we’re doing.” c. He used a cognitive approach, because he provided students with examples they could use to construct understanding. c. He used a humanistic approach, because he was attempting to create a safe and positive classroom environment.

Essay Items 78.

Describe how each of the following impacts a teacher’s planning for effective management: a) the characteristics of the students, b) the physical environment, c) and the beginning of the school year.

79.

Describe the similarities and differences in the theoretical framework for creating rules and procedures at the elementary level and at the middle and secondary levels.

80.

Describe four suggestions we can use to establish and teach rules and procedures in our classrooms. Provide an example of each.

Use the following information for items 81-87. A DISCUSSION OF RULES 1. Ken, a fourth-grade teacher, stopped by Washington Middle School the first day of school in August to pick up Sandra, his wife, who teaches seventh-grade life science. 2. “Well, how was your first day?” Ken smiled. 3. “Good,” Sandra responded with enthusiasm. “I’m ready for them this year. I started right off with my rules, and I’m going to be sure that I get the year off on the right foot.” 4. They began discussing rules in more detail, and Sandra suggested, “Look in my briefcase. I have a copy of them in there.” 5. Ken took out the list, which appeared as follows: 1. Do not speak until recognized by the teacher. 2. Do not leave your desk without permission. 3. Do not laugh, make fun of, or in any way react to another student’s answer. 4. Keep hands and all other body parts to yourself. 5. Be prepared and ready when class begins. 6. “My rules are about the same,” Ken nodded, “except I have one about bringing materials to class every day, and I don’t have your third and fourth ones.” 7. “I knew I would need them, so I decided to come prepared. I brought them with me,” Sandra continued. 8. “I learned from last year’s experience,” she added. “I’m going to cut that stuff off before it starts this year.” 323 Copyright © 2020, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

Chapter 12: Classroom Management: Developing Self-Regulated Learners

9. “I know one thing I’m doing,” Ken added. “I’m going to discuss and go over my rules every day until I’m sure the kids understand and won’t forget them. Last year I was a little sloppy with that." 10. “Good idea,” Sandra went on. “I did that last year, and it really helped. Every time they broke a rule, I stopped the class for a moment and we discussed it, and they had another example to think about. Gradually, they got better.” 11. “I told them today,” she explained, “that part of the reason we were in school was to learn to respect each other and treat each other decently, and our rules would help us learn to do that.” ______________________________________________________________________________ 81.

Look at Sandra’s first three rules. Write one specific criticism of these rules based on the suggestions for preparing effective rules.

82.

Look at Sandra’s comment in paragraph 7 of the example. Evaluate this comment using the suggestions for preparing effective rules as the basis for your evaluation.

83.

Look at Sandra’s fifth rule. Evaluate this rule using the suggestions for preparing effective rules as a basis.

84.

How does Sandra’s comment, “I knew I would need it,” in reference to her third and fourth rules, and Joe’s lack of a similar one relate to our discussion of developmental differences in students?

85.

Critique Sandra’s fourth rule using the suggestions for preparing effective rules.

86.

Identify the suggestion best illustrated by Sandra’s comment in paragraph 10: “Every time they broke a rule, I stopped the class for a moment and we discussed it, and they had another example to think about. Gradually, they got better.”

87.

How did Sandra’s comment in the last paragraph (paragraph 11) illustrate one of the suggestion for preparing effective rules?

Communicating with Parents Knowledge-Level Items 88.

Which of the following is not identified by research as a benefit of home-school cooperation? a. Decreased student self-regulation b. More positive attitudes c. Better attendance rates d. Greater willingness to do homework

Chapter 12: Classroom Management: Developing Self-Regulated Learners

89.

Parents with which of the following characteristics are most likely to participate in school activities? a. Member of cultural minority b. Has a child enrolled in an English-as-a-second-language program c. High socioeconomic status d. Has a child enrolled in a special education program

90.

Which of the following describes the most desirable time to send a letter of introduction home to your students’ parents? a. The second day of the school year, to establish early communication links between the school, you, and the parents b. The second week of the school year, to allow the students a chance to get settled into the routine of school c. After the first set of grades on homework and quizzes have been given, to provide parents with feedback about their youngster’s initial work d. Together with interim progress reports, which are given during the middle of the grading period in most schools

Higher-Level Items Use the following vignette for items 91 and 92. Four teachers are planning for their communication with parents. The school in which they all teach has a beginning-of-year open house, and all parents are invited. The attendance at the open house is typical for most schools. Some parents attend; others do not. Interim progress reports are also sent to parents midway in each grading period. In addition, individual teachers make some additional efforts to communicate with parents. Ryan Hurst prepares a letter to the parents of his students that expresses his optimism about the coming school year, and in it he describes his rules and procedures. He has a friend read the letter to be sure there are no spelling or grammatical errors in it. He also sends packets of students’ work home every two weeks to be signed by the parents and returned. He periodically calls parents to tell them when their son or daughter has done exemplary work. Monica Winters sends home a carefully written letter—to ensure that it is free of grammatical or spelling errors—of introduction to parents and expresses her enthusiasm about the coming school year. She also e-mails parents when a problem of misbehavior occurs and solicits parents’ support in dealing with the problem. Denise Nixon gives each of the parents that attend the open house a handout that describes her rules and procedures, and she verbally expresses her optimism about the school year and how much she believes her students are going to learn. Jerry Conway sends a letter of introduction home to parents in which he describes his rules and procedures for the year. He also calls or e-mails parents in cases where problems with misbehavior occur, and he follows up with an additional call to let parents know about the progress their son or daughter has made.

Chapter 12: Classroom Management: Developing Self-Regulated Learners

91.

Based on research examining home-school communication, the teacher who communicated most effectively with the parents of his students was: a. Ryan. b. Monica. c. Denise. d. Jerry.

92.

Based on research examining home-school communication, the teacher who communicated least effectively with the parents of his students was: a. Ryan. b. Monica. c. Denise d. Jerry.

Essay Items 93.

Describe four benefits of home-school communication.

94.

Describe three strategies for establishing and maintaining communication with parents.

Intervening When Misbehavior Occurs Knowledge-Level Items 95.

The emotional tone of your interventions with students is important. Of the following, which is most strongly influenced by the emotional tone of your interventions? a. The student’s likelihood of complying with a directive the next time you intervene b. The student’s tendency to follow or disregard your classroom procedures c. The student’s attentiveness following the intervention d. The student’s attitude toward you and the class after the intervention

96.

With respect to emotional factors in interventions, which of the following is least effective? a. Following through consistently to ensure that students comply with rules b. Taking a misbehaving student outside the classroom and telling him or her in no uncertain terms that the behavior is unacceptable c. Interventions that include public reprimands, sarcasm, and criticism d. Calling parents to solicit their help in cases where misbehavior is chronic

97.

Of the following, which is most important for cognitive interventions in cases of misbehavior? a. Interventions that make sense to students b. Appropriate punishers that eliminate undesirable behavior c. Effective reinforcers that reward desired behavior and serve as alternatives to the misbehavior d. Maintaining a positive emotional tone in all interventions

Chapter 12: Classroom Management: Developing Self-Regulated Learners

98.

Which of the following is not considered to be a cognitive intervention in incidents of misbehavior? a. Ensuring that students feel safe b. Demonstrating withitness c. Being consistent d. Keeping verbal and nonverbal behaviors congruent

99.

Which of the following statements most accurately describes the relationship between verbal and nonverbal behavior? a. The credibility of a message is communicated more strongly through the nonverbal than through the verbal channel of communication. b. Verbal and nonverbal behavior are two different channels of communication, and one has little effect on the other. c. Warmth, empathy, and caring are communicated verbally, whereas assertiveness and management are communicated nonverbally. d. Affective factors are primarily communicated verbally, while cognitive factors are primarily communicated nonverbally.

100. The channel of communication that most nearly communicates the credibility of a message/communication is: a. verbal. b. nonverbal. c. vocal. d. physical. 101. Communicating your concerns clearly, insisting that misbehavior be corrected, and resisting being coerced or manipulated most specifically describes which of the following cognitive interventions? a. Following through b. Demonstrating withitness c. Maintaining constructive assertiveness d. Applying logical consequences 102. A teacher’s awareness of what is going on in all parts of the classroom at all times and communicating this awareness to students, best describes which of the following? a. Constructive assertiveness b. Follow through c. A logical consequence d. Withitness 103. A verbal or nonverbal communication that a teacher uses to stop a behavior is best described as a(n): a. negative reinforcer. b. indirect cue. c. I-message. d. desist. 327 Copyright © 2020, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

Chapter 12: Classroom Management: Developing Self-Regulated Learners

104. According to research, which of the following statements best describes if and/or when punishment should be used in classrooms? a. Punishment should not be used, because—through classical conditioning—students can learn to dislike school. b. Punishment is effective for ensuring that procedures are followed, but it is not effective for being sure that rules are followed. c. Punishment should be used when necessary, because it is generally more effective than reinforcement for being certain that students obey rules. d. Punishment should be avoided, if possible, but in some cases it can be used effectively with careful professional judgment. 105. Which of the following most clearly describes the “constructive” component of constructive assertiveness? a. We ensure that students comply with any directive that relates to misbehavior. b. We ensure that any consequences we administer for misbehavior make sense to students. c. We avoid any inconsistencies in our administration of consequences for misbehavior. d. We avoid attacking, demeaning, or personally criticizing students in interactions. 106. A form of physical punishment that involves deliberately inflicting pain in a student in response to misbehavior best describes which of the following? a. Corporal punishment b. Assertive discipline c. Follow through d. A formal desist 107. Which of the following best describes the use of corporal punishment in schools? a. It should be used in behavioral management systems but avoided in cognitive systems. b. It should be used only when other forms of intervention has been ineffective. c. It should be used only in incidents of violent behavior such as fighting or bullying. d. It should never be used. 108. Which of the following best describes the advisability of removing students from classrooms for incidents of misbehavior? a. Students should be removed only in cases where they are incorrigible or extremely disruptive. b. Students should be removed when they refuse to productively participate in learning activities. c. Students should be removed if they say they don’t feel emotionally safe in the classroom. d. Students should never be removed from classrooms for incidents of misbehavior.

Chapter 12: Classroom Management: Developing Self-Regulated Learners

Higher-Level Items 109. “Janet, what are you doing?” Karen Miller, her teacher, says with irritation in her voice. “Nothing.” “Yes you were. Speak up so everyone can hear you.” “. . .” “You were talking. What’s the rule about talking without permission?” “. . .” “Let’s hear it. I want to hear you say the rule.” “. . . We don’t talk until we’re recognized.” “That’s right. Do you understand that?” “. . . Yes.” Based on emotional factors in interventions, which of the following is the best assessment of Karen’s intervention in the case of Janet’s talking without permission? a. It was effective, because it demonstrated that Karen was “withit.” b. It was effective, because Karen consistently enforced her rules. c. It was ineffective, because arguing with students is not productive. d. It was ineffective, because Janet wasn’t punished for talking. 110. Bud is becoming argumentative about several of the items on the test Ms. Williams, his teacher, just returned. He asserts that the test wasn’t fair, because many of the items were “tricky.” His arguments are disrupting the discussion of the test. Of the following, the most effective response to Bud’s arguing would be to: a. tell him to come in after school and discuss any of the items for as long as he chooses to do so. Then, stop any discussion about the “trickiness” of the test. b. remind Bud that he didn’t have the right to disrupt learning for the other students. Then apply an appropriate punishment. c. ask Bud what was troubling him. Then try to meet his emotional needs on a personal level. d. tell Bud that his behavior is inappropriate. Then tell him that you are going to refer him to the school counselor for evaluation. 111. You can’t get away with anything in here,” Crystal whispers to Sarah. “Mrs. Marquez always knows what’s going on.” The concept most closely related to this description is: a. assertive discipline. b. classroom discipline. c. withitness. d. reinforcement. 112. A teacher notices a student in the back of the room whispering during a learning activity. He immediately walks over and stands near the student. His behavior best illustrates: a. organization. b. momentum. c. smoothness. d. withitness.

Chapter 12: Classroom Management: Developing Self-Regulated Learners

113. You are monitoring a group of students as they move from class to the lunchroom. One of your students lags a little behind the group and runs to catch up, which is against the rules because of the danger of being hurt or hurting someone else. Using research to guide your decision, which of the following is most effective? a. Stop him from running, remind him that running is against the rules, and warn him not to do it again. b. Give him a referral, and send him to the main office. c. Keep the student in detention in your classroom for 15 minutes after school. d. Have him return to where he started running and then walk to where he is going. Use the following information for items 114 and 115. You are leading a question-and-answer session with your students, and you notice that Jeremy is not paying attention, and that Jacinta is whispering to Gail. You call on Jeremy as you walk over and stand by Jacinta. 114. Noticing Jeremy’s inattentiveness and Jacinta’s whispering best illustrates: a. self-regulation. b. organization. c. active listening. d. withitness. 115. Moving near Jacinta to stop her whispering best describes which of the following? a. Using an indirect cue b. Using a desist c. Using active listening d. Using a logical consequence 116. Steve has been coming into class just as the tardy bell rings and slamming down his books. As the class begins a seatwork assignment Mrs. King, his teacher, takes him outside the room and says evenly, “Steve your behavior is disruptive, and we can’t have that. So, tomorrow I want you to come to class a couple minutes earlier, and put your books down on the desk quietly. “I was running late,” Steve responds. “We both know better than that,” Mrs. King replies. “If you disrupt the class again tomorrow, I’m going to have to give your mom a call. Understood?” Steve nods. Of the following, Mrs. King’s interactions with Steve best illustrate which of the following? a. A logical consequence b. Constructive assertiveness c. Congruent verbal and nonverbal behavior d. Withitness

Chapter 12: Classroom Management: Developing Self-Regulated Learners

Use the following vignette for items 117-119. Kristi Freeman is working with writers at one classroom station, has another group of students doing seat work, and a third group is working at computers at the back of the room. Anthony starts to chat with Sam as they do seatwork. Charlie kicks the leg of Susie’s chair, and Monica is sending a text. Kristi gives Anthony a head shake, signaling “No,” and Anthony stops whispering. She then gets up, walks over and faces Monica directly, takes Monica’s cell phone, and tells Monica she can pick it up after class. On her way to Monica’s desk, she walks by Charlie and whispers firmly “We don’t kick our classmates’ chairs.” 117. Kristi’s intervention with Monica best illustrates: a. removal punishment. b. negative reinforcement. c. the occurrence of an expected consequence. d. congruent verbal and nonverbal communication. 118. Of the following, Kristi is best illustrating: a. withitness. b. mastery teaching. c. proximity. d. assertive discipline. 119. In this scenario, Kristi uses several management strategies for minor infractions. With Charlie she best illustrates: a. removal punishment. b. a desist. c. nonverbal communication. d. applying a logical consequence. 120. “Speak only when given permission by the teacher” is one of Jeff Davis’s classroom rules. Jeff is explaining the procedure for finding percentages to his seventh graders. While Jeff illustrates the procedure, Chris, in the second desk from the front of the room, is periodically poking Erin, who sits across from him. She then kicks Chris in the leg. Josh, sitting behind Erin, pokes her in the arm with his pencil. Jeff doesn’t respond to the students’ actions. After a second poke, Erin swings arm back and hits Josh on the shoulder. “Erin!” Jeff says, orienting his body directly toward Erin and looking her in the eye. “We keep our hands to ourselves,” and Erin looks down at her desk, appearing a bit chagrined. Which of the following is the best assessment of Jeff’s intervention? a. It was effective because Jeff’s verbal and nonverbal behaviors were consistent. b. It was ineffective because Jeff demonstrated a lack of withitness. c. It was effective because Jeff used a desist to stop Erin’s behavior. d. It was ineffective because Jeff should have punished Erin, since she broke one of the classroom rules.

Chapter 12: Classroom Management: Developing Self-Regulated Learners

121. Kathryn, one of Jesse Goddard’s students, begins to complain about her low score on a test he has handed back. He asks her to come to his room after school to talk about it. She comes in after school, and complains that the test wasn’t fair, saying that the items were too hard, and that Jesse hadn’t done an adequate job of preparing them for it. She says she should be given a chance to retake the test. Jesse listens as Kathryn voices her complaint, and when she is finished he responds, “I understand that you feel badly when you didn’t do as well as you would like. However, you were given a detailed outline of what was on the test, and we had several practice problems the day before the test was given. . . . How much did you study?” Kathryn sits quietly, not responding, and Jesse suggests that she use more effective study strategies in the future. Of the following, which is the best assessment of Jesse’s actions with Kathryn? a. They were ineffective because a caring teacher would have given Kathryn a second chance to take the test. b. They were effective because Jesse listened actively to Kathryn’s complaint and offered a solution to her problem. c. They were ineffective because Jesse should have responded to Kathryn immediately instead of waiting until after school to talk to her. d. They were effective because Jesse’s willingness to listen was reinforcing for Kathryn. 122. Research indicates that classroom management is most effective when interventions are as brief and unobtrusive as possible. Based on this research, which is most effective for a minor infraction, such as a student briefly whispering to another student and then turning back to work? a. Ignore the behavior. b. Use an indirect cue, such as moving near the student. c. Use a desist, such as a brief reminder that students speak only when given permission. d. Apply a consequence, such as timeout, to maintain consistency in interventions. 123. You have a rule stating that students speak only when given permission. As your students are doing a seat-work assignment, Gustavo whispers something across the aisle and then quickly turns back to his work. Based on suggestions for applying the “intervention continuum,” which of the following is the best course of action? a. “Desist” the behavior immediately, to prevent it from happening again. b. Apply a logical consequence, so Gustavo will understand why the behavior is inappropriate. c. Ignore the behavior, since it was brief. d. Remind Gustavo of the rule, and suggest that he come to you if he has a question.

Chapter 12: Classroom Management: Developing Self-Regulated Learners

124. For some inexplicable reason, Dennis, one of your students, spits on the door of your classroom. During the lunch break, you quickly have him eat his lunch, and you then bring him back to the classroom and have him wash the door. Of the following, your actions are best described as: a. constructive assertiveness. b. applying a behavioral form of intervention. c. applying a logical consequence. d. demonstrating withitness and overlapping. 125. A teacher sees John poke Karen and says, “John, we keep our hands to ourselves in this class.” John stops poking Karen. This example best illustrates the teacher’s use of: a. organization. b. negative reinforcement. c. momentum. d. desists. 126. Sasha and Ling are texting each other in your classroom. You look directly at them and say, “Sally and Jill,” evenly but assertively. You see them stop texting and put their cell phones away, and you then continue your presentation. This best illustrates: a. removal punishment b. negative reinforcement. c. a logical consequence. d. follow-through. 127. John gets out of his seat and shoves George as he walks by George’s desk. Being out of seat without permission is against the rules. Based on the suggestions for effective interventions, of the following, the most effective intervention would be: a. ignore the behavior and keep going with the lesson. b. send John back to his desk, and refer him to the rule that was broken. c. walk back to John’s desk and continue with class. d. tell John he needs to talk with you after class. Essay Items 128. Explain why emotional factors in interventions are important. 129. Describe the basic idea on which all cognitive interventions are based, and then describe each of the cognitive interventions, and explain how they’re related to the basic idea. 130. In spite of our best efforts, incidents of misbehavior will inevitably occur. Identify four suggestions we can follow for intervening effectively when this happens, and provide an example of each.

Chapter 12: Classroom Management: Developing Self-Regulated Learners

Serious Management Problems: Defiance and Aggression Knowledge-Level Items 131. In the case of responding to a defiant student, of the following, which is the best course of action? a. Assert your authority by reminding him that you’re teacher, and you’re the one responsible for all the students in your classroom. b. Remain calm, avoid a power struggle, and tell the student calmly but assertively to step outside the classroom so you can talk. c. Remind the student of your rules, tell him that you’ve been fair in enforcing the rules, and then apply the consequence you’ve established for breaking rules. d. Grab the student by the arm firmly enough so he can feel it, but not so firmly that you hurt him, and escort him outside the classroom so you can talk. 132. In the case of a serious management problem, such as two students fighting, which of the following should be your immediate reaction? a. Stop the fight, if possible. b. Send a student to the main office for help. c. Go to the main office for help yourself. d. Wait for a moment to see if the students stop fighting, and if they don’t, send a student to the main office for help. 133. Programs designed to provide long-term solutions to bullying typically focus most strongly on which of the following? a. Swift and consistent punishment of each incident of bullying until the unacceptable behavior no longer exists b. Ignoring minor incidents of bullying, such as pushing students in hallways, and punishment of more severe incidents by school suspension c. Teaching students broadly applicable personal and social competencies such as selfcontrol, perspective taking, and constructive assertiveness d. Counseling programs with parents that ask parents to take responsibility for their children’s behavior Higher-Level Items 134. You have a student who is chronically disruptive. You finally decide that you have no choice but to remove the student from the classroom, and you tell him to step outside. The student refuses to leave and says that you can’t make him go. Which of the following is your best course of action? a. Physically remove the student from your room and once out in the hall, direct him to the principal’s or dean’s office. b. Remind the student that he has the choice to leave or go, and apply your consequence for failure to comply. c. Use an assertive approach in dealing with the student. State your demand that the student leave evenly and repeatedly until the student complies. d. Get help. Teachers need support in dealing with this level of defiance in students. 334 Copyright © 2020, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

Chapter 12: Classroom Management: Developing Self-Regulated Learners

135. Two students are fighting on the playground, but neither is in any of your classes. Of the following, which is the best description of your responsibility in this case? a. You are required by law to intervene, such as attempting to stop the fight, or sending a student for help. b. You are required by law to physically break up the fight, since the continued fighting could result in student injury. c. You are required by law to report the fight to the school administration, but you are not required to intervene, since they are not your students. d. You have no legal responsibilities, since they are not your students. 136. Two of your students are fighting, and you’re afraid that you’re not physically able to stop them. Of the following, which is your most effective immediate intervention? a. Call school security or send a student to the main office for help. b. Shout as loudly as you can, and slam a chair on the floor to see if the students will be startled enough to stop. c. Rush to the main office yourself for help. d. If you believe they will be able to do so, ask two of the biggest boys in your class to step in and stop the fight. 137. You have a student who you see bullying another student. This is the second incident of bullying that you’ve observed. Of the following, which is the most effective initial response to the incident? a. Watch the student carefully to see if any other incidents of bullying occur. If not, ignore the incidents you observed. b. Intervene immediately, and tell the student that his bullying is unacceptable and that he is responsible for his behavior. c. Call the student and the student being bullied into your room, and ask each to describe their side of the incident. d. Report the bullying to the school counselor, and ask the counselor to work with the student doing the bullying. Essay Items 138. You have a student who is being disruptive and you ask him to move to the back of the room and away from the rest of your students. He refuses to leave. First, describe how you should react, and second describe what you should say to the student. Third, describe what you should do if the student remains defiant. 139. Describe your legal responsibilities in cases where you observe one student behaving aggressively toward another. 140. You observe two students fighting. Describe the actions that you should take when you observe the fight. 141. Describe the characteristics that most commonly exist in programs designed to provide long-term solutions to violence and aggression in schools. 335 Copyright © 2020, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

Chapter 13: Learning and Effective Teaching

CHAPTER THIRTEEN LEARNING AND EFFECTIVE TEACHING Planning for Instruction: Backward Design Knowledge-Level Items 1.

Of the following, which is the best definition of effective teaching? a. Teaching that puts students into groups b. Teaching that builds students’ self-esteem c. Teaching that maximizes student participation d. Teaching that maximizes student learning

Instruction is typically described as existing in three phases. Which of the following is not one of those phases? a. Planning for instruction b. Implementing instruction c. Preparing the physical environment d. Assessing student learning

A systematic approach to instructional planning that identifies learning objectives, assessments, and learning experiences, in that order, during the planning process best describes which of the following? b. Effective teaching b. Backward design c. Systematic planning d. Task analysis

Which of the following best explains how backward design is different from traditional planning? a. Planning for assessment is the most important part of backward design, whereas assessment isn’t a part of traditional planning. b. Learning activities are an essential aspect of traditional planning, whereas learning activities are relatively unimportant when backward design is used. c. Backward design focuses specifically on what students should know or be able to do, whereas traditional planning often focuses on activities or coverage of content. d. Backward design is learner-centered, whereas traditional planning is typically teacher centered.

Chapter 13: Learning and Effective Teaching

When planning using backward design as a guide, teachers must first determine: a. what students should know or be able to do. b. what strategies to use. c. what assessments to incorporate. d. what examples are needed.

What teachers want students to know or be able to do with respect to a topic is best described as a: a. learning activity. b. learning objective. c. learning process. d. learning task.

Other than selecting topics, all of teachers’ planning decisions are guided by: a. assessments. b. students’ interests. c. learning objectives. d. learning activities.

All the actions teachers take to help students reach their learning objectives best describe which of the following? a. A task analysis b. A standard c. An assessment d. A learning activity

10.

The process of gathering information—evidence—and making decisions about students’ learning progress best describes which of the following? a. Learning activities b. Backward design c. Assessment d. Effective teaching

Chapter 13: Learning and Effective Teaching

11.

Which of the following parts of the planning process answers the question, “How can I determine if my students have reached the learning objectives?” a. Preparing learning objectives b. Organizing learning activities c. Planning for assessment d. Ensuring instructional alignment

12.

You are using backward design as a guide for your planning, and you have identified your learning objectives. You will now make decisions about which of the following? a. What kinds of examples you’ll use to help students reach your objectives b. How you will determine the extent to which objectives have been met c. What kind of learning activity you’ll use to involve your students d. What kind of task analysis you’ll conduct to analyze your objectives

13.

The learning domain that focuses on mental processes involved in learning different forms of knowledge best describes which of the following? a. The cognitive domain b. The metacognitive domain c. The affective domain d. The psychomotor domain

14.

A statement that describes the knowledge students are expected to construct and the mental process that describes what they will be able to do with that knowledge best describes which of the following? a. An objective in the affective domain b. An objective in the psychomotor domain c. An objective in the cognitive domain d. An objective in the psychosocial domain

15.

One way of classifying objectives and assessment items uses a matrix as its classification system. This matrix is a revision of the famous original taxonomy developed by: a. Mager and his colleagues. b. Tyler and his colleagues. c. Bloom and his colleagues. d. Gronlund and his colleagues.

16.

Of the following, the cell in the cognitive taxonomy table that receives the most focus in teachers’ instruction is likely to be: a. the cell where factual knowledge intersects with remember. b. the cell where factual knowledge intersects with understand. c. the cell where conceptual knowledge intersects with remember. d. the cell where procedural knowledge intersects with understand.

Chapter 13: Learning and Effective Teaching

17.

The first step in preparing and organizing learning activities is: a. sequencing the components of the topic. b. identifying the components of the topic. c. preparing examples for students’ use. d. ordering the examples with the most concrete first.

18.

The process of breaking content down into component parts and making decisions about sequencing the parts refers to which part of the instructional process? a. Writing learning objectives b. Conducting a task analysis c. Sequencing examples d. Instructional planning

19.

After one has identified the component parts of content, the next step in a task analysis is to: a. assess learners. b. prepare examples. c. order examples. d. align instruction.

20.

The final step in a task analysis is to: a. identify component parts. b. sequence the components. c. prepare examples. d. order examples.

21.

Instructional alignment refers to: a. the match between learning objectives, learning activities, and assessments. b. the correspondence between classroom activities and standardized assessments. c. the relationship between teacher-made assessments and standardized tests. d. the tie between learning objectives and state standards.

22.

Learning activities that focus on objectives, and assessments that measure the extent to which the objective have been met, best describe which of the following? a. A task analysis b. Knowledge of learners and learning c. Instructional alignment d. The cognitive domain

23.

Statements that are generated at the state or national level and that describe what students should know or be able to do at the end of a prescribed period of study are best labeled: a. task analyses. b. domains. c. taxonomies. d. standards.

Chapter 13: Learning and Effective Teaching

Higher-Level Items 24.

Although you will apply aspects of a number of theories when you plan and implement your instruction, on which of the following will you primarily ground your efforts? a. Behaviorism, with particular emphasis on operant conditioning b. Self-determination motivation theory c. Goal theory of motivation and learning d. Cognitive learning theory

Use the following example for items 25-30. You are planning for a unit on mammals with your first graders, using backward design as the guide for your planning. You want your students to understand that mammals are warm-blooded, have hair, and provide milk to nurse their young. You decide, “I’ll give them pictures of a series of examples, such as a crab, a mouse, a spider, a bird, a dog, and a frog, and I’ll have them put an X by the ones that are mammals. That will tell me if they understand the concept.” You then decide to bring in a pet hamster to class, together with pictures of a cow nursing a calf, a dog nursing puppies, and a video clip of a chick breaking out of an egg as a non-example. “I’ll then follow the lesson with one on birds, and a third on reptiles,” you decide. Then, as you do the lesson, you bring in the hamster, pictures, and video clip. You have the students feel and pet the hamster, make observations of the pictures, and watch the video clip, guiding them with questions to notice that the hamster is warm and furry. As you continue, you help them identify the characteristics of mammals. You then give them a paper with the pictures of the crab, mouse, spider, dog, bird, and frog, and tell them to put an X by the ones that are mammals. 25.

Of the following, which best illustrates the first step in your planning when using backward design as your planning guide? a. You are planning a unit on mammals. b. You want your students to understand that mammals are warm, have hair, and nurse their young. c. You decide to give your students a series of pictures such as a crab, a mouse, a spider, a bird, a dog, and a frog, and put an X by the ones that are mammals. d. You decide to bring in a pet hamster to class, together with the pictures of the cow and dog nursing, and the video clip of the chick.

Chapter 13: Learning and Effective Teaching

26.

Of the following, which best illustrates the second step in your planning when using backward design as your planning guide? a. You want your students to understand that mammals are warm, have hair, and nurse their young. b. You decide to give your students a series of pictures such as a crab, a mouse, a spider, a bird, a dog, and a frog, and put an X by the ones that are mammals. c. You decide to bring in a pet hamster to class, together with the pictures of the cow and dog nursing, and the video clip of the chick. d. You actually bring in the hamster, pictures, and video clip. You have the students feel and pet the hamster, make observations of the pictures, and watch the video clip.

27.

Of the following, which best illustrates the third step in your planning when using backward design as your planning guide? a. You want your students to understand that mammals are warm, have hair, and nurse their young. b. You decide to give your students a series of pictures such as a crab, a mouse, a spider, a bird, a dog, and a frog, and put an X by the ones that are mammals. c. You decide to bring in a pet hamster to class, together with the pictures of the cow and dog nursing, and the video clip of the chick. d. You actually bring in the hamster, pictures, and video clip. You have the students feel and pet the hamster, make observations of the pictures, and watch the video clip.

28.

In deciding to bring in a pet hamster to class, together with pictures of a cow nursing a calf, a dog nursing puppies, and a video clip of a chick breaking out of an egg as a non-example, you are making decisions about which of the following as you plan? a. A task analyses b. Your learning objectives c. What you will use as acceptable evidence d. Your learning activity

29.

You now bring in the hamster, pictures, and video clip. You have the students feel and pet the hamster, make observations of the pictures, and watch the video clip, guiding them with questions to notice that the hamster is warm and furry. As you continue, you help them identify the characteristics of mammals. Your actions best illustrate which phase of expert teaching? a. Planning b. Implementing c. Assessing d. Diagnosing

Chapter 13: Learning and Effective Teaching

30.

In giving your students a paper with the pictures of the crab, mouse, spider, dog, bird, and frog, and telling them to put an X by the ones that are mammals, you are conducting which phase of expert instruction. a. Planning b. Implementing c. Assessing d. Diagnosing

Items 31 and 32 are related to each other. 31.

You decide that you first want your students to be able to correctly identify the number of 10s and 1s in a series of numbers, such as 8, 13, 23, and 31. Which of the following planning decisions does your thinking best illustrate? a. Identifying topics b. Specifying learning objectives c. Preparing and organizing learning activities d. Planning for assessment

32.

You decide that you will give your students a worksheet with a series of numbers on it, such as 11, 21, 32, and 6, and ask them to identify the number of 10s and 1s on the worksheet. Which of the following planning decisions does your thinking best illustrate? a. Identifying topics b. Specifying learning objectives c. Preparing and organizing learning activities d. Planning for assessment

33.

You want your students to be able to be able to solve problems, such as the following: Damien’s cell phone plan allows him 500 free minutes a month for a rate of $90 per month, and he pays a rate of 40 cents a minute for all calls exceeding the 500 minutes. His phone bill for last month was $105. How many minutes did he use for the month?

Of the following, this objective would best be classified at what level of Bloom’s taxonomy? a. Knowledge b. Comprehension c. Application d. Evaluation 34.

You have displayed pictures of a gerbil, butterfly, cockroach, shrimp, clam, robin, beetle, spider, ant, and scorpion and you want them to identify the animals that are insects. This objective would be best classified at which level of Bloom’s taxonomy? a. Knowledge b. Comprehension c. Application d. Analysis

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35.

The cognitive objective “Students will use the rules for forming plural nouns in their own writing” is best classified in the taxonomy table in: a. the cell where factual knowledge intersects with apply. b. the cell where procedural knowledge intersects with apply. c. the cell where conceptual knowledge intersects with remember. d. the cell where procedural knowledge intersects with understand.

36.

The cognitive objective “Students will learn to state the rule for forming plural nouns in their own words” is best classified in the taxonomy table as: a. the cell where factual knowledge intersects with understand. b. the cell where procedural knowledge intersects with apply. c. the cell where conceptual knowledge intersects with remember. d. the cell where conceptual knowledge intersects with understand.

37.

Into which cell of the cognitive taxonomy table would the objective, “Students will look for and identify bias in newspaper editorials” be best classified? a. The cell where factual knowledge intersects with apply b. The cell where conceptual knowledge intersects with understand c. The cell where procedural knowledge intersects with apply d. The cell where metacognitive knowledge intersects with understand

38.

Into which cell of the cognitive taxonomy table would the objective “Students will know their times tables from 1 through 12” be best classified? a. The cell where factual knowledge intersects with remember b. The cell where factual knowledge intersects with understand c. The cell where conceptual knowledge intersects with remember d. The cell where procedural knowledge intersects with understand

39.

You want your students to understand the rules for punctuating singular and plural possessive nouns and how to differentiate them from punctuating contractions. You display a paragraph with sentences in it, such as: All the boys’ and girls’ parents were invited to the school’s open house. One boy’s parents couldn’t make it, so his grandparents came instead. A women’s club provided refreshment, and one woman’s comment, “I can’t tell you how much I enjoy this kind of thing,” was significant.

You have your students study the paragraph and use questioning to guide them to an understanding of the differences in the use of the apostrophes. Your actions—displaying the paragraph and using questioning to help your students understand the rules—best illustrate which of the following? a. A standard b. A learning objective c. A learning activity d. A task analysis

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40.

You remember that your students have trouble differentiating metaphors from similes, so you first plan to define figurative language. You then plan to provide several examples of metaphors and several other examples of similes. You than plan to have your students compare the characteristics of each. Your thoughts and actions best illustrate: a. knowledge of content. b. task analysis. c. authentic tasks. d. pedagogical content knowledge.

41.

Brenda Ruiz, a science teacher, wants her students to understand the makeup of atoms and molecules. She plans to begin with protons, neutrons, and electrons, and use models to identify the protons and neutrons in the nucleus. She then plans to display several models, beginning with simple elements, such as hydrogen and helium, and gradually progress to elements with larger numbers of protons, neutrons, and electrons. Finally, she plans to have the students identify elements on the periodic table. Brenda’s thinking in this example best illustrates which of the following? a. Knowledge of learners and learning b. A task analysis c. Teaching to a standard d. Instructional alignment

Essay Items 42.

Stacy Keach wants her kindergarteners to understand the concept of living things, and she decides to bring a pet guinea pig in to class to have the children pet it and feel it breathing. She also plans to show her students two different bean plants, one that they planted a week ago, and a second that they planted two weeks ago, and pictures of other plants and animals. She conducts the lesson by guiding the students with questions, such petting the hamster and guiding them to notice that the bean plant they planted two weeks ago is taller than the one planted one week ago, as well as others to help them to the idea of living things. Assess the extent to which Stacy used backward design as the guide for her planning.

43.

Describe the concept of instructional alignment, provide an example, and explain why it is so important for planning and conducting lessons.

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44.

As he prepares lesson plans, Ben Davis always begins with a specific objective, such as, “Students will understand and be able to identify examples of ratios in their day-to-day experience.” He then writes, “Have students describe the ratio of girls to boys in the class. Have them describe the ratio of boys to girls. Have them identify some additional personalized examples.” Ben then conducts his lesson, during which several examples of ratios are discussed and explained. On Friday he gives the students a quiz, and the following is one of the items on the quiz. You’re riding your bike along a bike path in your neighborhood, and you meet 6 people jogging, 8 people walking, and 5 people on bicycles. Counting yourself, what is the ratio of people on bikes to people on foot? Explain your answer in one or two sentences.

Was Ben’s instruction aligned? Explain why it was or why it was not? 45.

Describe the process of planning in a standards-based environment and compare it to planning in general.

Implementing Instruction Knowledge-Level Items 46. Which of the following are considered to be what researchers call prerequisites of effective teachers? 1. Teachers’ professional appearance 2. Teachers’ verbal ability 3. Teachers’ knowledge of content 4. Teachers’ professional knowledge and dedication a. 1, 2, 3, 4

b. 1, 3, 4

c. 3, 4

d. 2, 3, 4

47. Which of the following are considered to be personal qualities of effective teachers? 1. Teachers’ personal teaching efficacy 2. Teachers’ modeling and enthusiasm 3. Teachers’ expectations for students 4. Teachers’ investment in the protection and development of young people a. 1, 2, 3, 4 48.

b. 1, 3, 4

c. 1, 2, 4

d. 2, 3, 4

Basic abilities that all teachers, including those in their first year of teaching, should have to maximize student learning are best described as: a. task analyses. b. instructional alignments. c. essential teaching skills. d. models of teaching.

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49.

Which of the following is not an essential teaching skill? a. Organization b. Questioning c. Focus d. Training

50.

High expectations are an example of which of the following? a. Prerequisites of effective teachers b. Personal qualities of effective teachers c. Professional skills of effective teachers d. Basic attributes of effective teachers.

51.

When a teacher believes he or she can positively affect student learning, that teacher is said to possess: a. effective attitudes. b. personal teaching efficacy. c. empathetic effectiveness. d. proactive attitudes.

52.

Developing routines that are essentially automatic best illustrates which of the following essential teaching skills? a. Teacher beliefs and behaviors b. Feedback c. Questioning d. Organization

53.

Which of the following characteristics of effective communication refers to the cues that alert students to important information in a lesson? a. Transition signals b. Connected discourse c. Emphasis d. Precise language

54.

Which of the following characteristics of effective communication refers to the teacher talk that eliminates vague terms from explanations and responses to students’ questions? a. Transition signals b. Connected discourse c. Emphasis d. Precise language

55.

Which of the following characteristics of effective communication refers to verbal statements indicating that one idea is ending and another is beginning? a. Transition signals b. Connected discourse c. Emphasis d. Precise language 346 Copyright © 2020, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

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56.

A summary that pulls different aspects of the topic together, helps students construct meaningful schemas, and signals the end of the lesson best describes which of the following? a. Focus b. Organization c. Closure d. Feedback

57.

Information about current behavior that can be used to improve future performance is called: a. review. b. closure. c. monitoring. d. feedback.

58.

Which is not an essential characteristic of effective feedback? a. It is general. b. It is immediate. c. It provides corrective feedback. d. It has a positive emotional tone.

59.

Of the following, which is the most accurate statement regarding praise? a. Praise is used frequently during most classes. b. Praise is more often given to low-achieving students than high-achieving students. c. Teachers praise creative answers more than accurate answers. d. Praise for good behavior is rare in most classrooms.

60.

A teacher calls on a student, and the student fails to respond. The teacher then asks another question designed to illicit a response. This process is best described as: a. equitable distribution. b. prompting. c. repetition. d. review.

61.

According to research, teacher wait-times often tend to be about how long? a. 1 second b. 3 seconds c. 5 seconds d. 10 seconds

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62.

According to research examining teacher questioning, of the following, the most significant result of teacher questioning is: a. a greater difference between the achievement of faster compared to slower learners. b. higher levels of involvement from all students. c. a tendency for high achievers to process information more efficiently. d. greater recall from working memory for lower achievers.

63.

Of the following which is the most important indicator of teaching expertise? a. Teachers’ expectations for students b. Teachers’ questioning skills c. Teachers’ abilities to deliver clear lectures d. Teachers’ enthusiasm for the topics they teach

64.

Which of the following is most closely related to clear teacher communication during learning activities? a. Clearly stated learning standards b. Teacher knowledge of content c. Teacher caring d. Teacher expectations

Higher-Level Items Use the following example for items 65-67. Marta Reyon is reflecting on the problem of Luiz. He’s in her third-period English class and failing. She has tried gentle reminders to him to complete his work and makes sure she recognizes him when he does so. She also praises him specifically and liberally when he demonstrates deep understanding of a topic, because she knows that praise for accomplishment on challenging tasks can increase learner motivation. Because he tends to drift off in learning activities, she makes it a point to frequently call on him in learning activities to help maintain his attention. Unfortunately, none of these has really worked as well as she would like. "I know I can get him to learn. They can all learn. I wonder what I should try next. I think I’ll call his parents and ask for their help.” 65.

Which of the following best illustrate what researchers call prerequisites of effective teachers? a. Reminding him to do his work and recognizing him when he does so b. Making it a point to call on him because he tends to drift off c. Liberally praising him to increase his motivation when he demonstrates deep understanding d. Believing she can get him to learn

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66.

Which of the following is best illustrated by Marta making it a point to frequently call on him in learning activities to help maintain his attention? a. A prerequisite of effective teachers b. An essential teaching skill c. A personal quality of effective teachers d. An example of effective planning

67.

Which of the following is best illustrated by Marta’s belief, "I know I can get him to learn. They can all learn. I wonder what I should try next. I think I’ll call his parents and ask for their help? a. Her high teaching efficacy. b. Her modeling and vicarious learning. c. Her effective organizational skills. d. Her professional knowledge.

68.

Tony Martin’s students are convinced that he loves teaching English. Of the following, their beliefs are most likely related to: a. Tony’s personal teaching efficacy. b. Tony’s expectations. c. Tony’s modeling. d. Tony’s organization.

69.

Rick Reynolds calls on all his students as equally as possible. Of the following, his practice most closely relates to which essential teaching skill? a. Teacher expectations b. Teacher modeling c. Teacher caring d. Teacher efficacy

70.

Gamal is a second-year teacher in a large urban district. He is concerned for one of his learners, Hasani, as he does not seem to understand the content in his geometry class. Gamal has tried several different ways to teach the content, to no avail. So, he asks Hasani to come to his classroom a half hour before school is scheduled to start, and he works with Hasani one on one for several days. Gamal’s actions best reflect which of the following essential teaching skills? a. Organization b. Focus c. Caring d. Communication

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71.

Roger is a world history teacher, and during his lessons he asks his students a great many questions. If his behavior is consistent with patterns identified by research, which of the following students is Roger most likely to call on? a. Pete, a low achiever. b. Jon, a passive student who rarely participates in class. c. Burton, who tends to be disruptive. d. Fritz, a high-achieving student.

72.

After school the day before she was going to have the class do an experiment, Natasha Kimble, a science teacher, checks to see if she has the worksheets for the students and the test tubes and other equipment she needs for the experiment. This best illustrates which of the following essential teaching skills? a. Organization b. Connected discourse c. Withitness d. Focus

73.

Compare the following two examples of teacher statements to students. The first is: “Sometimes we don’t make a literal statement. This is hyperbole, like when you say, ‘I never worked so hard in my life.’ This probably isn’t true, so you grossly overstate the point.”

The second is: “Grossly overexaggerated statements, such as ‘I’ve never worked so hard in my life,’ are a form of figurative language called hyperbole.”

Of the following essential teaching skills, the second, in contrast with the first, best illustrates: a. effective communication. b. clear closure. c. appropriate emphasis. d. effective feedback. 74.

Your educational psychology instructor comments, “We have been talking about Piaget’s theory of cognitive development. We are going to shift now to Vygotsky’s views of cognitive development, which are somewhat different from Piaget’s.” The statement best illustrates which of the following aspects of effective communication? a. Transitional signals b. Emphasis c. Connected discourse d. Focus

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75.

Karen O’Brian is teaching a unit on health and nutrition with her middle school class. In referring to the national exercise recommendations for children, she repeats the amount of activity time recommended for children three times and pauses so her students can write it down in their notebooks. In so doing, Karen is best illustrating which aspect of effective communication: a. Transition signals b. Connected discourse c. Emphasis d. Feedback.

76.

Jackie Thornton says to her students, “Let’s do this once more so everyone understands. What did Timmy just say about the setting of the story?” This question is most closely related to: a. emphasis. b. enthusiasm. c. closure. d. feedback.

77.

Ken Barnhart is teaching his students about main idea. He displays a paragraph on the document camera with a summary sentence below it that states the main idea. His display on the document camera would be best described as: a. focus. b. organization. c. review. d. connected discourse.

78.

Robin Anderson uses colored wooden rods to help her students understand equivalent fractions and guides her students through four examples with them using the rods in each case. Of the following, which is best illustrated by Robin’s actions? a. Organization b. Focus c. Closure d. Review

79.

Min Su is teaching an English-as-a-second-language course. She provides a take-home assignment for her class that requires the students to ask for directions to a known location. She wants to be sure her students have practice communicating everyday information. She collects the assignments and gives the students a model answer, which serves as a lesson launching point to help them refine their communication skills. The use of the model answer in this case is an example of which essential teaching skill? a. Teacher beliefs and behaviors b. Organization c. Connected discourse d. Focus

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80.

Phil Johnson is working on finding percents of numbers and displays the problem 20% of 45 = ? He asks, “What’s the answer to this problem, Jack?” After thinking a few seconds, Jack responds, “900.” Based on research examining teacher feedback, of the following, what is Phil’s best response? a. “Not quite, Jack. Can someone help Jack out on this one?” b. “Not quite, Jack. It’s point two zero times 45.” c. “Not quite, Jack. Remember, the first thing we must do is change the percent to a decimal. What is the decimal equivalent of 20%?” d. “Not quite, Jack. The answer is 9. Now, think about that one for a minute while the rest of us look at another problem.”

81.

Rhonda Jackson is working with her students on basic shapes, and she is now having them identify triangles, squares, and circles. When called on, Mary identifies a triangle as a square. Based on research examining feedback, of the following responses to Mary, the most effective is: a. “No, Mary. See the triangle has three sides and the square has four sides.” b. “No, Mary. Not quite. George, can you help her out?” c. “No, Mary. This one is the square.” (Points to the square) d. “No, Mary. Arminta, identify the square for us.”

82.

At the end of the class Suzy stopped by Mr. Barber’s desk and commented, “Mr. Barber, you called on everybody else, but you didn’t call on me even once, today.” Suzy’s comment most closely relates to the concept of: a. teacher caring. b. equitable distribution. c. prompting. d. teacher organization.

83.

Sue Phillips has heard that posing questions to her students while teaching a topic will make her presentations better. So, she has been making an effort to ask more questions. However, she has found not many students are trying to answer, and most often those that do tend to be the higher achievers. Sue’s struggles with questioning are most likely related to: a. asking too many questions. b. not asking enough questions. c. not providing enough wait time. d. not practicing equitable distribution.

84.

Based on research examining teacher questioning, which of the following teachers is most likely to use prompting? a. Anne, because she asks a large number of fact-level questions during her class. b. Gayle, because she has a large number of high-achieving learners. c. Sam, because he asks a number of higher-order questions during his class. d. Dan, because he teaches a small class of learning-disabled students in math.

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85.

Sofia Rodriguez, an American history teacher, notices Mary being inattentive in a class discussion on the factors leading up to the American Revolutionary War. Based on research examining expert teaching behaviors, of the following, which is Sofia’s best action? a. Ask, “What is one of the things the British did that angered the colonists? Mary?” b. Ignore the inattention. c. Say, “Mary, please pay attention to this topic. Information from this discussion will be on the next test.” d. Say, “Mary, please pay attention to what we’re doing here. This information is important.”

86.

Carol Knight wants her students to understand adjectives and adverbs, and she has displayed the following sentence on her document camera. The game was quite exciting, because the outcome was not decided until that last minute.

“What is an example of an adverb in the sentence?” she asks. After a few seconds, Karen responds, “Quite.” Carol then asks, “How do you know ‘quite’ is an adverb, Tony?” Which of the following is the best assessment of Carol’s question, “How do you know ‘quite’ is an adverb?” a. It was effective because she directed the question to a student other than Karen. b. It was effective because it asked the students to provide evidence for the conclusion that quite was an adverb in the sentence. c. It was ineffective because Carol didn’t pause long enough before calling on Tony. d. It was ineffective because Carol should have directed the question back to Karen. 87.

A teacher says, “Okay, summarize in your own words what we have learned in today’s discussion, . . . Carol.” Of the following, this statement best illustrates: a. prompting. b. rehearsal. c. connected discourse. d. closure.

Essay Items 88.

Describe and explain what researchers call three prerequisites of effective teachers?

89.

Describe and explain four personal qualities of effective teachers.

90.

Describe each of the essential teaching skills, and explain how they increase learning.

91.

Describe the characteristics of effective questioning, and explain how each increases learning.

92.

Describe the characteristics of effective feedback, identify the characteristic that is most important, and explain why it is most important. 353 Copyright © 2020, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

Chapter 13: Learning and Effective Teaching

Models of Instruction Knowledge-Level Items 93.

Prescriptive approaches to teaching designed to help students acquire a deep understanding of specific forms of knowledge is referred to as: a. models of instruction. b. essential teaching skills. c. sensory focus. d. instructional alignment.

94. Guided practice is an important element in which of the following models of instruction? a. Guided discovery b. Discovery c. Cooperative learning d. Direct instruction 95.

Developing automaticity with a skill occurs during which phase of the direct instruction model? a. Introduction and review b. Developing understanding c. Guided practice d. Independent practice

96.

The phase of the direct instruction model that accesses prior knowledge from long-term memory is: a. developing understanding. b. guided practice. c. introduction and review. d. independent practice.

97.

A benefit of direct instruction is that it: a. works well for higher-level objectives. b. is based upon a social constructivist model of instruction. c. works well with both high- and low-ability students. d. is suited for social science and literature classes.

98.

Which of the following instructional models is best suited to help learners acquire organized bodies of knowledge? a. Direct instruction b. Lecture-discussion c. Guided discovery d. Cooperative learning

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99.

Which of the following is a disadvantage of lectures? a. Lectures can overload learners’ working memories. b. Lectures allow teachers to organize information in understandable ways. c. Lectures are efficient, since the teacher needs to focus primarily on the content. d. Lectures are flexible; they work in a variety of content areas.

100. The phase of the lecture-discussion model during which students acquire knowledge of the topic is: a. introduction and review. b. presenting information. c. comprehension monitoring. d. integration. 101. A teacher arranges data and examples so that patterns can be found and then questions the students in leading them to a description of the patterns. Of the following, the teacher’s approach could best be described as: a. direct instruction. b. guided discovery. c. lecture-discussion. d. cooperative learning. 102. The second phase of guided discovery is: a. introduction and review. b. the convergent phase. c. the open-ended phase. d. closure. 103. The phase in the guided discovery model of instruction during which teachers activate student prior knowledge is: a. introduction and review. b. the convergent phase. c. the open-ended phase. d. closure. 104. A set of instructional strategies in which students work in mixed-ability groups to reach specific cognitive and social development objectives best describes which of the following? a. Guided discovery b. Cooperative learning c. Differentiated instruction d. Flipped instruction

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105. An approach to teaching that has students study new content online by watching video lectures home computers smart phones or tablets and then, apply the content in class by solving problems and doing exercises under the guidance of their instructor best describes which of the following? a. Personalized learning b. Differentiated instruction. c. Guided discovery d. Flipped instruction 106. The process of adapting learning experiences to meet the needs of students who vary in background knowledge, skills, needs, and motivations best describes which of the following? a. Effective teaching b. Flipped instruction c. Differentiated instruction d. Personalized learning 107. Instruction in which the pace of learning and the instructional approach in which learning objectives, instructional approaches, and instructional content may all vary based on learner needs best describes which of the following? a. Cooperative learning b. Personalized learning c. Differentiated learning d. Flipped learning Higher-Level Items 108. You want your students to be able to quickly and accurately identify subject-verb agreement in sentences. To reach your goal, which of the following instructional models would be most efficient and effective? a. Cooperative learning b. Lecture-discussion c. Direct instruction d. Guided discovery 109. Which of the following topics is best suited for direct instruction? a. Studying To Kill a Mockingbird in literature b. To examine factors leading to World War I in world history c. To solve simple equations in pre-algebra d. To examine the characteristics of different kinds of worms in biology

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Items 110 and 111 are related. Gwen Davis is a middle school math teacher. She starts today’s lesson by introducing the topic of percent increase and percent decrease, and she then reviews decimals and percents. Then, she develops student understanding by describing and modeling the process of solving percent increase and percent decrease problems. 110. Based on the model Gwen has chosen, she should next: a. present a homework assignment. b. provide guided practice. c. access students’ prior knowledge. d. give students a quiz. 111. Gwen gives a homework assignment following her lesson on percent increase and percent decrease, and she tells the students to begin the assignment in the amount of time left in the period. As the majority of the class works on the assignment, she calls, Andrea, Adam, Nora, and Isaac, who tend to struggle with abstract topics, such as percenter increase and percent decrease, to the back of the room, where she guides them through some additional problems, having them explain their thinking and solutions as she works with them. Of the following, Gwen’s actions with her class best illustrate which of the following? a. Flipped instruction b. Cooperative learning c. Personalized learning d. Differentiating instruction 112. Which of the following teachers most appropriately uses homework as a learning tool? a. John assigns a new type of problem and will use the homework as a pre-assessment of student knowledge. b. Paul only periodically assigns homework. His rationale is that in doing so students will make a major effort to do quality work. c. Dave assigns homework daily. Students are “on their honor” to complete it. He does not grade the homework, because he believes the students know that it is important. d. Ron assigns homework almost daily that includes problems related to the learning activity. He scores the homework and discusses the homework with the students. 113. Melinda Juarez wants to help her students understand the concept of velocity. She provides a large number of Hot Wheels cars and small ramps and scales, stopwatches, and rulers for her students so that they can work to find patterns. Melinda then guides a group discussion of their findings and helps them find patterns in what they’ve found. Of the following, Melinda’s approach is best described as: a. direct instruction. b. cooperative learning. c. guided discovery. d. lecture-discussion.

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114. In teaching a unit on how historical precedent has influenced some of today’s politically charged events, you want to present some timely content to your students, and you also want them to hear others’ opinions and discuss some of the most politically charged topics. Which of the following instructional models would likely be most effective for helping you reach your goal? a. Cooperative learning b. Lecture-discussion c. Direct instruction d. Guided discovery 115. It is August, and Susan Fisher has decided to use cooperative groups in her fourth-grade science class for the upcoming year. Based upon effective cooperative learning practice, which of the following is the most valid recommendation for Susan as she plans this instruction? a. Group children together by ability so higher-achieving students are not brought down by lower-achieving students and lower -achieving students are not pressured by higher-achieving students. b. Provide the learners a difficult task as the first assignment so that they know they will have to take cooperative learning seriously. c. Because students are working cooperatively, when activities are completed, give the same grade to each student in the groups. d. Provide instruction on social cooperation and group skills so that students better understand the role that these skills play in learning. 116. Consider the following goal: Your students have been learning about different mammals. You would like to have different students become as knowledgeable as possible about a particular system within mammals (e.g., circulatory, respiratory, reproductive, etc.) and share that knowledge with the class. Which cooperative learning model is likely to be most successful in reaching this goal? a. Reciprocal questioning b. Scripted cooperation c. Jigsaw II d. STAD

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117. Steve Hendricks, a history teacher, is working with his students in a unit examining factors common to most revolutions, such as the American and French revolutions. Over a weekend, he has a colleague video record him delivering a lecture in an empty classroom, where he outlines events leading up to each revolution. He uploads the video recording to YouTube, and on Monday he gives his students the link and assigns them the task of watching the video and gives them Monday and Tuesday evening to watch the videorecorded lecture. On Wednesday he has the students work in pairs to respond to questions asking them to find relationships in the revolutions. He carefully monitors the pairs as they work. Which of the following is Steve best illustrating with his approach to his unit on revolutions? a. Jigsaw II b. Scripted cooperation c. Flipped instruction d. Differentiated instruction 118. Jocelyn Nater completes several lessons on multiplying and dividing fractions with her fifth-graders. However, instead of assigning homework for independent practice after each lesson, she has her students work in teams where they solve homework problems independently and then confer with teammates about the results. If they disagree about answers, they discuss the differences and try to resolve them. Jocelyn intervenes only if the students cannot resolve their disagreements. At the end of the week, she gives a quiz to which students respond individually. Which of the following strategies is Jocelyn most nearly applying? a. Guided discovery b. STAD c. Lecture-discussion d. Jigsaw II Essay Items 119. Describe an objective that would be appropriately taught with the direct instruction model. Then, do the same for the lecture-discussion model, the guided discovery model, and cooperative learning models. 120. Which of the steps in the direct instruction model is most important for promoting students’ understanding? Explain why this step is so important. 121. Use learning theory to describe three weaknesses of lectures. Explain how the “discussion” component of the lecture-discussion model helps overcome these weaknesses. 122. Use cognitive learning theory to explain why guided discovery is often a more effective model for promoting learning than are more teacher-centered approaches. 123. Describe two problems that often occur with students when teachers use cooperative learning. Explain how these problems can be overcome. 359 Copyright © 2020, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

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124. Explain how the essential teaching skills—review, focus, questioning, feedback, and closure and application—are each grounded in neuroscience. Assessment and Learning: Using Assessment as a Learning Tool Knowledge-Level Items 125. Which of the following are characteristics of effective assessments? 1. The assessments provide students with positive reinforcement for their efforts. 2. The assessments are aligned with teachers’ learning objectives. 3. The assessments increase student learning. 4. The assessments allow students to compare their performance to their classmates. a. 1, 2, 3, 4

b. 2, 3, 4

c. 1, 2, 4

d. 2, 3

126. Of the following, which is the most essential characteristic of effective assessments? a. Assessments must use an objective format, such as multiple-choice. b. Assessments must be given immediately after learning activities are conducted. c. Assessments must allow a majority of students to respond to the items correctly. d. Assessments must provide information about students’ thinking. 127. Of the following, the most important purpose of assessments is to: a. provide teachers with information that they can use to assign grades. b. provide parents with information about their child’s learning progress. c. provide students with information they can use to increase their learning. d. provide students with information about how their performance compares to their classmates. 128. Which of the following is not an essential characteristic of effective assessments? a. The assessment is aligned with the teacher’s learning objectives. b. The assessment is a form of positive reinforcement for students. c. The assessment provides information about students’ thinking. d. The assessment promotes learning in students.

Chapter 13: Learning and Effective Teaching

Higher-Level Items 129. Ron Hanson wants his eighth graders to meet the Common Core standard: CSS.ELA-Literacy.L.8.1.a: Explain the function of verbals (gerunds, participles, infinitives) in general and their function in particular sentences. Ron gives them the following passage:

Jorge and Jacob are buddies, and they’re a bit late for the Friday night football game, so they’re running as fast as they can to get to the game before the kickoff. “Running is good for us,” Jorge laughs as they reach the stadium breathless. “Yes,” Jacob agrees. “We needed to get here to see Josh, our best running back, play.”

Ron leads his class in a discussion of the passage and has them analyze the differences in the ways that running is used in it—first as a verb [. . . so they’re running . . .], then as a gerund [Running is good for us.], and finally as a participle [Josh, our best running back]. After some discussion, the students arrive at an understanding of gerunds and participles, and they conclude that the function of gerunds and participles is to serve as nouns or adjectives in sentences. At the end of the week, Ron gives his students a quiz which includes the following: Look at the following short passage, identify the verbals in it, and explain their function. Camilla is writing thank you notes to people who have given her gifts at her birthday party. “Writing a simple email would be easier,” she thinks, “but my Mom told me that hand-written notes are much more effective.” She first gets out some writing paper, composes a short draft, and then copies the draft onto individual thank you notes.

Of the following, which is the most valid conclusion about Ron’s assessment [his quiz]? a. The assessment is effective because it is aligned with his objective [standard] and his learning activity. b. His assessment is effective because he used people, such as Jorge and Jacob in his learning activity, and Camilla in his assessment. c. His assessment is ineffective because he should have told his students how many verbals they were supposed to identify. d. His assessment was ineffective, because he should have explained the function of gerunds and participles before he gave them the passage about Jorge and Jacob.

Chapter 13: Learning and Effective Teaching

130. Barbara Pfister, a third-grade teacher wants her students to meet the Common Core standard: CCSS.ELA-Literacy.L.3.1.f Ensure subject-verb and pronoun-antecedent agreement.

Barbara explains that subjects and verbs must agree, explaining that singular subjects require singular verbs and plural subjects require plural verbs, and gives the example, The students need time, such as recess, to blow off steam

explaining that ‘students’ is plural and ‘need’ is also plural. She then gives the students a seatwork assignment. The first three items on the assignment are below: Circle the sentence in each pair that is correct. 1. High levels of mercury occurs in some fish. or High levels of mercury occur in some fish. 2. Water in the fuel lines causes an engine to stall. or Water in the fuel lines cause an engine to stall. 3. Food between the teeth result in decay. or Food between the teeth results in decay."

In the context of assessment, of the following, which is the most valid conclusion about Barbara’s seatwork assignment? a. Her seatwork assignment was an effective assessment, because her students were asked to identify examples of correct subject-verb agreement. b. Her seatwork assignment was an effective assessment, because Barbara had explained that singular subjects require singular verbs and plural subjects require plural verbs. c. Her seatwork assignment was an ineffective assessment, because it wasn’t aligned with her learning activity. d. Her seatwork assignment was an ineffective assessment, because she should have had her students work collaboratively on the assignment [a form of cooperative learning]. Essay Item 131. Describe two essential characteristics of effective assessments, and explain why each is important.

Chapter 14: Increasing Learning with Assessment

CHAPTER FOURTEEN INCREASING LEARNING WITH ASSESSMENT Assessment for Student Learning Knowledge-Level Items 1.

All the processes involved in making decisions about our students’ learning progress is best described as: a. classroom assessment. b. formal assessment. c. informal measurement. d. formative evaluation.

Making assessment an integral part of the teaching-learning process, so that it becomes a process designed to support and increase student learning best describes: a. the functions of classroom assessment. b. measurement and evaluation. c. measurement of learning progress. d. assessment for student learning.

Which of the following are reasons for assessing students? 1. Increase student learning 2. Reinforce students 3. Enhance student motivation 4. Promote student self-regulation a. 1, 2, 3, 4

b. 1, 2, 3

c. 1, 2, 4

d. 1, 3, 4

Which of the following best describes the primary function of classroom assessment? a. Increase student learning b. Ensure teacher accountability c. Promote student accountability d. Increase time available for teaching

Of the following, which is not a purpose of assessment for learning? a. Diagnose learners’ current understanding b. Increase teacher control of student behavior c. Increase student motivation to learn d. Increase learner self-regulation

Chapter 14: Increasing Learning with Assessment

A systematic approach to instructional planning that identifies learning objectives, assessments, and learning experiences during the planning process best describes which of the following? a. Formative assessment b. Summative assessment c. Backward design d. A table of specifications

The collection of formal and informal processes teachers and students use to gather evidence for the purpose of informing next steps in learning best describes which of the following? a. Assessment for student learning b. Formative assessment c. Summative assessment d. Backward design

The process of gathering information used to make conclusions about the level of learner achievement best describes which of the following? a. Assessment for grading students b. Assessment for student learning c. Formalized assessment d. Summative assessment

An approach to teaching that relies on information about student performance to inform teaching and learning best describes which of the following? a. Assessment for student learning b. Data-driven instruction c. Student accountability d. Learning specifications

10.

Historically, assessment has been used at the end of a unit or course of study to determine the amount that students have learned. More recent conceptions view assessment as a process designed to support and increase student learning. Which of the following best describes the comparison between the historical view and the more recent conception? a. The historical view describes only formal assessment, but the more recent conception describes both informal and formal assessment. b. The historical view describes assessment of learning, and the more recent conception describes assessment for learning. c. The historical view describes paper-and-pencil assessments, and the more recent conception describes performance assessments and portfolios. d. The historical view describes only the process of gathering information about student learning, but the more recent conception describes both the process of gathering information and making decisions based on that information.

Chapter 14: Increasing Learning with Assessment

11.

A matrix that helps us organize our learning objectives by topic and cognitive level and helps us link our instruction and assessment to objectives and standards best describes which of the following? a. Formative assessment b. Summative assessment c. Backward design d. A table of specifications

12.

Assessments that increase motivation have several characteristics. Which one of the following is not one of those characteristics? a. They are aligned with teachers’ learning objectives, so they are valid. b. They avoid social comparisons, so that competition among students is prevented. c. They focus on mastery of content, so students feel competent. d. They focus on lower-level objectives, so students are ensured of success.

13.

Of the following, which best describes how effective assessments promote learner selfregulation? a. Effective assessments provide students with feedback about their learning progress. b. Effective assessments provide teachers with information they can use to assign student grades. c. Effective assessments communicate student strengths and weaknesses to parents and other caregivers. d. Effective assessments prevent classroom management problems by keeping students focused on academic goals.

14.

Making accurate inferences from assessment information and using the inferred information appropriately refers to which of the following characteristics of the assessment? a. Authenticity b. Reliability c. Validity d. Objectivity

15.

The extent to which assessments are able to provide consistent results best describes: a. authenticity. b. reliability. c. validity. d. objectivity.

16.

Which of the following describes the primary purpose of using a table of specifications? a. To ensure that assessments are reliable b. To ensure that assessments are valid c. To ensure that learning objectives and assessments are aligned d. To ensure that learning objectives and assessments are consistent with backward design

Chapter 14: Increasing Learning with Assessment

17.

Of the following, which is the most accurate description of commercially available tests? a. They are known to be generally valid. b. They are known to be highly reliable. c. They consistently measure essential classroom objectives. d. They most commonly assess lower-level objectives

Higher-Level Items Use the following vignette for items 18-22. Aiden Taylor gives a quiz each Thursday in his pre-algebra class, returns it on Friday, and the class discusses the problems most commonly missed. He gives a total of seven quizzes during the 9-week grading period. “These quiz and feedback session are some of the best learning experiences we have,” he argues. Sophia Young, Aiden’s friend and colleague, counters that so many quizzes puts too much stress on the students, so she gives three tests during the 9-week grading period. She also provides detailed feedback for each test. 18.

If the results are consistent with patterns identified by research, which of the following conclusions is most accurate a. Students will learn more in Aiden’s class because frequent assessment provides his students with information about their learning progress. b. Students will learn more in Sophia’s class, because too many quizzes and tests increase learners’ test anxiety. c. Students will learn more in Aiden’s class because his weekly quizzes are shorter than Sophia’s longer tests. d. Students will learn more in Sophia’s class because they will study harder when they only have three tests than they would for a weekly quiz.

19.

With respect to learner motivation, which of the following conclusions is most valid? a. Students will be more motivated in Sophia’s class than in Aiden’s because they will feel less pressure. b. Students will be more motivated in Aiden’s class because his quizzes are shorter than Sophia’s tests. c. Students will be more motivated in Sophia’s class than in Aiden’s because they know that the consequences for doing poorly are greater when fewer tests are given. d. Students will be more motivated in Aiden’s class, because students tend to study harder when they know they will be held accountable for their understanding.

Chapter 14: Increasing Learning with Assessment

20.

Aiden carefully examines the results of each of his quizzes as he scores them, and if he sees that a number of students appear to be struggling with an idea or skill, he modifies his plans for the following week, and reteaches the topic with which they’re struggling. His practice—analyzing results and modifying instruction—best illustrates which of the following? a. A table of specifications b. Formative assessment c. Summative assessment d. Informal evaluation

21.

Aiden scores his quizzes and records the scores in his grading program, to be used in determining his students’ grades at the end of the 9-week grading period. Using the results of his quizzes in this way best illustrates which of the following? a. Formal evaluation b. Formative assessment c. Summative assessment d. Assessment for learning

22.

Which of the following is the most accurate conclusion about the validity of Aiden’s and Sophia’s assessment practices? a. Sophia’s assessment practices are more valid because each of her tests is longer than Aiden’s quizzes. b. Aiden’s assessment practices are more valid than Sophia’s because he will be able to make more accurate inferences from his seven quizzes than she will from her three tests. c. Sophia’s assessment practices are more valid than Aiden’s, because she doesn’t spend as much valuable instructional time on the assessment process. d. Sophia’s assessment practices are more valid than Aiden’s because three tests will result in less test anxiety than will Aiden’s seven quizzes.

Use the following example for items 23 and 24. Before she gives her tests, Sophia creates a small chart to help her ensure that each of the topics she’s taught are appropriately reflected on her test. 23.

Her practice—creating the chart—best illustrates which of the following? a. Formative assessment design b. Summative assessment design c. A table of specifications d. An objective assessment process

Chapter 14: Increasing Learning with Assessment

24.

Which of the following is the most accurate conclusion about the effectiveness of Sophia’s practice? a. Her practice is effective because it helps ensure that her assessments and learning objectives are aligned. b. Her practice is ineffective because she spent valuable time that could have been better used for planning. c. Her practice is effective because it helps ensure that she puts higher-level items on her tests. d. Her practice is effective because it helps her use different assessment formats, such as multiple-choice and short answer.

25.

Being certain that your measurements are consistent with your learning objectives most strongly affects which of the following? a. The validity of your assessment b. The reliability of your assessment c. The formalization of your assessment d. The criterion-referencing of your assessment

26.

Cheryl Poulos is philosophically opposed to quizzes and tests with her third graders on the grounds that they put undue stress on them. She assigns grades based on their responses in class, arguing, “I call on all the students regularly, and I can tell from their answers whether or not they understand the content.” Based on this information, which of the following is the most accurate statement? a. Her assessments are likely to be valid but not reliable. b. Her assessments are likely to be reliable but not valid. c. Her assessments are likely to be both valid and reliable. d. Her assessments are likely to be both invalid and unreliable.

27.

Julian Proctor doesn’t give language arts or math tests to his second graders. “I don’t see the need for them,” he argues. “I have particular things I want to see in their work, and I collect language arts writing papers a couple days a week, and I listen carefully to the way they answer math questions in class. I have plenty of information to use in assigning grades.” Based on this information, which of the following is the most accurate statement? a. His assessments are likely to be both valid and reliable. b. His assessments are likely to be valid but not reliable. c. His assessments are likely to be reliable but not valid. d. His assessments are likely to be both invalid and unreliable.

Chapter 14: Increasing Learning with Assessment

28.

Ann Kenski and Joe Potter both have “students’ ability to compare and contrast” as a goal for their American history students. They both assign an essay where the students have to compare and contrast the Jamestown and Plymouth Colonies in early America. Ann constructs a set of criteria to be used in scoring the essay. Joe does not. They both score the essays and assign students’ grades. Of the following, which is the most accurate statement? a. Joe’s assessment is likely to be less reliable than Ann’s and therefore also less valid. b. Joe’s assessment is likely to be less reliable than Ann’s but they are equally valid. c. Both teachers’ assessments are likely to be unreliable, since they are essays. d. Both teachers’ assessments are valid and reliable since the assessments are consistent with their learning objectives.

Essay Items 29.

Explain why frequent assessment increases students’ motivation to learn. Include a theoretical basis for your explanation.

30.

Jenna is assessing her kindergartener’s ability to identify letters. She asks each child to identify the letters found in his or her name. Is Jenna’s assessment approach likely to be valid? Is it likely to be reliable? Explain in each case.

31.

Suppose a woman weighs 130 pounds as measured by an accurate scale in her physician’s office. Also suppose that her scale at home gives the following readings over a 5-day period: 126, 134, 128, 132, 130, so the average is an accurate 130. Assume that her actual weight has not varied during the five days. Does her scale give reliable measurements? Does her scale give valid measurements? Explain in both cases.

Selected-Response Items Knowledge-Level Items 32.

Which of the following are selected-response formats? 1. Completion 2. Multiple choice 3. Matching 4. True-false a. 1, 2, 3, 4

33.

b. 2, 3, 4

c. 1, 2, 4

d. 2, 4

Assessment items that consists of a stem and a series—typically four or five—answer choices best describes which of the following? a. The multiple-choice format b. The matching format c. The completion format d. The true-false format

Chapter 14: Increasing Learning with Assessment

34.

The question or statement at the beginning of a multiple-choice test item is referred to as: a. an option. b. a distracter. c. a stem. d. a prompt.

35.

When using the multiple-choice format, the primary function of the distractors is to: a. determine the extent to which the item is consistent with learning objectives. b. identify the highest achievers responding to the assessment items. c. ensure that the item can be used as a summative assessment. d. identify students who don’t understanding the content measured in the item.

36.

Assessment items that require learners to classify a series of statements using the same alternatives best describes which of the following? a. The multiple choice format b. The true-false format c. The matching format d. The written response format

37.

One way to increase the effectiveness of matching test items is to: a. use them only for vocabulary assessment. b. have the same number of stems and options. c. allow answers to be matched more than one time. d. use them only for knowledge-level outcomes.

38.

Assessment items that consist of statements learners judge as being correct or incorrect best describes which of the following. a. The multiple-choice format b. The matching format c. The completion format d. The true-false format

39.

Which of the following are advantages of selected-response formats? 1. Ease of scoring. They’re easy to score and are amenable to machine scoring 2. Cognitive level. They effectively measure higher cognitive level outcomes. 3. Reliability. Because scorers don’t have to interpret learners’ answers, they can be scored consistently. 4. Efficiency. They can be used to efficiently assess a large amount of content a. 1, 2, 3, 4

b. 1, 3, 4

c. 1, 2, 3

c. 1, 2, 4

Chapter 14: Increasing Learning with Assessment

40.

Which of the following are disadvantages of selected-response formats? 1. The “guess” factor. Students can sometimes answer correctly by guessing. 2. Cognitive level. They can only assess lower level outcomes. 3. Limitations. They can’t assess learners’ ability to organize and express their thinking in writing. 4. Difficulty in scoring. Scoring selected-response items is time consuming. a. 1, 2, 3, 4

b. 1, 2, 3

c. 1, 3

d. 2, 3, 4

Higher-Level Items 41.

Mel and Tina are discussing student assessment in the teachers’ lounge. Tina argues that multiple-choice items are ineffective because they can assess only lower-level learning. Mel suggests that multiple-choice items are more reliable than essay items. Of the following, which is the best conclusion we can make about these teachers’ statements? a. Both Tina and Mel are correct. b. Neither Tina nor Mel is correct. c. Tina is correct, but Mel is incorrect. d. Mel is correct, but Tina is incorrect.

42.

Abia Vasquez, a science teacher, finds that several items on his final biology exam, which is composed of multiple-choice items, have cues in them. For example, in some items the correct response is much longer than the other distracters. In others the correct answer is written in more technical terms than are the distracters. Of the following, what will be the most likely result of this test flaw? a. Reliability will be unaffected, and validity will decrease. b. Validity will increase, and reliability will decrease. c. Reliability will increase, and validity will be unaffected. d. Both reliability and validity will decrease.

43.

Consider the following test item. Formative tests: 1. are given at the beginning of instruction. 2. are given at any time during instruction. 3. are given at the end of instruction. 4. are given when the teacher wants diagnostic information.

Based on guidelines for preparing multiple-choice items, which of the following is the most valid assessment of the item? a. The item is appropriate as written. b. More information should be included in the stem, so a clear problem or question is presented. c. The stem should be written in the form of a question rather than as an incomplete statement. d. The item is inappropriate for the multiple-choice format, and should be rewritten as a completion item.

Chapter 14: Increasing Learning with Assessment

44.

Consider the following test item. T F True/false items tend to measure higher-level cognitive skills and are objective to score.

Which of the following best describes the major flaw in the item? a. The content measured in the items is not important. b. The item is trivial and doesn’t challenge the students. c. The item contains two ideas—one false and one true. d. The statement is inappropriately long for a true/false item. 45.

Tom Evans gives a multiple-choice test to his biology students, and he is also careful to be certain that his test is consistent with his goals. As it turns out, Tom unintentionally writes the stem of one of the items in a misleading way, so that a number of students select a particular distracter rather than the correct answer, even though they understand the concept being measured with the item. Of the following, which is the most accurate statement? a. The item is reliable but not valid. b. The item is valid but not reliable. c. The item is both valid and reliable. d. The item is neither valid nor reliable.

Essay Items 46.

Look at the following test item. Which of the following is a function of the digestive system? a. To circulate the blood b. To protect vital body organs c. To digest the food we eat and turn it into usable fuel for our bodies d. To transfer nerve impulses

Identify three problems with this item. Then rewrite the item to make it more effective. 47.

Using the criteria for preparing multiple-choice items, describe three problems with the following item. Then rewrite the item to make it more effective. (The correct answer is c.) Which of the following is not a characteristic of culture? a. The kind of music people in a country listen to b. The games people in the country watch and play c. The country’s population d. The things people in the country think are important

48.

Using the criteria for preparing multiple-choice items describe four problems with the following item. Then rewrite the item to make it more effective. (The correct answer is b.) Communism collapsed in Eastern Europe primarily as a result of a: a. inability of the countries to make a decision for themselves. b. collapse in the countries’ economies. c. lack of well-equipped armies to protect the countries. d. revolution among the people of all the countries. 372 Copyright © 2020, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

Chapter 14: Increasing Learning with Assessment

49.

Using the criteria for preparing true-false items, identify one problem with each of the truefalse test items below. 1. Authors’ works are often based on their own experiences. 2. An infinitive is a verb form using the word to that is used as an adverb.

50.

Using the criteria for preparing effective matching items, describe three problems with the following item. Then, identify one criterion for preparing matching items that is met by the item. Respond to the following item by putting the letter of the correct choice in the blank preceding each statement. Use each letter only once. ___ 1. ___ 2. ___ 3. ___ 4. ___ 5. ___ 6. ___ 7.

The chemical symbol for sodium A. Covalent bond Formed when an atom loses an electron B. Law of conservation of mass Matter is neither created nor destroyed C. Ionic bond The results of a chemical reaction D. Na The sharing of electrons E. Ion The taking of an electron from one F. Fe element and transferring it to another G. Products The chemical symbol for iron

Written Response Items Knowledge-Level Items 51.

Of the following, which is the most important disadvantage of completion items? a. They generally measure lower-level objectives. b. They take a lot of teacher time to construct. c. They take a lot of teacher time to grade. d. They are less reliable than essay items.

52.

Which of the following are considered to be advantages of the essay format? 1. The essay format is an effective way to measure progress toward helping students organize their thinking and describe their ideas in writing. 2. Essay items are efficient to construct and score 3. Essay items can improve the way students study. 4. They can assess dimensions of learning, such as the ability to make and defend an argument, that can’t be measured with other formats. a. 1, 2, 3, 4

b. 2, 3, 4

c. 1, 4

d. 1, 3, 4

Chapter 14: Increasing Learning with Assessment

53.

Which of the following are considered to be disadvantages of the essay format? 1. Content coverage is limited with the essay format 2. Essay items tend to measure lower-level cognitive outcomes 3. Essay items are time consuming to score. 4. Reliability is a challenge with essay items. a. 1, 2, 3, 4

b. 1, 3, 4

c. 2, 3, 4

d. 3, 4

54.

A scoring scale that explicitly describes criteria for grading best describes which of the following? a. A performance assessment b. A table of specifications c. A checklist d. A rubric

55.

When scoring essay items, the use of a rubric is likely to increase a. only reliability. b. only validity. c. neither reliability nor validity. d. both reliability and validity.

56.

Which of the following item formats is considered to be easiest to construct but hard to reliably score? a. Multiple choice b. Matching c. Interpretive exercises d. Essay

57.

Which of the following steps should teachers avoid, if possible, in scoring essay examinations? a. Scoring a few papers at one sitting b. Grading papers anonymously c. Reading through the test papers one question at a time d. Developing a model answer as a guide to scoring

Chapter 14: Increasing Learning with Assessment

Higher Level Items 58.

Consider the following test item. An important requirement for a test is __________________.

Based on the guidelines for preparing completion items, which of the following is the most valid assessment of the item? a. The item is appropriate as written. b. The item measures content that is inappropriate for the completion format. A multiple-choice format would be more effective. c. The statement isn’t clear, so it is subject to a variety of interpretations. d. The length of the line is too short, so students may be misled into believing only a short response is required. 59.

Look at the four test items below A. Explain the process of photosynthesis in green plants. B. The most advanced country is South America is _________________________. C. The sentence that contains a participle is: a. Running is very good for you. b. To run you need to be in good physical condition. c. I am running about 20 miles a week. d. Look at the running girl. D. An item that originally was priced at $45 has been marked down to $30. What is the percent decrease in the price?

Of the four, the format that is most popular with teachers because it appears to be easy to write is: a. A b. B c. C d. D 60.

You want your students to process information more deeply, and particularly to look for relationships in what they study and to construct more meaningful schemas, and you want to use assessment as a mechanism to promote this information processing. Of the following, which assessment format is likely to be the most effective for helping you reach this goal? a. Multiple-choice b. Matching c. Completion d. Essay

Chapter 14: Increasing Learning with Assessment

61.

Lin Chu scores all her students’ essay items without looking at their names. By scoring students’ class papers anonymously, Lin is most likely to: a. increase both the reliability and the validity of her scoring. b. increase the reliability but decrease the validity of her scoring. c. increase the validity but have no effect on the reliability of her scoring d. have little impact on either the reliability or the validity of her scoring.

Essay Items Use the following example for items 62 and 63. Ethan Miller, a history teacher, gives his students a 5 item essay test. The following is one of the items. Describe the four most important causes of World War I, and explain why each contributed to the war. Use no more than a half written page for your response.

Ethan then constructs the following as a guide to help him in scoring this item. The first cause was militarism, which involved competition between Britain, France, and Germany who competed to develop larger military forces. Alliances contributed to the war because it forced countries to enter into the conflict even though they were not affected originally. Imperialism involved the gathering of colonies, which led to a global competition for land. Nationalism involves believing that one's country is better than other countries, and this pride contributed to the war. 1 point for each cause, 2 points for each explanation. 12 points total.

Ethan hands out the test with the reminder, “Don’t forget to put your names on your papers,” he gives the test, collects the students’ papers, scores 10 papers after school, and scores the rest at home that evening. 62.

Based on suggestions for increasing the reliability of essay items identify four practices that Ethan followed that helped increase the reliability of his scoring on the test.

63. Based on suggestions for increasing the reliability of essay items offer two suggestions that Ethan could have easily followed that would have further increased the reliability of his scoring. Performance Assessments Knowledge-Level Items 64.

Asking students to demonstrate skills similar to those required in real-world settings best describes: a. norm-referenced assessments. b. performance assessments. c. formal assessments. d. informal assessments.

Chapter 14: Increasing Learning with Assessment

65.

The first step in designing a performance assessment is: a. specifying desired outcomes. b. selecting evaluation procedures. c. selecting the focus of evaluation (process or product). d. determining the appropriate degree of realism.

66.

Choose the correct order of the following steps for designing performance assessments: 1. Structure the evaluation setting 2. Design evaluation procedures 3. Specify performance components a. 1, 2, 3

b. 3, 1, 2

c. 2, 3, 1

d. 3, 2, 1

67.

Of the following, the primary advantage rating scales have over checklists is that they: a. are easier to prepare and implement. b. are more detailed and precise. c. are simpler and therefore easier to use. d. are less cumbersome than checklists.

68.

Of the following, which is the rationale most often given for using performance and portfolio assessments? a. They are easier to evaluate than traditional formats. b. They are more reliable than traditional formats. c. They require more higher-order thinking than do traditional formats. d. They are more readily accepted by students and their parents than are traditional formats.

69.

Which of the following is not considered to be a performance-assessment format? a. A written completion question b. A collaborative group project c. A simulation d. An exhibition of work

70.

Which of the following would be considered a performance assessment? a. Matching items b. True-false items requiring higher-level thinking c. Fill-in-the-blank items on new material d. Audiovisual presentations

71.

Chris Puleo has decided to use a performance assessment in his fifth-grade pig heart dissection unit. He first specifies the expected performance. Next he will: a. determine if the assessment will focus on process or product. b. structure the evaluation setting c. design the evaluation procedures d. determine the amount of class time he will use for assessment.

Chapter 14: Increasing Learning with Assessment

72.

Which of the following statements most accurately describes research on the reliability of performance assessments? a. Acceptable levels of reliability are not possible. b. Acceptable levels of reliability are possible but rarely accomplished. c. Performance assessments tend to be more reliable than traditional formats. d. Acceptable reliability is achieved when well-defined criteria are used.

73.

Collections of work that are reviewed against preset criteria in order to judge a student’s progress over time are called: a. checklists. b. portfolios. c. rating scales. d. criterion-referenced tests.

74.

Portfolios are a form of: a. standardized assessment. b. performance assessment. c. norm-referenced assessment. d. high-stakes assessment.

75.

Of the following, the primary advantage that portfolios have over other authentic assessments is that they: a. provide the teacher with more control over the evaluation process. b. increase validity and reliability. c. involve the learner in the evaluation process. d. are less time-consuming to evaluate.

76.

Which of the following are distinguishing features of effective portfolios? 1. Portfolios demonstrate students’ writing skills. 2. Portfolios reflect developmental changes over time. 3. Portfolios represent only student work of the highest quality. 4. Portfolios involve students in design, selection, and evaluation of samples. a. 3, 4

77.

b. 2, 4

c. 1, 2, 3

d. 1, 2

Of the following, the best description of the main purpose of portfolios is: a. to evaluate and assign grades to student work. b. to document teacher observations of student performance. c. to help students evaluate their own progress. d. to communicate preset criteria to parents.

Chapter 14: Increasing Learning with Assessment

78.

According to research, of the following, what is the most important disadvantage of performance assessments and portfolios? a. Achieving adequate levels of reliability has been difficult. b. Students don’t like being placed in assessment situations where authentic assessments are used. c. They tend to lack real-world application. d. They tend to focus on relatively low-level learner behaviors.

Higher Level Items 79.

Which of the following formats would be most effective for assessing an intern’s teaching skills? a. Oral interview b. Multiple-choice c. Performance d. Extended essay

80.

Marcy Ryan’s assessment of her advanced music students is based upon how well her students perform their recital pieces. Marcy’s assessment is best categorized as a(n): a. informal assessment b. performance assessment. c. portfolio assessment. d. objective assessment.

81.

Mim Andrews is a physical education teacher. She assesses student learning during her softball unit by using batting average and fielding errors. These measures of student learning are best identified as: a. informal assessments. b. commercial assessments. c. performance assessments. d. affective assessments.

Chapter 14: Increasing Learning with Assessment

82.

An observer is given the following checklist used as an alternative assessment to evaluate a preservice education major in a microteaching experience. 1._____Understands the students 2._____Has mastery of the content being taught 3._____Motivates students 4._____Has classroom management skills

Which of the following statements is the best assessment of the checklist? a. The checklist is effective as written. b. A checklist is an inappropriate instrument for assessing teaching skills; a more reliable measure, such as a multiple-choice test, would be more appropriate. c. The checklist would be more effective if the statements were in behavioral terms. As is, it requires the observer to make inferences about the student’s performance. d. The statements in the checklist should be in the form of complete sentences instead of the phrases that appear. 83.

A completed pair of trousers made by following the teacher’s instructions in a life skills class is an example of which component of performance? a. A product b. A process c. A portfolio d. A realistic simulation

84.

Using the appropriate formula to calculate the volume of a pyramid in geometry best illustrates which of the following components of performance? a. A product b. A process c. A portfolio d. A realistic simulation

85.

Which of the following is the best example of high realism for a performance task in math? a. Calculating the amount of fertilizer needed to cover a garden plot on the school grounds. garden plot is the most “real world.” b. Using the formula “length times width” to find the area of a rectangle. c. Calculating the hypotenuse of a right triangle drawn by the student with appropriate tools. d. Solving a linear equation, such as 4x + 6 = 14 in algebra.

Chapter 14: Increasing Learning with Assessment

Essay Items 86.

Prepare a checklist to assess a set of completion items on a test.

87.

Prepare a rating scale to assess a teacher’s (1) preparation of his or her students for a test; (2) administering of the test; and (3) analysis of the results.

88.

Identify two differences between performance assessments, such as checklists and rating scales, and portfolio assessment.

Effective Summative Assessments Knowledge-Level Items 89.

The first step in designing any summative assessment is to: a. specify what you are attempting to assess. b. determine how much instructional time will be allocated to testing. c. structure the evaluation setting for the learners. d. simulate a real-world context to assess learner outcomes.

90.

During what point in the teaching-learning process are summative assessments most effectively prepared? a. During the planning process b. During implementation of learning activities c. After daily learning activities have been conducted d. After units of study have been completed

91.

Which of the following is not considered to an effective assessment practice? a. Giving students practice responding to items similar to items that will appear on the assessment b. Teaching students strategies for responding to assessments c. Discussing assessment items in detail after students have responded to them and the teacher has scored the items d. Creating assessments after instruction has been completed

92.

Which of the following are valid suggestions designed to make summative assessments effective learning tools. 1. Emphasize that promoting learning is the primary purpose of all tests and quizzes and that we and our students are “in this together.” 2. Assess thoroughly and often. 3. Provide students with detailed feedback for all assessments—homework, tests, quizzes, and performance assessments. 4. Provide students with ample practice in preparing for assessments. a. 1, 2, 3, 4

b. 1, 3, 4

c. 1, 3

d. 3, 4

Chapter 14: Increasing Learning with Assessment

93.

Of the following, which is considered to be the most important feature of effective summative assessment practices? a. Giving assessments in consistent patterns, such as a quiz each Friday b. Combining paper-and-pencil items with some performance measures and portfolio entries c. Providing students with detailed feedback about the items on the assessment d. Using consistent item formats, such as composing tests of multiple-choice and essay items

94.

Which of the following are effective strategies for preparing students for summative assessments? 1. Specify what will be covered in the assessment. 2. Give students a chance to practice under test-like conditions. 3. Establish positive expectations. 4. Encourage students to use specific test-taking strategies. a. 1, 2, 3, 4

b. 2, 3, 4

c. 1, 3, 4

d. 3, 4

95.

According to research examining test preparation for students, which of the following groups of students will be most likely to benefit from instruction in test-taking skills? a. Mature students (such as eleventh graders) b. High-achieving students c. Students low in test anxiety d. Low achieving students

96.

Which of the following is likely to be most effective for minimizing test anxiety in students? a. Reducing the level of difficulty of the test b. Discussing test content and testing procedures before giving the test c. Telling students when teaching a topic that the topic will be covered on the test d. Decreasing the number of quizzes and tests that are given

97.

Of the following, the most effective way to reduce test anxiety is to: a. have students practice on sample test items using the format and content that will be covered on the test. b. have students practice stress-reduction techniques, such as deep breathing before and during the test. c. limit the number of tests that are given during the course of a grading period to avoid frequently placing students in the anxiety-producing situation. d. use norm-referenced evaluations, which allows students to compare their performance on the tests.

Chapter 14: Increasing Learning with Assessment

98.

Making decisions about student performance based on a comparison to his or her peers best describes: a. performance grading. b. criterion-referenced grading. c. norm-referenced grading. d. reliable grading.

Higher-Level Items Use the following information for items 99 and 100. Four teachers were discussing their test-anxious students. Mrs. Rowe commented, “I have them practice with the content that will be covered on the test. We do a lot of exercises, so they understand the content as well as possible. Then I try to motivate them by mentioning in passing that some of the items on the test will challenge them, and they’re going to have to do some thinking.” “I do the same thing, meaning I have them practice,” Mr. Potter comments, “but I don’t say anything one way or the other about how difficult the test will be.” “I do stress reduction activities with my class,” Mrs. Richards adds. “Just before we begin the test, I have them close their eyes, visualize themselves doing well on the test, and take a few deep breaths. Then we start.” “I do something a little different, “Mr. Lareau adds. “I tell them that I know they will do well, and I tell them to be ready for a test every day, because I’m not going to tell them when we’re having it, except that it will be sometime during the week. It keeps them on their toes.” 99.

Based on research examining text anxiety in students, the teacher likely to be most effective in reducing test anxiety in her students is: a. Mrs. Rowe. b. Mr. Potter. c. Mrs. Richards. d. Mr. Lareau.

100. Based on research examining test anxiety in students, the teacher likely to be least effective in reducing test anxiety in her students is: a. Mrs. Rowe. b. Mr. Potter. c. Mrs. Richards. d. Mr. Lareau.

Chapter 14: Increasing Learning with Assessment

Use the following vignette for items 101 and 102. Four life science teachers are all teaching a two-week unit on body systems, such as the nervous system, the skeletal system, the digestive system, and so on. Mr. Wertch teaches the unit, and when he has completed the unit, he prepares a unit test. He gives the test, scores it, and assigns students grades. He returns the test, shows the students their grades, and then moves to his next unit. As Mr. Martinez plans his unit, he prepares a series of quizzes and his unit test. After teaching each body system, he gives the quiz for that system, discusses frequently missed items with the students, and then moves to the next system. The day before his unit test, he reminds his students that the format for the unit test will be the same as the format that has appeared on the quizzes. He gives the test the following day, scores it overnight, and returns it and discusses the most frequently missed items the next day. Mrs. Stevens teaches the unit, and when she has completed it, she prepares a unit test. She gives the test, scores it, and assigns students grades. She returns the test, shows the students their grades, asks the students if they have any questions, and then discusses each of the items that the students have questions about. Mrs. Solis teaches each of the systems and then prepares a short quiz on that system. She gives the quiz, discusses each of the items with the students, and then moves to the next system. When she is finished with the unit, she prepares a unit test, gives it, scores and returns it, and gives the students their grades. . 101. Based on research examining teachers’ assessment practices, the teacher whose assessment practices are most effective is: a. Mr. Wertch. b. Mr. Martinez. c. Mrs. Stevens. d. Mrs. Solis. 102. Based on research examining teachers’ assessment practices, the teacher whose assessment practices are least effective is: a. Mr. Wertch. b. Mr. Martinez. c. Mrs. Stevens. d. Mrs. Solis.

Chapter 14: Increasing Learning with Assessment

103. Mrs. Brown is trying to decide about discussing the results—explaining frequently missed items and why students likely missed the items—of the quiz she gave yesterday. Colleagues have told her it’s a waste of time. Based on research examining effective assessment, which of the following is the most valid advice to give her? a. Go over the results, because these discussions are often more valuable than the original instruction. b. Only go over items missed by more than two thirds of the class. c. Don’t go over the results, since discussing the test takes up instructional time that can be better spent on new topics. d. Don’t go over the results, since discussing the test leads to arguments that detract from classroom climate. 104. Which of the following statements best represents the interpretation of a criterionreferenced test? a. John got 80 percent of the items right on the test, so he earned a B. b. Karen scored in the upper third of the class on the test, so she was given a B. c. Leroy’s score was the fifth highest in the class, so he got a B. d. Jeff’s score was equal to the average score obtained by the class, so he earned a C. 105. Which type of grading system is the teacher using when she assigns scores of 94-100 as A, 85-93 as B, 75-84 as C, and 65-74 as D. a. Norm-referenced b. Criterion-referenced c. A combination of norm and criterion referencing d. Alternative assessment 106. Melanie Rowe has as a grading system 94-100 = A; 85-93 = B; 75-84 = C; and 65-74 = D. She assigns grades to her tests based on that system. Janet Rogers creates a frequency distribution on each of her tests, looks for places where the scores tend to cluster, and assigns grades on that basis. Neither teacher determines in advance how many A’s, B’s, C’s, etc. will be given. Which of the following is the most accurate statement? a. Both teachers’ systems are criterion referenced. b. Both teachers’ systems are norm referenced. c. Melanie’s system is criterion referenced, and Janet’s system is a modification of norm referencing. d. Melanie’s system is norm-referenced, and Janet’s is a modification of norm referencing.

Chapter 14: Increasing Learning with Assessment

Use the following example for items 107 and 108. Four fifth-grade teachers are discussing their handling of homework in their classes. “They know they have to do it to do well on the tests,” Mrs. Lynch comments, “but I don’t collect it or grade it.” “I don’t grade it either, but I check to see if they did it, and they know they get a check mark in my grade book if they did it,” Mr. Llamado adds. “It’s a part of my grading system,” Mrs. Monk continues. “I collect every assignment, score it, and record the scores.” “I spot check them,” Mr. Peet adds. “They know it may or may not be collected, and I try to avoid falling into a pattern. I grade it and record the grades when I do collect it.” 107. Based on research, the teacher whose homework practice is most effective is: a. Mrs. Lynch. b. Mr. Llamado. c. Mrs. Monk. d. Mr. Peet. 108. Based on research, the teacher whose homework practice is least effective is: a. Mrs. Lynch. b. Mr. Llamado. c. Mrs. Monk. d. Mr. Peet. Use the following information for Items 109-111. Mr. Powell uses a percentage system in his class—each individual assignment is converted to a percentage, and the percentages are then averaged. Mrs. Mason uses a raw points system—raw points are accumulated, and a percentage is taken at the end. For both teachers, 94-100 = A; 8593 = B; 75-84 = C; and 65-74 = D. Suppose a student gets 3 items correct on a 5-point assignment, gets a 9 on a 10-point assignment, an 18 on a 20-point assignment, and a 4 on a 5-point assignment. 109. Using Mr. Powell’s system, the student’s average would be: a. 72. b. 75. c. 80. d. 86. 110. Using Mrs. Mason’s system, the student’s average would be: a. 72. b. 75. c. 80. d. 86.

Chapter 14: Increasing Learning with Assessment

111. Which of the following statements is most accurate based on the information in the example: a. Mr. Powell’s system is criterion referenced, while Mrs. Mason’s is normreferenced. b. All assignments are given equal weight in Mr. Powell’s system, but they have different weights in Mrs. Mason’s system. c. Mr. Powell’s system is likely to be more reliable than is Mrs. Mason’s system. d. Mr. Powell is using a formative-evaluation system, while Mrs. Mason is using a summative system. 112. Cybele Davis uses several sources of performance information for her eighth-grade English students. She collects written work in class, she has the students prepare impromptu speeches that she scores for grammar and pronunciation, and she also assigns and scores the students’ homework. At the end of the grading period, she gives a final grade. This assessment strategy will most likely result in: a. increased reliability of the individual measures and no effect on the validity b. increased validity of her decisions overall. c. increased validity of the individual measures but decreased validity overall. d. increased reliability but decreased validity of the measures. 113. A school administers a multiple-choice mathematics test to fourth grade classes, which include a number of students who are members of cultural minorities. Results from the test will be used to make decisions about students’ placement in fifth-grade math. Performance on the test relies quite heavily on both students’ mathematics and reading abilities. Which of the following is the most valid conclusion regarding the test? a. The test is more valid because it tests both reading and mathematics abilities. b. The test is less valid because it tests both reading and mathematics abilities. c. The test is more reliable because it tests both reading and mathematics abilities. d. The test is less reliable because it tests both reading and mathematics abilities. Essay Items Read the following case study, which illustrates a seventh-grade social studies teacher, Andrew Robinson, with five sections of geography, working with his students. Then answer the questions that follow the case study. We join him with one of his classes Wednesday morning. 1. “Okay, everyone,” Andrew begins, “Listen carefully, now. We’re finished with our study of Central America and its cultural traditions. You know you’re having a test tomorrow. You’ve all been working very hard, and I know you will do well on the test. 2. He continues, “We’ve been comparing cultures, and I want you to get more practice in making those comparisons, plus I want you to keep working on expressing yourselves in writing. Take a look at this.” 3. Andrew displays the following paragraphs on his document camera. Read the description, and identify (in the example) the characteristics of culture that were discussed in class. 387 Copyright © 2020, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

Chapter 14: Increasing Learning with Assessment

Jorge (pronounced Horhay) is a Mexican boy who is growing up on a farm in the mountains outside Mexico City. He rises early, goes to the small chapel in his home for his morning prayers, and then breakfasts on a large meal of beans and tortillas made from the products of the family farm. His mother always asks him if the Virgin Mary gave him her blessings, and Jorge always says “yes” with a smile. Jorge walks to school a mile down the dusty road. He leaves as his father goes out to cultivate the corn that is the primary source of income for the family. Jorge’s mother then milks the goats and turns the rich cream into delicious butter and cheese. In the early afternoon, Jorge comes home from school, and the family talks quietly in their dialect, which is Spanish with some influence from the Aztecs. As the day cools, Jorge often plays soccer with boys in the nearby village while his father strums his guitar and his mother hums the rhythmic Latin melodies they all love. They go to bed shortly after sunset to prepare for the next day.

4. “Read the example carefully,” Andrew directs. 5. “Now, take out a piece of paper, and answer the question that is given in the directions,” he continues after giving them time to read the example. 6. Andrew watches as the students study the example and work silently for about ten minutes. He then begins, “Someone tell me what they wrote as a response.” 7. “It says in the example that they eat beans and tortillas, and we discussed the food a group eats as part of their culture,” Judy responds. 8. “Yes, very good, Judy. . . . Notice, everyone, that Judy didn’t just say ‘food,’ but instead identified the food they eat in the example. This indicates that she is relating the information in the example to what we discussed in class.” 9. The class continues with students identifying the religion, type of work, and recreation in Jorge’s family. 10. “They’re in good shape,” Andrew thinks to himself as he listens to their analysis. He goes on, “That’s all very good. Now, on the test tomorrow, you’re going to have to do the same thing with another example.” 11. He continues, “You’re also going to need to know the countries’ climates, natural resources, and physical features, and be able to locate them on a map and identify their capitals. For example, what country is this?” he asks, displaying an outline map on the document camera and pointing to Nicaragua. “Mike?” 12. “Nicaragua!” Mike says quickly. 13. “Give us another example,” the class requests.

Chapter 14: Increasing Learning with Assessment

14. “Okay,” Andrew nods and displays the following. We are about seventeen degrees north of the equator and are about in the middle of this country. We are in the most populous country in Central America. Most of the people here are of native or mixed European and native descent. This description best fits: a. Belize b. Guatemala c. Honduras d. Mexico

15. “What is the answer? Mary?” Andrew asks. 16. “It’s Guatemala,” Mary says nervously. 17. “Yes, excellent, Mary,” Andrew encourages, knowing that Mary is nervous in anticipating tests. “Now, tell us why it’s Guatemala,” 18. “First, seventeen degrees only goes through sort of the middle of Guatemala and Belize,” Mary responds. 19. “Also, Guatemala is the most populous country in Central America, and they are of native descent,” Marsha adds. With that, he concludes his review. 20. We join him the next morning before school. He comes in the classroom before the students arrive, opens a window and then changes his mind, reacting to the noise of a lawn mower outside. 21. After the class is settled, he hands out the test and directs, “Write your name at the bottom on the last page of the test. When you’re finished, turn the test over, and I’ll come around and pick it up. Then, begin the assignment on the board.” 22. “Work carefully on the test, now,” he says. “You’re all well prepared, and I know you will do your best. You have the whole period, so you should have plenty of time.” 23. Andrew stands in the front corner of the room, scanning the class as the students work. As he watches, he notices Mary looking out the window periodically for several seconds at a time. He goes over to her desk, looks at her paper, and whispers, “It looks like you’re moving along very well. Try to concentrate on the test a little harder now, and you’ll do fine.” He moves quietly back to the front of the room. 24. The intercom breaks into the silence. “Mr. Robinson,” the voice says, “Mrs. Brown (the principal) needs to see you for a moment. Could you come down to the office?” 25. “I’ll come down at the end of the period,” Andrew says back to the box. “I’m in the middle of a test right now.” 26. “Thank you,” the voice responds. 27. As the students finish, Andrew picks up the tests, and they begin the assignment on the board. 28. Friday morning, the students file into the room and ask as they came in, “Do you have our tests finished yet!” 29. “Of course,” Andrew responds. 30. “How did we do!”

Chapter 14: Increasing Learning with Assessment

31. “Mostly, very well,” Andrew answered. “I’m proud of all of you and the efforts you’ve made.” 32. “There were a couple places where we had a little trouble,” he continues, “and I want to go over them this morning, so you won’t run into the same problems on our next test.” 33. “What does this mean that you wrote on my paper, ‘You identified the cultural feature recreation, but you didn’t say what it was in the example’?” Sondra asks from the back of the room. 34. “Remember on Wednesday we said that you needed to identify both the cultural characteristic and the example of it from the description, like soccer and music from the example with Jorge that we analyzed,” Andrew responds. “Antonio swam, dived, and fished, and you needed to say that in your essay. We’ll discuss the essay question in a bit, but let’s start from the beginning of the test.” 35. “A number of you had trouble with Item 15,” he continued. “Many of you took choice c. What is the correct answer, and why? . . . Ann?” 36. Andrew then discusses several of the items, in each case describing why each of the distractors are incorrect. He then says, “I have placed two exceptionally good essay responses on document camera for everyone to examine. Now, let’s look at them.” 37. Andrew displays the examples and leads a discussion examining why the responses are good. 38. He then picks up the tests, putting his original copy with notes for revising some of the items in a special file folder, reminds the students that they can come into his room to discuss anything about the tests before or after school, and he begins his lesson for the day. 114. Identify three effective actions Andrew demonstrated in preparing his students for the test, and defend your responses by citing information taken directly from the case study (identifying the paragraph or paragraphs). 115. Identify three effective actions Andrew demonstrated as he administered the test, and again defend your answer with information taken directly from the case study (identifying the paragraph or paragraphs). 116. Identify three effective actions Andrew demonstrated after he gave the test and returned it to the students. Defend your response with information taken directly from the case study (identifying the paragraph or paragraphs).

Chapter 15: Standardized Testing and Learning

CHAPTER FIFTEEN SANDARDIZED TESTING AND LEARNING Standardized Testing and Accountability Knowledge-Level Items 1.

Statements describing what students should know or be able to do at the end of a prescribed period of study are called: a. specifications. b. benchmarks. c. criteria. d. standards.

The process of focusing curricula and instruction on predetermined goals is referred to as: a. high-stakes testing. b. standards-based education. c. criterion-based education. d. norm-referenced testing.

The process of requiring students to demonstrate that they have met specified standards and holding teachers responsible for students’ performance is best described as: a. standardization. b. criterion referencing. c. accountability. d. high-stakes testing.

The process used to determine the extent to which students have met standards is: a. effective instruction. b. instructional supervision. c. effective leadership. d. standardized testing.

Of the following, which is the best description of high-stakes tests? a. Standardized tests, such as the National Assessment of Educational Progress (sometimes called the nation’s report card) that measures student achievement b. Standardized tests that are used to make important decisions affecting schools, teachers, and students, such as promoting students from one grade level to another c. Teacher-made tests that teachers use to measure the extent to which their students are reaching the standards prescribed by their state d. Tests in reading, math, and science that our country uses to compare the achievement of our students to the achievement of students in other countries around the world.

Chapter 15: Standardized Testing and Learning

A far-reaching federal government attempt, enacted in 2001, designed to identify and serve all students in every segment of our society best describes which of the following? a. The No Child Left Behind act b. Race to the Top c. The Every Student Succeeds Act d. The National Assessment of Educational Progress

The present accountability movement in our country is generally considered to have begun with: a. The passage of the No Child Left Behind Act in 2001 b. The National Assessment of Education Progress results in 2015 c. The Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS) results in 2011 d. The Every Student Succeeds Act of 2015

A federal effort, passed in 2015, designed to improve education in our country and replace its predecessor, No Child Left Behind, best describes which of the following? a. The Race to the Top Act b. The Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS) c. The National Assessment of Educational Progress d. The Every Student Succeeds Act

A high-stakes preservice assessment process designed to answer the question, “Is a new teacher ready for the job best describes which of the following? a. ESSA b. NCLB c. edTPA d. NAEP

10.

According to advocates, which of the following are advantages of high-stakes testing? 1. They help clarify the goals of a school system. 2. They prepare students for a competitive world outside of school. 3. They send clear messages to students about what they should be learning. 4. They provide the public with evidence about schools’ effectiveness. a. 1, 2, 3 4

11.

b. 1, 2, 4

c. 1, 2, 3

d. 1, 3, 4

According to critics, which of the following are weaknesses of high-stakes testing? 1. The tests provide misleading information about students actually know. 2. The tests narrow the curriculum. 3. The tests have a disproportionately adverse effect on minority students. 4. The tests measure only knowledge of factual information. a. 1, 2, 3, 4

b. 1, 2, 3

c. 1, 2, 4

d. 3, 4

Chapter 15: Standardized Testing and Learning

12.

Of the following, which is likely to be the most direct impact of high-stakes testing on you as a teacher? a. Your school may be graded A, B, C, D, or F, and a stigma is attached to teaching in a school given a low grade. b. Students don’t like high-stakes tests, so you will be confronted with negative student attitudes when preparing them for the tests. c. School principals are under a great deal of pressure to improve student performance, so your principal is likely to supervise you more closely than he or she otherwise would. d. Some states are considering legislation that will tie your salary to your students’ performance on the tests.

13.

A method of teacher evaluation that measures a teacher’s contribution to student learning in a given year by comparing the current test scores of their students to the scores of those same students in previous school years, and to the scores of other students in the same grade best describes which of the following? a. edTPA b. High-stakes testing c. Value-added modeling d. Teacher accountability

Higher-Level Items 14.

Teachers in the Georgetown School District are attempting to prepare their students for an important end-of-year standardized testing process in which all students in the district are required to participate. Students in the elementary grades who don’t score high enough on the test, won’t be promoted to the next grade, and high-school seniors who don’t score high enough on the test won’t be awarded high-school diplomas. Of the following, the best description of the district’s process is: a. high-stakes testing b. value-added modeling c. summative evaluation d. Race to the Top

15.

The Palueo District schools is implementing a new teacher-evaluation system. Part of the evaluation system includes an assessment of teachers based on their students’ performance on standardized tests. If a teacher’s students improve by a predetermined amount on the current year’s standardized tests compared to the previous year, teachers receive a salary bonus. Of the following, this practice would be best described as: a. high-stakes testing b. value-added modeling c. formative evaluation d. Race to the Top

Chapter 15: Standardized Testing and Learning

Essay Items 16.

Explain the terms standards, accountability, and high-stakes tests. The response should include the following:

17.

Explain how standardized tests are related to the process of accountability. The response should say that standardized tests are the tools used to measure the extent to which standards

18.

Describe four positive features of high-stakes testing that advocates commonly cite. The response should include the following:

19.

Describe four criticisms of high-stakes testing of students that are often cited by people who oppose this process.

Standardized Tests Knowledge-Level Items 20.

Assessment instruments given to large samples of students under uniform conditions and scored and reported according to uniform procedures are best described as: a. standardized tests. b. criterion-referenced tests. c. high-stakes tests. d. performance tests.

21.

Which of the following are current, accepted functions of standardized tests? 1. To compare students with other children at the same grade level. 2. To promote or retain children to appropriate grade levels. 3. To place students in special programs that have limited space available. 4. To determine which students are affected by cultural bias in the classroom. a. 1, 4

b. 1, 2

c. 1, 3

d. 2, 4

22.

Scores of individuals taking a standardized test are compared to the scores of a group of individuals similar in age, grade level, and background who have taken the same test. This group of individuals used for comparison is called: a. a grade-equivalent group. b. a norming group. c. a peer group. d. an ability group.

23.

The purpose of a norming group is to: a. describe specifically what content students know and don't know. b. provide information for decisions about advancement to the next grade. c. describe student performance in terms of specific criteria. d. allow educators to compare the progress of their students with others.

Chapter 15: Standardized Testing and Learning

24.

Tests designed to measure and communicate how much students have learned in different content areas are called: a. performance tests. b. achievement tests. c. diagnostic tests. d. aptitude tests.

25.

The Iowa Test of Basic Skills is one example of a(n): a. aptitude test. b. achievement test. c. intelligence test. d. diagnostic test.

26.

The most widely used standardized tests in schools today are: a. aptitude tests. b. achievement tests. c. intelligence tests. d. diagnostic tests.

27.

Of the following, what is the most commonly cited weakness of standardized achievement tests? a. Student scores on specific sections of the tests sometimes indicate that they know more than they actually do. b. Subject matter covered in the tests sometimes corresponds to one particular textbook series. c. Testing takes place over several days. d. Content measured on the tests might not cover the curriculum of a specific school or textbook program.

28.

Tests that provide a detailed description of students' strengths and weaknesses in specific skill areas are described as: a. diagnostic tests. b. performance tests. c. achievement tests. d. aptitude tests.

29.

Of the following, what is the most important difference between diagnostic tests and achievement tests? a. Diagnostic tests are usually administered in groups of 50-100 students, whereas achievement tests are administered to regular class-sized groups. b. Achievement tests are designed to tell how well students will do in a future area of study, and diagnostic tests are not. c. Achievement tests are more subject-area specific than diagnostic tests. d. Diagnostic tests include a larger number of items and report in more detail than achievement tests.

Chapter 15: Standardized Testing and Learning

30.

The Stanford-Binet is an example of a(n): a. aptitude test. b. achievement test. c. intelligence test. d. diagnostic test.

31.

Of the following, the most popular intelligence test in use today is the: a. Stanford-Binet. b. Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (3rd edition) (WISC-III). c. System of Multicultural Assessment (SOMPA). d. Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children (KABC).

32.

Consider the relative advantages of group compared to individually administered intelligence tests. According to research, which of the following is the most accurate statement? a. Group and individually administered tests provide results similar in accuracy, and group tests are less costly to administer. b. While time-consuming and expensive, individual tests yield results that are more accurate than those obtained from group tests. c. Group tests yield more accurate results than do individual tests because the conditions under which they are given are standardized.

33.

Tests designed to predict the potential for future learning and measure general abilities developed over long periods of time are called: a. performance tests. b. achievement tests. c. diagnostic tests. d. aptitude tests.

34.

The type of standardized test designed to measure one’s capacity to acquire knowledge and to solve novel problems is a(n): a. aptitude test. b. achievement test. c. intelligence test. d. diagnostic test.

35.

The type of standardized test designed to predict potential for future learning is a(n): a. aptitude test. b. achievement test. c. intelligence test. d. diagnostic test.

Chapter 15: Standardized Testing and Learning

36.

The SAT (which you may have taken as part of your college application process) is an example of a(n): a. aptitude test. b. achievement test. c. intelligence test. d. diagnostic test.

37.

Of the following, what is the most accurate description of standardized aptitude tests for predicting a learner's future learning potential? a. A standardized aptitude test eliminates possible inconsistencies in grading between different schools and teachers. b. A standardized aptitude test eliminates differences in learners' past exposure to specific ideas. c. A standardized aptitude test reduces the importance of learners' previous background knowledge in different content areas. d. A standardized aptitude test can be used effectively to diagnose specific problems in language and mathematics.

38.

What type of assessment would best determine the extent to which students are prepared for subsequent learning experiences? a. mastery test b. intelligence test c. readiness test d. diagnostic test

39.

A test’s ability to accurately sample topics taught and measure learners’ understanding of the topics best describe which type of validity? a. Content validity b. Predictive ability c. Abstract validity d. Construct validity

40.

The measure of a test’s ability to gauge future performance best describes which type of validity? a. Construct validity b. Aptitude validity c. Predictive validity d. Content validity

Chapter 15: Standardized Testing and Learning

41.

Students in college will be expected to think abstractly about words and numbers. Many of the items on the SAT are designed to measure that ability. Which type of validity does this factor address? a. Predictive validity b. Aptitude validity c. Mental skills validity d. Construct validity

Higher-Level Items 42.

The Baker County school district wants to determine how their students compare to students from a neighboring district. To do so, the Baker County district will most likely will use which of the following types of tests? a. A criterion-based standardized test b. A high-stakes standardized test c. A performance-based standardized test d. A norm-referenced standardized test

43.

Lakeside junior high wants to compare its students' performance in a new algebra program with the program it had used in the past and to other junior high algebra students. What kind of test would be most effective? a. A standardized aptitude test b. A standardized achievement test c. A standardized diagnostic test d. A standardized intelligence test

44.

An analysis of the Comprehensive Test of Basic Skills (CTBS) indicates that it measures the extent to which learning objectives for the Townsend school district have been met. This congruence best illustrates the concept of: a. content validity. b. predictive validity. c. performance validity. d. reliability.

45.

Dan Walker is concerned that the math placement test given to the fifth graders is not a good indicator of how students will do in sixth-grade math. Dan is most concerned with the test’s: a. content validity. b. construct validity. c. placement validity. d. predictive validity.

Chapter 15: Standardized Testing and Learning

46.

Nancy Jacobs is administering a standardized math test to her students as a group, and the test specifies that students should complete the test in 50 minutes. By mistake she gives them an hour to take the test. Of the following, which is the most accurate conclusion we can make about the validity of the scores the students will receive? a. The validity of the scores will not be affected, since she gave the students too much time, not too little. b. The validity will not be affected, because it’s unlikely that the students’ scores will be affected by the extra 10 minutes. c. Validity will be adversely affected, because her students’ scores will be compared to the scores of students were given 50 minutes to complete the test. d. Validity will be adversely affected, because standardized tests are not meant to be group administered.

47.

A school committee tries to determine if a standardized test measures the aspects of learning that appear in their curriculum. The committee is assessing: a. test reliability. b. performance validity. c. predictive validity. d. content validity.

48.

A standardized test for elementary mathematics students that accurately correlates with high school algebra grades and test scores best demonstrates: a. placement reliability. b. performance validity. c. predictive validity. d. content validity.

49.

To be consistent with her learning standards, Donna Brewster, a junior high teacher, is emphasizing higher-order thinking and real-world application in her physical science class. To see if her eighth graders were "getting" what they were supposed to be getting with respect to higher-order thinking in science, she examines a standardized test written in multiple-choice format, that designers describe as being able to measure higher-order thinking and real-world application, compares its table of specifications to the higher-order elements of her course, finds the two to be consistent, and administers the test. She finds, however, that while the test measures topics in physical science, most items don’t measure students' abilities to apply their understanding to real-world problems. Which of the following is the most valid conclusion about the test she is considering using? a. The test lacks content validity with respect to higher order thinking, since she is attempting to teach higher-order thinking and higher-order thinking isn’t measured on the test. b. The test lacks construct validity, since it doesn’t measure what it says it is designed to measure. c. The test lacked reliability, since it didn't actually measure what Donna is trying to measure. d. Ms. Brewster's teaching lacked validity, since her students' only experience was with what she taught, and they were tested on different outcomes. 399 Copyright © 2020, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

Chapter 15: Standardized Testing and Learning

Essay Items: 50.

Describe and give an example of each of the functions of standardized tests.

51.

Describe each of the types of standardized tests, and give an example of a question each would be used to answer.

52.

Explain content validity, predictive validity, and construct validity.

Understanding and Interpreting Standardized Test Scores Knowledge-Level Items 53.

The number a student answers correctly on a standardized test or subtest is called the: a. Scaled score b. Raw score c. Percentile score d. Stanine score

54.

In an effort to ensure that results reported from different forms represent the same level of performance, standardized testing programs report which of the following? a. Raw scores b. Normed scores c. Scaled scores d. NCE scores

55.

A score that represents the percentage of students in the norming sample that scored at or below a particular raw score best describes which of the following? a. A raw score b. A percentile rank c. A scaled score d. A normal curve equivalent

56.

On the normal curve, which of the following is represented on the vertical axis? a. the raw score b. the number of people obtaining a particular raw score c. the percentile d. the stanine

57.

The range of possible percentiles for a standardized test score is called: a. the stanine. b. the standard deviation. c. a percentile. d. a percentile band.

Chapter 15: Standardized Testing and Learning

58.

A description of an individual’s standardized test performance using a scale ranging from 1 to 9 best describes which of the following? a. A percentile b. A scaled score c. A stanine d. A normal curve equivalent

59.

A measure resulting from a statistical process that standardizes scores on a test into a 0– 100 scale similar to a percentile rank, but preserves equal interval properties that don’t exist with percentiles best describes which of the following? a. A stanine b. A scaled score c. A normal curve equivalent d. An achievement/ability comparison

60.

A statistical measure of the ways scores spread out in a distribution best describes which of the following? a. A scaled score. b. A percentile rank. c. A normal distribution d. A standard deviation

61.

A percentile band takes into account: a. the possibility of measurement error of the test. b. the possibility of cheating on the test. c. the range of possible answers to test items. d. the lack of validity of the test.

62.

A score determined by comparing an individual’s score to the scores of students in a particular age group best describes which of the following? a. A percentile band b. A grade equivalent c. A scaled score d. A normal curve equivalent

63.

If a test could hypothetically be administered several times to the same group of students, and an individual's scores were averaged for all the times the test was taken, this average would be an estimate of the individual's: a. norm-referenced score. b. median score. c. true score. d. raw score.

Chapter 15: Standardized Testing and Learning

64.

The range of scores within which an individual's true score is likely to fall is called: a. the standard deviation. b. the true score range. c. the stanine score. d. the standard error of measurement.

65.

Another name for standard error of measurement is: a. percentile band. b. standard deviation. c. range. d. margin of error.

Understanding and Interpreting Standardized Test Scores Items for Application and Critical Thinking 66.

On a subtest of a standardized test, Nikki gets 45 items correct of a possible 50. Of the following, the most valid conclusion is: a. Nikki is in stanine 9. b. Nikki has raw score of 45. c. Nikki is in the 90th percentile (45/50 = 90%). d. Nikki has a raw score of 90.

67.

Jill correctly answered 15 items on 30-item, 90-point biology test. The 15 items represents Jill’s: a. raw score. b. percentile scores. c. stanine score. d. grade-equivalent score.

68.

Jordan's score on a standardized test of mathematical aptitude was at the 85th percentile. Which of the following is the best interpretation of this score? a. Jordan got 85% of the test items right. b. Jordan's rank in the class is about 15th. c. Approximately 15% of all students taking this test scored higher than Jordan. d. For any given test item, Jordan's odds of answering it correctly are 8.5 out of 10.

69.

Chelsey’s raw score on a standardized test puts her in stanine 7. Of the following, which is the most accurate interpretation of this measure? a. Chelsey answered approximately 70% of the items on the test correctly. b. Chelsey scored as high or higher than approximately 80% of the students taking the test. c. Chelsey’s score is at approximately the 70th percentile on the test. d. Chelsey’s score is approximately two standard deviations above the mean on the test.

Chapter 15: Standardized Testing and Learning

70.

A test given to a group of students has a mean of 24 and a standard deviation of 3. A second test given to the same group of students also had a mean of 24 but had a standard deviation of 4. Based on this information, which of the following is the most valid conclusion? a. The students performed better on the second test, since the standard deviation is higher. b. The average on the second test is higher than on the first test. c. The median on the second test is higher than on the first test. d. The students' scores on the second test spread out more than they did on the first test.

71.

You have statistics for two tests, which are as follows: Test A: Mean—40 Median—40 Standard deviation—4 Test B: Mean—40 Median—41 Standard deviation—6

Of the following, which is the most accurate statement? a. The students' performance for both tests is equal since the means are the same. b. The scores in Test B tend to be spread out more than the scores for Test A. c. The students who took Test B performed better since the standard deviation is higher than the scores for Test A. d. The students who took Test B performed better since both the median and standard deviation are higher than they are for Test A. 72.

Mike, a beginning fourth grader, takes a standardized reading test and gets a gradeequivalent score of 5.5. Of the following, the best interpretation of this score is: a. Mike is capable of doing work that is equivalent to the work done by students halfway through the fifth grade. b. Mike's score equals the average reading score obtained by a fifth grader in the fifth month of school. c. Mike is a year and a half ahead of his grade level. d. Mike has the IQ of an average fifth grader.

73.

Angie is in the eighth grade. On a standardized test, she scored at the tenth-grade level on a vocabulary subtest. What is the best interpretation of her score? a. Angie is at the 80th percentile rank of eighth graders for vocabulary. b. Angie's vocabulary is similar to that of the average tenth grader taking that test. c. Angie's score is about 2 standard deviations above the average vocabulary score for eighth graders. d. Angie scores better on vocabulary than on other content areas.

Chapter 15: Standardized Testing and Learning

Use the following information for items 74 and 75. A subtest of a standardized test has a mean of 40 with a standard deviation of 4. (Assume a very large sample so the test results nearly fit a normal distribution.) Cindy scores a 46 on the subtest. Cory scores a 44 on the same subtest. 74.

Based on this information, the best approximation of the following of Cindy's percentile rank is: a. 40 b. 44 c. 82 d. 92

75.

Of the following, the best description of Cory's stanine is: a. 3 b. 5 c. 7 d. 9

76.

Don and Kathy both take a standardized test (the same test) that has a standard error of 4. Don scores a 36 on the test, and Kathy scores a 42. Based on the information in the example, which of the following is the most accurate statement? a. Kathy's true score is higher than Don's, since her score is more than 4 points higher than his. b. Don's true score could be higher than Kathy's. c. Kathy's true score is likely to be between 42 and 46. d. Don's true score is likely to be between 34 and 38.

77.

John has a score of 34 on an achievement test. Raul has a score of 38. The standard error of measurement is 2. The teacher should conclude that: a. John's true score could be equal to Raul's. b. John's true score might be higher than Raul's. c. Raul has a higher true score on this test than John. d. No conclusion about the students' true scores can be drawn from the given information.

Chapter 15: Standardized Testing and Learning

Essay Items The following are standardized test scores for Greg, a fifth-grader. In math, he has an overall percentile rank of 45, a stanine of 7 in science, and a gradeequivalent score of 7.5 in reading. On the problem solving subtest, which included 20 items, he has a raw score of 12, which placed him at the 35th percentile.

You are preparing for parent-teacher conference with and Greg’s parents. 78.

Explain what each score means.

79.

Provide an overall assessment of Greg’s performance.

80.

Make recommendations to the parents regarding how they can assist their child.

Diversity and Standardized Testing Knowledge-Level Items 81.

A form of discrimination that occurs when a test or other assessment instrument unfairly penalizes a group of students because of their gender, ethnicity, race, or socioeconomic status best describes: a. high-stakes testing. b. construct validity. c. accountability. d. assessment bias.

82.

Which of the following is not a type of test bias as identified by measurement experts? a. Bias in test use b. Bias in test format c. Bias in content d. Bias in testing procedures

83.

Of the following, which is an example of accommodations suggested for use when testing special needs learners? a. Only administering a portion of the exam instead of the entire test. b. Allow learners to work in pairs when completing portions of the test. c. Allow the learners to take the test home to have it administered by a parent. d. Alter time to provide extended testing time or more frequent breaks.

Chapter 15: Standardized Testing and Learning

84.

Which of the following are commonly cited problems with testing English language learners (ELLs)? 1. These students tend to come from low SES families. 2. These students tend to attend schools with underqualified teachers. 3. These students are given tests that have not been validated with national norms. 4. These students are placed in classes for which the requirements exceed their academic ability. a. 1, 2, 3, 4

85.

b. 1, 2, 3

c. 1, 2, 4

d. 1, 2

Of the following, which is considered to be the most effective option when administering standardized tests with ELLs? a. Give them the test in their native language. b. Provide interpreters who interpret the meanings of the items as students are attempting to respond to them. c. Allow them to use bilingual dictionaries to help them interpret unfamiliar vocabulary. d. Focus instruction on test content, and have them practice with previously used copies of the test.

Higher-Level Items Use the following information for items 86-88. A group of first-grade students whose parents are migrant farm workers from Mexico, and whose English-language skills are just developing, are given a nationally-normed standardized test designed to assess the extent to which students have acquired the skills typically expected of first graders. The test uses a multiple-choice format, and the students’ teachers have the students practice with multiple-choice items. The results of the test will be used to determine if the students will be retained in first grade or will be promoted to the second grade. Several of the items on the test are designed to measure the students’ basic skills. For example, one item asks the students to identify the item that begins with the long vowel i, and students were shown pictures of a clothes iron, a shovel, a power drill, and a lawn mower as choices. The correct answer was the iron, since it begins with i. Many of the children choose the shovel as an answer, since it is the only item on the list with which they are familiar. 86.

Based on the information in the vignette, of the following, which is the best description of the test? a. It is a diagnostic test. b. It is a high-stakes test. c. It is an aptitude test. d. It is an intelligence test.

Chapter 15: Standardized Testing and Learning

87.

With respect to the test itself, which of the following is the most valid conclusion? a. Bias in content may exist in the test, since it appears to require background knowledge the students lack. b. Bias in testing procedures exists, since the students are in first grade and first-grade students aren’t given standardized tests. c. Bias in format exists, since multiple-choice tests should not be used with first-grade students. d. The test is not biased, since it has been nationally normed.

88.

Which of the following is the best analysis of the fact that the test will determine whether or not the students will be allowed to enter the first grade? a. The test is not biased, since it is an objective measure of the children’s performance. b. Bias in reliability exists, because the teachers had the students practice with the test format. c. Bias in test use exists, since the children’s promotion depends on this single instrument. d. Bias in test format exists because multiple-choice tests should not be used with first graders.

Essay Items 89.

Describe three forms of bias that can exist when standardized testing is used with members of cultural minorities.

90.

Describe three problems that commonly exist when administering standardized tests with English language learners (ELLs).

91.

Describe the two most effective accommodations that you can provide your ELL students when administering standardized tests with them.

Using Educational Psychology in Teaching: Suggestions for Fulfilling your Role in Standardized Testing Knowledge-Level Items 92.

Which of the following best describes teachers’ roles in standardized testing? a. Teachers play an essential role in standardized testing at all grade levels and in all content areas. b. Teachers play an important role in standardized testing at the middle and secondary levels, but they don’t play an important role at the elementary level. c. Teachers play an important role for standardized achievement tests, such as the Stanford Achievement Test, but they don’t play a significant role in high-stakes testing. d. Because standardized tests are created at the national or state level, teachers don’t play a significant role in standardized testing.

Chapter 15: Standardized Testing and Learning

93.

Which of the following is not one of teachers’ roles in standardized testing? a. Preparing students for standardized tests b. Communicating test results to students and their caregivers c. Sending standardized test results to district offices d. Making accommodations, if possible, for members of cultural minorities

94.

Of the following, which is likely to be your most important role in standardized testing? a. Communicating the results of standardized tests to your school administrators, so they can be as sure as possible that your students are performing at acceptable levels. b. Communicating standardized test results to parents, so they understand how well their children are performing on the tests c. Sending test results to district, and, when required, to state offices, to be sure accurate records of student performance are being maintained d. Helping your students understand the content that will be assessed on the standardized test to ensure that they perform as well as possible

95.

Which of the following will likely be the most important factor determining the extent to which students at all grade levels and in all content areas are prepared to perform as well as possible on standardized tests? a. The emphasis your school places on standardized testing b. The effectiveness of your instruction c. The extent to which you “teach to the test” d. The extent to which you encourage your students to study and prepare for standardized tests

96.

For which of the following groups is teaching test-taking strategies most important? a. Gifted students b. Students from high SES backgrounds c. Members of cultural minorities d. Middle school students

Chapter 15: Standardized Testing and Learning

Higher-Level Items Use the following information for items 97 and 98. Fourth graders at Ben Alexander elementary school will be taking a standardized math test using a multiple-choice format near the end of the final grading period. The specifications of the test indicate that students’ ability to solve word problems with fractions will be emphasized on the test, because this ability is consistent with the common core standard: “Solve word problems involving addition and subtraction of fractions referring to the same whole and having like denominators.” Mrs. Martinez attempts to prepare her students by giving them a wide variety of problems, such as the following. You and your parents decide to have a pizza for dinner. The pizza is cut into 8 pieces. You have two pieces, your mom has one piece, and your dad has three pieces. What fraction of the total pizza did you and your parents eat? a. 5 pieces of pizza b. 6/8th of the pizza c. ½ of the pizza d. Most of the pizza

Mrs. Martinez has different students offer their answers and explain why they got the answers they did. Mrs. Jenkins attempts to prepare his students for the test by finding sample questions similar to questions that actually will appear on the test. He gives his students repeated practice with the sample questions. Mr. Fisher attempts to prepare her students by giving them a wide variety of word problems for homework. For example, her homework problems are similar to the following: Your family is on a long driving trip through the western states, such as New Mexico, Arizona, Nevada and California. You plan to make the trip in 6 days. What fraction of the trip will you have driven after 2 days? After 4 days? Explain your work. Mr. Su attempts to prepare his students by giving them a wide variety of word problems for homework, similar to problems that Mrs. Fisher gives. He carefully discusses the homework problems providing feedback when the students struggle with the problems. 97.

The teacher who most effectively prepares students for the standardized test is: a. Mrs. Martinez b. Mrs. Jenkins c. Mr. Fisher d. Mr. Su

Chapter 15: Standardized Testing and Learning

98.

The teacher who least effectively prepares students for the standardized test is: a. Mrs. Martinez b. Mrs. Jenkins c. Mr. Fisher d. Mr. Su

Essay Items 99.

You’re a math teacher, and you typically have students solve a number of word problems on your quizzes. However, you know that the standardized test your students will soon be taking will be in a multiple-choice format. In addition to ensuring to the extent possible that your students understand the content that will be assessed on the standardized test, describe what you should do to best prepare your students to succeed using this format?

100. Describe four suggestions that will help you, as a teacher, best perform your role in standardized testing, and provide an example of each.

Chapter 1 Answers

CHAPTER ONE ANSWERS Expert Teaching and Student Learning Knowledge-Level Items 1. d 2. b 3. c 4. b Higher-Level Items 5. d For all intents and purposes, no curriculum approach, nor any teaching strategy is any better than the teacher using it, and most approaches or strategies can be used to increase student learning if they are implemented by expert teachers. 6. c Evidence indicating that students come to school more socially mature than students taught by teachers with less expertise doesn’t exist. 7. a Research indicates that expert teachers possess more knowledge and skills than their colleagues with less expertise, and greater knowledge and skills is the primary difference between expert teachers and those with less expertise. Essay Items 8. The response should note that expert teachers possess more knowledge and skills than do teachers with less expertise. 9. The response should state that the quality of a school will be determined by the quality of its teachers. And, “quality” of teachers refers to teaching expertise. Educational Psychology, Expert Teaching, and Professional Knowledge Knowledge-Level Items 10. a 11. b 12. b 13. c 14. b 15. a 16. c Higher-Level Items 17. d Understanding this statement suggests that you understand how students acquire information. This suggests that you understand learning and how students learn. 18. d Pedagogical content knowledge refers to an understanding of how to represent topics in ways that make the content understandable to learners, as well as an understanding of what makes specific topics easy or difficult to learn. This is the knowledge that Hector is demonstrating by finding colored pictures as examples. 19. a Knowledge of content refers to teachers thoroughly understanding the content they’re teaching. This is what Gretchen is trying to strengthen by developing a deeper understanding of classics of American literature. 411 Copyright © 2020, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

Chapter 1 Answers

20.

21.

22.

23.

24.

25.

26.

27.

28.

29. 30. 31.

Jeff understanding that the thinking of his high school students is concrete, rather than abstract, demonstrates that he understands learners, and knowing that they need concrete illustrations to make the concepts meaningful demonstrates that he understands learning. b Pedagogical content knowledge refers to an understanding of how to represent topics in ways that make the content understandable to learners, as well as an understanding of what makes specific topics easy or difficult to learn. April’s ability to concretely illustrate the difference between force and pressure demonstrates this knowledge. d April’s demonstration was a form of example that she used to illustrate the concepts force and pressure. Examples, and particularly examples taken from the real world, are powerful tools that teachers can use to make content meaningful for students. b Case studies [and vignettes—short case studies] are short “stories” that are effective for illustrating topics that are hard to illustrate in any other way. Kathy used a “story” about a teacher calling on her students to illustrate the importance of teacher questioning. d Kathy understood that information concretely represented is more meaningful to students than simply “telling” them to ask questions. This demonstrates her understanding of learners and learning. b Pedagogical content knowledge refers to an understanding of how to represent topics in ways that make the content understandable to learners, as well as an understanding of what makes specific topics easy or difficult to learn. Kathy’s ability to create her vignette illustrates this kind of knowledge. c General pedagogical knowledge involves an understanding of instructional strategies and classroom management that apply to all subject matter areas and topics. The ability to question students illustrates general pedagogical knowledge. Kathy’s practicing what she preaches—her questioning—illustrates general pedagogical knowledge. d Professional knowledge includes knowledge of content, such as Jack and Lucas understanding the math they teach, pedagogical content knowledge, such as the ability to represent content in ways understandable to students, general pedagogical knowledge, such as questioning skills, and an understanding the characteristics of students and the way they learn. Lucas using questioning and his ability to represent his content in ways understandable to students suggests that he has more professional knowledge than does Jack. b Reflective practice is the process of conducting a critical self-examination of one’s teaching, and Ava concluding, “I don’t think I’ve spent enough time on basic skills the past few weeks,” is a concrete example of this process. a A crab, lobster, and shrimp are examples of the concept crustacean. c. Seatwork allows the students to practice the skills Dylan is attempting to help them develop. a Mike is distributing his students’ practice. For instance, he has his students add fractions with both like and unlike denominators. Then, as he has his students practice multiplying and dividing fractions, he has them again add and subtract fractions with both like and unlike denominators. In this way he distributes having his students practice adding and subtracting fractions throughout his unit on fractions.

Chapter 1 Answers

Essay Items 32. The response should include the following: - Professional knowledge includes knowledge of content, such as understanding how to solve simultaneous equations in math, or different body systems in science. - It also includes pedagogical content knowledge, the ability to represent content in a way that is meaningful to students, general pedagogical knowledge, such as questioning and classroom management, and knowledge of learners and learning, such as knowing that learners’ thinking tends to be concrete. 33. The response should include the following: - Paul’s double major in history and geography suggests that his knowledge of content is likely to be deep. - No evidence exists in the vignette to suggest that he possesses pedagogical content knowledge, general pedagogical knowledge, or knowledge of learners and learning. 34. The response should include the following: - Paul’s approach to instruction suggests that he lacks both pedagogical content knowledge and knowledge of learners and learning. - We see no evidence in the vignette suggesting that he’s represented the content in any way other than simply explaining, which indicates a lack of pedagogical content knowledge, and his surprise at his students’ lack of interest suggests that he lacks knowledge of learners and learning. The Role of Research in Acquiring Professional Knowledge Knowledge-Level Items 35. b 36. a 37. b 38. d 39. c 40. c 41. d 42. a 43. a 44. d 45. c Higher-Level Items 46. b Quantitative research involves numerical data and statistical methods. Achievement test scores involve numerical data. 47. d Qualitative research uses processes, such as interviews and case studies to answer questions in a holistic fashion. 48. b Qualitative research uses tools such as tests, surveys, and observations to describe the status or characteristics of a situation or phenomenon. This is what Luisa is doing in gathering people’s opinions.

Chapter 1 Answers

49.

50.

51. 52.

53.

54.

55.

d Design-based research is a form of research intended to impact classroom practice and contribute to theory by focusing on educational interventions that are conducted in realworld settings, are iterative, and involve a partnership between researchers and practitioners. This is what Felice and the research team are involved in undertaking. a Action research is research conducted by teachers or other school officials designed to answer a specific school or classroom related question. Kristi is a classroom teacher and she has a classroom related question—how does homework impact the amount students learn? c Mixed-methods research is a research design that combines quantitative and qualitative methods. Quantitative and qualitative methods are both involved in this study. a Theories are sets of related patterns that researchers use to explain and predict events in the world. The two patterns described in the example are components of social cognitive theory. b. Theories provide two functions: 1) to explain events, and 2) to predict future events. For example, the theory of behaviorism allows us to predict that if we reinforce students for trying to respond to our questions, the likelihood of them attempting to respond in the future increases. The response should include the following: - Quantitative research involves the systematic, empirical investigation of phenomena using numerical data and statistical techniques. - Qualitative research describes complex educational phenomena in a holistic fashion using non-numerical data. - Mixed-methods research combines the two approaches. - Action research is conducted by teachers or other school officials designed to answer a specific school- or classroom-related question, and it can use quantitative, qualitative, or mixed-methods designs. - Design-based research involves collaborative efforts between researchers and practitioners with the goal of solving real-world problems, and can also use quantitative, qualitative, or mixed-methods designs. The response should include the following: - Research provides information that is used to form general patterns. When a number of related, general patterns are identified, a theory is gradually formed. - An example, such as the tendency of people to repeat behaviors for which they’re rewarded, but behaviors tend to endure the longest when some, but not all, behaviors are rewarded. These research-based patterns, combined with many others make up the theory of behaviorism.

Teaching in Today’s Classrooms Knowledge-Level Items 56. b 57. a 58. d 59. a 60. d 61. a

Chapter 1 Answers

Higher-Level Item 62. a Accountability is the process of making teachers responsible for ensuring that students have met standards. This is the process in which Teresa is involved. Essay Items 63. The response should include the following: - Politicians and business and educational leaders have been alarmed by our nation’s students’ poor academic performance compared to the performance of students in other countries, and particularly in other first-world countries. - In an effort to improve the performance of our nation’s students, standards have been created and students and teachers are being held accountable for students meeting the standards. 64. The response should include the following: - The Common Core State Standards Initiative is a state-led effort designed to establish a single set of clear educational standards for all states in essential content areas. - The standards were created to ensure that all students graduate from high school with the skills and knowledge necessary to succeed in college, career, and life, regardless of where they live. 65. The response should include the following: - Teacher quality is now a national priority, and quality often means that teachers are knowledgeable. - In attempts to ensure that teachers possess adequate professional knowledge, all states now require prospective teachers to pass one or more tests of both general and professional knowledge before they receive a teaching license. - It’s a virtual certainty that prospective teachers will be required to pass an exam that measures their professional knowledge before they receive a teaching license. 66. The response should note that: - Students attending our nation’s schools are becoming more ethnically diverse. - It is a virtual certainty that teachers will have members of cultural minorities in their classes. - In many cases the students will speak a native language other than English.

Chapter 2 Answers

CHAPTER TWO ANSWERS What Is Development? Knowledge-Level Items 1. a 2. d 3. a 4. b 5. b 6. c Higher-Level Items 7. c The fact that two people of the same age can have widely varying developmental characteristics suggests that people develop at different rates. 8. c Interactions between parents and schools—elements of the microsystem—are considered to be part of the mesosystem. 9. c Bronfenbrenner considers the macrosystem to be composed of the larger culture in which a child develops. Michael and Chu have grown up with different cultural influences. 10. a Bronfenbrenner considers the microsystem to be composed of family, peers, neighborhoods, and schools. Jennifer’s and Sonya’s schools are very different, and they will have differing influences on students’ development. 11. b Alysia has had different environmental experiences than has Darlene, and these experiences have resulted in differences in their development. Essay Items 12. The response should include the following: - The three general principles of development are: - (1) Development depends on both heredity and the environment. People’s genetic makeup, combined with their experiences, determines the extent of their development. For instance, because of genetics, some children will grasp information more quickly than others, but experiences, such as high levels of interaction between children and parents will result in more advanced development - (2) Development proceeds in generally orderly and predictable patterns. For example, children usually crawl before they walk, and they learn concrete concepts, such as car and tree before learning those that are more abstract, such as truth and beauty. - (3) People develop at different rates. Some students in junior high schools, for example, seem like children, whereas others appear to be young adults. 13. The response should include the following: - The systems in Bronfenbrenner’s theory of development include: (1) the microsystem, people and activities in the child’s immediate surroundings, such as parents, peers, and school; - (2) the mesosystem, ways that elements of the microsystem, such as parents and schools, interact with each other; - (3) the exosystem, such as parents’ jobs and workplace conditions; and 416 Copyright © 2020, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

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14.

- (4) the macrosystem, which describes the culture in which the child lives. The response should include two of the following: - First, teachers should be providing the variety of experiences that contribute to students’ development. - As an example, Jenny Newhall, the teacher in the case study integrated throughout the chapter, provided her first graders with concrete experiences illustrating properties of air. - Second, teachers should attempt to communicate openly and often with parents or other caregivers, in order to make a healthy contributions to students’ mesosystems. - As an example, teachers can send a weekly, biweekly, or monthly newsletter home describing goals and activities. - Teachers can also accommodate exosystems by creating flexible opportunities for parents to meet with teachers, so parents can become more effective parts of their children’s microsystems. - For example, teachers can agree to meet parents before or after school to accommodate parents’ job schedules.

The Neuroscience of Learning and Development Knowledge-Level Items 15. c 16. a 17. d 18. a 19. b 20. b 21. d 22. c 23. b 24. a 25. a 26. c Higher-Level Items 27. c Neuroscientists believe that the prefrontal cortex, the portion of the brain responsible for decision making and controlling impulses doesn’t fully develop until people are in their 20s. So, teenagers need the firm and consistent home and school environments that help them through this developmental period. 28. b Alysia’s conclusion that air kept the water out is more cognitively advanced than is Darlene’s, so it represents advanced development. 29. c Learning experiences increase the number of synaptic connections per neuron. As a result of her experience in the swimming pool—experience that Darlene lacked— Alysia will have more synaptic connections that will Darlene. 30. d The cerebral cortex is the part of the brain associated most of human thinking. 31. b Learning depends on the number of synaptic connections between neurons. As Geraldo gradually learns to make inferences, the number of synaptic connections will increase. 32. d The contention that adapting our instruction to students’ individual learning styles will increase learning is a neuromyth. Our time is much better spent attempting to create 417 Copyright © 2020, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

Chapter 2 Answers

33.

high-quality examples, providing students with practice and other proven effective practices. No substitute exists for practice; it is the foundation of neural connection. For all intents and purposes, research supporting each of the other suggestions doesn’t exist.

Essay Items 34. The response should include the following: - The neuron, or nerve cell, is the learning unit of the brain. - Neurons are composed of a cell body; dendrites, which extend from the cell body and receive messages from other neurons; and axons, which transmit outgoing messages to other neurons. - Signals are sent across synapses, tiny spaces between neurons. - As people acquire experiences, the number of synaptic connections per neuron increases, resulting in cognitive development. 35. The response should include three of the following: - We should keep the concept of neuroplasticity in mind. The concept suggests that, with high-quality experiences we can literally become smarter. This suggests that we should be providing experiences, such as Jenny Newhall did with her students in the case student integrated throughout the chapter - Second, we should have our students practice extensively with the content they’re studying, such as solving math problems, and practicing writing. - Third, we should be cautious about fads and neuromyths that purportedly grow out of “brain-based” education. - Fourth, we should encourage students to exercise. A positive link between physical exercise and cognitive development exists. Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development Knowledge-Level Items 36. b 37. d 38. a 39. b 40. b 41. a 42. a 43. c 44. d 45. c 46. d 47. a 48. a 49. b 50. b 51. c 52. b 53. c 418 Copyright © 2020, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

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54. 55. 56.

b b c

Higher-Level Items 57. d By taking the same route to work, parking in the same place, and returning home the same way, Brad is maintaining his sense of order, stability, and predictability. This is characteristic of equilibrium. 58. d We are at disequilibrium when our experiences no longer make sense to us, and we’re motivated to re-establish our understanding. 59. b The students’ scheme for Mrs. Ortega includes factors such as dressing professionally and looking nice. When they see her dressed this way, they are at equilibrium. Seeing her dressed very differently disrupts their equilibrium. 60. a Joe has constructed a scheme for circle, and he sees a circle as his family, friends, and the loop around the city. (It is important to understand that the schemes learners construct are not necessarily valid.) 61. d Molina’s understanding of the planets is that the outer planets are very cold, so she concludes that any planet-like body beyond Pluto would have to be very cold. Her thinking, with respect to the temperatures of the planets, hasn’t changed. (We have no evidence in the vignette to determine if her thinking with respect to the number of planets has changed.) 62. a Assimilation is the process of using an existing scheme to interpret a new experience. Sally used her understanding of feline to understand the bobcat. Her thinking didn’t change 63. c Assimilation is the process of using an existing scheme to interpret a new experience. Dr. Evans incorporated the new information about enrollment problems and funding into her existing scheme about economics governing the world. Her thinking didn’t change. 64. d. A scheme is a mental operation or structure that represents our understanding of the world. Tanya’s ability to use a word processing program represents a form of understanding. 65. b Tanya was unable to use her “Mac” scheme to interpret Windows, so her thinking had to change. As a result of her change in thinking, she is now able to use Windows successfully. This illustrates the process of accommodation. 66. c Tanya is using her “Word scheme” to interpret her experiences with WordPerfect. Her thinking isn’t changing. This illustrates the process of assimilation. 67. d Ms. Ramsay asked a hypothetical question. The ability to think hypothetically is characteristic of the formal operational stage of cognitive development. 68. b Experience is an essential cause of development. Some parents do a much better job of providing school-related experiences for their children than do other parents. 69. b Experience is an essential factor in all forms of development. Having preservice teachers spend time in P-12 classrooms provides some of this necessary experience. 70. b Maturation helps us understand the concept of readiness. Just as we don’t expect second graders to run 10-second 100-meter dash times, we don’t teach abstract ideas until students are ready.

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71.

72.

73.

74.

75.

76.

77.

78.

79.

80.

81.

82.

83.

84.

85.

86.

Social experiences, together with experiences with the physical world, are essential for cognitive development. Social experience is particularly important for social development and the gradual reduction in egocentrism. Bambi used his understanding of flower to incorporate the skunk into his “flower” scheme. His thinking didn’t change. (We need to remember that assimilation isn’t necessarily valid.) Qualitative changes in thinking involve changes in the way people think, rather than the amount they know. The way Jennifer thinks about digestion has changed. Charles centers on the length of the second row of coins and ignores the number of coins in the rows. Young children develop a huge number of concepts, but these concepts are observable and concrete. Tree is concrete, but electricity is abstract. The information in the example most strongly indicates this stage of thinking. (The fact that Isaac is 9 suggests that he lacks experience with electricity. If learners lack experiences with a certain concept, their thinking will likely be characteristic of younger children.) Seriation is the ability to order objects according increasing or decreasing length, weight, or volume. This is what Ava is doing. Jerry is grouping the bolts, two sets of nuts, and washers into separate categories, which demonstrates relatively advanced classification. This level of classification is characteristic of concrete operational thinking. This form of conjecture is abstract and hypothetical. Abstract and hypothetical thinking is characteristic of formal operational thinking. Carrie is centering on the number of cookies and ignores the fact that the pieces of cookie are smaller than the originals. Centering is characteristic of preoperational thinking. The ability to simplify an expression, such as the one in the example, requires abstract thinking. This is characteristic of formal operations. Mr. Smith is posing a hypothetical question. The ability to think hypothetically is characteristic of formal operations. A real lobster is the most concrete example of the choices given. Because of it’s concreteness, it’s the most effective example. Mrs. Edwards does have jointed legs and Tina is centering on this characteristic and ignoring other characteristics, such as Mrs. Edwards being warm blooded and not having an exoskeleton. Tina is centering on the fact that Mrs. Edwards has jointed legs, and she ignores other relevant characteristics. Centering is characteristic of preoperational thinking. (Note here that Tina, as a fifth grader, is chronologically at what should be concrete operations. However, her thinking is characteristic of preoperations.) Mrs. Wells’ students’ struggles suggest they are concrete operational in their thinking, and this choice suggests the most concrete way of illustrating volume and the cubic dimension. The fact that the students can solve the problems with concrete materials suggests concrete operational thinking.

Chapter 2 Answers

87.

88.

89.

90.

91. 92. 93.

d Change of state (e.g., solid to liquid) is an abstract idea. Students need concrete representations to understand the idea. The evidence in the vignette suggests that the students lack the necessary concrete experiences. Eighth graders—chronologically— are considered to be at the stage of formal operations. The students are of average to above-average ability. This suggests that their maturation should be adequate to deal with the concepts. d This is the only suggestion that provides students with a concrete representation of the process of changing state. Concrete representations are needed for students to understand abstract concepts, even if they are chronologically at the stage of formal operations. b Students can see that that the beam is balanced, and they can also see that Block A is bigger than Block B (greater volume). A logical operation is required to conclude that the item is false. The information the students need is concrete and observable. The students aren’t required to think hypothetically or in the abstract. c Density is an abstract concept. The students must reason that the weights (masses) of the blocks are the same, but because the volume of A is greater than the volume of B, it must be less dense, so the statement is false. This line of reasoning requires formal operational thinking. c Responding correctly to this question requires abstract and hypothetical thinking. This is a formal operational task. a Students can see that A is bigger (greater volume) than B, so this is a preoperational task. c Developmentally appropriate instruction suggests that students are provided with concrete representations of abstract concepts. Mrs. Solomon provided concrete illustrations of the abstract concepts area and square.

Essay Items 94. The response should include the following: - The tendency to center on the most perceptually obvious aspect of an object or event and the tendency to be dominated by perception are two important characteristics of preoperational thought. - Concrete thinkers are able to reason logically with concrete materials, and they have developed classification and seriation abilities. - Formal thought includes the ability to reason logically in the abstract as well as the ability to think hypothetically. 95. The response should include the following: - The need for concrete examples is the most important implication. While much of the high school curriculum is abstract, students often lack the concrete experiences needed to make the abstractions meaningful. - The example with negative reinforcement in the chapter illustrates the process of providing concrete examples for abstract concepts. 96. The response should state that Piaget would suggest that Gary’s lack of performance was due to lack of prerequisite experiences with the topics, particularly since he is a bit above average in ability.

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The response should emphasize the concept of readiness. Piaget suggests that learners’ qualitative patterns of thinking require a certain level of maturation before they are “ready.” The tendency to center until they’re more mature illustrates this position. 98. The response should emphasize either the concept of centering. The children center on the teachers’ heights, which is perceptually obvious. Age is more abstract. 99. The response should include two of the following: - Neo-Piagetian theories focus more on the ways people process information to explain movement from one stage to the next than on Piaget’s global stages. - These views focus more strongly on learners' acquisition of learning strategies, viewing the use of more sophisticated learning strategies as advances in development. - These theorists also suggest that advanced executive functioning, such as the ability to maintain attention and suppress intuitive conclusions in favor of more logical processing represents advances in development. 100. The response should include the following: - (1) Provide concrete experiences that represent abstract ideas, such as using manipulatives to represent math concepts; - (2) Help students link the concrete representations to the abstract idea, such as linking 10 beans glued to a craft stick to the numeral 10 written on the board. - (3) Use social interaction to help students verbalize and refine their developing understanding, such as having students verbalize the relationship between the beans and the numeral. - (4) Design learning experiences as developmental bridges to more advanced stages of development, such as using the manipulatives and discussion as preparation for an understanding of place value. 97.

Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory of Cognitive Development Knowledge-Level Items 101. b 102. d 103. a 104. a 105. d 106. c 107. a 108. d 109. b 110. a 111. d 112. c 113. d 114. b Higher-Level Items 115. a Private speech guides thinking and action. This is what Jonas is demonstrating with his thinking. (Notice that private speech isn’t necessarily out loud.)

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116. c 117. b 118. a 119. c 120. c 121. b 122. a

123. a 124. d 125. a 126. d

127. a

128. b 129. b

130. d 131. a

Private speech guides thinking and action. This is what Aubrey is demonstrating with her thinking. (Notice that private speech isn’t necessarily out loud.) Karen can solve problems with Mrs. John’s so the problems are within her zone of proximal development. Joe still struggles with the problems, so they are beyond his zone of proximal development. Judy able to do the problems on her own. The problems are below her zone of proximal development. Darlene can do the problems with her dad’s help, so they are within her zone of proximal development. Esteban and Pepe were both working with their father in a social situation, and this provided the context for their learning. Based on their father’s guidance, Esteban stacked tomatoes correctly, but Pepe did not. Evidence for the task initially being beyond Pepe’s zone of proximal development is the fact that he didn’t stack the tomatoes correctly even with his father’s guidance. Internalization occurs when learners incorporate external, socially constructed ideas into internal cognitive structures. Cognitive tools are the concepts and language people use to make sense of their experiences. This is the function that primacita served for Esteban, Pepe, and Luis. We see evidence of development when Esteban was able to stack tomatoes correctly without his father’s help. We know Esteban benefited from the scaffolding because he was able to stack tomatoes with his father’s help. Pepe was unable to initially stack tomatoes correctly even with his father’s support. Cognitive tools are concepts and language people use to make sense of their experiences. The students are using the concept equivalent fraction in a practical and meaningful way. Bar graphs are commonly used in our culture [and in many cultures]. It is a tool we use to help us understand and make sense of the world. This choice suggests private speech, and private speech is self-talk that guides individual thought and action. Of the choices given, this one is most likely to help Alana with her struggles. Sophie can create PowerPoints with her instructor’s support, but struggles on her own. This represents a task within a learner’s zone of proximal development. Mrs. Page provided no scaffolding for her students. She merely took them to the zoo and then asked them to describe some of the animals they saw.

Essay Items 133. The response should include the following: - Having students come to the board to fill in the missing letters was a form of modeling that provided one form of scaffolding. - Her questioning and cues provided additional forms of scaffolding. 134. The response should state that the task was in the children’s zones of proximal development, which was indicated by the fact that they continued to make progress with the teacher’s support.

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135. The response should state that individual children articulating their understanding and applying it in a new exercise would be evidence that internalization occurred. 136. The response should include the following: - The lesson was conducted in a social environment, and it was all language based. - The grammar and spelling rules the children were learning were specific to the culture of this country. 137. The response should include the following: - (1) Embed learning activities in culturally authentic contexts, such as the kindergarten teacher did with her lesson on grammar and spelling. - (2) Involve students in social interactions, and encourage students to use language to describe their developing understanding. - (3) Create learning activities that are in learners’ zones of proximal development. - (4) Provide instructional scaffolding to assist learning and development. Modeling and questioning are two important forms of scaffolding. Language Development Knowledge-Level Items 138. a 139. a 140. a 141. b 142. d 143. a 144. b 145. a 146. d Higher-Level Items 147. a Providing concrete examples promotes cognitive development, and attaching labels to the examples, such as the label “door” and “clock” aids the cognitive development. Similarly, understanding the concepts makes the labels more meaningful. This process illustrates the interdependence of cognitive and language development. 148. c Holophrases are one or two word utterances that have the same meaning for children as complete sentences. This is what Josh is using. 149. d Holophrases are one or two word utterances that have the same meaning for children as complete sentences. This is what Jenny is using. 150. b Jonah has over generalized to include dogs with “kitties.” 151. b Overgeneralization occurs when a child uses a word too broadly. This is what Joseph is doing. 152. d Syntax involves the use of rules to form meaningful sentences. Pia is using syntax when she said, “Here kitty,” in one case, but simply “Kitty,” in another. (Pia is also demonstrating holophrasic speech. She is simply saying “Kitty” to mean, “That’s a kitty.”) 153. b According to Piaget, assimilation occurs when individuals incorporate new experiences into an existing scheme without a change in thinking. This is what occurs when a child overgeneralizes in language. 424 Copyright © 2020, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

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154. d Semantics is the branch of linguistics that deals with the meaning of words. 155. a Syntax refers to the use of rules to form meaningful sentences. This is what is occurring when students understand the correct grammatical form. 156. d Mr. Briggs has the advantage of having the students practice using language about a real animal—the hamster. They are also able to associate the language, such as words like soft, hair, and warm, with actual experiences when they feel that the hamster is warm and has soft hair. 157. b Mrs. Hester’s students are essentially passive in her lesson. Rather than have the students practice language, she tells them about snakes. No substitute exists for providing students with a great deal of practice in using language. 158. d Mr. Briggs’ lesson would be particularly effective for promoting language development in students who are not native English speakers. He has the advantage of having the students practice using language about a real animal—the hamster. They are also able to associate the language, such as words like soft, hair, and warm, with actual experiences when they feel that the hamster is warm and has soft hair. This is particularly important for students who aren’t native English speakers. Essay Items 159. The response should include the following: - Holophrases are one-word or two-word utterances that carry as much meaning for the child as complete sentences. Their use is part of early language development. - As children’s development advances, they tend to overgeneralize their speech, such as using “doggie” to refer to all furry animals, or undergeneralize, such as using “kitty” to refer to only their kitty. As development further advances the tendency to overgeneralize and undergeneralize gradually disappears. 160. The response should include the following: - Semantics refers to the meaning of words and word combinations, and it is a central aspect of language development. - Syntax refers to the rules of language as sentences are constructed. - The development of semantics and syntax mark significant advances in language development. 161. The response should emphasize that practice is the key to all forms of language development. To become good at writing, for instance, students must do a great deal of writing. No substitute for practice exists.

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CHAPTER THREE ANSWERS Personality Development Knowledge-Level Items 1. d 2. a 3. b 4. c 5. d 6. b 7. b 8. b 9. d 10. d 11. c 12. a Higher-Level Items 13. a Personality development is generally considered to be a product of both heredity—our temperaments, which describe our relatively consistent inclinations to respond to events in the environment in particular ways—and the environment. A common way of thinking about personality development suggests that young people display genetically influenced temperaments, which life experiences then influence, with the result being an individual’s personality. 14. b Authoritative parents tend to have children who are agreeable open and conscientious. These are the personality characteristics that Aiden is demonstrating. 15. a Zach is particularly demonstrating openness—curiosity and experience seeking—in his comments to Maria, and research indicates that a link exists between openness and academic achievement, particularly in adolescents. The fact that he and Maria are studying for the test also suggests that Zach is conscientious. 16. b Presenting examples (Henry) and non-examples (Oliver) of positive personality traits is one of the most effective strategies teachers can use to promote personality development. 17. d In talking about her studying, Tanya is modeling openness and conscientiousness, two personality traits linked to high academic achievement. 18. c Permissive parents tend to have children who are immature, compulsive, disagreeable, and are not conscientious. 19. d Modeling is one of the most powerful effects on learning and development that exist. Modeling these desirable personality characteristics for students is the most effective strategy we can employ 20. b An authoritative classroom management style parallels an authoritative parenting style and is the style most likely to promote healthy personality development in students.

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Essay Items 21. The response should include the following: - Temperament, largely determined by genetics, describes our inclinations to respond to events in our environment in particular ways. - As one example, children with irritable and anger-prone temperaments are often low in openness and agreeableness, which can cause negative reactions from others, making it hard to form friendships. - As another example, children with difficult temperaments may have behavioral problems at school and adjustment problems after the school years 22. The response should include the following: - If Alvaro’s development is consistent with patterns identified by research, he is likely to be agreeable, open, and conscientiousness. - Alvaro’s parents demonstrate the characteristics of an authoritative parenting style, which is why he is likely to acquire these characteristics. 23. The response should include the following: - A strong link exists between academic achievement and openness and conscientiousness, particularly in adolescents. - Additional research has identified links between academic achievement and extraversion, openness, and conscientiousness in younger students. Development of Identity Knowledge-Level Items 24. d 25. a 26. b 27. d 28. c 29. b 30. b 31. d 32. c 33. c 34. a 35. b 36. c 37. a 38. a 39. d 40. b 41. d 42. b 43. c 44. a 45. d

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Higher-Level Items 46. a Based on Erikson’s work, Jimmie would be in the initiative/guilt stage of psychosocial development, so his attempts at initiative should be supported. This is what Mrs. Stewart is doing in this response. 47. c The need to develop a sense of competence is paramount at this stage. Natasha’s lack of confidence with respect to her competence suggests she is struggling with this stage. 48. a Kelly’s jealousy and concern about her husband’s possible cheating, even though she no evidence that he is doing so, suggests a lack of trust. Her belief that her boss “blows smoke at her” is further evidence of a lack of trust. 49. b Her wanting to walk in the store without having her mother hold her hand suggests that she wants to be autonomous. Also, being 2 and a half, is chronologically consistent with this stage. 50. d His lack of inclination to go beyond what is required or volunteer in class suggests a lack of initiative. 51. c The most effective intervention is for Adam to see direct evidence and the consequences of him taking initiative. This is what you’re doing in this choice. 52. b The elementary school years are crucial for resolving the industry/inferiority psychosocial challenge, and developing a sense of competence is essential for meeting this goal. Nothing better promotes a sense of competence better than success on challenging tasks. 53. b Our identities represent the self-constructed definitions of who we are. This definition is illustrated in the statement. 54. d Mr. Jones estrangement from his wife and his feeling that he needs a “. . . little bracer before I face the music” suggests that he is not positively resolving the intimacy/isolation psychosocial challenge effectively. His hard work and reputation as a competent professional suggests a positive resolution of the industry/inferiority crisis, his reputation as an innovator in his company suggests a positive resolution of the initiative/guilt crisis, and the fact that he seems reasonably sure of himself suggests that he has an acceptable sense of himself, i.e., he seems to have positively resolved the identity/confusion crisis. . 55. d Self-acceptance for what a person is and has been suggests a positive resolution for the psychosocial challenge at this stage. 56. a Self-concept is a cognitive appraisal of one’s abilities in a variety of domains. Kailyn has a positive cognitive appraisal of her math ability but a negative appraisal of her ability in French. 57. d Young children tend to have both positive self-concepts and high self-esteem. 58. b Positive self-concepts are the result of success in a particular domain. It then makes sense that a study with a positive self-concept in a particular domain, such as math, would be a high achiever in math. 59. d Because a student is an excellent athlete doesn’t mean they will also be a highachieving student, and vice versa. 60. d Self-concept in a particular domain is largely determined by successful experiences in activities students perceive as challenging and worthwhile in that domain.

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61.

b Mr. Tichy’s efforts are least closely related to having positive experiences on challenging activities in a particular domain.

Essay Items 62. The response should emphasize that fourth graders are vulnerable to the psychosocial problem of industry vs. inferiority. Gary’s failure detracts from a sense of success, accomplishment, and competence, which helps explain why he is devastated. 63. The response should include the following: - Ethnic identity refers to an individual’s sense of belonging to an ethnic group, which is defined by one’s cultural heritage, and includes attributes such as values, traditions, and language. - Researchers believe that ethnic identity is particularly important for members of cultural minorities living in a heterogeneous society, because the identity may provide members with a sense of belonging and acceptance in societies where the majority group sometimes holds negative stereotypes about them. This sense of belonging helps diffuse the negative effects of social devaluation that members of minorities sometimes feel. 64. The response should include the following: - (1) Support autonomy and initiative in your students, such as both publicly and privately praising students for their autonomy and for taking initiative. - (2) maintain high expectations and provide students with evidence of increasing competence, such as making comments directly to students and writing comments on papers describing how much they’re improving in their work. - (3) Create a safe and caring learning community in your classroom, such as establishing and enforcing rules that promote order and require students to treat each other with respect; and create learning activities in which students can succeed on task they perceive as challenging - (4) Communicate that students’ ethnic backgrounds are valued and contribute to learning, such as emphasizing the contributions and successes of prominent people who are members of cultural minorities. Social-Emotional Development Knowledge-Level Items 65. c 66. c 67. a 68. d 69. a 70. a 71. b 72. c 73. a 74. d 75. b 76. d 77. c 78. b 429 Copyright © 2020, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

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Higher-Level Items 79. a. Emotions have cognitive, physiological, and behavioral components. For Ava, thinking what she can do to protect herself is a cognitive component, a jump in her heart rate is a physiological component, and running into a convenience store is a behavioral component. 80. c By keeping herself in check, Gina is demonstrating emotional self-regulation, the processes we use to control and express our emotions. Emotional self-regulation is a part of self-management. 81. a Emotional self-regulation involves controlling impulses, managing negative emotions, and behaving in socially acceptable ways. This is what you’re demonstrating in this situation. 82. d Research indicates that peer groups have a powerful influence on social development. [If it was only one girl, such as Julia, alone, it would be harder to predict. Julia, for example, might influence Megan, or Megan might influence Julia. But, because it is both Julia and Dana, they are more likely to influence Megan than vice versa. 83. a Research indicates that students with well-developed social skills achieve higher and are more satisfied with school. 84. b Rodrigo is demonstrating highly developed perspective taking in his interactions with others. Perspective taking is a component of social awareness. 85. b Perspective taking is an important social skill. Sophia’s ability to handle difficult social situations well, and the fact that she is well liked by her peers, suggests that her social development is advanced. If her social development is advanced, it’s highly likely that she is skilled at perspective taking. 86. a Social referencing involves the ability to use nonverbal cues to understand an ambiguous message or situation. You use your friend’s downcast eyes and silence as cues that lead you to the decision to avoid discussions of politics. Social referencing is an important component of social cognition, which is part of social awareness, one of the five social-emotional learning goals. 87. a Social problem solving is an important social skill. Gavin’s ability to work effectively in groups and diffuse disagreements among members of groups during groupwork suggests that he is skilled at social problem solving. 88. b Perspective taking involves the ability to understand other people’s thoughts, feelings, and actions. Ian’s comment, “. . . so I can see why he would like to go there,” reflects this ability. 89. c The peer group that students spend their most time with are important influences on social-emotional development. The information in the example suggests that Lucas spends most of his time with Jordan and Bill, so they will be the strongest peer influences on his social-emotional development. 90. d Responsible decision making involves making constructive choices about personal behavior and interactions with others, based on our understanding of consequences for actions. Karen understands the potential negative consequences of drinking and driving, so she decides to stop drinking, which will allow her to be the designated driver. She also follows through on her commitments, which is one of the most important aspects of responsible decision making.

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Essay Items 91. The response should include the following: - Self-awareness—the ability of individuals to understand their own thoughts and emotions and how both influence their responses to their environments. - Self-management—the ability of people to regulate their emotions, thoughts, and behaviors in a variety of contexts. - Social awareness—an understanding of social and ethical norms for behavior as well as the ability to take others’ perspectives and feel empathy for people from a variety of backgrounds and cultures. - Relationship skills—the ability to establish and maintain healthy and rewarding relationships with diverse individuals and groups. - Responsible decision making—the ability to make constructive choices about personal behavior and interactions with others, based on an understanding of the consequences of our actions. 92. The response should include the following: - Alcohol and drugs. The rate of drug overdose deaths in teens has climbed significantly, primarily from opioids, and many school districts are seeing increases in student absences, behavioral issues, and special education placements. - Obesity. More than 1 of 6 children are obese, which leads to health problems later in life. Further, obese individuals are stereotyped as lazy, weak-willed, slovenly, and physically and sexually unattractive. This bias exists in the attitudes of health care professionals, hiring practices in the workforce, interpersonal relationships, and the media. - Peer aggression. Young people who are bullied report a lower sense of well-being related and impaired social relationships, mental health, and academic achievement. - School violence. Responses to violence, and particularly school shootings have resulted in schools developing processes and drills in the event of an act of violence. These drills are highly emotional and unsettling for students, and particularly for younger students. 93. The response should include the following: - Model social-emotional skills. Modeling social-emotional skills is the most effective action we can take in promoting these same skills in our students. - Explicitly teach social-emotional skills, such as using vignettes as illustrated by teachers discussed in the chapter. - Use classroom management to promote social-emotional development, such as implementing and enforcing rules requiring students to treat each other with respect. Development of Morality and Social Responsibility Knowledge-Level Items 94. a 95. a 96. d 97. a 98. b 99. a 100. a 101. b 102. d 431 Copyright © 2020, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

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103. d 104. b 105. a 106. b 107. c 108. a 109. a 110. a 111. d Higher-Level Items 112. b Social conventions in our culture—and others—suggest that we should acknowledge gifts from others, but not doing so isn’t technically a matter of right and wrong [which would place it in the moral domain]. 113. c Piercing ears on males, for the most part isn’t socially regulated, and it doesn’t harm others or violate others’ rights, so the act would be best classified as belonging in the personal domain. 114. a Research indicates that children as young as 2 or 3 recognize that it’s wrong to hurt someone, even if rules against it don’t exist. 115. b Young children most commonly learn about morality from observing the consequences of different acts. [Some researchers, however, believe that children are born with a moral instinct.] 116. b External morality involves seeing rules as fixed, permanent, and enforced by authority figures. This is what Andrea is demonstrating. 117 c Krystal recognizes that Gary is simply asking a question, and even though Mrs. Lucci has a rule preventing talking without permission, according to her moral reasoning, Gary is not committing an immoral act. 118. c Interpersonal harmony is characterized by decisions based on concern for or the opinions of others. What pleases, helps, or is approved of by others characterizes this stage. “Everyone does it” is key information in this example. 119. a The only real deterrent is the certainty of being caught, implies that people who are inclined to commit crimes believe it’s okay to do so if they don’t get caught. This is thinking at the punishment and obedience stages. 120. a “Whatever you can get away with” involves ethical reasoning suggesting that it’s okay to cheat if you don’t get caught. This is punishment and obedience ethical reasoning. 121. a Being concerned only with how an activity will affect them are thinking egocentrically. Preconventional thinking is an egocentric orientation. 122. b An eye for an eye . . . suggests “what you do to me, I’ll do to you,” or “if you do something for me, I’ll do something for you.” 123. b Sharon is focusing on herself. She will share with Kathy because Kathy shares with her. This is characteristic of market exchange ethics. 124. b Ken is focusing on himself. “I don’t know what I thought I was getting out of it.” A form of reciprocity isn’t apparent in the example, but the fact that Ken is focusing on himself, and he doesn’t indicate any concern about being caught and punished, suggests market exchange ethics.

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125. c 126. c 127. c 128. c 129. b 130. c 131. c 132. c 133. b 134. d 135. d

136. b 137. c

The teacher’s ethical stand is based on her concern for her students feelings. This suggests ethical reasoning at the stage of interpersonal harmony. His ethical reasoning is based on his concern for his children. This is characteristic of the interpersonal harmony stage. A focus on others is consistent with interpersonal harmony ethics. Jon is reacting out of concern for his parents’ feelings. This is characteristic of interpersonal harmony ethics. Concern for fairness to all students is the basis for Karen’s ethical reasoning. This is characteristic of interpersonal harmony ethics. A focus on the concern for the opinions of others is consistent with interpersonal harmony ethics. Montel is focusing on the orderliness of society. “What would happen to the country if everybody cheated?” This is characteristic of law and order ethics. James is focusing on a rule for its own sake. In this case James would be reasoning out of concern for another person. This is characteristic of interpersonal harmony ethics. “These are what we agreed upon,” suggests that she is promoting a social contract. The social-contract stage of moral development reflects postconventional ethics, and, according to Kohlberg, this requires formal operational thinking with respect to cognitive development. Students younger than 8th graders are unlikely to be formal operational with respect to their cognitive development. [Many 8th graders are also not formal operational.] Paige’s comment reflects empathy, and the ability to experience empathy represents advanced moral development. Charlotte’s response, “So?” reflects a distinct lack of empathy, and as such, the least advanced moral development of the students in the group.

Essay Items 138. The response should include the following: - Moral domains deal with basic principles of right and wrong, such as stealing or spreading rumors about someone. - Social conventions are societal norms, such as knowing that it’s acceptable to yell at an athletic event but not in a classroom - The personal domain involves decisions that are not socially regulated and do not harm or violate others’ rights, such as tattoos and body piercing. 139. The response should indicate that both Tanya and Jasmine demonstrate characteristics of external morality. Tanya’s reasoning suggests that it’s okay to cheat as long as an authority figure isn’t there to catch them, and Jasmine obeys the rule because an authority figure established the rule. 140. The response should state that Antonio best illustrates autonomous morality. He notes that they agreed to be honest and not cheat. 141. The response should include the following: - Leroy is at stage 3, interpersonal harmony. It’s okay because others cheat. - Tanya is at stage 1, punishment and obedience. It’s okay to cheat if you don’t get caught. - Antonio is at stage 5. He is describing a social contract. - Jasmine is at stage 4. She is obeying the rule because it’s a rule. 433 Copyright © 2020, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

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142. The response should state that Gilligan primarily criticizes Kohlberg’s work on the grounds that he failed to adequately consider possible differences in thinking between men and women. Some research suggests that woman have a more caring orientation toward people, and this “morality of care” is classified as a lower stage of development in Kohlberg’s theory than it should be. 143. The response should state that the ability to experience emotions, such as shame, guilt, and empathy indicate a higher level of moral development than those who don’t experience those emotions. 144. The response should include the following: - 1) Model ethical thinking, behavior, and emotions in interactions with students, such as Rod Leist's simple brief apology for interrupting the discussion, which modeled obeying classroom rules - 2) Use moral dilemmas as concrete reference points for examining moral Issues, such as Rod using the lost wallet as a concrete reference point for discussion. - 3) Use discussions to help students understand and respect the perspectives of others, such as Rod leading the discussion of what to do with the lost wallet - 4) Use classroom management as a vehicle for promoting moral development, such as Rod stopping Helena’s interruption and reminded the class that they agreed to let people finish a point before speaking.

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CHAPTER FOUR ANSWERS Culture Knowledge-Level Items 1. d 2. b 3. c 4. b 5. d 6. d 7. d 8. c 9. a 10. b 11. c 12. a 13. d 14. a 15. d 16. a 17. b Higher-Level Items 18. a Culture refers to the knowledge, attitudes, values, and customs that characterize a social group. These aspects of Pedro’s life are illustrated in the example. 19. b Ethnicity refers to a person’s ancestry and the way they identify with the nation from which they or their ancestors came. Rafael’s identification with Spain and Mallorca illustrate his ethnicity. 20. b The concept of accommodation without assimilation suggests that members of cultural minorities adapt to the school culture, including the use of language, without losing their cultural identities. This is what Raphael is doing. 21. b Research indicates that cultural mismatches sometimes occur, and members of cultural minorities sometimes misinterpret directives, leaving the perception that they are being disobedient, even though this is not their intention. 22. c A cultural mismatch occurs when the characteristics of a culture tend to detract from succeeding in a different culture. This is what is occurring in Mrs. Henderson’s class. 23. d Stereotype threat is anxiety felt by members of a group resulting from concern that their behavior might confirm a stereotype. This is what Kirsten is experiencing. 24. d For stereotype threat to occur, some aspect of a situation must activate a negative stereotype about an individual’s group. The key to addressing stereotype threat is being sensitive to the possibility of triggering negative stereotypes. Emphasizing effort rather than ability or performance avoids triggering a negative stereotype.

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Essay Item 25.

The response should include four of the following: - These schools are often not viewed as desirable places to teach, so they are commonly often staffed by inexperienced teachers who lack the professional knowledge and skills needed to meet the unique needs of minority students. - Teachers in these schools often have low expectations for students of color. - The schools often lack adequate facilities and resources. - Incidents of violence and disruption are more frequent. - Parents of students in such schools often have fewer resources that can be used to benefit their children’s education.

Linguistic Diversity Knowledge-Level Items 26. b 27. d 28. a 29. b 30. c 31. a 32. b 33. c 34. a 35. a 36. c 37. b 38. d 39. c 40. a 41. a Higher-Level Items 42. a An immersion program places students in classrooms where only English is spoken, and few or no linguistic aids are provided. This is what David is experiencing. 43. d Maintenance EL programs build on students’ native languages by teaching in both that language and English. This is what Estella is experiencing. 44. b In ESL pullout programs students receive most of their instruction in general education classrooms but are pulled out for extra help. This is what Andrei is experiencing. 45. d Maintenance EL programs build on students’ native languages by teaching in both that language and English. Susan is helping her students learn vocabulary in both their native languages and in English. 46. b Culturally responsive teaching examines the influence of culture on learning and attempts to find ways to use culture to increase achievement. This is what Susan is attempting to accomplish.

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Essay Items 47. The response should include three of the following: - She demonstrated respect for students and the contributions that cultural differences make to learning with “Food Friday” and her comments about how much they learn from each other. - She involved her students by calling on a variety of students when they discussed the presentations. - She provided students with the opportunity to practice language by asking open-ended questions. - She helped her students adapt to the culture of school with her promptness points system. 48. The response should include four of the following: - Communicate respect for students and emphasize the contributions that cultural differences make to learning such as commenting on how lucky you are to have people with so many different experiences in your class and how much we learn from each other. - Involve all students in learning activities, such as calling on all students—member of cultural minorities and mainstream students—as equally as possible. - Use concrete experiences as reference points for language development such as providing a concrete example to illustrate the difference between a hole and a cave. - Provide opportunities for students to practice language. such as having students respond in unison as they state the labels for common objects around the room.5 - Help students adapt to the culture of school, such as requiring students to be to school on time, stay on task, and obey classroom rules. Gender Knowledge-Level Items 49. d 50. a 51. a 52. d 53. b 54. c 55. b 56. a 57. c 58. a Higher-Level Items 59. a Gender stereotyping refers to generalizations groups of people hold about men and women. The example illustrates Albert’s beliefs about the characteristics and behaviors he—as a male—is supposed to display. 60. a Research indicates that girls’ verbal abilities tend to initially develop faster than do boys’. 61. b Research examining gender differences indicate that girls are initially better at basic skills such as counting, arithmetic computation, and basic concepts, but fall behind

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62.

63.

boys later on. These differences are likely the result of stereotypes about math not being for girls. Research examining reading achievement indicates that boys are much more likely than girls to have problems with reading in elementary school. Research examining specific interventions designed to change girls’ attitudes toward math and science indicates that, with effort, attitudes can be made significantly more positive.

Essay Item 64. The response should include the following: - Discuss gender issues with students, including sexual harassment and sexual assault. For example, promoting a growth mindset may be able to buffer girls against the stereotype that professions requiring smart people aren’t for them. If innate ability is seen as secondary, then the power of these stereotypes is diminished. - Eliminate gender bias in instructional activities. For instance, when girls see that they’re being called on as often as boys in an algebra II class, or boys realize that they’re being asked to participate in a unit on poetry in an English class, you communicate that math is as much for girls as it is for boys, and poetry is as much for boys as girls. - Present students with non-stereotypical role models. For instance, inviting a female chemistry professor and a male nurse to give a talk to students can make a powerful statement about potential career choices. Socioeconomic Status Knowledge-Level Items 65. b 66. a 67. d 68. a 69. a 70. d 71. b 72. a 73. d 74. c 75. d 76. d 77. c 78. a 79. a 80. d 81. a Higher-Level Items 82. a At $10/hour Jackie’s mother makes $400 in a 40-hour work week. $400 x 52 weeks per year is $20,800 per year, which puts her in the lower class.

Chapter 4 Answers

83. 84. 85. 86.

87.

88.

d Students from lower class SES backgrounds tend to drop out of school more often than students from the other SES levels. b Working class income ranges from approximately 25k to 40k per year. b Research indicates that interactive instruction is essential for promoting resilience in students at risk. a Research indicates that, among other factors, teachers who promote resilience maintain high expectations with frequent feedback about learning progress. Giving frequent assessments and providing detailed feedback about each is are effective strategies for helping students see progress in their learning. And, getting direct evidence of learning progress is essential for all students and particularly students at risk. d Research indicates that, among other factors, teachers who promote resilience: 1) maintain high expectations with frequent feedback about learning progress. Joe gives a quiz each Thursday and provides detailed feedback on Fridays; 2) use teaching strategies that involve students and promote success. Joe develops his lessons with questioning to involve his students; 3) use high-quality examples to provide students with the background knowledge they need to understand new content. Joe builds his lessons around examples with which his students are familiar. His approach is the most effective of the four teachers for promoting resilience. c Keith emphasizes competition among his students. (He posts the students’ scores for each quiz on the board and reminds the students that if they work hard, they could also have their name on the board.) He also emphasizes individual work at the expense of interactive instruction. (He says that learning to work on their own will help them learn self-discipline, so he has the students spend much of their class time on individual seat work.) His approach is the least effective of the four teachers for promoting resilience.

Essay Items 89.

90. 91. 92.

The response should include the following: - Cortisol changes the architecture of the brain and impairs the brain circuits responsible for impulse control, working memory, emotional regulation, and the processing of errors. - As a result they are likely to achiever lower, and they are more likely to have emotional and behavioral problems in school. The response should state that Henry is a non-native English speaker, and he is a member of a cultural minority. Both are characteristics of students placed at risk. The response should state that Henry comes from a middle class socioeconomic background. This is atypical for students at risk. The response should include the following: - Create and maintain a safe classroom environment with predictable routines, such as having rules and procedures that make sense to students, and a classroom climate in which students feel both physically and emotionally safe. - Combine high expectations with frequent feedback about learning progress, such as giving frequent quizzes, and providing detailed feedback for quizzes and tests. - Use teaching strategies that involve all students and promote high levels of success, such as calling on all students in your classes and using open-ended questions to ensure that students are able to respond successfully.

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- Use high-quality examples that provide the background knowledge students need to learn new content, such as using manipulatives to illustrate place value in elementary school math.

Chapter 5 Answers

CHAPTER FIVE ANSWERS Intelligence Knowledge-Level Items 1. a 2. a 3. c 4. b 5. d 6. d 7. b 8. c 9. c 10. d 11. c 12. c 13. d 14. a 15. b 16. c 17. b 18. c 19. c 20. d 21. d 22. a 23. d 24. b 25. a 26. a Higher-Level Items 27. c Stacey’s emphasis on cooperative learning, and writing and drawing pictures about topics her students are studying suggest that she is trying to capitalize on Gardner’s descriptions of different intelligences. 28. b Gardner does suggest that the eight intelligences he describes are relatively independent. This suggests that a person could be high in interpersonal intelligence, but not as high in linguistic or logical-mathematical intelligence—the intelligences on which and majority of schooling focuses. 29. d Sternberg views the ability to function effectively in the real world as an indicator of intelligence, so an emphasis on real-world tasks would be consistent with his views. 30. a Traditional intelligence tests focus on linguistic and mathematical ability. These are the areas with which Tony struggles.

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31.

32.

33.

34.

d Based on the information in the example, Tony would likely score low in linguistic and logical-mathematical intelligence, and high in musical and interpersonal intelligence. We don’t have enough information to make an assessment of intelligences such as spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, intrapersonal, and naturalistic. a Sternberg suggests that analytical is one of the dimensions of intelligence, and this dimension is similar to traditional definitions of intelligence. Tony would likely score lower than his peers on this dimension. a Students who score high on traditional intelligence tests typically have broad and deep experiential backgrounds. Jackie lacks this background, which would likely detract from her scoring as well as her peers on some sections of traditional intelligence tests. c Traditional conceptions of intelligence include the ability to acquire and use knowledge and reason in the abstract is indicators of intelligence. Jackie’s ability to pick up ideas quickly, and to think about abstract issues, such as caring for the poor, suggest that she likely is higher in these dimensions than her typical peers.

Essay Items 35. The response should include the following: - Traditional views of intelligence describe intelligence as a single trait, and Spearman’s “g” is an example that illustrates this view. - Researchers such as Gardner and Sternberg view intelligence a composed of more than one trait, such as Gardner’s eight intelligences and Sternberg’s description of analytical, creative, and practical intelligence. 36. The response should include the following: - Keep group composition flexible, and reassign students to other groups when their achievement warrants it. - Keep the quality of instruction high for low-ability groups. - Teach low-ability students learning strategies and self-regulation. - Avoid stigmatizing and stereotyping low-ability students. The Legal Basis for Working with Students Having Exceptionalities Knowledge-Level Items 37. c 38. b 39. d 40. c 41. a 42. b 43. c 44. a 45. d 46. b 47. c 48. b 49. d 50. a 51. c 442 Copyright © 2020, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

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52. 53. 54.

b a b

Higher-Level Items \ 55. a The law states that schools must share students’ records upon request by parents. 56. d The fair and nondiscriminatory evaluation provision of IDEA requires that a test be given in students’ native languages. 57. c The law states that intelligence tests can be used if other measures are also considered. 58. a The due process provision of IDEA specifies that an independent evaluation can be conducted if parents are not satisfied with the evaluation provided by the school. 59. d The provision for preparing an IEP states that it will be prepared by a team composed of the students’ parents, at least one special education teacher, a regular education teacher if the student will be in the general education environment for at least part of the day—which is true in Hector’s case—and a district representative. 60. a The multiple means of action and expression principle of UDL provides for flexibility in helping learners express what they know. Ryan being allowed to use voicerecognition software, because his motor skills are impaired illustrates this principle. 61. b The principle of natural proportions states that students with exceptionalities should be placed in schools and classrooms in the same proportion as the existence of the exceptionality in the general population. About 13% of all students in our nation’s schools are served in special education programs, so no more than three students with exceptionalities should be placed in a class of 24. This is occurring in Tonya’s case. 62. d The response-to-intervention model of identification using a three-tiered approach in identifying learners who may have exceptionalities. In the first tier, we use instruction effective for all students. The second begins when a learning problem surfaces, and we provide extra support, such as small-group activities while the rest of the students do seatwork. The third tier includes intensive one-to-one help and perhaps a special needs assessment. When none of these works, a referral is initiated. This is the process Mrs. Morgan followed. Essay Items 63. The response should include the following: - A free and appropriate public education, which is an education individually designed to provide educational benefits to a particular student. - Least restrictive environment, intended to ensure that students make progress in the general education curriculum, is a learning environment that places students with exceptionalities in as typical an educational setting as possible. - Fair and nondiscriminatory evaluation, which ensures that any testing used for placement must be conducted in a student’s native language by qualified personnel, and no single instrument, such as an intelligence test, can be used as the sole basis for placement. - Due process and parents’ rights ensures that parents have the right to be involved in their child’s placement in special programs, access to school records, and the right to obtain an independent evaluation if desired. Additional protections exist for parents who don’t speak English.

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64.

65.

- Individualized education program, which is a written statement that provides a framework for delivering a free and appropriate education to every eligible student with an exceptionality. The response should include the following: - Home-school placement, which ensures that learners with exceptionalities attend the same school they would have attended if they didn’t have an exceptionality. - The principle of natural proportions, which states that students with exceptionalities should be placed in schools and classrooms in the same proportion as the existence of the exceptionality in the general population. Age- and grade-appropriate placements, which supports educating all students in the grade they would be in if they didn’t have an exceptionality. - Restructuring teaching and learning, which provides for general education teachers, special educators, outside services providers, and families working together as a team, and, which the support of special educators, regular education teachers modify their instruction and the way they interact with their students to ensure that learners with exceptionalities can be successful. The response should include the following: - Principle I: Provide multiple means of representation, which states that, when appropriate, alternatives to printed text and verbal description be used to present content. - Principle II: Provide multiple means of action and expression, which provides for flexibility in helping learners express what they know. - Principle III: Provide multiple means of engagement, which calls for making content relevant to students’ lives, emphasizing choice and autonomy, when possible, and creating a learning environment that’s safe, orderly, and free of distractions

Exceptionalities and Learning Problems Knowledge-Level Items 66. c 67. a 68. b 69. c 70. d 71. a 72. b 73. c 74. c 75. c 76. a 77. b 78. c 79. a 80. c 81. b 82. a 83. b 84. b 444 Copyright © 2020, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

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Higher-Level Items 85. c Jennifer’s hearing impairment is a disability, but, because her hearing aid allows her to function normally in school, she doesn’t have a handicap. 86. a Adam’s disorganization, his tendency to reverse words, and his general struggles with reading suggest that he has a learning disability. 87. b Learning strategies are important for all students, and they are particularly important for students with exceptionalities. Further, strategies effective for regular education students are also effective for students with exceptionalities. 88. d Research indicates that regular education students often develop learning strategies that prove effective for them, whereas learners with exceptionalities, while capable of acquiring learning strategies, tend to not develop them on their own. This suggests that, if Mrs. Radecki’s students are consistent with the patterns identified by research, her regular education students will develop learning strategies, whereas Mark is less likely to do so. 89. d Research indicates that boys are much more likely than girls to be diagnosed with ADHD. 90. d ADHD is characterized by difficulties in focusing and maintaining attention and the inability to inhibit inappropriate thoughts or actions. Krista’s squirming and drifting off, even when you’re speaking to her, is characteristic of this learning issue. 91. d Research indicates that students with mild intellectual disabilities have limitations both in intellectual functioning and adaptive behavior, as expressed in conceptual, social, and practical adaptive skills. 92. a Emotional and behavior disorders, in some cases, are characterized by impulsive behavior, having difficulty interacting with others in socially acceptable ways, acting out, and breaking rules. In other cases, behavior disorders are characterized by social withdrawal, few friendships, depression and anxiety. Tony displays the latter of these characteristics. 93. d Emotional and behavior disorders, in some cases, are characterized by impulsive behavior, having difficulty interacting with others in socially acceptable ways, acting out, and breaking rules. In other cases, behavior disorders are characterized by social withdrawal, few friendships, depression and anxiety. Tristan displays the former of these characteristics. 94. b Research suggests girls, and particularly girls from a middle SES background are less likely to be classified as having an exceptionality than other categories of students in the school population. 95. c Research indicates that the symptoms of bipolar disorder are similar to depression or anxiety and are often linked to other issues, especially ADHD. 96. c Autism spectrum disorder describes a cluster of problems characterized by communication deficits, impaired social relationships and skills, and often highly ritualized and unusual behaviors. Erin’s insistence on doing basic activities in exactly the same way every time, and hanging her coat inside out are symptomatic of this issue. 97. b Because students on the autism spectrum have a strong need for unvarying routines, initially making the school environment as predictable as possible will help her meet this need.

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98.

Communication disorders are characterized by problems in forming and sequencing sounds, understanding language, or using language to express ideas. Problems understanding language or using language to express ideas are described as language disorders. Maya is demonstrating these characteristics. 99. d Articulation disorders are characterized by difficulty in producing certain sounds, including substituting, distorting, and omitting sounds. Gitana is substituting “b” for “l”. 100. d Symptoms of a visual impairment include, holding the head in an awkward position or holding a book too close or too far away, squinting and frequently rubbing the eyes, tuning out or constantly asking about procedures, particularly when information is presented on the board, and using poor spacing in writing and having difficulty staying on the line. Kyra displays some of these characteristics. 101. b Doing activities that she can do on her own calls attention to her disability, and can, over a long period of time, can lead to a form of learned helplessness. 102. a Hearing lost is commonly characterized by misunderstanding or not following directions and displaying nonverbal behaviors, such as frowns or puzzled looks when directions are given, asking people to repeat what they’ve just said, or articulating words, and especially consonants, poorly. Keon is displaying some of these symptoms. Essay Items 103. The response should include the following: - Special educators agree that labels shouldn’t initially focus attention on students’ weaknesses. And the emphasis on people-first language reminds us that all students are human beings who need to be treated with care and respect. 104. The response should include the following: - Disabilities represent a functional limitation or inability to perform a task or skill. Disabilities may or may not be handicaps. - Handicap refers to a condition that is imposed that restricts abilities. For example, vision loss is a disability, but if it doesn’t hinder class performance, it is not a handicap. 105. - Historically, the assumption has been that members of cultural minorities are overrepresented, and particularly for specific learning problems, such as intellectual disabilities and emotional and behavior disorders, which can lead to stereotyping and stigmatizing these students. This has led to some educational leaders and politicians believing that special education is a form of institutionalized racism that has legalized the segregation of minority students - But other researchers suggest that precisely the opposite is occurring. They argue that members of cultural minorities are underrepresented in special education programs, and, as a result, don’t benefit from the services these programs can provide. Students Who Are Gifted and Talented Knowledge-Level Items 106. a 107. b 108. d

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Higher-Level Items 109. d The vast majority of students are capable of developing self-regulatory skills and good study strategies. And, many students not classified as “gifted” do excellent work in school and go on to live highly productive and successful lives. 110. a Research indicates that students who are conscientious and do high quality work are more likely to be identified as gifted than are other students. This can be a bit of a mistake, because students like Dario can be overlooked. (This is not intended to suggest in any way that we, as educators, should not value conscientiousness and high achievement. Students like John are the backbone of our society.) 111. b Dual-enrollment courses allow high school students to earn college credit. This means the students’ educations are being accelerated. Essay Item 112. The response should include the following: - Acceleration, which keeps the curriculum the same but allows students to move through it more quickly, such as early entrance into middle school, high school, or college - Ability grouping, such as being in a “gifted English” or “gifted math” class Teachers’ Responsibilities in Inclusive Classrooms Knowledge-Level Items 113. b 114. a 115. d 116. c 117. d 118. c 119. a 120. d 121. d Higher-Level Items 122. d Because of legal requirements related to students with exceptionalities, it is a virtual certainty that you will have some students with exceptionalities in your classes. 123. d Providing evidence that suggests students have learning problems is the first step in the process of providing these students with extra help. 124. b Curriculum-based assessment measure learners’ performance in specific areas of the curriculum and link assessments directly to learning objectives. Having Ron identify the main idea in a series of paragraphs is an assessment linked directly to the curriculum. 125. a Lack of self-regulation would explain Don’s inability to stay on task, complete assignments, use effective learning strategies and control impulses. 126. a Research indicates that students with exceptionalities often fail to develop study strategies that other students tend to develop as a regular part of their education. However, students with exceptionalities, with instruction, effort, and practice, can learn these strategies. Effective study strategies are essential for success in school. Mr. Robinson’s adaptation is the most effective of the four teachers’ efforts. 447 Copyright © 2020, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

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127. d Mr. Edwards’ approach is not recommended when working with students having exceptionalities. It is important that students with exceptionalities be treated as nearly the same as regular education students as possible. This suggests that students with exceptionalities should be called on essentially as much as other students. Mr. Edwards’ adaptation is the least effective of the four teachers’ efforts. 128. a This is a totally undesirable adaptation. Writing is essential, and all students need to practice developing this essential skill. 129. c Research has found that regular education students tend to react negatively to students with exceptionalities, partially because students with exceptionalities sometimes misbehave and often lack social skills. (A tendency of people to sometimes react negatively to people different from themselves also exists.) 130. d Students with exceptionalities are usually keenly aware of the fact that they are different from their peers, and the negative attitudes of peers that is often common, has a negative impact on their confidence and self-esteem. 131. a Modeling is one of the most powerful tools teachers have for promoting integration of students with exceptionalities into the regular classroom. Including Tommy in regular classroom activities is very important. 132. b Students’ negative attitudes toward their peers with exceptionalities often result from a lack of understanding, and open discussion and information about disabilities can help change these attitudes. 133. a Research indicates that to be most effective, groups should be as diverse as possible. Students with exceptionalities benefit the most if they’re placed with a mix of boys and girls, members and nonmembers of cultural minorities, and students who do not have exceptionalities. Essay Items 134. The response should state that the third essential teacher role is to promote the social integration and development of students with exceptionalities. One way to help fulfill this role is to talk openly about people’s differences and remind students that we’re all more alike than we are different. A second strategy is to have students work together in groups and ensure that students with exceptionalities are placed in groups with students who do not have exceptionalities. 135. The response should state that effective teaching for students with exceptionalities and for students at risk are very similar, and they are similar to strategies that are effective for students in general. With students having exceptionalities and those at risk, using effective strategies is simply more essential. 136. The response should include the following: - Curriculum planning, such as adapting the curriculum to ensure that it fits the abilities and needs of students with exceptionalities. - Co-teaching, such as having special educators will work alongside the regular classroom teacher to assist with instruction. - Consultant teaching, such as having a special educator observe, assess, and help plan instruction for students in inclusive classrooms.

Chapter 5 Answers

- Coordination of paraprofessionals, such as ensuring that the work paraprofessionals perform with students having exceptionalities is consistent with their regular classroom work. - Working with parents, such as maintaining close home-school communication.

Chapter 6 Answers

CHAPTER SIX ANSWERS Behaviorist Views of Learning Knowledge-Level Items 1. d 2. d 3. a Classical Conditioning Knowledge-Level Items 4. a 5. b 6. d 7. c 8. a 9. d 10. c 11. b Higher-Level Items 12. b Extinction occurs when the conditioned response [being nervous when giving reports] decreases as a result of the conditioned stimulus [giving reports] occurring repeatedly in the absence of an unconditioned stimulus [such as panicking the first time he had to stand up and give a report]. 13. b Classical conditioning involves an emotional or physiological change. As a result of Ivanna’s intervention, Camila experienced an emotional change—from being ill at ease to becoming more comfortable. Emotions can be learned through classical conditioning. 14. a Because she’s had no experiences with them, Karen initially has no reaction one way or the other to dentists’ offices. 15. b The dental procedure with its noise and pain is the initial stimulus that caused Karen’s unlearned response of discomfort. 16. b The dentist’s office has become associated with the noise and pain of the dental procedure, so it now produces Karen’s uneasiness as a conditioned response. 17. d Karen being nervous is a learned response to the dentist’s office that results from the dentist’s office becoming associated with the dental procedure. It is a response similar to the unlearned—unconditioned—response of discomfort. 18 a Diego involuntarily responded [positively] to Mrs. Clark’s manner, so her manner is an unconditioned stimulus. 19. d Diego’s sense of relief is an involuntary, unlearned response to Mrs. Clark’s warm manner. So, it is an unconditioned response. 20. c American history class has become associated with Mrs. Clark’s manner [the unconditioned stimulus], so it is a conditioned stimulus. (Mrs. Clark’s manner caused Diego’s original sense of relief, so it is an unconditioned stimulus, not a conditioned stimulus.) 450 Copyright © 2020, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

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b Diego learned to be comfortable in Mrs. Clark’s American history class because he associated the class with Mrs. Clark’s warm manner. So, his comfort is a conditioned response. Also note, his comfort is similar to the initial relief Diego experienced in response to Mrs. Clark’s manner. d Maria’s relaxation is an unlearned, involuntary response to Mrs. Rodriguez’s initial reassuring manner, so it is an unconditioned stimulus. b Maria’s relaxing and feeling better is an unlearned response to Mrs. Rodriguez’s reassuring manner, so it is an unconditioned response. [It can be argued that we respond instinctively to displays of warmth in other people.] a Maria has associated Riverside Middle School with Mrs. Rodriguez’s reassuring manner, so it is the conditioned stimulus. a Giving reports in world history is a stimulus similar to giving reports in English, which is a conditioned stimulus. So, Ramona’s conditioned response has generalized to world history. b Alan is giving different responses to similar, but not identical stimuli [the business meeting and the small group], so he is discriminating between the two.

Essay Items 27. The response should include the following: - As a result of his failure (the UCS) Russell was devastated (UCR). - Other tests (CS) became associated with the failure on the first test. - As a result, he experienced anxiety and actual physical pain (CR) when other tests were scheduled. 28. The response should include the following: - Homework is initially a neutral stimulus - Being punished can be an unconditioned stimulus that causes negative emotions. - Using homework as a punisher can result in homework becoming associated with being punished. - Because of homework being associated with punishment, the homework becomes a conditioned stimulus (CS), which produces negative emotions as conditioned responses (CR) similar to those experienced after the initial punishment. - As a result, through classical conditioning, students learn to have negative emotional reactions to homework. 29. The response should include the following: - (1) Consistently treat students with warmth and respect, such as greeting students in the morning, and avoiding harsh reprimands, and particularly destructive responses, such as sarcasm. - (2) Personalize our classrooms to create an emotionally secure environment, such as displaying pictures of students on a bulletin board, and asking students to make short presentations about their backgrounds. - (3) Require that students treat each other with courtesy and respect, such as establishing and enforcing a classroom rule that forbids students from mistreating each other physically, verbally, and emotionally.

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Operant Conditioning Knowledge-Level Items 30. d 31. c 32. d 33. c 34. a 35. c 36. a 37. a 38. d 39. d 40. b 41. d 42. b 43. b 44. b 45. c 46. d 47. d 48. d 49. a 50. d 51. b 52. a Higher-Level Items 53. a Positive reinforcement is the process of increasing the frequency or duration of a behavior as a result of receiving positive reinforcers. Rodrigo’s behavior—succeeding in spelling—is increasing as a result of receiving reinforcers—the stickers. 54. c Positive reinforcers are actions/events or objects, presented to individuals, that serve to increase the likelihood of a behavior occurring. The stickers are objects the schools give, and their goal is to increase students’ efforts to be honor roll students. 55. a Grayson is being presented with the “mean face,” and Grayson’s behavior—talking out of turn—is increasing. So, the “mean face” is a positive reinforcer. 56. c Positive reinforcement occurs when behavior increases as a result of being given a reward. Jolene is being given tokens, and her doing-homework behavior is increasing. 57. b The Premack Principle suggests that a preferred activity can be used as a positive reinforcer for a less preferred activity. The students presumably prefer working on their projects to working on seat work, so the projects serve as a positive reinforcer for doing seatwork. 58. b Negative reinforcement occurs when an aversive stimulus—the buzzer in this case—is removed or avoided. By fastening your seat belt the sound of the buzzer is removed. 59. d Negative reinforcement involves an increase in behavior as a result of removing or avoiding an aversive stimulus. In this case the aversive stimulus—paying the toll—can

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be avoided by carpooling. And, as the example indicates, carpooling increased as a result of being able to avoid the toll. Negative reinforcement involves an increase in behavior as a result of removing or avoiding an aversive stimulus. In this case the aversive stimulus—your discomfort—is being removed by taking the pain reliever. And, as the example indicates, you’re taking-pain-reliever behavior is increasing. Negative reinforcement involves an increase in behavior as a result of removing or avoiding an aversive stimulus. In this case the aversive stimulus—Mr. Toner’s stares— is being removed by the students’ asking questions. And, as the example indicates, the students are now asking more questions. Negative reinforcement involves an increase in behavior as a result of removing or avoiding an aversive stimulus. In this case the aversive stimulus—being pushed around by Glen and Bill—is being removed by giving up his lunch money. His giving-up-hislunch-money behavior is increasing. (A conditioned response is an involuntary, but learned, emotional or physiological response that is part of classical conditioning. While some emotion is undoubtedly involved in this example, Rick’s giving-up-hislunch-money behavior is not an emotion. Further, it is not involuntary, as evidenced by the fact that he initially resisted giving up his lunch money, but over time he gave it up more readily. This example involves operant conditioning, not classical conditioning.) Negative reinforcement involves an increase in behavior as a result of removing or avoiding an aversive stimulus. In this case the aversive stimulus—Jason’s chronic talking—is being removed by giving Jason referrals. And, as the example indicates, Mr. Ayala is giving Jason referrals more quickly now. Shaping involves reinforcing successive approximations of a behavior, and this process is illustrated in the example. Mrs. Dean initially gives points for merely starting the problem, later gives points for setting up the problem, and finally awards points only if students solve the problem. Continuous reinforcement involves reinforcing every behavior. This is what Mrs. Green is doing with Julia. A fixed-interval reinforcement schedule is an intermittent schedule that involves predictable reinforcement based on time instead of specific behaviors. Mrs. Thornton’s students can predict when they will be reinforced, and the reinforcement depends on time—every Monday. A variable-interval reinforcement schedule is an intermittent schedule that involves reinforcement that is unpredictable and based on time instead of specific behaviors. Variable-interval reinforcement is illustrated in this example, because Mrs. Preston’s students can’t predict when they will be reinforced; they don’t know when she will collect the homework. A fixed-interval reinforcement schedule is an intermittent schedule that involves predictable reinforcement based on time instead of specific behaviors. Mrs. Martinez’s students can predict when they will be reinforced, because she collects homework on Mondays, Wednesdays, and Fridays. A variable-ratio schedule of reinforcement is an intermittent schedule based on specific behaviors—as opposed to time—and students can’t predict when the reinforcer will be given. Mrs. Sussman’s compliments are based on the students’ writing behaviors, and they can’t be sure when they will receive the compliments. 453 Copyright © 2020, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

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b A fixed-interval reinforcement schedule depends on time, and students can predict when they will be reinforced. Mrs. French’s students can predict when they will be reinforced, because the timer beeps every five minutes. d A fixed-ratio schedule depends on the students’ specific behaviors, but the students can predict when they will be reinforced. This is what occurred in Steve’s case. He was praised after every fourth problem he solved correctly. a Research indicates that continuous schedules of reinforcement increase behavior more rapidly, but the reinforced behaviors also decrease more rapidly when the reinforcers are no longer used. Mrs. Oakes’ schedule is more nearly a continuous schedule than is Mrs. Barber’s. d Extinction, in operant conditioning occurs when a behavior is not reinforced, such as a student raising her hand to answer and question, but not being called on by the teacher. Eventually, the student stops raising her hand. This is what is occurring with Marty. He isn’t being reinforced, so he eventually stops talking. [Extinction in operant condition is not to be confused with extinction in classical condition, which occurs when the conditioned stimulus occurs repeatedly in the absence of the unconditioned stimulus until the conditioned response disappears] a Extinction, in operant conditioning occurs when a behavior is not reinforced, such as a student raising her hand to answer and question, but not being called on by the teacher. Eventually, the student stops raising her hand. This is what is occurring with Ben. He isn’t being reinforced, so he eventually stops talking. [Extinction in operant condition is not to be confused with extinction in classical condition, which occurs when the conditioned stimulus occurs repeatedly in the absence of the unconditioned stimulus until the conditioned response disappears] b Extinction, in operant conditioning occurs when a behavior is not reinforced, such as a student raising her hand to answer and question, but not being called on by the teacher. Eventually, the student stops raising her hand. This is what is occurring with Karen. She isn’t being reinforced [Mr. Healy calling on her would be reinforcing], so she eventually stops raising her hand. [Extinction in operant condition is not to be confused with extinction in classical condition, which occurs when the conditioned stimulus occurs repeatedly in the absence of the unconditioned stimulus until the conditioned response disappears] c Extinction, in operant conditioning occurs when a behavior is not reinforced, such as a student raising her hand to answer and question, but not being called on by the teacher. Eventually, the student stops raising her hand. This is what is occurring with Sara. She isn’t being reinforced, so she eventually stops raising her hand. [Extinction in operant condition is not to be confused with extinction in classical condition, which occurs when the conditioned stimulus occurs repeatedly in the absence of the unconditioned stimulus until the conditioned response disappears] c Satiation occurs when a reinforcer is overused to the point that it no longer increases behavior. This is what is occurring with Suzy. Gum chewing is reinforcing for Suzy or she wouldn’t do it. So, Mrs. Myers is over-reinforcing her by having her chew more gum. d Satiation occurs when a reinforcer is overused to the point that it no longer increases behavior. This is what is occurring with Kevin. “Basketballing” is reinforcing for Kevin or he wouldn’t do it. So, Mrs. Wilson is over-reinforcing him by having him 454 Copyright © 2020, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

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“basketball after school. [Mrs. Wilson is also using removal punishment with Kevin by keeping him after school.] Removal punishment is the process of removing reinforcers already given or the inability to get positive reinforcement. This is goal when using timeout. Removal punishment is the process of removing reinforcers or the inability to get positive reinforcement. This is goal when using timeout. Presentation punishment involves a decrease in behavior as a result of being presented with a punisher. Kevin’s behavior decreases, and the punisher is Mrs. Esser’s “Shhh.” Removal punishment occurs when reinforcers previously given are taken away, or a person is placed in a situation where they can’t receive positive reinforcement. This is what is occurring with Antonio. [Letting his schoolwork slip is the undesired behavior.] His privilege of playing football is removed, and he can’t get the positive reinforcement at would occur as a result of him playing it. Luke’s mom has taken away his iPad privileges in an effort to decrease his dog-hitting behavior, which is what is illustrated in the example. Presentation punishment occurs when students are presented with a punisher that decreases behavior. The students are presented with doing “yard patrol,” and their behavior is indeed decreasing; fewer students are tardy. When students receive detention, some of their free time is removed, with the goal of decreasing undesirable behavior. This process illustrates removal punishment. Response cost is a form of removal punishment in which reinforcers already given are removed. Computer game time is reinforcing for Brandon, and this reinforcer is removed when he talks back to his mother. Removal punishment occurs when a behavior decreases as a result of removing a stimulus or the inability to get positive reinforcement. The stimuli—going out and dating Tom—are removed with the goal of decreasing Sheila’s goofing-around behavior. Removal punishment occurs when a behavior decreases as a result of removing a stimulus or the inability to get positive reinforcement. The stimulus—being carried—is removed with the goal of decreasing Patrick’s hitting behavior. Diegosha is demonstrating the same behavior—saying adjective—for tall, fast, and beautiful. Doing so demonstrates generalization. [Notice that generalization in operant conditioning is a voluntary behavior. In contrast, generalization in classical conditioning is an involuntary behavior.] Diegosha is demonstrating the same behavior—saying adjective—for tall, fast, and beautiful. Doing so demonstrates generalization. Saying “Beautifully is not an adjective” represents discrimination, not generalization.

Essay Items 91. The response should state that when Russell’s mother lets him stay home, an aversive event (taking a test) is avoided, so Russell is being negatively reinforced. 92. The response should include the following: - (1) Identify the target behavior, such as focusing on the student acting out - (2) Establish a baseline, such as identifying the number of times per class period that the student is acting out

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- (3) Choose reinforcers and punishers, if necessary, such as giving the student tokens for acting out no more than once per period, or, as a punisher, putting the student in timeout when he acts out. - (4) Measure changes in behavior, such as identifying the number of times the student acts out seeing if the number is decreasing. - (5) Reduce the frequency of reinforcers as the behavior improves. The response should include the following: - (1) Use antecedents to elicit desired behaviors, which can then be reinforced, such as prompting students when they don’t initially answer. - (2) Reinforce students for genuine accomplishments and good behavior, such as praising a student for a particularly insightful answer. - (3) Use reinforcers and punishers appropriately to help maintain an orderly classroom, such as establishing and consistently enforcing classroom rules with appropriate consequences. - (4) Employ drill-and-practice technologies to help your students develop basic skills, such as using technology to help you children understand tens and ones.

Social Cognitive Theory Knowledge-Level Items 94. d 95. a 96. a 97. c 98. a 99. b 100. b 101. c 102. c 103. b 104. b 105. a Higher-Level Items 106. b Janine observed the consequences—Mrs. Alvarez’s compliment—of Natalie’s behavior, and Janine changed her behavior as a result. This is an example of vicarious learning. 107. d Vicarious reinforcement occurs when individuals observe someone else being reinforced and the individuals adjust their own behavior accordingly. This is what occurs for the students who see Nathan and others receive the certificates. 108. b A grade and feedback on the assignment would have been reinforcing, and you expected to receive the grade and feedback. Not receiving the expected reinforcer acted as a punisher, which decreased your behavior; you exerted less effort on the next assignment. 109. d Ann observed Steve being positively reinforced, and she adjusted her own behavior accordingly; her desire-to-read behavior increased as a result of being vicariously reinforced. 456 Copyright © 2020, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

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Ann is attempting to imitate Steve’s behavior, so he is a model for her. Vicarious reinforcement occurs when individuals observe someone else being reinforced and the individuals adjust their own behavior accordingly. This is what Mrs. Evertson is attempting to promote by complimenting—positively reinforcing—Andy. 112. b Mrs. Evertson wants the other students to imitate Andy’s behavior, so she wants to use him as a model for the other students. 113. c Ms. Parado directly reprimanded Thomas and Antonio, and their behavior decreased; they stopped whispering. 114. b Isaac observed Thomas and Antonio being punished, and he adjusted his behavior accordingly; he also stopped whispering. 110. a 111. c

115. d Isaac observed Thomas and Antonio being reprimanded for displaying behaviors that are socially unacceptable in Ms. Parado’s classroom. As a result, their inhibition about speaking without permission is strengthened. 116. a Jeff observes Zhivago’s emotions in the film, and he finds himself becoming emotional in response. 117. c Symbolic modeling occurs when people observe behaviors demonstrated by characters in books, movies, plays, television and so on. This is occurring when Jeff watches the movie. 118. d Nikki is watching DVD’s of Serena’s and Roger’s serve, so symbolic model is illustrated in the example. She incorporates aspects of both Roger’s and Serena’s serves, so synthesized modeling is also illustrated in the example. 119. a In the example it states, “. . . but she doesn’t quite know how to begin.” This suggests that she’s learning a new behavior. 120. a Emily is watching a live model—her brother. 121. c Symbolic modeling occurs when people imitate behaviors and thinking in characters in books, TV, movies, and so on. This is what Caden is doing. 122. b Lori comments to Fred, “You’re such a good dancer . . .” This suggests that Fred knows how to dance. (Dancing in this example is a socially acceptable behavior. Changing inhibitions involves socially unacceptable behaviors. And, we see no evidence in the example suggesting that Fred’s emotions are aroused. Also, it states, “‘. . . We’re having fun talking,’ he comments dispassionately.”) 123. a The first person to stand is a live model. 124. b People know how to stand and applaud, and these behaviors are facilitated in the example. 125. a Direct modeling involves observing live models. The people watching the individual cross the street is watching a live model. 126. c Crossing a street against a red light is a socially unacceptable behavior. The people’s inhibitions about doing so are weakened as a result of observing the model’s behavior. The model is the individual who first crosses the street against the red light. 127. d Dylan is combining the actions of his brother—kicking the basketball—and his father—cussing—to he demonstrates synthesized modeling. 128. a Girls hearing female engineers—and boys hearing male nurses—speak to them about careers in engineering and nursing respectively, are more likely to consider careers in these fields because of seeing models they perceive as similar to themselves.

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129. b Athletes often have very high status, and perceived status is one of the factors influencing models’ effectiveness. Essay Items 130. The response should include the following: - James is being positively reinforced by Mrs. Barber’s praise. - James is serving as a model for the other students. - The other students are being vicariously reinforced when Mrs. Barber compliments James. 131. The response should include the following: The man’s behavior can be explained through direct modeling, perceived similarity, and facilitating existing behaviors. - The other people serve as direct models - Because they are about his age and build, he perceives them as similar. - Since he has worked out in the past, we can assume he knows how to work out, so the models are facilitating an existing behavior in him. (The modeling outcome is facilitating existing behaviors, rather than changing inhibitions, because facilitating existing behaviors focuses on socially acceptable behaviors, whereas changing inhibitions focuses on socially unacceptable behaviors, and working out is socially acceptable.) 132. The response should state that the teacher is using the story as a form of symbolic modeling to facilitate conscientiousness and effort on the part of her students. 133. The response should include the following: The processes involved in learning from models include: (1) attention, such as observing a teacher solve a problem; (2) retention, such as storing the teacher’s solution in memory; (3) reproduction, such as applying the solution to another problem, and (4) motivation, the students’ inclination to pay attention, make sense of the modeled solution, and attempt to reproduce it on their own. 134. The response should include the following: - (1) Capitalize on modeling, such as modeling positive personality traits, social skills, and empathy ourselves, using students as models when appropriate, and bring non-stereotypical role models in to speak to our students. - (2) Use vicarious reinforcement and punishment as learning and management tools, such as complimenting students who display positive behaviors in an attempt to promote these behaviors in their peers. - (3) Follow through on all aspects of instruction and classroom management, such as following through on enforcement of classroom rules, to prevent the nonoccurrence of expected punishers serving as reinforcers for misbehavior, and returning assignments promptly to prevent the nonoccurrence of expected reinforcers serving as punishers which reduce student effort. - (4) Promote self-regulation, such as encouraging students to set and monitor goals that can increase their learning.

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CHAPTER SEVEN ANSWERS Cognitive Learning Theory Knowledge-Level Items 1. d 2. b 3. a 4. d 5. d 6. c 7. c 8. d 9. b 10. b 11. d Higher-Level Items 12. b In the example we see, “. . .they talk about it, and finally get it installed successfully.” This is evidence for social interaction’s influence on learning. 13. b Creating systems of Gods and other myths helped these cultures make sense of experiences they couldn’t make sense of in any other way. 14. d Students construct original ideas because these ideas make sense to them. If the idea didn’t make sense to them, they would have constructed a different idea. 15. c Christie has constructed the idea of how to subtract, and her understanding is that we subtract the smaller from the larger number. She uses this knowledge to solve the second problem, which explains why she gets 22 as an answer. 16. b It makes sense to Cal [and many other people] that a heavier object will fall faster than a lighter object. Because this makes sense to him, he retains the belief in spite of evidence to the contrary [also common in people]. 17. a Cal had experience with the paper and book [the book fell faster because air resistance slowed down the descent of the paper], so based on this experience he constructed the idea that heavy objects fall faster than lighter objects. 18. d The knowledge learners construct makes sense to them, whether or not it is valid. If it didn’t make sense to them, they would construct different knowledge that did make sense to them. 19. c Students make surprising conclusions because the conclusions make sense to the students. If they didn’t make sense to the students, they would make the conclusions. 20. b Students come to our classes with widely varying experiences, and one of the principles of cognitive learning theory says that the knowledge we construct depends on what we already know. 21. a Monica saw that Teresa and her grandmother both wore glasses, but her dad didn’t, so she constructed the idea that girls wear glasses but boys don’t on the basis of that experience.

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d Monica knows that her mother and grandmother both wear glasses, that they are both “girls,” that her dad doesn’t wear glasses, and that he is a “boy.” She used this information to construct the idea that girls wear glasses, but boys don’t.

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Monica concluded that both boys and girls wear glasses as a result of the interaction with Teresa and the experiences—the pictures in the mail-order website. b Anya knew that favorite, best, and new are adjectives based on her experience with the first passage, so based on what she knew, she only identified brown, brisk, and new as adjectives since they also preceded the noun they modified. a Mrs. Everett provided her students with some additional experiences—the passage with adjectives both before and after the noun—and, as a result of these experiences their understanding increased. a In completing an exercise each evening, Josh is acquiring a considerable amount of practice with reading comprehension.

Essay Items 27. The response should state that, from a cognitive perspective, learning focuses on internal mental processes, the processes involved in acquiring, storing, and using knowledge. For behaviorists the focus is on observable behaviors that change as a result of experience with the environment. 28. The response should include the following: - (1) learning and development depend on learners’ experiences, such as a person who has had experiences with a variety of computer applications being more fully developed with respect to computer use than one who lacks the experiences. - (2) Learners want their experiences to make sense, such as people frequently making comments such as, “That doesn’t make any sense.” - (3) To make sense of their experiences, learners construct (they do not record) knowledge, such as people offering a unique idea. - (4) Knowledge that is constructed depends on what they already know, such as people concluding that plants need food, just as animals do, since their experiences involve feeding. - (5) Acquiring long-term knowledge and skill is largely depended on practice, such as people becoming better writers by doing a great deal of writing. - (6) Social interaction facilitates learning, such as two people being able to solve a problem that neither could solve alone. 29. The response should include the following: - 1) memory stores—sensory memory, working memory, and long-term memory. These are repositories that hold information as we organize it in an attempt to make sense of it and store it for further use - 2) Cognitive processes—attention, perception, rehearsal, encoding and retrieval. These processes move information from one memory store to another - 3) Metacognition—the cognitive mechanism we have for monitoring and regulating both the storage of information and how the information is moved from one store to another. 30. Explain how the model of human memory provides us with information about each of its components. Offer two examples to illustrate your explanation.

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30.

The response should state that even though the model is an abstract representation that allows us to visualize what we can’t observe directly, it provides us with considerable information, such as: - We see that working memory is smaller than either sensory memory or long-term memory, which is intended to remind us that its capacity is smaller than the other two stores. - We see fewer arrows to the right of attention than to its left. This tells us that we don’t attend to all the stimuli we encounter; attention is a screen and helps us understand why we don’t notice many of the stimuli we encounter until someone or something reminds us of them.

Memory Stores Knowledge-Level Items 31. d 32. b 33. a 34. a 35. c 36. a 37. d 38. c 39. d 40. a 41. b 42. d 43. d 44. c 45. d 46. c 47. c 48. c 49. a 50. d 51. b 52. d 53. a 54. a 55. c Higher-Level Items 56. a The “circle of light” is the memory trace that is briefly held in sensory memory. 57. c Information first enters sensory memory, where it is briefly held until learners attend to the information. Because the memory trace is retained so briefly, the memory trace for the first question is likely to be lost as soon as the second question is asked.

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73. c 74.

75. c

Information first enters our sensory memories. It is held briefly there until we attend to it. Sensory memory is the component of our memory system where information first enters and is briefly stored until we attend to it. Automaticity and chunking are two mechanisms for reducing the cognitive load on working memory. Chunking is the process of mentally combining separate items into larger, more meaningful, units. This is what you’ve done with your ID number. Working memory is where meaningful knowledge is constructed. Its capacity is limited, so proceeding in short steps with extensive practice helps prevent overloading its limitations. Executive functioning describes the thinking responsible for purposeful, goal-directed behavior. Kelly’s tendency to forget to bring papers home and write down assignments suggests that her behavior lacks purpose and direction. Working memory is the conscious component of our memory system, so this is where we would think about the items. By giving the students practice examples before moving to the next skill, she is attempting to avoid overloading students’ limited-capacity working memories. The central executive controls the flow of information and selects strategies for processing information, so it is the component that you will use to decide about the evidence you’ll use. The information in your essay will be in written form, and the phonological loop is the short-term storage component of working memory that holds words and sounds. A convoluted statement, such as the one in the example, imposes a heavy cognitive load on our working memories, which is why we struggle to understand it. Routines that can be performed automatically—without having to think about performing them—reduce cognitive load for both teachers and students. You made the turns automatically, so you are unable to remember the process of turning. Since you didn’t think about the turns, you can’t remember making them. The central executive is a supervisory system that controls and directs the flow of information to and from the other components of working memory. Working memory is the conscious component of our information processing system, and Miguel is making conscious decisions. Miguel’s central executive guided his decision to begin with a metaphor and then move to the other examples of figures of speech. Typically, when a student gets lost, “mixed up,” or misses some information, it’s because the cognitive load is too heavy, so information is lost from working memory before it can be conceptually organized and encoded in long-term memory. Declarative knowledge is knowledge of facts, concepts, procedures and rules. The rule for forming plural possessives illustrates this type of knowledge. Declarative knowledge is knowledge of facts, concepts, procedures and rules. Katilyna is demonstrating knowledge of a procedure for changing a percentage to a decimal. Procedural knowledge is knowledge of how to perform tasks, such as solving problems and composing essays. When Katilyna solves the problem, she is demonstrating procedural knowledge. Schemas are cognitive structures that represent the way information is organized in long-term memory. Ryan has an existing schema for the treble clef, and it is, at this point, interfering with his understanding of the bass clef. 462 Copyright © 2020, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

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76.

77.

A schema represents the way knowledge is organized in long-term memory, and the schema is meaningful if separate items in it are interconnected. This is what your students are demonstrating. Meaningfulness describes the extent to which items of information are linked and related to each other. The information in Jackson’s schema is more interconnected that the information in David’s schema.

Essay Items 78. The response should include the following: - Sensory memory has virtually unlimited capacity, and it holds information very briefly in an unprocessed form. -Working memory is the conscious part of our information processing system. It holds limited amounts of information for relatively short periods of time unless the information is being actively processed. The limitations of working memory are often described as the most significant feature of our information processing system. - Long-term memory is our permanent information store, and it holds essentially unlimited amounts of information organized in ways that are meaningful to individuals. 79. The response should include two of the following: - (1) Present information in interconnected ways instead of isolated pieces, so the interconnected information behaves like “chunks” of information that reduce cognitive load; - (2) Develop procedural knowledge, such as grammar skills, to automaticity, so they can be performed virtually without thinking. - (3) Present information both visually and verbally to capitalize on the distributed processing capabilities of working memory. 80. The response should include the following: - The number of elements and the complexity of the elements being processed are two factors that contribute to cognitive load. - Teachers can reduce cognitive load by helping students identify relationships in the topics they teach rather than teaching information in isolated pieces, and by helping students develop as much of their knowledge as possible to automaticity. 81. The response should include examples such as the following: - Since working memory is limited in capacity, and activities, such as questioning, impose a heavy cognitive load on teachers’ working memories, and problem solving imposes a heavy cognitive load on learners - Developing the skills to automaticity reduces cognitive load and leaves working memory space for other cognitive tasks. 82. The response should include the following: - Your visual-spatial sketchpad performs tasks such as the ability to retain a mental image of the human memory model in your working memory as you describe it to your friend. - Your phonological loop retains the verbal information in working memory - Your central executive organizes and sequences the information so you can present it in an understandable way. 83. The response should state that meaningful learning is the process of making connections between individual items of information as you attempt to make sense of the information and store it in your long-term memory. When connections are made in the information, the 463 Copyright © 2020, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

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84.

information acts as a large “chunk,” which reduces cognitive load on working memory. This is essential since the capacity of working memory is limited. The response should state that if the students aren’t skilled in working with computers, the process of using the computer takes too much working memory space, leaving too little to compose a quality essay. If computer skills are developed to the point of automaticity, more working memory space is left that can be devoted to the construction of the essay.

Cognitive Processes Knowledge-Level Items 85. a 86. b 87. b 88. c 89. b 90. c 91. c 92. b 93. d 94. d 95. b Higher-Level Items 96. a Varying tone, loudness, and pitch is attention getting. It is a strategy that has been used virtually forever by clergy giving sermons. 97. d Students are more likely to pay attention if they believe they’re going to be called on. 98. c Information (stimuli) enters sensory memory in a raw and unprocessed form. We begin processing this information when attend to some of the information, interpret it, and then organize and store it in memory. The sound of our name is a particularly effective attention getter. 99. b A great deal of information enters sensory memory, but we only attend to some of it. Because she didn’t know what to do suggests that she didn’t attend to Mr. Lindsey’s directions. 100. d Information processing begins with attention, and bringing a snake to class is the best attention getter of the four choices. (Beginning lessons with an attention getter is one of the important implications for teaching of the human memory model.) 101. a Information processing begins with attention, so Mr. Lopez needs to first be sure he has his students’ attention. 102. b Information processing begins with attention. Then, students interpret (perceive) the information they attend to. 103. c Developing a schema for converting decimals to percentages and encoding the schema into long-term memory is the ultimate goal of information processing. 104. d We interpret the series of still pictures that go by quickly as continuous action. 105. c We interpret (perceive) “Tall in the the saddle” as “Tall in the saddle,” because we don’t expect to see a second “the” in the display.

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106. a 107. a

108. d 109. a 110. d 111. b

112. c 113. b 114. c 115. c

116. d 117. b

118. d

119. a 120. c 121. b 122. c 123. c 124. d 125. b 126. b 127. a 128. d 129. b 130. d

Information processing begins with attention, and using the balloon to demonstrate static electricity would be an effective attention getter. Vicki’s interpretation of what she saw was, “The balloon is making Michelle’s hair stick up,” whereas Ron’s was, “Michelle’s hair is attracted to the balloon.” The difference represents differences in their perception. What students “see” in the picture will represent their interpretation of in the information in the picture, which illustrates perception. Repeating information without altering its form represents rehearsal. If we remember the number the number the next day it had to have been encoded into long-term memory. Meaningfulness describes the extent to which experiences or items of information are linked or related to each other. Nancy has linked to date of the peace treaty signing to her birthday. Rehearsal the process of repeating information over and over without altering the form of the information. This is what occurs when using flashcards. If we can recall math facts essentially without thinking about them, they are automatic, and automaticity is an important factor in reducing cognitive load. Outlines are common ways of organizing information. The fact that Ryan remembered the email address the next day suggests that it was in long-term memory. Rehearsal can “brute force” information into long-term memory in this way. By imagining taking Kelsey to a Dairy Queen, Cameron is elaborating on “icecream2” to help him encode her email address into his long-term memory. By creating a link between “icecream2” and a Dairy Queen double cone, he made the information meaningful to him, and meaningful information is easier to retrieve than is information not so meaningful. By reviewing, Jack is pulling information from his long-term memory back into his working memory, so new information can be attached to it. This is the essence of schema activation. Concept maps are commonly used to organize information. Identifying additional examples is a common way of elaborating on information. Imagery is the process of forming mental images of ideas. Mnemonics are a commonly used elaboration strategy. By first solving problems, Jack must think about the topics, and focused thinking about topics is the essence of cognitive activity. You’re visualizing the L, which helps you recall the number. A hierarchy is a common way of organizing information. Organization is an encoding strategy that clusters related items of information into categories that illustrate relationships. This is what Henry’s chart does. Gathering and organizing information requires students to think about what they’re doing, which is the essence of cognitive activity. Schema activation is the process of activating relevant prior knowledge, so new information can be connected to it. This is what your review does. By writing the answers before she looks at the feedback, Marisa puts herself in a more cognitively active role than does Helen. When students are explaining, they must be cognitively active. 465 Copyright © 2020, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

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131. b Research suggests that encoding is somewhat context specific, i.e., we encode both the information and the context in which it exists. Mr. Smith encoded Katherine’s name in the context of his class, and the social event was a different context. 132. a You know the person well, so her name is in long-term memory. You simply can’t retrieve it. 133. a Classical and operant conditioning are both important concepts from behaviorism, it’s easy to confuse the two, and interference is a common problem. 134. c His understanding of PowerPoint commands is interfering with his understanding of Word commands. 135. b Teaching closely related ideas together is one of the most effective ways of preventing or eliminating interference. 136. d Having students identify similarities and differences is an effective way to prevent interference. (Teaching closely related ideas together is another effective way to prevent interference.) 137. a This strategy serves two purposes. First, it will attract students’ attention, and information processing begins with attention. Second, it helps you check the students’ perception. 138. b The chapter suggests that teachers supplement students’ experiences with rich examples. This strategy provides the best example of the concept pressure. 139. d Kristi’s prior experiences were very different from Kevin’s, so these experiences influenced their understanding of the cause of the war. Essay Items 140. The response should state that 2HEALTH is more meaningfully encoded than the number 243-2584, and, as a result, it’s also easier to retrieve. Second, 2HEALTH behaves as one chunk of information, so it reduces the cognitive load on working memory. 141. The following is a possible answer. - I would first try to get the students’ attention by having the class describe a student’s shirt. - Second, I would write the description on the board, and have them identify the adjective in the description. This would allow me to check the students’ perception. This would also serve as a point to elaborate from as we study comparative and superlative adjectives. I would then identify features in the students or around the room, such as one student’s hair being darker than another’s, and I would have them make statements such as “Burrell’s pencil is longer than Kim’s,” which I would write on the board. We would then identify the adjective, and I would guide them to note that a comparison is involved. I would work through several examples, asking many questions to avoid overloading working memory. I would do the same with comparisons among three or more, such as, “Latesha is the tallest of the three,” guiding them to note that a comparison among three is involved. Using several examples and using the students as examples would be an attempt to make the information meaningful, which would aid encoding of the concepts. - Elaboration and schema activation would be two encoding strategies, and I would attempt to put the students in cognitively active roles in all cases.

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Metacognition: Knowledge and Control of Cognitive Processes Knowledge-Level Items 142. d 143. a 144. b Higher-Level Items 145. b Meta-attention is knowledge and regulation of attention. Felyce is aware that she isn’t paying attention [knowledge of], and she regulates her attention by moving to the front of the room. 146. b Meta-attention is knowledge and regulation of attention. Felyce realizes that because of Isaac’s joking she isn’t paying as close attention to Mrs. Ruiz as she should [knowledge of cognition], and she regulates it by asking Isaac to stop distracting her. 147. c Recognizing the need to take notes indicates that older students are aware of their memory limitations and regulate them [their memories] by taking notes. 148. a Leah states, “I remember the procedures better . . .” which suggests that she has knowledge of her memory limitations and takes steps to regulate them. 149. b Ryan demonstrated both knowledge and regulation of his cognition. Essay Items 150. The response should include four of the following: - Metacognition plays an essential role in classroom learning. - It can improve cognition without significant increases in work or effort. - Metacognition is influenced by emotion, with hope and optimism having a positive effect and anxiety having a negative impact. - It is linked to personality characteristics, particularly conscientiousness. - Metacognition is influenced by task difficulty. When tasks are challenging, the cognitive load on working memory may be too great to allow effective metacognitive monitoring. - Neither students—including college students— nor adults are particularly good at metacognitive monitoring, but it can be significantly improved with instruction and effort. 151. The response should include the following: - With respect to gender, some evidence indicates that girls tend to be more metacognitive than boys in their approaches to learning. This is likely consistent with girls’ generally more conscientious approaches to their study. - Cultural beliefs also influence their metacognition. Asian students, for example, tend to believe that learning is a demanding process that requires a great deal of perseverance. They also believe that ability can be improved with effort, so they are likely to use metacognitive strategies - With respect to linguistic diversity, the cognitive load on second language learners’ working memories is often high because they are dealing with both language and the topic they’re studying, so metacognitive monitoring is often difficult for them. - Learners with exceptionalities, and particularly those with learning disabilities and behavior disorders don’t acquire metacognitive strategies through the normal course of development in the same way as do their peers. However, with effort and practice they can be taught to be metacognitive, and promoting the development of these abilities represents

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one of the most promising educational trends in working with students having exceptionalities. 152. The response should include the following: - First, young learners’ metacognitive abilities are limited. For instance, young children are often unaware of the need to pay attention in learning activities, whereas their older counterparts are more likely to realize that attention is important and can better direct it to learning tasks. - With teacher support, however, even young children quickly become more strategic about their learning. For example, students as early as the third grade can be taught metacognitive learning strategies. . Using Educational Psychology in Teaching: Suggestions for Applying Information Processing and the Model of Human Memory with Your Students Knowledge-Level Item 153. b Higher-Level Items 154. a Sophia’s question was designed to review the previous day’s lesson. 155. c With the cubes, Claribel’s students can actually see the difference between the groups of 10 and the single cubes, and they can link what they see to the numerals written on the board. These are high-quality examples. 156. d When Claribel’s students are explaining, they are in cognitively active roles. 157. b Having Jayden run back and forth across the classroom is an effective attention getter. 158. c Karen’s short paragraph is a high-quality example. The students can see that running is first used as a verb, then as a noun, and finally as an adjective. 159. b Her questions are designed to promote interaction with her students, involve them, and put them in cognitively active roles. 160. a A chart, such as the one Chloe used is a common and effective way of organizing information, and organization is an encoding strategy. [Chloe’s chart is also a highquality representation of content, and it would also be an effective attention getter.] 161. d Liam is modeling metacognition when he says, “The first thing I ask myself when I try to solve word problems is ‘what is the problem asking for,’ and then, if possible, I try to draw a diagram or picture of the problem to help me visualize the problem.” Essay Items 162. The response should include the following: - (1) In each case the response should suggest beginning the lesson with a review. - (2) Then, the response should include a specific example that illustrates how the teacher will get the students’ attention. - (3) The response should include a description of how the teacher will represent the content, such as displaying a model of a skeleton, or showing them a matrix with different features of the Jamestown Colony or Plymouth Colony. - (4) The response should emphasize interacting with the students to put them in cognitively active roles and reduce cognitive load. - (5) How they will capitalize on encoding strategies, such as elaboration organization, imagery, and schema activation, should be included. 468 Copyright © 2020, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

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- (6) An illustration of modeling and encouraging metacognition should also be included. 163. The response should include the following: - (1) Begin lessons and review to activate schemas and check perceptions - (2) Begin learning activities with an activity that attracts attention, such as doing a demonstration at the beginning of the lesson - (3) Present students with examples or other representations of content to help students develop their background knowledge, such as Mike Davis, in the case study at the beginning of the chapter, presenting his students with examples of figurative language - (4) Interact with students, such as using questioning, to put them in cognitively active roles - (5) Capitalize on encoding strategies, such as organizing information in charts, graphs, and hierarchies, presenting pictures to capitalize on imagery, and using questioning to help students elaborate on their understanding - (6) Model and encouraging metacognition, such as describing your own thinking as you conduct learning activities.

Chapter 8 Answers

CHAPTER EIGHT ANSWERS Concept Learning Knowledge-Level Items 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

a a a d b c c c

Higher-Level Items 9. c Characteristics are concepts’ essential elements. For the toddler, the white hair, beard, and belly are essential elements of “Santa.” 10. b For Avery, Palm trees and Mangroves are the most highly typical examples of trees. 11. a. Exemplar theory of concept learning Feedback for correct response: Exemplar theory suggests that we construct concepts based on the most highly typical examples of a concept, which, for the concept reptile, alligator, lizard, snake, and turtle are. 12. b Exemplar theory is effective for learning concepts that don’t have well-defined characteristics. Of the four choices in this question, the concept socialist has the least well-defined characteristics. 13. c Exemplar theory suggests that we construct concepts based on the most highly typical examples of a concept, which, for the concept canine, wolf, dog, and coyote are. 14. d As Mrs. Vargas stated, adjectives modify nouns, so “modify nouns” is a characteristic of adjectives. 15. c The concept adjective has well-defined characteristics—it modifies a noun, and each of the teachers emphasized these characteristics. 16. d Mr. Lanier provided a variety of high-quality examples of adjectives, and he presented them in the context of his short paragraph. For instance, running is usually a verb, but in this context it’s an adjective, and effective followed the noun it modifies instead of preceding it. He also included non-examples, such as carefully, very and extremely. And, he interacted with the students to a greater degree than did the other teachers. These actions are consistent with the suggestions. 17. a Mrs. Vargas only wrote some examples of nouns on the board, didn’t include possible nouns that they would modify and didn’t include any non-examples. 18. c Quite is an adverb, which is also a modifier—it modifies, verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs—and it modifies “exciting” in this sentence, which is an adjective. Students are more likely to confuse adjectives with adverbs than to confuse adjectives with verbs or nouns, for example. The most effective non-examples are those that illustrate concepts that students are most likely to confuse with the concept the teacher is teaching.

Chapter 8 Answers

19.

20.

21.

22. 23.

24. 25. 26. 27.

b Instead of preceding the noun is modifies, as most adjectives do, exciting follows the noun it modifies—video. Students tend to identify adjectives as words that precede nouns. An example, such as this one, helps prevent this common misconception. a Guidelines for promoting concept learning suggest that we should provide a variety of examples and nonexamples of the concept we’re teaching. Examples of similes would be effective nonexamples for the concept metaphor and vice versa. d The suggestions for promoting concept learning emphasize providing a variety of examples. Students might not realize that plants—in addition to animals—are living things, so the tree provides the best variety of the choices given. b Sliding the book across their desks, lifting up the chair, and blowing on the paper are all examples, and pushing on the board and having it not move is an effective nonexample. c Sliding the book across their desks is the most obvious example. For instance, in lifting up the chair, you must focus on the process of lifting, because as soon as the chair stops rising, you’re no longer doing any work. And, it isn’t obvious to some students that moving air exerts a force. d For students, sliding a book across their desks is very “real-world.” c High levels of interaction are illustrated in the stem of this item. a You’ve defined the concept work and have linked it to the related concepts force, and pressure. d The concept democracy is the least well defined, so it would be the most difficult to learn.

Essay Items 28. The response should state the following: - Rule-driven theories of concept learning suggest that we learn concepts according to rules defining specific characteristics, such as the rule that says that a square is a plane figure that has four equal sides and four equal angles. - Exemplar theory says that people construct exemplars—highly representative members— of concepts, such as an eagle, robin, hawk, sparrow, and hummingbird being exemplars for the concept bird. 29. The response should include the following: - Many concepts don’t have well-defined characteristics that can be described with ruledriven theories. For instance, the concept near only exists in relation to the concept far, and the concept up only exists in the context of the concept down. - Learners tend to center on a single, salient, characteristic of concepts instead of realizing that all the essential characteristics must be present in an example, such as concluding that a human beings are arthropods, because they have jointed legs, or concluding that adverbs are words ending in “ly” instead of recognizing that they must modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs. 30. The response should include the following: (1) Provide a variety of examples and nonexamples of the concept, such as pushing and pulling on a variety of objects to illustrate the concept force. - (2) Present the examples in a real-world context, such as discussing common forces in the students’ experiences.

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- (3) Sequence the examples beginning with the most typical and ending with those least familiar, such as beginning by simply pushing on the writing board and then moving to more abstract forces, such as the force that makes opposite poles on magnets attract. - (4) Promote meaningful learning by defining the concept and linking it to related concepts, such as defining forces as a push or a pull and relating it to the concept work. Problem Solving Knowledge-Level Items 31. b 32. c 33. c 34. d 35. a 36. c 37. b 38. b 39. d 40. c 41. a 42. a 43. d 44. a 45. a 46. b 47. d 48. b 49. b 50. d 51. b Higher-Level Items 52. b Your goal—getting to your doctor’s office is clear, and a certain method for reaching the goal exists. For instance, you might simple Google your doctor’s name, find her address, and use Mapquest to help you get there. 53. a Finding molecular weight is well defined, and well-established methods for finding it exist. 54. a Most well-defined problems exist in math and science. 55. c This problem doesn’t have a clear solution. For instance, should we purchase deadbolts for our house, or would a full-blown security system be better? 56. a This problem has an ambiguous goal. For example, what does the problem of homelessness mean? Is it simply getting homeless people off the streets, or is it helping them improve the quality of their lives, or is it something in between. And, no clear solution exists 57. a Jordan hasn’t been able to set up the problem, which suggests that she doesn’t understand the problem goal. 58. d The FOIL method is a specific set of steps for finding a solution to the problem 472 Copyright © 2020, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

Chapter 8 Answers

59.

Karl’s problem is well-defined, and all he has to do is apply the formula for solving the area of a trapezoid.

60.

d Matt is using a general strategy that he can apply to any paper he writes. This illustrates the use of a heuristic. 61. a Experts are people who are highly knowledgeable or skilled in a domain. Mary is demonstrating skill in the domain of creating PowerPoint presentations. 62. a Melanie uses pictures and drawings to represent problems. 63. c Interspersed practice, the process of mixing the practice of different skills, is more effective than practicing one skill extensively and then moving to a different one. 64. c Research indicates that providing the students with problems in no particular order that require a variety of processes promotes more learning than solving problems using one process, then moving to a different process, and so on. 65. b Worked examples are problems with completed solutions. This is what Jesse is providing. 66. d Drawing analogies is a heuristic that involves solving problems by comparing then to similar problems already solved. This is what Ella is doing. 67. a Identifying what the problem asks for is the first step in solving problems. This is what Mr. Wilson’s question was designed to accomplish. 68. c Emma was suggesting a way of solving the problem, which illustrates the process of selecting a strategy. 69. d Kathy’s comment, “I don’t think that’s right,” suggests that she is evaluating the results. 70. b Creativity is the ability to produce original problem solutions that are productive and task appropriate. This is what Rick is demonstrating. 71. a Case studies are effective for presenting problems in real-world contexts. Also, the vignette says that his original case study was taken from a widely publicized event. 72. b Jim’s modeling of the analysis of his original case study is a form of worked example. 73. c Students working in pairs will be interacting to a greater extent than they would in a whole-group discussion. 74. d Encourage sense making. In focusing on whether or not their solutions are valid, Jim is specifically focusing on sense making in the problem-solving process. 75. c Vicki has presented the problem of determining what makes novels classics, and solving the problem is the focus of a series of her learning activities. This illustrates problem-based learning. 76. d Jared is having his students complete what is essentially a knowledge-level activity This is at the opposite end of the continuum from problem-based learning. Essay Items 77. The response should state the following: - Well-defined problem solving typically results in a single answer and is usually limited to a specific content area, such as algebra, physics, or chemistry. It can be illustrated with any word problem in math. - Ill-defined problems have a variety of solutions and draw from a variety of areas, such as the ill-defined problem of increasing voter turnout in local elections.

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78. The response should include the following: - The two primary challenges involved in attempting to improve our students’ problemsolving abilities are first, lack of background knowledge. As in all areas of learning, background knowledge is essential for problem solving. - People’s thinking is the second challenge, particularly with students, and even more particularly with young students. First, students are inclined to accept answers whether or not they make sense, and second, students tend to use superficial strategies to solve many problems. These strategies are often quite successful, but they may bypass understanding completely. 79. The response should include the following: - Deliberate practice is an approach to problem solving that is systematic and intentional. It is important because it can lead to high levels of expertise, whereas simply spending more time studying doesn’t necessarily increase expertise. Deliberate practice has the following characteristics: - (1) It has a well-defined goal. Individuals identify skills they want to improve and practice those skills before moving on. - (2) The challenge is just beyond learners’ present skill level. - (3) Learners receive extensive feedback on how to improve the skill. - (4) Learners repeatedly practice on correcting errors and advancing their skills. They practice extensively. 80. The response should include the following: - First, identify the problem goal. The problem is to get all the people across the river without the cannibals outnumbering the missionaries at any point. - Second, represent the problem such as creating concrete models of the cannibals and missionaries, - Third, select a strategy such as deciding to physically moving them across an imaginary river. - Fourth, actually try the strategy by actually moving the models back and forth. - Finally, if all the cannibals and missionaries are across the river and the cannibals have never outnumbered the missionaries, the problem has been solved 81. The response should include the following: - (1) Present problems in real-world contexts, and provide practice in identifying problem goals, such as having students solve word problems that relate to common factors in students’ lives, such as cell phone rates. - (2) Use worked examples to develop students’ background knowledge, such as David Chin’s efforts on pages 354 and 355 of the chapter. - (3) Develop students’ expertise with deliberate practice, such as assigning homework and providing students with extensive feedback about their efforts - (4) Capitalize on social interaction to engage students and assess understanding, such as using questioning to guide students through problem solutions. - (4) Encourage sense making in the problem-solving process, such as discussing solutions and answers with the specific goal of focusing on sense making.

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Knowledge-Level Items 82. d 83. d 84. a 85. d 86. c 87. b 88. a 89. a 90. d 91. d 92. b 93. a 94. c 95. a 96. d 97. b 98. d 99. d 100. b Higher-Level Items 101. d Writing summary sentences goes beyond the normal activities required to carry out a reading task, so Carla is being strategic in her study. 102. a Karen is most nearly demonstrating knowledge and regulation of cognition. She is aware that she might not have understood the information on the page, and presumably will reread it if she doesn’t think she’s understood it. 103. d Generating key terms that they believe captures the essence of a text passage has been demonstrated as effective by research. 104. b A hierarchy is a form of concept map that visually represents superordinate, subordinate, and coordinate relationships among concepts. This is what Josh has created. 105. d End-of-chapter questions that help students deepen their understanding of the content of the chapter are effective for increasing understanding, but they aren’t considered to be text signals. 106. b Text signals, such as headings and subheadings, communicate how the content of a chapter or section is organized, and organization is an effective encoding strategy. 107. c A written guide is a form of using “guided notes” what have been demonstrated to increase achievement for a wide variety of students. 108. b Joanne is the most metacognitive about her study, i.e., she is thinking about what is important to highlight. And, she is cognitively active in the process. 109. d Tiffany is using an ineffective strategy. By her own admission, she doesn’t read the content carefully, and she is likely distracted by her music when she studies. 110. c Relating terms to each other with linking words or phrases illustrates concept mapping. 111. b Research indicates that studying different, but related, topics in the same sitting results in more learning than studying one topic intensely and then turning to a second topic. 475 Copyright © 2020, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

Chapter 8 Answers

112. a 113. d

114. b

115. d 116. d 117. c 118. c 119. d 120. a

Research indicates that spaced practice is more effective than massed practice, i.e., practice crammed into long, single sessions. Belief preservation is the tendency to make evidence subservient to believe instead of the other way around. Jalen clings to the evidence that supports his belief, and ignores evidence that contradicts it. People, in general, and students, in particular, are reluctant to give up beliefs unless they are provided with specific, convincing evidence that their belief isn’t valid. Simple explanations rarely change beliefs. This question asks Carolina students to provide evidence for a conclusion, and providing evidence for conclusions is the essence of critical thinking. This question asks the students to provide evidence for a conclusion. This is the essence of critical thinking. This question merely asks a student for a bit of factual information. This question asks students to provide evidence for a conclusion, which is the essence of critical thinking. Sebastian comes the closest to demonstrating knowledge and regulation of cognition. He is “thinking about thinking.” By providing guidelines for taking notes, taking her own notes and displaying samples of students’ notes, she is explicitly teaching note taking as a study strategy.

Essay Items 121. The response should include the following: - The Internet. It detracts from our ability to think critically because any information— valid or invalid—can be posted on social media and the Internet at large. We can find any information we desire, regardless of how bizarre or far-fetched, that will confirm an existing belief. - Emotions. It detracts from our ability to think critically because, first, fear is one of our most powerful emotions, and it strongly influences perception. Second, as human beings, we are capable of rational thought, but we are not innately rational beings. We are, instead, fundamentally emotional animals, and our tendency to first react emotionally to people and events. - Our cognitive architecture. It detracts from our ability to think critically because understanding complex problems and solutions imposes a heavy cognitive load on our limited-capacity working memories, and accepting a simplistic solution reduces the load. This helps us understand our vulnerability to sound bites. They’re simple, easy to understand, and easy to remember. As a result they impose a low cognitive load on our working memories. 122. The response should include the following: - (1) Explicitly teach and have students practice study strategies, such as modeling the process of concept mapping and having students create their own concept maps. - (2) Model critical thinking and use questioning to promote critical thinking in your students, such as using questions like, “How do we know?” “Why?” and “What would happen if?” in interactions with students. - (3) Use assessment with feedback as learning tools, such as using quiz and test items that require students to apply their understanding in new contexts. Items such as these will

Chapter 8 Answers

result in students using more sophisticated study strategies, such as summarizing and concept mapping when they prepare for assessments. Transfer of Learning Knowledge-Level Items 123. d 124. c 125. b 126. d 127. b 128. a 129. c 130. b Higher-Level Items 131. d Carl’s students are able to identify unique examples of similes and metaphors, which is an example of transfer. 132. c Melanie’s ability to utilize drawings in different contexts is an example of transfer of learning. 133. b Even though he is studying English, the context in this case is similar to the context in Spanish, so Jorge is demonstrating specific transfer. 134. a The students are studying/using a single-subject design in both contexts, so they are demonstrating specific transfer. 135. b General transfer is the ability to apply knowledge and skills in widely varying contexts. They would have demonstrated general transfer of this had worked. It didn’t work, and for all intents and purposes, general transfer doesn’t exist, which helps us understand why courses in Latin are rare. 136. a At least some dispositions transfer generally. 137. a Cow is the concept most similar to the other examples the children have seen. 138. b Bat is the least similar of the four choices to the other examples given. 139. a Of the choices given in the first case—cow, bat, whale, and kangaroo—cow is the most similar to dog, cat, horse, and deer, and of the choices given in the second case—cow, bat, mouse, and squirrel—bat is the least similar to dog, cat, horse, and deer. 140. b Mr. Lucas didn’t originally provide his students with an example of a reptile that lives primarily in water, so he didn’t provide an adequate variety of examples. 141. c Showing animals in their natural habits illustrates emphasis on real-world application. 142. b Each teacher is attempting to provide real-world applications for his or her students. 143. d The context of the word problem was different enough, so that students had trouble transferring their understanding of percents. 144. a The use of the commands was the same in both cases, so the contexts for the use of the commands were very similar.

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- General transfer is the ability to apply knowledge or skills learned in one context to a wide variety of different contexts. For example, general transfer would occur if playing chess helps a person learn math, since both require logic. (Little evidence for general transfer exists.) - Specific transfer is the ability to apply information in a context similar to the one in which it was originally learned, such as knowing that the Greek prefix photos means “light” and it helps learners better understand the concept photosynthesis. 146. The response should include the following: - (1) Depth of understanding. The more thoroughly learners understand the characteristics of mammals, for instance, the more likely they are to identify new examples of mammals. - (2) Similarity between learning situations. For example, if learners have had experiences with cows, horses, deer, dogs, and cats, and understand that they’re mammals, they’re more likely to conclude that a moose is a mammal than to conclude that a whale is a mammal. - (3) Type of knowledge. Concepts, for instance, are more likely to transfer than are facts. - (4) Real-world application. For instance in teaching concepts, such as longitude and latitude, transfer is more likely if the concepts are taught in the context of locating the town or city in which they live. 147. The response should state that encountering high-quality examples in context most nearly approximates the construction of knowledge in natural settings in the real world. The examples become the experiences learners use to construct their knowledge. 148. The response should include the following: - (1) Provide students with a variety of high-quality examples and other experiences, such as having students practice with a variety of word problems to promote problem solving, and constructing different concept maps to promote the transfer of study skills. - (2) Apply content to real-world contexts whenever possible, such as having students solve percent increase and percent decrease problems with items they find in a local mall. - (3) Use high levels of interaction to promote learning and to provide different perspectives.

Chapter 9 Answers

CHAPTER NINE ANSWERS Knowledge Construction Knowledge-Level Items 1. d 2. d 3. d 4. b 5. c 6. c 7. c 8. b 9. d 10. a 11. b 12. c Higher-Level Items 13. c The knowledge we construct makes sense to us. If it didn’t, we wouldn’t have constructed it; we would have constructed different knowledge that did make sense to us. 14. b Cognitive constructivists view the process of knowledge construction as an individual, internal process. 15. c Lily’s experiences with having accidents include her mother saying, “Oh, you must be tired,” so she constructed the idea, “I’m tired,” based on this experience. 16. d Cognitive constructivists emphasize individual, internal constructions of knowledge. This is what Ms. Fodea is emphasizing. 17. c Social constructivism emphasizes social processes. 18. b Cognitive constructivists emphasize individual, internal constructions of knowledge. 19. d Social constructivists believe that knowledge is first constructed in a social environment, and then internalized by individuals. 20. b Sociocultural learning theory emphasizes the cultural context in which learning occurs. The children’s cultural experiences are impacting the students’ understanding in this case. 21. c A community of learners is an environment in which the teacher and all the students work together to help everyone learn. This is what Judy is emphasizing with her comment, “We’re all in this together, . . .” 22. d Judy’s emphasis on real-world contexts is consistent with the concept of situated cognition. 23. a Cognitive apprenticeship involves less skilled learners working beside experts to learn skills, such as problem solving. This is what is being illustrated in this case. 24. d A learning community is a learning environment in which the teacher and students all work together to help everyone learn. Kaylee’s comments, “We’re all here to help everyone in our class learn as much as possible,” and “The thinking involved in our discussions are as important as the answers we get,” as well as her emphasis on 479 Copyright © 2020, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

Chapter 9 Answers

25.

everyone participating characterizes her efforts to create this type of learning environment. Embodied cognition emphasizes that our thinking and the way we process information is influenced by our physical bodies and their experiences. This is what is being illustrated in this example.

Essay Items 26. The response should include the following: - Cognitive constructivism emphasizes knowledge construction as an individual, internal process. Social interaction is important, but it serves to disrupt an individual’s equilibrium, which the individual then re-establishes. - Social constructivism suggests that learners first construct knowledge in a social context and then individually internalize the knowledge. Social constructivists emphasize that knowledge construction is a direct outcome of social interaction. 27. The response should state that in a community of learners: - All students actively participate in learning activities, such as teachers calling on all their students. - Teachers and students work together to help one another learn, such as students helping each other as they work in groups. - Interaction isn’t exclusively teacher-student; strong emphasis is placed on student-student interaction. - Diversity of student interests is respected, such as members of cultural minorities being asked to share information about their cultures. - The thinking is an important outcome in and of itself, such as emphasis on reasons for answers as much as the answers themselves. 28. The response should emphasize the following: - Cognitive apprenticeships are similar to traditional apprenticeships in that novices work alongside more knowledgeable others to acquire skills. The more knowledgeable individual models the skill and provides scaffolding for the novice as he or she develops the skill. - The difference between a traditional apprenticeship and a cognitive apprenticeship is that traditional apprenticeships involved the development of physical skills, such as welding or plumbing, whereas cognitive apprenticeships involve cognitive skills, such as problem solving. Cognitive apprenticeships also more strongly emphasize other aspects of cognitive learning, such as verbalization of understanding. 29. The response could include an example of cognitive apprenticeship could exist in any content area. A description of the expert and the novice should be included, and a suggestion as to how the situation could demonstrate modeling, scaffolding, verbalization, exploration, and increased complexity should be included in the response. 30. The response should include the following: - 1) Useful learning requires deep conceptual understanding, such as using longitude and latitude to find the location of the students’ school, or using the concept of inertia to explain why we’re “pushed” against a car door when we go around a curve too fast. - 2) deep conceptual understanding requires personal reflection, such as solving a realworld problem, applying information to their daily lives, or connecting different items of information.

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- 3) schooling must shift its focus from teaching to learning, such as having students determine how much pizza they’ve eaten as an application of adding fractions, instead of simply solving fraction problems in the abstract. - 4) learners’ brains function in collaboration with the rest of their bodies, such as having students hold and move their hands over an object when attempting to determine its volume. Misconceptions: When Learners Construct Invalid Knowledge Knowledge-Level Items 31. d 32. d 33. a 34. b 35. c 36. c Higher-Level Items 37. c People’s need to make sense of their experiences is, arguably, the most basic principle of cognitive learning theory. In order to make sense of their experiences, people construct knowledge. Sometimes the knowledge they construct makes sense to them, but is inconsistent with evidence or commonly accepted explanations. In these cases they have constructed misconceptions. 38. a People’s need to make sense of their experiences is, arguably, the most basic principle of cognitive learning theory. In order to make sense of their experiences, people construct knowledge. Sometimes the knowledge they construct makes sense to them, but is inconsistent with evidence or commonly accepted explanations. In these cases they have constructed misconceptions. 39. a Appearance commonly leads to misconceptions. The children center on the fact that Mrs. Reynolds is taller, and use that fact as a basis for concluding that she is older. 40. c Seeing direct evidence that a misconception exists is the only effective way to change misconceptions. 41. d In this case, Katrina will be able to see that 1/3 is larger than ¼, and because she has been provided with evidence indicating that she holds a misconception, it’s likely that her thinking will change. Essay Items 42. The response should state the following: The basic principle in in constructivist learning theory is that we all construct our own knowledge. It suggests that people construct misconceptions because they (the misconceptions) make sense to the people. Constructivist learning theory is the only theory of learning that can explain how misconceptions originate. 43. The response should state that misconceptions are resistant to change because they make sense to the individual. Because they make sense, the individual is at equilibrium. Changing the misconception disrupts equilibrium, which individuals are instinctively inclined to avoid.

Chapter 9 Answers

44.

The response should include three of the following: - Background experience. For instance, 1 x 1 = 1, so concluding that .1 x .1 = .1 makes sense, and many adverbs indeed end in ly, so concluding that all adverbs end in ly also makes sense. - Language. For instance, we refer to mercury and lead as “heavy” metals, which can lead to misconceptions about mass, weight, and density. - Appearance. The Sun and the Moon both appear to rise and set as they move across the sky, which can lead children to believe that they revolve around the Earth. - Intuitive appeal. The idea of students’ individual learning styles is intuitively appealing, and many educators continue to believe it is important. (Almost certainly, some of your students will believe in the idea of learning styles, and you telling them that the idea of learning styles is largely a myth is unlikely to change their minds.)

Using Educational Psychology in Teaching: Suggestions for Helping Students Construct Valid Knowledge Knowledge-Level Items 45. d 46. b 47. c 48. b 49. b 50. c 51. d 52. d 53. a 54. a Higher-Level Items 55. b This statement isn’t true. In fact, the teacher’s role will actually become more important, and more sophisticated teaching skills will be required. 56. b This is a valid statement. Regardless of how clear an explanation might be, if the explanation doesn’t make sense to learners, they will—conceptually—revise the explanation until it does. (It doesn’t suggest that we should never use explanations. Verbal explanations are a part of teaching. However, we shouldn’t assume that because we’ve explained something clearly, students will understand our explanations. ) 57. d This is a common learning activity, but it doesn’t capitalize on social interaction, and it isn’t well connected to the real world, two suggestions for classroom practice based on social influences on learning and knowledge construction. 58. a Learners construct knowledge based on their experiences. If they lack experiences, they can’t construct knowledge. High-quality examples provide the experiences learners need to construct their knowledge. 59. c Students’ responses to questions provide us with a great deal of information about their understanding. Other than formal assessment, questioning is the primary tool we have for determining whether or not their knowledge constructions are valid. 60. d If students lack experiences, they are unable to construct knowledge. Examples provide these experiences. 482 Copyright © 2020, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

Chapter 9 Answers

61.

62. 63. 64.

65.

66. 67. 68. 69. 70. 71.

72.

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d From a social constructivist perspective, student-student interaction is viewed as desirable. This helps us understand why the suggestions for classroom practice include, “Make interaction an integral part of instruction.” a Emphasis on real-world tasks and high levels of interaction are two of the suggestions for classroom practice for instruction based on constructivist views of learning d This is a simple knowledge-level question, and being able to answer correctly says little about the students’ understanding. c Suggestions for classroom practice include, “Provide students with experiences that promote deep understanding. Asking Katrina to provide evidence for her conclusion is an experience that will promote deep understanding. d When teachers are explaining, they aren’t interacting with students, and “make interaction an integral part of instruction,” is a suggestion for helping students construct valid knowledge. c This is a very real-world task. a This is a common classroom task, and it is the least “real world” of the choices given. c This is a very “real world” task. When involved with the activities, the students will be able to see the characteristics of living things. c Judy is emphasizing the role that social interaction plays in learning by having the students discuss their solutions with each other and explain their thinking. a This is a real-world problem that consumers encounter. a Of the choices given, the most likely reason Judy’s students don’t “get it” is that percent increase and percent decrease don’t make sense to them—and a lot of adults for that matter. b Cassie capitalized on the suggestions for helping students construct valid knowledge well. She presented the clauses in the context of a paragraph, which is more real-world than isolated sentences, she promoted interaction with her class discussion, and instructing her students to write a paragraph containing essential and nonessential clauses would be an effective assessment. a Kimberly’s sentences are less real-world than embedding the clauses in a paragraph would be. Further, she simply explains why the sentences are punctuated the way they are, so she doesn’t capitalize on interaction with her students. Her approach least nearly applies the suggestions for classroom practice. (Having her students correctly punctuate some additional sentences is a form of assessment—not as effective as Cassie’s assessment, but an assessment nevertheless.) a Mrs. Mariadaga capitalizes on the suggestions for suggestions for helping students construct valid knowledge well. She presents the adjective and adverb phrases in the context of a paragraph, which is more real-world than isolated sentences, she promotes interaction with her class discussion, and instructing her students to write a paragraph containing adjective and adverb phrases would be an effective assessment. b Mr. Bush’s sentences are less real-world than embedding the clauses in a paragraph would be. Further, he simply explains the information he wants his students to understand, so he doesn’t capitalize on interaction with his students. His approach least nearly applies the suggestions for classroom practice. (Having her students correctly punctuate some additional sentences is a form of assessment—not as effective as Cassie’s assessment, but an assessment nevertheless.)

Chapter 9 Answers

76.

77.

78.

79.

d Shana simply displayed a definition, and her outline drawings didn’t provide the experience that would be likely to promote deep understanding. (Some real arthropods, such as a crab, beetle, spider, etc., would be much better. If that wouldn’t be possible, colored pictures would be better than outline drawings.) c Richard’s map, matrix, and pictures would provide his students with the information they need to identify relationships and make conclusions about the relationships between geography, economy, and recreational patterns. He most nearly applies the suggestion for classroom practice. d Lisa merely presented information to her students, and we no evidence of interaction in her lesson. Her lesson could have been much more effective is she had had her students look for relationships in the information she presented, such as how the size of the planets relate to their density, and so on. d Connect content to the real world, and make interaction an integral part of instruction are two of the suggestions for suggestions for helping students construct valid knowledge.

Essay Items 80. The response should emphasize that when basing instruction on constructivist views of learning, your role will become more demanding and sophisticated. You will guide your students to your learning objectives using questioning to help facilitate your students’ construction of knowledge rather than simply lecturing to them and explaining the topics you’re teaching. The traditional roles of planning your instruction carefully, and thoroughly assessing your students’ understanding of the topics you’re teaching will not change. 81. The response should include the following: - (1) Provide students with experiences that promote deep understanding, high-quality representations of content. This means illustrating all topics with high-quality examples and other high-quality representations of content, such as showing young children a live lizard and a live snake to illustrate the concept reptile. - (2) Connect content to the real world, such as finding the longitude and latitude of the students’ school, or using equivalent fractions to determine how much pizza has been eaten. - (3) Make interaction an integral part of instruction, such as developing lessons with questioning and using groupwork judiciously. - (5) Promote learning with assessment. Frequent and thorough assessment allows teachers to identify students’ misconceptions, provide them with feedback, and consolidate learning. 82. The response should state that because students construct their own knowledge, their constructions are likely to vary, and, in some cases, they will construct incomplete understanding or misconceptions. The only way you will be able to determine if you’re students have constructed valid knowledge is through the process of assessment. 83. The response should include the following - The first suggestion for helping students construct valid knowledge states that teachers should provide students with experiences that promote deep understanding, and Jennifer’s lesson was consistent with this suggestion. Her cart and spring scale, dropped tennis ball, and computer simulation were effective examples. - She also connected her topic to the real world quite well, which is the second suggestion.

Chapter 9 Answers

- However, she attempted to help her students understand the principle primarily through explanation rather than through interaction. - We have no evidence of ongoing assessment

Chapter 10 Answers

CHAPTER TEN ANSWERS What is Motivation? Knowledge-Level Items 1. b 2. b 3. b 4. c 5. d 6. a 7. b 8. d 9. d 10. b 11. a 12. c 13. b 14. c 15. d 16. d 17. c 18. d 19. c 20. b 21. b 22. a 23. a

Higher-Level Items 24. d Meeting challenges can increase intrinsic motivation, because doing so communicates that competence is increasing, and competence is an innate need according to selfdetermination theory. Suggesting that students are improving on “tough” problems suggests that they’re meeting a challenge. 25. c Seeing both a heavy object and a lighter object hit the floor at the same time is counterintuitive or discrepant, so it is likely to evoke curiosity. 26. b Seeing that the water doesn’t fly out of the cup is somewhat discrepant, that is, it is counterintuitive. Discrepant experiences are likely to increase intrinsic motivation. 27. a Brad appears to want to understand trigonometry for its own sake. This is the essence of intrinsic motivation. 28. b Research indicates that offering rewards for already-intrinsically-motivating activities is likely to decrease interest and motivation. 29. b Research indicates that when students are offered rewards for completing tasks, and they have choices, they will choose less difficult tasks.

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30.

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b b

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b c

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People’s needs for order, predictability, and an understanding of the way the world works, can be explained with Piaget’s concept of equilibrium. When people believe they understand the way the world works, for example, they are at equilibrium. Cognitive motivation theory is grounded in the premise that people want to make sense of their experiences. This is what is being illustrated in this statement. Humanistic views of motivation, and particularly the work of Carl Rogers emphasized that the self-actualizing tendency is oriented toward competence and autonomy. Norma is communicating unconditional positive regard for James, the view that students are innately worthy, regardless of their behavior. This statement provides a challenge for students, and when students meet challenges, their experiences make sense to them, and making sense of experiences is at the heart of cognitive motivation theory. When students meet challenges, their experiences make sense to them, and making sense of experiences is at the heart of cognitive motivation theory. The attention Joe receives from his buddies is reinforcing for him. For this individual, it makes sense that he gets A’s on his assignments; he’s a good writer and he works hard. The statement doesn’t suggest that getting A’s is his goal. Rather, it is more nearly an outcome of his ability and hard work. Sociocultural views of motivation focus on classroom communities in which the teacher and students all work together to help everyone learn. Free time or a pizza party would be rewards for the students. The fact that grades aren’t working as motivators doesn’t suggest that free time or a pizza party wouldn’t work as rewards. Feelings are part of the “whole person,” and humanistic views of motivation focus on the whole person. Sociocultural views of motivation focus on classroom communities in which the teacher and students all work together to help everyone learn Feelings are part of the “whole person,” and humanistic views of motivation focus on the whole person. When students work hard, and they see that their hard work pays off, their experiences make sense to them, which is at the heart of cognitive motivation theory. The stars serve as positive reinforcers for the students. When students resolve something unexpected or discrepant, their experiences make sense to them. This example focuses on emotions, and emotions are part of the “whole person,” which is emphasized in humanistic views of motivation. The “nice bonus” is a description of a reward for the students who were successful on the test. This example emphasizes the role of social forces on motivation. Social factors are emphasized in sociocultural views of motivation. If students can’t do the work, or if they don’t believe an activity is worthwhile, the experiences don’t make sense to them. When students understand the reasons for studying a topic, the study makes more sense to them than if they didn’t understand why they are studying the topic. Reacting to students’ needs for safety, and even enough food, emphasizes the “whole person,” which is the focus of humanistic views of motivation. 487 Copyright © 2020, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

Chapter 10 Answers

Essay Items 52. The response should emphasize that according to humanistic motivation theory, belonging and being connected to others in a social setting is an important need. Isolating a student prevents him or her from being connected to the rest of the students in the class. 53.

The response should include the following: - Cognitive motivation theory best explains why specific praise is more effective than general praise. Specific praise provides learners with information about their evolving understanding, so it helps them better make sense of their experiences. - Both general and specific praise can be reinforcing, which is all that is required according to behaviorism. - Humanistic theory focuses more on the whole person than on specific aspects of learning, such as learners constructing knowledge.

The Influence of Needs on Motivation to Learn Knowledge-Level Items 54. b 55. c 56. b 57. a 58. d 59. b 60. a 61. c 62. c 63. d 64. c 65. b 66. c Higher-Level Items 67. d The need for food is obvious, so providing breakfast helps meet a survival need. Food also focuses on the “physical” person, which is part of the “whole” person, and humanistic views of motivation focus on the whole person. 68. c According to Maslow, belonging is a deficiency need, and people won’t progress to growth needs until deficiency needs are met. 69. a Being left out suggests that she is concerned that Jane’s belonging need is not being met. 70. b If students are hungry, their deficiency needs are not being met. And, according to Maslow, people will not move on to growth needs until all the deficiency needs are met. 71. d At a first meeting we tend to react to people at a human level, i.e., how nice or caring they are. 72. a Maslow’s hierarchy helps us understand why we initially react to people at an emotional, personal, and “human” level.

Chapter 10 Answers

73.

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Kathy’s enthusiasm for reading suggests that she is at the level of intellectual achievement in Maslow’s hierarchy. Intellectual achievement is a growth need, and, according to Maslow, people will not progress to growth needs until all the deficiency needs have been met. Praise for genuine accomplishment suggests that competence is increasing, and the need for competence (together with needs for autonomy and relatedness) are basic according to self-determination theory. Giving students choices helps them meet their needs for autonomy, and the need for autonomy is innate according to self-determination theory. Research indicates that praise for genuine accomplishment can be intrinsically motivating. We can explain why by stating that the praise provides evidence that competence is increasing, and the need for competence is innate according to selfdetermination theory. On the other hand, research indicates that students may perceive praise for easy questions as evidence that their teacher thinks they are not competent. According to self-determination theory, people have needs for competence, autonomy, and relatedness. Being asked to provide input for classroom decisions helps students meet their needs for autonomy. The need for competence is innate according to self-determination theory, so people’s needs for self-determination helps us understand why challenging tasks can be motivating. Teachers who spend time out of class with students help them connect to the students in the overall school social environment, and communicates to the students that they are worthy of love and respect. Increasing the number of assessments and providing detailed feedback allows students to monitor their progress. As they see evidence that they’re making progress, their perceptions of competence increase, and the need for competence is innate according to self-determination theory. According to self-worth theory, our self-worth is tied directly to perceptions of having high ability. So, to maintain self-worth, threats to the perception of high ability must be avoided. Ken is attempting to preserve the perception of his high ability by suggesting that he could get a C+ without studying. Self-worth theory suggests that people’s self-worth is tied to perceptions of high ability. Kori is communicating that she has low ability. Her description would be best explained with attribution theory. Because she believes she has low ability, she is potentially in danger of not trying, or demonstrating self-handicapping behaviors. By modeling how hard he works, and linking effort to increased ability, Mike is most likely to be successful in changing his students’ views of working hard being an indicator of low ability. Nick’s approach is the least effective of the four teachers. If the students who did poorly had a repertoire of strategies that they could use to improve their performance, they would likely use the strategies. Nick’s approach merely exacerbates the performance orientation in his classroom.

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Essay Items 86. The response should state that according to Maslow’s hierarchy, the deficiency needs— survival, safety, belonging, and self-esteem.—must be met before learners will move to growth needs, such as intellectual achievement and aesthetic appreciation. This suggests that learners will first react to the way their teachers treat them as human beings. The “human” dimension precedes the intellectual one. 87. The response should state that praise for genuine accomplishment suggests to learners that their competence is increasing, and the need for competence is basic according to selfdetermination theory. 88. The response should emphasize that modeling the value of hard work and commenting that hard work makes us smarter is the most effective action teachers can take to counter the tendency of older students to conclude that working hard is an indicator of low ability. Modeling is a powerful factor in learning, so modeling has a reasonable chance to be effective. 89. The response should include the following: - (1) To meet students’ needs for belonging and relatedness, treat them as people first, such as periodically asking about some aspect of their personal lives. - (2) Involve students in decision making, which helps address their needs for autonomy. Decisions can be as simple as asking students to decide which row should line up for lunch first to more substantive decisions, such as forming classroom rules. - (3) Help meet students’ needs for competence by maintaining high expectations and praising students for effort and evidence of accomplishment. This form of praise provides evidence that their competence is increasing. An example would be periodically praising students for answers to indicate insight and deep understanding. - (4) Avoid social comparisons among students. Avoid commenting on grades, posting test scores on the board, or any other indicator that some are superior to others. Students who do well feel the satisfaction of their efforts without public displays. The Influence of Beliefs on Motivation to Learn Knowledge-Level Items 90. c 91. a 92. a 93. b 94. a 95. c 96. d 97. a 98. a 99. a 100. c 101. a 102. d 103. a 104. c 105. a 490 Copyright © 2020, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

Chapter 10 Answers

106. a 107. c 108. c 109. d Higher-Level Items 110. b Alvenia expects to do well on the test, and she is also communicating that the ability to solve word problems has utility value. Both are components of expectancy x value theory. 111. c Expectancy x value theory suggests that we are motivated to engage in an activity to the extent that we expect to succeed times the value we place on that success. Olivia’s expectations are not being met, so her motivation is likely to decrease. 112. d Expectancy x value theory suggests that we are motivated to engage in an activity to the extent that we expect to succeed times the value we place on that success. Low achieving students’ expectations for success are often not being met, so her motivation is likely to decrease. 113. c People with a growth mindset believe that ability can be increased with effort. His poor performance is likely to increase his resolve and effort to improve the next time he takes one of your tests. 114. a People with fixed mindsets believe that ability is relatively fixed and stable. For people with this believe, preserving the perception of high ability is important, so they may engage in self-handicapping behaviors. 115. b Modeling a growth mindset is the most effective action we can take to overcome students’ beliefs about intelligence or ability. 116. c Self-efficacy describes people’s beliefs about their capability of accomplishing specific tasks, such as Damien’s belief that he can solve tough problems. People with high selfefficacy persist in the face of challenges. 117. c Research examining self-efficacy indicates that success on similar tasks in the past have the most influence on people’s self-efficacy. 118. b Modeling the strategies and procedures that lead to success on specific tasks provides information about how the task is performed. Then, when individuals imitate the strategies and procedures and are successful, self-efficacy can increase. 119. b Dominic is modeling a solution to the problem, and modeling is a factor that can increase self-efficacy. 120. d Anxiety is a negative emotional state that can reduce self-efficacy. Mr. Rivas is trying to reduce his students’ anxiety by giving them more time. 121. b Mr. Krathwohl is trying to persuade Bessie that she is capable of solving the problem. Verbal persuasion is a factor that can increase self-efficacy. 122. d High-efficacy students persist longer on challenging problems than do low-efficacy students. 123. c Jana believes she is a good writer, so doing well on the term paper is important to her, because it will confirm that she is indeed a good writer. 124. c Utility value is the belief that a topic, action, or course of study will be useful for meeting future goals, including long-term goals. Mike’s long-term goal is to do well in his high school math courses, to doing well in math now has high utility value for him.

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125. d Cost is a factor that influences task value according to expectancy x value theory. The cost of taking French—her grades going down in her other subjects—is too great, so her motivation for French is going down. 126. b Andrew is explaining his B by essentially suggesting that he lucked out. Luck is outside the learner. 127. c Sage is attributing her low score to lack of ability, and she further concludes that she can’t do anything about it. (“I guess I’m just not cut out for chemistry.”) Ability is considered to be stable in attribution theory. 128. c Sage is suggesting that she’s “. . . not cut out for chemistry.” If she believes she simply can’t do it, she is in danger of giving up completely, which is the essence of learned helplessness. 129. d Kaylee believes she performed poorly, because she didn’t work hard enough. She is most likely to feel guilty about her performance. 130. d Because she believes she will improve with more effort, her achievement is most likely to increase. 131. a Learned helplessness is the belief that one is incapable of accomplishing tasks regardless of effort. Mary is demonstrating this belief. Essay Items 132. The response should state that the “x” in Expectancy x Value theory is important, because anything times zero is zero. So, for example, if expectancy for success is too low, motivation to learn will be low regardless of how much the individual values the task. Similarly, even if expectation for success is high, if the task is viewed as trivial or meaningless, motivation to learn will be low. 133. The response should include the following: - Students high in self-efficacy accept challenging tasks, persist when they don’t initially reach their goals, believe they will succeed, change strategies if the strategies aren’t working, and perform higher than low-efficacy students. - Low-efficacy students avoid challenging tasks, exert minimum effort, give up when goals aren’t reached, focus on feelings of incompetence, experience anxiety and depression, persist with unproductive strategies, and perform lower than high-efficacy students of equal ability. 134. A variety of answers will be acceptable for this question. The response should address one or more of the following: ability, effort, luck, and task difficulty. 135. The response should include the following: - (1) model a growth mindset, internal attributions for success, and control attributions for failure, such as making comments like, “The harder I work, the smarter I get,” and “Hard work and effective strategies are the key to learning. If I don’t succeed, I always figure that I could either work harder or work smarter.” - (2) Promote self-efficacy and success expectations with modeling and effective teaching, such as providing students with high-quality experiences and interacting with them in learning activities, combined with comments about the value of effort and perseverance. - (3) Emphasize the utility value of what we teach, such as commenting that being good writers will help us in both school and life after school.

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The Influence of Goals on Motivation to Learn Knowledge-Level Items 136. d 137. c 138. d 139. b 140. b 141. b 142. b 143. c 144. d Higher-Level Items 145. b Getting one of the two or three highest grades in the class demonstrates a desire to look competent and receive favorable judgments from others. This illustrates a performance goal. 146. a Social goals are goals to achieve particular social outcomes or interactions. This is illustrated in Rosabella’s efforts to help Georgia 147. c Wishing to be successful without exerting much effort is characteristic of workavoidance goals. 148. a Wishing to be successful without exerting much effort is characteristic of workavoidance goals. Marcus didn’t exert much effort, because he hoped the exam would be easy. 149. b Misty’s “I don’t know much about the Middle East, and there’s so much going on over there now,” suggests a mastery goal. (She also demonstrates a social responsibility goal with her comment about making a presentation Mr. Carver will like.) 150. d Antonio’s comment, “I don’t want the others to think that I’m not doing my part,” demonstrates a social-responsibility goal. 151. a Nile’s, “. . . our presentation will be the best in the class” illustrates a performanceapproach goal. 152. c Sylvia’s thinking, “They’ll think I’m the dumbest one in the group. I’m just going to stay quiet,” illustrates a performance-avoidance goal. 153. b Research indicates that the combination of mastery and social responsibility goals result in the highest achievement. 154. a Learners who adopt performance goals—either performance-approach or performanceavoidance—are more likely to have a fixed mindset than students who adopt mastery goals. 155. d As a general pattern, students’ performance orientation tends to increase as they move through school. 156. a This is an effective goal. It is specific, easily measured, near—as opposed to long range—and moderately challenging. 157. d This is an effective goal. It’s specific, near term, and measurable. 158. b Grit is the ability to develop and sustain passion and commitment to achieving longterm goals. Steve demonstrates grit by persevering in spite of early struggles, which is illustrated by his commitment to improving in Algebra II over the course of two grading periods. 493 Copyright © 2020, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

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Essay Items 159. The response should include the following: - (1) Mastery goals, such as a student’s wanting to understand American history. Mastery goals have a strong, positive effect on motivation - (2) Performance-approach goals, such as wanting to get the highest grade on the next test. Performance-approach goals can be motivating for high achievers, but it can also detract from motivation and lead to self-handicapping behaviors if goals become too challenging - (3) Performance-avoidance goals, such as avoiding any tasks in which they might fail or look dumb. A performance-avoidance orientation strongly detracts from motivation. - (4) Social goals, such as wanting to get to know other students better, or fulfilling a social responsibility. Social goals, such as simply wanting to socialize with others can detract from motivation, but social-responsibility goals enhance motivation. - (5) Work-avoidance goals, such as simply wanting to complete a task in the easiest way possible. Work-avoidance goals strongly detract from motivation. 160. The response should include the following: - (1) Promote a mastery and a social-responsibility orientation, such as emphasizing effort and improvement and our need to support each other, and de-emphasizing grades and competition among students. - (2) Model a growth mindset and provide students with deliberate practice, such as modeling the idea that “the harder I work, the smarter I get” and provide students with extensive practice in the abilities they are attempting to develop, such as problem solving or effective writing. - (3) Create effective assessments, such as using higher-level items on quizzes and tests, which provides students with evidence their competence is increasing when they succeed, and contributes to a mastery goal orientation. - (3) Encourage students to set and monitor goals. Effective goals are (a) specific, such as consuming only 1,200 calories a day, vs. losing weight; (b) near, such as the goal of burning 400 calories a day on an exercise machine rather than burning 5,000 calories a month on exercise machines; and (c) moderately challenging. Goals that are moderately challenging will depend on the individual. The Influence of Interest and Emotion on Motivation to Learn Knowledge-Level Items 161. c 162. d 163. a 164. c 165. b 166. d 167. b 168. d

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Higher-Level Items 169. c Karen is demonstrating an ongoing affinity or liking of a particular domain—the arts. This is characteristic of personal interest. 170. d Of the choices given, modeling our own interest in a topic has a greater chance of increasing students’ situational interest in a topic than any other. 171. c Personalizing a topic, as Kevin did is an effective way to increase situational interest in a topic. Further, the school is a real-world example, and Kevin also promote high levels of involvement with his students. 172. b As with Jennifer, Delaney primarily used explaining as the strategy for teaching her students the concepts. Further, she presented her examples outside the context of a written passage, so she didn’t capitalize on the use of real-world examples to create situational interest. She is least likely to create situational interest in her students. 173. d Research indicates that anxiety can increase performance on tasks for which we have high levels of expertise. The example says we know the content very well. 174. c This strategy is likely to result in increased understanding. And, as understanding increases, test anxiety is likely to decrease. 175. d Little evidence exists to suggest that this strategy will be very helpful for reducing anxiety. It may not be totally worthless, but it is unlikely to be of much help. Of the choices given, this is the least advisable. 176. a Young children tend to bask in praise, and they don’t become satiated with it, or question the sincerity of it, as older students are inclined to do. 177. a Young children tend to accept praise at face value, whether or not they’re high achievers. 178. c Research indicates that students tend to believe that teachers who praise them for easy answers perceive them as having low ability. Essay Items 179. The response should emphasize that the single most effective way to cope with anxiety is to learn the content so thoroughly that learners succeed in spite of their anxiety. A consistent body of research indicates that test-anxious students often don’t thoroughly understand the content in the first place. - Some research indicates that simply writing about feelings of anxiety a few minutes before taking an exam can improve test performance. 180. The response should include the following: - (1) Mindset: Learners experiencing positive emotions are more likely to adopt a growth mindset. - (2) Goal orientation: Positive emotions are associated with a mastery goal orientation. - (3) Self-regulation: Learners with positive emotions are more likely to self-regulate by preparing more strategically for tests, being more metacognitive during their study, and exerting more effort and persistence on homework. - (4) Information processing: Emotions are encoded together with information, and positive emotions facilitate positive memories. 181. The response should include the following: - Negative emotions, such as boredom, a sense of hopelessness, and shame—particularly if shame is associated with beliefs about lack of ability—are destructive for factors, such as persistence and self-regulation that increase motivation and achievement. 495 Copyright © 2020, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

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- On the other hand, some research suggests that slightly increased levels of anxiety and feelings of guilt—particularly if the guilt results from students’ believing that they didn’t try hard enough—can increase persistence on challenging tasks. 182. The response should include the following: - (1) Personalize content by linking topics to students’ lives, which can range from applications as simple as putting students’ names in problems and questions, to more complex examples, such as using the students’ own bodies as examples of skeletal structure. - (2) Focus on real-world applications, such as using the classroom as a setting for solving problems involving area and perimeter. - (3) Promote high levels of student involvement, such as calling on all students and using groupwork appropriately. - (4) Model our own interest in the topics we teach, such as making comments about how important and how interesting the topics we teach are.

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CHAPTER ELEVEN ANSWERS Creating a Mastery-Focused Environment Knowledge-Level Items 1. b 2. d 3. b 4. c 5. a 6. c 7. b Higher-Level Items 8. b A mastery-focused classroom emphasizes effort and improvement. This statement reflects that emphasis. 9. b A mastery-focused classroom focuses on increased understanding. This is what Ted is emphasizing with his students. 10. c Emphasis on “best grade of the week” and “best” work is a focus on performance compared to others. This reflects a performance-focused classroom. Essay Items 11. The response should include four of the following: - In a mastery-focused environment success is defined as mastery and improvement, compared to doing better than others in a performance-focused environment. - In a mastery-focused environment value is placed on effort and improvement, compared to high grades and demonstration of high ability in a performance-focused environment. - In a mastery-focused environment hard work and meeting challenges are reasons for satisfaction, compared to doing better than others in a performance-focused environment. - In a mastery-focused environment errors are viewed as a normal part of learning, compared to a basis for concern and anxiety in a performance-focused environment. - In a mastery-focused environment increased understanding is the reason for effort, compared to doing better than others in a performance-focused environment. - In a mastery-focused environment ability is viewed as alterable with effort, compared to being fixed in a performance-focused environment. - In a mastery-focused environment assessment is designed to measure progress toward goals, compared to determining grades and comparing students to one another in a performance-focused environment. 12. The response should include the following: - A positive teacher-student relationship is associated with increased student engagement, persistence, interest, enthusiasm, and increased self-regulation. - A positive teacher-student relationship dampens negative emotions, such as anger, frustration, anxiety, and boredom. - A positive teacher-student relationship is particularly important for children who are academically at-risk and/or who come from predominantly low-income and ethnic minority backgrounds. 497 Copyright © 2020, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

Chapter 11 Answers

13.

The response should include the following: - The components in the Model for Promoting Student Motivation include: 1) the teacher: personal qualities that increase motivation to learn; 2) learning climate, creating a motivating environment; and 3) instructional variables: developing interest in learning activities. - Variables within the first component include personal teaching efficacy, modeling and enthusiasm, expectations, and caring. Within the learning climate component, the variables are, order and safety, task comprehension, success, and challenge. Within the instruction component, the variables are: introductory focus, involvement, personalization, and feedback.

The Teacher: Personal Qualities That Increase Motivation to Learn Knowledge-Level Items 14. b 15. c 16. a 17. d 18. c 19. b 20. a 21. d 22. b 23. b 24. c 25. c 26. c Higher-Level Items 27. a Personal teaching efficacy is the belief that we, as teachers, can get all students to learn, regardless of their backgrounds or other impediments. This is what Damien’s comments communicate. 28. a Mr. Wilson is communicating his own interest in the topic he’s teaching. This is a powerful form of modeling. 29. b Jason is making a commitment to behave in ways he would like to have his students emulate. 30. a Paula is attempting to prepare herself to be energetic and active in her teaching. These are characteristics of enthusiasm. 31. b We all have 24 hours a day—no more and no less. Spending some of those personal 24 hours with students is the best indicator of caring that exists. 32. b Relatedness refers to the extent to which people feel connected to others and worthy of love and respect. Ms. Adams is attempting to create this feeling of connectedness with her efforts. 33. b We all have 24 hours a day—no more and no less. Spending some of those personal 24 hours with students is the best indicator of caring that exists.

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34.

35. 36.

37.

38.

d Self-determination theory suggests that the needs for competence, autonomy, and relatedness are innate. Daryl is attempting to help meet his students’ needs for relatedness with his efforts. b Research indicates that students perceive teachers who are willing to accept low-quality from their students as teachers who don’t care about them. c Calling on all students as equally as possible communicates that all students are expected to participate and learn. (Calling on students has an additional benefit; if students believe they’re likely to be called on, they’re much more likely to pay attention.) a Darlene is making minimal effort, and Mrs. Magyar’s enthusiastic praise for this effort communicates low expectations for Darlene. As a result, Darlene may believe that Mrs. Magyar thinks she is a low ability student, which is likely to further reduce her motivation a Teachers tend to call on perceived low achievers less often than perceived high achievers, because they don’t expect them to be able to answer.

Essay Items 39. The response should include the following; - (1) Personal teaching efficacy, believing you can get students to learn regardless of their background. - (2) Modeling and enthusiasm, such as communicating your own genuine interest in the topics you’re teaching. - (3) Caring, such as being willing to spend extra time with students - (4) Expectations, such as calling on all students, which communicates that they are all expected to participate and learn. 40. The response should include the following: - (1) Maintain high personal teaching efficacy, such as reminding yourself that you can get your students to learn, regardless of conditions. - (2) Maintain appropriately high expectations for all students, such as calling on all of them as equally as possible. - (3) Model responsibility, effort, and interest in the topics you’re teaching, such as commenting on how interesting the topic is. - (4) Demonstrate caring and commitment to your students’ learning, such as spending time outside of class with them. Learning Climate: Creating a Motivating Classroom Environment Knowledge-Level Items 41. a 42. a 43. d 44. b 45. d 46. c 47. b

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Higher-Level Items 48. d Rules that set the standard for acceptable behavior, together with consistent enforcement of the rules are essential for creating a safe and orderly environment. 49. c David is attempting to create an environment in which students feel comfortable and free from fear of interruption or derision. 50. a Being able to respond “acceptably” represents a form of success, and success is essential for student motivation. 51. b Kevin is prompting Karen to help her respond acceptably. Being able to give an acceptable response is a form of success. 52. b Tammy is presenting a challenge to her students by commenting, “. . .I’ve fixed up a couple problems that will make you think.” 53. d Barbara is attempting to meet the challenge of learning to roller blade. Her efforts also illustrate the motivating effects of challenge. 54. c When students succeed on challenging tasks, their perceptions of their competence increase. And, as students feel more competent, they also feel more autonomous. 55. a Task comprehension refers to students’ understanding of what they’re studying and why. If they understand why they’re studying a topic, the likelihood that they will value understanding of the topic increases. 56. c According to self-determination theory, the need for autonomy (together with the needs for competence and relatedness) is innate. 57. c Task comprehension refers to students’ understanding of what they’re studying and why. This is what Ron is communicating in this example. 58. c Kelly is communicating what she wants her students to learn and why they’re learning it. This is the essence of task comprehension. Essay Items 59. The response should include two of the following: - Order and safety promote equilibrium. - Order and safety promote a sense of autonomy. - Order and safety promote a sense of emotional security. We can promote order and safety with: - effective classroom rules and procedures, - sharing authority, - offering choice, and - mutual respect. 60. The response should state that task comprehension is the single variable best illustrated by his comments. He is explaining why geography is important and why they are studying it. 61. The response should state that: - meeting challenges contributes to learners’ perceptions of their own competence, and - the need for competence is best explained by self-determination theory, which suggests that competence is a basic need for all people. 62. The response should include the following; - (1) Create a safe and orderly environment, such as establishing and consistently enforcing classroom rules, and particularly rules that forbid students from mistreating each other. - (2) Promote student success with strategies, such as using open-ended questions and highquality examples to ensure that students will be able to respond successfully 500 Copyright © 2020, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

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- (3) Capitalize on challenge, such as asking questions that require more than simple recall and using quiz and test items that ask students to apply what they’ve learned to new contexts. - (4) Help students understand the why of studying certain topics, such as explaining and using examples that help students understand why they’re studying the topics you select. Instructional Variables: Developing Interest in Learning Activities Knowledge-Level Items 63. a 64. c 65. c 66. a 67. a 68. b 69. d 70. d Higher-Level Items 71. b Ron is attempting to attract the students’ attention and provide a framework for the lesson. This is the essence of introductory focus. 72. a Mrs. Rios is attempting to attract the students’ attention with her problem. This is an essential characteristic of introductory focus. 73. c “The Film” is likely to attract students’ attention, which is an essential component of introductory focus. 74. c Using the students’ names, the class, and the school is a way of helping students connect with the content. This is essence of personalization. 75. c Dan personalizes his lesson introduction by using information about a student in the class as his example. 76. b David is attempting to promote his students’ involvement by giving them their own writing boards. (Research indicates that students are more likely to attempt problems on a mini writing board than they are to try them on paper.) 77. a This is an open-ended question, for which a variety of answers are acceptable. It’s an easy question to ask, so the teacher can call on a variety of students in a short time. This makes promoting involvement easier to accomplish. 78. d Jim was trying to provide an example the students could connect with. This is the essence personalization. 79. d Self-determination theory suggests that people have an innate need for relatedness. Jim is attempting to capitalize on this need by presenting an example students can relate to. 80. d Jim is providing Karen with specific information about her response. This is the essence of specific feedback. 81. d Ron is providing Camila with specific information about her response. This is the essence of specific feedback. 82. d Constructivism is grounded in the premise that we construct knowledge in order to make sense of our experiences. Feedback helps us understand—makes sense of—why we perform the way we do. Because of this, understanding why we perform the way we do can increase learner motivation. 501 Copyright © 2020, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

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83.

84.

85.

86.

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88.

89.

90.

91.

92.

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Attribution theory suggests that people want to understand why they perform the way they do. Feedback helps them reach this understanding. Novel, surprising, and discrepant experiences arouse curiosity and increase intrinsic motivation. Seeing ice float in one liquid, but sink in another liquid that appears the same as the first liquid is surprising and discrepant. Being able to resolve discrepant events and experiences communicates to learners that their competence is increasing, and the need for competence is innate according to selfdetermination theory. Introductory focus is designed to attract student’s attention and provide a framework for the lesson. This is what Roxana did in her lesson. Roxana asked open-ended questions—questions for which a variety of answers are acceptable—in the lesson. These questions can be asked simply and quickly, so it’s easy to call on a number of students in a short amount of time. Open-ended questions are effective for promoting involvement. Sam’s emphasis on assessment combined with discussion of frequently missed items provides his students with a great deal of information about their learning progress. This is the essence of effective feedback. Sam’s comments communicate to his students that their competence is increasing, and the need for competence is innate according to self-determination theory. Feedback that emphasizes effort and improvement illustrate a mastery-focused classroom. This is the most effective feedback for all students, and particularly for low achievers. This is an open-ended question, which means virtually any answer is acceptable. It’s also a very easy question to ask, so several students can be called on quickly. This is an open-ended question, which means virtually any answer is acceptable. As a result, students—and particularly lower-achieving students—can answer successfully. Zabrina is attempting to personalize her lesson by using the class, the school principal, and one of the students in the class in her examples. This is an open-ended question, which means virtually any answer is acceptable. It’s also a very easy question to ask, so several students can be called on quickly. Of the choices given, it is the most effective question for promoting involvement. Presenting content so students can identify, connect or relate to is valuable for working with all students. It is particularly important for working with members of cultural minorities, who sometimes feel alienated from school.

Essay Items 96. The response should include three of the following: - Problems or questions, such as “We are meeting at a local hangout, but we don’t know how to tell a friend how to get there. What can we do?” as an introduction to a lesson on longitude and latitude. - Inductive sequences, such as providing students with a series of examples of similes and metaphors and having students look for patterns in the examples. - Concrete examples, such as bringing in a live hamster to introduce a lesson on living things with kindergarteners.

Chapter 11 Answers

97.

98.

- Objectives and rationales, such as noting that our goal for the next several days is to identify the similarities in the French Revolution, the Russian Revolution, and our revolution. The response should emphasize that personalization is a variable that is particularly important when working with members of cultural minorities, because these students sometimes feel that they aren’t welcome in school, so they feel a sense of alienation. Personalizing topics helps students feel welcome and helps overcome this alienation. The response should include the following: - (1) Attract students’ attention with provocative examples, questions, or activities, such as beginning learning activities by displaying an eye-catching example or asking an intriguing question - (2) Link topics to students’ lives, such as linking the history of the students’ neighborhood to the name of their school - (3) Maintain high levels of student involvement in learning activities, such as developing lessons with questioning and using group work where appropriate. - (4) Promote learning with assessment, such as frequently assessing student understanding and thoroughly discussing tests and quizzes after they’re returned.

Chapter 12 Answers

CHAPTER TWELVE ANSWERS Goals of Classroom Management Knowledge-Level Items 1. d 2. c 3. c 4. b 5. a 6. d 7. a 8. b 9. a 10. b 11. d 12. d 13. a 14. a 15. a 16. b 17. d 18. a 19. b Higher-Level Items 20. d Delay of gratification refers to an individual’s ability to forgo immediate rewards to gain more substantial ones later. This is what you’re doing by deciding to work over the weekend to get a week off in November. 21. c All concepts are most effectively taught using examples and non—examples. Joe presented an example [Andy] and a non-example [Jordan] to help his students understand the characteristics of self-regulation. 22. a When the students conclude that being conscientious is important if they want to learn, they are demonstrating that they understand the relationship between self-regulation and learning. 23. d In commenting, “You have to turn your homework in on time, so I have to return your tests on time,” Joe is modeling the behaviors he hopes to see in his students. 24. c A community of caring and trust is one in which students feel physically and emotionally safe. Rules requiring students to treat each other with courtesy and respect helps create this type of community. 25. c A positive classroom climate is one in which students feel physically and emotionally safe. Understanding that we don’t call each other nasty names helps create this type of climate. 26. b Systematically teaching self-regulation promotes positive classroom climates by helping students develop characteristics, such as emotional regulation, impulse control, and self-socialization, all of which contribute to students feeling physically and 504 Copyright © 2020, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

Chapter 12 Answers

27. 28.

emotionally safe. (Cognitive and affective components exist for both self-regulation and classroom climate, so choice d is not valid.) d Of the components of time, the link between academic learning time and learning is the strongest. d Because Karen’s students complete the “do now” exercise while she takes role and completes other routines, her instructional time will be greater than Sally’s. (The two teachers work in a middle school, so the school is likely to have class periods of a standard length, which means the teachers’ allocated time will be the same. Information about the extent to which the students are engaged in each teacher’s class doesn’t exist in the example.)

Essay Items 29. The response should include the following: - Self-motivation—taking responsibility for completing tasks and engaging in appropriate activities - Delay of gratification—forgoing immediate rewards to gain more substantial ones later - Impulse control—resisting urges to display inappropriate behaviors - Emotional regulation—expressing emotions in socially appropriate ways - Self-socialization—understanding society’s standards of behavior and acting in accordance with those standards. - Self-regulated learning—setting personal learning goals together with the thinking and strategies used to reach the goals. 30. The response should include four of the following: - (1) Emphasize the relationship between responsibility and learning, such as simply reminding students of the need to take responsibility, and providing examples, such as their taking responsibility for bringing their materials to class. - (2) Solicit student input into class procedures that include responsibility, such as simply asking them what they can do to be responsible. - (3) Teach self-regulation as a concept, such as providing examples of responsible and irresponsible behavior and illustrating the consequences of each. - (4) Modeling your own self-regulation, such as making a point of returning tests the day after they’re given, and pointing out to students what you’re doing. - (5) Provide a concrete mechanism to help students monitor their progress toward goals, such as a simple checklist that they can complete to help them monitor whether or not they bring all their needed materials to class each day. 31. The response should include the following: - In environments where the climate is positive, students are more motivated, their interactions with their teachers and peers are more positive, they are less likely to be disruptive, and they learn more. - Positive classroom climate is also linked to decreases in bullying and use of drugs. - Feeling physically and emotionally safe is a key feature of a positive classroom climate. 32. The response should include the following: - Allocated time—the amount of time a teacher or school designates for a content area or topic, such as elementary schools’ allocating an hour a day to math or middle and secondary schools’ having 55-minute periods

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- Instructional time—the amount of time left for teaching after routine management and administrative tasks are completed - Engaged time—the amount of time students are paying attention and involved in learning activities - Academic learning time—the amount of time students are successful while engaged in learning activities. - Increases in each of the types of time are correlated with increased learning, but the correlation is weakest for allocated time, becomes increasingly stronger, and is strongest for academic learning time. Planning for Classroom Management Knowledge-Level Items 33. a 34. a 35. a 36. a 37. b 38. d 39. d 40. a 41. b 42. b 43. d 44. c 45. c 46. c 47. a 48. d 49. d 50. d 51. a 52. d Higher-Level Items 53. b A strong link exists between orderly classrooms and effective instruction. It is virtually impossible to maintain an orderly classroom if instruction is not effective. 54. a Ken is likely to have classroom management problems. First, he is disorganized in his teaching, and rules and procedures are more nearly designed to prevent problems, than to stop problems once they occur. 55. d Juanita has “dead time” while she’s taking roll, handing out papers, and writing assignments on the board. This is time when students are simply sitting and waiting for instruction to begin, and this is a time when student misbehavior often occurs. Rafael has eliminated this dead time with his warmup activity, so he is less likely to have classroom management problems (The information in the example doesn’t allow us to make a definitive conclusion about each teacher’s effectiveness.)

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56.

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69. 70.

b a

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Research indicates that expert teachers plan for several factors, including having materials waiting and ready to use. Carola has her materials ready, whereas Judy has to gather her materials at the beginning of the class period. (We don’t have enough evidence about either teacher to make a definitive conclusion about which one is more effective. We can conclude that Carola has planned more carefully, but that’s all.) The fact that the class follows this same procedure each day indicates a classroom routine. Research indicates that expert teachers take the characteristics of their students and the characteristics of the physical environment into account when planning for classroom management. (“Be stern, don’t smile, and be tough for the first few months” is less a planning consideration than a process for operating with students. It is fairly common in the folklore of teaching, but it isn’t necessarily effective.) Young children need enough freedom to develop their initiative, but enough structure to maintain their equilibrium. Social relationships and social acceptable become increasingly important as students move into the middle school years. Neuroscience research indicates that middle school students’ physical development, needs, and desires are out of sync with factors such as impulse control and decision making. As a result, they need the firm hand of a caring teacher to help them through this period in their lives. Young children often break rules simply because they forget about them or don’t understand the rules. Explicit teaching, practicing, and reinforcing rules is essential at this age. Middle school students are widely known for capriciousness. (In fact, most middle school students negotiate this period in their development just fine.) Young children often break rules simply because they don’t remember that the rules exist. This tendency is consistent with their cognitive development. Students in the later elementary years are at a point in their schooling where developing a sense of industry and self-assurance is essential. Carefully planning for both classroom management and instruction is important for preventing classroom management problems. Because she has planned for both, she is the least likely of the four teachers to have classroom management problems. Joe’s lack of planning for either classroom management or instruction places him in a position where he is the most likely of the four teachers to have classroom management problems. No one best physical arrangement for classrooms exists, so experimenting to see what arrangement works best is most effective. Creating a routine in this way is an illustration of an effective classroom procedure. Procedures are guidelines for accomplishing recurring tasks, such as turning in papers and making transitions from one activity to another. This is what is being illustrated in this example. Explicitly teaching, modeling, and providing examples of rules is most important with young children. Middle school students are highly sensitive to rules they perceive as fair and sensible, and they are more likely than students at other ages to question specific rules.

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73.

74.

75. 76. 77.

b Of the four choices, this one is the best stated. It would need to be a bit more clearly specified to be optimally effective, such as specifying what the necessary materials are. However, it is stated positively, and the other three choices are stated negatively. c “Always come to class prepared” is a bit vague. If this rule was used, it would need to be carefully illustrated with examples, so students would know what “come to class prepared” means. a This is an effective rule. It’s clear and understandable. a By demonstrating how students were supposed to complete and deposit seatwork assignments, he is modeling a classroom procedure. c Ditan modeled both an example and a non-example of following the procedure correctly. This illustrates a cognitive approach to helping his students learn the procedure.

Essay Items 78.

79.

80.

The response should include the following: - Developmental differences in students influence teachers’ planning for effective management. Young children, for example, need very concrete descriptions, explanations, and practice with rules and procedures, whereas clear and sensible rationales are more important for older students. - Elementary teachers will likely develop physical environments where, for example, children have a carpeted area to sit on where teachers’ conduct whole group activities, whereas teachers of older students are more likely to seat their students in traditional rows. - Teachers should plan the beginning of the year with the idea that it will set the tone for the rest of the time the students are together. Being well organized, being clear about expectations, and using highly structured activities are valuable at the beginning of the year. The response should include the following: - To be effective, rules and procedures must make sense to students. This represents the primary similarity in creating rules and procedures at both the elementary level and at the middle and secondary levels. - At the middle and secondary levels, consistency in enforcement of rules becomes even more important, because older students are more sensitive than their younger counterparts about perceptions of fairness and teachers having favorites or “pets.” (Self-determination theory also becomes an important theoretical foundation at the middle and secondary levels, because autonomy and perceptions of competence become more important to students as they get older, so strategies, such as soliciting student input into rules can be effective with older students.) The response should include four of the following: - (1) Create a small number of positively stated rules, such as “Raise your hand for permission to speak” rather than “No talking without permission.” - (2) Solicit student input in the rule setting process, such as emphasizing that learning is the goal of your class asking the students what rules might help you reach that goal. - (3) Emphasize rationales for rules, such as explaining why getting permission before speaking is important, because it gives everyone a chance to participate.

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- (4) Use concrete examples to illustrate rules and procedures, such as demonstrating how to turn papers in. - (5) Monitor and practice rules until they become automatic, such as periodically reviewing rules and procedures 81. 82.

83.

84. 85. 86. 87.

The response should note that the rules are stated negatively. Stating rules positively is preferable. The response should state the following: - “I decided to come prepared. I brought them with me,” indicates that the students were given no input into the rules. While research doesn’t indicate that giving students input is essential for creating a productive learning environment, doing so gives them a feeling of ownership in the rules. The response should note that the statement, “Be prepared and ready when class begins,” is very general. If a rule such as this is going to be used, it needs to be illustrated with concrete examples that illustrate what “be prepared and ready” means. The response should note that the tendency to snicker or otherwise react to other students’ answers is more characteristic of junior high students than it is of fourth graders. This rule is clear and well stated. The response should note that her comment indicates that she applied the suggestion: Use concrete examples to illustrate rules and procedures. This indicates that she provides rationales for her rules.

Communicating with Parents Knowledge-Level Items 88. a 89. c 90. a Higher-Level Items 91. a Ryan prepares an informative letter, sends home packets of work to be signed, and calls parents. This is exemplary communication. 92. c Denise communicates with parents the least well of the four teachers. Her communication is limited to a handout at open house. Essay Items 93. The response should specify four of the following benefits of home-school communication which include: - higher long-term achievement - greater willingness to do homework - more positive attitudes and behaviors, - better attendance and graduation rates, - higher levels of responsibility and self-regulation, and - increased enrollment in postsecondary education. - Each of these benefits result from parents’ taking an active part in their child’s education. 94. The response should include three of the following:

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- Traditional forms of communication, such as open houses, report cards, and interim progress reports - Introductory letters/emails home that describe class procedures and expectations and express optimism for the year. - Sending packets of students’ work home to parents, which gives parents information about their children’s learning progress - Calling or email parents to maintain communication. - Emailing descriptions of topics that will be covered and learning goals for students. Intervening When Misbehavior Occurs Knowledge-Level Items 95. a 96. c 97. a 98. a 99. a 100. b 101. c 102. d 103. d 104. d 105. d 106. a 107. d 108. a Higher-Level Items 109. c Arguing with students in unproductive and detracts from the emotional climate of the classroom. Students who argue with teachers are often simply playing a game with them and are arguing because they are getting away with it. 110. a Intervening in this way provides a mechanism for Bud to air his concerns, while at the same time avoids further disruption of the discussion. [Further, it is likely that Bud won’t make the effort to come in after school.] 111. c Withitness involves teachers’ awareness of what is going on in their classrooms all the time. This is what is being illustrated in the description. 112. d Withitness involves teachers’ awareness of what is going on in their classrooms all the time. This is what is being illustrated in the description. 113. d Having him return to where he started and then walk is a logical consequence. It also inconveniences him, i.e., if he had simply walked in the first place, he wouldn’t have to go back. 114. d Withitness involves teachers knowing what is going on in their classrooms. Noticing that Jeremy is inattentive and that Jacinta is whispering illustrates this characteristic.

Chapter 12 Answers

115. a

116. b

117. d

118. a 119. b 120. b

121. b

122. a

123. c

124. c

125. d

126. d 127. b

Indirect cues are teacher actions that stop misbehavior without directly addressing the behavior. This is what you’re doing by moving near Jacinta. (Calling on Jeremy is also an indirect cue.) By reminding Steve that his behavior was disruptive, Mrs. King communicated her concerns clearly, insisted that misbehavior be corrected, and avoided being manipulated by Steve’s “I was running late.” (The consequence for Steve’s behavior was a call to his mother, which isn’t technically related to the behavior, and we see no evidence of verbal and nonverbal behavior in the example.) Kristi orients her body directly toward Monica as she takes Monica’s cell phone and tells her that she can pick it up after class. This signals congruent verbal and nonverbal communication. Kristi is demonstrating that she knows what is going on in her classroom, and she responds appropriately to the misbehavior in each case. A desist is a teacher verbal or nonverbal communication used to stop a misbehavior. This is what Kristi’s comment to Charlie was intended to do. Jeff admonishing Erin, who wasn’t the original perpetrator of the incident, communicated that he didn’t know what was going on in his classroom, i.e., he lacked withitness. Jesse actively listened to Kathryn’s complaints and then offered some suggestions for more effectively preparing for tests in the future. This action provides support for Kathryn but also helps her learn that she is responsible and accountable for being prepared. This is an important life lesson A student briefly whispering and then turning back to work is unlikely to be disruptive. In this case, ignoring the misbehavior is the move effective action. [If a number of students are whispering, the situation is different. In that case, you may need a more direct form of intervention. A student briefly whispering and then turning back to work is unlikely to be disruptive. In this case, ignoring the misbehavior is the move effective action. [If a number of students are whispering, the situation is different. In that case, you may need a more direct form of intervention. Logical consequences are outcomes conceptually related to misbehavior. You-spit-onthe-door, you-wash-it makes sense. This is what logical consequences are designed to do. A desist is a teacher verbal or nonverbal communication that stops a misbehavior. In this case, saying, “John, we keep our hands to ourselves in this class” stop his poking of Karen, so it served as a desist. Follow-through means that we ensure compliance with a rule or directive. You are following through when you see them stop texting and put their phones away. Reacting immediately to the misbehavior communicates that you are “withit” and referring John to the rule provides a rationale for your intervention. (This isn’t a behavior that you should ignore, so you need to move a bit farther down the intervention continuum.

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Essay Items 128. The response should include the following: - Emotional factors strongly influence the ability to create a positive classroom climate. - The emotional tone of interventions influences both the likelihood of students complying with them and their attitudes toward the teacher and the class. - Loud public reprimands, criticism, and sarcasm reduce students’ sense of safety, create resentment, and lead to students finding creative ways to be disruptive without getting caught. 129. The response should include the following: - Cognitive interventions are grounded in the idea that interventions, just as with rules and procedures, should make sense to students. Cognitive interventions include the following: - (1) Withitness, a teacher’s awareness of what is going on in all parts of the classroom at all times, and communicating this awareness to students. If teachers “catch the right one,” for example, the intervention makes sense to students. - (2) Consistency. If one student is reprimanded for breaking a rule and another is not, for example, students are unable to make sense of the inconsistency. - (3) Follow-through, such as ensuring that students comply with directives. If students fail to comply, and teachers don’t fully respond, the directive won’t make sense to the students. - (4) Congruence between verbal and nonverbal behavior. For interventions to make sense to students, verbal and nonverbal behaviors must be congruent. If they are not congruent, students will view the nonverbal behavior as more credible. - (5) Constructive assertiveness, such as communicating your concerns clearly, insisting that misbehavior be corrected, and resisting being coerced or manipulated, while simultaneously avoiding attacking, demeaning, or personally criticizing students in any interactions. - (6) Logical consequences. Logical consequences are outcomes that are conceptually related to misbehavior; they help learners make sense of an intervention by creating a link between their actions and the consequences that follow. 130. The response should include the following: - (1) Maintain the flow of instruction while intervening in cases of misbehavior, such as asking a question as you simultaneously move to be near a student who is whispering and not paying attention. - (2) Protect students’ emotional safety when intervening, such as keeping interventions brief, avoiding power struggles with students, and maintaining an assertive but dispassionate manner. - (3) Use cognitive interventions when possible; revert to behavioral interventions when necessary, such as reminding a student who breaks a rule that the class agreed that the rule makes sense and is fair, attempting to maintain withitness, using I-messages, and keeping verbal and nonverbal behavior congruent. - (4) Move along the intervention continuum only as far as necessary, such as using a simple desist if it will stop the misbehavior, rather than applying a consequence. Serious Management Problems: Defiance and Aggression Knowledge-Level Items 131. b 512 Copyright © 2020, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

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132. a 133. c Higher-Level Items 134. d In the case of a defiant student, your best course of action is to call school security, which most schools now have. If your school doesn’t have a security force, call an administrator. You are not expected to deal with this level of defiance in your students. 135. a You are indeed required by law to intervene. Failure to do so can result in a lawsuit. 136. b As a first response, this strategy may work. And, it only takes an instant of time. If it doesn’t work, then you can send for help. 137. b As teachers, we should always intervene in cases of bullying. Bullying should never be ignored. Essay Items 138. The response should include the following: - Remain calm and avoid becoming angry. - Second, firmly, but not threateningly, tell the student to step outside so you can talk to him or her. - Finally, if the student refuses to step outside, immediately send another student for help, or call security if your school has a process for doing so. 139. The response should state that you are required by law to intervene in the case of a fight or one student behaving aggressively toward another. Failure to do so is a form of negligence. 140. - First, you must stop the incident if possible. Yelling, slamming a chair on the floor, or some other action that may startle the students and cause them to stop are all appropriate. - Second, protect the victim, and third get help as quickly as possible by sending an uninvolved student to the main office for help. 141. The response should address the following: - Long-term actions in the case of violence and aggression include first communicating to the students that their actions are unacceptable, and then attempting to teach students personal and social competencies, such as self-control, perspective taking, and constructive assertiveness, which can be learning to make and defend an argument. - Other actions can include more formal interventions, such as creating anti-bullying posters and presentations, and class discussions directly addressing bullying, where the characteristics of bullies are discussed. It becomes tougher to bully when potential bullies realize that they’re perceived negatively.

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CHAPTER THIRTEEN ANSWERS Planning for Instruction: Backward Design Knowledge-Level Items 1. d 2. c 3. b 4. c 5. b 6. a 7. b 8. c 9. d 10. c 11. c 12. b 13. a 14. c 15. c 16. a 17. b 18. b 19. c 20. d 21. a 22. c 23. d Higher-Level Items 24. d “Cognitive” refers to thinking, and your efforts will involve attempts to have students make sense of what they’re learning. At one time in the history of education, behaviorism would have been the dominant theory on which instruction is based, but this changed more than 50 years ago. 25. b “You want your students to understand that mammals are warm, have hair, and nurse their young,” specifies your learning objective. This is the first step when planning using backward design. 26. b In deciding to give your students a series of pictures such as a crab, a mouse, a spider, a bird, a dog, and a frog, and put an X by the ones that are mammals, you are making decisions about evidence you will use to determine the extent to which your learning objectives have been met. This is the second step when using backward design as a guide for planning. 27. c Making decisions about how what you will do to help your students reach your learning objectives is the third step in planning when using backward design as a guide.

Chapter 13 Answers

28.

29.

30.

31.

32.

33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39.

40.

41.

d Learning activities are all the experiences we provide and actions we take to help our students reach our learning objectives. You are making decisions about your learning activity when planning to bring in the pet hamster, pictures, and video clip b Implementing instruction involves conducting the learning activities that help your students reach your learning objectives. This is what you’re doing to help your first graders understand the concept mammal. c In giving your students the paper with pictures and having them put an X by the ones that are mammals you are gathering evidence to determine the extent to which your learning objective has been met. This is the essence of assessment. b A learning objective specifies what students should know or be able to do with respect to a topic. You have decided that they should be able to identify the number of 10s and 1s in a series of numbers. d The extent to which the students can identify the number of 10s and 1s in each of the numbers is an indication of the extent to which they’ve reached your learning objective. This is planning for assessment. c Application involves students using what they know to solve an original problem. Assuming your students haven’t already seen this problem, this is what they’re doing. b The ability to identify examples of concepts is classified as a comprehension level task. b Writing is an ability that employs procedural knowledge, and the ability to use this knowledge in their writing is a form of application d A rule involves conceptual knowledge, and stating it in their own words suggests that they understand it. d Developing the inclination to look for bias in editorials involves metacognitive knowledge, and the ability to identify the bias indicates that they understand it. a Times tables are math facts and “know” implies remember. c A learning activity includes all the actions teachers take to help students reach their objectives. Learning activities can range from a simple teacher lecture to individualized instruction, and everything in between. As part of your learning activity, you displayed the paragraph and guided your students to an understanding of the rules for using apostrophes. b A task analysis involves breaking content into component parts and sequencing the parts. This is what you’re doing by planning to first define figurative language, then provide your students with examples of metaphors and similes, and then have your students compare the characteristics of each. b A task analysis involves breaking content into component parts and sequencing the parts. This is what Brenda is doing by planning her lesson the way she did.

Essay Items 42.

The response should state that Stacy did not use backward design as a basis for her planning. The following provides evidence for this conclusion: - Stacy identified a topic—living things—but she didn’t specify what she wanted her students to know about the topic, so she didn’t have a clear learning objective. - Stacy didn’t make any decisions about how she would determine whether or not her students had reached a learning objective, that is, acceptable evidence.

Chapter 13 Answers

43.

44.

45.

- Stacy’s approach would be more nearly classified as activity focused, which is common in schools. The response should include the following: - Instructional alignment is the match between learning objectives, learning activities, and assessments. - For example, one of Scott’s learning objectives was for his students to understand Bernoulli’s principle, he provided examples that illustrated the principle, and his assessment measured the extent to which they understood the principle. - Instructional alignment is important for determining what is learned. For instance, if instruction isn’t aligned and poor test results come back, we can’t tell if (a) students were taught what they needed to know, but they didn’t learn it, or (b) students weren’t taught what they needed to know. Either way, we don’t have information about how to intervene. The response should state that Ben’s instruction was aligned. His learning activity was consistent with his objective, and his assessment was consistent with both his objective and his learning activity. The response should include the following: - Planning in a standards-based environment is similar to planning in general, with an additional step. - Standards are essentially statements of learning objectives, but they are often worded in such a way that teachers must first interpret the meaning of the standard. - After interpreting its meaning, they state learning objectives based on their interpretation, and then they plan learning activities and assessments as they would under typical planning conditions.

Implementing Instruction Knowledge-Level Items 46. d 47. a 48. c 49. d 50. b 51. b 52. d 53. c 54. d 55. a 56. c 57. d 58. a 59. d 60. b 61. a 62. b 63. b 64. b

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Higher-Level Items 65. c Professional knowledge and dedication is described as one of the prerequisites of effective teachers. Understanding the way people learn and develop is a form of professional knowledge. Marta understanding that praise for genuine accomplishment can increase learner motivation is an example of professional knowledge. (Selfdetermination theory helps us understand why.) 66. b Questioning is one of the most important essential teaching skills. 67. a Statements such as “I know I can help him learn. They can all learn,” indicate that she believes she is capable of getting all her students to learn. This illustrates high personal teaching efficacy. 68. c Students conclusions about teachers’ interest in, and enthusiasm for, their teaching is based on their modeling. 69. a Calling on students indicates that we expect them to be involved and to answer correctly (We prompt them in cases where they’re unable to answer correctly). 70. c Spending personal time with students is the best indicator of caring that exists. 71. d Research indicates that teachers tend to call on students they perceive as high achievers. This is understandable (even though not desirable). They expect high achievers to be able to answer. 72. a One aspect of organization involves ensuring that we have all our materials ready for our learning activities. 73. a Clear and precise language is part of effective communication. The second statement is clear, precise, and specific. 74. a Transition signals are verbal communications indicating that one idea or topic is ending and another is beginning. This is what your instructor is doing. 75. c Repeating information for students is a form of emphasis. 76. a Repeating information is a form of emphasis. 77. a Focus is the mechanism teachers use to attract and maintain students’ attention during learning activities. Displays, such as on a document camera, or even on the board are intended to serve this purpose. 78. b Focus is the mechanism teachers use to attract and maintain students’ attention during learning activities. The use of hands-on materials, such as Robin’s colored rods, is an effective form of focus. 79. d The model answer is designed to attract and maintain the students’ attention as they are involved in the lesson on refining their communication skills. 80. c Provides corrective information is the most important characteristic of effective feedback. Of the choices given, this one provides the most information. 81. a Providing corrective information is the most important characteristic of effective feedback. Of the choices given, this one provides Mary with the most feedback. 82. b Equitable distribution is the process of calling on all students as equally as possible. Suzy reacted to the fact that Mr. Barber called on the other students, but didn’t call on her. 83. d The information in the example states that most of the students who answer questions are the higher achievers. This is typical in classrooms. Equitable distribution is designed to address this issue. It involves calling on all students in classes as equally as possible, whether or not they have their hands up.

Chapter 13 Answers

84.

85.

86.

87.

Higher-order questions are challenging for students, so prompting is often necessary. The questions are very effective however, because students feel a sense of efficacy when they can answer, and teachers feel a sense of satisfaction in helping students answer questions, such as these. a This question pulls Mary back into the lesson without any form of admonishment. Mary knows she wasn’t paying attention, and she knows that Sofia is also aware of it. This action both increases Mary’s attention and helps promote a positive classroom climate. b Asking students questions, such as “why,” “how,” “what if,” and “how do you know” requires them to clarify and link their knowledge of key ideas. The value of these questions is confirmed by the National Council on Teacher Quality which describes posing probing questions as one of the six essential teaching strategies that all new teachers should know. (We are being asked to assess the question in the item. Perhaps Carol could have hesitated longer before calling on Tony, but that doesn’t detract from the quality of the question, and to whom she directs the question isn’t directly relevant to the quality of the question itself.) d Closure is a summary that occurs at the end of lessons. It pulls different aspects of topics together and—hopefully—helps them construct meaningful schemas.

Essay Items 88. The response should include the following: - Verbal ability. Effective teachers are articulate and use language succinctly and accurately. - Knowledge of content. They understand the content they’re teaching, such as math, science, history, or literature. - Professional knowledge and dedication. Effective teachers understand the way people learn and develop, and are dedicated to students and teaching as a profession. 89. The response should include the following: - High personal teaching efficacy—believing that they’re capable of getting all students to learn, regardless of prior knowledge, ability, or personal background - Modeling and enthusiasm—demonstrating their own interest in the topics they’re teaching, and communicating a desire for knowledge and understanding - High expectations—maintaining high academic standards and treating students with respect and requiring the same in return - Caring—investment in protection and development of young people 90. The response should include the following: - Organization, which increases learning by maximizing the time available for instruction - Review, which helps students activate their prior knowledge and construct meaningful schemas - Focus, which increases learning by attracting and maintaining student attention - Questioning, which increases learning by putting students in cognitively active roles, and helps them acquire deep understanding of the topics they’re studying - Feedback, which increases learning by providing students with information about their learning progress and helping them reconstruct their knowledge when necessary - Closure and application which summarizes a lesson, contributes to schema construction and meaningful encoding, and promotes transfer 518 Copyright © 2020, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

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- Communication, which increases learning by making information coherent and sensible 91. The response should include the following: - Questioning frequency, which increases learning by putting students in cognitively active roles - Equitable distribution, which increases learning by requiring all students to be attentive and involved in the lesson - Prompting, which increases learning by helping students be successful on challenging tasks - Probing, which increases learning by requiring student to explain or provide evidence for their answers and leads to deep understanding of the topics they’re studying - Wait-time, which increases learning by giving students time to think about their answers, which results in better answers and deeper understanding 92. The response should include the following: - Effective feedback is immediate. - It is specific. - It provides corrective information for the learner. - It has a positive emotional tone. - Providing corrective information is the most important characteristic for increasing learner understanding, because it is this information learners use to revise their understanding. Without corrective information, revising understanding is impossible.. Models of Instruction Knowledge-Level Items 93. a 94. d 95. d 96. c 97. c 98. b 99. a 100. b 101. b 102. c 103. a 104. b 105. d 106. c 107. b Higher-Level Items 108. c Direct instruction is a powerful and effective model for helping students acquire welldefined knowledge and skills needed for later learning. Subject-verb agreement is well defined, and it is essential for effective writing. 109. c Solving simple equations is a well-defined topic, and being able to solve these equations is essential for more advanced topics in math. It is well suited for direct instruction 519 Copyright © 2020, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

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110. b The description in the example suggests that Gwen is using direct instruction. After helping students develop their understanding with her explanation and modeling, guided practice is the next phase involved when using the model. 111. d Differentiating instruction is the process of adapting learning experiences to meet the needs of students who vary in background knowledge, skills, needs, and motivations. Andrea, Adam, Nora, and Isaac lack some of the background knowledge and skills of their classmates, so Gwen provided them with extra instructional support. Additional support for small groups is one of the most applicable and practical forms of differentiation. 112. d Homework should always be related to what has been covered in the learning activity. Also, scoring the homework and providing feedback increases the likelihood that students will take it seriously and try to learn from it. 113. c Guided discovery is a model that involves teachers scaffolding students’ constructions of concepts and the relationships among them. This is what Melinda is doing with the concept of velocity. 114. b Lecture-discussion involves teacher presentations followed by class discussions. This model would be effective for helping you reach your goal. 115. d Providing specific instruction on social cooperation is important for the smooth functioning of groups. Further, group skills are essential in today’s world of work. 116. c Jigsaw II is a cooperative learning strategy that involves students becoming “experts” on a particular aspect of a topic and then teaching that aspect to classmates. This is what you’re planning to do with your unit on mammals. 117. c Flipped instruction involves students studying new content online, and then working of applications during regularly scheduled class time. This is what Steve is doing with his lesson on revolutions. 118. b STAD is a cooperative learning strategy that involves students in team study after they’ve had lessons on a specific topic. This is what Jocelyn is doing with her students. Essay Items 119. The response should address the following: - Any objective that involves the development of a procedural skill, such as learning to add two-digit numbers, would be appropriate for the direct instruction model. - Any objective that involves concept learning, such as students’ understanding figurative language, would be appropriate for the guided discovery model. - Wanting students to understand any organized body of knowledge, such as students’ understanding the relationships between geography and climate in different parts of a country, would be appropriate for the lecture-discussion model. - Wanting students to learn to work together would be appropriate for cooperative learning models, and these models can be effectively used with a variety of content goals. 120. The response should emphasize that developing understanding, as the label implies, is the most important phase of the direct instruction model. It sets the tone for both guided and independent practice. If students don’t understand the skill, practice is ineffective. If the developing understanding phase is effective, practice then helps consolidate the skills and promote deep understanding and automaticity.

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121. The response should include the following: - Lectures put learners in cognitively passive roles, and cognitive activity is essential for learning. - Lectures can easily overload learners’ working memories. - Lectures don’t provide any provision for checking students’ perceptions. - Lectures often fail to effectively maintain student attention, and if students aren’t paying attention, they can’t learn. - The discussion component of lecture discussion directly addresses each of the weaknesses—it puts students in cognitively active roles and avoids overloading their working memories, because the discussion can’t proceed any faster than the students can process the information; students’ responses during the discussion allow teachers to check their perceptions, and they are likely to pay attention if they are called on to participate in the discussion 122. The response should state that guided discovery is effective because it involves a great deal of teacher questioning, which puts students in cognitively active roles, and cognitive activity is essential for learning. 123. The response should include the following: - High status students—typically higher achievers—tend to dominate discussions and lower status students tend to emotionally withdraw, resulting in inequitable interaction in the groups, which detracts from the social-emotional development considered an important outcome of working in cooperative groups. - Students with higher ability often feel they are being exploited by slackers and, in fact, frequently prefer to work alone. - The only way to prevent these problems is to carefully monitor cooperative groups hold students individually accountable for their understanding. Unsupervised groupwork is often largely a waste of instructional time. 124. The response should include the following: - The brain instinctively searches for patterns, and it is constantly forming links and connections. The essential teaching skills capitalize on this instinctive characteristic of the brain. - Review helps students connect new knowledge to what they already know, and the new and prior ideas are integrated, neural pathways that consolidate learning become more firmly established. - Our senses are constantly inundated with huge numbers of stimuli, but learning requires that we connect only to the stimuli relevant to the knowledge or skills we’re trying to acquire, so focus is also consistent with brain functioning. - Questioning helps students link and connect the separate items of information, and realizing that forming connections is our goal helps guide the kinds of questions we ask. - Feedback provides information that lets our brains know whether or not the neural connections they’re making are valid. - Closure and application help form additional links in the content, which further reinforce neural connections that support what our brains do instinctively.

Chapter 13 Answers

Assessment and Learning: Using Assessment as a Learning Tool Knowledge-Level Items 125. d 126. d 127. c 128. b Higher-Level Items 129. a Ron’s assessment was effective. His instruction was aligned. His objective [standard] was for students to explain the function of verbals, his learning activity focused on the objective, and his assessment required his students to explain the function of verbals. This is the essence of effective assessment. 130. c Her seatwork assignment assessed the extent to which her students could correctly identify examples of subject-verb agreement. However, she provided only one verbal example. She used a form of direct instruction, but she provided the students with no examples that they could use as guided practice, and then she had the students identify examples as an assignment. So, in essence, her instruction was out of alignment. (She could have easily rectified the problem by having her students respond to the examples as part of her learning activity, and then given them another set of examples as a homework assignment, which would serve as a form of assessment.) Essay Item 131. The response should state the following: - First, assessment must be aligned with learning objectives, so the teacher can determine the extent to which learners are learning what she wants them to learn. - Second, effective assessments give teachers information about students’ thinking. Without this information, teachers are unable to identify students’ misconceptions and incomplete understanding.

Chapter 14 Answers

CHAPTER FOURTEEN ANSWERS Assessment for Student Learning Knowledge-Level Items 1. a 2. d 3. d 4. a 5. b 6. c 7. b 8. d 9. b 10. b 11. d 12. d 13. a 14. c 15. b 16. c 17. d Higher-Level Items 18. a. Quizzes, given frequently, combined with feedback, are arguably the most powerful learning tool that teacher possess. (Frequent quizzes actually reduce test anxiety, because the consequences for doing poorly aren’t as great. And, evidence doesn’t support the contention that students study harder if assessments are less frequent.) 19. d Students tend to study according to the way the assessment system is designed, that is, the more they’re assessed, the more they study. 20. b Formative assessments provide information that is used to make decisions about the next set of steps in instruction. Aiden is using his quizzes as a basis for modifying his instruction, so he is using them as formative assessments. 21. c Summative assessment is the process of gathering information used to make conclusions about the level of learner achievement. Summative assessments evaluate how much learning has occurred, and they’re typically reflected in a grade and communicated with others using a mechanism such as a report card. Used this way, Aiden’s quizzes are summative assessments. 22. b Validity involves making accurate inferences from assessment information. Aiden is getting more information about his students’ learning than is Sophia, so he is likely to be able to make more accurate inferences from his assessment information. (With respect to promoting learning, time spent on assessment and feedback is time very well spent. Further, three tests will likely produce more, not less, anxiety than will seven quizzes.)

Chapter 14 Answers

23.

24.

25.

26.

27.

28.

A table of specifications is a matrix that helps us organize our learning objectives by topic and cognitive level and helps us link our instruction and assessment to objectives and standards. Preparing a table of specifications is one way to ensure that learning objectives and assessments are aligned. Sophia’s chart serves this purpose. a The primary purpose of a table of specifications is to ensure that assessments are aligned with learning objectives. (Putting higher-level items on tests is valuable if the items are aligned with objectives. However, a system is out of alignment if instruction has focused primarily on knowledge level items and assessments include higher-level items. If higher-level assessment items are used, learning objectives and assessments must also be higher level.) a If assessments aren’t consistent with learning objectives it’s impossible to make accurate inferences about assessment information and using the information appropriately. d It is very difficult to make accurate inferences about this kind of informal assessment information. Further, she will get inconsistent information from her student. As a result her assessments are both invalid and unreliable. d Julian is using informal assessment as his primary basis for assigning grades—“I listen carefully to the way they answer questions in class.” While his intentions are positive, his strategy is ineffective, because he isn’t getting the same kind of information from all his students, so making accurate inferences about his students is difficult. This reduces the validity of his assessment. Further, he isn’t getting consistent information, so his assessment is unreliable. (His writing papers are more nearly valid measures, but overall he still doesn’t have a clear picture of his students’ understanding.) a Ann constructed a set of criteria for scoring her students’ essays, so her assessment is likely to be more reliable than Joes. And, if Joes’ assessments are unreliable, they cannot be valid.

Essay Items 29. The response should include the following - We study the hardest when we know we’re being held accountable for our understanding. - The harder we study, the more we learn. - The more we learn, the more competent we feel, and, according to self-determination theory, as our perceptions of competence increase, so does our motivation to learn. 30. The response should include the following: - This assessment lacks validity because children are likely to know the letters in their own names, and identifying the letters in their own names doesn’t allow Jenna to make accurate inferences about the extent to which her students can identify letters that don’t appear in their own names. - The assessment would likely be quite reliable, since Jenna can easily and consistently determine whether or not the children can identify the letters in their names. 31. The response should state that the scale is neither reliable nor valid. It is unreliable, since it gives inconsistent measurements, and even though the average is an accurate 130, the measurements cannot be valid, since they’re unreliable.

Chapter 14 Answers

Selected-Response Items Knowledge-Level Items 32. b 33. a 34. c 35. d 36. c 37. c 38. d 39. b 40. c Higher-Level Items 41. d Mel is correct in that he asserts that multiple-choice items are typically more reliable than essay items. Tina is incorrect in suggestion that multiple-choice items only assess lower level learning. (As further evidence, standardized tests, such at the SAT and ACT are primarily multiple-choice in format, and they measure higher-level learning.) 42. a Because multiple-choice tests produce consistent results, they are highly reliable, and the cues won’t impact the items’ consistency. However, because some of the items contain cues, the test isn’t measuring what it is supposed to measure, so its validity will be compromised. 43. b “Present one clear problem or question in the stem” is one of the guidelines for preparing multiple-choice items. “Formative tests” is all that appears in the stem of this item. 44. c This statement is true. The first part of the item is false, and the section part is true. 45. a Because the item is objective and gives consistent results, it is reliable. However, because of the way it’s written, it’s impossible to make accurate inferences from the assessment information, so it isn’t valid. Essay Items 46. The response should include the following: - First, the word digest is in the correct answer, which is closely related to the word digestive in the stem. - Second, the correct answer is placed at choice c (which isn’t a problem if choice c is not overused). - Third, the correct answer is significantly longer than the distracters. An example of a more effective item might be: Which of the following is a function of the digestive system? a. To turn the food we eat into fuel for our cells b. To circulate our blood throughout our bodies c. To protect our vital body organs from harm d. To transfer nerve impulses from our brains to other parts of our bodies

Chapter 14 Answers

47.

48.

49.

50.

The response should include the following: - First, negative wording is used in the stem without being emphasized. - Second, the correct answer is choice c (which isn’t a problem unless it’s overused) -,Third, the correct answer is shorter than the others. An example of a more effective item might be: Which of the following is not a characteristic of culture? a. The music the people in the country listen to b. The games in which people in the country watch c. The type of things people in the country think are important d. The number of people there are in the country The response should include the following: - First, choice a is grammatically inconsistent with the stem. - Second, the stem and the correct choice both contain the word collapse, which provides a clue to test-wise students. - Third, choice d contains the absolute term all, which suggests that it isn’t the correct choice. - Fourth, the correct choice is shorter than the distracters. An example of a more effective item might be: Communism collapsed in Eastern Europe primarily as a result of a(n): a. inability of the countries to make a decision for themselves. b. inability of the countries’ to develop their economies. c. lack of well-equipped armies to protect the countries. d. series of revolutions among the people in the countries. The response should include the following: - Item 1 contains the qualifying term often, which is a tip that the item is true. - Item 2 contains more than one idea. Actually three ideas are involved—1) verb form, 2) using the word to, and 3) used as an adverb. Since an infinitive can be used as a noun, adjective, or adverb, the statement must be marked false. The response should include the following: - First, and most important, the material is not homogeneous. As a result, some of the items can be answered without understanding the content. For instance, the only sensible answer to 3 is B, and only two chemical symbols exist in the list of choices, making guessing the answers likely. - Second, the number of alternatives and statements is the same, making the process of elimination a possibility - Since each alternative can be used only once, the possibility of getting the right answer through the process of elimination increases. - On the positive side, the list of statements is short (7 items).

Chapter 14 Answers

53. 54. 55. 56. 57.

b d d d a

Higher-Level Items 58. c “Ask a clear question” is one of the guidelines for preparing completion items. For example, a number of important requirements for tests exist. 59. b Completion items are popular with teacher because of the reason stated in the stem. However, completion items are often subject to interpretation, so experts recommend using the format sparingly. 60. d Essay items can improve the way students study. If they know an essay will be required, for instance, they are more likely to look for relationships in what they study and to construct more meaningful schemas. Combining the essay with instruction that provides practice with deep processing can make a powerful contribution to student learning. 61. a Scoring essay items anonymously has been shown to increase reliability. As a result of an increase in reliability, validity may also be increased, because an unreliable assessment cannot be valid. (This assumes that the assessment is aligned with Lin’s learning objectives.) Essay Items 62. The response should include the following: - Ethan’s question was clear and specific. He specified four causes, and he specified that students had to explain each cause. - He wrote a model response to the item. A model response that can be used as a scoring guide not only increases reliability, but it also provides an efficient mechanism for providing students with feedback. - He prepared scoring criteria in advance—1 point for each cause and 2 points for each explanation. - He restricted the amount of space students could use for their responses. Students, and particularly older students, tend to write down everything they know about a topic, and then hope the correct answer is somewhere in it. 63. The response should include the following: - Ethan could have told his students to write their names on the back page of the test, so he could score the papers anonymously. - Ethan could have scored one item at a time for all students, which increases consistency in scoring and therefore reliability. Performance Assessments Knowledge-Level Items 64. b 65. a 66. a 67. b 527 Copyright © 2020, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

Chapter 14 Answers

68. 69. 70. 71. 72. 73. 74. 75. 76. 77. 78.

c a d b d b b c b c a

Higher-Level Items 79. c A performance assessment is a direct observation of student performance on tasks relevant to life outside of school. Of the choices given, a performance assessment is the only one that is valid. 80. b A performance assessment is a direct observation of student performance on tasks relevant to life after school. With respect to advanced music students, this is what Marcy is doing. 81. c A performance assessment is a direct observation of student performance on tasks relevant to life after school. With respect to students playing softball, this is what Mim is doing. 82. c The more objective a checklist, the greater its reliability will be. Stating the items in as behavioral terms as possible will help make the items more objective. 83. a A product is a concrete item that is constructed during a performance assessment. A pair of trousers is a concrete item 84. b A process is what students actually do during a performance assessment. Calculating the volume of a pyramid is what students are actually doing. 85. a High realism involves performance assessments that are as “real world” as possible. Of the choices given, calculating the amount of fertilizer needed to cover a garden plot is the most “real world.” Essay Items 86. The response should include an item, such as the following: _____ 1. Each item asks one clear question. _____ 2. Each item includes one blank. _____ 3. All blanks are the same length. _____ 4. The degree of precision is specified for numerical answers.

Chapter 14 Answers

87.

88.

An example appears as follows. Other forms, of course, would also be valid. DIRECTIONS: Rate each of the following items by circling the 4 for an excellent performance, 3 for a good performance, 2 for fair, 1 for poor, and 0 for nonexistent. Preparing Students: Clearly specifies what will be on the test Provides adequate practice under test-like conditions Establishes positive expectations for student performance

0 0 0

1 1 1

2 2 2

3 3 3

4 4 4

Administering the Test: Creates a positive testing environment Gives clear directions for taking the test Adequately monitors the test

0 0 0

1 1 1

2 2 2

3 3 3

4 4 4

Analyzing Results: Returns test promptly Describes student performance in positive terms Revises and clarifies misleading items

0 0 0

1 1 1

2 2 2

3 3 3

4 4 4

The response should include the following: - Typically, students are involved in decisions about the design of the portfolio, what items will be included in it, and how it will be evaluated, whereas students typically aren’t involved in the design of checklists and rating scales (although there’s no reason why they couldn’t be) - Portfolios are used to gather information over a much longer period of time than are checklists and rating scales. For example, items could be placed in a portfolio over an entire semester, or even year.

Effective Summative Assessments Knowledge-Level Items 89. a 90. a 91. d 92. a 93. c 94. a 95. d 96. b 97. a 98. c Higher-Level Items 99. b No substitute for practice exists. If students thoroughly understand the content that is covered on a test, in all but the most extreme of cases, test anxiety will be 529 Copyright © 2020, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

Chapter 14 Answers

100. d

101. b

102. a

103. a

104. a 105. b 106. c

107. c 108. a

109. c 110. d 111. b

112. b 113. b

accommodated. In most cases of reduced performance as a result of anxiety, the students didn’t fully understand the content in the first place. Mr. Lareau is, in effect, giving a “pop” test. Pop tests and quizzes are notoriously anxiety producing, and they are not recommended. Frequent, announced quizzes are most effective for both learning and reducing text anxiety. Mr. Martinez’s practices are the most effective of the four teachers. His quizzes provide his students with practice, both with the content and the unit test format, and he provides detailed feedback about the results. Mr. Wertch’s practices are the least effective of the four teachers. He simply gives a unit test, scores and returns it, gives students their grades on it, and moves on. He doesn’t provide practice with either the content or the testing format, and he doesn’t give the students any feedback about their performance. Research indicates that feedback is one of the most powerful influences on learning that exist. And, feedback after quizzes is particularly effective because students are invested in the results. This is the only choice in which a grading decision is based on a predetermined standard. This grading system is based on a pre-set standard. Melanie is making grading decisions based on a pre-set standard, so her system is criterion-referenced. Janet is using students’ performances compared to each other as a basis for making her grading decisions, but she looks for clusters in the scores, so her system is a modification of a strict norm-referenced system. Fifth graders are old enough to be aware of grades and their importance. They are unlikely to take homework seriously if they know it doesn’t count towards their grades. Some high school students taking advanced classes, such as Algebra II and beyond, may do homework whether or not it’s graded if they have a quiz every week and know that what’s in the quiz has been covered in the homework. Beyond that, students are unlikely to do homework conscientiously if it doesn’t count toward their grades. 3 of 5 is 60%; 9 of 10 is 90%, and 9 of 10 is 90%. The average of 60, 90 and 90 is 80 The assignment total is 35 points [5 + 10 + 20]. The student has earned 30 points [3 + 9 + 18]. 30/35 = 85.7. When Mr. Powell converts each assignment to a percentage, the assignments are than assigned equal weights. Mrs. Mason uses total points, so her assignments are given different weights. Using several different sources of information, particularly when grading systems are based on performance measures, helps increase both overall reliability and validity. Members of cultural minorities often struggle with English, so their struggles are likely to adversely impact their test scores. As a result, they may score lower on the math placement test for reasons other than math achievement. This lowers validity.

Essay Items 114. The response should include the following: - First, he specified exactly what would be on the test (2, 11). - Second, he gave the students a chance to practice under test-like conditions (4-9, 14–19).

Chapter 14 Answers

- Third, he established positive expectations in his students and encouraged them to link success and effort (1). (He also made positive comments in paragraph 22 as he handed out the tests.) 115. The response should include the following: - First, he arranged the environment to be comfortable and free from distractions (20). - Second, he gave them precise directions about taking the test, collecting the papers, and spending their time after the test was completed (21) - Third, he monitored the test during the entire time it was given and quickly dealt with a potential distraction from the intercom (23–25). 116. The response should include the following: - First, he scored the test, returned it the following day and provided feedback for items that were difficult for the students (32–36). - Second, he made generally positive statements about the students’ performance (31). - Third, he made plans for revising troublesome items (38). (Andrew also collected the tests, so he could reuse some of the items on future tests. This might be controversial for some, but it dramatically increases the efficiency of summative assessments. It’s literally impossible to create new higher-level items for every test, which helps us understand why most teacher-made tests are written at low cognitive levels. He also invited students who wanted additional feedback to come to his room either before or after school.)

Chapter 15: Standardized Testing and Learning

CHAPTER FIFTEEN ANSWERS Standardized Testing and Accountability Knowledge-Level Items 1. d 2. b 3. c 4. d 5. b 6. a 7. a 8. d 9. c 10. a 11. b 12. d 13. c Higher-Level Items 14. a High-stakes tests are standardized tests used to make important decisions, such as decisions about student promotion and even high school graduation. This is what the Georgetown School District is doing. 15. b Value-added modeling is a method of teacher evaluation that measures a teacher’s contribution to student learning in a given year by comparing the current test scores of their students to the scores of those same students in previous school years and to the scores of other students in the same grade. This is what the Palueo District is doing Essay Items 16. The response should include the following: - Standards are statements that describe what students should know or be able to do at the end of a prescribed period of study. - Accountability is the process of requiring students to demonstrate that they have met specified standards and making teachers responsible for students’ performance. - High-stakes tests are standardized tests that are used to make important decisions affecting schools, teachers, and students, such as promoting students from one grade level to another. 17. The response should say that standardized tests are the tools used to measure the extent to which standards are being met. Students’ performance on the standardized tests is the mechanism used to hold students and teachers accountable. 18. The response should include the following: - The tests help clarify the goals of school systems. - High-stakes testing sends clear messages to students about what they should be learning. - Test results provide the public with hard evidence about school effectiveness. - High-stakes testing highlights good schools and predicts success. 19. The response should include four of the following: 532 Copyright © 2020, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

Chapter 15: Standardized Testing and Learning

- The process has both narrowed the curriculum—teachers focus their instruction on content covered on the tests—and lowered the level of instruction. - The tests provide misleading information about what students actually know and emphasize - Evidence supporting the argument that these tests increase student achievement doesn’t exist - The tests further racial inequality. - Intervening variables, such as student differences in test-taking strategies and motivation, can skew results. Standardized Tests Knowledge-Level Items 20. a 21. c 22. b 23. d 24. b 25. b 26. b 27. d 28. a 29. d 30. c 31. b 32. b 33. d 34. c 35. a 36. a 37. a 38. c 39. a 40. c 41. d Higher-Level Items 42. d A norm-referenced standardized test compares students’ performance to the performance of others. This is what the Baker County district is using. 43. b Achievement tests are designed to determine how much students have learned in specific content areas, such as algebra in this cases. 44. a Content validity refers to the extent to which a standardized test accurately samples the content taught. For this district, the CTBS appears to have content validity. 45. d Predictive validity refers to a standardized test’s ability to gauge future performance. Dan’s concern is that the test given to the 5th graders does not predict how students will do in 6th grade math.

Chapter 15: Standardized Testing and Learning

46.

47. 48.

49.

If the test is timed, which standardized tests typically are, giving students more than the allocated time will adversely affect validity because other students’ time is restricted to the 50 minutes allocated. d Content validity refers to the extent to which a standardized test accurately samples the content that has been taught. This is what the school committee is trying to assess. c Predictive validity refers to a standardized test’s ability to gauge future performance. If the test given to elementary students correlates with high school algebra grades and test scores, we can predict that a student who earns a high score on the elementary test will do well in high school algebra. This illustrates predictive validity. b The test Donna used purported to measure real-world application, but Donna found that the test didn’t actually measure this element. As a result, it lacks construct valitidy.

Essay Items: 50. The response should include the following: - Assessment and diagnosis of learning, such as giving students an end-of-year achievement test to see how they perform compared to other students around the state and nation - Selection and placement, such as using information from standardized tests to make decisions about grouping students - Program evaluation and accountability, such as the high-stakes tests that states give to measure the progress of their students. 51. - Achievement tests, which answer questions such as, “How much did our students learn this year compared to other students around the state?” - Diagnostic tests, which answer questions such as, “Does this student have the skills to begin reading?” - Intelligence tests, which answer questions such as, “How much capacity does this student have to acquire knowledge, solve problems, and accomplish new tasks?” - Aptitude tests, which answer questions such as, “How successful is this student likely to be in college?” - Readiness tests, which answer questions, such as, “Is this child ready to begin kindergarten?” 52. The response should include the following: - Content validity refers to a test’s ability to accurately sample the content taught and measure the extent to which learners understand it. It is central to achievement tests. - Predictive validity is the measure of a test’s ability to gauge future performance, such as the ability of the SAT and ACT to predict success in college. - Construct validity is the ability to measure a learning-related characteristic that is not directly observable, such as intelligence tests’ ability to measure intelligence. Intelligence is not directly observable, and it influences the amount people learn. Understanding and Interpreting Standardized Test Scores Knowledge-Level Items 53. b 54. c 55. b 56. a 534 Copyright © 2020, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

Chapter 15: Standardized Testing and Learning

57. 58. 59. 60. 61. 62. 63. 64. 65.

d c c d a b c d d

Higher-Level Items 66. b Nikki scored 45 of a possible 50 points. This is a raw score. 67. a Jill correctly answered 15 items. The number of items a student answers correctly is the raw score. 68. c Jordan’s percentile rank of 85 means he scored as well as or better than 85% of the students taking the test. Therefore, 15% of the students taking the test scored higher than he did. 69. b Assuming the results of the test approximate a normal distribution, a stanine of 7 is at approximately the 80th percentile. That means that Chelsey scored as high or higher than 80% of the students taking the test. (As we see in Figure 15.1, stanine 7 is approximately 1 standard deviation above the mean.) 70. d The standard deviation is a measure of the spread of scores, with a larger standard deviation indicating greater spread. Because the standard deviation for the second test is higher, the scores on this test are spread out more. 71. b The standard deviation for Test A is greater than the standard deviation for Test A, so its scores are indeed spread out more. 72. b This precisely describes what a grade equivalent of 5.5 means. 73. b The description in the example uses the concept of grade equivalent, which means that Angie earned a score similar to scores earned by average 10th graders taking the test. 74. d Cindy’s score of 46 is one and a half standard deviations above the mean. As we see in Figure 15.1, this puts her at approximately the 92nd percentile. 75. c Cory’s score is one standard deviation above the mean. As we seen in Figure 15.1, this puts her at stanine 7. 76. b The standard error on the test is 4. This means that Don’s true score is between 32 and 40 (4 points above and below his score of 36). Kathy’s true score is between 38 and 46 (4 points above and below her score of 42). This means that Don’s true score could actually be higher than Kathy’s. 77. a John’s true score is between 32 and 36 (2 points above and below his score of 34). Raul’s true score is between 36 and 40 (2 points above and below his score of 38). This means the two students’ scores could be equal. Essay Items 78. The response should include the following: - In math Greg scored as high or higher than 45% of the students who took the test. This means that about 55% scored higher than he did.

Chapter 15: Standardized Testing and Learning

79.

80.

- A stanine of 7 means that his score was about 1 standard deviation above the mean, and he scored as high or higher than about 80% of the students who took the test, so he did very well in science. - Greg is a strong reader. He scored as well as a seventh grader in the 5th month of the school year in reading. It only means he’s a strong reader. It doesn’t imply that he should be in 7th grade reading, or any other interpretation. - Greg answered 12 of 20 items correctly on the problem-solving subtest. His percentile rank is more meaningful; he scored as high or higher than 35% of the students taking the test. The response should include the following: - Overall, Greg is a strong student in both science and reading. - Math, and particularly problem solving, is his weak area, and it is an area in which he could benefit greatly from extensive practice. The response should include the following: - Supplementary experiences, such as workbooks the parents can purchase, problems gathered from the Internet, and practical problems, such as having Greg determine how much groceries cost if his mom gives the grocer three 20 dollar bills, and she gets $8.50 back from the clerk, will benefit Greg greatly - Keep doing what they’ve been doing in both science, and particularly in reading.

Diversity and Standardized Testing Knowledge-Level Items 81. d 82. b 83. d 84. d 85. c Higher-Level Items 86. b High-stakes tests are tests used to make important decisions that will affect students, teachers, and schools. This test will determine whether or not the students are promoted to the next grade level, which is an important decision, so it is a high-stakes test. 87. a If students aren’t familiar with an iron and how the word iron is pronounced, the test more nearly measures their background knowledge than their ability to recognize the long i sound. This illustrates bias in content. 88. c The test will be used to determine whether or not the children are promoted to the second grade. And, if they get incorrect answers because of their lack of familiarity with the content, bias exists. A single measure should not be used for decisions as important as promotion from one grade to another. Essay Items 89. The response should include the following: - Bias in content exists if students’ performance on the test requires knowledge other than what the test is supposed to measure that the students might not have, such as Alaskan natives’ needing to understand baseball in order to compute a batting average.

Chapter 15: Standardized Testing and Learning

- Bias in testing procedures exists if students don’t understand how to take the tests or don’t understand the importance of the tests. - Bias in interpretation can occur if students are classified as learning disabled when the issue might be an inadequate understanding of English. 90.

91.

The response should include three of the following: - Most tests strongly depend on language ability, so ELLs are immediately put at a disadvantage. - Second, many ELLs students come from low SES backgrounds, - Third, many ELLs attend poor schools with inadequate resources. - Fourth, tests often include technical terms that aren’t commonly used in conversation, further reducing the likelihood of ELL’s having the background knowledge to succeed on the tests. The response should state that giving ELLs extra time and allowing them to use dictionaries to translate unfamiliar vocabulary are two of the most important accommodations that you can make for them.

Using Educational Psychology in Teaching: Suggestions for Fulfilling your Role in Standardized Testing Knowledge-Level Items 92. a 93. c 94. d 95. b 96. c Higher-Level Items 97. a The most effective way to prepare students for standardized tests is to ensure as much as possible that they thoroughly understand the content that will be covered on the test. The most effective way to achieve this goal is to provide students with a great deal of practice and feedback with the content. Mrs. Martinez is providing her students with practice, she is giving them feedback, and she is also providing her students with practice using the format that will appear on the test This is the most effective way of preparing students. 98. b Mrs. Jenkins’ strategy is commonly labeled as “teaching to the test.” It helps the students solve the sample problems, but may or may not ensure that they understand the content. Further, teaching to the test is strongly discouraged by assessment experts. Her strategy is the least effective of the four teachers. Essay Items 99. The response should include the following: - Provide them with practice using the format that will be used on the test. For instance, you can give them problems to solve as you always do on your quizzes and tests and then give them four answer choices, one of which is correct, and the distractors being answers that reflect the most common errors students make. 100. The response should include the following: 537 Copyright © 2020, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

Chapter 15: Standardized Testing and Learning

- Preparing students, such as being as sure as possible that your students understand the content being assessed on the test, providing practice with the test format, and teaching test-taking strategies - Accommodating members of cultural minorities and English Language learners, such as providing concrete examples of technical language that may appear on the test, but might not be familiar to students - Administering tests in ways that maximize student performance, such as ensuring that the tests are given according to the prescribed procedures - Communicating results, such as explaining to parents what it means when they see that their son or daughter was at a percentile rank of 85 on a subtest of a standardized test.