INSTRUCTOR RESOURCE & TEST BANK for The Life Span: Human Development for Helping Professionals (4th by StudyGuide

Instructor’s Resource Manual and Test Bank for

The Life Span: Human Development for Helping Professionals Fourth Edition Patricia C. Broderick Penn State Prevention Research Center

Pamela Blewitt Villanova University

CONTENTS

Chapter 1

Organizing Themes in Development……………………………………………1

Chapter 2

Epigenesis and the Brain: The Fundamentals of Behavioral Development...12

Chapter 3

Cognitive Development in the Early Years……………....………….

………...21 Chapter 4

Emotional Development in the Early Years.…………………………….........31

Chapter 5

The Emerging Self and Socialization in the Early Years .…………….……..40

Chapter 6

Realms of Cognition in Middle Childhood.…………………………….……..51

Chapter 7

Self and Moral Development: Middle Childhood Through Early Adolescence………………………………………………………………..…….60

Chapter 8

Gender and Peer Relationships: Middle Childhood through Early Adolescence ..………….…………………………………………………... …....70

Chapter 9

Physical, Cognitive, and Identity Developments in Adolescence ………..… 80

Chapter 10

The Social World of Adolescence ………………………………….……….... 89

Chapter 11

Physical and Cognitive Developments in Young Adults…………….….……99

Chapter 12

Socioemotional and Vocational Developments in Young Adulthood..…..…108

Chapter 13

Middle Adulthood: Cognitive, Personality, and Social Development…...…118

Chapter 14

Living Well: Stress, Coping, and Life Satisfaction in Adulthood..………...129

Chapter 15

Gains and Losses in Late Adulthood….……………………………………...139

Chapters 1-15

Answer Key for Multiple Choice Questions…………………………….149

Chapters 1-15

Answer Key for Essay Questions………………………….……………..164

iii

Chapter 1

Organizing Themes in Development Outline I.

Reflection and Action The Gap Between Science and Practice Box 1.1 – Examine Your Beliefs About Development

II.

A Historical Perspective on Developmental Theories Emphasizing Discontinuity: Classic Stage Theories Emphasizing Continuity: Incremental Change Classic Theories and the Major Issues They Raise

III.

Contemporary Multidimensional or Systems Theories: Embracing the Complexity of Development Applying Theory to Practice

IV.

A New Look at Three Developmental Issues Nature and Nurture Neuroplasticity and Critical (Sensitive) Periods Universality and Specificity: The Role of Culture

Applications Some Rules of Thumb

VI.

Focus on Developmental Psychopathology Box 1.2 – Prevention Science

VII.

Summary

VIII. Case Study IX.

Journal Questions

Key Terms

Chapter 1 Multiple Choice Questions 1.

Dr. Jones encountered a problem with a new client in therapy. Using the model of reflective practice described in Chapter 1, what is the sequence of steps he should use in order to work with this client effectively? a. Reflect on what has worked best in his own personal experience and apply that knowledge to the client’s problem. b. Reflect on well-established theories; apply the theoretical knowledge to the individual's case; and then test out new ways of thinking about the problem if prior theory does not suffice. c. Apply experience-based knowledge first, and then use theory-based knowledge. d. First test out any method by subjecting it to rigorous scientific experimentation and then apply it for use with the client.

Theories of development differ from opinion primarily because a. they provide a complete picture of development. b. they have been proven to be true. c. they are based on scientific research. d. they are more abstract than opinions.

Which of the following helpers is most likely to have an implicit “incrementalist” belief about intelligence? a. A counselor who recommends a strategy of academic skill building for a client who is experiencing academic problems. b. A therapist who helps the client adjust to the limitations of his academic ability. c. A school counselor who bases the decision about which career information to provide on the client’s intelligence test results. d. A counselor who develops a program to track elementary school-aged children in classes that reflect their academic achievement.

Stage theories of development typically describe ____________ changes in behavior, cognition, or social relationships. a. quantitative b. incremental c. qualitative d. cumulative Mrs. Washington is conducting her weekly group counseling session for single young adults. Karen, a lonely young professional woman, talks about feeling abandoned by her

boyfriend. The other group members listen patiently and respond empathically. Mrs. Washington reflects Karen’s feeling with concern and sensitivity. What would operant learning theory predict about Karen’s behavior in the next group session? a. Karen will be embarrassed about her past self-disclosures and feel anxious about speaking up. b. Karen will not self-disclose because she fears the group will lose patience. c. Karen will not self-disclose because her problems have been resolved. d. Karen will speak openly because she has previously received attention and support. 6.

Mrs. Washington is conducting her weekly group counseling session for single young adults. Karen, a lonely young professional woman, talks about feeling abandoned by her boyfriend. The other group members listen patiently and respond empathically. Mrs. Washington reflects Karen’s feeling with concern and sensitivity. What would social learning theorists predict about the behavior of others in the group in the next session? a. Group members will be encouraged to self-disclose after observing the positive way Karen’s self-disclosure was received. b. Group members will be discouraged from self-disclosing because they do not want to imitate Karen’s example. c. Karen’s behavior will have no effect on other members of the group. d. Group members will scapegoat Karen for her self-absorption.

Using Erikson’s developmental theory as a framework, which of the following statements is an accurate representation of his ideas? a. An individual cannot progress to a later stage unless the earlier stage has been resolved successfully and completely. b. Successful progression through the stages of development depends upon effective resolution of the Oedipal crisis. c. Successful resolution of a psychosocial crisis at each stage depends upon having more positive than negative experiences in the area of major concern. d. Highly intelligent individuals can skip specific stages and make progress at a faster rate than other people.

Models of development which hold that change typically occurs in shifts between periods of relative stability and periods of disequilibrium are called a. incremental models. b. stage models. c. multidimensional model. d. information-processing models.

Models of development which hold that change occurs as a continuous process are called a. incremental models. b. stage models. c. multidimensional models. 4

information-processing models.

10.

Models of development which hold that change occurs as a function of reciprocal influences, both from within the person and from the external environment are called a. incremental models. b. stage models. c. multidimensional models. d. information-processing models.

11.

In Bronfenbrenner’s model, proximal processes refer to a. independent changes in mental processes. b. favorable developmental conditions that are more likely to exist in one particular stage of development than in another. c. reciprocal interactions between an organism and its immediate environment. d. indirect influences on an organism.

12.

Juan, a 7-month-old infant, lives in a city where the availability of high quality child care is very limited. His mother is forced to leave Juan in the care of a young woman who also cares for five other infants and toddlers in her small apartment. According to Bronfenbrenner’s theory, which of the following influences on Juan’s development represents an example of a proximal process? a. The quality of care-giving Juan receives in day care. b. Juan’s genetic inheritance. c. State legislation regarding licensing of day care providers. d. Juan’s cultural and economic background.

13.

Juan, a 7-month-old infant, lives in a city where the availability of high quality child care is very limited. His mother is forced to leave Juan in the care of a young woman who also cares for five other infants and toddlers in her small apartment. Which of the following influences represents an example of a distal process? a. The sensitivity of Juan’s caregiver. b. Governmental policies and subsidies for child care that apply in the city. c. The quality of care-giving provided by Juan’s mother. d. The quality and characteristics of the apartment complex in which Juan and his mother reside.

14.

Seven-month-old Juan and his mother live in a small rented apartment in a large city. Affordable, high quality child care centers are very hard to find in her neighborhood. Which level of the environment, according to Bronfenbrenner’s model, is limiting her access to high quality day care in her community? a. Macrosystem b. Exosystem 5

c. d.

Microsystem Mesosystem

15. Contemporary developmentalists focus on which question concerning nature and nurture? a. Is nature the most important determinant of developmental change? b. Is nurture the most important determinant of developmental change? c. How do we explain the mechanisms by which nature and nurture interact to affect development? d. Why is nurture most influential at certain developmental periods? 16.

A kitten whose eyes are covered during the first months of its life loses the ability to see clearly in ways that would have been possible without the loss of early visual stimulation. This effect remains despite later attempts to remediate the loss. This is an example of which of the following? a. Behavior genetics. b. Critical period. c. Plasticity. d. Visual demand.

17.

A group of people characterized by shared traditions, attitudes, values, and beliefs handed down from one generation to another constitute ______________. a. a socioeconomic group. b. a racial group. c. an ethnic group. d. a cohort.

18.

The measure of social status that combines aspects of education background, income, and occupation is called a. socioeconomic status. b. social standing. c. social class. d. economic class.

19.

The belief that individuals create their own knowledge by interpreting new experience in the light of past experience is a fundamental proposition of a. behaviorism. b. rationalism. c. transactionalism. d. constructivism. 6

20.

Keisha is a 35-year-old African-American woman who is depressed. Her presenting concerns include marital distress, the imminent possibility of losing her job, overeating, and chain-smoking. As you listen to her story, you begin to construct a picture of her developmental history. Which of these explanations would someone using a stage theory of development be most likely to offer for Keisha’s problems? a. Keisha’s difficulties most likely developed through the interaction of her family experiences and societal conditions like poverty and racism. b. Keisha’s problems are most likely related to insufficient emotional gratification during infancy when oral needs are paramount. c. Keisha’s problems are most likely related to lack of appropriate models of effective marital communication. d. Keisha’s has experienced reward from her eating and smoking habits, and so she seeks these rewards in stressful situations.

21.

Keisha is a 35-year-old African-American woman who is depressed. Her presenting concerns include marital distress, the imminent possibility of losing her job, overeating, and chain-smoking. As you listen to her story, you begin to construct a picture of her developmental history. Which of these explanations would someone using an incrementalist developmental perspective be most likely to offer for how Keisha’s problems have developed? a. Keisha’s difficulties most likely developed through the interaction of her family experiences and societal conditions like poverty and racism. b. Keisha’s problems are most likely related to insufficient emotional gratification during infancy when oral needs are paramount. c. Keisha’s problems are most likely related to lack of appropriate models of effective marital communication. d. Keisha’s has experienced reward from her eating and smoking habits, and so she seeks these rewards in stressful situations.

22.

Keisha is a 35-year-old African-American woman who is depressed. Her presenting concerns include marital distress, the imminent possibility of losing her job, overeating, and chain-smoking. As you listen to her story, you begin to construct a picture of her developmental history. Which of these explanations would someone using a multidimensional perspective be most likely to offer for Keisha’s problems difficulties? a. Keisha’s difficulties most likely developed through the interaction of her family experiences and societal conditions like poverty and racism. b. Keisha’s problems are most likely related to insufficient emotional gratification during infancy when oral needs are paramount. 7

c. d.

Keisha’s problems are most likely related to lack of appropriate models of effective marital communication. Keisha’s has experienced reward from her eating and smoking habits, and so she seeks these rewards in stressful situations.

23.

Counselors must recognize the principle of ___________: Individual pathways of development may result in a wide range of possible outcomes. a. equifinality b. hierarchical integration c. dysfunctionality d. multifinality

24.

In lifespan developmental theories, significant developmental changes are thought to be largely complete by a. the age of 18. b. the age of 30. c. the age of 50. d. death.

25.

The idea that children’s development is affected by biological factors, and that biological factors are also affected by the environment and experience, is part of a. developmental stage theories b. incremental developmental theories c. social learning theories d. multidimensional systems theories

26.

Human development involves changes in size, efficiency, and capacity that can be described as ____________change, and shifts in forms of thought and behavior that can be described as ______________ changes. a. quantitative / qualitative b. qualitative / bidirectional c. growth / incremental d. qualitative / quantitative An attempt to forestall the development of problems by promoting health and wellness in the general population is called a. tertiary prevention. b. secondary prevention. c. primary prevention. d. mediation.

27.

28.

Counselors apply multidimensional models most explicitly in their work with clients when they 8

a. b. c. d.

recognize the primary importance of genetic influences on behavior. consider levels of influence on the individual and select interventions that are targeted to more than one level. pay close attention to the stage of development that characterizes the client. understand that client’s developmental tasks must be met in each stage of development.

29.

When clinicians assess a client’s presenting problem(s) in order to plan for treatment, which of the following approaches to diagnosis reflects a developmental viewpoint? a. Consider those issues in a client’s life which result from multifinality. b. Count the number of symptoms currently manifested in order to reach a specific diagnosis. c. Assess the person’s level of symptomology on a checklist and assign a diagnosis only when a certain percentile has been reached. d. Assess the nature of the problem by considering the person’s unique history, interpersonal context, and challenges in the extrapersonal environment.

30.

Mrs. Dubois knows that her son, Andre, is very advanced in understanding math compared to his first grade peers. However, he is rather immature in his social relationships and doesn’t share or interact well with classmates. His social skills are not what his mother would expect, given his advanced cognitive development in math. Piaget’s term for this variation in skills is a. hierarchical organization. b. decalage. c. preoperational intelligence. d. accommodation.

31.

The scientific usage of the word theory is best described as a. a proposed explanation whose status is conjectural and untested. b. a personal opinion that is part of one’s worldview. c. a tested and supported explanation that synthesizes a large body of information to account for known facts or phenomena. d. an explanation of facts or phenomena that fits with an individual’s best assessment of a situation.

32.

Gisela is a 6-year-old Peruvian girl who lives with her family on a farm in a rural village. She often helps her father take produce to a market to sell. She does not know how to read, but she understands the cost of items and can make change without errors. Sophie is a 6-year-old who lives in the US. She is in the 1st grade, is making great progress in 9

learning to read and write, and is gaining skill in computer use. What is the best way to explain the development of these two children? a. The progression of cognitive development is not universal; it is different for children in different cultures. b. The processes involved in cognitive development are similar across cultures, but the specific kinds of knowledge acquired may differ depending upon children’s culture. c. The content of children’s knowledge is similar across cultures, but the processes involved in cognitive development differ depending upon children’s culture. d. Cognitive development is the same for all children, regardless of culture. 33.

Guidelines for the application of developmental research in helping professions include a. keeping abreast of issues in the field and taking a multidimensional view of the influences on an individual. b. always assessing the developmental stage of each client. c. giving developmental theories an equal weight with your personal opinions. d. recognizing that developmental stage limits therapeutic progress.

Chapter 1 Essay Questions (See answer key for potential essay answers) 34.

Compare and contrast stage, incremental, and multidimensional models of development. What specific contributions does each perspective make to our knowledge of development?

35.

Create a case scenario using an example of a helping professional that describes the process of reflective practice. Explain why having a working knowledge of development or a “developmental template” is useful to helping professionals.

36. 37.

In the applications section of Chapter 1, several rules of thumb are provided to guide helping professionals incorporate developmental knowledge into their work. Choose three of the guidelines and, for each of these, provide either (a) a detailed and specific example of how helping professionals incorporate the guideline in a practice setting, or (b) a specific and detailed example of how you will incorporate this guideline into your practice.

Chapter 2 Epigenesis and the Brain: The Fundamentals of Behavioral Development Outline I.

The Nature-Nurture Illusion

II.

Epigenesis and Coaction Conception and Early Growth Defining epigenesis and coaction The cell as the scene of the action Gene regulation: The heart of coaction More about genes

III.

Atypical Development The influence of defective gene alleles The influence of chromosomal abnormalities Teratogenic influences Nutritional influences

IV.

The Developing Brain Early prenatal brain development Box 2.1 - The Major Structures of the Brain Structure and function of neurons Later prenatal brain development Postnatal brain development

The Developing Stress and Adaptation System Classic and contemporary views of stress and adaptation The architecture of the stress response

VI.

Applications Box 2.2 - Do Numbers Matter? The Relationship Between Early Stress and Later Adversity Healthy baby guidelines Helping the most vulnerable: Preterm and LBW babies The healing touch What is massage therapy? Beyond massage therapy

VII.

Summary

VIII. Case study IX.

Journal questions

Key terms

Chapter 2 Multiple Choice Questions 1.

Complete the following analogy: geneotype is to phenotype as a. gene is to chromosome b. DNA is to RNA c. code is to expression d. night is to day

Brown eye-color alleles are dominant over blue eye-color alleles, which are recessive. Jenna has brown eyes. Her husband, Bill, has blue eyes. Jenna and Bill are the biological parents of James, who has blue eyes. What eye-color gene alleles must Jenna have? a. Bb (one brown and one blue allele) b. BB (two brown alleles) c. bb (two blue alleles) d. BBB (three brown alleles)

Brown eye-color alleles are dominant over blue eye-color alleles, which are recessive. Jenna has brown eyes. Her husband, Bill, has blue eyes. Jenna and Bill are the biological parents of James, who has blue eyes. Jenna would be described as ____________ of the allele for blue eyes. a. having the phenotype b. being a regulator c. having the genotype d. being a carrier

Recessive, defective gene alleles can cause hereditary disorders. It is estimated that most people carry ____________ recessive, defective alleles in their genotypes. a. zero b. three to five c. hundreds of d. thousands of

The epigenome is the full set of factors, from the cell to the outside world, that controls the expression of a. hereditary material. b. recessive genes. c. the zygote. d. histones.

One epigenetic change that can affect the expression of a gene is methylation, which is a. the subtraction of an organic molecule from DNA 13

b. the addition of an organic molecule to DNA

c. the addition of RNA to DNA d. the effect of hormones on DNA 7.

In one animal study of the influence of genes on behavior, offspring of rats with genes for low stress reactivity were reared by unrelated mother rats with genes for high stress reactivity. This is an example of a. a survey study. b. a cross-fostering study. c. a longitudinal study. d. a comparative study.

In one study, young rats exposed to stress vocalized their anxiety. Their mothers, alerted to this distress, responded with diligent caregiving behavior that altered the development of the hippocampus. Which of the following processes or principles does this example demonstrate? a. Dominant-recessive gene relationships. b. Active gene effects. c. The role of regulator genes in behavior genetics. d. Epigenesis.

Based on your knowledge of prenatal development, which of the following sequences would you expect to be correct? a. The heart begins to form before the hands. b. The hands begin to form before the heart. c. The legs begin to form before the head. d. The feet begin to form before the lungs.

10.

Which of the following statements is true about the effects of teratogens on the developing fetus? a. Any given teratogen usually has the same effect regardless of when in prenatal development exposure occurs. b. The kind of damage done depends on the stage of development during exposure. c. A teratogen will usually have the same effect regardless of how much exposure the fetus has to that teratogen. d. Ancient Greeks believed in teratogens, but modern science has been unable to identify any. When she was pregnant with Joey, Joey’s mother had a poor diet because food was in short supply in her war-torn country. The war ended after Joey was born, and his middleclass mother was able to provide him with adequate, nutritious food throughout his childhood. Which of the following outcomes is the most likely for Joey?

11.

a. Joey may show few, if any, long term negative effects from his prenatal deprivation. b. Joey will probably experience serious long-term cognitive deficits. c. Joey will probably experience serious long-term emotional deficits, but not cognitive problems. d. Joey is at greater risk of serious ongoing health problems than youngsters who have adequate prenatal nutrition. 12.

The available data indicate that chronic maternal stress during pregnancy has which of the following effects on the fetus? a. No effects b. Arouses the fetus’s own stress response temporarily, but has no lasting effects c. Is related to newborn hyperactivity and irritability d. Causes long term psychopathology

13.

The hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis (HPA axis) plays a significant role in a. the human response to stress. b. X-linked recessive diseases. c. determining the sex of a fetus. d. determining eye color.

14.

Which of the following is an accurate description of the long-term effects of chronic stress on the body? a. The ability of the immune system to fight infection and ward off disease is compromised. b. There are no effects on the immune system, and only short term effects on the cardiovascular system. c. There are no effects on the cardiovascular system, but long term effects on the skeletal muscles. d. There are no lasting effects on the body – when the stress ends all physical systems return to normal.

15.

Ms. Dawson recently gave birth to twins, a girl and a boy. Which of the following statements about them must be true? a. They share 100 per cent of their genes. b. They are monozygotic. c. They are dizygotic. d. They originated from a single zygote. There are 46 of these in the nuclei of human cells, they are composed of deoxyribonucleic acid. a. Teratogens b. Zygotes c. Chromosomes d. Genes

16.

17.

Which of the following is the best example of neuroplasticity? a. Cells from the hippocampus are instrumental in encoding memories. b. The 3-year-old’s brain is approximately three-fourths of its adult size. c. Fetal brains grow quickly, increasing in weight over the course of pregnancy. d. Neurons that are transplanted from the auditory cortex to the visual cortex begin to perceive light.

18.

Neurons communicate with each othe a. by means of chemicals that are present in the spaces between them. b. by means of dendrites touching other dendrites. c. by means of electrical impulses that radiate out of the myelin sheath. d. by means of connections with glial cells.

19.

Fetal brains are built by neurons a. that are generated by the cortex. b. that migrate from the top of the brain down to the lower brain. c. that migrate from the bottom of the brain up to the higher areas. d. that migrate from the glial cells to the outside surface of the cortex.

20.

Myelinization is the process which involves a. neurons migrating to the temporal lobes. b. separating the left and right hemispheres of the cortex. c. coating the axon with a fatty sheath that improves conduction of electrical impulses. d. development of the nuclei of the brain.

21.

The brain is commonly classified into three main parts. They are a. midbrain, pons, and cerebellum. b. forebrain, midbrain and hindbrain. c. midbrain, forebrain and cerebral cortex. d. cerebellum, medulla and limbic system

22.

The process of myelination is not completed until a. well into adulthood. b. middle childhood. c. the end of infancy. d. around age 5 or 6.

23.

Which of the following is true with respect to the impact of nurture on the developing brain? 16

fetus’

a. b. c. d.

Fetal brain development is almost totally dependent upon the fetus’ genetic inheritance because it has no environmental experience in the womb. The development of the lower, primitive areas of the brain depend upon nature but the higher levels depend upon nurture. Mothers can advance the fetus’ intelligence significantly by speaking out loud in foreign languages during pregnancy. The establishment of some synaptic connections in the fetal brain depends upon environmental input, like sound.

24.

Most postnatal brain growth depends upon the proliferation of a. synapses. b. myelination. c. neurotransmitters. d. glial cells.

25.

If you look at the karyotypes of person A and person B and discover that they look alike, what can you infer is the same about these two people? a. Their parents. b. Their sex. c. Their height. d. Their blood type.

26.

Sally, age 28, recently married John, age 45. They would like to have a child, but they are concerned that they may be at high risk to have a child with a chromosomal abnormality, like Down’s syndrome, because of John’s age. What is their genetic counselor likely to tell them? a. They are at higher than average risk for some chromosomal disorders because of John’s age, but not for Down’s syndrome. b. They are at higher than average risk for chromosomal disorders of all sorts because of John’s age. c. There is no relationship between parents’ age and chromosomal disorders in their offspring. d. The risk of any chromosomal disorder in a child is only related to the mother’s age, not to the father’s age. For most mental illnesses and behavioral disorders, like alcoholism and clinical depression, the genetic contribution can best be described as a. the result of a pair of recessive, defective genes. b. the result of a dominant, defective gene. c. the result of a single gene mutation. d. polygenic.

27.

28.

Symptoms of fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS) include a. addiction to alcohol. b. blindness and shortened limbs. 17

c. d.

flipper arms. widely spaced eyes and flattened nose.

29.

Children who suffer severe protein and calorie shortages at any age may experience stunted growth, a protuberant belly, and extreme apathy. This severe starvation syndrome is called a. lowest observable effect. b. kwashiorkor. c. Huntington’s disease. d. proximo-distal development.

30.

Of the following, which is the most accurate example of coaction? a. Genes that are related to a specific disorder may be expressed phenotypically only in a certain kind of environment. b. Genes for a disorder that are on the X-chromosome will only be expressed in females. c. The environment and the genes have an equal influence on a disorder. d. Genes will have a greater influence on the development of a disorder when the genes are dominant.

31.

Robert and Nadine both have been laid off. The couple has inadequate access to food or health care. When they realize that Nadine is pregnant, they feel desperate, and they talk to a social worker at a local clinic about their situation. The social worker is able to provide them with referrals to a food outlet, but she is unable to find a prenatal care clinic that provides free services in their neighborhood. Considering the effects of multiple risk factors, what is the most likely potential value of the social worker’s efforts? a. The fewer risk factors the better, so their unborn child is likely to be better off even with the limited help the social worker provided. b. Their unborn child is not likely to be benefited by eliminating only one risk factor. c. The unborn child might have been benefited if prenatal care were found, but improving prenatal nutrition is not important. d. The health care and stress factors will only be important after the child is born. Massage therapy for infants has been very successful in promoting weight gain and social interaction, and in decreasing distress in low birth weight infants. Based upon developmental research, what is the best explanation for this? a. Infants’ bodies take in more nutrients when they are touched as they nurse. b. Touch is the best developed sense at birth and therefore the most effective avenue for soothing and regulating the newborn. c. When the infant is massaged, its attachment to the caregiver is strengthened. d. Crying and other distress is reduced because the infant is paying attention to the person giving the massage.

32.

Chapter 2 Essay Questions (See answer key for potential essay answers) 33.

Genes have their effects on the proteins and enzymes produced by the cell. Yet, there appear to be genetic influences on behavior. Take some example of a behavior or a behavioral disorder, and explain how genes operating at a cellular level could have any effect at the behavioral level.

34.

Explain why it is important for a helping professional to be aware of the coaction of genes and environment. Be sure to include a definition of coaction, with examples.

35.

There are several principles that govern the effects of teratogens on the developing fetus. Describe these principles, giving examples.

36.

What advice could you provide a pregnant teenager in order to help her assure the health of her baby?

Chapter 3 Cognitive Development in the Early Years Outline I.

Piaget’s Constructivist Theory Box 3.1 Biographical Sketch: Jean Piaget

II.

Infant Cognition: The Sensorimotor Stage Box 3.2 Brain and Behavior: Mirror Neurons and Early Development Understanding objects Remembering Having and inferring intentions Box 3.3. The Development of Executive Functions: The Mind in Charge

III.

Preschoolers’ Cognition: The Preoperational Stage Understanding numbers Understanding the mind Understanding symbolic artifacts Understanding language

Box 3.4 Early Childhood Education: Helping All Children Succeed IV.

Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory Box 3.5 Autobiographical Sketch: Lev S. Vygotsky

Applications Sharing the wealth: Providing knowledge about child development to caregivers

Play therapy: Helping the youngest clients When play is learning and learning is play Lessons from Piaget and Vygotsky VI.

Focus on Developmental Psychopathology: Autism Spectrum Disorders

VII.

Summary

VIII. Case Study IX.

Journal Questions

Key Terms

Chapter 3 Multiple Choice Questions 1.

Which of the following statements is most accurate with regard to Piaget’s theory? a. Piaget firmly believed that children who were at a particular stage of cognitive development had the same level of understanding in all areas, such as understanding causality, morality, agency, etc. b. Piaget believed that children’s progress through the stages could vary. For example, very intelligent children could skip a stage. c. Piaget believed in the dynamic quality of stages and understood that children in the same stage could vary greatly in their specific understanding of causality, morality, and so forth. d. Piaget believed that children could vary in their understanding of morality but that their understanding of causality was the same for all children within a particular stage.

Mrs. Harmon, the mother of 18-month-old Bryce, is concerned that Bryce has not learned to speak very well. He has a limited vocabulary and seems content to point to the things he wants. Mrs. Harmon has read several child development books which indicate that Bryce should be in the stage of language learning. Mrs. Harmon fears that Bryce is not keeping up developmentally. Based on your understanding of the timing of developmental stages, what would be your best advice? a. Don’t pay attention to developmental milestones and treat each child as an individual. b. Since Bryce appears developmentally delayed, he should be referred immediately for a speech and language evaluation. c. Developmental stages can be useful guidelines, but there is a range of normal development within stages. d. Mrs. Harmon should use exercises such as flashcards with Bryce to increase his knowledge of vocabulary.

Research using habituation and preferential response paradigms has provided us with much of what we know about the infant’s perceptual abilities. The habituation paradigm takes advantage of a. baby’s ability to form habits b. the absence of an orientation response in infants c. baby’s ability to report their own reactions d. baby’s tendency to orient to new stimulation

Ms. Hernandez is working with 4-year-old Peter, who is afraid of the dark. He believes monsters come out at night like he has seen on TV. Ms. Hernandez patiently explains that 22

there are no real monsters, but to no avail. Peter still refuses to go to sleep. What might Piaget propose as the reason for this treatment failure? a. Ms. Hernandez has not challenged Peter’s irrational beliefs in a way that gets his attention. b. Peter, at 4 years old, still has difficulty understanding that monsters are not real because he sees monsters on TV. c. Peter can understand what Ms. Hernandez is telling him, but he has difficulty expressing his feelings about it. d. Peter’s parents have not done enough explaining about the true nature of TV monsters so that he can better understand. 5.

Ms. Hernandez is working with 4-year-old Peter, who is afraid of the dark. He believes monsters come out at night like he has seen on TV. Ms. Hernandez patiently explains that there are no real monsters, but to no avail. Peter still refuses to go to sleep. What Piagetian idea helps to explain why Peter does not understand the truth about the unreality of TV monsters? a. Peter assimilates the information that monsters are not real and accommodates the true information into his schema about monsters. b. Peter fails to assimilate the idea that monsters are not real. c. Peter may assimilate the information about monsters, but he lacks the knowledge structures needed to accommodate the new information into his existing framework. d. Peter accommodates the information that monsters are not real but fails to assimilate it into his existing schema about monsters.

Reflective clinicians often absorb the tenets and techniques associated with major theoretical approaches to counseling and then interpret and organize them in ways that are useful for their own work. This aspect of reflective practice is an example of a. constructivism. b. behaviorism. c. humanism. d. existentialism.

Which of the following statements does not reflect contemporary critiques of Piagetian theory that have experimental support? a. Progress in intellectual development is often domain-specific. b. Preschoolers may be capable of more advanced cognitive tasks than Piaget had specified. c. Infants may have a rudimentary understanding of object permanence earlier in infancy than Piaget suspected. d. Infants frequently have the ability to mentally represent objects at birth. Assimilation can be described as ____________ and accommodation can be described as ____________. a. incorporating information / quantifying information. b. incorporating information / restructuring information.

c. d.

restructuring information / incorporating information. quantifying information / restructuring information.

Which of the following research techniques is an appropriate method for studying cognitive development of individuals during the sensorimotor period? a. Habituation paradigm. b. Survey method. c. Semi-structured interview. d. Conservation of matter tasks.

10.

Normally developing motor and visual milestones for a 4-month-old include a. crawling, scribbling with a crayon, interpreting facial expressions. b. sitting without support, playing with simple toys, 20/20 vision. c. rolling over, reaching for objects, visual tracking moving objects. d. standing with support, reaching for objects, visual preference for faces.

11.

In a number conservation task a set of discrete items is laid out in two rows They are first laid out in exactly the same way, and then one row is moved so that the items are farther apart. Typically, 3- and 4-year-olds a. recognize that the rows have the same number when they are arranged identically, but believe there are more items when they are farther apart. b. have no trouble with simple number conservation tasks like this, but make mistakes with more abstract math problems. c. can easily decenter from the number of objects to consider the spacing of items at the same time. d. realize that number of items is conserved when they are moved around, because they take into account all the relevant observations at once.

12.

Developmentalists study what infants and children understand about other people’s intentions, desires, beliefs, feelings, and so on. This field of study is referred to as a. cognitive development. b. theory of mind. c. concrete operational thought d. preoperational thought. Which cognitive achievement underlies a baby’s ability to form an attachment to a specific adult, like a parent or other caregiver? a. Conservation. b. Object permanence. c. Code switching. d. Agency.

13.

14.

Jacinta, the mother of a 10-month-old baby boy, is concerned about her son’s increasing fussiness when she leaves him with his babysitter each morning. Whose opinion of the situation is most consistent with what you have learned about infant cognitive development? a. Jacinta’s sister, who believes the baby has been spoiled by too much attention and now has difficulty separating. b. Jacinta’s mother, who believes the baby must have a physical problem that is causing him to be clingy. c. Manuel, the baby’s father, who believes the boy must not like his babysitter. d. Jacinta’s neighbor, who says her children went through this stage and Jacinta should try to be understanding and maintain a consistent environment.

15.

Jacinta, the mother of a 10-month-old baby boy, is concerned about her son’s increasing fussiness when she leaves him with his babysitter each morning. Which explanation of his behavior is most likely to be accurate? a. He is showing separation distress because his recognition memory is improving during this period. b. He is showing separation distress because his recall memory is improving during this period. c. He is showing lack of habituation to his caregiver which suggests the need to seek out a new babysitter. d. He is showing increased willfulness suggesting the need for greater discipline from his parents.

16.

Carla, a 10-month-old infant, sees her caregiver enter the room carrying a bottle of milk for another child in the day care center. Carla watches the caregiver give the bottle to the other child, and then extends her hands toward the bottle, making noises that indicate she wants one as well. Her caregiver notices, picks Carla up, and quickly prepares a bottle for her. In this example, Carla is demonstrating a. knowledge of inferred intention. b. preoperational thinking. c. decentration. d. means-end behavior. Sam is at home with his two children, 3-year-old Daria and 6-week-old Keith. Sam is reading a story to Daria when baby Keith wakes up and screams for his bottle. Daria gets very upset when Sam leaves her to tend to the baby. Sam tries to explain to his daughter that her baby brother can’t wait, but Daria continues to insist. Sam is concerned that Daria is not accepting her new baby brother. Based on your understanding of preschoolers cognitive development, what would you tell Sam? a. Daria is probably exhibiting normal cognitive egocentrism because she cannot fully understand the needs of another person yet.

17.

b. c. d.

Daria is probably exhibiting a stress response that suggests the family may need some counseling. Daria is probably exhibiting separation distress which is normal for children her age. Daria is probably exhibiting a failure to show empathy and needs more training in this area.

18.

The ability to use language to communicate effectively by using well-organized narratives primarily depends upon the development of ____________ skill. a. phonological b. semantic c. pragmatic d. syntactic

19.

Based on what you have learned about language development, what advice would you give to new parents who are concerned about their child’s literacy and later success in school? a. Use flashcards of vocabulary words to increase vocabulary size. b. Allow children to develop according to their own inner timetable, because all children eventually develop similar levels of vocabulary knowledge. c. Children should have formal reading instruction beginning in preschool. d. Parents and caregivers should provide lots of good quality language experience and practice by asking questions and elaborating on many topics of interest to their children.

20.

According to Vygotsky, language is one product of shared understanding among members of a social group and may be considered a ____________ that facilitates learning and thinking. a. scaffold b. tool or sign c. culture d. developmental line Vygotsky pointed out that children do not independently construct a definition for each a word they learn, but rather they learn the meanings that the surrounding culture has ascribed to each word. This central concept in Vygotsky’s theory is called a. scaffolding. b. operational thought. c. tools and signs. d. mediated learning.

21.

22.

The nature and amount of verbal communication between parents and their children is 26

correlated with the family’s a. religious orientation. b. socioeconomic status. c. cultural background. d. genetic inheritance.

23.

Which of the following is the best example of the concept of a zone of proximal development? a. Sherri works on her algebra homework for two hours without being able to answer a single question correctly. b. Jeff makes a note of the homework assignment for his last period class and completes it while riding home on the school bus. c. Cindy explains to her younger sister how to solve a problem in math by organizing the information in a new way. Her younger sister can then complete her homework. d. A mother shows her 8-month-old infant flashcards of words in different languages while she repeats each word on the card.

24.

As a rule of thumb, when might an evaluation by a speech pathologist be advisable? a. If by age 4 the child’s language is not understandable to people outside the family. b. If by age 2 the child is not speaking in complete sentences. c. If by age 2 the child has a vocabulary of less than 100 words. d. If by age 3 the child has difficulty articulating “ch” and “sh” sounds.

25.

Vygotsky believed that egocentric or private speech (talking aloud to one’s self) played an important role in cognitive development by a. enabling young children to express and understand their emotions. b. helping organize young children’s thinking, as a precursor to selfregulation. c. scaffolding young children’s zone of proximal development. d. revealing children’s idiosyncratic thinking. One important lesson that people in helping professional can take from Piaget’s and Vygotsky’s work is that a. children must be expected to make independent progress, and not to be supported by adults in every task. b. understanding how young clients think can help in structuring interventions that build effectively on existing knowledge and meanings. c. stages of cognitive development proceed regularly, and are not altered by individual experiences. d. language learning is not necessary for children to make progress in problem solving.

26.

27.

The general consensus is that disorders of the autism spectrum a. are not related to any detectable brain growth abnormalities. b. are directly caused by pediatric vaccines containing thimerosal. c. are neurobiological in nature and have high family concordance rates. d. cannot be reliably diagnosed because there is too much variation.

28.

General guidelines for intervention programs for children with autism spectrum disorder include a. intensive social skills intervention beginning in the teen years. b. early entry into intervention, use of Applied Behavior Analysis, and parent training and support. c. infrequent assessment in order to reduce stress and negative effects of labeling. d. maintaining separate learning environments so that autistic children do not need to interact with their typically developing peers.

29.

When 2-year-old Sabrina does not comply with requests, her mother tells her that she is not acting like a good girl and that Sabrina’s father and sisters will be disappointed. She is told to wait until they come home when she will be punished for her misbehavior. What advice should a counselor give to Sabrina’s mother? a. Even though Sabrina might not like her mother’s approach, be consistent with this so that she’ll eventually understand and learn to comply. b. Do not tell Sabrina that her older sisters will be disappointed with her because this causes sibling rivalry. c. Any consequence for misbehavior should be immediate, because Sabrina is too young to understand cause and effect when the consequences are so delayed. d. It is better to take some action that is more concrete, such as spanking Sabrina for misbehavior. A counselor tries to use sports’ metaphors with her clients in order to help them gain insight into their behavior. Certain clients lack the background knowledge about sports to understand her messages, so they fail to demonstrate any increased understanding about themselves or their problems. This primarily describes a failure of a. assimilation. b. accommodation c. intrinsic motivation d. accepting new information

30.

31.

Normal fears in preschool children tend to a. be characterized by anxieties about family problems, like a family breakup. b. involve imaginary creatures like ghosts and monsters. 28

c. d.

involve worries about not keeping up with other children. be expressed in compulsive behaviors like checking.

Chapter 3 Essay Questions (See answer key for potential essay answers) 32.

Parents wish to locate a program for their toddler and preschool children that is developmentally appropriate. What elements would you advise these parents to look for in the programs they observe?

33.

Compare and contrast the theories of Piaget and Vygotsky. In what ways are they similar and in what ways are they different?

34.

What does the research on symbolic artifacts discussed in this chapter suggest about how children’s cognition develops?

35.

Identify three assumptions about children and childrearing that may differ for different cultural groups.

Chapter 4 Emotional Development in the Early Years Outline I.

Theories of Emotion Functions of Emotions A Brief History of Emotion Research and Current Questions Emotions: The View from Neuroscience The Early Development of Emotion Regulation

II.

Attachment: Early Social Relationships Box 4.1: Biographical Sketch: John Bowlby & Mary Ainsworth Box 4.2: Biographical Sketch: Erik H. Erikson Attachment Quality Linking Maternal Care to Attachment Quality Early Social Bonding: Biology and Behavior Sensitive and Insensitive Parenting The Child’s Role in Infant Attachment: Infant Temperament Mothers and Fathers Cross-Cultural Influences on Infant Attachment Box 4.3: Does Day Care Pose a Risk to Infants? The Importance of Early Attachments Working Models of Attachment Parenting Practices vs. Relationship Quality in Infant Development

III.

Attachment in Context

IV.

Applications

Focus on Psychopathology: Disorganized Attachment and Reactive Attachment Disorder

VI.

Summary

VII.

Case Study

VIII.

Journal Questions

IX.

Key Terms

Chapter 4 Multiple Choice Questions 1.

The Phineas Gage matrix describes a syndrome due to frontal lobe damage that diminishes an individual’s emotional intensity. From this syndrome we have learned that with decreased emotional intensity comes a. greater tendency to plan and make rational decisions. b. better perspective taking ability. c. lesser tendency to plan and make rational decisions. d. greater happiness.

Izard and others have found that at birth or soon after, infants’ facial expressions display which of the following emotions? a. Shame. b. Anger. c. Pride. d. Contentment.

Beginning in the first hours after birth, caregivers interaction with infants in ways that enhance positive affect and attention, such as a. smiling, affectionate touching, and high-pitched vocalizations. b. keeping a still face to sooth the baby. c. responding promptly to the baby’s cries. d. Playing peek-a-boo with the baby.

When Tamara responds to the crying of her 4-month-old baby, Jessie, she tries to figure out what has caused the baby’s distress (hunger, wet diaper, etc.) while making soothing sounds and holding the baby. Tamara’s actions are ____________ Jessie’s developing emotion regulation abilities. a. blocking b. irrelevant to c. scaffolding d. disorganizing 5.

The still-face paradigm has been used primarily to study a. emotion regulation in infants. b. mother-infant attachment. c. the effects of disciplinary style on self-control. d. temperament. If a mother and baby are cooing and smiling at each other, and then the mother withdraws and becomes unresponsive, the typical infant will first engage in ____________, and then in ____________. 32

a. b.

c. d.

self-directed coping behaviors / other-directed coping behaviors crying / sleeping sleeping / crying other-directed coping behaviors / self-directed coping behaviors

Bea is the mother of 4-month-old Alex. She has been depressed since Alex’s birth and is frequently withdrawn. Because of Bea’s depression, we can expect that, in comparison to other 4-month-olds, Alex experiences will display a. less self-regulation. b. more active face-to-face interactions. c. less crying and disctress. d. more fearfulness and turning away.

Bea is the mother of 4-month-old Alex. She has been depressed since Alex’s birth and is frequently withdrawn. Brain research indicates that, in comparison to other infants his age, Alex will have a. brain activation patterns resembling those of fearful and inhibited children. b. nothing unusual about his brain activation patterns. c. brain activation patterns indicating overall reduced activity. d. more rapid brain development.

9. High levels of the hormone oxytocin plays an important role in early social bonding by a. lowering infant dopamine levels. b. promoting physical closeness and reducing maternal stress. c. increasing infant stress responsivity. d. regulating infant’s uneven hormonal and behavioral states.

10.

According to Bowlby’s attachment theory, which of the following purpose(s) have attachment systems evolved to serve, for both the younger and the older infant? a. Growth of number skills. b. Assuring survival and security. c. Assuring language development. d. Growth of a wide range of emotions.

11.

In Bowlby’s attachment theory, which of the following represents a primary outcome of the formation of attachments in infancy? a. A working model of self, of others, and of relationships. b. Basic trust in others, but not a sense of self or of relationships. 33

c. d.

A sense of the power structure of a family. A belief in God.

12.

In a classic study of the development of separation distress, Schaffer and Emerson (1964) found a. that separation anxiety develops much earlier than stranger anxiety. b. that stranger anxiety and separation distress normally develop in the first 2 months after birth. c. that by 8 months babies usually develop a strong preference for one caregiver. d. that there is no evidence of separation distress in normal babies.

13.

In Ainsworth et al.’s (1978) study of attachment formation, some mothers were less responsive to their babies’ signals than others. One group of mothers seemed to be reluctant to hold their babies, showed less warmth and affection than other mothers, and were more rejecting and angry. When their babies were tested in the strange situation test, the children tended to fit which category of attachment? a. Securely attached. b. Anxious ambivalent. c. Avoidant. d. Disorganized/disoriented.

14.

Some babies produce contradictory behaviors in the strange situation test, both showing some signs of approaching the mother when stressed but then avoiding the mother when she approaches. These babies often engage in bizarre behaviors as well, like rising to greet the parent and then falling prone. Such unusual behavior has been found to be associated with what kind of caregiving on the part of the mother? a. Warm, responsive, sensitive caregiving. b. Abusive caregiving. c. Inconsistent caregiving, sometimes sensitive and sometimes not. d. Low warmth, rejecting caregiving.

15.

At 10 months old, Suzie is very active, responds intensely to stimulation, avoids new stimulation, and tends to be irritable and fussy. Her temperament would be called a. difficult. b. easy. c. slow-to-warm up. d. resilient. At 10 months old, Suzie is very active, responds intensely to stimulation, avoids new stimulation, and tends to be irritable and fussy. Suzie’s mother, Anne, wants to be a good caregiver, but Suzie’s fussiness and intensity have made her feel like a failure. Anne sometimes finds herself withdrawing from Suzie and not responding when Suzie cries, because she feels like it will do no good. What advice should Anne’s counselor give her?

16.

a. b. c. d.

Anne has been too responsive to the baby’s crying. She needs to refuse to go to the baby when it cries to teach Suzie to be more independent. Anne is not responsible for her baby’s fussiness. Some babies are needier and more negative than others. In the long run, continuing to be responsive to crying will help Suzie to better regulate her emotions. It really doesn’t matter what Anne does. Of course Suzie needs to be fed, diapered, and so on, but Anne’s responsiveness will not affect whether Suzie cries a lot or a little. Anne’s counselor should stay out of it.

17.

Developmental researchers use the term “goodness of fit” to refer to a. the match between the mother’s and baby’s blood type. b. the similarity of the genotype of the mother and the genotype of the father. c. the match between the caregiver’s responses to a child and the child’s temperament. d. the tendency of the caregiver to coordinate eye contact and vocalization with a baby.

18.

Infants form multiple attachments, to both mother and father and perhaps to a sibling, grandparent, and so on. Which of the following statements is most consistent with available data on the impact of these attachments? a. The primary attachment (usually with the mother) is the only one that is predictive of later development. b. The good effects of a secure attachment with one parent are canceled by the bad effects of an insecure attachment with the other parent. c. More than one secure attachment adds value, serving as a further protective factor. d. No data are available.

19.

A parent whose own working model of attachment is “preoccupied/entangled” is likely to have an infant with which of the following kinds of attachment? a. Secure. b. Anxious ambivalent. c. Avoidant. d. Disorganized/disoriented. Which of the following is a true statement about the stability of infant attachments? a. Secure attachments are more likely to change than insecure attachments. b. If attachments fail to form by the end of infancy they will never successfully form. c. Changes in family stressors that lead to changes in caregiving quality can lead to shifts in attachment quality. d. Caregiver interventions cannot change infant attachment quality.

20.

21.

Which of the following is true about breastfeeding as compared to bottle-feeding? a. Breastfeeding guarantees that the infant will be securely attached to the mother. b. Breast milk contains beneficial disease antibodies and growth hormones not contained in formulas. c. Breastfeeding has no real advantages because modern formulas have all of the ingredients of breast milk. d. Breastfeeding is associated with less secure attachments.

22.

Juan is afraid of snakes, like many other people. Which of the following is likely to best describe how his brain responds when he first sees a snake? a. Sensory input from the snake is processed only by the cortex. b. The sensory input from the snake is first processed by the cortex, which makes a rational interpretation of the danger, then the information is passed on to the limbic system to produce a fear reaction. c. Sensory input from the snake is processed only by the lower structures of the limbic system. d. The lower limbic structures like the amygdala can process the sensory input from the snake and trigger a physical reaction to the feared stimulus before the input is processed at a more rational level by the cortex.

23.

Basic emotions such as _____________ can be observed in young infants, but selfconscious emotions such as ____________ only emerge in childhood. a. surprise and fear / embarrassment and pride b. fear and shame /anger and empathy c. contentment and pride / anger and shame d. empathy and anger / surprise and fear

24.

The quality of a children’s attachments has been found to affect a. children’s social anxiety, but not their response to stress. b. whether children achieve major motor milestones. c. children’s temperamental responses. d. how children respond to new social situations.

25.

Phillipa’s husband, Manuel, is worried about her plan to return to full-time employment when their baby is 6 months old. He is afraid that there will be a negative effect on the baby’s attachment to her mother. Phillipa suggests that she and Manuel discuss the pros and cons of day care with a counselor. What would a well-informed counselor advise this couple? a. If Phillipa continues to provide sensitive, responsive care when she is with the baby, and if the day care is good quality, then the baby should still form a secure attachment to Phillipa.

b. c. d.

No matter how good the mothers’ care or the day care is, leaving the baby in day care each day will put the baby at high risk for forming an insecure attachment to her mother. As long as the day care quality is good, even if Phillipa is too tired and busy to be responsive and sensitive, the baby should form a secure attachment to her mother. There is no reliable information available to counselors that would help them to advise this couple.

26.

The term rhythmicity, in regard to infants, refers to a. their ability to coordinate their actions, like looking and smiling, with those of a caregiver. b. their tendency to sway in synchrony with music. c. the production of cooing sounds in synchrony with music. d. their biological regularity, as in how regularly they sleep or eat.

27.

A counselor works with Mrs. Jacobs, who has a 1-month-old daughter. Mrs. Jacobs finds her daughter intense, demanding and hard to soothe. Most likely, this is because a. her baby has formed an insecure attachment with her mother. b. her baby has a significant medical problem c. her baby has been spoiled by too much attention. d. her baby has a more difficult temperament.

28.

Which of the following is not true with regard to the definition of reactive attachment disorder? a. These children have experienced grossly inadequate care in the early years. b. These children behave indifferently, like avoidantly attached youngsters. c. These children often show indiscriminant friendliness toward strangers instead of more typical caution. d. These children may develop later attachments, given their exposure to nurturant caregivers, but the process is more difficult and not assured in every case. Day care researchers have identified a dose-response relationship between the amount of time spent in day care and the age of entry into day care and which later outcome? a. depression at school age b. academic achievement in elementary school c. aggression and neediness at school age d. sociability with peers at school age

29.

30.

Counselors who work with young children to enhance their mental health should take an 37

active role in a. b. c. d.

providing support and information for parents. creating therapeutic experiences for the child that teach self-monitoring. providing the child with group exposure to other children of the same age. becoming an attachment figure for the young child.

Chapter 4 Essay Questions (See answer key for potential essay answers) 31.

Discuss the possible role of maternal depression in the development of emotion regulation in infants.

32.

Explain how attachment quality can change over time as caretaking quality changes, and explain the significance of infant’s behavior in shaping their caregivers responses.

33.

Discuss at least three reasons why attachment theory and research has special significance for helping professionals.

34.

Explain the cultural contributions to the development of attachments. What role does culture play in this process?

Chapter 5 Outline The Emerging Self and Socialization in the Early Years I.

The Self-System: Traditional Conceptions

II.

The Early Development of the Self-System The Beginnings of the “I” and the “Me” Precursors of Self-Awareness in Infancy- The “Pre-Self The Emergence of Self-Awareness and Self-Concept Roots of Self-Control and Self-Regulation The Importance of Emotion Regulation The Early Progress of Behavior Regulation

III.

Early Socialization: Parenting and the Development of the Self-System The Dimensions of Parenting Style The Warmth Dimension– Parental Responsiveness The Control Dimension – Parental Demandingness Four Parenting Styles The Authoritative Style The Authoritarian Style The Permissive Style The Neglecting-Uninvolved Style Parenting Style and Outcomes Parenting Practices Methods of Control Box 5.1 Effective ways to use time-out. Moderators of Parenting And Parenting Effectiveness

The Child’s Temperament, Parenting, and Child Outcomes Children’s differential susceptibility to parenting strategies The Cultural Context, Parenting, and Child Outcomes Box 5.2 Popular Views of Parenting: What Should We Believe? IV.

Conscience: The Beginnings of a Moral Self

Applications Building a Self Through the Attachment Relationship The Emotionally Constricted Self The Emotionally Volatile Self Why Train Parents? How Does Parent Training Work? Forewarned Is Forearmed What about Spanking? The Flexible Work of Parenting

VI.

Summary

VII.

Case Study

VIII. Journal Questions IX.

Key Terms

Chapter 5 Multiple Choice Questions 1.

Annette is a warm and affectionate mother to her sons, Jason and Keith. When she comes home from her job, she likes to spend time playing with them, preparing their favorite foods, and watching TV with them. She describes herself as a “soft touch” when it comes to her children. Lately she has been hearing complaints about 6-year-old Jason’s behavior in school. Annette thinks the teacher is being too hard on her son. She does not want anything to affect the good relationship she has with her children. Which style best describes Annette’s parenting? a. Authoritarian. b. Authoritative. c. Permissive. d. Neglecting-uninvolved.

Recent research on the self-system supports the idea that the self is ____________ in nature. a. multidimensional b. bidimensional c. unidimensional d. non-dimensional

Becky is struggling to learn her alphabet letters. Her kindergarten teacher, frustrated by failed attempts to teach her, says to Becky, “All the other girls and boys can write most of the letters and you can’t even say their names.” The teacher believes she is motivating the child to work harder by comparing Becky to the others. Which of the following predictions is most consistent with Cooley’s theory of self-development? a. Becky will develop a sense of agency because she is more motivated to compete with her peers. b. Becky will not develop a sense of agency because she is not given adequate support. c. Becky will work harder to develop her sense of self-esteem. d. Becky will incorporate her teacher’s negative evaluations into her construction of her own sense of self.

The term ____________ refers to the description of a person’s attributes, whereas the term ____________ refers to how a person feels about those attributes. a. self-esteem / self-efficacy b. self-concept / self-system c. self-efficacy / self-esteem d. self-concept / self-esteem

Which of the following best represents Mead’s contribution to our understanding of selfdevelopment? 41

a. b. c. d.

Children use information about the ways others react to them to help construct their sense of self. Children internalize the orientations and values of their families and cultural groups in constructing their sense of self. Children view themselves as good or bad depending upon their parents’ aspirations and pretentions. Children develop an agentic self when parents are responsive to their needs.

Marie has a 2½-year-old daughter. The babysitter has been calling her daughter “naughty” and “a bad girl” when the child is uncooperative. The babysitter says that the little girl doesn’t understand what she is saying so it doesn’t matter. Marie is unsure about what to do. Based upon information presented in this chapter, what would you say to Marie? a. Marie should not worry about what the babysitter is doing because her daughter is too young to understand. b. Marie should tell her daughter that what the babysitter says about her is untrue. c. Marie should tell her daughter that she is loved to make up for what the babysitter says. d. Marie should find some way to stop this before these labels become part of her daughter’s developing self-understanding.

At what age would a young child typically show self-recognition, the ability to recognize themselves in a mirror? a. By 10 months. b. By 13 months. c. By 18 months. d. By 3 years.

Alex is 22 months of age. He knows that he should not play with his food at the dinner table, but he sometimes still does so. His parents can usually redirect his behavior with simple reminders about what he should be doing. What is happening cognitively to help him grow in self-control? a. With repeated experience, Alex is constructing representations of standards for everyday behavior that serve as guidelines for behavior. b. Alex knows that he will be embarrassed if he gets caught playing with his food. c. Alex can decenter sufficiently to understand the nature of the food. d. Alex is now less cognitively egocentric and can see his mother’s perspective.

Which of the following is a critical element that underlies the development of selfcontrol? a. Self-esteem. 42

b. c. d.

Authoritarian discipline. Emotion regulation. Power assertion.

10.

Juan is a fearless 4-year-old and one of the most active children in his day care center. He eagerly climbs the playground equipment and seems to have little fear of getting hurt. Juan often wanders away from his mother in stores, preferring to explore the interesting sights rather than wait patiently by her side. Juan’s mother is exasperated with his behavior and fears for his safety. Based upon the research cited in this chapter, what advice could you give her? a. She should spank him because this is the only type of discipline he understands at his age. b. She should use gentle discipline so that he is not frightened by her. c. She should remember that Juan will be more likely to comply if she explains the rules and reasons for her worries. d. She should remember that Juan will be less likely to comply if she is too warm.

11.

12.

13.

a. b. c. d.

Sasha will associate bedtime with threats and avoid going to bed even more. Sasha will focus on the reason why it is not a good idea to make a lot of noise. Sasha will come to believe that her father prefers her baby sister. Sasha will learn how angry her father gets when she refuses to do what he wants.

14.

Sasha, a 3-year-old girl, was having difficulty settling down at bedtime. She ran around her house, trying to make her parents catch her before getting into bed. Sasha’s behavior awakened her baby sister, asleep in the next room. John, Sasha’s father, felt pushed to his limit and he screamed at Sasha to stop and threatened her with a spanking. In this example, which of the following statements is true with regard to internalization of standards? a. Sasha’s father supported her internalization of rules of behavior because he exerted his authority. b. Sasha’s father did not support her internalization of rules of behavior because she only complied out of fear. c. Sasha’s father supported her internalization of rules because he considered the needs of her baby sister. d. Sasha’s father did not support her internalization of rules because she was too young to understand what rules are.

15.

16.

The internalization of rules and standards of behavior is most closely associated with the development of a. self-concept. b. attachment. c. intelligence. d. conscience. Parents who give reasons for the rules they set in ways that their children can understand are using what disciplinary method? a. Induction. b. Power assertion. c. Withdrawal of love. d. Permissiveness.

17.

18.

Which of the following discipline methods is most likely to in generate both immediate compliance and very high levels of anxiety? a. Induction. b. Power assertion. c. Withdrawal of love. d. Neglectfulness.

19.

Some research shows that cultural values and goals shape the kinds of discipline that parents use with their children. Which of the following statements is true in this regard? a. European American mothers were more likely than Puerto Rican mothers to use directives and commands with their children. b. Puerto Rican mothers showed more warmth toward their children than European American mothers. c. Puerto Rican mothers were more likely than European American mothers to use directives and issue commands with their children. d. European American mothers showed more warmth toward their children than Puerto Rican mothers.

20.

Some research shows that cultural values and goals shape the kinds of discipline that parents use with their children. One example is that Puerto Rican mothers wanted their children to recognize their obligations and connectedness to others; their goals for their children were more ____________ than the goals of European American mothers. a. individualistic b. sociocentric c. authoritative d. contextual

21.

According to Crittendon’s model, infants who have avoidant attachment classifications have experienced which pattern of learning or conditioning? a. Intermittent reinforcement for displays of affect. b. Intermittent punishment for displays of affect. c. Predictable reinforcement for displays of affect. d. Predictable punishment for displays of affect. According to Crittendon’s model, infants encode early experiences of care-giving in the form of a. semantic memories. b. procedural memories. c. conditional memories. d. metacognitive memories.

22.

23.

According to Crittendon’s model, infants who have anxious-ambivalent attachments have experienced which pattern of learning or conditioning? a. Predictable punishment for displays of affect. b. Unpredictable reinforcement for expressions of need. c. Predictable reinforcement for displays of positive emotion. c. Negative reinforcement for expressions of positive emotion

24.

Surya wants 8-year-old Leila to start her homework. Leila doesn’t want to turn off the TV. Surya raises her voice and threatens to take away Leila’s TV privileges for a week if she doesn’t comply. Surya enters the room and commands Leila to obey. Leila begins to wail, saying that the homework is too hard and that she never understands it anyway. At this point the phone rings. Surya gets absorbed in the call. Thirty minutes later, Leila is still watching TV and another battle ensues. Surya, exhausted from the struggle, take her to bed. This scenario is an example of which phenomenon? a. Patterson’s coercive family process. b. Maccoby’s authoritative parenting. c. Baumrind’s authoritarian parenting. d. James’ egocentric family process.

25.

Surya wants 8-year-old Leila to start her homework. Leila doesn’t want to turn off the TV. Surya raises her voice and threatens to take away Leila’s TV privileges for a week if she doesn’t comply. Surya enters the room and commands Leila to obey. Leila begins to wail, saying that the homework is too hard and that she never understands it anyway. At this point the phone rings. Surya gets absorbed in the call. Thirty minutes later, Leila is still watching TV and another battle ensues. Surya, exhausted from the struggle, take her to bed. Which behavior is most likely to increase next time? a. Doing homework. b. Losing TV privileges. c. Parent’s involvement with homework. d. TV viewing.

26.

Surya wants 8-year-old Leila to start her homework. Leila doesn’t want to turn off the TV. Surya raises her voice and threatens to take away Leila’s TV privileges for a week if she doesn’t comply. Surya enters the room and commands Leila to obey. Leila begins to wail, saying that the homework is too hard and that she never understands it anyway. At this point the phone rings. Surya gets absorbed in the call. Thirty minutes later, Leila is still watching TV and another battle ensues. Surya, exhausted from the struggle, take her to bed. Which of the following best illustrates the negative reinforcement cycle that is operating in this example? a. Leila is more likely to continue the conflict when Surya raises her voice. b. Leila is allowed to watch TV longer if she keeps arguing with her mother. c. Surya is more likely to gain compliance when she threatens Leila. 46

Leila is more likely to do her homework if she understands the material.

27.

Which of the following emotions develops only after a child has a mental representation of him or herself as a separate person? a. Anger. b. Guilt. c. Fear. d. Disgust.

28.

Becoming aware of the “Me” self, the self that recognizes one’s gender and age, occurs roughly around what age? a. At 1 year. b. Around 3 years. c. By 5 to 6 years. d. Not until 7 years of age.

29.

A counselor is running a parents’ group when the topic of spanking as a disciplinary technique is raised. What is the most accurate statement based on research that the counselor can offer? a. Spanking is one of a variety of techniques that are effective in teaching prosocial skills to children. b. Spanking should be used with young children for potentially dangerous kinds of misbehavior like running across a street because it is the only thing they understand under the circumstances. c. Spanking is the best way to discipline young children but only when it is accompanied by a hug or some show of affection afterward. d. Spanking may gain immediate compliance, but it does not aid development of self-regulation and it may increases a child’s aggressiveness. Negative reinforcement is best described as a. a punishment that serves to reduce a problematic behavior. b. when some unpleasant stimulus is avoided or removed, strengthening the behavior that allows escape from the unpleasantness. c. a negative consequence that follows a behavior. d. a consequence that reinforces negative behavior.

30.

31.

Counselors who do parent training primarily use which approach for this work? a. Learning theory. b. Rational-emotive therapy. c. Person-centered therapy. 47

Adlerian therapy.

32.

For counselors who work with families that include children of different ages, which of the following statements is true? a. Parents should consistently enforce a limited number of rules regardless of the age of the child. b. Parents need to treat all children in the family the same way (e.g., granting privileges, etc.) or they risk sending the message that they favor one child over another. c. Parents need to be flexible as children get older and adjust their rules and expectations to developmentally changing competencies and needs. d. Parents can relax their control of older children because these children have passed the critical period of the preschool years when learning rules is most important.

33.

A family comes to a counselor with the following problem. Both parents come home from work tired. Dinner is rushed because homework time for the 3rd grade twins takes hours. Bath and bedtime have become daily battles. The parents threaten the children, but the children typically get their parents to give in. This is best described as an example of a. coercive family patterns. b. familial aggressive patterns. c. instrumental reinforcement patterns. d. negative punishment cycles.

Chapter 5 Essay Questions (See answer key for potential essay answers) 33.

Discuss the pros and cons of corporal punishment as a disciplinary method. Why might its effectiveness differ for different cultural groups? What questions remain to be answered about the relationship between culture and disciplinary style?

34.

Describe the way social referencing might explain the acquisition of certain fears in children.

35.

Discuss the relationship between child temperament and parent disciplinary style.

36.

Create a case study of a family with children who are showing behavior problems. Outline the steps you would take as a counselor to treat this family while paying 48

particular attention to the developmental needs of the children.

Chapter 6 Realms of Cognition in Middle Childhood Outline I.

Brain and Behavior Cognitive Development Piaget’s Stage of Concrete Operations Box 6.1: Techno-Kids: Cognitive Development in a Wired World An Alternative Perspective: The Information Processing Approach Box 6.2: Children’s Eyewitness Testimony Cognitive Development and Formal Schooling Box 6.3: Children of Immigrant Families

II.

Social Cognition Perspective Taking and Social Relationships Perspective Taking and Friendship Development Selman’s Stages of Friendship Development

III.

Applications

IV.

Summary

Case Study

VI.

Journal Questions

VII.

Key Terms

Chapter 6 Multiple Choice Questions 1. The maturing of the corpus callosum by middle childhood is especially important for a. planning. b. logical thinking. c. motor coordination. d. perspective taking

2. Stanley is 7 years old. His parents are quite concerned about his school progress. Although he has begun to learn to read, he reverses some letters when he writes. Based on research, Stanley’s school counselor should tell his parents that a. brain development can be quite uneven in childhood and as a result, it is not unusual for children to show poor performance in isolated skills. b. Stanley almost certainly has a serious learning disorder which requires immediate intervention. c. if a child shows normal progress in other reading related skills, like Stanley does, the child is probably faking the letter reversals in a bid for attention. d. Stanley needs glasses.

3. Piaget’s description of the differences between preoperational thought (characteristic of preschool aged children) and concrete operational thought (characteristic of elementary school aged children), includes which of the following? a. Preoperational thought is reversible, but concrete operational thought is not. b. Preoperational thought is fast, but concrete operational thought is slow. c. Preoperational thought occurs in the frontal lobes, but concrete operational thought occurs in the corpus callosum. d. Preoperational thought is centered, but concrete operational thought is decentered.

Which of the following is a difference between working memory and long-term memory? a. Problem solving and making inferences is something we do in long-term memory, not in working memory. b. Working memory retains information even longer than long-term memory. c. Working memory has a limited capacity whereas long-term memory has almost unlimited capacity. d. Working memory and long-term memory are the same thing.

5. Carla, a bright, energetic 8-year-old, has lost four gloves during the past few weeks. Her mother is annoyed at the need to keep replacing gloves. Carla notices that her little brother is amused that Carla is in trouble, and she formulates the theory that her brother is stealing the gloves just to get her into trouble. Carla is convinced that she is right. She refuses to entertain her mother’s suggestion that Carla is often so distracted that she does not keep track of her possessions. Carla is displaying a form of a. egocentrism. b. formal operational thought. c. reversibility. d. domain specific knowledge.

6. Our knowledge of an event in our own lives, such as a family vacation, is a type of a. episodic knowledge. b. semantic knowledge. c. nondeclarative knowledge. d. procedural knowledge.

7. Which of the following does not contribute to improvements in children’s ability to remember with increasing age? a. As children get older, they can process information more quickly. b. An increasing knowledge base with age improves children’s ability to reconstruct to-be-remembered information. c. Improvements in logical thinking with age improve children’s ability to reconstruct to-be-remembered information. d. As children get older they forget previously misunderstood information.

8. The more you know about a particular domain of knowledge, a. the more easily you can learn new information in that domain. b. the more slowly you will solve problems in that domain. c. the more difficult it is to learn new information in that domain. e. the more difficult it is to learn information in other domains of knowledge.

9. Memory is to some degree reconstructed. This accounts for the phenomenon of a. production deficiencies. b. theory of mind. c. preoperational egocentrism. d. false memories.

10. When Sammy had to learn the names of all the planets, as well as their relative sizes, he made up sentences to help him remember. For example, “Eartha ate the Mars candy bar” helped him remember that Earth is larger than Mars. Sammy was using a memory strategy called a. selective attention. b. rehearsal. c. organization. d. elaboration. 11. Imagine that you are counseling a 6th grader on how to improve her study skills so that she will remember more information on tests. Not only do you teach her some memory strategies, you also encourage her to engage in self-testing so that she will begin selfmonitoring, that is, keeping track of how well she is remembering new material. What kind of skill is this kind of self-monitoring? a. A metacognitive skill. b. A preoperational skill. c. A declarative memory. d. A social cognitive skill. 12. Which of the following is true about strategies children use to help them solve math problems? a. Children always abandon less efficient strategies when they discover more efficient strategies. b. Only children who have formal schooling learn to use strategies. c. Flawed strategies, or “bugs,” are typical only of children without formal schooling. d. Children will occasionally use less efficient strategies even after they have discovered more efficient strategies. 13. Ms. Dawson, a 1st grade teacher, has asked your advice on how to set up a cooperative learning project with her 1st graders. She wants the children to solve problems together in small groups. Based on what you have learned about children’s interpersonal strategies, what advice should you give her? a. Young children in the 1st grade are not as likely to be able to cooperate in learning projects as older children. b. The best way to do a collaborative learning project with any age group is to let the children operate fully on their own, with no adult feedback. c. Children working together in a group do better if they are of several different ages. d. Children should be encouraged to allow the most knowledgeable or advanced member of the group to do the talking and planning. 14. When interviewers use the guided imagery technique to help young children remember what they have witnessed, there is danger of creating false memories in the children 53

because of their difficulty with a. recognizing faces. b. paying attention. c. reality monitoring. d. forming images. 15. Five-year-old Brennan was questioned by police about a babysitter (Ginger) who was suspected of abusing Brennan’s older sister. To encourage Brennan to reveal what he knew about Ginger, a police interviewer referred to the babysitter as a “nasty lady who does some strange things.” These interviewer remarks are an example of a. guided imagery. b. stereotype induction. c. working memory. d. egocentrism. 16.

NeoPiagetians are a. psychologists who abandoned Piaget’s model in favor of information processing theories. b. applying Piaget’s concepts to therapeutic interventions. c. cognitive developmental theorists who incorporate ideas from Piaget and from information processing approaches into their theories. d. cognitive developmental theorists who dismiss the ideas of information processing approaches and argue for a return to Piaget’s original theoretical work.

17. Jenna, a 10-year-old, has a mental structure, or schema, about what typically happens when you go out to eat in a restaurant. Her schema indicates that a host or hostess first leads you to a table, then a waiter or waitress comes to take your order, and so on. This kind of mental structure is called a. a semantic memory. b. a procedural memory. c. an anagram. d. a script. 18. Dylan, a 9-year-old, is manipulative in his interactions with his friends. He does not use physical aggression, but he often tries threats and scare tactics to get what he wants. Dylan’s interpersonal orientation would be described as a. other-transforming. b. reciprocal. c. mature for his age. d. self-transforming. 19. Which of the following therapeutic approaches is designed to help children develop their perspective taking and friendship skills? a. Cognitive therapy. b. The self-monitoring approach. 54

c. d.

Pair therapy. Immersion therapy.

20. Selman describes stages in the development of both perspective taking skill and of friendship. Suppose that David understands that his friend Mike has a different perspective from his own, but David cannot yet judge how his own behavior is likely to be viewed by his friend. Which of Selman’s stages is David most likely to be in? a. Stage 0, “Egocentrism” b. Stage 1, “Differentiated/Subjective” c. Stage 2, “Reciprocal/Self-reflective” d. Stage 3, “Mutual/Third Person”

21. Jamie, a boy scout, has practiced tying a particular kind of knot dozens of times, and he does it quickly and efficiently. But when he tries to explain how to do it to a younger member of his troop, he can’t put it into words, he can only show the other boy how to do it. Jamie’s knowledge of knot tying is an example of a. declarative knowledge. b. autobiographical knowledge. c. semantic knowledge. d. procedural knowledge.

22. Eight-year-old Marquita has spent a great deal of time learning basic addition facts. When she solves a complex addition problem in school, she pulls these facts out of memory. Marquita is using a ____________ strategy to help her solve addition problems. a. retrieval b. reversible c. production d. counting on

23. Friendship, according to Selman, requires balancing a. intimacy and autonomy. b. conflict and harmony. c. transforming and maintaining. d. bullying and giving in. 24. Before using cognitive therapies with children, which of the following is an important area of cognitive skill that clinicians should assess in their young clients? a. Long-term memory. b. Episodic memory. c. Nondeclarative knowledge. d. Metacognitive skill. 55

25. Both Sam and Suzanna, age 11, are having trouble making friends. A counselor assesses each of them for social interactive skills and discovers that Sam has poor perspective-taking skills for his age. Suzanna actually has good perspective-taking skills, but she fails to use these skills effectively when interacting with others. In Selman’s terms, these two children show different levels of ____________ but similar levels of ____________. a. other-transforming strategies / self-transforming strategies b. competence / performance c. self-transforming strategies / other-transforming strategies d. performance / competence

26. Which of the following aspects of friendship development does Selman believe is not influenced and informed by a child’s perspective taking skills? a. Friendship understanding. b. Friendship skills. c. Friendship valuing. d. The need for autonomy. 27. Counselors who work to improve children’s social relationships are concerned with developing friendship skills. According to Selman, friendship skills can be defined as a. a child’s changing knowledge about what friendship implies. b. behaviors such as appropriate assertiveness, eye contact, and good communication with peers. c. emotional investments a child makes in friendships. d. the reasoning approaches a children characteristically applies to social situations. 28. Wayne is taking a digit span test. When he hears this series of digits, 3 9 4 2 6 1 2, he realizes the digits match the ages of people in his family; his mother is 39, his father is 42, his little sister is 6, and he is 12. He decides to remember the series of four ages rather than try to recall each digit separately. Wayne is using a strategy called a. elaboration. b. chunking. c. decalage. d. other-transforming. 29. Jeremy, a 2nd grader, is in the counselor’s office because he hit another boy on the playground. He tells the counselor that he knew the other boy was about to hit him first. He was just “getting back” at the other student. The counselor tries to help Jeremy control his aggressive behavior by explaining that the other boy didn’t intend to hurt him. Given what you have learned about social development, which of the following is your best recommendation for the counselor? a. Jeremy needs to be punished for his behavior, because no amount of talking will do any good at his age. 56

b. c. d.

The counselor should call Jeremy’s parents and they should resolve the problem because they are the primary socializing agents. Jeremy probably doesn’t have a good understanding of another person’s intentions at this age. The counselor should assess the quality of Jeremy’s perspective-taking and structure the intervention accordingly. The counselor’s approach is a good one because most children can infer the intentions and take the perspective of others around this time.

30. Mrs. Brown has tried to explain to her 3-year-old daughter, Maya, that Maya must stay at the babysitter’s house while her mother goes to work. Maya cries each day during leavetaking. Mrs. Brown is embarrassed by this, especially because the babysitter seems to disapprove. The babysitter thinks that Maya should be more considerate toward her mother. Which is the most developmentally appropriate course of action? a. Explain patiently to Maya that her mother loves her but that she needs to work. b. Explain to the babysitter that Maya can’t understand yet why her mother has to leave her and ask that the babysitter be patient with her. c. Ask the babysitter to spend some time explaining to Maya why her mother needs to leave. d. Spend more time teaching Maya to be considerate of others by talking to her about sharing. 31. For counselors who work with abused and maltreated children, which of the following statements draws an appropriate conclusion from research on social cognition and friendships? a. Counselors should employ group counseling because abused children can relate best to other maltreated children. b. Individual classroom accommodations are most helpful because these children typically lag behind their peers academically and this help will do most to bolster their self-esteem. c. The counselor needs to serve as the attachment figure so that these children can form an attachment and develop empathy for others. d. Counselors should pay attention to the social world of these maltreated children, because those who can make a best friend have a good chance of improving their self-esteem. 32.

Metacognition is reflected in a. questions such as “How well am I thinking?” b. response enactment. c. copying times tables in math. d. repeating the spelling of words over and over.

Chapter 6 Essay Questions (See answer key for potential essay answers) 33.

Kuhn (2000) wrote that “to study memories is to study much of …cognition and cognitive development.” Explain this statement, using examples of the factors which contribute to memory improvement with age to illustrate your points.

34.

The concept of egocentrism has been introduced both to explain the limitations of cognitive development in the elementary school aged child and to explain the usual progress of friendship development. Define egocentrism. Summarize its role in cognitive functioning and in social interactive functioning for the elementary school aged child.

35.

Imagine that you are working with a 10-year-old who is having trouble making friends. His parents and teachers indicate that the boy is “generous to a fault,” often giving up what he wants in order to please others. Based on Selman’s ideas about friendship development, explain whether this child is more or less mature than the boys who bully him, and describe an approach to helping the boy with his friendship skills.

36.

Explain why perspective taking is so crucial to the development of social skills.

Chapter 7 Self and Moral Development: Middle Childhood Through Early Adolescence Outline I.

Self Concept The Development of Self Concept The Structure of Self Concept Influences on the Development of Self-Concept Gender, Race, Ethnicity and Self-Esteem Differences in North America Cross-Cultural Differences in the Development of the Self

II.

The Moral Self Elements of morality Some Classic Theories of Moral Development Box 7.1: Morality as an Educational Goal Children’s Prosocial Behavior Children’s Antisocial Behavior

III.

Applications Where Do We Start? What Do Schemas Have to Do with it? Self-Concept, Perceived competence, and Looking Glass An Inside Job Moral Development: Putting Flesh on the Bone

IV.

Focus on Developmental Psychopathology: Conduct Problems

Summary

VI.

Case Study

VII.

Journal Questions

VIII. Key Terms

Chapter 7 Multiple Choice Questions 1.

Tim is doing poorly in math. Although he knows he’s not a very good math student, it does not concern him greatly. He spends most of his time after school playing hockey, a sport at which he excels. Tim’s 5th grade math teacher tries to motivate him to stay after school for tutoring, but Tim doesn’t want to miss hockey practice. Furthermore, he reasons, two of his teammates have even lower marks in math than he does. Which of the following statements about Tim’s self-concept is most accurate? a. Tim’s self-concept is low because thinks poorly of himself in math. b. Tim’s self-concept is high because he thinks he is good in athletics. c. Tim’s self-concept reflects some understanding of his strengths and weaknesses. d. Tim’s self-concept is undifferentiated because of his age.

Tim is doing poorly in math. Although he knows he’s not a very good math student, it does not concern him greatly. He spends most of his time after school playing hockey, a sport at which he excels. Tim’s 5th grade math teacher tries to motivate him to stay after school for tutoring, but Tim doesn’t want to miss hockey practice. Furthermore, he reasons, two of his teammates have even lower marks in math than he does. Which of the following statements about Tim’s self-esteem is most accurate? a. Tim’s global self-esteem is likely to be high because he excels in an area of importance to him. b. Tim’s global self-esteem is likely to be low because he is failing in an important academic area. c. Tim’s global self-esteem is higher in the academic than in the nonacademic area. d. Tim’s global self-esteem is higher in the non-academic than in the academic area.

Tim is doing poorly in math. Although he knows he’s not a very good math student, it does not concern him greatly. He spends most of his time after school playing hockey, a sport at which he excels. Tim’s 5th grade math teacher tries to motivate him to stay after school for tutoring, but Tim doesn’t want to miss hockey practice. Furthermore, he reasons, two of his teammates have even lower marks in math than he does. Which intrapersonal process seems to be serving to enhance Tim’s self-esteem? a. Tim’s self-criticism. b. Tim’s self-monitoring of his performance. c. Tim’s perspective-taking skills. d. Tim’s downward social comparison.

Tim is doing poorly in math. Although he knows he’s not a very good math student, it does not concern him greatly. He spends most of his time after school playing hockey, a 61

sport at which he excels. Tim’s 5th grade math teacher tries to motivate him to stay after school for tutoring, but Tim doesn’t want to miss hockey practice. Furthermore, he reasons, two of his teammates have even lower marks in math than he does. Which of the following approaches would you recommend Tim’s teacher use with him? a. Try to help Tim gain a more realistic perspective about his weaknesses in math and help him learn the skills he needs to succeed. b. Try to enhance his academic self-esteem by giving him unconditional positive regard. c. Encourage him to focus his attention on sports because that’s where his talents are. d. Provide reflected appraisals of positive warmth and encouragement for his efforts in math, regardless of the quality of his efforts.

People are generally motivated to evaluate themselves favorably in others. This tendency is called a a. self-comparison bias. b. positive appraisal. c. social comparison. d. self-enhancing bias.

Ms. Jackson, a middle school counselor, is concerned about the special problems girls face at adolescence. Consider the research evidence for gender differences in self-esteem at this period of development. Which of the following interventions would be most productive? a. Restructure the curriculum to teach subjects from a feminist perspective in order to empower girls. b. Respond more favorably to initiatives developed by girls in the school, giving them priority over boys’ initiatives to redress past inequality. c. Conduct group counseling sessions for all female students as a preventive intervention for eating disorders and depression. d. Provide opportunities, modeling, and support for both girls and boys to select courses and activities that could be considered non-traditional with regard to gender.

One factor that promotes self-esteem among minority group members is a. a strong and positive racial or ethnic identity. b. being a member of a smaller, rather than a larger, social group. c. making social comparisons to members of other cultural groups. d. increased use of reflected appraisals in constructions of self. Individuals with high levels of self-esteem would be more likely than those with low self-esteem to a. obey authority figures. b. try to be liked by members of a peer group.

relation to

c. d.

be assertive about expressing something they believe in. have higher levels of moral reasoning.

Individuals with low levels of self-esteem would be more likely than those with high self-esteem to a. have higher levels of moral reasoning. b. go along with peers even when they do not agree. c. force other people to conform to their wishes. d. lack impulse control.

10.

According to research on self-concept in children, which of the following aspects of selfconcept is most closely tied to overall level of self-esteem? a. Academic self-concept. b. Social self-concept. c. Athletic self-concept. d. Physical appearance.

11.

12.

As Selena and her friends are walking home after school they approach a corner store and see bags of candy and snacks on open shelves outside the front door. A young clerk is also outside waiting for customers. As they get closer, they see the clerk go inside the store. Selena’s friends encourage her to take a bag of candy, but she refuses. How would an individual in Kohlberg’s conventional stage of moral reasoning explain Selena’s behavior? a. Selena didn’t take the candy because she might get caught. b. Selena didn’t take the candy because it belonged to someone else. c. Selena didn’t take the candy because stealing is a violation of the moral rules of justice and fairness. d. Selena didn’t take the candy because it is not good for society when people steal from others. As Selena and her friends are walking home after school they approach a corner store and see bags of candy and snacks on open shelves outside the front door. A young clerk is also outside waiting for customers. As they get closer, they see the clerk go inside the store. Selena’s friends encourage her to take a bag of candy, but she refuses. How would Freud’s theory explain Selena’s behavior? a. Selena identifies with her mother, who taught her that stealing is wrong.

13.

b. c. d.

Selena identifies with her father, who taught her that stealing is wrong. Selena has not developed an adequate superego because of her age, so she just conforms to authority. Selena has not developed an adequate superego because of her gender, so she just conforms to authority.

14.

15.

Caring for others is an example of a ____________, while using a proper form of address, such as Mister or Miss, is an example of a ____________. a. conventional rule / personal rule. b. moral rule / conventional rule. c. moral rule / personal rule. d. conventional rule / moral rule.

16.

Which of the following statements is true with respect to moral development? a. Children’s reasoning about moral issues does not progress in stages. b. Children’s ability to reason about moral dilemmas in conventional ways is common among children in late preschool years. c. Many adults reach the point where they reason about moral issues using universal ethical standards. d. Children’s moral behavior is always coordinated with their level of moral reasoning.

17.

Critics of Gilligan’s perspective on moral reasoning say that she has a. overemphasized the importance of concern for others. b. overemphasized the importance of gender differences in moral reasoning. c. overemphasized the importance of rewards in moral reasoning. d. overemphasized the importance of autonomy in moral reasoning.

18.

Billy’s babysitter takes him to the park every day where he can play with other preschoolers. When Billy falls or gets hurt, his babysitter soothes him until he feels better. One day Dwayne, another preschool child, falls from the swings. Billy looks concerned and rushes over to help. Then Billy tells his babysitter that Dwayne got hurt. According to research, Billy’s prosocial behavior is strongly related to Billy’s experience of a. empathy and sympathy. b. guilt. c. anxiety. d. interest.

19.

Mr. Sanderson is a 1st grade teacher. He believes in fostering children’s tolerance for others, encouraging fairness, and promoting cooperative behavior. One of his classroom jobs involves leading the lunch line to the school cafeteria, a coveted role among the students. Vanessa has been line leader of the week. It is now the last day of the week and Mr. Sanderson asks Vanessa to allow Jeremy, a brand new student, a chance to lead the line. Mr. Sanderson is upset with Vanessa when she refuses because he feels she is not being kind. What is the best explanation for Vanessa’s behavior? a. At this age, Vanessa is at the premoral stage of prosocial behavior and is unconcerned about other children in the class. b. At this age, Vanessa can engage in needs-based reasoning but may still have difficulty weighing the needs of others against to her own. c. At this age, Vanessa recognizes that she has a duty to share, and her selfishness will probably lead to social problems. d. At this age, Vanessa can not engage in needs-based reasoning so she is unaware that she is being selfish.

20.

Which of the following is a temperamental characteristic that is associated with prosocial behavior? a. Low social anxiety. b. Popularity among peers. c. Coherent self-concept. d. Intelligence.

21.

Charles was a temperamentally irritable baby who was difficult for his parents to handle. Now at 6, he is showing behavior problems in school. He has not mastered his alphabet letters and gives up easily. Charles’ parents also have difficulty making rules stick with him at home. They remember how easy their other two children were to raise and now have less patience with their youngest son. Based on research, which of the following characteristics is least likely to be related to Charles’ conduct problems? a. Weaknesses in verbal skills. b. Birth order. c. Coercive family interaction. 65

Difficult temperament.

22.

Peter, who is an aggressive 11-year-old, is referred to the counselor because of a recent episode of fighting on the bus. When asked to explain what happened, Peter said that he had to sit next to a girl who was laughing with her friend across the aisle about the “stupid kids in school.” Enraged by this, Peter pushed her head into the window. What is the most likely explanation for Peter’s aggressive reaction? a. Peter was highly agitated by the girls’ conversation and lacks self-control. b. Peter probably learned aggressive behavior at home. c. Peter has a hostile attribution bias and assumed the girls’ mean comments were about him. d. Peter acts first and thinks later.

23.

Peter, who is an aggressive 11-year-old, is referred to the counselor because of a recent episode of fighting on the bus. When asked to explain what happened, Peter said that he had to sit next to a girl who was laughing with her friend across the aisle about the “stupid kids in school.” Enraged by this, Peter pushed her head into the window. Where is the error in Peter’s social information processing about this situation? a. Peter interprets cues incorrectly, and assumes the girls’ comments are referring to him. b. Peter did not clarify his goals in the situation, and assumed the girls’ comments are referring to him. c. Peter did not encode the social information into long-term memory. d. Peter did not evaluate the girls’ comments against what he knows about his behavior.

24.

Self-esteem has been mistakenly touted as the “holy grail” of mental health, and this has meant that a. many preventive and remedial efforts have focused directly on improving low self-esteem. b. many therapeutic approaches employ social cognitive strategies to improve social skills. c. many therapists have focused too much on the importance of their own self-esteem. d. preventative efforts have never embraced a “skills first” approach. A “skills first” approach to mental health problems refers to an approach that a. enhances self-esteem in order to bolster competence, because competence is seen as a by-product of feeling good. b. emphasizes social skills over behavior management. c. emphasizes competence before performance. d. enhances competence in order to bolster self-esteem, because feeling good is seen as a by-product of doing well.

25.

26.

Schulman (2002) defines morality as composed of three interlocking systems, including a. sympathy, moral reasoning, and identification with authority. 66

b. c. d.

empathy, identification with moral others, and standards of right and wrong. rational competence, emotional competence, and identification with authority. moral feeling, moral reasoning, and moral action.

27.

A person who perceives neutral events as containing aggressive or threatening meaning is said to possess a a. social information processing tendency. b. hostile attributional bias. c. coercive family interaction style. d. hypervigilant attentional process.

28.

It is generally a best practice for counselors to approach working with youngsters who demonstrate anger, noncompliance, and aggression in which of the following ways? a. First assess level of academic ability because these children might be demonstrating underlying learning difficulties. b. Use nondirective and supportive counseling strategies to enhance the child’s sense of self-esteem. c. Use guided imagery so that children can access motivations for anger and aggressive behavior. d. Provide structure and a clear set of guidelines for appropriate behavior while seeking to enhance social competence.

29.

The ability to restrain or redirect a strong impulse in order to perform a less-preferred response is called a. emotional reactivity. b. positive regulation. c. conscience-oriented behavior. d. effortful control

30.

A counselor is concerned about a clients’ self-esteem. Which of the following provides a research-based rationale for this concern? a. High levels of self-esteem directly reduce the risk of mental health problems b. Low levels of self-esteem cause people to act incompetently. c. Low levels of self-esteem are related to negative attributions about one’s self, which are related to depression. d. High levels of self-esteem protect against oppositional behavior.

31.

Levels of social cognitive ____________ do not always match _____________. a. reasoning / behavior b. attributions / behavior 67

c. d.

behavior / biases attributions / reasoning

Chapter 7 Essay Questions (See answer key for potential essay answers) 32.

Should character education be taught in school? Identify the pros and cons of this strategy.

33.

What advice would you give to parents who want to develop prosocial behavior in their children?

34.

Develop a case study that reflects the development of an aggressive disorder.

35.

Write a response to a parent who believes that constantly comparing a child to other, perhaps more accomplished or talented, children is a good way to motivate that child to achieve more and become stronger.

Chapter 8 Gender and Peer Relationships: Middle Childhood Through Early Adolescence Outline I.

The Biology of Sex

II.

Sex Role Development Gender Identity Box 8.1 Beyond Gender Constancy: Gender Identity, Social Adjustment and Ethnicity The Role of Cognition in Gender Identity The Role of Biology in Gender identity Gender and Behavior Sex Differences in Behavior, personality, and Preference The Role of Biology in Generating Sex Differences The Role of Cognition in Generating Sex Differences The Role of Parenting in Generating Sex Differences The Role of Peer Interactions in Generating Sex Differences A Multidimensional Theory of Sex Differences in Behavior

III.

Peer Relationships The Peer Group, Social competence, and Social Skills Analysis of the World of Peers Measurement of Individuals Within the Peer Group Sociemetry Individual Characteristics Related to Sociometric Status Popular

Rejected Neglected Average Gender and Cultural Differences Stability of Categories and Outcomes Measurement of the Peer Group: Another Level of Analysis Why Do Cliques Form? Peer Groups’ Influence on Behavior IV.

Applications Assess Carefully Skills Are Not Enough Include the Peer Group Treat the System Gender and Risk Box 8.2 Meeting the Special Needs of Boys

Summary

VI.

Case Study

VII.

Journal Questions

VIII. Key Terms

Chapter 8 Multiple Choice Questions 1.

Tiffany is 3 years old. She knows that she is a girl, and she expects to be a girl tomorrow, but she does not understand that her gender is permanent. She believes that cutting her hair short could change her gender. Tiffany has ___________ but not ____________. a. gender constancy / gender stability b. gender stability / gender constancy c. gender constancy / gender identity d. gender identity / gender stability

Biological females with two X chromosomes are sometimes born with congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH), which causes their external genitalia to appear more like those of a male. They may be misidentified at birth and raised as males. If the correct identification is not made before age 3, physicians often advise parents to continue raising the child as a boy, because the child’s gender identity may be difficult to change after age 3. The experiences of CAH girls and other gender atypical children have helped demonstrate that a. social assignment is a powerful influence on gender identity. b. genes are the most powerful influence on gender identity. c. biology has no influence on gender identity. d. boys are more highly valued than girls.

When data are analyzed together from a large number of different studies on the same question, like “are there sex differences in nurturing tendencies,” the report is called a a. collaborative discourse. b. social dosage effect. c. meta-analysis. d. sociometric analysis.

With regard to differences between males and females in math skills, which of the following is correct? a. Males on the average do somewhat better than females in all areas of math skill testing. b. These differences have changed historically, and there is now little difference before Grade 12. c. Boys are on the average better than girls on math computations in elementary school and early adolescence. d. Girls are on the average better than boys on math problem solving after puberty.

Males are less likely to survive than females, both before and after birth. One important reason is that a. males have more dominant, defective alleles than females. b. males are more vulnerable to disorders caused by X-linked recessive alleles than females. c. males have two Y chromosomes. d. most societies value males less than females and provide males with less protection.

Beliefs about sex differences sometimes are supported by research and sometimes are not. Which of the following gender stereotypes is not supported by research? a. Males tend to be more physically aggressive than females. b. Sex differences are usually small, with lots of overlap between the sexes. c. Males tend to exhibit more dominance seeking than females. d. Females tend to be more sociable and prosocial than males.

When elementary school children are free to choose whomever they wish to play with, the most consistent finding is that they will choose a. same sex playmates. b. opposite sex playmates. c. either same sex or opposite sex playmates equally often. d. whatever playmates they believe their teachers or parents wish for them to play with.

Which of the following does not represent a rule that governs borderwork, interactions between the sexes in elementary school aged children? a. Contact is okay if it is accidental. b. Contact is okay if it is required by an adult. c. Contact is okay if children are accompanied by someone of their own gender. d. Contact is okay if you share the same interest in an activity.

Which of the following is more typical of boys’ sex-segregated groups than of girls’ sex segregated groups? a. Boys negotiate more in their groups. b. Boys engage in more rough-and-tumble play in their groups. c. Boys switch leadership roles more often than girls when they play in groups. d. Boys groups tend to be smaller than girls groups. By middle childhood, boys’ choices of companions tend to be based on shared interests, whereas girls’ choices of companions tend to be based more on

10.

a. b. c. d.

looks. social class. personality. parents’ choices.

11.

As a toddler, Joey loved to “dance” with his mother and his sisters, twirling around the house to music. By age 5, Joey refused to dance anymore, saying that dancing was for girls. His mother felt that he really wanted to dance but that he just wouldn’t. How would a cognitive theorist explain Joey’s attitude toward dancing? a. Joey was forced to stop dancing by the taunting of his male friends. b. Joey is intrinsically motivated to engage in behaviors that he believes are consistent with his gender. c. Joey now identifies with his father, and will only do things he sees his father do. d. Joey secretly hates his mother and wishes to punish her.

12.

As a toddler, Joey loved to “dance” with his mother and his sisters, twirling around the house to music. By age 5, Joey refused to dance anymore, saying that dancing was for girls. His mother felt that he really wanted to dance but that he just wouldn’t. How would a psychoanalytic (Freudian) theorist explain Joey’s attitude toward dancing? a. Joey was forced to stop dancing by the taunting of his male friends. b. Joey is intrinsically motivated to engage in behaviors that he believes are consistent with his gender. c. Joey now identifies with his father, and prefers to do only what he sees his father do. d. Joey secretly hates his mother and wishes to punish her.

13.

Research indicates that sex role development usually proceeds normally in single parent families as well as in the more traditional dual parent families. These findings are not consistent with predictions from what type of theory about how sex differences develop? a. Cognitive theories. b. Psychoanalytic (Freudian) theories. c. Social learning theories. d. Biological theories .

14.

Research indicates that mothers talk more to girls, that parents talk more about emotions to girls, that parents put more pressure on boys to suppress crying, and that teachers are more disapproving of girls than of boys when they are highly active. Which of the

following theories argues that these modeling and rewarding processes are the most important influences on sex differences in behavior? a. Information processing theories. b. Psychoanalytic (Freudian) theories. c. Social learning theories. d. Behavioral genetics theories.

15.

Recent research indicates that children who spend more time in same-gender groups show greater increases in gender-related behaviors over time than children who spend less time in same-gender groups. This process is referred to as the a. social competence process. b. degrouping effect. c. social impact process. d. social dosage effect.

16.

In adolescence and early adulthood, males and females begin to spend more time in mixed-gender groups. Studies of who has more influence on the outcome of problem solving in mixed-gender groups indicate that a. females have an advantage because they have learned to negotiate in their single-gender groups. b. males have an advantage because they have learned to negotiate in their single-gender groups. c. females have a disadvantage because males do less turn-taking and are more domineering. d. males have a disadvantage because females are more skilled at expressing agreement.

17.

In the Primary Mental Health Project begun in 1958 in Monroe County, New York, 1st graders were evaluated in a variety of ways in order to determine which early risk factor might predict later maladjustment. Of all the assessments done on those first graders, which one was the best predictor of mental health problems later? a. Teachers’ assessments of classroom conduct. b. Personality tests. c. School attendance records. d. Nomination by peers for negative roles in a class play.

18.

Social skills training programs are interventions in which children are taught specific, discrete behaviors that can facilitate effective social interactions, like making eye contact and asking appropriate questions. Assessments of these interventions indicate that they have modest success in improving peer acceptance. Which of these is the best description of a major shortcoming of these intervention programs? 74

a. b. c. d.

Socially unskilled children are already perceived in biased ways by peers, and that perception is not being addressed by the intervention. Social skills are not the problem. Children who experience low peer acceptance usually already have adequate social skills. These programs are introduced too late. Social skills training must be done much earlier than the middle childhood or adolescent years to have any real effect. Socially unskilled children are not capable of learning these basic skills, because their problems stem from a difficult temperament.

19.

The term degrouping refers to a. a strategy for solving math problems that boys often learn but girls do not. b. a trend in middle adolescence for cliques to become less important to peer interactions. c. a therapeutic intervention which requires children or adolescents to mix with members of a different crowd from their usual one. d. the rejection of a crowd member for violating the norms of the group.

20.

One way to assess children’s status among their peers is to ask each child in a classroom to choose which other children he or she would most like to sit next to or to do various things with, and which other children he or she would least like to do these things with. This technique is called a. meta-analysis. b. social dosage technique. c. resilience assessment. d. sociometry.

21.

A child’s social preference score is based on ____________, and their social impact scores are based on ____________. a. positive nominations / positive plus negative nominations b. positive nominations / negative nominations c. neutral nominations / positive nominations d. peer evaluations / teacher evaluations

22.

In an assessment of peer relationships, Fred was rarely selected by classmates as someone to play with or to do a class project with. But Fred was also rarely selected as someone whom classmates would refuse to play with. Fred is an example of a. a neglected child. b. a rejected child. c. a controversial child. d. an average child. 75

23.

In an assessment of peer relationships, Fred was rarely selected by classmates as someone to play with or to do a class project with. But Fred was also rarely selected as someone whom classmates would refuse to play with. Children like Fred seem to be a. actively disliked by other children. b. more aggressive than other children. c. choosing not to participate very actively in peer activities. d. at high risk for later mental health problems.

24.

One gender-related characteristic of peer evaluations is that a. boys are more likely than girls to be rejected for behaving in genderinconsistent ways. b. girls are more likely than boys to be rejected for behaving in genderinconsistent ways. c. whether or not children behave in gender-inconsistent ways seems to have no effect on peer evaluations. d. gender-inconsistent behavior leads to equally strong rejection for both boys and for girls.

25.

Which of the following traits best characterizes popular children across a wide variety of cultures? a. Self-effacing and shy. b. Cautious and self-restrained. c. Sociable and helpful. d. Aggressive and sociable.

26.

In middle childhood and early adolescence, cliques serve the purpose of a. helping to establish one’s identity and meet needs for acceptance. b. providing social comparison and autonomy. c. meeting achievement and socialization needs. d. providing influence and allowing selection. Studies of peer groups indicate that children’s conformity to peers can best be described as resulting from a. direct pressure from peers. b. children selecting groups of peers who are similar to themselves. c. both peer influence and selection of similar peers. d. parental attempts to direct peer interactions.

27.

28.

In a study of children from elementary school to young adulthood (Mahoney, 2000), participation in extracurricular activities for at least a year was associated with high rates of graduation and low rates of criminal activity if the student’s a. parents supported extracurricular activity. b. peer group also participated in the extracurricular activity. c. teachers made adjustments in their expectations. d. community was upper middle class.

29.

Counselors working with young children should know that children as young as ____________ usually show some knowledge of gender-related preferences and activities. a. 3 years old b. 6 years old c. 9 years old d. 12 years old

30.

Which of the following is true of aggressive children? a. They rarely have conduct problems as adults. b. The may be well-liked if they have strengths in areas like sociability and cognitive ability. c. They may underestimate their own popularity. d. They are usually socially withdrawn and anxious.

31.

Counselors need to recognize that girls’ antisocial behavior in late childhood a. is likely to include non-confrontational relational aggressive behaviors. b. has not been linked to later anxiety and depression. c. is unlikely to have long-term negative consequences. d. are a result of particular challenges faced by girls.

32.

Counselors working with school-age children and adolescents need to recognize that gender identity continues to develop in these years. Among the important findings from recent research is that girls tend to feel a. more content with their gender than boys. b. more pressure to conform to gender stereotypes than boys. c. less content with their gender than boys. d. the same degree of pressure to conform to gender stereotypes as boys. Which of the following is a well-documented gender difference in brain structure? a. Male brains are more lateralized than female brains. b. Female brains are more lateralized than male brains. c. Language functions are governed by the right hemisphere in male brains and by the left hemisphere in female brains. d. Female brains are more myelinated than.

33.

Chapter 8 Essay Questions (See answer key for potential essay answers) 34.

Children tend to segregate into single gender play and friendship groups. Explain how such sex segregation might influence the development of sex differences during childhood. Provide clear examples of how this might work.

35.

Describe at least two theories of how parenting might influence the development of sex differences in childhood. Discuss the evidence for and against these theories.

36.

Suzanna is considered weird by her 3rd grade classmates. She seems to have few social skills. On a sociometric analysis, Suzanna received no positive nominations from her classmates, and a large number of negative nominations. Explain what this sociometric assessment is and what it means. Outline what might be an effective therapeutic approach to Suzanna’s difficulties.

37.

Counseling young boys requires sensitivity to society’s “boy code” and may require special strategies for putting boys at ease in the counseling context. What is the boy code? What strategies might be especially helpful for overcoming this code?

Chapter 9 Physical, Cognitive, and Identity Development in Adolescence Outline I.

Physical Development Puberty: The Adolescent Metamorphosis A Glandular Awakening The Growth Spurt The Changing Brain The Adolescent Brain and Stress Behavioral Changes with Puberty Early Versus Late Maturation Girls’ Versus Boys Susceptibility to Depression The Emergence of Sexuality and Sexual Preference Sexual Orientation Box 9.1 The Limits of Guilt in Adolescence

II.

Cognitive Development Formal Operational Thought Scientific Problem Solving Constructing Ideals Advances in Metacognitive Skill: Thinking About Thought

III.

Identity Development Some Basic Considerations Adolescent Identity Development Identity Status

Personal and Cognitive Characteristics of Each Identity Status Assessment of Identity Domains Developmental Sequence in Identity Formation Identity Crisis: Truth or Fiction? Identity Development and Diverse Groups Gender and Identity Racial and Ethnic Identity Theories Issues in the Study of Racial and Ethnic Sexuality Development Box 9.2 Choosing an Identity: The Case of Multiracial Youth IV.

Applications Growing Pains Navigating Special Challenges Stages: Pros and Cons Sexuality in Adolescence Special Needs of Sexual Minority Youth The Path Ahead

Focus on Developmental Psychopathology: Eating Disorders

VI.

Summary

VII.

Case Study

VIII. Journal Questions IX.

Key Terms

Chapter 9 Multiple Choice Questions 1.

Pubertal processes begin when certain changes occur in the endocrine system. Which of the following explains the beginning of this process? a. Sexual development comes under the control of the thyroid. b. The pituitary begins to stimulate other glands to release hormones into the bloodstream. c. The adrenal gland influences the growth of secondary sex characteristics. d. The hypothalamus controls the development of secondary sex characteristics.

Which of the following statements is not true with regard to the onset of menarche? a. Girls who have a higher proportion of body fat are likely to have earlier onset of menarche. b. Girls who have better health care are likely to have earlier onset of menarche. c. Girls whose close relatives had early onset of menarche are more likely to experience similar timing of events. d. Girls who are very athletic are likely to have earlier onset of menarche.

Yvonne is a 13-year-old 8th grader who is a new student in an urban middle school. She recently moved into the area with her mother and her three siblings. The family moved to be nearer to Yvonne’s grandparents after the breakup of her parents’ relationship. Yvonne is tall for her age and is bothered by the looks and sexual comments about her breasts from boys in her school. She has made few friends at the new school. What does this example illustrate about the ease of the adolescent transition for early-maturing girls like Yvonne? a. Early-maturing girls are more likely to be admired by others and have higher self-esteem than late-maturing girls. b. Early-maturing girls are more likely to be rejected by girls who are less mature. c. Early-maturing girls are more confident about their sexuality than latematuring girls. d. Early-maturing girls are neither more confident nor more likely to be rejected than late-maturing girls.

Allie’s 8th grade academic work is a little more advanced than what she is used to. She is having a hard time keeping up, particularly in science, which is her first period course. 81

The teacher moves very fast, despite the fact that most of the students look glassy-eyed from too little sleep. What is a puberty-related biological explanation for the students’ behavior in science class? a. Sexual dimorphism. b. Early menarche. c. Androgen imbalance. d. Delayed phase preference.

Yvonne is a 13-year-old 8th grader who is a new student in an urban middle school. She recently moved into the area with her mother and her three siblings. The family moved to be nearer to Yvonne’s grandparents after the breakup of her parents’ relationship. Yvonne is tall for her age and is bothered by the looks and sexual comments about her breasts from boys in her school. She has made few friends at the new school. Which of the following is not true with regard to Yvonne’s level of moodiness? a. Yvonne’s of moodiness is likely to increase because adolescence is a period of greater mood disruptions. b. Yvonne’s moodiness is likely to increase because adolescents generally experience more intense and more volatile emotions. c. Yvonne’s moodiness is likely to increase because her parents recently separated. d. Yvonne’s moodiness is likely to increase because she has higher expectations for academic success than her male peers.

A coping style which has been linked to higher levels of depression among adolescent girls and women is a. rumination. b. distraction. c. support seeking. d. withdrawal.

Which of the following is true with regard to the way coping styles relate to depression? a. Distraction serves to block out positive feelings, making the person feel more depressed. b. Rumination serves to increase the intensity of thoughts about positive experiences and helps to reduce feelings of depression. c. Distraction shortens episodes of depression by shortening the time spent focusing on negative events and thus lessening their intensity. d. Self-focusing activates memories of events, allowing the person to resolve problems and feel less depressed.

Dennis is a 17-year-old who comes to a counselor because he feels sexually attracted to males, which is at odds with his religious beliefs. Although he has felt this way for a long time, he is still struggling to understand why. Based upon the information presented in this chapter, which of these explanation has some research support? 82

a. b. c. d.

Homosexual orientation usually results from being reared by a parent or parents of the same sex. Homosexual orientation results from being exposed to early sexual abuse. Homosexual orientation is at least partly determined by heredity. Homosexual orientation is a personal choice made by the individual.

What does Savin-Williams (2005) argue about the nature of sexual orientation? a. Sexual orientation is a fluid concept for up to 20% of teens. b. Sexual orientation is determined in utero. c. Sexual orientation is determined earlier for boys than for girls. d. Homosexuality might be fostered if children have homosexual teachers.

10.

Currently available evidence is strongest for _________ influences on the development of gender identity, and there is no reliable evidence for _________ causes after birth. a. environmental / genetic b. psychological / environmental c. prenatal / environmental d. peer / parenting

11.

Brain developments in the adolescent period include which of the following? a. Continued myelination . b. Rapid synaptogenesis in late adolescence. c. Rapid pruning in early adolescence. d. Continue lateralization.

12.

Which of the following is not an illustration of formal operational thought? a. Alyssa classifies information about the main branches of the US government by drawing a diagram of various departments within each branch. b. Cody generates all the possible combinations of numbers from a seven digit telephone number. c. Cai writes a paper discussing how satire is used in a popular comic strip to promote deeper thinking. d. Farouk creates a story about a society that is free from war, suffering, and death. Studies show that formal operational thinking is a. easily grasped by all students by the time they enter high school. b. easily grasped by average students by the time they enter college. c. demonstrated by all normal adults. d. is more common among older adolescents and adults, particularly in domains where they have experience in thinking about abstract concepts.

13.

14.

Which of the following is the best example of a characteristic form of adolescent egocentrism? a. Fourteen-year-old Breanna believes that her pastor is hypocritical because he lives in a nice house. She thinks it should be sold to feed the poor. b. Fourteen-year-old Erika buys gifts for other members of her family based on what she likes to receive. She doesn’t worry about what her family members’ preferences are. c. Fourteen-year-old Derek can not understand the concept of probability when his math teacher introduces statistics. d. Fourteen-year-old Jordan believes he is a superior student despite having a learning disability.

15.

It’s a typical day for Tessa, a counselor who works with teenagers. Marcus explains to her that he came to school high on drugs because he can get away with it. He believes his teachers are clueless when it comes to spotting kids on drugs. Which form of adolescent egocentrism might Elkind use to describe Marcus’ view of the world? a. Personal audience. b. Imaginary fable. c. Invincibility fable. d. Personal egocentrism.

16.

Tessa, a counselor who works with teenagers, meets with Olivia, who attempted suicide after her boyfriend broke up with her. Olivia says she feels that there is no choice but for her to end her life. Ronnie believes that she is destined to die young. This will make her boyfriend mourn for her forever. How would Elkind describe Olivia’s view of the world? a. As a personal audience. b. As a personal fable. c. As an imaginary audience. d. As an invincibility fable.

17.

Which of the following elements is most closely associated with the concept of the imaginary audience? a. A sense of invulnerability. b. A sense of pride. c. A sense of destiny. d. A sense of shame. Which of the following most accurately reflects Erikson’s view of identity? a. Identity begins to develop in adolescence and must be fully resolved before the next stage of psychosocial development can begin. b. People must go through a traumatic crisis in order to have a solid identity. c. One’s identity provides the answer to the question “Who am I?” d. Identity provides a foundation for making mature commitments to adult roles and belief systems.

18.

19.

According to Erikson, what are the processes involved in the development of identity? a. Foreclosure and achievement. b. Exploration and commitment. c. Exploration and moratorium. d. Diffusion and commitment.

20.

Rasheed is a 19-year-old college student whose family is making financial sacrifices to pay for his education. So far, his grade point average is not high enough to allow him entrance into the pre-med program, the course of study he intends to pursue. He also works part time as a youth counselor, a job he really likes. He is considering changing his major to education. According to Marcia’s categories of identity status, which category would you assign to Rasheed with regard to his vocational identity? a. Diffusion. b. Moratorium. c. Foreclosed. d. Achieved.

21.

Beth comes from a working class family. Since her father is disabled and unemployed, Beth needed to take a full-time job right after high school to help her mother provide for two younger children. Fortunately, she got a job as a receptionist in her uncle’s real estate business. The secretarial skills she learned in high school help pay the family’s bills. According to Marcia’s categories of identity status, which placement would you assign to Beth with regard to her vocational identity? a. Diffusion. b. Moratorium. c. Foreclosed. d. Achieved.

22.

Colin is applying for the pre-med major. Colin worked in the health science area for several years before returning to college. He is very serious about doing well in school. According to Marcia’s categories of identity status, which placement would you assign to Colin with regard to his vocational identity? a. Diffusion. b. Moratorium. c. Foreclosed. d. Achieved. Which of these is the best summary of developmental trends in the formation of identity? a. Individuals progress through stages in the following sequence: diffused, foreclosed, moratorium, achieved. b. Individuals experience recurrent cycles of foreclosed to achieved status. c. There is a general decline in foreclosures and diffusions over time while achievements increase over time. d. Individuals generally achieve the same level of identity formation in all identity domains, for example, career, family, religion, etc.

23.

24.

Which of these statements reflect findings from research on gender differences in identity 85

formation? a. b. c. d.

Males focus on establishing intimacy before they focus on the construction of identity. Females focus on establishing intimacy before they focus on the construction of identity. Both males and females focus on constructing an identity before focusing on the establishment of intimacy. Both males and females focus on the construction of an identity and the establishment of intimacy simultaneously.

25. Most theories of racial, ethnic or sexual identity include which of the following ideas? a. Realizing the significance of race, ethnicity or sexual orientation plays a critical role. b. There is a necessary phase of active involvement in one’s cultural group. c. Individuals must turn against the values of the dominant culture before their identity can form. d. Most individuals are in diffusion and do not reach achievement. 26.

Brain growth during adolescence appears to be influenced by the hormonal changes of puberty. What effects do these hormonal changes seem to have? a. They affect the onset and offset of genes that influence cortisol levels. b. They flow over the brain, causing a general excitation of neurons. c. They cause an increase in blood flow to the brain. d. They lead to secondary dimorphism of brain structures.

27.

When counseling adolescents who are unsure of their sexual identity, helpers should keep in mind that a. the most important thing is to bring the adolescent to disclose to others. b. once an adolescent begins to question his or her sexual identity, it is virtually certain that he or she will be a homosexual or bisexual adult. c. the majority of gender-minority youth experience both same-sex and other-sex attractions in the process of coming out. d. family is not an important source of support for these youth. Which of the following is true of American teenagers’ knowledge of HIV/AIDS? a. The majority are well-informed and understand the risks of unprotected sex. b. Only a minority are well-informed and understand the risks of unprotected sex. c. Most believe that oral and anal sex are risk factors, but may not understand that vaginal intercourse is also a risk. d. The majority have a realistic view of the risks they take.

28.

29.

When working with youth whose racial or ethnic heritage is biracial or multiracial, counselors are likely to find that 86

a. b. c. d.

30.

the majority of adolescents identify with the minority category of their racial or ethnic identity. the majority of adolescents identify as White. about half of adolescents identify with no racial or ethnic category. adolescents shift identity back and forth depending on the circumstances, rarely settling on one or the other for long.

Steinberg and Scott (2003) argue that when teenagers are found guilty of a crime, it may be that their culpability is mitigated in comparison to that of typical adults. Which of these is not one of the reasons they argue teenagers are probably less culpable than adults? a. Diminished capacity. b. Compelling circumstances. c. Uncharacteristic behavior. d. Fluctuating hormone levels. Chapter 9 Essay Questions (See answer key for potential essay answers)

31.

Explain what most theories of racial or sexual-orientation development would need to include in order for them to be developmental in nature.

32.

Give three examples of adolescent egocentrism that might be apparent in a counseling situation with an adolescent.

33.

What are the characteristics of formal operations and how does this kind of thinking differ from concrete operational thinking?

34. as

Imagine yourself a clinician asked to evaluate a 14-year-old’s competence to stand trial an adult. How would you make this decision? What data from developmental research would be relevant?

Chapter 10

The Social World of Adolescence

Outline I.

Frameworklessness and Autonomy: A Model of Adolescent Social Identity The Peer Arena

II.

The Structure of the Peer Network

III.

The Role of Parents Box 10.1 Authoritative Parenting with Adolescents Parenting Styles, Peers and Ethnicity

IV.

The Role of School

Leisure and Work

VI.

Media and the Consumer Culture

VII.

Risky Behavior and Social Deviance Setting the Stage for Risk Taking

VIII. Society’s Role in Adolescent Problem Behavior: Then and Now IX.

Applications The Personal Meaning of Risk Adolescent Health and Wellbeing The Power of Parents and Peers It Takes a Village

Summary

XI.

Case Study

XII.

Journal Questions

XI.

Key Terms

Chapter 10 Multiple Choice Questions 1.

The unique state of instability and anxiety in adolescence, brought on by body changes, emerging sexual needs, hormonal shifts, cognitive changes, and changing maturity demands, is referred to as a. frameworklessness. b. collective egocentrism. c. identity achievement. d. moratorium.

Research indicates that children’s feelings of autonomy from peers are likely to be at their lowest point for which of the following age groups? a. 5th grade b. 6th grade c. 8th grade d. Autonomy from peers does not change from 5th through 8th grades.

When Marla, age 14, decides that she is a good writer because she gets better grades than her friend Jenna on stories she writes for English, she is demonstrating the use of ____________ as part of identity formation. a. attribute substitution with peers b. normative crisis management with peers c. emotional autonomy from peers d. social comparison with peers

Jacob, age 13, gets a laugh from the whole school orchestra when he imitates the music teacher, who is out of the room. The next day, Jacob’s friend Brad boasts at lunch that “Jacob and I really got a laugh out of the orchestra at practice yesterday.” Brad is identifying with Jacob and appropriating Jacob’s accomplishment as his own. This example illustrates one kind of a. social comparison. b. emotional autonomy. c. attribute substitution. d. normative crisis management.

What percentage of adolescents typically are part of a “popular” crowd in American high schools? a. 20 percent. b. 40 percent. c. 60 percent. d. Less than 5 percent.

Which of the following characteristics are typical of “popular” crowds in American high schools? a. Heavy drug use and delinquent behavior. b. Some drug use or other illicit behavior. c. High academic achievement. d. Strong ties with teachers.

Which of the following parenting styles is most closely associated with positive outcomes in psychosocial development and school achievement for adolescents? a. Authoritative. b. Authoritarian. c. Permissive or indulgent. d. Neglecting or dismissive.

The dimension of parenting style called parental responsiveness can usefully be broken down into two characteristics: acceptance (affection, involvement, concern) and a. monitoring. b. authority. c. democracy. d. skepticism.

Which of the following describes a type of influence that parents can have on whether or not their adolescent becomes a member of a particular crowd? a. Parents have no influence on their children’s crowd membership. b. Parents can affect their children’s initial characteristics, which then affect crowd selection. c. Parents can demand that children select a specific crowd. d. Parents can use reverse psychology by acting as if undesirable peers are cool.

10. Juan, age 15, is Latino. Given his ethnicity, and based on the available research, what would you expect his attitudes to be regarding academic achievement ? a. He is just as likely as other teens to believe that getting a good education is helpful for future success, but is not as likely to believe that failure in school will limit his future job options. b. He is just as likely as other teens to believe that getting a good education is helpful for future success, and also that failure in school will limit his future job options. c. He is unlikely to believe that getting a good education will have any effect on his future job options. d. He is more likely to believe that he will have few job options in the future.

11.

When peers and parents both support academics, adolescents tend to be successful students. When peers and parents are at odds on the importance or value of academics, which of the following is most often true according to research? a. Parents’ attitudes will always have the most influence on their adolescent child’s academic performance. b. Peers’ attitudes are likely to have the most influence on the adolescent’s academic performance. c. There is no systematic relationship, sometimes peers are more influential, sometimes parents. d. Parents’ attitudes have more influence only when parents are warm and permissive.

12.

High levels of parental monitoring and control are associated with which of the following outcomes regardless of ethnicity or social class? a. More drug use but less involvement in other criminal activity among adolescents. b. More deviant behavior and drug use among adolescents. c. More gang membership among adolescents. d. Less deviant behavior and drug use among adolescents.

13.

In America, Black and White middle-class communities are similar in many respects but tend to differ in other respects. Which of the following characterizes the differences most accurately? a. Black middle-class neighborhoods have fewer community organizations and activities for youngsters. b. White middle-class neighborhoods have fewer community organizations and activities for youngsters. c. Black middle-class neighborhoods are more likely to be adjacent to low income and dangerous neighborhoods. d. White middle-class neighborhoods are more likely to be adjacent to low income and dangerous neighborhoods.

14.

Studies of American schools indicate that as children move out of elementary school into middle and junior high schools, instructional practices are characterized more by ____________ than they were in the earlier grades. a. emphasis on discipline and teacher control b. emphasis on cooperative learning rather than competition c. a greater sense of community and caring d. closer contact with teachers and other staff

15.

Brendt has finished 6th grade in his elementary school, and is beginning 7th grade at a junior high school. According to research on school transitions, what is most likely to be true for Brendt? a. His transition to 7th grade at a different school is likely to be accompanied by improvements in his academic achievement. b. His academic achievement in 7th grade would probably be better if the transition from elementary school began after 8th grade. c. His academic achievement should be about the same as it would have been if he had attended 7th grade in his elementary school. d. His achievement will be benefited if his parents take a hands-off approach and let him figure out how to handle the academic demands of the new school.

16.

Jasmine, age 16, has just begun an after-school and weekend job at which she expects to work about 20-25 hours a week. She plans to use her earnings to buy clothes, gas for her car, and to fund outings with friends. Based on research, which of the following is the most likely outcome of Jasmine’s part-time employment? a. Her grades will improve. b. She will be more reliable and less likely to engage in delinquent behavior. c. She will leave high school with substantial savings. d. Her greater work time will negatively affect her school achievement.

17.

Experimentation with deviant or risky behaviors (drug use, vandalism, sex, truancy, etc.) in adolescence is a. not typical of this age group and can be considered a clear sign of mental health problems. b. typical of this age group and can be considered statistically normative. c. equally likely for boys and for girls today. d. clearly on the decline in today’s culture.

18.

Roberto, at 15, is finding that he loves to take chances. He enjoys the sensation of being on the edge of danger, whether he is trying a new drug, or riding in a car at top speed with his friends. He frequently looks to his friends before he tries something new, reasoning that if his friends aren’t worried about the consequences, then he need not worry either. His reasoning reflects a. life-course persistent anti-social behavior. b. collective egocentrism. c. positive self-esteem. d. communalism. Roberto, at 15, is finding that he loves to take chances. He enjoys the sensation of being on the edge of danger, whether he is trying a new drug, or riding in a car at top speed with his friends. Roberto was well-behaved, outgoing, and happy as a younger child. If

19.

you were his counselor, what would you tell his parents about his current experimentation with deviant behavior? a. Deviant behavior is likely to be increasing Roberto’s peer rejection. b. Roberto’s risk-taking is unlikely to decline in young adulthood. c. Closer parental monitoring can help reduce the deviant behavior and protect Roberto from harm. d. Roberto’s risk-taking poses no serious risks of harm, because it is considered normative.

20.

Which of the following descriptions characterizes the changes in American society’s attitudes toward adolescent risky behavior from the 1920s to today? a. In the 1920s it was not seen as a serious problem, whereas today risky behavior is seen as a serious problem. b. In the 1920s risky behavior was seen as a problem that could be addressed by social programs, like community activities for adolescents, whereas today we tend to see the problem as within the individual. c. In the 1920s risky behavior was seen as a problem of the individual who needs treatment, whereas today we tend to see the problem as one that can be addressed by social programs. d. In the 1920s there was greater concern about risky behavior than there is today, because risky behavior is much rarer now.

21.

On the basis of research on parenting, what advice should counselors give parents about how much to be involved in their adolescents’ school life? a. Parents should not be involved in school-related activities, like monitoring homework, so that their adolescents will learn to handle their own problems with class work and teachers. b. Parents should become more involved when there are behavior problems in school, but adolescents should handle all of their own academic problems. c. Adolescents’ academic achievement is likely to benefit when parents remain actively involved in school-related activities like monitoring homework and serving as partners in school decision making. d. Reduced parental involvement in school-related activities promoted positive growth in autonomy and peer relations.

22.

The parents of Abe, age 14, are concerned that he is watching violent movies and playing violent video games with his friends. You can advise them that a. media portrayals of violence are not related to teenage aggressive behavior.

b. c. d.

exposure to media portrayals of violence are related to teenage aggressive behavior. exposure to media portrayals of violence seem to teach teenagers to favor nonviolence. viewing violent movies is related to aggression, but playing violent video games is not.

23.

What is the “two-pronged approach” to helping adolescents with their behavioral, social, or academic problems? a. A focus on both peers and the school environment. b. A focus on both parents and the individual. c. A focus on reducing risk factors while also enhancing protective factors. d. The use both medication and individual therapy.

24.

What kind of peer intervention is least likely to be helpful to troubled teens? a. Peer mediation and peer counseling. b. Bringing peers into therapy with the client. c. Encouraging school-wide programs that break down barriers between groups. d. Moving troubled teens to a new school so that they are separated from atrisk peers.

25.

Sabrina and Bethany are both members of the same crowd in high school, which means that a. They spend a great deal of time together. b. They are best friends. c. They share interests, attitudes, behaviors, and appearance characteristics. d. They will not be able to make friends outside of their own crowd.

26.

Participation in after-school activities sponsored by school or community organizations is a. unrelated to academic achievement. b. detrimental to academic achievement. c. positively related to academic achievement. d. positively related to social competence but detrimental to academic achievement.

27.

Some parents of adolescents are going through their own “perilous transition.” What proportion of American parents report strong feelings of powerlessness, rejection, and personal regret when their children become adolescents? a. Less than 5 %. b. About 40%.

c. d.

More than 60%. Almost 90%.

28.

In a study of American Indian families who moved out of poverty (the “ex-poor”), what were the effects on children’s behavior? a. The improvement in income had no discernable effects on children’s behavior. b. There was a significant decline in conduct disorder and oppositional defiant behavior. c. There was a significant increase in depressive symptoms. d. There was a significant increase in conduct disorder and oppositional defiant behavior.

29.

Counselors need to be aware of social and cultural trends in adolescent behavior. For example, surveys of 8th to 12th graders in 2009-2011 showed that a. teens’ use of alcohol increased slightly. b. teens’ awareness of the risks of alcohol use has increased dramatically. c. teens’ use of alcohol has decreased dramatically. d. alcohol and tobacco use by teens have both decreased.

30.

For an adolescent engaging in risky behavior (e.g., alcohol use), one strategy that counselors can use is to introduce dissonance into the discussion. Before a counselor can do so effectively, she must a. provide factual lectures on the risks of alcohol use. b. interview the teen about his or her own current beliefs and expectations. c. establish a reward system for good behavior. d. determine the extent of deviant behavior the adolescent has engaged in.

31.

To understand parent-teen conflicts, it can be helpful for the counselor to understand the parents’ and teen’s views of parental control. For example, teens often consider some aspects of parental control legitimate but not others. Which of the following kinds of rules governing behavior are teens most likely to feel that parents should not control? a. Moral rules. b. Conventional rules. c. Personal rules. d. Legal rules. Chapter 10 Essay Questions (See answer key or potential essay answers)

32.

Mr. and Mrs. Brown have consulted you about their 13-year-old daughter, Joanne. She is not doing as well academically as she always did in elementary school. She seems to be 96

involved with a popular crowd that is quickly moving into sexual experimentation and drug use. Describe the options that Mr. and Mrs. Brown have for helping their daughter navigate her early adolescence, based on available research. 33.

Describe and explain three main reasons that adolescents engage in reckless behavior. Be sure to define your terms.

34.

Brian, age 15, has surprised and dismayed his Catholic parents by insisting that he is converting to Buddhism. It all seemed to start when he became friends with an Asian American boy at school whose family is Buddhist. Explain Brian’s behavior based on Seltzer’s theory of adolescent identity formation.

35.

Many large scale interventions have been designed to reduce problem behaviors in adolescence (such as drinking, drug use, smoking, etc.) and/or to increase positive behaviors. Discuss some of the typical characteristics of the least effective and the most effective of these programs to date, based on available research. Use examples where possible.

Chapter 11 Physical and Cognitive Development in Young Adults Outline I.

Physical Development in Young Adulthood Reaching Peak Physical Status The Changing Brain

II.

Cognitive Development in Young Adulthood Logical Thinking: Is There Qualitative Change? Schaie’s View of Adult Adjusting to Environmental Pressures Postformal Thought Perry’s Theory of Intellectual and Ethical Development in the College Years Kitchener’s Model of the Development of Reflective Judgment Box 11.1 A Visit to the Grandparents Box 11.2 Counselor Beware: Decision-Making Pitfalls

III.

Applications Putting Things Off Growth and Change in Professionals’ Epistemology

IV.

Focus on Developmental Psychopathology: Depression

Summary

VI.

Case Study

VII.

Journal Questions

VIII. Key Terms

Chapter 11 Multiple Choice Questions 1.

Agnes and Paul, both 19 years of age, got married right after their high school graduation in 1945. Their first child was born a year later, when they were 20. Agnes, like most other young women she knew, stayed home to raise her children and take care of the home. Paul found a good job at a nearby food processing plant. Given their generation, which of the following best defines this couple’s stage of life at the age of 20? a. Agnes and Paul were enmeshed adults because they were still relatively young and not completely autonomous. b. Agnes and Paul were adults because they were married and had a child. c. Agnes and Paul were not adults because they were not 21 years of age. d. Agnes and Paul belong in the category called “youth,” because they continued to explore possibilities.

How do sociologists classify actions like entry into marriage and becoming a parent? a. As social constructions. b. As dualistic decisions. c. As adult rituals. d. As marker events.

Which of the following descriptions best characterizes the timing of indicators of adulthood in people’s lives today? a. People show some indicators of adult status at earlier ages today while other indicators of adulthood are more delayed. b. People generally show indicators of adult status at earlier ages today than they did in earlier decades. c. People show all indicators of adult status at later ages today than they did in earlier decades. d. There are no differences in the timing of adulthood today compared to earlier decades.

Arnett’s research suggests that young adults today believe that adulthood is primarily defined a. by the timing of achievements, such as marriage and parenthood. b. on the basis of reaching a certain age. c. on the basis of achieving certain roles, such as marriage and parenthood. d. on the basis of more subjective judgments of psychological independence. Arnett proposes that the stage of life from age 18 to approximately 25 be called a. youth.

b. c. d.

emerging adulthood. early adulthood. young adulthood.

Which of the following statements is most accurate with regard to the physical skills of young adult athletes? a. Females reach peak performance earlier than their male counterparts. b. Males reach peak performance earlier than their female counterparts. c. Both males and females reach peak performance about the same time. d. The timing of peak performance is dependent upon practice and not on biology.

Studies of brain activity during the early adult years suggest an increased capacity for a. moral behavior. b. perceptual acuity. c. sexual activity. d. behavioral and emotional control.

Which of the following is the best example of fifth-stage thinking? a. Josh evaluates the assumptions of those who favor and those who oppose the death penalty and finds both arguments unconvincing. b. Trevor solves a complicated equation in abstract mathematics. c. Carrie listens with great empathy and concern to her counseling client. d. Kendra learns about several different religions, finds all of them internally consistent and appealing in some ways.

Despite the disagreements among theorists about the existence of a fifth stage of cognitive development, nearly all agree that a. solving real-life problems is easier if a person uses formal operational thinking skills. b. thinking about adult real-life problems tends to become increasingly relativistic. c. as people enter adulthood, they apply concrete operational skills to the concrete problems of daily life. d. memory ability declines as people enter the fifth stage.

10.

employees. Based on what you know about Donna, what is her stage of cognitive development according to Schaie’s view of adult adjustment? a. The fifth stage of cognitive development. b. The acquisition stage c. The achieving stage. d. The executive stage. 11.

12.

13.

Donna runs a day care center. After many years of hard work, the business has grown and provides a steady income. Donna’s daughter, Elaine, has asked Donna to give her a loan for a down payment on a business of her own. In order to provide this loan, Donna would have to cut expenses at the day care center, including reducing staff by at least two employees. What is the primary characteristic that points to a particular stage of cognitive functioning in Elaine’s case? a. She tries to decide on how to make a living for herself. b. She focuses her concerns on other people in her life for whom she is responsible. c. She has developed logical thinking abilities. d. She conserves her own financial resources by borrowing from her mother. Which of the following individuals would most likely be in the reorganizational stage according to Schaie’s view of adult adjustment? a. A 20-year-old carpenter’s apprentice. b. A 25-year-old single mother. c. A 45-year-old businessman. d. A 62-year-old truck driver.

14.

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15.

Which of these is the best definition of relativistic thought according to Perry? a. Every person has a right to his or her own opinion and no one should feel that his or her opinion is better than any other. b. People relate to each other because everyone is in search of absolute truth. c. Relativistic thinking is a stage that supercedes the ability to see inherent contradictions. d. Weighing evidence and deciding upon the most defensible alternative.

16.

Perry’s theory holds that the college experience fosters cognitive development because a. students build on the skills learned in high school. b. students are confronted with a diversity of beliefs and values which they must accommodate. c. students learn from professors who embody intellectual authority. d. students learn to value their own opinions.

17.

Doug, Diana, Tyrone, Nidia and Louis all have different viewpoints on the evolution versus creationism debate. According to Perry’s scheme, Doug’s thinking is dualistic (Position 1). Which of the following statements would be most illustrative of Doug’s viewpoint? a. God created the world. There is no other possibility. b. I believe that God created the world, but others don’t agree with me. c. I believe parts of both ideas can be true. d. It doesn’t matter which one you believe in.

18.

Doug, Diana, Tyrone, Nidia and Louis all have different viewpoints on the evolution versus creationism debate. Diana is operating at Position 2 (multiplicity pre-legitimate). Which of the following statements would be most illustrative of Diana’s viewpoint? a. It doesn’t matter which one you believe in. b. I believe that God created the world, there is simply no other possibility. c. I don’t believe that God created the world because it’s not possible. d. I really get confused about this when I try to make sense of it. Doug, Diana, Tyrone, Nidia and Louis all have different viewpoints on the evolution versus creationism debate. Tyrone reasons in Position 3 (early multiplicity). Which of the following statements would be most illustrative of Tyrone’s viewpoint? a. God created the world. I don’t know anything about evolution. b. I believe that God created the world but some of my best friends don’t believe this. I wonder if anyone knows for sure. c. Evolution is the right answer because it’s scientific.

19.

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It doesn’t matter which one you believe in.

20.

Doug, Diana, Tyrone, Nidia and Louis all have different viewpoints on the evolution versus creationism debate. Nidia is at Position 4 (late multiplicity). Which of the following statements would be most illustrative of Nidia’s viewpoint? a. Life was created through evolution. There is no other possible answer. b. I believe that God created the world, but others don’t agree with me. c. I believe you should choose to make a commitment to what you believe in. d. It doesn’t matter which idea you believe in because nobody knows anything for sure.

21.

Doug, Diana, Tyrone, Nidia and Louis all have different viewpoints on the evolution versus creationism debate. Louis displays contextual relativism in his thinking (Position 5). Which of the following statements would be most illustrative of Louis’s viewpoint? a. It doesn’t matter which idea you believe in because nobody knows anything for sure. b. Although we can never know for certain, I understand the way that scientists look at the problem. c. Both creationism and evolution are right. d. I believe what my teachers taught me.

22.

Which of the following individuals embodies the kind of thinking that occurs at Perry’s highest level, Position 9? a. Carson, who is anxious to please his teachers by adopting their intellectual positions. b. Gina, who does not apply herself rigorously because she doesn’t think her teacher is fair. c. Luis, who is beginning to accept the values and behaviors of people of different groups. d. Jamar, who affirms his religious beliefs by becoming a minister, even though he still has doubts.

23.

Based upon research on Perry’s theory, helping professionals should provide ____________ for dualists and ____________ for multiplists. a. challenge / experiential learning b. absolute truth / support c. support / challenge d. support / absolute truth Which of the following is not one of the dimensions that Kitchener used to differentiate the stages of reflective judgment? a. The age of the individual. b. The level of certainty about the knowledge that the individual manifests. c. The kinds of processes the individual uses to acquire knowledge. d. The kinds of evidence the individual uses to justify conclusions.

24.

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25.

Jane is a newly minted therapist who works with couples and families. Her decision was motivated by her sister Melinda’s experience of spousal abuse. When Jane meets with her supervisor to review cases, he points out that when her female clients cry or describe intense conflicts with their husbands, Jane takes their side. She believes her supervisor is blind to the signs of abuse. According to Kitchener’s theory, on what assumption is Jane operating? a. Determination of abuse is difficult to ascertain and must be tested in each situation. b. Determination of abuse should only be reached after consultation with expert supervisors. c. Determination of abuse can be made if one has some personal experience. d. Determination of abuse should be made depending upon the context.

26.

Jane is a newly minted therapist who works with couples and families. Her decision was motivated by her sister Melinda’s experience of spousal abuse. When Jane meets with her supervisor to review cases, he points out that when her female clients cry or describe intense conflicts with their husbands, Jane takes their side. She believes her supervisor is blind to the signs of abuse. What critical thinking pitfall do Jane’s reactions show? a. Over-reliance on the vividness effect. b. Over-reliance on the idiosyncrasy effect. c. Over-reliance on probabilistic thinking. d. Over-reliance on the placebo effect.

27.

Which of the following has the greatest potential to interfere with mature critical thinking and reflective judgment? a. Lack of intelligence. b. Lack of social support. c. Relativistic thought. d. Lack of metacognitive ability.

28.

Problem drinking and drug use is part of the lifestyle of many young adults. In a longitudinal study of 33,000 people, what was the typical course of these behaviors? a. They begin to decline when adults reach their mid-thirties. b. They begin to decline when adults reach their mid-twenties. c. They tend to stay about the same throughout middle adulthood. d. They have no serious effects on behavioral or cognitive functioning. One traditional role of counselors is to help people make decisions. Young adult clients who are still dualistic thinkers may have which of the following problems in this process? a. They may believe there are too many solutions to consider. b. They may believe that problems have no solution. c. They may become anxious if there seems to be uncertainty about the best solution. d. They may come to a foreclosed decision before exploring options.

29.

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30.

A counselor helping a young adult client with procrastination must recognize that this problem can have many sources. In young adulthood, one common developmental source is a. relativistic thinking. b. actuarial prediction. c. poor self-management skills. d. the personal fable.

31.

Globalization has begun to affect the young adult period in developing nations by a. increasing the length of time individuals spend in self-exploration before taking on adult responsibilities. b. decreasing the number of families who can education their children. c. limiting the occupational and lifestyle options available. d. decreasing young adults’ exposure to a diversity of beliefs and values.

32.

Counselors should know that the period between the ages of 15 and 24 is a. a time when good mental health is at its peak, with the lowest rates of depression or other major mental health problems. b. a time when depression rates are at their peak, with the highest prevalence of any time in the life span. c. a time that is not significantly different from any other time of adulthood with regard to depression, but when clients may face many transitions. d. a time when most learning processes slow down significantly.

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Chapter 11 Essay Questions (See answer key or potential essay answers) 33.

Using Perry’s theory, describe what processes help individuals move from dualistic to authentically relativistic thinking.

34.

List three pitfalls counselors need to avoid in their decision-making. Give examples of each.

35.

Theorists like Sinnott describe a fifth cognitive stage often called post-formal thought, whereas theorists like Schaie argue that there isn’t a new stage of thought in adulthood but rather new kinds of problems to solve. Describe the differences between these perspectives in detail.

36.

Discuss how and why interpersonal therapy (IPT) may be useful in helping young adults who are suffering from depression. Consider what role development is assigned in the generation of depression in this therapeutic approach, what role context plays, and what the IPT therapist’s view of enduring cognitive structures in the young adult’s depression may be.

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Chapter 12

Socioemotional and Vocational Development in Young Adulthood Outline III.

Lieben-To Love Adult Attachment Theory Research Traditions in Adult Attachment The Nuclear Family Tradition: The Past as Prologue In Search of the Working Model The Peer/Romantic Relationship Tradition Features of Adult Pair-Bonds The Process of Relationship Formation in Adulthood Individual Differences in Adult Attachments Research on Young Adult Dyadic Relationships Box 12.1 The Benefits of Love: Stability and Change in Adult Attachment Styles

IV.

ARBEITEN- To Work Some Theories of the Career Development Process Holland’s Theory of Personality-Environment Types Super’s Developmental Approach The Realities of Career Development in Young Adulthood The College Student The Forgotten Half Women Versus Men Work and the Development of Self-Concept

107

Erikson’s Theory of Identity Development V.

Applications Attachment in Counseling Contexts Attachment Applied to Couples and Families Caveats The Counselor’s Working Model The Importance of Work Building Self-Efficacy Adjusting to the World of Work

VI.

Summary

VII.

Case Study

VIII. Journal Questions IX.

Key Terms

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Chapter 12

Multiple Choice Questions 1.

Ms. S. and her infant just participated in an attachment study. First, Ms. S. was interviewed to determine how she represented her attachment relationship with her own early caregivers. Second, the researchers assessed the quality of her baby’s attachment to Ms. S. They are seeking to identify relationships between a parent’s working model of attachment and the quality of the attachment the infants form with them. This attachment study is part of which research tradition? a. The nuclear family tradition. b. The peer/romantic partner tradition. c. The generativity tradition. d. The intimacy tradition.

When Ms. S completed the attachment interview assessing her own relationship to her early caregivers, she provided answers that were coherent and collaborative, and she acknowledged the importance of attachment-related experiences in her development. Her attachment status would most likely be categorized as a. autonomous. b. dismissing. c. preoccupied. d. unresolved.

Ms. J. participated in an attachment interview assessing her relationship to her early caregivers. Her transcript revealed lapses in logical thinking, especially when she talked about traumatic memories. She would most likely be categorized as a. autonomous. b. dismissing. c. preoccupied. d. unresolved.

When a parent is classified as “dismissive” on the basis of an attachment interview assessing the parent’s attachment to early caregivers, that parent’s baby is most likely to have an attachment to the parent that is classified as a. secure. b. anxious-ambivalent. c. disorganized/disoriented. d. avoidant. Becky was part of an infant attachment study when she was a baby, participating in a strange situation test with her mother. Later, as a young adult, Becky participated in an

109

attachment interview assessing her adult representation of her attachment to her mother. Based on other studies of this kind, which of the following findings is likely? a. Becky’s infant attachment status will be unrelated to her adult attachment category. b. Becky’s infant attachment status is likely to be predictive of her adult attachment category. c. Attachment theorists predict that the two attachment assessments will be related to each other, but no longitudinal research exists yet. d. Attachment theorists predict that the two attachment assessments will not be related to each other, but no research exists yet.

Among the important differences between adult-adult attachments and child-adult attachments is the a. greater degree of symmetry in adult-adult attachments. b. greater reliance on physical presence in adult-adult attachments. c. greater tolerance for separation in child-adult attachments. d. greater reliance on “felt-security” in chid-adult attachments.

Hazan and Zeifman (1999) asked 6- to 17-year-olds questions about attachment needs. They found that peers met some attachment needs during childhood or early adolescence, but that peers did not fulfill other attachment needs unless they became romantic partners. Which of the following attachment needs were shifted to peers even for the youngest children in this study? a. Proximity maintenance. b. Safe haven. c. Separation distress. d. Secure base.

In a dimensional analysis of adult attachment style (as opposed to a simple set of attachment categories), the focus is on the degree to which a certain tendency is exhibited. What two continuous dimensions or tendencies seem to characterize most attachment scales? a. Intimacy and tolerance. b. Anxiety and approach-avoidance. c. Passion and avoidance. d. Approach-avoidance and intimacy.

According to research on adult partner selection, secure individuals tend to select ____________ individuals as partners. a. avoidant 110

b. c. d.

anxious-ambivalent secure insecure

10.

Andrea is an adult with an anxious-ambivalent attachment style. She is least likely to select a romantic partner who has ____________ attachment style. a. an avoidant b. an anxious-ambivalent c. a secure d. an obsessed

11.

Andrea is an adult with an anxious-ambivalent attachment style. Consistent with her attachment style, what is most likely to be true of Andrea’s romantic relationship? a. She is likely to report a lack of trust in her relationship. b. Her relationships are likely to be less stable than those of women with other kinds of attachment styles. c. She is likely to feel less dependent on her relationship than women with other kinds of attachment styles. d. She is likely to report greater trust in her partner than women with other kinds of attachment styles.

12.

In a study of relationship satisfaction and stability over a 3-year period, which of the following types of partnerships was the most likely to break up? a. Anxious-ambivalent man with anxious-ambivalent woman. b. Avoidant man with secure woman. c. Anxious-ambivalent man with avoidant woman. d. Avoidant man with anxious-ambivalent woman.

13.

In studies of problem discussion and conflict management between partners, individuals with which type of attachment style are most likely to report feeling hostile and angry after a discussion session? a. Avoidant. b. Anxious-ambivalent. c. Secure. d. There are no differences. According to Holland’s description of modal personal orientations, Danielle has an “enterprising” style, she is sociable, domineering, energetic, ambitious, talkative, optimistic, and assertive. According to Holland’s theory of career development, Danielle’s career counselor should

14.

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a. b. c. d.

work with Danielle to change her style, especially her domineering and assertive characteristics. work with Danielle to encourage self-awareness so that she can match her career choice to her existing style. encourage Danielle to recognize that she will probably have very few career opportunities. encourage Danielle to explore other personal orientations before she settles on a career.

15.

In Super’s developmental approach to career satisfaction, he argues that an individual’s vocational self-concept evolves over time. What is the career development stage that usually characterizes adolescents and young adults? a. The growth stage. b. The establishment stage. c. The exploratory stage. d. The maintenance stage.

16.

Research on job satisfaction indicates which of the following? a. Job satisfaction is more closely related to monetary compensation than to any other variable. b. Job satisfaction is most closely related to sociability, with sociable individuals more likely to be satisfied with any job. c. How well personality characteristics match the demands of a job is an important ingredient in job satisfaction. d. Job satisfaction actually has nothing to do with how well personality characteristics match the demands of the job.

17.

Hillary is a 19-year-old college freshman. If she is typical of most college students today, which of the following is her most important reason for attending college? a. To get a better job. b. To find a spouse. c. To work on self-development. d. To construct a philosophy of life.

18.

Consider the role of gender in selecting a major in college. Which of the following is true? a. Women are more likely today to choose fields like biological and physical sciences than they were 30 years ago.

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b. c. d.

Women are less likely today to choose fields like biological and physical sciences than they were 30 years ago. The relative numbers of women choosing biological and physical sciences has not changed in the last 30 years. Gender actually plays no role in the selection of a major.

19.

Which of the following majors actually tend to lose subscribers as students move through their college years? a. Education. b. Business. c. Engineering. d. Psychology.

20.

When the life goals of college and noncollege young adults are compared, which of the following is true? a. Noncollege youth tend to rank good pay and opportunities for advancement in their work to be lower priorities than college youth. b. Noncollege youth tend to rank “making a meaningful contribution” in their work to be a lower priority than college youth. c. Noncollege and college youth both rank good pay and opportunities for advancement in their work as important goals. d. Noncollege youth focus much more on family concerns whereas college youth focus much more on work concerns.

21.

Which of the following is the most important factor in helping young adults avoid a slide into poverty? a. Education. b. Religion. c. Family size. d. Avoiding delinquency.

22. Janet and her twin brother Harris are 22 years old, and they are both looking for jobs following college graduation. If Janet and Harris are typical of women and men in general, which of the following criteria will play a stronger role in Janet’s job choice than in Harris’s job choice? a. Matching her personality and interests to the job demands. b. Opportunities for professional advancement. c. Income and advancement opportunities. d. Opportunities for relationships with other people and altruism. 23. Current research indicates that in the last 50 years, gender differences in career development have a. disappeared entirely. b. intensified, with women today more often choosing to be full time homemakers.

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c. d.

changed in some ways, but remained the same in others, particularly in that women still give greater priority to their role as caregiver, and men still give greater priority to their role as breadwinner. changed in some ways, particularly in that men now typically share equally in housework and child care when both a husband and wife have careers.

24. Erikson believed that a sense of industry, believing in and taking pleasure in one’s ability to be productive, first emerges a. in infancy. b. in the preschool years. c. in the elementary school years. d. in adulthood.

25. Karina, a college student, has a strong mastery orientation. We can expect that Karina therefore holds which of the following theories of intelligence? a. Entity theory. b. Generativity theory. c. Information processing theory. d. Incremental theory.

26. Karina and her friend Joanna began their college careers at a competitive ivy league school and they both had high grade point averages and high test scores in high school. Yet, both of them are having a hard time getting good grades as freshmen. They find the amount of reading and the performance requirements to be so demanding that each of them has had D grades on exams. Now in their second semester, Karina is digging in, working harder, and starting to have more success, while Joanna seems discouraged and is considering giving up. Which of the following is most likely to be true of Joanna? a. She entered college with the expectation of failure. b. She displays a helpless pattern. c. She has an incremental theory of intelligence. d. She has a strong mastery orientation. 27. When someone’s performance is affected by stereotype threat, this means that a. they belong to a group for whom there are some negative stereotypes. b. they are angry at other people for holding a negative stereotype about them. c. they have been directly threatened by others for challenging stereotypes.

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they either believe a negative stereotype about themselves or they fear that others will judge them based on the stereotype.

28. For helping professionals who assume an attachment perspective in their therapeutic approach to clients, what is expected to be the primary mechanism of change? a. Teaching clients to think differently about their early attachments experience. b. Establishing a therapeutic bond that functions as a secure base. c. Confronting emotional memories. d. Challenging the client’s assumptions about attachment.

29. Counselors who use attachment based family therapy (ABFT) with troubled adolescents and their families a. require that all sessions include both parents and the adolescent. b. have alliance building individual sessions with parents and with the adolescent to provide safe haven and empathy. c. have individual alliance building sessions with the adolescent to combat parental authority d. have individual alliance building sessions with the parents but not with the adolescent to encourage respect for parental authority.

30. When clients come to counseling for problems such as relationships or children’s poor behavior, helpers should be cognizant of the possible contributions of the stresses of the contemporary working world. Currently in the United States, a. people are typically working more hours in a year than they did a decade ago. b. people are typically working fewer hours in a year than they did a decade ago. c. women are working more hours than a decade ago, but men are not. d. men are working more hours than a decade ago, but women are not. Chapter 12 Essay Questions (See answer key for potential essay answers) 31. Explain Erikson’s concept of generativity. Which aspects of generativity seem to emerge in early adulthood and which aspects emerge in middle adulthood? What evidence is there for this developmental change? 115

32.

Attachment theory, originally formulated to explain infant-caregiver relationships, has been applied to understanding adult-adult relationships. Outline three ways in which this application can be useful to helping professionals.

33.

Bandura’s notion of self-efficacy beliefs (closely related to Erikson’s sense of industry and Dweck’s mastery orientation), has been described as a useful target for clinical intervention. Describe the four major ways that Bussey and Bandura (1999) have suggested for promoting a client’s self-efficacy beliefs. Provide examples to illustrate how each might work.

34.

Consider the similarities and differences between contemporary men and women with regard to their career choices, expectations, desires, and trajectories. In what ways are they the same and in what ways different? How have gender differences changed over the last half century with regard to career issues?

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Chapter 13

Middle Adulthood: Cognitive, Personality, and Social Development Outline I.

Life Span Developmental Theory Gains and losses in development: The changing architecture of biology and culture Development as Growth, Maintenance, and Regulation of loss Defining successful development at any age

II.

Influences on adult development: Sources of stability The link to temperament

III.

Influences on adult development: Sources of change Age Graded changes History graded changes Nonnormative changes

IV.

Key developmental tasks of midlife: the continuing pursuit of intimacy and generativity Intimacy: Marriage etc. Box 13.1 Changing Families: Gay and Lesbian Couples and their Children Box 13.2 When Parents Divorce Generativity: Making a mark at midlife Box 13.3 Men, Women, and Leadership

Applications

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VI.

Focus on Developmental Psychopathology: Post-traumatic Stress Disorder

VII.

Summary

VIII. Case Study IX.

Journal Questions

Key Terms

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Chapter 13 Multiple Choice Questions 1.

Which of the following assumptions distinguishes life span developmental approaches to human development from other developmental approaches? a. Development is shaped by the interplay of nature and nurture. b. Cultural influences are more important in adult development than in child development. c. Development across the life span is primarily a process of unfolding maturation. d. Developmental processes are not completed when a person reaches adulthood.

Peggy, a 62-year-old woman, has been unable to work for the past year because of a back injury that she sustained at her job as a cafeteria worker. Her adult son, Brian, lives close enough for her to babysit his two young children on a regular basis. Peggy’s daughter, Linda, lives in another part of the state and recently had a new baby boy named Luke. Linda has asked her mother to move in with her to help cares for her newborn. Based upon the life span development model, for which of the following individuals is growth the most characteristic mode of adaptation? a. Peggy. b. Brian. c. Linda. d. Luke.

Peggy, a 62-year-old woman, has been unable to work for the past year because of a back injury that she sustained at her job as a cafeteria worker. Her adult son, Brian, lives close enough for her to babysit his two young children on a regular basis. Peggy’s daughter, Linda, lives in another part of the state and recently had a new baby boy named Luke. Linda has asked her mother to move in with her to help care for her newborn. Based upon the life span development model, for which of the following individuals is maintenance the most characteristic mode of adaptation? a. Peggy. b. Linda. c. Matt. d. Luke.

Peggy, a 62-year-old woman, has been unable to work for the past year because of a back injury that she sustained at her job as a cafeteria worker. Her adult son, Brian, lives close 119

enough for her to babysit his two young children on a regular basis. Peggy’s daughter, Linda, lives in another part of the state and recently had a new baby boy named Luke. Linda has asked her mother to move in with her to help care for her newborn. Based upon the life span development model, for which of the following individuals is regulation of loss the primary mode of adaptation? a. Peggy. b. Luke. c. Brian. d. Linda.

Genaro is a 55-year-old truck driver who has developed anxiety attacks after a recent accident that left him with a serious back injury. Because of his anxiety, he has stopped going to physical therapy. He is considering whether he can return to truck driving, whether he can afford to retire, or if he will need to explore other options for a new career. Which of the following would be an example of growth in adapting to these circumstances? a. Returning to physical therapy so that he can go back to his job as a truck driver. b. Coming to terms with his injury and adjusting to his limitations. c. Returning directly to his job as a truck driver. d. Seeking out counseling to help him deal with his anxiety and learn about his options for a new career.

Genaro is a 55-year-old truck driver who has developed anxiety attacks after a recent accident that left him with a serious back injury. Because of his anxiety, he has stopped going to physical therapy. He is considering whether he can return to truck driving, whether he can afford to retire, or if he will need to explore other options for a new career. Which of the following would be an example of maintenance in adapting to his circumstances? a. Returning to physical therapy so that he can go back to his job as a truck driver. b. Coming to terms with his injury and the loss of his job and income. c. Reading books on late-life career changes so that he can understand his options. d. Starting a business from home so that he can earn enough money to supplement a limited pension income.

career. Which of the following would be an example of regulating loss in adapting to his circumstances? a. Returning to physical therapy so that he can go back to his job as a truck driver. b. Coming to terms with his injury and the loss of his job and income. c. Making financial decisions that will allow him to retire early. d. Starting a support group for others suffering from anxiety in his church community.

The “Big Five” personality traits are a. conscientiousness, agreeableness, aggressiveness, neuroticism and introversion. b. warmth, neuroticism, conscientiouness, introversion and extroversion. c. sociability, openness, neuroticism, agreeableness and aggressiveness. d. agreeableness, neuroticism, openness, extraversion and conscientiousness.

Cross-cultural research findings indicate that a. age-related changes in personality traits differ across different cultural groups. b. age-related changes in personality traits are consistent across different cultural groups. c. age-graded changes in personality traits do not exist in more collectivistic cultures. d. age-graded changes in personality traits do not exist in more individualistic cultures.

10.

Mark, a 47-year-old man, is very shy. He has difficulty interacting with others because he feels awkward and does not easily express his thoughts and feelings. He is a relatively successful artist who lives alone in a rural Southern state. Mark also remembers being very shy as a child. Which of the following is not a likely explanation for the continuity of Mark’s personality over his life span? a. Mark’s early temperamental shyness was influenced by his genes. b. Mark’s parents did not try to make him more outgoing. c. Mark selected a job which reinforced his temperamental characteristics. d. Mark’s early temperament and his later personality traits are moderately correlated. Most men can expect some changes in testosterone levels and possibly in their sexual function in their 40s. Which of the following changes is most likely? a. Older men produce less seminal fluid during ejaculation than when they were younger. b. Most men’s sexual response time will be decreased compared to when they were younger.

11.

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c. d.

Most older men are much less likely to engage in frequent sexual activity. Men maintain muscle mass and bone density at their youthful levels.

12.

Which of the following is the most likely physical change that most adults will experience in their 40s ? a. For many, it will take longer for eyes to adapt to changes in light than before. b. Many will acquire a serious disability. c. For most people the ability to hear normal speech sounds will noticeably decline. d. For most people their body will produce more elastin as they age.

13.

What can you reliably predict about normal age-related changes in cognitive functioning in middle adulthood? a. Most people will have difficulty remembering events in their past life. b. Most people will have difficulty paying attention to work tasks. c. Most people need to take a little more time when solving complex problems. d. Most people become more impulsive when it comes to decision-making.

14.

According to Erikson’s theory, which developmental task is central to the middle adulthood stage of life? a. Ego integrity. b. Intimacy. c. Autonomy. d. Generativity.

15.

According to Erikson and Vaillant, which of the following statements best captures the psychological state that is typical of midlife ? a. Feeling content with a career niche that provides economic security. b. Striving to find a way to use one’s talent to give meaning to life and to the lives of other people. c. A focus on maintaining a sense of self-esteem by achieving recognition for our work. d. Struggling with intimacy as one becomes a marital partner or parent.

16.

Fluid intelligence is to ____________ as crystallized intelligence is to ____________. a. working memory / metacognition. b. pragmatics / mechanics. c. metacognition / working memory. d. mechanics / pragmatics.

17.

Research indicates a history-graded effect for cohorts of children and adolescents growing up in the United States today. Which of these is the best description of this 122

effect? a. b. c. d.

Children and adolescents develop an identity sooner than individuals in previous generations. Children and adolescents experience higher levels of anxiety than individuals in previous generations. Children and adolescents progress through the stages of the family life cycle more quickly than individuals in previous generations. Children and adolescents experience more economic uncertainty than individuals in previous generations.

18.

19.

Sonya is a successful therapist with three adult children. She is 50 years old and in relatively good health. Sonya has some minor aches and stiff joints, mostly stemming from an old knee injury she suffered while playing sports in college. She and her husband reside on the West coast near Sonya’s elderly father. Her younger daughter is still in middle school. Her two older children live in different states, and her oldest son has been diagnosed with HIV. Sonya tries to bring the family together as often as she can, but it is usually only once or twice a year. She is involved in her community and is a generous donor to programs that support research on AIDS. Which of the following could be considered a nonnormative event in Sonya’s life? a. Her children’s move to other states. b. Her son’s diagnosis of HIV. c. Her physical limitations. d. Her generation’s approach to community involvement. Sonya is a successful therapist with three adult children. She is 50 years old and in relatively good health. Sonya has some minor aches and stiff joints, mostly stemming from an old knee injury she suffered while playing sports in college. She and her husband reside on the West coast near Sonya’s elderly father. Her younger daughter is still in middle school. Her two older children live in different states, and her oldest son has been diagnosed with HIV. Sonya tries to bring the family together as often as she can, but it is usually only once or twice a year. She is involved in her community and is a generous donor to programs that support research on AIDS. Which of the following describes Sonya or her life stage?

20.

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a. b. c. d.

She is in the second honeymoon stage. She is in the sandwich generation. She is in the ego-integration stage. She is in the individualistic stage.

21.

Research on mate selection indicates that people choose mates on the basis of all of the following characteristics, except for a. physical attractiveness. b. homogomy. c. compatibility. d. agency.

22.

Geraldo and Rose have been dating since high school. Rose has spoken to Geraldo about getting engaged, but Geraldo is hesitant. He feels close to Rose and shares his feelings and concerns with her, but he no longer feels very sexually attracted to her. He says he feels more like a brother to Rose than a lover. According to Steinberg, what type of love does Geraldo feel for Rose? a. Infatuation. b. Companionate. c. Nonlove. d. Liking.

23.

Chen and Anne come to counseling because they are on the brink of a divorce. After five years of marriage, Anne sees Chen as a highly controlling individual who micromanages their bank account. She’s tired of her husband always nagging about money, and says she doesn’t feel like she’s getting anything positive out of her relationship. Chen considers Anne’s spending extravagant. He blames her family background for creating her lack of responsibility. From Anne’s perspective, what theory about marriage would explain the relationship failure? a. Intrapersonal theory. b. Steady state theory. c. Social exchange theory. d. Homeostatic theory.

24.

Chen and Anne come to counseling because they are on the brink of a divorce. After five years of marriage, Anne sees Chen as a highly controlling individual who micromanages their bank account. She’s tired of her husband always nagging about money, and says she doesn’t feel like she’s getting anything positive out of her relationship. Chen considers Anne’s spending extravagant. He blames her family background for creating her lack of responsibility. From Chen’s perspective, what theory about marriage would explain the relationship failure? a. Intrapersonal theory. b. Steady state theory. c. Social-exchange theory. d. Homeostatic theory. 124

25.

Based upon research about marital relationships conducted by Gottman, what feature of a relationship best predicts the demise of a relationship? a. Homeostatic steady state. b. Negative affect reciprocity. c. Disillusionment. d. Childlessness.

26.

In Gottman’s (1999) research, which of the following “four horsemen of the apocalypse” behaviors is most predictive of relationship failure? a. Criticism. b. Defensiveness. c. Contempt. d. Stonewalling.

27.

Based on research, which adolescent and early adult characteristics are most strongly related to high levels of generativity in middle adulthood? a. Extraversion and agreeableness. b. Agreeableness and openness. c. Affiliation and power needs. d. Introversion and agreeableness.

28.

According to Carter and McGoldrick, one of the second-order changes in the family in the launching period is a. differentiating the self from one’s family of origin. b. maintaining couple functioning in the face of physiological decline. c. opening up the boundaries to allow adolescent children to move in and out of the system. d. renegotiating the marital system as a dyad.

29.

Janine is a 45-year-old accountant who has considerable experience in working as a consultant with firms who are undergoing mergers and acquisitions. Recently one of the firms she successfully helped through a difficult acquisition has offered her a position as Vice Presidenct. She has never managed a major corporate division before. Based on what you know about women leaders, what would you predict about her leadership style? a. She will probably be agentic (e.g., assertive, task oriented) and also democratic. b. She will probably be agentic and autocratic. c. She will probably have difficulty being agentic, but will be democratic. d. Leadership style is unrelated to gender.

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30.

In his approach to couples therapy, Gottman encourages couples to recognize relationship problems that are the result of differences in temperament and attitudes (e.g., different approaches to money) as chronic and inevitable, much like chronic physical ailments that come on as we get older. This approach is similar to ____________, one of the adaptive mechanisms described by life span developmental theorists. a. growth b. maintenance or resilience c. regulation of loss d. the steady-state model

31.

Joe, a 52-year-old, lost his job when the plant he managed was closed, and his overall life satisfaction plummeted. After 9 months out of work, Joe was fortunate to find another, similar position. What can we expect for Joe now? a. Joe’s overall life satisfaction will now return to the baseline he experienced before the job loss. b. Joe’s overall life satisfaction will rise, but will not return to baseline. c. Joe’s overall life satisfaction will continue to fall. d. Joe’s overall life satisfaction will not change in relation to job loss or reemployment.

32.

Individuals who are “off-time” with regard to the social clock a. are retired. b. are uncertain about when to make major changes in their lives, such as when to retire. c. have not met their major life goals at a time consistent with their expectations. d. are obsessive about being on time. Chapter 13 Essay Questions (See answer key or potential essay answers)

33.

Gottman described several core strategies that clinicians can teach couples in marital therapy to foster relational well-being. Describe four of these strategies. Discuss in detail how you would approach teaching one of these strategies to a client couple.

34.

Compare and contrast Erikson’s view of midlife with that of Vaillant.

35.

Describe the factors that promote stability in adult life and those that promote change.

36.

Women and men play multiple roles in their lives. What are some examples of these roles? Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of taking on the responsibilities of multiple roles, and provide clear examples of these advantages and disadvantages. 126

Include a discussion of role buffering.

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Chapter 14

Living Well: Stress, Coping and Life Satisfaction in Adulthood Outline Box 14.1 What Makes People Happy? I.

Life Satisfaction: What is a Well-Lived Life? Worldly Goods and Well-Being Personality and Well-Being Relationships and Well-Being Work, Achievement, Generativity, and Well-Being Universal Needs and Values and Well-Being The Importance of Meaning, Religion and Spirituality Box 14.2 Spirituality, Religion and Well-Being Culture and Well-Being

II.

Stress, Coping and Well-Being in Midlife Stress: A Review Diatheses and Stress Stressors and the Body-Mind Coping with Stress Wellness The Affectivity Connection

III.

Applications Mindfulness Forgiveness

128

Self-Compassion: Spirals of Positivity IV.

Summary

Case Study

VI.

Journal Questions

VII.

Key Terms

129

Chapter 14 Multiple Choice Questions 1.

Brenda and Louise are twin sisters who each married 20 years ago. Brenda and her husband run a small piano tuning business. They have had a small, loyal customer base, and their modest but adequate income has not changed over time. Louise and her husband each work for a corporation, and their incomes have steadily increased over the last 20 years allowing them to increase their standard of living. Assuming that Brenda and Louise began their married lives equally happy, and based on their income histories alone, what would you predict about the subjective well-being of Brenda and Louise today? a. Louise is probably happier than Brenda. b. Brenda is probably happier than Louise. c. Louise and Brenda are probably still about equally happy. d. There is no way to assess relative happiness.

The “American paradox” refers to a. increases in wealth despite decreases in work time. b. increases in rates of depression despite increases in wealth. c. increases in religious practice despite increases in materialism. d. decreases in rates of depression despite increases in work time

Daniel is very extraverted. He admits that he is not comfortable unless surrounded by other people, and he energetically pursues activities that require the company of others. His cousin Bill, about the same age, is very introverted. Bill is self-reflective and prefers more solitary pursuits. Based on these personality characteristics alone, what can you predict about the subjective well-being of Daniel and Bill? a. Daniel is probably happier than Bill. b. Bill is probably happier than Daniel. c. Daniel and Bill are probably equally happy. d. Personality has no bearing on subjective well-being.

Daniel is very extraverted. He admits that he is not comfortable unless surrounded by other people, and he energetically pursues activities that require the company of others. His cousin Bill, about the same age, is very introverted. Bill is self-reflective and prefers more solitary pursuits. Regardless of their personality characteristics, which of the following is likely to contribute most to their long-term happiness? a. They are good friends who are willing to help each other in difficult times. b. They bought a lottery ticket together and were lucky enough to win a huge jackpot. c. They both have jobs that require very little effort. d. They both have very few responsibilities and are careful to avoid committing themselves to any community service. 130

The happiest people have excellent social relationships. This is because a. social relationships are an important source of life stress. b. happy people are more likely to successfully make friends. c. they delude themselves into believing they are happy and that others like them. d. neurotic people are generally less happy.

Which of the following tends to assure that work experiences will be linked to positive well-being? a. Feeling that one is making competent progress toward challenging goals. b. Feeling less generative. c. Workplace characteristics that remove personal control. d. Having few workplace relationships.

Measures of subjective well-being typically assess degree of felt happiness or positive emotion. Other measures of well-being focus more on assessing feelings of fulfillment or self-realization. The latter are indicators of what is sometimes called a. allostatic load. b. spirituality. c. eudaemonic well-being. d. Hedonic well-being.

In Ryan and Deci’s self-determination theory, the fundamental psychological needs they described include a. autonomy. b. adequate shelter. c. freedom from fear. d. generativity.

Marquita sees the universe as a product of intelligent planning. She believes that the creation of the universe, of life, and of human beings has a purpose even if that purpose is not accessible to her. Marquita’s philosophy of the universe and its underlying plan is an example of a. situational meaning. b. global meaning. c. eudaemonic well-being. d. psychological well-being.

10.

At 50 years old, Andrew is an important source of support for his younger sister who has a serious disability. As a computer engineer, Andrew has made a practice of designing 131

computer devices that help his sister and others in her situation interact with the wider world. Andrew sees his work as important in the lives of other people. Andrew’s view of his life is an example of a. materialism. b. global meaning. c. hedonic well-being. d. situational meaning. 11.

Which of the following has not been proposed as a reason why people seek meaning in their lives? a. Establishing meaning helps people feel like they have control. b. Establishing meaning helps people define their values, morals, and ethics. c. Establishing meaning helps people feel self-worth. d. Establishing meaning helps people feel like they are better than other people.

12.

Spirituality and religiosity a. are the same thing. b. are concerned with the search for the sacred. c. both involve an affiliation with a covenant faith community. d. both create a social identity.

13.

One thing that both Eastern and Western religions share is that they promote a. a belief in reincarnation. b. the regulation of negative or destructive emotions. c. the cultivation of strong positive emotions. d. the practice of elaborate public rituals.

14.

Sylvia and Joanne are both members of a support group for new widows. Sylvia has been deeply religious for most of her adult life. She prays daily and attends weekly services. Joanne is not religious, but she has engaged in daily mindful meditation practice for many years. Both women seem equally devastated by the unexpected deaths of their husbands. What can you predict about how they will recover from their losses? a. Sylvia will recover more happiness more quickly than Joanne will. b. Joanne will recover more happiness more quickly than Sylvia will. c. Sylvia and Joanne are both likely to benefit from their daily contemplative practices. d. Religiosity has no bearing on recovery from loss. “Spiritual transcendence” may be a. characteristic only of women. b. characteristic only of Eastern faith traditions. c. the dark side of religion.

15.

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a sixth personality trait.

16.

Evan is 52 years old. Recently, he has been reflecting on the unfathomable complexity of ultimate truth and appreciating that even if we have faith in such a truth, it is unknowable. These reflections suggest that Evan has reached which of Fowler’s stages of faith development? a. Stage 3: Synthetic-conventional. b. Stage 4: Individuative-reflective. c. Stage 5: Conjunctive. d. Stage 6: Universalizing.

17.

Anna is a 44-year-old divorced mother of two teenagers. Anna’s father, who lives alone in a nearby suburb, has recently been diagnosed with lung cancer. Anna needs to take her father to and from medical appointments while she tries to manage the demands of her own full-time job. She goes to the employee assistance counselor at work for help in coping with the demands of her situation. The counselor understands that the demands on Anna are too great given her available resources, a phenomenon called a. role buffering. b. role confusion. c. role strain. d. role multiplicity.

18.

Anna must care for children as well as a sick loved one on a day-to-day basis. She also needs to keep her job. This situation places her under considerable stress. Coping of this type is called coping with a. daily hassles. b. behavioral sensitization. c. life events. d. role changes.

19.

Kindling-behavioral sensitization describes a. a process of shaping behavior to desired outcomes. b. a process of increasing sensitivity to stressful triggers. c. a process that explains how neurobiological factors interact with chemicals in the brain. d. the measure of total life stresses.

20.

Tyrone is a 35-year-old advertising executive. Lately, he has been experiencing some physical symptoms, like shortness of breath and difficulty sleeping. He explains to a counselor that he has been having more difficulty dealing with his work and family responsibilities. A comprehensive intake interview reveals that Tyrone’s mother suffered from a diagnosed affective disorder. This piece of information might indicate the presence of 133

a. b. c. d.

a diathesis. a low allostatic load. a protective factor. a recessive allele.

21.

Jason experienced the death of a close relative due to an act of violence. He comes to counseling to get help dealing with the grief and pain of this experience. After some time, Jason adjusts, and he demonstrates improvements in psychological functioning that exceed his level of adjustment prior to this traumatic event. This is an example of a. posttraumatic stress disorder . b. recovered wellness. c. posttraumatic growth. d. posttraumatic reversal of function.

22.

High concentrations of ______________ secreted by cells of the immune system are related to maladaptive inflammation. a. diatheses. b. cytokines c. neurotransmitters. d. endorphins.

23.

Psychological stressors operate on the immune system in much the same way as a. cytokines. b. sleep. c. endorphins. d. infectious agents.

24.

The two types of stress management presented by Lazarus and Folkman are a. problem-focused and emotion-focused. b. one-dimensional and two-dimensional. c. management and reduction. d. sensitizing and blunting. The extent to which a person experiences nervousness, fear, anger, sadness, contempt, and guilt is called a. kindling-sensitization. b. behavioral inhibition. c. negative affectivity. d. negative heritability.

25.

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26.

Paula is a client who demonstrates highly anxious tendencies. She broods over perceived mistakes, worries about how others view her, and feels that she never meets her own high expectations in ways that satisfy her. Her counselor can conclude that Paula probably also has which of these other characteristics? a. Low levels of sensitivity to interpersonal conflict. b. Tolerance for stressful events but not chronic stress. c. High levels of sensitivity to stress. d. Poor attachment quality.

27.

Laboratory studies have provided evidence for which of the following statements with regard to emotional reactivity? a. Positive affectivity is related to higher levels of left prefrontal cortical activity. b. Positive affectivity is related to higher levels of temporal lobe activity. c. Positive affectivity is related to lower levels of prefrontal cortical activity. d. Positive affectivity is related to reduction in psychoneuroimmune functions.

28.

Ernest is 42 years old and has been out of work for two months. He lost his position as a program manager when his company merged with another larger company. He made a great deal of money during his time as manager and saved quite a bit, so finances are not an immediate concern. He has not been actively looking for work, and he feels sluggish, sleeps much more than he did in the past, and spends most of his time watching TV. Based on conservation of resources theory, how would you interpret his behavior? a. Ernest is just waiting for the right opportunity to come along and there is nothing problematic about this strategy. b. Ernest is experiencing the effects of loss of status following the termination. c. The stressful event probably triggered some underlying vulnerability to depression. d. Ernest will probably soon function at an even higher level following the traumatic incident.

29.

A positive emotional style a. is a trait inherited by only some individuals. b. is a state of mind that depends upon environmental circumstances. c. can be cultivated by everyone. d. is a characteristic that is present in everyone in childhood but that people lose in adulthood because of various pressures.

30.

Researchers believe that the key characteristic that explains the therapeutic benefits of 135

cognitive therapy is a. mentally disputing irrational thinking. b. replacing dysfunctional thinking with more functional thoughts. c. keeping a record of negative automatic thoughts. d. decentering oneself from one’s negative thoughts.

31.

Intentionally paying attention to one’s present experience without judgment is a definition for a. stress management. b. mindfulness. c. relaxation. d. coping.

Chapter 14 Essay Questions (See answer key or potential essay answers) 32.

Beverly is a slim, beautiful woman of 60. She has two grown children, and one grandchild who is cared for by a full-time nanny. Beverly lives in a spacious suburban home on a large, multi-acre lot, and she employs a housekeeper and groundskeeper parttime to take care of the house and yard. She believes that she is fortunate to live such an affluent lifestyle, but more and more lately she has been overcome by feelings of sadness. She has thought about seeking counseling but feels foolish and guilty, as though she has no right to her feelings. Beverly’s distress seems to illustrate “the American paradox.” Explain what that is and what some of the sources of that paradox might be in her life.

33.

Discuss the role that religiosity plays in well-being based on research findings. Consider the following issues: What kind of well-being is affected by religiosity and why? What aspects of religiosity seem most helpful to well-being, and what aspects seem least helpful?

34.

Construct a short essay on the nature of stress and its effects on the body-mind. What constructive ways of handling these effects of stress have been found to be most effective?

35.

Lynn is a 36-year-old woman who feels mildly to moderately depressed and anxious much of the time, despite the fact that circumstances in her life are going smoothly. She comes to a counselor because she feels she is heading for a depressive episode. Using the kindling-sensitization model, what explanation can you give for her experience?

136

Chapter 15 Gains and Losses in Late Adulthood Outline I.

Physical, Cognitive, and Socioemotional Change in Late Life Challenge and loss in late adulthood Physical Change Brain and Cognitive Change Dementia Terminal Drop and Terminal Decline Box 15.1 The Burden of Care Autobiographical Memory Stereotypes and Age Discrimination The Shrinking Social Convoy Maintaining Well-Being in the Face of Loss: Successful Aging Box 15.2 Navigating the Transition to Retirement Wisdom, Aging and Culture Social-Emotional Experience in Late Life

Experiencing Loss Death and Dying Facing Death What is a Good Death? The Process of Dying Bereavement Box 15.3 Funeral Rituals in Different Cultures

137

Classic Approaches to Bereavement Assumptions about Grief Work and Empirical Support An Integrated Perspective on Grief III.

Applications A Good Fit: Adaptations for Professionals Healthy Aging and Prevention When Losses Occur Integrity: The Life Cycle Continues

IV.

Summary

Case Study

VI.

Journal Questions

VII.

Key Words

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Chapter 15 Multiple Choice Questions 1.

In late adulthood, many of the physical losses of middle adulthood (e.g., sensory decline) continue. For people over 65 there is also a new physical problem that about half of the population must contend with, called a. osteoarthritis. b. diabetes. c. multi-infarct dementia. d. Alzheimer’s disease.

Mary, age 82, keeps insisting that someone has been sneaking into her apartment and turning on her stove when she isn’t looking. Her family has noticed that Mary has been more and more forgetful lately, and now she has begun rambling in her speech and using many word substitutions, like “horse” for “dog.” Mary is likely to be suffering from a. osteoarthritis. b. negative stereotyping. c. diabetes. d. Alzheimer’s disease.

Henry, at 79, has always enjoyed relatively good health. However, he has recently begun feeling like he is slowing down and has reported to his doctor that he is doing poorly, although his doctor can find no specific cause. When Henry participated in a research study at a local university where his intellectual functioning was tested, his score had dropped dramatically since his last testing session a year earlier. Henry has the signs of a. diabetes. b. terminal decline. c. osteoarthritis. d. double effect.

“The reminiscence bump” refers to a. the large number of stereotypes about older people rambling on about their lives. b. the large number of autobiographical memories that are retained from the late adolescent through early adult period. c. the large number of autobiographical memories that are retained from the most recent past, even for elderly people. d. the increase in medical expenses experienced by most people after age 65. How is the gender of an elderly person linked to whether or not others have negative, stereotyped expectations of that person?

139

a. b. c. d.

Gender of the elderly person has no effect. Elderly men are more likely to be seen in a negative way. Elderly women are more likely to be seen in a negative way. Elderly women are more likely to be seen in a positive way.

Which of the following does not contribute to social segregation for the elderly? a. Being a member of a cohort with a different set of cultural experiences than younger cohorts. b. Retirement. c. Death of friends, partners and relatives. d. High rates of dementia among those over age 60.

When Jeanine, a successful surgeon, began to suffer from arthritis in her hands, she stopped doing surgery, continuing only the consulting portion of her medical practice, and accepted a position as Dean of the medical school at the university hospital where she had her practice. Narrowing her medical practice to consulting work represents an example of a. selection. b. optimization. c. compensation. d. giving up.

When Jeanine, a successful surgeon, began to suffer from arthritis in her hands, she stopped doing surgery, continuing only the consulting portion of her medical practice, and accepted a position as Dean of the medical school at the university hospital where she had her practice. Shifting her attention to administration and teaching in her position as Dean after the onset of arthritis represents an example of a. selection. b. reduction. c. compensation. d. giving up.

In self-determination theory, which of the following is considered one of the basic psychological needs that motivates our adaptation or coping efforts at any age? a. Autonomy. b. Optimization. c. Avoidance. d. Generativity.

10.

Several factors at preretirement are strong predictors of positive attitudes toward retirement later, including a. religiosity. 140

b. c. d.

feeling confident in relationships with friends. number of close relatives, especially children. mandatory retirement age.

11.

Research on the use of control strategies indicates that flexibility in adjusting one’s goals a. is more characteristic of 20-year-olds than 60-year-olds. b. is less characteristic of 20-year-olds than 60-year-olds. c. does not change across the life span. d. has no effect on happiness or well-being.

12.

When Francesca, age 62, discovered that her retirement plan had suffered losses in the stock market, she realized that she would not be able to retired within the next year as she had expected to do. Francesca began to spend a great deal of time ruminating about her situation, especially about how sad she was that this problem had arisen after she had worked so hard all of her life. Which of the following is an accurate description of Francesca’s coping at this point? a. She is using a problem-focused mechanism. b. She is using an emotion-focused mechanism. c. She is using a primary control strategy. d. She is using no coping strategy.

13.

When Francesca, age 62, discovered that her retirement plan had suffered losses in the stock market, she realized that she would not be able to retired within the next year as she had expected to do. After she learned of her predicament, Francesca met with a financial consultant provided by her company, and she has decided to postpone her retirement by just two years. She hopes that the economy will improve and the additional years of work will help her to achieve her financial goals. Which of the following is an accurate description of Francesca’s coping at this point? a. She is using a problem-focused mechanism. b. She is using an emotion-focused mechanism. c. She is using a primary control strategy. d. She is just being practical, she is not using a copy strategy.

14.

Regarding measures of well-being and happiness, how do older people (over 65) tend to fare in comparison to young or middle-aged adults? a. Most aspects of well-being decline for older adults. b. Most aspects of well-being stay about the same across adulthood. c. Most aspects of well-being improve for older adults, except for purpose in life and personal growth. d. Many aspects of well-being decline for older adults, except for purpose in life and personal growth. According to research by Baltes and associates, in which decade is the growth of wisdom likely to be greatest? a. After 75. b. From 65 to 75. c. From 55 to 65.

15.

141

From 15 to 25.

16.

Training in some professions is more likely to foster wisdom than training in other professions. Which of the following is one of the professions that seem to benefit wisdom development? a. Clinical psychology. b. Economics. c. Mathematics. d. Business management.

17.

Franco participated in an experience sampling study of emotional experience. The participants in the study ranged in age from 18 to 90. He wore a pager, and every time he was paged he checks off the emotions he was experiencing at that moment on a list. Franco and others in his age group reported that positive emotions lasted longer than for the other study participants, but they reported that negative emotional states ended more quickly. What age group is Franco most likely to be in? a. The youngest group (18 to 25). b. The middle-aged group (35 to 55). c. The oldest group (65 and up). d. There is no reliable age difference in emotional experience.

18.

How do the attitudes toward death among elderly people compare to the attitudes of younger age groups? a. Elderly people report more anxiety about death than middle-aged adults. b. Elderly people report less anxiety about death than middle-aged adults. c. Elderly people are less realistic about its inevitability than middle-aged adults are. d. There are no differences between the elderly and other age groups in regard to attitudes toward death.

19.

Which of the following is part of a consensus view of a “good death” among all or most seriously ill patients? a. The desire to die at home. b. The desire to be free of life-sustaining treatments. c. The desire to be touched and kept clean. d. The desire to protect loved ones from knowing the extent of their illness.

20.

Which of the following are aspects of palliative care? a. Pain management and emotional care. b. Life-sustaining treatments. c. Nursing-centered care. d. Physician-assisted suicide.

142

21.

In end-of-life-care, the “double effect” refers to a. counseling care provided for both the dying individual and caregivers. b. injection of a medication by someone other than the dying individual to cause immediate death. c. medication that is given to relieve pain even when this may also result in death. d. a patient’s written statement indicating his wishes for end-of-life care.

22.

Theorizing about grief and mourning after the loss of a loved one has traditionally centered on the importance of “letting go” of the loved one and accepting the loss. This focus is attributable to the work of a. Freud. b. Kubler-Ross. c. Dame Cicely Saunders. d. Bowlby.

23.

One theory about grief and mourning after the loss of a loved one is that bereaved individuals eventually reorganize their grief, discovering ways to hold on to the memory of the deceased and integrate that memory into their current life and new attachments. This idea is attributable to the work of a. Freud. b. Kubler-Ross. c. Dame Cicely Saunders. d. Bowlby.

24.

The period of time that is now considered “normal” for the experience of grieving and depressive symptoms after the death of a loved one is a. 2 months. b. 6 months. c. 2 years. d. something that helping professionals have not achieved consensus on.

25.

Studies of people who are bereaved, whether due to death of a loved one or due to their own spinal cord injuries, show similar results regarding the relationship between initial distress and later coping. Compared to other bereaved individuals, people who show the highest levels of initial distress a. are better able to cope with their loss in the long run. b. are less effective in coping with their loss in the long run. c. develop stronger attachments in the long run.

143

show no long-term coping differences from those who show less initial distress.

26.

In several studies of the benefits of searching for meaning in the loss of a loved one, which of the following individuals were likely to show the most distress in the long run? a. Those who were able to find some meaning in the loss without the benefit of religion. b. Those who did not initiate a search for meaning. c. Those who tried but failed to find meaning in their loss. d. Those who began with no religious faith.

27.

Julio has worked for his local township for 30 years, rising from a park maintenance worker to team supervisor to coordinator of park maintenance operations. At 64 he is planning his retirement, hoping to have some time to work creatively in his own garden and accommodate his wife Gloria’s longing to travel abroad after she retires from her job as a social worker. Because Julio is planning his retirement a. the first year of retirement will be happier than it would otherwise be. b. all of his retirement years are likely to be happier than they would otherwise be. c. he will have a harder time adjusting to the real changes he experiences. d. he will probably have no difficulty adjusting to retirement.

28.

Which of the following describes a typical stage progression in retirement, according to Atchley? e. Honeymoon, stability, reorientation, disenchantment, termination. f. Honeymoon, disenchantment, reorientation, stability, termination. g. Disenchantment, honeymoon, stability, termination, reorientation. h. There is no typical sequence for the stages of retirement.

29.

Which of the following factors is an important predictor of a successful retirement? a. Pension eligibility and high self-esteem. b. Higher social class. c. Better housing facilities. d. Number of grandchildren.

30.

Heckhausen found in a study of young, middle-aged, and elderly adults that elderly people had fewer aspirations regarding work, finances, and family and more aspirations related to health, community, and leisure pursuits than young adults. These age-related shifts in aspirations illustrate a. increasing use of primary control strategies with age. b. increasing use of secondary control strategies with age. c. fewer needs for autonomy in old age. d. disenchantment.

144

31.

In Erikson’s concept of the final stage of life, achievement of integrity can be construed as “a gift of courage and caring for the generations that follow” because a. death comes to be seen as a natural stage of life, not something to be feared. b. integrity includes providing for the financial security of the next generation. c. integrity means making certain that no financial or other burdens are passed on to the next generation. d. integrity means expressing religious commitment at the end of life.

Chapter 15 Essay Questions (See answer key or potential essay answers) 32.

Explain the process of dealing with loss referred to as “selective optimization with compensation.” Provide a clear example of this process at work and specify which aspects of your example illustrate selection, optimization, and compensation.

33.

At 80, Steve has been struggling with emphysema for several years, which means that he experiences significant breathing problems. He is now unable to take more than a few steps without resting, and he needs assistance in basic daily routines, like bathing and eating. According to self-determination theory, one of the three basic psychological needs is for autonomy. Explain this concept of autonomy, and explain how you would counsel Steve and his family to help him fulfill this need.

34.

What is a dual-process model of the grief process? Explain why the available research indicates that a complex model of this sort is needed.

35.

When counseling the elderly, success depends on being flexible and making accommodations that meet their special needs. Discuss three ways in which flexibility may be necessary and why.

145

ANSWER KEY FOR CHAPTERS 1-15

ANSWERS FOR MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS …………….….149 ANSWERS FOR ESSAY QUESTIONS.…………………........................164

146

Answer Key for Multiple Choice Questions (Aligned with Text pages and Section Heads; Essay answers follow Multiple Choice Log) Item Number 1.1 1.2

Correct Answer b c

Page # 4 6

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Subject Heading Reflection and Action A Historical Perspective on Contemporary Developmental Theories A Historical Perspective on Contemporary Developmental Theories A Historical Perspective on Contemporary Developmental Theories A Historical Perspective on Contemporary Developmental Theories A Historical Perspective on Contemporary Developmental Theories A Historical Perspective on Contemporary Developmental Theories A Historical Perspective on Contemporary Developmental Theories A Historical Perspective on Contemporary Developmental Theories Contemporary Multidimensional or Systems Theories: Embracing The Complexity of Development Contemporary Multidimensional or Systems Theories: Embracing The Complexity of Development Contemporary Multidimensional or Systems Theories: Embracing The Complexity of Development Contemporary Multidimensional or Systems Theories: Embracing The Complexity of Development Contemporary Multidimensional or Systems Theories: Embracing The Complexity of Development A New Look at Three Developmental Issues A New Look at Three Developmental Issues A New Look at Three Developmental Issues A New Look at Three Developmental Issues Subject Heading A Historical Perspective on Contemporary

1.20

8-9

1.21

14-15

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1.23 1.24 1.25

d d d

31 2 17

1.26

1.27 1.28 1.29 1.30

c b d b

32-33 30 31 13

1.31 1.32

c b

30 23-24

1.33 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 2.10 2.11 2.12 2.13

a c a d b a b b d a b a c a

28-29 42 47 47 50 43 45 46 43 49 53 56 56 66

2.14

2.15 2.16 Item Number 2.17 2.18

c c Correct Answer d a

46 41 Page # 60 60-61

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Developmental Theories A Historical Perspective on Contemporary Developmental Theories A Historical Perspective on Contemporary Developmental Theories Contemporary Multidimensional or Systems Theories: Embracing The Complexity of Development Focus on Developmental Psychopathology Organizing Themes in Development Contemporary Multidimensional or Systems Theories: Embracing The Complexity of Development A Historical Perspective on Contemporary Developmental Theories Applications Focus on Developmental Psychopathology Focus on Developmental Psychopathology A Historical Perspective on Contemporary Developmental Theories Applications A New Look at Three Developmental Issues Applications Epigenesis and Coaction Epigenesis and Coaction Epigenesis and Coaction Atypical Development Epigenesis and Coaction Epigenesis and Coaction Epigenesis and Coaction Epigenesis and Coaction Atypical Development Atypical Development Atypical Development Atypical Development The Developing Stress and Adaptation System The Developing Stress and Adaptation System Epigenesis and Coaction Epigenesis and Coaction Subject Heading The Developing Brain The Developing Brain

2.19 2.20 2.21 2.22 2.23 2.24 2.25 2.26 2.27 2.28 2.29 2.30 2.31 2.32 3.1 3.2

c c b a d a b a d d b a a b c c

57 61 57 61 62 63 41 52 52 54 56 42-43 55 72 79-81 101

3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.9 3.10 3.11

d b c a d b a c a

82 113-114 79 79-80 81 79 82 83 92-93

3.12 3.13 3.14 3.15 3.16 3.17

b b d a d a

90 87-88 87-88 86 89 95

3.18

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109 109 Page # 104

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The Developing Brain The Developing Brain The Developing Brain The Developing Brain The Developing Brain The Developing Brain Epigenesis and Coaction Atypical Development Atypical Development Atypical Development Atypical Development Epigenesis and Coaction Atypical Development Applications Piaget’s Constructivist Theory Preschoolers’ Cognition: The Preoperational Stage Infant Cognition: The Sensorimotor Stage Applications Piaget’s Constructivist Theory Piaget’s Constructivist Theory Piaget’s Constructivist Theory Piaget’s Constructivist Theory Piaget’s Constructivist Theory Infant Cognition: The Sensorimotor Stage Preschoolers’ Cognition: The Preoperational Stage Infant Cognition: The Sensorimotor Stage Infant Cognition: The Sensorimotor Stage Infant Cognition: The Sensorimotor Stage Infant Cognition: The Sensorimotor Stage Infant Cognition: The Sensorimotor Stage Preschoolers’ Cognition: The Preoperational Stage Preschoolers’ Cognition: The Preoperational Stage Preschoolers’ Cognition: The Preoperational Stage Vygotsky’S Sociocultural Theory Vygotsky’S Sociocultural Theory Subject Heading Preschoolers’ Cognition: The Preoperational Stage Vygotsky’S Sociocultural Theory Preschoolers’ Cognition: The

3.25 3.26 3.27 3.28 3.29 3.30 3.31 4.1 4.2 4.3

b b c c c b b c d a

112 116 118 119 113-114 79 113-114 126 128 131

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d a b b a c c b

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a b c c b c b d a d a Correct Answer c d b c a c

140 140 139 133 137 135 138 138, 161-162 144-145 146 145-146 152 153 155-158 154 129 128 151-152 148-150 Page # 143 143 162 159 157 180-181 150

Preoperational Stage Vygotsky’S Sociocultural Theory Applications Focus on Developmental Psychopathology Focus on Developmental Psychopathology Applications Piaget’s Constructivist Theory Applications Theories of Emotion Theories of Emotion The Early Development of Emotion Regulation The Early Development of Emotion Regulation The Early Development of Emotion Regulation The Early Development of Emotion Regulation Attachment: Early Social Relationships Attachment: Early Social Relationships Attachment: Early Social Relationships Attachment: Early Social Relationships Attachment: Early Social Relationships Attachment: Early Social Relationships Attachment: Early Social Relationships Attachment: Early Social Relationships Attachment: Early Social Relationships Attachment: Early Social Relationships Attachment: Early Social Relationships Attachment: Early Social Relationships Attachment: Early Social Relationships Attachment in Context Attachment: Early Social Relationships Theories of Emotion Theories of Emotion Attachment: Early Social Relationships Attachment: Early Social Relationships Subject Heading Attachment: Early Social Relationships Attachment: Early Social Relationships Focus on Psychopathology Applications Applications Early Socialization: Parenting and the

5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7 5.8 5.9 5.10

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Development of the Self-System The Self-System: Traditional Conceptions The Self-System: Traditional Conceptions The Self-System: Traditional Conceptions The Self-System: Traditional Conceptions The Early Development of the Self-System The Early Development of the Self-System The Early Development of the Self-System The Early Development of the Self-System Early Socialization: Parenting and the Development of the Self-System Conscience: The Beginnings of a Moral Self Conscience: The Beginnings of a Moral Self Early Socialization: Parenting and the Development of the Self-System Conscience: The Beginnings of a Moral Self Conscience: The Beginnings of a Moral Self Conscience: The Beginnings of a Moral Self Early Socialization: Parenting and the Development of the Self-System Early Socialization: Parenting and the Development of the Self-System Early Socialization: Parenting and the Development of the Self-System Early Socialization: Parenting and the Development of the Self-System Applications Applications Applications Applications Applications Applications Subject Heading The Early Development of the Self-System The Early Development of the Self-System Applications Applications Applications Applications Applications

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c a d c a a d a d d a d a c b c d a c b d a a d b d b b c b d a c a d Correct Answer a d d a c b d a

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Brain and Behavior Brain and Behavior Cognitive Development Cognitive Development Cognitive Development Cognitive Development Cognitive Development Cognitive Development Cognitive Development Cognitive Development Cognitive Development Cognitive Development Social Cognition Cognitive Development Cognitive Development Cognitive Development Cognitive Development Social Cognition Applications Social Cognition Cognitive Development Cognitive Development Social Cognition Applications Applications Social Cognition Social Cognition Cognitive Development Social Cognition Social Cognition Social Cognition Cognitive Development Self-Concept Self-Concept Self-Concept Subject Heading Self-Concept Self-Concept Self-Concept Self-Concept Self-Concept Self-Concept Self-Concept The Moral Self

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b a d b c b a b a b c a a d b b d d c a b a c b b d a d b c b c b c Correct Answer d c d a b d a a c

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The Moral Self The Moral Self The Moral Self The Moral Self The Moral Self The Moral Self The Moral Self The Moral Self The Moral Self The Moral Self The Moral Self The Moral Self Applications Applications Applications The Moral Self Applications The Moral Self Applications The Moral Self Sex Role Development Sex Role Development Sex Role Development Sex Role Development The Biology of Sex Sex Role Development Sex Role Development Sex Role Development Sex Role Development Sex Role Development Sex Role Development Sex Role Development Sex Role Development Sex Role Development Subject Heading Sex Role Development Sex Role Development Peer Relationships Applications Peer Relationships Peer Relationships Peer Relationships Peer Relationships Peer Relationships

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a c a c b a b a c a b d b d d a c c a c a a d a c b d d b b c d c Correct Answer d a a c b a d a

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Peer Relationships Peer Relationships Peer Relationships Peer Relationships Peer Relationships Sex Role Development Peer Relationships Sex Role Development Sex Role Development Sex Role Development Physical Development Physical Development Physical Development Physical Development Physical Development Physical Development Physical Development Physical Development Physical Development Physical Development Cognitive Development Cognitive Development Cognitive Development Cognitive Development Cognitive Development Cognitive Development Cognitive Development Identity Development Identity Development Identity Development Identity Development Identity Development Identity Development Subject Heading Identity Development Identity Development Physical Development Applications Applications Applications Cognitive Development Framelessness and Autonomy: A Model of Adolescent Social Identity Framelessness and Autonomy: A Model of

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a b a c b a b d c a b d b b c b c b c d c c b b d b c Correct Answer b

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Adolescent Social Identity Framelessness and Autonomy: A Model of Adolescent Social Identity Framelessness and Autonomy: A Model of Adolescent Social Identity The Structure of the Peer Network The Structure of the Peer Network The Role of Parents The Role of Parents The Role of Parents The Role of Parents The Role of Parents The Role of Parents The Role of Parents The Role of School The Role of School Leisure and Work Risky Behavior and Social Deviance Risky Behavior and Social Deviance Applications Applications The Role of School Media and the Consumer Culture Applications Applications The Structure of the Peer Network Leisure and Work Applications The Role of Parents Risky Behavior and Social Deviance Applications The Role of Parents Subject Heading Physical and Cognitive Development in Young Adulthood Physical and Cognitive Development in Young Adulthood Physical and Cognitive Development in Young Adulthood Physical and Cognitive Development in Young Adulthood Physical and Cognitive Development in Young Adulthood Physical Development in Young Adulthood Physical Development in Young Adulthood

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11.23

429-430

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Cognitive Development in Young Adulthood Cognitive Development in Young Adulthood Cognitive Development in Young Adulthood Cognitive Development in Young Adulthood Cognitive Development in Young Adulthood Cognitive Development in Young Adulthood Cognitive Development in Young Adulthood Cognitive Development in Young Adulthood Cognitive Development in Young Adulthood Cognitive Development in Young Adulthood Cognitive Development in Young Adulthood Cognitive Development in Young Adulthood Cognitive Development in Young Adulthood Cognitive Development in Young Adulthood Cognitive Development in Young Adulthood Applications

Item Number 11.24

Correct Answer a

11.25

Page # 421, 425-426 428

11.26

428

11.27

428

11.28 11.29 11.30 11.31

b c c a

414 429-430 430-431 410

11.32 12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8

b a a d d b a a b

432-434 440 441 441 441 443 445 446 449

Subject Heading Cognitive Development in Young Adulthood Cognitive Development in Young Adulthood Cognitive Development in Young Adulthood Cognitive Development in Young Adulthood Physical Development in Young Adulthood Applications Applications Physical and Cognitive Development in Young Adulthood Focus on Developmental Psychopathology Lieben- To Love Lieben- To Love Lieben- To Love Lieben- To Love Lieben- To Love Lieben- To Love Lieben- To Love Lieben- T Love

12.9 12.10 12.11 12.12 12.13 12.14 12.15 12.16 12.17 12.18 12.19 12.20 12.21 12.22 12.23 12.24 12.25 12.26 12.27 Item Number

c b a c b b c c a a c c a d c c d b d Correct Answer

449 449 551 451 452 453-454 455 456 458 458 460 461 462 404 464-465 466 466-467 466-467 467-468 Page #

Lieben-To Love Lieben- To Love Lieben-To Love Lieben-To Love Lieben-To Love Arbeiten-To Work Arbeiten-To Work Arbeiten-To Work Arbeiten-To Work Arbeiten-To Work Arbeiten-To Work Arbeiten-To Work Arbeiten-To Work Arbeiten-To Work Arbeiten-To Work Arbeiten-To Work Arbeiten-To Work Arbeiten-To Work Arbeiten- To Work Subject Heading

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12.28 12.29 12.30 13.1

b b a d

469 470 472 479

13.2 13.3 13.4 13.5 13.6 13.7 13.8

d b a d a b d

481 481 481 481-482 481-482 481-482 483-484

13.9

484

13.10

484-485

13.11

487-488

13.12

486-487

13.13

488-490

13.14

491-492

13.15

491-492

13.16

489-490

13.17

493-494

13.18

494

13.19

496

13.20 13.21 13.22 13.23 13.24 13.25 13.26 13.27 Item Number 13.28 13.29

b d d c a b c c Correct Answer d a

512 501-502 503 507 507 509 509 516-517 Page # 500-502 515-516 158

Applications Applications Applications Middle Adulthood: Cognitive, Personality, and Social Development Life Span Developmental Theory Life Span Developmental Theory Life Span Developmental Theory Life Span Developmental Theory Life Span Developmental Theory Life Span Developmental Theory Influences on Adult Development: Sources of Stability Influences on Adult Development: Sources of Stability Influences on Adult Development: Sources of Stability Influences on Adult Development: Sources of Change Influences on Adult Development: Sources of Change Influences on Adult Development: Sources of Change Influences on Adult Development: Sources of Change Influences on Adult Development: Sources of Change Influences on Adult Development: Sources of Change Influences on Adult Development: Sources of Change Influences on Adult Development: Sources of Change Influences on Adult Development: Sources of Change Key Developmental Tasks of Midlife Key Developmental Tasks of Midlife Key Developmental Tasks of Midlife Key Developmental Tasks of Midlife Key Developmental Tasks of Midlife Key Developmental Tasks of Midlife Key Developmental Tasks of Midlife Key Developmental Tasks of Midlife Subject Heading Key Developmental Tasks of Midlife Key Developmental Tasks of Midlife

13.30

481, 517

13.31 13.32 14.1

b c c

519 519 528-529

14.2

529

14.3

530

14.4

529-532

14.5

530-531

14.6

532

14.7

532

14.8

533

14.9

533

14.10

533

14.11

533

14.12

535

14.13

535

14.14

535, 547-548

14.15

536

14.16

536

14.17 14.18 14.19 14.20 14.21 Item Number 14.22 14.23 14.24

c a b a c Correct Answer b d a

539 539 540 540 541 Page # 542 542 543

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Life Span Developmental Theory; Applications Applications Applications Life Satisfaction: What is a Well-Lived Life? Life Satisfaction: What is a Well-Lived Life? Life Satisfaction: What is a Well-Lived Life? Life Satisfaction: What is a Well-Lived Life? Life Satisfaction: What is a Well-Lived Life? Life Satisfaction: What is a Well-Lived Life? Life Satisfaction: What is a Well-Lived Life? Life Satisfaction: What is a Well-Lived Life? Life Satisfaction: What is a Well-Lived Life? Life Satisfaction: What is a Well-Lived Life? Life Satisfaction: What is a Well-Lived Life? Life Satisfaction: What is a Well-Lived Life? Life Satisfaction: What is a Well-Lived Life? Life Satisfaction: What is a Well-Lived Life?; Stress, Coping, and Well-Being in Midlife Life Satisfaction: What is a Well-Lived Life? Life Satisfaction: What is a Well-Lived Life? Stress, Coping, and Well-Being in Midlife Stress, Coping, and Well-Being in Midlife Stress, Coping, and Well-Being in Midlife Stress, Coping, and Well-Being in Midlife Stress, Coping, and Well-Being in Midlife Subject Heading Stress, Coping, and Well-Being in Midlife Stress, Coping, and Well-Being in Midlife Stress, Coping, and Well-Being in Midlife

14.25 14.26 14.27 14.28 14.29 14.30 14.31 15.1

c c a b c d b a

545 545-547 546 543 547-548 550 550 558

15.2

558

15.3

562

15.4

566

15.5

567

15.6

569

15.7

569

15.8

569

15.9

576

15.10

571-572

15.11

572-573

15.12

587

15.13

588

15.14

572-573

15.15

573

15.16

576

15.17

577

Item Number 15.18 15.19 15.20 15.21

Correct Answer b c a c

Page # 578 579-580 580-581 581

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Stress, Coping, and Well-Being in Midlife Stress, Coping, and Well-Being in Midlife Stress, Coping, and Well-Being in Midlife Stress, Coping, and Well-Being in Midlife Stress, Coping, and Well-Being in Midlife Applications Applications Physical, Cognitive and Socioemotional Change in Late Life Physical, Cognitive and Socioemotional Change in Late Life Physical, Cognitive and Socioemotional Change in Late Life Physical, Cognitive and Socioemotional Change in Late Life Physical, Cognitive and Socioemotional Change in Late Life Physical, Cognitive and Socioemotional Change in Late Life Physical, Cognitive and Socioemotional Change in Late Life Physical, Cognitive and Socioemotional Change in Late Life Physical, Cognitive and Socioemotional Change in Late Life Physical, Cognitive and Socioemotional Change in Late Life Physical, Cognitive and Socioemotional Change in Late Life Physical, Cognitive and Socioemotional Change in Late Life Physical, Cognitive and Socioemotional Change in Late Life Physical, Cognitive and Socioemotional Change in Late Life Physical, Cognitive and Socioemotional Change in Late Life Physical, Cognitive and Socioemotional Change in Late Life Physical, Cognitive and Socioemotional Change in Late Life Subject Heading Experiencing Loss Experiencing Loss Experiencing Loss Experiencing Loss

15.22 15.23 15.24 15.25 15.26 15.27

a d d b c a

583 585 586 587 587-588 571-572

15.28

571-572

15.29

571-572

15.30

572

15.31

593

161

Experiencing Loss Experiencing Loss Experiencing Loss Experiencing Loss Experiencing Loss Physical, Cognitive and Socioemotional Change in Late Life Physical, Cognitive and Socioemotional Change in Late Life Physical, Cognitive and Socioemotional Change in Late Life Physical, Cognitive and Socioemotional Change in Late Life Applications

Potential Answers for Essay Questions Chapter 1 Essay Questions 34. Compare and contrast stage, incremental, and multidimensional models of development. What specific contributions does each perspective make to our knowledge of development? (Pages 6-20) Stage, incremental, and multidimensional models of development are similar in that they attempt to explain a wide variety and breadth of behaviors. Stage theories, such as Piaget’s theory of cognitive development, characterize development as a discontinuous process, whereas, incremental theories view change as a continuous process. Metaphorically, stage theories, conceptualize change as resembling a staircase. In contrast, incremental theories view change as more like a steadily rising slope. Stage theories are useful for addressing issues related to developmental readiness to learn. They also help us understand limitations associated with trying to accelerate an individuals’ capacity to learn and mature. Stage theories focus on qualitative differences in mental processes and behavior, compared to incremental theories that emphasize quantitative changes. Incremental theories are based on the assumption that developmental change is not marked by major reorganizations that affect many behaviors at once, as in stage theories. Rather, change is gradual and steady and specific to particular mental activities or behaviors. Incremental theories also differ from stage theories in the kinds of processes they assume to underlie psychological change, such as the kinds of processes involved in learning. For example, social learning theory and most information processing theories are among the incremental models available to explain development and how knowledge is acquired. In the multidimensional model, development is considered to be the result of many causal components that impact all domains of development from cognitive to social. According to this model there are different layers and levels of interacting causes for behavior change: physical, biological, social, psychological and cultural. Changes at one level causes and is influenced by what happens at other levels. Thus, the relationships among causes are reciprocal. Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological model is a good example of multidimensional model because it specifies how the following different levels of environment influence a person’s development: 1. Microsystem: This refers to immediate environment where proximal processes are played

out. For example family, school, neighborhood. 2. Mesosystem: Relations among microsystems. For example, parental involvement in school affects the child’s education. 3. Exosystem: includes settings that may not directly interact with the child but will influence the child indirectly. The teacher’s family life influences the teacher and thereby influences the child. 4. 4. Macro system: This includes the customs and character of the larger culture that help 162

shape the microsystem. For example, cultural attitudes toward senior citizens would influence the structure of the family and interactions with grandparents. 35. Create a case scenario using an example of a helping professional that describes the process of reflective practice. (Pages 3-5) An experience counselor is working with a young adolescent who recently lost her best friend in a car accident. The counselor is an experienced grief counselor and knows what type of therapeutic techniques to guide the client through experiencing such a loss. The counselor has recently experienced the pain of losing a close family member. She is very self-aware of her own feelings and when to self-disclose appropriate information to her client about her own grieving process. The counselor carefully self-monitors her own emotions related to death and dying and is able to appropriately share her life experiences with her client. The counselor has mastered reflective practice, which is a creative method of mastering the knowledge and skills base pertinent to one’s profession, but goes beyond rote technical applications to generate new kinds of understanding and strategies of action. Her counseling approach involves problem-solving strategies that depend on a deep understanding in fundamental knowledge germane to the field. A common challenge for counselors is that they come to the process with a base of personal life experiences and views, which can influence their ability to be objective. The best way to counselors to avoid misapplication of their personal views is by self-monitoring – being aware of their personal theories and recognizing that they are only one of a set of possibilities. 36.

Explain why having a working knowledge of development or a “developmental template” is useful to helping professionals. (Pages 28-32)

Helping professionals who emphasize development in their work bring an awareness that persons grow and change over time and that their capacities and concerns also shift over the life course. As noted in the text book, many writers have called for a rethinking of diagnostic taxonomies as well to make them more developmentally and sensitive. They claim that diagnostic classification systems need to include a comprehensive understanding of the way people grow and adapt, for better or for worse, to their changing circumstances. Lerner (1996) argues a developmental focus allows helping professionals to consider ways to support developmental transitions to later life stages by taking steps to promote a caring network. Specific developmental theories such as Piaget’s theory of cognitive development, Freud’s psychosexual stage theory, and Kohlberg’s moral development theory assist helping professionals to understand the developmental underpinnings of their profession and advocate for a contextualized perspective on client functioning. We can see that developmental knowledge is evident in the emerging field of applied developmental science, which has begun to synthesize and apply the findings of developmental psychology to the solution of real-world problems. Noam’s (1992, 1998), takes a developmental and constructivist approach to the study of disorders in his therapeutic approach called developmental psychopathology , which blends developmental knowledge with clinical 163

practice. Noam uses developmental knowledge as a kind of metatheory that helps counselors integrate the problems presented by the “person-insituation” and limits the reliance on treatments for isolated problems. Noam argues that the developmental approach is useful in addressing immediate difficulties, but has the additional benefit of anticipating what clients will need at later points in their growth. Knowledge of developmental science also helps clinicians distinguish normal developmental “bumps” or mishaps from real deviations in development, which allows them to make more effective interventions. 37. In the applications section of Chapter 1, several rules of thumb are provided to guide helping professionals incorporate developmental knowledge into their work. Choose three of the guidelines and, for each of these, provide either a) a detailed and specific example of how helping professionals incorporate the guideline in a practice setting, or b) a specific and detailed example of how you will incorporate this guideline into your practice. (Pages 28-30) One of the guidelines suggested in the text book is that helping professionals take a multidimensional view of developmental processes. With respect to the traditional dilemmas in development, it is most consistent with current research that helpers refrain from taking an either-or position in favor of a both-and stance in regards to understanding the importance of nature and nurture. It is suggested that having an awareness of the interacting contributions of genetics and environment can allow helpers to take a more reasoned and accurate view of problems. The current trend toward “over-biologizing” (Tavris, 1998) many kinds of physical and psychological conditions can lead people to the false belief that our genes control our behavior. In fact, they may produce tendencies for people to respond to environments in certain ways. One system, proposed by Sadler and Hulgus (1994), would incorporate three levels of symptom assessment into treatment planning. Examples of these three levels include: 1. Syndromes related to personal history (such as early parental deprivation) 2. Syndromes related to interpersonal environments (such as victimization or divorce) 3. Syndromes related to extrapersonal environments (such as job loss or systemic

discrimination). What these approaches share is the desire to shift the prevailing theoretical paradigm from a model of pathology “within the individual” to a more integrative model that incorporates critical developmental principles such as the importance of contextual features. For example, a counselor would be encouraged to not overly rely on biological theory to explain an adolescent’s risk taking behaviors. Although the adolescent’s temperament may influence her desire for novelty and risk-taking, her temperament and behaviors also influence her selection of peers. The situation becomes more complex because her peer group shapes her self-concept and identity. One of the “rules of thumb” comes from Steenbarger (1991), who cautions against thinking about developmental progress as movement through a fixed set of stages that are the same for all people. Such an excessively rigid interpretation of problems does not account for the complexities of person–environment interactions. At the other extreme of the debate, some radical constructivist views abandon all sense of developmental stage progressions, which may

164

be too extreme for the helper who needs to construct a developmental map of the client. Thus, the rule of thumb is to rely n an informed middle ground. For example, it may be useful to rely upon some stages of psychosocial development that not entirely dependent on chronological age and maturational attainments. Another guideline to keep in mind is the scientific meaning of theory. A theory represents a synthesis of hypotheses that have been tested and supported by careful research, such as the theory of relativity or evolution. We can think of a theory as referring to one’s personal opinion, such as one’s opinion about the best way to counsel the elderly or explains why someone is extroverted is social situations. Scientific theories evolve and they can be disproved with the accumulation of evidence. Skilled helping professionals need to keep themselves well informed about current research findings, but they must also avoid overgeneralizing from single studies and not rely too much on speculation. Anther rule of thumb for effective helping professionals is to be selective about their sources of information they rely upon in their practice. We need to keep in mind that knowledge builds relatively slowly and is accumulated over time by repeated observations of similar results. Helping professional who take too simplistic of an approach to developmental issues can miss the complexities of interacting factors, including contextual and historical influences. They are also cautioned against making quick direct causal connections between experiences and outcomes that may make for an easy prediction but might misrepresent the phenomenon under study. Finally, helping professionals need to be committed to ongoing education in the field. Counselors and other helping professionals need to keep an open mind and continually work to accommodate new information as they practice reflection in action. Thus, it is important to talk with colleagues, attend professional meetings and conferences, and read scientific journals within our profession.

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Chapter 2 Essay Questions 33.

One thing we have learned from molecular genetics to date is that complex human behaviors or behavioral tendencies are not often likely to be traced to the impact of a single gene or pair of gene alleles. As noted in the text book, most influences on behavior seem to be polygenic. A number of genes, if they are defective, can influence the development of mental retardation. In many cases, the defective genes seem to result in an important cell product being missing. For example, let us consider how a missing cell can impact a child’s intellectual functioning. In the disorder called phenylketonuria (PKU), children are missing an important enzyme. Without the enzyme, an ingredient in food, called phenylalanine, cannot be metabolized. Unless the victim’s diet is severely restricted, phenylalanine soon accumulates in the body and causes mental retardation. This example shows that a single missing cell product disrupts intellectual functioning. However, no single cell product is responsible for normal intelligence; rather, it is the result of the combined impact of a large number of genes and their products. A different but related are of study to molecular genetics is behavior genetics. Behavioral genetics seeks to explain if a behavior or characteristic varies from one person to another, how much of the difference is due to genetic influences? Behavior geneticists look for heredity explanations in such complex activities as television watching, work attitudes, shyness, cigarette smoking, and criminality. Their research tools involve measuring individual differences in behavior using interviews, questionnaires, standardized tests, and observational techniques. They apply these measures to special populations of people, such as twins and adoptees. They seek to identify behavioral variations that run in families and to figure out how much of the similarity among family members is due to shared genes or the environment. 34.

Explain why it is important for a helping professional to be aware of the coaction of genes and environment. Be sure to include a definition of coaction, with examples. (Pages 43-48)

Coaction is bidirectional: Environments affect the action of genes, and genes affect the influence of environments. Genes influence how much impact any environmental factor is likely to have on the development of behavior. Thus, environmental factors can have different effects on people with different genotypes. For example, when children experience early and ongoing abuse, they often grow up to be violent adults. But not all children who suffer from mistreatment will later abuse others. We have learned from modern molecular and behavior genetic research that only a multidimensional or systems approach to the nature–nurture relationship is likely to capture its complexity. One such approach is Gottlieb’s (1992) epigenetic model that assumes development is the result of interacting genetic and environmental factors, which are have complex interactions and occur 166

at multiple levels of functioning. In this approach, genes, through their products, can affect an individual’s neural activity; neural activity affects the individual’s behavior; and behavior influences the external environment and the experiences that an individual is likely to have. At the same time, environmental influence behaviors which can alter neural activity and change genetic activity. 35.

There are several principles that govern the effects of teratogens on the developing fetus. Describe these principles, giving examples. (Page 53-54)

The fetus is surrounded by a placenta, an organ that develops with the fetus and exchanges blood products with the baby through the umbilical cord. Although the placenta allows nutrients to pass from the mother’s blood to the baby’s blood, it an can also allow the passage of harmful environmental substances and agents called teratogens. The first principle is that the type of damage done is related to the stage of development during which the mother is exposed to the teratogen. For example, if a pregnant women is exposed to harmful substance during the fourth or fifth week of gestation when the major organs are laid down the result may be major structural malformation. Yet, if the same substance is exposed during the last months of pregnancy there is more likely to be neurobehavioral deficit then major structural malformation. A second principle is that the mother’s and baby’s genes play a role in sensitivity or resistance to a teratogen. Thus, not all developing organisms will be susceptible to teratogenic effects. A third principle is that adverse outcomes depend on dosage amounts. Finally, the negative effects of teratogens can be magnified if the fetus or infant is exposed to more than one risk factor. For example, mothers who take drugs and abuse alcohol during pregnancy also tend to have more stress and poorer nutrition. They may also experience greater amounts of poverty that can negatively impact their maternal lifestyle. 36.

What advice could you provide a pregnant teenager in order to help her assure the health of her baby? (Pages 69-71)

First, pregnant women need to monitor their stress levels. The increased levels of stress hormones will contribute to the development of the infant’s neuroendocrine system. Researchers have found a relationship between maternal stress and neonatal hyperactivity and irritability. Also, as levels of maternal epinephrine rise, blood flow and thus oxygen flow to the fetus is reduced, affecting fetal development. Moreover, maternal stress can alter the environment of the developing fetus, thus impacting the developing brain and possibly leading to stress hyperreactivity in later life for the child. Second, pregnant women need to understand the dangers associated with the ingestion of certain drugs and alcohol particularly during the early stages of pregnancy. There is research evidence showing that babies who are exposed to alcohol prenatally may be born with fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS), which is identifiable in its victims by virtue of their unique facial configuration (small head, widely spaced eyes, flattened nose, and so on). These children are also characterized by growth retardation, either pre- or postnatally, both in weight and length. Many organ systems can be affected but the most vulnerable seems to be the central nervous system. Of great concern is thte finding that children with FAS are likely to suffer from mental retardation and behavior problems. Children exposed to smaller amounts of alcohol prenatally do not necessarily have to 167

meet the diagnostic criteria of FAS to exhibit deficits. Such children are said to exhibit fetal alcohol effects (FAE). Significant learning impairments are often found in children who have been prenatally exposed to alcohol even when they do not have the physical features or growth deficiencies of FAS children. Pregnant women need to understand that the absence of physical symptoms or structural malformations does not rule out serious cognitive limitations from prenatal alcohol exposure. Finally, in addition to stress and substance abuse, pregnant women need to understand the importance of good nutrition during pregnancy. Infants short on proteins or other essential vitamins and minerals during prenatal development can compromise a child’s later physical, socioemotional, and intellectual development.

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Chapter 3 Essay Questions 32.

Parents wish to locate a program for their toddler and preschool children that is developmentally appropriate. What elements would you advise these parents to look for in the programs they observe? (Pages 106-108)

Unfortunately, child care programs in the United States are rarely high quality; typically they are poor to mediocre (see Brauner et al., 2003). Ideally, all preschool programs should foster school readiness, whether they also serve parents’ child care needs or provide additional services to families. One key question to ask is whether or not the lead teacher in each classroom has a college education and certification in early childhood education. Support staff should also have early childhood certification and all classroom personnel should minimally have annual inservice training. The need for high quality preschool is even greater for children from lower SES homes because high-quality preschool can substantially improve school readiness, reduce a child’s chances of a “special education” placement, increase chances of high school graduation, reduce crime and incarceration rates, and benefit later earnings. Research from longitudinal studies has provided evidence that one of the best predictors of school readiness is the quality of teacher–child interactions in pre-school. Children benefit tremendously from having effective teachers that show enthusiasm, respect and mutual enjoyment, without displays of anger, aggression, or harshness. Effective teachers also encourage and support child–child interactions that have the same high quality of interaction. When observing potential pre-schools, it is important for parents to look for teachers who are sensitive and responsive to children’s emotional cues. For example, thy will see the teacher-child conversation is elaborative, sensitive to children’s level of understanding, with feedback that helps children to more fully develop their conceptual knowledge. We would hope to see many of the teacher–child interactions are one-to-one or with small groups. Children’s interests should guide these interactions, and children are directly involved in planning daily activities and longer term projects. Activities should be learning-centered such as practical opportunities for learning letters, phonemes, numbers, and facts about science. Ideally, we would see few activities that rely on drilling or rote practice. Although it is not always easy to evaluate the moment-to-moment features of quality, but there are some structural elements that we can look for in a program. According to the National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC) and the National Institute of Early Education Research (NIEER), we should look for and ask about the following: • Teachers’ education. Teachers with bachelors’ degrees and preparation in early childhood education are more likely to engage children in the kinds of conversation and activities that promote positive development than teachers with less education. Unfortunately, many states do not require preschool teachers to have college degrees. • Teacher–child ratios. For 3-year-olds, maximum teacher–child ratios of 9:1 are recommended, with total class size not exceeding 18. For 4-year-olds, the recommended teacher–child maximum is 10:1, with no more than 20 children per group. • A variety of equipment and materials. Material choices provide children with a range of opportunities to develop skills and knowledge, and make it possible for children’s interests and 169

planning to play an important role in the curriculum. We should look for a lot of books, art and writing supplies, opportunities to play with water, sand, and other media, blocks and other building toys, as well as a range of toys and materials that support pretend play. • General characteristics. We are most interested in a facility in which parents are encouraged to make an appointment to visit a classroom. In addition to general safety issues, NIEER suggests looking for evidence that children are comfortable and engaged in what they are doing, not easily distracted or wandering aimlessly; not distressed, bored or crying; and adults area responsive to children’s needs and requests, and involved in what children are doing (Frede, 2008). 33.

Compare and contrast the theories of Piaget and Vygotsky. In what ways are they similar and in what ways are they different? (Pages 79-97, 105-112)

Both Piaget and Vygotsky’s ideas have had a major impact on education and the field of psychology in large measure because of their applicability to the teaching–learning process. They were both sensitive to the role of outside influence on the developing learner. There is often an overgeneralization that Piaget was only concerned with individual cognitive development and of Vygotsky as concerned only with social influences. Both of these assumptions are inaccurate and there are more similarities between Piaget and Vygotsky than many people notice. Like Vygotsky, Piaget noted that the relationships between the individual and her social environment are essential to cognitive development (Piaget, 1977). We can see this viewpoint in Piaget’s conceptualization of the development of perspective taking. Also, Piaget’s view of the role of teachers in cognitive development is also quite similar to Vygotsky’s. Vygotsky described two kinds of developmental lines that accounted for cognitive development, one that was “sociohistorical” or cultural, and one that was “natural,” coming from within the infant, much like Piaget’s stage of sensorimotor development. Although they emphasized different processes, both Piaget and Vygotsky can be described as concerned with the interpenetration of the individual mind and society in the formation of thought. As another example, despite there differences in the details, both men sought to explain language development. In regards to the development of scientific thinking, Piaget is frequently thought of as the prevailing theorists, however, both men understood that the advancement of scientific thinking depended on the kind of dialectic that a mutual critique of ideas provides. While both men focused on cognitive development, they emphasized different aspects of thinking and humans come to acquire knowledge. According to Piaget, the human mind constructs its knowledge. When infants and children are presented with new stimuli or pieces of information, what is learned or stored is through a process called adaptation. They interpret new stimulation in ways that fit with what they already know, sometimes distorting it as a result. This aspect of adaptation is called assimilation. As the new information is assimilated, the child’s existing knowledge may be modified somewhat, providing a better match or fit to what is new. The latter process is called accommodation. Assimilation and accommodation are complementary activities involved in every interaction with the environment. In order to accommodate (learn), children must be able to assimilate. They cannot learn something that they cannot make some sense out of already. Assimilation often means that new information is distorted or changed so that sense can be made of it. The theory posits that the child is an active 170

participant in the learning process, constantly seeking out and trying to make sense of new information. Piaget believed that children are intrinsically motivated to learn. In contrast to Piaget’s emphasis on assimilation and accommodation, Vygotsky emphasized the zone of proximal development (ZPD) in the learning. The ZPD indicates that a child is able to learn new concepts or ideas only with the support of someone else. This does not mean that an adult must simply give a child the answer to what is being learned, but rather, assist the child in understanding the concept by providing the necessary tools and helping the child develop a strategy to tackle the presenting problem. Vygotsky focused on assisting a child with a learning task, whereas, Piaget focused on the child’s cognitive readiness to master a task. Perhaps one of the most obvious differences between the two theorists is that Vygotsky did not believe we could identify a progression of stages that the individual child traverses on her way to logical, abstract thought. Nor did he emphasize the importance of the individual’s construction of knowledge in the cognitive developmental process. Vygotsky is arguably best known for his emphasis on the critical role that the culture or society into which one is born plays in the transmission of knowledge. Vygotsky also differed from Piaget due to the assumption he made that that human thinking was mediated by the tools humans use. Another difference between Piaget’s and Vygotsky’s ideas concerns the role of egocentric speech in cognitive development. Piaget originally stated that the egocentric speech of the child (talking aloud to the self, with no apparent communicative function) serves no useful purpose and simply disappears with the growth of more mature language use. In contrast, Vygotsky and his colleague Alexander Luria argued egocentric speech serve a very important purpose in human development. For Vygotsky, egocentric speech is the precursor to problemsolving, planning ability, and self-control. 34.

What does the research on symbolic artifacts discussed in this chapter suggest about how children’s cognition develops? (Pages 99-110)

A symbolic artifact is an analogical symbol, such as a picture or map, which stands for something other than itself. The dual nature of symbolic artifacts is problematic for young children. Symbolic artifacts are both concrete things themselves and symbols for other things. Research shows that young children often have difficulty holding more than one idea in mind simultaneously. In one study, researchers found that children’s understanding of pictures reveals that if a picture is realistic, like a photograph, 9-month-olds try to pick up on the objects in the picture. Eighteen-month-olds are indifferent to whether a picture is right side up or upside down. Even two-year-olds have difficulties choosing which picture represents a real object. The inability to process symbolic artifacts helps us to understand why young preschoolers struggle with tasks like watching television characters and dealing with scale models or miniature dolls in research studies. 35.

Identify three assumptions about children and childrearing that may differ for different cultural groups. (Pages 110-111)

Some of the assumptions and beliefs that vary across different cultural groups include the following: who should be responsible for raising a child, what types of sleeping arrangements 171

are best for children, what type of parenting style is the preferred method, and how parents should communicate with their children. There are also vast differences in beliefs about how children should relate to their parents that are influenced by culture. We can also turn to Vygotsky’s theory to help us understand the role of culture in childrearing. In this chapter, we learned about Vygotsky’s notion of the zone of proximal development. However, we note that different cultural groups have different practices and beliefs related to assisting others. In some Western societies, autonomy and independence are so values that parents may not be too quick to offer help to a child in need. Eurocentric cultures tend to place more importance on the value of individualism than do Asian cultures, which hold more communitarian ideals. Certain assumptions, such as these about individualism and collectivism, need to be refined, clarified, and carefully evaluated to avoid dualistic overgeneralizations. Recent analyses of cultural differences in orientations to individualism and collectivism found that Latinos/Latinas, African Americans, and European Americans do not differ significantly in their levels of individualism, as defined in these studies, nor are European Americans less collectivist in orientation than Japanese and Koreans. Cultural orientation has implications for the helping professions. When the cultural orientation of a family is different from that of the helper, professionals need to recognize and appreciate that different developmental goals may exist. For example, Japanese parents generally place great value on the interdependence of family members and their mutual responsibilities toward each other. This value is expressed in the family sleeping arrangements. In the United States, infants generally sleep in a room separated from their parents. In comparison, co-sleeping is the most frequently used sleeping arrangement for children in many non-Western cultures worldwide. Helping professionals must consider other familial norms and practices, such as cobathing and care of young children by siblings. Having an understanding of cultural context eliminates our risk of misinterpreting practice different from our own as being potentially harmful. Effective helping professionals need to be able to separate culturally different childrearing practices from those that are truly abusive or neglectful. We are cautioned against being too quick to note similarities between people and childrearing practices with a specific cultural group. Within any kind of cultural group, be it ethnic, socioeconomic, gender-based, religious, or the culture of our family homes, individual differences still flourish. Indeed individuals may be more similar in beliefs, values, and practices to members of another cultural group than they are to those with whom they share a similar cultural heritage.

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Chapter 4 Essay Questions 31.

Discuss the possible role of maternal depression in the development of emotion regulation in infants. (Pages 140-141)

A serious concern is that infants who have depressed mothers are at risk because their mother’s depression keeps the child from effectively bonding with the mother. Depressed mothers frequently show less positive affect than someone who is not depressed. They can also display more anger and unpredictable contact with the child, hence preventing the baby from learning emotion regulation. Thus, the infant is more likely to resort to self-coping strategies, such as turning away from the mother to deal with the anxiety of the interaction. Researchers have found that this unfortunate situation can lead the infant to experience problems with social and interpersonal relations later in life. It can also cause the child to develop negative schemas from an early age and become depressed. 32.

If attachment quality can change over time as caretaking quality changes, explain the significance of infant’s attachments to their caregivers. (Pages 142-147)

It is possible for attachment quality of infants to change over time, depending on the quality of the caregiving. If there is a substantial shift in caregiving, the quality and security of attachment may improve. This can be observed in the research done on infants with reactive attachment disorder. There are numerous factors than can mediate the relations between caretaking quality and the infant’s attachments to their caregiver. For example, it is mentioned that children from lower socio-economic status are more likely to shift from insecure to secure attachment or vice versa, rather than children from high socio-economic status groups. Infant’s attachment to a caregiver can change over time, as well as the kind of attachment may vary to different caregivers. Researchers have found that secure attachments are less likely to change over time compared to insecure attachments. It is important to note that changes in family stressors can cause changes in caregiving quality, which can impact the quality of the child-caregiver attachment. Early attachments are certainly important, however, it is the quality of the care that a child continues to receive that positively or negatively impacts the attachment processes. Although there are some mixed research results, there is some research evidence to support the hypothesis that early attachment quality effects later psychosocial functioning. For example, securely attached infants were more self-confident, had more friends and better social skills at age 10 compared to insecure children (Sroufe, et al., 2005). 33.

Discuss at least three reasons why attachment theory and research has special significance for helping professionals. (Pages 148-153, 161-162)

1. Attachment theory can be useful in helping families make decisions about infant day care. Although the research findings have produced mixed results, there is some consensus that infants who experience non-parental care on a regular basis still form secure attachments to their parents. The key is the quality of the child care or the number of hours per week that involves 173

more than on substitute care arrangement. 2. Early attachments have implications for the development of a healthy self-concept. Securely attached youngsters begin to see themselves as lovable and worthy. Bowlby contends that attachment influences a child’s processing of information in social situations. He also claims a child’s attachment influences the child’s functioning in social contexts, affecting what he or she learns and remembers. 3. Researchers studying attachment propose a working model that predicts early attachments provide a template for adult social relationships, including adult romantic relationships. 4. Helping professionals may encounter clients with either disorganized attachment or reactive attachment disorder (RAD). Main and Solomon (1986) found evidence for behavioral manifestations of disorganized attachment in which infants in the Strange Situation assessment showed sequential or simultaneous displays of contradictory, conflicted behaviors (approach and avoidance), misdirected movements, disorientation, or “freezing in place”. Of most concern, disorganized attached infants showed apprehension or fear of the parent. Although there is no actual diagnostic term, “reactive attachment disorder” is the term frequently used to describe children with poor social relatedness and frustratingly high levels of disruptive behavior. There is some evidence showing two types of RAD: (1) inhibited type- one that is characterized by a high degree of resistance and nonresponsiveness to social interaction and (2) disinhibited typeindiscriminant familiarity and attention seeking directed toward relative strangers with lack of selective attachments to primary caregivers. 34.

Explain the cultural contributions to the development of attachments. What role does culture play in this process? (Pages 150-151)

The broader culture can influence how attachment relationships are formed. Researchers have found the distribution of attachment patterns varies from one country to another. In fact, there can even be variations from one subculture to another within the United States. For example, some Japanese and Israeli infants have found fewer avoidant attachments and more ambivalent attachments compared to infants from the United States. Also, in German samples, more avoidant infants were found compared to other cultural groups. In fact, some theorists argue attachment theory may only be appropriate for Western cultures. More specifically, they claim the cultural differences in maternal sensitivity and specifics of what constitutes sensitive care may lead to inaccurate attachment assessments. Bowlby agrees that there are cultural differences in how much dependency is valued by different groups. For example, an ambivalent attachment pattern in Japan may be more adaptive and have more positive impact on a child’s future development than it would in the United States.

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Chapter 5 Essay Questions 33.

A primary concern is that disciplinary practices that involve physical punishment can lead to externalizing, aggressive child outcomes. In addition, more normative physical punishments such as paddling and spanking are associated with problematic child outcomes including children’s antisocial behaviors. Researchers found that across all family’s social class, ethnicity, and child’s gender, the occurrence of spanking children between ages 6 and 9 predicted increased in the children’s antisocial behaviors over the next two years. There is some research indicating the effects of spanking, and other types of normative corporal punishment, varies across cultural groups. For example, in European American samples there is a linear relationship between the amount and severity of physical discipline and children’s aggressive behavior. However, this same relationship between physical punishment and aggressiveness in children has not been found for African American and Mexican American children. Some researchers hypothesize that the inconsistency across ethnic groups relates to meanings children associate with their parents’ discipline practices. For example, some children may interpret their parents’ use of high levels of control as an expression of caring and protectiveness. In some cultures, parents’ use of physical punishment affected the children’s anxiety levels but not their aggressiveness. 34.

Describe the way social referencing might explain the acquisition of certain fears in children. (Page 173)

Social referencing refers to a baby’s adjustment of reactions depending on feedback from a caregiver. Social referencing implies the baby’s recognition of the separateness of the other person. This phenomenon involves the baby using the caregiver’s emotions to discern meaning in events and to garner information about the self. The child begins to understand the combined experience of “we.” For example, a mother who fears being in large crowds of people may send emotional signals to her child. Seeing the mother’s facial expressions the child may interpret the situation and believe “we” should be scared in crowds. 35.

Discuss the relationship between child temperament and parent disciplinary style. (Pages 184-186)

Both parents and infants contribute to the quality of the caregiving relationship. It can be quite challenging for a parent to be responsive to the needs of a child with a difficult temperament. Some of the child temperament characteristics that can influence parenting styles and practices include: dependence versus independence behaviors, aggression or tendency to withdraw, and responsiveness to adults. One study found that parents are more likely to ignore or command aggressive children. Parent’s disciplinary styles are mediated by the characteristics and behaviors of a child, which helps us to understand why parents’ may use different disciplinary approaches with each of their children. 36.

Create a case study of a family with children who are showing behavior problems. Outline the steps you would take as a counselor to treat this family while paying 175

particular attention to the developmental needs of the children. (Pages 195-196) A father takes his two daughters for family counseling after their mother suddenly left the family and stated she wanted a new and independent life. The father was most concerned about his 12 year-old daughter who frequently showed positive affect and would avoid talking about her mother or even acknowledging her mother’s existence. The daughter seemed to overly inhibit her feelings and the father was concern she consistently demonstrated a “false affect.” In this case, the counselor may find it useful to explore the extent to which the daughter is exhibiting an emotionally constricted sense of self. Children who have insecure-avoidant attachments with caregivers tend to learn that displaying distress or negative emotions can lead to rejection, punishment, or withdrawal. As a result, insecure-avoidant children learn to suppress their feelings, demonstrate false affect, and actively block out certain types of information in their environment. They come to believe that showing anger or other negative feelings (e.g., sadness, shame, guilt) is unacceptable and should be avoided. The counselor could work with the father to help him see that his daughter may appear to be “good” and self-reliant, but there are costs associated her inability to regulate and express her true emotions. The counselor could help the father work towards ensuring his daughter evaluates her self-worth based on her own appraisals and does not overly rely on the appraisals of others. The counselor can work with the entire family to discuss the issue of compulsive caregiving. The 12 year-old daughter may be at risk to engage in compulsive caregiving in which she begins to emotionally take care of the father. The counselor should encourage the father to use an authoritative parenting style and not encourage his daughter to be overly self-reliant or believe she must always show positive emotions.

176

Chapter 6 Essay Questions 33.

Children’s thinking and processing improves with time, mostly in the amount and efficiency with which they can process information. According to neo-Piagetian theorists one of the major aspects of memory to improve with age relates to the increase in working memory capacity. A 2year-old can typically handle two digits or bits of information in working or short-term memory, whereas, a typical adult can handle or recall seven bits of information. With increasing age, children can work with multiple pieces of information at the same time, can use new strategies to organize their knowledge, apply different processing strategies to different specific contents. They also improve in the ability to monitor their own attention, link new information with previously stored knowledge, and use more and better memory retrieval strategies. Memory improves with age because individuals gain more knowledge about a topic (i.e., declarative knowledge), which creates more pathways for memory retrieval. Another aspect of cognitive functioning that improves with time is the child’s ability to rely on metacognition. The child will learn to know the limits of his or her memory capacity. For example, 11-year-old will write down a phone number because she knows she is likely to forget the number later. Whereas, a 7-year-old may believe she will remember the phone number because she repeated back to the person after she was told the number. 34.

Egocentrism refers to the situation in which children’s thinking is embedded in their own perspective. With age, children rely less on egocentric thought and they are able to take the perspective of others, which is crucial in friendship development. According to Sullivan’s model, at about age 4 children enter the “juvenile period” and they begin to incorporate more interactive behaviors such as sharing, conformity, and expressions of sympathy. However, they are not yet truly altruistic nor are they free of egocentric thought. At this stage, their egocentric purpose is still gaining acceptance or being perceived as popular in a large group. A major transition begins to occur around age 8, when children enter the “preadolescence” stage. During this period children begin to have an increasing need for interpersonal intimacy and they frequently from same-sex “chums.” They begin to consider the thoughts and feelings of others as carefully as their own. In other words, they start to see the world through the eyes of their friends. According to Selman’s model of friendship development, until about age 5 children are in the “undifferentiated/geocentricism” stage (i.e., Stage 0) and their friendships are defined in very concrete terms. For example, a four-year-old child may define a friend solely in terms of another person who gives you a gift. Even in Stage 1 of Selman’s model (the differentiated/subjective stage) friendship is sill primarily a one-way proposition. It is not until Stage 2 (reciprocal/self177

reflective stage) that children begin to incorporate the perspectives of others in their communications and friendships. This stage typically begins at age 8 and another important milestone is that children can think about the motivations and intentions of others, which is a key piece of information in friendship development. In Stage 3 (mutual/third person) the adolescent can think about situations using a third-party perspective. Egocentrism is further reduced because the adolescent can view the interchange between herself and her friend and reflect on it from the outside looking in. In the final stage of Selman’s theory (Stage 4- intimate/indepth/societal) the individual adopts the perspective of the larger society in her friendships. It is noted, although it changes over the lifespan, we do not become free of egocentrism as we age and mature. 35.

Both Sullivan and Selman’s theories predict a child of 10 years of age should have more advanced perspective taking abilities and rely less on egocentric thoughts and behaviors, such as being overly generous. Thus, we would view the boy’s behavior as being less mature than we would expect for his age. Being overly generous to friends reflects that the child’s egocentric purpose is still gaining acceptance or being perceived as popular in a large group. One approach in helping the boy is to talk to him about the reciprocal nature of friendships in giving and receiving in regards to gift exchange. Moreover, the parents could talk to their son about to help him understand that true friendships involve conflicts, hurts, disappointments, competition, and betrayals. Yet, reciprocal and mature friendships survive these types of threats to intimacy. 36.

Explain why perspective taking is so crucial to the development of social skills. (Pages 231-236)

Perspective taking, according to Mead, is being able to put yourself in another person’s shoes and then consider your own actions in the light of that alternative perspective. The ability to take another person’s perspective develops gradually as children mature, however, having friends helps it develop as well. As Sullivan points out, friendships teach children that the needs and perspectives of others must be considered as carefully as their own. Furthermore, by around the age of 8 children’s egocentrism begins to diminish; as a result, they are able to view the world through their friends’ eyes. Once a child is able to master perspective taking he will be better able to maintain a friendship. In Selman’s five-stage theory, improvements in perspective-taking affect an individual’s friendship understanding, the value one places on friendship, and the social and conflict-resolution skills he or she develops.

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Chapter 7 Essay Questions 33.

Should character education be taught in school? Identify the pros and cons of this strategy. (Pages 263-264)

Character education programs are not a new idea. In 1917, W. J. Hutchins published the Children’s Code of Morals for Elementary Schools, emphasizing “ten laws of right living”: selfcontrol, good health, kindness, sportsmanship, self-reliance, duty, reliability, truth, good workmanship, and teamwork. In addition to curriculum reform, character education was incorporated into daily school activities with lessons in right living and by initiating student clubs in which moral behavior could be practiced. A massive study by Hartshorne and May in the late 1920s revealed that moral training had little impact on children’s moral behavior. In the mid-1960s, a “values clarification approach” to moral education was implemented in school programs in which students were encouraged to examine their own thinking about morality and to come to their own conclusions. Teachers were trained to not impose any code or value system on students. Researchers found some limited evidence that peer discussions, skillfully facilitated by teachers, can help children and adolescents advance to higher levels of moral reasoning. However, teachers struggled with the facilitation of such discussions, and they were concerned some of their efforts might lead children to rationalize unacceptable behavior. Many contemporary programs emphasize widely accepted, even universal, standards of conduct. They typically aim to help children understand why certain standards are important and encouraging behavior consistent with these standards. One of the challenges related to character education is that school personal must whether to develop their own character education program or use one of the many packaged programs available to teachers. One of the more widely used and studied packed programs is the “Child Development Project” (Developmental Studies Center, 1996), which is designed for kindergarten through sixth grade. The program focuses on four core values (fairness, concern and respect for others, helpfulness, and responsibility), is implemented school-wide, and includes a home program as well. Leming (1997) found the program effects the following child characteristics: (a) self-esteem, (b) sensitivity and consideration of others’ needs, (c) spontaneous prosocial behavior, (d) interpersonal harmoniousness, (e) preference for democratic values, and (f) conflict resolution skills. Is seems that character education that has clear goals and specifies sound techniques for implementing those goals can be effective in encouraging some aspects of moral thinking, feeling, and behavior. Critics, however, have raised concerns about at least some programs, worrying that children may be indoctrinated, drilled in specific behaviors rather than being encouraged to engage in critical reflection about how to behave. The debate surrounding the efficacy of outcome education programs centers around the extent to which they bring change in behaviors. Outcome research on character education programs have revealed mixed results, even given their primary goal of stimulating students’ level of moral reasoning. A further criticism of character education programs is that they tend to treat children and adolescents as if they were homogeneous moral thinkers. One of the potential “cons” of character education programs is that many parents and community leaders have come to expect schools to address problems of rising crime and increasing conduct problems in the schools. 34.

What advice would you give to parents who want to develop prosocial behavior in their children? (Pages 269, 273-274) 179

Perhaps the best piece of advice we could offer to parents is that they keep in mind that their parenting behaviors will affect their child’s development of self-control, compliance, conscience, and development of prosocial behaviors. Also, it would be important to discuss the benefits of authoritative parenting for the development of prosocial behaviors in children. Through modeling, parents can teach their children about important prosocial behaviors and emotions such as being responsible to the needs of others and knowing how to appropriately express sympathy for the person in need. Some adolescents are able to discuss the relationship between helping and one’s self-respect or staying consistent with one’s own values. Parents can also provide positive reinforcement when their child voluntarily acts in ways that seem intended to benefit someone else. Parents can explicitly point out to a child that sharing, comforting a friend, helping an elderly neighbor with her lawn, collecting used clothing—all are examples of simple prosocial behaviors that we might see from a child. As the child gets older, parents can point out that acting altruistic or prosocial only specifies that it benefits someone other than the actor, not that unselfish motives are necessarily involved. Parents are encouraged to discuss with their child that prosocial behavior involves more than helping another in need. Behavior such as spontaneously sharing of items occurs in the absence of any apparent need on the part of the other and therefore seems not to rest on emotions like empathy or sympathy. Finally, parents are encouraged to look for opportunities that will allow their child to engage in prosocial behaviors. Researchers found that starting in middle childhood, children who are encouraged to donate in one context are more likely to engage in helping behavior later in another context. 35.

Develop a case study that reflects the development of an aggressive disorder. (Pages 275-278)

Tyler started playing soccer at age 6. From the beginning he showed great talent as a future soccer player. He also demonstrative highly competitive behaviors and attitudes by age 8. By age 10 he was known to tease his teammates about their soccer errors. By the age of 16 he started become quite mean to others on the soccer field. In addition to taunting other players, he frequently engaged in fights on the field with his own teammates and opponents. In addition, he would taunt, tease, and make inappropriate comments to his teammates off the soccer field. On the field, if he believed someone was going to beat him out for the ball, he would act aggressively to the other player with the intent to do physical hard to the other person. At first Tyler’s teammates just ignored him, but later they started to complain about Tyler’s behavior to the soccer coach and their teachers. In addition to his antisocial behaviors on the soccer field and in school, Tyler began to engage in some risky activities including substance abuse, cheating on school exams, lying, and vandalism of school property. Of greatest concern is that it seems Tyler has a disregard for the harm he might cause others Although we have a limited amount of information, we can see that Tyler’s propensity to aggression and conduct problems seem serious to question whether or not his behaviors warrant a diagnosis of oppositional defiant disorder (ODD) or conduct disorder (CD). In making a 180

diagnosis, a trained mental health professional would consider the nature, duration, and severity of Tyler’s symptoms. Tyler needs a in intervention program that will help him develop prosocial skills such as feelings of empathy and sympathy, and foster improvements in emotion regulation and effortful control. A counselor would also consider the role of social cognition (especially perspective-taking skill) in Tyler’s aggressive and externalizing behaviors. It would be important to help him understand how he may misattribute negative motives to others that lead him to turn to aggression. 36.

In the 1950s Festinger described the process, called social comparison that explains how people observe the performance of others and use it as a basis for evaluating their own abilities and accomplishments. When they do this and how they do it vary somewhat depending on context and level of global self-esteem. According to Festinger, social comparison processes are particularly active in situations that are novel or ambiguous or when more objective standards of performance are unavailable. In general, we tend to maintain moderately positive beliefs about ourselves, called the self-enhancing bias, which is considered a good thing in most cases. The processes involved in social comparison work somewhat differently for individuals who are lower in self-esteem. When self-esteem is low, children may prefer situations that are rich in positive reinforcement. Research by Smith and Smoll (1990) revealed that children with lower levels of self-esteem responded most favorably to coaches and instructors who were highly encouraging and least favorably to those who were least supportive. Children with high or moderate levels of self-esteem showed less variation in their responsiveness to adult reinforcement styles. Children and adults with lower levels of self-esteem are more susceptible to the kinds of external cues that carry evaluative messages and are more reactive to social feedback (Campbell, 1990). They are reluctant to call attention to themselves and are more cautious and self-protective. Possibly they feel they have more to lose if they experience negative evaluations from others. Thus, while the parent’s intentions in this case are noteworthy, the caution is that if the child has a low level of self-esteem the parents’ attempt to motive her to become stronger may hurt rather than facilitate the child’s motivation for a task. Instead of using comparison strategies in order to increase motivation, the parent’s would be more effective to find ways to help their child develop competencies that will lead to an increase in self-efficacy for a task.

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Chapter 8 Essay Questions 33.

There is an abundance of research showing that boys and girls spend their time differently. Girls spend their time interacting primarily with girls, and boys spend their time mostly with boys. In settings where there are both males and females of similar ages available, such as schools and playgrounds, and where there is freedom to choose one’s companions, this sex segregation process begins by about 21⁄2 for girls and by about 3 for boys, and it increases with age. As summarized in our text, when children are about 4, the time they spend with same-sex peers is triple the time they spend with other-sex peers. By the time children are 6, they spend 11 times more time with same-sex peers. Sex segregation intensifies in elementary school and it begins to ease off only after puberty. When children segregate by gender, other behaviors also tend to diverge. For example, it is typical for young boys to be notably more active when they play in a group with other boys than when they play alone. Also, children do somewhat different things in their same-sex groups. Boys’ play in groups is more physical and more aggressive than girls’ play. Maccoby’s research program on gender and play indicates that most boys are not consistently aggressive across situations. That is, physical aggressiveness is not so much a personality trait that you see when a child is in any situation—with adults, girls, or boys— although it can be for some children. Boys’ rough-and-tumble play is used to establish dominance hierarchies within their groups. Generally, boys play in larger groups than do girls, who are more likely to play in twos and threes, and the boys’ groups are more clearly structured hierarchically. Although girls’ groups usually have their more and less dominant members, the rankings are not very stable, and leadership does not depend on toughness. In opposition to boys, girls’ leadership and dominance hierarchies are based much more on positive social skill. 36.

Describe at least two theories of how parenting might influence the development of sex differences in childhood. Discuss the evidence for and against these theories. (Pages 302-304)

We first consider Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory, which is one of the oldest social influence theories of sex role development. Freud argued that at about age 3, children begin to have vague sexual needs. Boys are buffeted by a tempest of motives and emotions called an Oedipus complex. First, they direct their sexual urges toward their mothers because they are most strongly attached to their mothers as primary caretakers. Then, this desire for the mother, to usurp her time, to be physically close to her, puts a boy in competition with his father for her affections. The boy fears that his more powerful father will retaliate with a physical punishment that fits the crime—castration. Finally, the boy is so terrified by the prospect of his father’s retaliation that he redirects his energy into pleasing his father by identifying with him. This identification process involves both imitation and internalization. Identification explains why boys adopt sex-typed behaviors: They are acting like their fathers. It also explains how boys form a superego, a kind of conscience: They internalize their fathers’ values. According to Freud’s theory, girls go through a similar process called the Electra complex. They direct their initial sexual desires toward their fathers, even though they too are more strongly attached to 182

their mothers. That is because they experience penis envy, a desire to have what they naively assume is the greater genital pleasure that must come with having the external genitalia of a male. Then they find themselves in competition with their mothers, although their fear of their mothers’ displeasure is not so great as a boy’s because they assume that somehow they have already been castrated. Girls too become gender typed in their behavior and form a superego. One of the major criticisms of Freud’s theory was that he believed women are “morally inferior” to men, a belief that acceptable at the time. Some of Freud’s ideas about sexual desire, competition, and fear in young children became quite popular, however, efforts to validate the theory have been unsuccessful. There is also little evidence that children model themselves after a single identification figure. Rather, research indicates that children will model themselves after others whom they perceive to be like themselves The second theory we consider is Social Learning Theory. Social learning theorists argue that many parents and other adults influence children’s sex-typed behaviors, both by modeling such behaviors and by differential treatment of boys and girls that teaches them to behave in sexappropriate ways. Researchers are quick to point out that in many ways, boys and girls do not appear to be treated differently. Meta-analyses indicate no differences in how much parents interact with their sons and daughters, in how much parents encourage them to achieve, in how much parents encourage help seeking, in how much warmth or responsiveness parents show, or in how effectively parents communicate or reason with them. Ye, important differences in parental behaviors exist. For example, mothers talk more, use more supportive speech, and talk more about emotions with their daughters. Many parents place more pressure on preschool boys than girls not to cry or express feelings. There are other parental differences as well, with fathers more likely than mothers to have different expectations of their sons than their daughters (Siegel, 1987). They are more likely to be disapproving of cross-sex behavior in their sons than in their daughters, more likely to roughhouse with their sons, and more likely to be negative or confrontational with them (Maccoby, 1998). In Western societies, it seems there is more pressure on boys to conform to gender-stereotypic behavior than girls. Although Freud postulated imitation processes, social learning or social cognitive theory specified how modeling and observational learning processes directly impact learning and beliefs about sex roles. Increasingly today theories about gender development are relying on cognitive theories in information processes that emphasize the role of gender schemas. 37.

Suzanna is considered weird by her third grade classmates. She seems to have few social skills. On a sociometric analysis, Suzanna received no positive nominations from her classmates, and a large number of negative nominations. Explain what this sociometric assessment is and what it means. Outline what might be an effective therapeutic approach to Suzanna’s difficulties. (Pages 309-312, 317319)

The analysis of peer relationships via a sociometric analysis leads to the following social statuses: (1) Popular – Children in this group receive many positive nominations and few negative nominations from their peers (high preference, high impact). They are well-liked and are highly visible. (2) Average – These kids receive an average number of positive and negative nominations (near the mean for the group on preference and impact). (3) Neglected – This group is comprised of children who receive few nominations, either positive or negative and is 183

characterized by its low level of social impact. (4) Rejected – The children in this group receive many negative and few positive nominations. They are typically disliked (low preference) by have high visibility (high impact). (5) Controversial – These students receive many positive and many negative nominations (high impact, average preference). They are seen by some peers as disruptive but as a class leader by others. In the case study described, we could predict that Suzanna’s social status is “neglected”. She is generally liked by her peers, but is not very visible. The key in working with Suzanna is to discover the extent to which it bothers her that she is not chosen to participate in activities with her peers. If it does not cause her emotional distress, there may not be a need for therapy. Similar to “average” children, many “neglected” children do not seem to have a lot of developmental problems. 38.

Some experts argue that boys need support if they are to preserve their emotional, lives in a culture that undermines and constrains the expression of emotion among males. We know that many American boys only receive the message to be strong, competitive, and unemotional. Pollack (1998) refers to the “boy code” that prizes courage, activity, and strength, and devalues sensitivity and empathy. One concern is that this code can encourage boys to bully or ignore aggressive acts to others. Many boys are also expected to numb their emotions and guard their expression. Kiselica (2003) offers the following practical guidelines for making counseling “male-friendly”: • Be flexible about where to meet and how long to hold sessions. • Display magazines or other reading material in your office that is of interest to boys, such as sports magazines. • Avoid face-to-face seating arrangements in favor of a side-by-side setup; offer a snack to the boy before starting the counseling session. • Become acquainted with contemporary teenage slang or be honest enough to ask what the boy’s words mean if you are not familiar with the vocabulary. • Pay attention to the boy’s cues regarding pacing the session; be mindful of the boy’s comfort level with respect to sensitive topics. • Avoid asking too many questions; take the heat off from time to time by focusing on more practical problems like making a team or finding a job. • Support autonomy strivings and motivation to continue therapy by scheduling appointments directly with the male client, if possible. • Use appropriate humor and self-disclosure to facilitate engagement.

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Chapter 9 Essay Questions 31.

Explain what most theories of racial or sexual-orientation development would need to include in order for them to be developmental in nature. (Pages 354-356)

Regardless if they favored nature over nurture, any theory considered to be developmental in nature would need to describe how the behavior, trait, attitude, or believe system changed over time. What we do know is that as with most other behavioral phenomena, it seems likely that environmental and hereditary factors interact in complex ways to produce sexual orientation. For both racial and sexual-orientation development, many experts view the content domains that play into the identities of group members (e.g., vocation, ideology, gender) follow similar underlying developmental processes. Phinney argues that identity development is more complex for members of ethnic minorities because they have to confront and integrate more aspects of themselves. Phinney contends that ethnic identity development parallels the four identity status proposed by Marcia that hopefully lead to identity achievement. Other researchers have claimed the same is true for homosexual/bisexual identity. Thus, in all domains the individual resolves conflicts, engages in exploration, and makes a commitment to one’s choices and groups. For example, a young person may initially “foreclose” on her racial identity and later move to “identity achievement” after a healthy period of exploration and commitment. 32.

Give three examples of adolescent egocentrism that might be apparent in a counseling situation with an adolescent. (Pages 344-346)

Counselors frequently have adolescent clients who distort inward focus and demonstrate egocentrism. Particularly in adolescence, self-focused thinking can be related to attempts to form an adult identity. The young person’s new capacity for introspection, for evaluating her own mental processes, contributes to an inward focus that is distorting. Although she understands that others have minds of their own and that they have their own concerns, her own fascination with herself, enhanced by the compelling and unpredictable physical changes she is undergoing, leads her to mistakenly assume that others are as intrigued by and concerned about her as she is. Elkind calls this assumption the adolescent’s imaginary audience. Because she is so sure that others are as interested in her as she is, she feels extremely self-conscious, acutely aware of her looks and her behavior in the presence of others. A second type of egocentricsm counselors might see is what Elkind calls the personal fable in which the adolescent’s self-focus is a distorted view of her own importance. Adolescents often seem to feel that their experiences and concerns are unique. The personal fable may also include fantasies of having a special destiny, an important role to play in the lives of others or on the world stage. A third form of adolescent egocentrism is the invincibility fable, in which an adolescent thinks that he or she will not suffer the misfortunes that others experience. A teenager, for example, may be well aware of the hazards of drinking and driving, but think that she will not get into an accident—even if she has had a few drinks before getting behind the wheel. Some people attribute adolescent risk-taking behaviors to the invincibility fable. 33.

What are the characteristics of formal operations and how does this kind of thinking differ from concrete operational thinking? (Pages 340-346) 185

Formal operations, Piaget’s fourth stage in the development of logical thinking, begins at about age 11 or 12. This stage marks the period when young people begin to be able to think logically about abstract contents, discovering relationships among relationships. One of the primary advances of an a formal operational thinker compared to a concrete thinker is that as she approaches scientific problems, she generates and considers every possible solution, then tests each one. The pattern of results among all the tests determines the conclusions. Another cognitive gain in formal operations is that the individual can generate and evaluate possibilities when solving problems. With formal operations comes the ability to construct ideals, such as ideal political systems or ideal people. With this new ability, however, come challenges. Ideals, which are logically organized possibilities, can cause an adolescent to develop a skeptical attitude about many things such as religion, politics and values. The capacity to entertain possibilities and to construct ideals contributes to this new critical attitude, and leads to skepticism. These ideals are never perfect, but adolescent idealists are not familiar with how difficult it is to put some ideals into action. As a result, until these teens are able to gain more experience, they are likely to be critical and unforgiving, even of themselves. In addition to new problem solving abilities, adolescents in the formal operations stage gain new metacognitive skills. However, some of their new metacognitve skills lead to egocentric thought such as the personal fable and imaginary audience. 34.

Imagine yourself a clinician asked to evaluate a 14-year-olds’ competence to stand trial as an adult. How would you make this decision? What data from developmental research would be relevant? (Pages 330-331)

Steinberg and Scott (2003) argue that if we look at the developmental evidence adolescents are not competent to stand trial as an adult. First, their cognitive and psychosocial development is likely to affect their choices in ways not characteristic of adults. Their decision making tends to be immature or impaired in comparison to adults’, suggesting diminished capacity. In addition, teens’ decisions in real-life situations may be influenced by their psychosocial immaturity and lack of experience. Adolescents are susceptible to peer influence, they are high risk takers, and their self-control is not fully developed. Their capacity or tendency to think about future consequences is quite limited. They often focus on short-term gains in their decision making and tend to discount long-term consequences. Adolescent characteristics that suggest diminished capacity from a legal standpoint appear to be linked to immature, and changing, neurological processes. Teens’ brains show gradual maturing of precisely those regions that affect long-term planning, judgment, decision making, regulation of emotion, impulse control, and the evaluation of risk and reward. Adolescents are also more vulnerable to compelling circumstances. In some cases, they may be more easily provoked to aggressive responses by perceived threats. Their emotional liability and intensity seems to make many situations more stressful for adolescents than for adults. Moreover, their character and identity are relatively unformed. Identity formation is a major developmental task in adolescence and can involve assessment and reassessment of every aspect of the developing self, including the moral self. Many teens “try on” behaviors that are potentially dangerous, like drug use or antisocial acts, but for most adolescents they grown out of delinquent activities. The same characteristics that may mitigate adolescents’ culpability raise questions about their competence to be processed in the system of justice designed for adults. In this system, a criminal defendant must be competent to stand trial, meaning that she must be able to assist her 186

counsel in preparing her defense, understand the court proceedings well enough to participate, and be capable of making decisions about her rights, like whether to waive a jury trial or to accept a plea bargain. In one recent study there was evidence that juveniles from 11 to 15 are significantly less competent than young adults to stand trial, whereas 16- to 17-year-olds are not significantly different from young adults. Only age and intelligence were significant predictors of competence. Neither gender, ethnicity, current status as an offender, nor socioeconomic status was important. A similar pattern was obtained on the measures of decision making. Younger teens, ages 11 through 15, were significantly more likely to make decisions based on what authorities dictated. Adolescents aged 15 and younger are more likely to recommend confessing to the police rather than remaining silent and accepting a plea bargain offered by a prosecutor rather than going to trial” (Steinberg et al., 2003). The researchers looked at what considerations were involved in making these decisions and found that compared to older adolescents and adults, younger juveniles often failed to identify or to adequately evaluate risks or to take into account the long-range, as opposed to short-term, consequences of their choices. In general, the results support Drizin’s (2003) judgment that juvenile offenders, at least those under the age of 16, are substantially less likely than adults to have the ability to function adequately in the adult justice system.

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Chapter 10 Essay Questions 32.

Mr. and Mrs. Brown have consulted you about their 13-year-old daughter, Joanne. She is not doing as well academically as she always did in elementary school. She seems to be involved with a popular crowd that is quickly moving into sexual experimentation and drug use. Describe the options that Mr. and Mrs. Brown have for helping their daughter navigate her early adolescence, based on available research. (Pages 375-379)

We can recommend five key strategies for the Brown’s for navigating their daughter’s transition into healthy early adolescence. First, the Brown’s will want to ask questions and monitor Joanne’s risk taking behaviors. Rates of risky behavior have increased over the last one or two decades. Life-course persistent antisocial behavior begins in childhood and continues throughout life, whereas adolescent-limited antisocial behavior develops in adolescence and usually ends shortly thereafter. Risky behavior, ranging from mild to severe, may be characteristic of adolescents for several reasons: the more rapid development of the emotional brain as compared to the slower maturing of cortical areas that support a variety of cognitive functions; the related need for sensation seeking; egocentric beliefs about one’s own invulnerability; modeling of deviant behavior by peers; and the exacerbation of illusions of invulnerability by the collective egocentrism of groups of peers. Some low-danger risky behaviors may be considered normal for development and not cause harm. Risky behavior may also provide some advantages in the teen years, making it, in some cases, adaptive. It can sometimes serve as an indicator of individuation and self-determination and as a source of peer acceptance. If Joanne is developing like most adolescents, we can expect her risky behaviors will increases sharply during adolescence, peaking at about age 17. The second strategy for the Brown’s is to closely monitor Joanne’s peer group and communicated frequently with the other parents about rules, curfews, and behavioral expectations. They will want to limit Joanne’s exposure to antisocial models who may be encouraging to take unhealthy risks. Third, the Brown’s will want to ensure Joanne is actively involved in well-structured extracurricular activities. They should look for well-established school, church, or community based programs that offer structured activities with a well-qualified adult staff (who have also passed a recent criminal background check). Fourth, the Brown’s are encouraged to honestly evaluate their own parenting philosophies and practices. More than ever, they will need to provide a consistent authoritative parenting style with Joanne. They need to spend time with Joanne and be sure to provide the maxiumum amount of both warmth and demandingness. Steinberg (1994) found that parents of adolescents go through their own perilous transition and that 40% of them experience strong feelings of powerlessness, rejection, and personal regrets when their children become adolescents. Whereas sharing stories of problem behaviors is rather common among parents of younger children, parents of adolescents are often uncomfortable doing so. Although is sounds simple, the best protection the Brown’s can provide for Joanne involves spending quality time with her and asking direct questions about her activities. Finally, it would be useful to know the extent to which Joanne perceives her choices as risky. 188

Researcher shows that many young people do not consider the risks and rarely reflect upon the purposes for their choices and behaviors. 33.

Describe and explain three main reasons that adolescents engage in reckless behavior. Be sure to define your terms. (Pages 392-395)

Many experts believe that adolescent egocentrism supports their belief that risky behavior is exciting but not potentially catastrophic. Arnett claims adolescents’ weaknesses in reasoning about probability, a kind of formal operational thinking, as particularly important here. He argues that in every judgment of probability, there is a reference, implicit or explicit, to a system of distributions or frequencies. Adolescents’ perceptions of these systems are skewed by their desire for sensation and by the personal fable that convinces them of their immunity from disaster. . . . But even if an adolescent were exceptionally proficient at estimating probabilities, on a given occasion, the likelihood of disaster resulting from drunk driving, or sex without contraception, or illegal drug use, is, in fact, statistically small—even when applied to others, and seen through the lens of sensation seeking and egocentrism, the perceived probability fades even further. Current researchers rely on theories related to the cognitive control system. It appears that some teens put themselves at risk because they are responding to triggers that cue big, short-term rewards; they do not do a cost–benefit analysis. Teens often perceive the relative costs, which are usually low probability, as well worth the potential rewards. Arnett (1992) also suggested that peers provide not only role models for deviancy but also a kind of collective egocentrism. Each adolescent’s judgment that “it probably won’t happen to me” strengthens that of the other members of the peer group. Peers are definitely implicated in increased risk taking during adolescence, but there may be other reasons for their influence. A third possible contributor to adolescent risk taking behaviors relates to the social world of adolescence and their developing brains. The presence of peers helps to activate reward-seeking behavior, because social information processing and reward are served by some of the same early maturing emotional brain areas. Steinberg (2008) argues that it is the same slowly developing connections between cognitive control systems (involving several cortical areas) and the subcortical emotional system that accounts for both the decline of risk taking and of peer influence in later adolescence and early adulthood. Although limited, there is some research evidence to support these claims. In one recent study, brain imaging techniques were used to assess the degree of connectivity between regions of the cortex involved in self-control in a sample of 12- to 18-year-olds. Those participants who scored high on measures of resistance to peer influence showed more structural connectivity (controlling for age) than participants who scored low on such measures. Also, there are some preliminary research findings showing a neurological basis for greater risk taking in males during adolescence.

34.

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According to Seltzer, adolescents experience “frameworklessness” in their development through adolescence and into young adulthood. Frameworklessness is characterized by a state of instability and anxiety and it the result of the many rapid changes experienced during adolescence. Brian’s newfound friendship and self-questioning of his religious beliefs are a common aspect of frameworklessness. Seltzer relied on Erikson's notions that peer interactions are important in identity development. The changes during adolescence, including new physical and intellectual capabilities and needs, create a sense of loss in feelings of security. Parents become more peripheral and adolescents begin to separate themselves from them. The frameworks and boundaries of childhood then no longer fit and adolescents will set out to define new ones. It is common for adolescents to borrow and “try on” various behaviors and attributes that they observe in others, because the state of frameworklessness leaves them without clearly defined ways of behaving and thinking. Peers become an important resource for such borrowing. A formerly sjy boy might imitate the extroversion and joking style of a friend. Thus, Brian’s exploration of the mysteries of Buddhism espoused by his new friend is not shocking. As noted in the text book, “Stand-in elements” provides relief for the adolescent from the anxiety of being without a stable sense of self. Imitation constitutes a type of experimentation that is necessary and normal for mature identity construction. 35.

Many large scale interventions have been designed to reduce problem behaviors in adolescence (such as drinking, drug use, smoking, etc.) or to increase positive behaviors. Discuss some of the typical characteristics of the least effective and the most effective of these programs to date, based on available research. Use examples where possible. (Pages 398-402)

Large scale intervention programs support two key prevention strategies- building resilience while addressing risks to adolescents. In the past, many problem-reduction interventions relied upon fear-based attempts to reduce these behaviors by providing information alone. However, the scare tactic approach to decreasing adolescent risk taking was not successful. Such intervention programs designed to scare young people were based on short-term activities that only provide factual information, and primarily targeted self-esteem. Most often they segregated at-risk students for special treatment. They ineffectively “talked at” adolescents and they did not recognize the importance of developmentally sensitive interventions or the necessity of broadbased contextualized support. The latest trend has been to support positive youth development by recognizing the importance of providing resources at all levels of the system. One of the major efforts has been with work of The Search Institute that has identified useful lists of personal, family, and community assets that can serve as benchmarks for healthy adolescent development (Benson, 1997). Although positive youth development has been described in a variety of ways, some essential elements exist: the presence of caring adults and mentors on a regular basis, schools that build academic competence and offer vocational preparation, an atmosphere of hope, encouragement of positive values, and high but achievable expectations. Our text highlights the Midwestern Prevention Project as a good example of a comprehensive, theoretically driven program that was developed to reduce or prevent adolescent use of gateway drugs. The first component of the program is the school-based program, begun during the transition to high school (either Grade 6 or 7). School interventions include interactive classroom lessons that provide drug resistance training, initiation of peer counseling, and schoolwide efforts to make nonuse of drugs the social norm. During the 2nd year, parents are included 190

in the program through parent education groups and opportunities for participation in leadership and mentoring activities. Community, religious, and political leaders are brought on board in years 3 through 5 to develop resources, plan, and implement initiatives that support adolescent health in the community as a whole. Mass media outlets are used throughout the entire 5-year period to introduce the program, promote the prevention message, and spotlight program successes. Overall, follow-up studies show significant reductions in use of cigarettes, marijuana, and alcohol for those involved in the project. We can see that the prevention program targets multiple levels of the system (family, peers, schools, and neighborhoods) in an effort to reduce antisocial behavior in at-risk populations.

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Chapter 11 Essay Questions 33. Using Perry’s theory, describe what processes help individuals move from dualistic to authentically relativistic thinking. (Pages 420-425) Perry’s stage theory of intellectual and ethical development in the college years describes a sequence of steps in the movement from more absolutist or dualistic thinking to relativistic thinking. In dualistic thinking, the adolescent believes there is one right answer, other answers are wrong. As they move to relativistic thinking, young people come understand there is more than one correct way to view the same issue. Relying on Piagetian theory, Perry describes a sequence of nine “positions’ or stages, ranging from extreme dualistic thinking to high levels of personally committed beliefs. Similar to Piaget, Perry postulates that there will be limits to the extent to which we can accelerate cognitive development due to biological or maturational constraints. However, we can help young people progress and transition through the position by confronting them with diversity of thought, values, and beliefs. We can also provide them the experience to explore their interests, curiosities, and opportunities for new social experiences. It is also important to provide teens with the structure to accommodate the many sources of information and ideas they will encounter. For example, school assignments can require the young person to evaluate the validity of sources of information and the legitimacy of the authority. As they move through the positions, it is important that adolescents have opportunities to reflect upon their knowledge and compare and coordinate evidence and opinions. 34.

List three pitfalls counselors need to avoid in their decision-making. Give examples of each. (Pages 428-429)

First, counselors need to be aware of clients who demonstrate the “person who” fallacy, which is when the person calls upon her knowledge of a person or situation that is an exception to a rule or widely accepted piece of information. She uses this exception to refute the information being presented to him. For example, the client who notes that her grandfather smoked a pack of cigarettes a day and lived until he was 94 is using the “person who” fallacy to justify why she does not need to quit smoking. Counselors can counter the “person who” fallacy by educating the client to help her become aware of her own thinking and the idea that personal experience may be limited in its generality. Second, related to the “person who” fallacy is the “vividness effect”. The “vividness effect” occurs when individuals are faced with making decisions and some facts are more likely to attract their attention as valuable evidence even though other facts may also be available. The “vividness” of someone’s personal experience can have a greater impact than other information. For example, a client who overly relies on the testimonial of a celebrity who is pitching the latest fad diet is demonstrating the vividness effect. To ignore the medical research on the lack of effectiveness of the diet is to emphasize personal experience over the value of the evidence. A third common pitfall is the “placebo effect”, which is when people in an experimental study improve due to the attention or simple the course of time. Although the client may attribute the improvement to the effectiveness of the treatment, this could not have been the case because they were in the control group and did not receive the treatment at all. 35. Theorists like Sinnott describe a fifth cognitive stage often called post-formal thought, whereas theorists like Schaie argue that there isn’t a new stage of thought 192

in adulthood but rather new kinds of problems to solve. Describe the differences between these perspectives in detail. (Pages 361-364) Sinnott and other theorists argue that the realities of adult experience actually lead to new forms of thought. More specifically, they claim postformal thinking may not be realized until middle adulthood or even later, but the experiences of young adulthood contribute to the reconstruction of logical thinking. However, they do not claim all individuals will necessarily reach postformal operations and many people will “skip in and out” of this type of thinking. For Sinnott, the core of post-formal thought is that it is relativistic- meaning the individual is aware several truth systems exist. They can recognize both the consistencies and the contradictions among the multiple systems of truth, or systems of formal operations, and depending on her goals and concerns, in many situations she will make a subjective commitment to one. Yet, in some situations, she may seek a compromise solution that integrates some of each perspective, but will not lose sight of the inherent contradictions. According to Sinotte, the post-formal thinker understands truth is relative, but one truth system may be more valid than another, depending on our goals. Post-formal thought builds on the cognitive abilities gained in formal operational thought but is also includes more self-reflection and a growing metacognitive awareness of the general knowing process. In contrast to Sinnott’s proposal of a fifth cognitive stage, Schaie’s theory emphasizes the importance of adults’ new roles, needs, and responsibilities in determining adult intellectual functioning. Instead of post-formal stage, Schaie describes shifts in cognitive functioning, or in the use of knowledge and skills that allow adults to adapt to their responsibilities in life. The third stage in his seven-stage theory is what he refers to as the “responsible stage” of cognitive development when ill-defined problems are still the norm, but problem solving now involves more than one’s own personal needs and goals. In the responsible stage, adults also consider the needs and goals of others as they consider solutions to problems. The fourth stage in Schaie’s model is the “executive stage”, which requires the individual to focus heavily on learning about complex relationships, multiple perspectives, commitment, and conflict resolution. In the seventh and final stage, Schaie describes the “legacy-leaving” stage in which many people begin to establish a written or oral history of their lives. They look for a sense of satisfaction, purpose, and meaning towards their life. We can see that Schaie focuses less on qualitative differences in cognitive reasoning. Instead he describes the environmental pressures that shape adult development and help us to understand our mutual responsibilities and interdependence. 36.

One of the more widely used and researched treatments for depression is interpersonal therapy (IPT). IPT has particular relevance for working with adolescents because the approach is grounded in the idea that the struggles involved in making normal life transitions is one of the primary factors assumed to cause of depression. ITP assumes that depression is affected by and affects interpersonal relationships, and aspects of the depressed person’s social network are of primary importance in understanding and treating the disorder. IPT does not ignore the cognitive processes that support depression, but irrational or distorted thinking is not the primary focus of 193

treatment. The causes of depression are presumed to be four broadly defined interpersonal situations: grief, role disputes (conflicts with significant others), life changes/role transitions and significant interpersonal deficits. Using a time limited approach (up to 20 sessions) the therapist connects depression to one of the four major problematic areas, and assigns the client a “sick role” (Parsons, 1951). Assigning a sick role legitimizes the client’s needs for support from others who may be included in the therapeutic process, temporarily frees the client from unmanageable responsibility, and allows the person to focus on recovery during the restricted period of therapy. The counselor helps the client make real changes in relationships and renegotiate their roles in interpersonal contexts. When anxieties about one’s ability to manage the new life stage successfully surface, expectations about what “being an adult” might be are discussed. Sources of social support are identified and recruited and incentives for taking on new developmental challenges are created. Some techniques used in IPT include those common to supportive psychotherapies: questioning, clarification, support of emotional expression, behavior change strategies and development of a strong therapeutic alliance. A key point in the interpersonal conceptualization of depression is helping the client handle set-backs and rejection. Unfortunately, it has been repeatedly demonstrated that depressed people suffer more frequent rejection from others than do non-depressed counterparts and thus need to exert more effort and display more skill in order to overcome this social tendency. Some of the symptoms associated with depression (e.g., chronic fatigue, poor concentration, sad mood, etc.) that make engaging in positive social interactions an enormous effort. For young people, depression can start a vicious negative social cycle. Their physical and emotional depressive symptoms can limit their opportunities for social interaction, thereby reinforcing their feelings of loneliness and rejection.

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Chapter 12 Essay Questions 31. Explain Erikson’s concept of generativity. Which aspects of generativity seem to emerge in early adulthood and which aspects emerge in middle adulthood? What evidence is there for this developmental change? (Page 438) Erikson focused on both intimacy (love) and generativity (work) as the key components for the development and expression of the self. He viewed intimacy and generativity as the main concerns of young and middle adulthood. Generativity is a motive or need that can be filled through one’s vocation or avocations, through child rearing, or through community service. It includes productivity and creativity. McAdams proposes that generativity is also a trait that people can be described as having when they are contributing members of society. For many people, generativity is about benefiting the next generation and is central to their belief in the meaningfulness of their lives. Erikson viewed young adulthood as a time when people are primarily focused on intimacy. In middle adulthood people begin to be driven by needs by needs for generativity. Although Erikson viewed generativity as the most important developmental task during middle adulthood, some researchers suggest that young adults are also influenced by generativity as they plan and begin their careers. Stewart and Vandewater (1998) examined two aspects of generativity— desire and accomplishment—and found that the desire for generativity is quite strong even in early adulthood and actually declines through middle and late adulthood. 32. Attachment theory, originally formulated to explain infant-caregiver relationships, has been applied to understanding adult-adult relationships. Outline three ways in which this application can be useful to helping professionals. (Pages 381-385-440, 469-471) Attachment theory has been applied to working with adults and understanding their “felt security”, which can be more important than having the attachment figure nearby. Compared to children, adults are more tolerant of periods of separation because they know the adult pair-bond is dependable and available when they need it. Thus, in a counseling session it is useful to explore the adult’s perception of their intimate relationship and attachment bonds. Even though adults do not need the same physical security as children, we still need the need the emotional and practical support of significant others. One way counselors can use attachment theory is to understand the client’s many relationships including those with parents, their adult children, and those between romantic partners (Simpson & Rholes, 1998b). A second way counselors can rely on attachment theory is to use it as a lens for providing information about responses to bereavement and loss. Third, clinicians have found attachment theory to be a useful framework for explaining conflict resolution in adult relationships. It also provides a basis for a treatment plan and therapeutic interventions. Counselors often rely on the following adult attachment profiles when working in a helping relationship with the client: Autonomous (secure), earned secure, and dismissive. 33.

Bandura’s notion of self-efficacy beliefs (closely related to Erikson’s sense of industry and Dweck’s mastery orientation), has been described as a useful target for 195

clinical intervention. Describe the four major ways that Bussey and Bandura (1999) have suggested for promoting a client’s self-efficacy beliefs. Provide examples to illustrate how each might work. (Page 466-467, 472) Bussey and Bandura (1999) describe four major ways to facilitate a strong sense of self-efficacy in clients: 1. Counselors can construct and try out graded mastery experiences that are tailored to the client’s level of ability and that maximize the chances of success. In order to do so, it is important to listen to clients explain why they try or don’t try certain activities and what they think are their barriers to success. For example, a counselor might ask a client to describe in detail what their perceived barriers are in regards to working towards their goal of changing careers and becoming an engineer. The counselor would help the client understand his or her perceptions about capabilities and limitations and then provide a guide for selecting specific corrective experiences. 2. Discuss or provide models who demonstrate success in an area of difficulty for the client. Successful models encourage individuals to believe in their own capacity for success and provide skills and know-how to the motivated observer. Keeping with the previous example, the counselor could ask the client to shadow an engineering student for a day as well as a practicing engineer. The theory predicts it would be beneficial to have women shadow successful women engineers in the work place. 3. A third way to enhance self-efficacy is to rely upon social persuasion. The counselor would be careful to make attributions for failure to lack of effort (incremental) rather than lack of ability (fixed), and providing support as well as realistic, helpful suggestions for improvement. Although this type of “pep talk” may be beneficial, it will most likely not be sufficient to drastically and immediately improve someone’s self-efficacy beliefs. However, social persuasion can be useful when combined with mastery experiences. 4. Finally, counselors are in a good position to help a client reduce coexisting factors that might lower self-efficacy, such as stress, or depression. Due to mental health issues, some clients restrict their environment by becoming socially isolated. Thus, they restrict their environment and have few opportunities to observe models or gain mastery experiences. 34.

For many years, women with careers have followed different career paths from men. A number of changes have occurred over the past few decades. For example, women now outnumber men in college. Yet, gender differences still exist. For example, some job fields are still highly gendered. Also, women are still more likely to consider the impact of career choices on their relationships opportunities. In 1957, Donald Super reported that a variety of career patterns characterized adults in the mid20th century in the United States. For men, the “conventional career pattern” included a period 196

or periods of “trial work,” that is, trying out possible jobs prior to beginning a stable career. In contrast, the conventional career pattern for women involved entry into work as a stopgap after high school or college. Once married, women tended to shift to full-time homemaking. Many women followed the “double-track career pattern,” first establishing a career and then adding a second career as homemaker. They also showed the “interrupted career pattern,” first establishing a career, then marrying and becoming a full-time homemaker, and then returning to a career when home responsibilities were less demanding. By comparison, men typically did not demonstrate career double-tracking or any kind of interruption based on family or home obligations. Over the past 50 years, many changes have occurred due in part to the civil rights movement, the women’s rights movement, and technological advances. Even the availability of reliable contraceptives changed the nature of work for women. There have been drastic changes in regards to the nature of women’s course of student and chosen career fields. For example, women now earn 40% of the graduate degrees granted, and many of these are in traditionally “male-oriented” fields such as dentistry and law (Dey & Hurtado, 1999). Women constitute approximately half of the employed labor force and more than half of the executive, administrative, and managerial positions in the United States. There are still some gender gaps in the work force. For example, women comprise only 7% of engineering managers. We see the same pattern for men, who make up only 9% of the registered nurse profession. In regards to vocational interest, we still see that many professions are still gendered, such as secretarial work (by women) and firefighting (by men). It still holds true that women are more likely than men to consider relationships with people as an important factor in selecting a career. These differences are related in part to gender-role beliefs. Both men and women anticipate that marriage and parenting will be important to their lives, for example, but men tend to give greater priority to their role as the financial provider in the family, and women give greater priority to their role as the homemaker and caregiver. According to our authors, the most dramatic change in women’s career patterns since the 1950s has been the great increase in women’s choice of a double-track pattern. In 1950, most mothers of children under age 6 were full-time homemakers (88%). Whereas, in 2002, more than 62% of mothers of preschoolers were employed, and the percentage of employed mothers continues to rise (e.g., U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2003). Another changes since the 1950s is the fact that many men now take their wives’ careers into account when making job-related decisions about their own careers. One area where there have not been great gains is salary. Women still make less money than men (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2006). Another area still ripe for change and improvement relates to attitudes about competency. Research has demonstrated that women in male-dominated occupations are not viewed as favorably as men, even though they have comparable knowledge and skills.

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Chapter 13 Essay Questions 33.

Gottman recommends the following strategies that clinicians can teach clients in order to foster relational well-being: 1. Calm down. Gottman recommends clients need to become aware of their own emotional reactivity and take steps toward regulating it effectively. Counselors can help clients learn to take their pulse rate as a measure of physiological arousal and to learn to ask for and take time-outs. Relaxation activities may help and clients are encouraged to take an average of 20 minutes after becoming aroused to calm down. 2. Speak nondefensively. Counselors can discuss with their clients the need to avoid “harsh startups” in a conversation by avoiding criticisms, contempt, or sarcastic statements that are likely to quickly ignite an argument. Counselors can discuss with the couple the importance of starting the dialog in a positive state that will prevent defensive responding. 3. Validate. Counselors need to help couples work on empathy building. In order to do so, there may be a need to validate previous hurts and feelings of being rejected or “wounded.” With careful guidance from the counselor, partners can recognize and apologize for the injury that they have caused the other person. 4. Overlearning. Gottman argues some of the most important communication skills, such as selfregulation of emotions, nondefensive listening, and validating need to be overlearned to the point of mastery and automaticity. 5. Pay attention to the little things. Counselors need to help couples learn how to appropriately use humor, affection, and playfulness in their interactions. Clients may also need help in learning how to pay attention to their partner’s need for attention in the course of their daily life. 34.

Compare and contrast Erikson’s view of midlife with that of Vaillant. (Pages 491493)

In terms of their core theoretical assumptions, Erikson and Vaillant appear to be more similar than different. We can see that both Erikson and Valliant are stage theorists, who focus on the exploration and commitment towards the life tasks that people face throughout their lifespan. One similarity between the two is that both Erikson and Vaillant suggest that certain life tasks occur in relatively predictable sequence. Initially people deal with intimacy needs and later shift to generativity needs. The greatest difference between the two is the actual number of stages they suggest. In his psychosocial development theory, Erikson describes three stages in self-development in adulthood. In young adulthood, intimacy (versus isolation) is the central life task and people look to find a way to validate and expand their sense of self by committing to a shared life with others. In middle adulthood, generativity (versus stagnation) becomes the most pressing developmental issue and people seek to give purpose to their life by preparing the next generation through their work, community service, or child rearing. By old age, establishing ego 198

integrity (vs. despair) becomes life’s task. In this stage, we help the elderly adult develop a sense that her own life is “something that had to be,” that she has lived a life that has order, meaning, and dignity. Erikson argued that different concerns reach ascendancy in different age periods. Vaillant added two additional adult life stages to Erikson’s model that reflect the formation of deep interpersonal bonds, becoming productive, and finding meaning in one’s life that are central and repeating themes throughout adulthood. According to Vaillant, in their mid-20s people focus on career consolidation (vs. self-absorption) that involves making a commitment to work that brings personal satisfaction, regardless of its other rewards. Thus, having a career becomes much more than simply having a job. He also describes a stage that comes near the end of Erikson’s generativity stage, in late middle adulthood that he calls the “keeper of meaning” (vs. rigidity) stage. During this stage of life, adults expand their generative concerns beyond just making a productive contribution and they seek to preserve something that is part of the culture. 35.

Describe the factors that promote stability in adult life and those that promote change. (Pages 483-496)

Two of the primary factors that promote stability across the lifespan are temperament and personality. McCrae and Costa claim that personality traits are biologically based, inherent tendencies that persistently influence thoughts, feelings, and behavior throughout life. In particular, the five factor model of personality (known as “The Big 5”) describes the most basic dimensions of personality: neuroticism (N), extraversion (E), openness (O), agreeableness (A), and conscientiousness (C). Although there are some shifts in traits with age that may be related to maturation, there is sufficient evidence showing that many personality characteristics are relatively stable across the lifespan. More specifically, conscientiousness and agreeableness tend to increase somewhat throughout early and middle adulthood. Whereas, neuroticism, openness, and extraversion show a slight decline across the lifespan. As noted in the text, there is some longitudinal evidence supporting the hypothesis that personality traits are largely stable after age 30. It should be noted that personality or trait consistency will be highest when the individual’s environment should remain consistent. There are several types of change that occur across the lifespan. First, there are age-graded changes, which are specifically age determined. The three kinds of age-graded changes include physical, cognitive, and those concerning shifts in the relative importance of various life tasks. For example, changes in a woman’s menstrual cycle are an age-determined change. A second type of change involves history-graded shifts. When an entire cohort experiences a major historical event it can influence the development of every individual within the cohort. Common examples of history-graded changes include the terrorist attacks of September 11th, 2001, and assassination of President John F. Kennedy. The impact of the historical events upon human development is contingent upon a person’s age and stage of life at the time the event occurred. The third type of change that is discussed in the text is nonnormative, which are changes that apply specifically to individual lives. They are often unexpected and can have profound effects on one’s development. Winning the lottery is an example of this source of change. This type of event can drastically transform one’s circumstances and change paths of development. 36. Women and men play multiple roles in their lives. What are some examples of these roles? Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of taking on the responsibilities of multiple roles, and provide clear examples of these advantages and disadvantages. Include a discussion of role buffering. (Pages 496-503, 510-514) 199

Adults participate in multiple roles such as parent, spouse or partner, worker, caregiver to aging parents, community leader, and more. As a result, middle adulthood can be hectic and challenging to balance the competing responsibilities. Counselors often work with middle adults to help them find effective ways of resolving “work–life conflict.” This is not to suggest having multiple roles is problematic. One of the benefits of participating in multiple roles is role buffering, which is a term used to describe how one role that might be a source of psychological stress can be compensated by another role in which there has been success and satisfaction. For example, researchers have found that for many women the opportunity to be productive in a career setting may provide a buffer against some of the stresses involved in parenting an adolescent.

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Chapter 14 Essay Questions 32.

Beverly is a slim, beautiful woman of 60. She has two grown children, and one grandchild who is cared for by a full-time nanny. Beverly lives in a spacious suburban home on a large, multi-acre lot, and she employs a housekeeper and groundskeeper part-time to take care of the house and yard. She believes that she is fortunate to live such an affluent lifestyle, but more and more lately she has been overcome by feelings of sadness. She has thought about seeking counseling but feels foolish and guilty, as though she has no right to her feelings. Beverly’s distress seems to illustrate “the American paradox.” Explain what that is and what some of the sources of that paradox might be in her life. (Page 529)

The “American paradox” describes the phenomenon of American’s per capita income and standard of living rising over a 40-year period, while during the same time period rates of depression and other pathologies soared. Some people speculate that one of the sources may be the “hedonic treadmill”, which refers to the situation whereby people are driven to strive for material gain and they quickly habituated to each new level of wealth. As a result of the pressures associated with climbing a treadmill, they are less satisfied with their life. A second source of stress contributing to the American paradox may be that people’s affluence makes reduced their opportunities to create supportive relationships that often form when people struggle to make ends meet. In general, some affluence people find they need to rely less on friends and family as part of the natural support network for childcare as well as for physical support during economic hardships. A third possible source of stress underlying the paradox may be striving for perfection. Affluent people are able to make choices and control much of their lives, but when they are not able to control events or people, they may blame themselves, experience depression, confusion, or guilt. 34. Discuss the role that religiosity plays in well-being based on research findings. Consider the following issues: What kind of well-being is affected by religiosity and why? What aspects of religiosity seem most helpful to well-being, and what aspects seem least helpful? (Pages 535-536) Several psychology and personality theorists have long held the belief that spirituality is an innate need to find meaning in life and to connect with something larger than the individual self. Modern researchers make a distinction between spirituality and religion (or religiosity). Many people from both Eastern and Western religions and philosophies find that the prescribed regulation of negative or destructive emotions, like anger and envy is helpful for their daily functions. Some religions also emphasize cultivating strong positive emotions, which can help with emotional self-regulations. We also see in some faiths (traditional Buddhist teachings) that having neutral emotional states is valued. Thus, well-being is defined as a realization of truth and an experience of pure happiness, compassion, and serenity that is in the complete absence of negative emotions, such as anxiety, envy, and anger. In such religions, meditation is frequently a practice that leads to achieving such serene states. There is some empirical research indicating adherence to religious practices is moderately correlated with measures of subjective well-being. In general, it seems religious people tend to heal and recover more happiness after experiencing many kinds of negative life experiences such 201

as; loss of a spouse, divorce, unemployment, death of a child, etc. Survey assessments of spiritual commitment revealed those who score highest on measures of religious commitment are also more likely than those who score lowest to rate themselves as “very happy.” When researchers investigate specific aspects of subjective well-being (i.e., feelings of mastery, growth, and purpose) and not simply global measures of well-being (i.e., “happiness”) they find and even stronger connection between religiosity and well-being. It is believed that the social support provided by participation in religious communities also contributes to the relationship between religiosity and well-being. Some psychologists claim the one of the most important aspects of spirituality is the sense of hope and optimism that is instills in people. Many religious doctrines and practices foster positive feelings. However, not all religions foster positive affect such as hope and compassion. Others foster negative emotions and attitudes, such as guilt and fear of retribution that may interfere with well-being. Another aspect of some religious doctrines and beliefs that could hurt subjective well-being is that they encourage a distrust or intolerance of others, especially out-group members, or promote retribution or revenge against those who are construed as evil or guilty. 34. Construct a short essay on the nature of stress and its effects on the body-mind. What constructive ways of handling these effects of stress have been found to be most effective? (Pages 541-551) Stress can affect the body in a number of ways through various physiological systems. For example, stressors engage the body’s autonomic nervous system, activating the HPA axis, causing the release of hormones into the bloodstream, and preparing the body to respond to the perceived attack. During stressful times, the immune system functioning is depressed which is problematic because the immune system is charged with surrounding and destroying attacking foreign bodies such as viruses or bacteria. Coping with stress can cause an imbalance of our immune systems. Also, chronically increased levels of cortisol, the body’s primary stress hormone, are linked to cardiovascular decline in middle-aged and older adults. High levels of cortisol can also dysregulate immune functions and reduce the body’s capacity to protect itself against disease. This process called immunosuppression explains why we are more likely to catch a cold or get sick during times of stress. This occurs because cortisol inhibits the proliferation or blunts the responses of certain types of cytokines. Cytokines are small protein molecules of many different varieties that are secreted by cells of the immune system and that help to regulate its functioning. Another immune system process, inflammation, is also affected by high levels of stress. Inflammatory processes, which take their marching orders from cortisol, can be destructive to the body unless their force is regulated. Common examples of unregulated inflammatory processes are related to diseases such as cardiovascular disease, allergies, rheumatoid arthritis, and other autoimmune disorders. Researchers and health professionals divide stress into two types: life events, which are discrete, typically traumatic, events that have a clear onset such as like a death or accident, and daily hassles, which are chronic, problematic situations such as chronic illness or balancing life’s many roles. The cumulative physical effect of chronic stress hormones on the body is referred to as allostatic load. For example, the midlife adult raising several teenagers while also caring for 202

elderly parents may cause stress and lack of sleep. Another useful construct is diathesis-stress transaction, which describes the developmental nature of stress and coping. Diatheses are premorbid conditions or predispositions that render individuals vulnerable to some disorder under certain circumstances. We know that people need to have the capacity to adapt to stress and challenge across the life span. Resilience refers to the presence of healthy coping and adaptation in spite of challenges and risks. To understand and build resilience, helping professionals and clients must consider the nature of the risks and protective factors that are part of people’s lives and consider the ways that these might change as a function of age. How people handle stress is often synonymous with coping. One of the most widely known theories of coping was developed by Lazarus and Folkman (1984). They make the key distinction between efforts aimed at changing the situation (problem-focused, problem-solving) and those directed toward emotion management (emotion-focused, tension-reduction). One strategy for helping people cope is assist them in seeing that essentially all coping efforts involve cognitive (decision making) as well as emotional (anxiety management) aspects. It is also important to make sure people under there is not one right way of coping and that every possible way of coping can be appropriate, normative or right. 35. Lynn is a 36-year-old woman who feels mildly to moderately depressed and anxious much of the time, despite the fact that circumstances in her life are going smoothly. She comes to a counselor because she feels she is heading for a depressive episode. Using the kindling-sensitization model, what explanation can you give for her experience? (Pages 540-541) Lynn may be experiencing a phenomenon related to the effects of cumulative stressors on vulnerability called kindling-behavioral sensitization (Post, 1985; 2007). This psychological model has been applied to the understanding of factors related to drug tolerance, epilepsy, and affective disorders. Kindling-sensitization describes a process of progressive illness severity or illness incidence that results from gradual increases in sensitivity to stressful triggers. In many cases, an initial episode of depression is triggered by stressful life events, which leaves residual neurological changes in the individual’s brain (neurotransmitters, receptors, etc.) rendering her more reactive to stressors. Following this experience of “sensitization,” subsequent episodes of depression can occur spontaneously or with very little external provocation. There is some research evidence showing kindling-behavioral sensitization increases with age. It seems older adults reported heightened stress reactivity, consistent with kindling, when compared to younger groups.

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Chapter 15 Essay Questions 32. Explain the process of dealing with loss referred to as “selective optimization with compensation.” Provide a clear example of this process at work and specify which aspects of your example illustrate selection, optimization, and compensation. Give examples of questionnaire items that have been used to assess these processes. (Page 570) Baltes and Baltes refer to “selective optimization with compensation” to describe how aging adults adapt to, or cope with, the increasing losses they encounter. The model includes three combined and cumulative processes of successful coping. The first process is selection, which involves the Narrowing of our goals and limiting the domains in which we expend effort. It is not difficult to see that selection is important at any time in the life cycle. For example, at age 62 a person may start to alter her career goals and reconsider the legacy she hopes to leave in her field. The second process is optimization involves finding ways to enhance the achievement of remaining goals or finding environments that are enhancing. For example, a man may leave the home he has lived in for decades in order to be closer to his children. The final process that contributes to successful development is compensation. Compensation occurs when a loss of some kind prevents the use of one means to an end, we can compensate by finding another means. For example, a man who has been able to run his entire life finds that after a knee replacement at age 73 he can no longer run and begins to start bike riding. We can see in Baltes and Baltes’ model that goals and means to goals play a prominent role in understanding how people learn to navigate the three processes of selection, optimization, and compensation. In regards to assessment, the following survey questions demonstrate how Baltes and Baltes measure “selective optimization with compensation” in their research:   

33.

Selection- “When I think about what I want in life, I commit myself to one or two.” Optimization- “When things aren’t going so well, I accept help from others”. Compensation- “When things don’t go as well as they used to, I keep trying other ways until I can achieve the same result I used to.” At 80, Steve has been struggling with emphysema for several years, which means that he experiences significant breathing problems. He is now unable to take more than a few steps without resting, and he needs assistance in basic daily routines, like bathing and eating. According to self-determination theory, one of the three basic psychological needs is for autonomy. Explain this concept of autonomy, and explain how you would counsel Steve and his family to help him fulfill this need. (Pages 571-573)

Ryan and Deci (2000; 2008) developed their self-determination theory to explain how people are motivated by needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness. These basic psychological needs are said to motivate our adaptation efforts at any age. Autonomy is defined as being in control of oneself or feeling that one’s behavior is congruent with one’s “true self.” We can see that autonomy relates to intrinsic motivation. A key point about autonomy is that it is distinguished from independence. People can be dependent on others for much of their care, but can still feel autonomous if she has set the goals for their care and daily life. In counseling Steve and his family it would be imperative to assess Steve’s perceptions about the control he feels he has over his life. Because autonomy is also related to identity, it would be 204

useful to hear Steve’s perceptions about the extent to which he is able to live his life based on his “true self.” In counseling Steve and his family, self-determination theory suggests focusing on issues related to autonomy will not be sufficient to understand his coping, adaptive process, and motivations. We must also consider Steve’s feelings of competence and his needs for relatedness. Competence refers to feeling effective in one’s interactions with the social environment and experiencing opportunities to exercise and express one’s knowledge and skills. Feelings of competence come from achieving one’s goals that are self-endorsed. According to selfdetermination theory, meeting goals set by others, then, will not satisfy this need. It is also important to assess Steve’s basic need for relatedness. Steve, like others, needs to feel that he is important to others, valued enough to be sensitively and responsively cared for, from infancy onward. It would be important to ask Steve if he believes he has enough supportive confidants and companions in his life. 34.

What is a dual-process model of the grief process? Explain why the available research indicates that a complex model of this sort is needed. (Page 588)

Stroebe and Schut’s dual-process model describes the interplay of stressors and coping strategies within a flexible, oscillating framework. The model specifies that bereaved individuals simultaneously engage in two kinds of coping mechanisms, approach and avoidance, that fluctuate over the course of grieving. Approach tendencies are reflected in activities synonymous with grief work: confronting the painful reality of death, expressing sadness, and gradually desensitizing oneself to the reminders of loss. Approach tendencies can be tolerated for only so long because hey are loss focused and can foster rumination and great distress. At the same time, grieving is balanced by parallel activities that are restoration focused, which are coping strategies directed toward handling the practical tasks that need to be done to carry on with daily life. Such a complex model of understanding how people cope with grief is necessary because bereaved individuals go back and forth between emotion-focused (loss-oriented) and problemfocused (restoration-oriented) modes of coping. Their approach-avoidance behaviors protect them from the extremes of stress or rigid mental suppression. From this perspective, abnormal grief can be viewed as “disturbances of oscillation,” meaning the individual is either overly loss oriented or excessively avoidant. 35. When counseling the elderly, success depends on being flexible and making accommodations that meet their special needs. Discuss three ways in which flexibility may be necessary and why. (Pages 590-592) One way counselors may need to be more flexible when counseling the elderly is to give them more time for the process and be sensitive to the fact that it may take longer to build rapport with the client. Building rapport with elderly clients can take longer because the client may be less comfortable with self-disclosure or asking questions of “authority” figures. Lengthening the sessions in individual counseling and increasing the number of sessions for support groups or other group therapy formats is more important in reducing relapse for older clients than is the case for younger ones. A second way counselors may need to be more flexible is that they need to consider their communication style in relation to their age difference with their client. Younger counselors may need to self-monitor their own emotions so that they do get defensive with a client who believes they are incapable of understanding the lived experience of old age. 205

Third, counselors can be flexible in working with elderly clients when they consider some of the normal health related issues associated with aging. For example, the counseling environment may need to be altered in order to accommodate older clients with physical limitations. Counselors may find some of their elderly clients are not able to sit for long periods of time or may need modifications to assessment procedures due to hearing or vision problems. Also, Lyness (2004) advises medical and helping professionals should consider routine screening for depression and other mental health issues among elderly clients. As we know, due to many factors the rate of depression tends to increase in the elderly population.

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