PAIN PLEASURE 1
PAIN
PLEASURE
PAIN INTRODUCTION
01
WAR
06
enlist / memory
SOCIAL CONTROL
24
propaganda / revolution
DISCRIMINATION perpetuate / liberate
46
conte
ents
PLEASURE 64
82
INSPIRATION vision / motivation
LIFESTYLE entertainment / consumerism
102
CULTURE tradition / ethnicity
124
WHAT REMAINS
126
BIBLIOGRAPHY
INTRODUCTION
6
For someone interested in design, or in becoming a designer, there are a plethora of relevant books out there. There are books that aim to instruct, those that explain the discipline itself, those that consider the influences of design, those that breakdown its formal properties and those that focus on the various mediums. This book will not serve those who are interested in gaining practical skills in graphic design or those seeking to learn details about its broad history. This book offers those interested in design a novel way to consider how design functions and exists over time, in the real world. A fundamental role of design is to evoke an emotional response in the viewer. Everyday we are immersed in sea of images, all constructed to elicit reactions, some more emotionally affecting than others. This book offers a space to reflect on this aspect of design. Each section will present a series of images related to the polarized emotions of pleasure and pain. These are further divided into subsections that reflect the various ways in which design communicates these emotions. Contributing essays throughout offer some insight into the images’ original context. Arguably pleasure and pain exist at the more visceral ends of the emotional spectrum and as such they offer an interesting framework for organizing design with regard to the emotional response it elicits or, as it is not always the same thing, the response it was designed to elicit. A design’s meaning is never static; once released into the world it is no
longer under the control of the designer. The designs that have been included in this book come from over 7 decades and many different countries. Together they express a visual history. Each image tells the viewer something about the time and place it was created. But what happens when it leaves its original context? This highlights a very important aspect of design: the meaning of an image only truly becomes activated by the viewer. A designer carefully and artfully constructs an image in order to evoke a reaction and create meaning. As a design travels through time and space its meaning and its viewers’ reactions evolve as cultural signifiers and society changes around it. Memories of the past are carried in the image but this is also true of the viewer who brings their own history and ideas of signifiers of pleasure and pain. Instead of looking at the history of design in a linear way this book aims to create an experience that shows how graphic design created outside of the contemporary era still elicits an emotional response. It is clear that human emotions are very subjective and so cannot be measured empirically. It is for this reason that the categorization of the images in this book is necessarily subjective. We invite the viewer to consider each image in its category and reflect on the emotion it evokes for them personally. Bring your own history and emotional responses to help guide you through and allow the images to take you through your own emotional landscape.
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PAIN
2
PAIN / war
def. 1 emotional suffering
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4
PAIN / war
5
6
WAR
PAIN / war
There are many ways that war has been reflected throughout our visual history. Images created during the years immediately preceding war typically attempt to evoke non war like emotions, indeed they aim for the opposite end of the emotional spectrum. They were intended to unite and inspire a nation’s people. Many great graphic artists have worked for their governments to create beautifully designed posters to help drive support for governmental policies and war efforts. Yet war inevitably inflicts immeasurable pain and suffering and our collective cultural memories of such pain can make it difficult to read the inspirational qualities of the original designs with a contemporary perspective. As much as design can sell the necessary pain of war to its people it can also serve to remind future generations of war’s horrors. Design is not just a device employed by governments and corporations to sell. It is also a social document. Evoking the pain of war is a powerful reminder of our own history, warts and all. Many designs produced immediately following war become honest and cathartic reflections of a nation’s pain.
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enlist
Since the turn of the 20th century graphic design has been employed by governments as a way of generating support for their policies; policies including war. During the 20th century propaganda became as integral to any military campaign as intelligence, troop movements, supplies, soldiers, guns and tanks. The humble poster was adopted as a key weapon in a series of ideological campaigns. Governments realized the power that graphic design had as means of convincing the populace that going to war was in their best interests.
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PAIN / war
9
USA
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PAIN / war
USA 1917 Poster Giclee Print Recruitment poster for WWI by Richard Fayerweather Babcock
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Russia 1935 Poster “Long Live the working and peasant Red Army a faithful guard of the Soviet borders.” by Gustav Klutsis
12
PAIN / war
Russia 1939 Poster 88 x 62 cm “Long live the USSR Navy.” by Iskusstvo
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Russia 1930’S Poster 78 X 58 “The Duty of Every Worker.” by I. Boym
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PAIN / war
Russia 1930s
The 1930s in USSR was dominated by Joseph Stalin who came to power after death of Lenin in 1924. The new “classless” society was found in opposition to US capitalism where each Soviet citizen would be equal to another. While the American stock market crashed causing economical crisis and later the Great Depression, Stalin instituted a new economic plan that was called a first “Five Year Plan” to bring up Soviet’s wealth. He consolidated absolute political control over all industries and called for the total collectivization of agriculture. (Bendavid- Val, 35-36) The 1930’s defines Russian art history as the imposition of Social Realism where artists and writers were forcefully imposed to be politically motivated, aesthetically stale, and totalitarian-minded in their works. The new style influenced graphic art and was intended to promote socialist success of modern industrial power and nationalism. (Bartelik) Propaganda posters were considered as a perfect media for explanation to the people new ideology. They became an art to persuade people, the majority of who were still illiterate and needed to be grasped easily by bright images and accessible text. Graphic art of that period were illustrations of utopian harmony and the industrialization and Soviet iconography. (Lafont, 7-10). This thematic
design was “a vital counterpart of Bauhaus functionalism and Art Deco geometrics.” (Yasinskaya) Stalinism (government under Stalin) extended beyond the world of politics, becoming a state of mind and a way of life. (Bartelik) Under such political pressure and propagandistic art, Soviet people developed high patriotic standards, even though it cost them years of purges and mass terror. They strongly believed they were better than the rest of the world living in the most prosperous, free, and classless society. (Bendavid- Val, 35-36) 1
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memory
Design is not solely a weapon of the hegemony. War tends to destabilize a country socially, politically and economically. In many countries this destabilization has torn graphic design away from the hegemony and back into the hands of the people. Graphic design emerged from the post WWII wasteland to enjoy a new artistic and political freedom; a freedom that allowed many designers to reflect the truths of war rather than the idealisms promoted by the hegemony. There are many designs throughout our visual history that stand as an antithesis to the politically motivated heroicization of war, serving instead to evoke memories of war and the loss and pain endured.
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PAIN / war
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China 2005 Poster Commemorating the 60th Anniversary of the bombing of Nagasaki. The characters represent “Nagasaki�, with important parts of the strokes missing, symbolizing the ruins of the city. Artist unknown
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PAIN / war
China 2000s
China in the recent decade has been changing at an awe-inspiring speed in industrialization, economy, urbanization, consumerism and many other aspects. This wave of reform has also deeply affected the field of graphic design. Despite being a late starter in Graphic design, China are advancing at full speed to catch up to developed design nations. The content of graphic design today in China has basically departed away from the tight control of the government, providing designers and artists a lot more space for individual expressions. As a result, many young designers start to create works in their own ways and related to their own lives. However, the graphic designs that stand out in China and for China on the international stage in general have one thing in common. That is maintaining China’s traditional culture while incorporating international influences. Such search for their distinct graphic language is largely taken over by the representational Chinese brushworks and calligraphy because Chinese characters are one of the few things that can immediately identify China due to its unique and outstanding visual forms among other writings. Many well known graphic designs such as the emblem of Beijing 2008, China Image (poster), and Nagasaki (poster), all reveal the strong
cultural appearance of the brushworks and calligraphy. Indeed, design works today form a strong contrast to the Communist propaganda posters that played a major role in design three decades ago. From the above, it is clear that China is working hard to create her own image and brand on the world stage of design.
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Poland 1964 Poster 97 x 67cm Offset Print Poster for Alban Berg’s opera: Wozzeck. by Jan Lenica
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PAIN / war
Poland 1967 Poster 97 x 67cm Offset Print The image of a crumbling man of stone, with a hole where his heart should be, became an iconic metaphor for a society on the brink of collapse following the Nazi occupation of Poland WWII. by Roman Cieslewicz
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Britain 1960 Poster “Stop Nuclear suicide” by F.H.K Henrion
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PAIN / war
Russia 1935 Poster “Long Live the working and peasant Red Army a faithful guard of the Soviet borders.� by Gustav Klutsis
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Poland 1953 Poster Antiwar statement “No” by Taduesz Trepkowski
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PAIN / war
Poland 1970s
The Polish School of Poster developed in the 50’s and 60’s as a result of a shift in economic and political factors in postwar Poland. Through abstraction, metaphor and juxtaposition, the designers illustrated nonconformist ideas and political dissention subtly and with wry humor. After the death of Stalin in 1953, the political climate in Poland was much more lenient, allowing many artists and designers room to develop individual style and explore political themes. These were often the only form of advertisements seen at all, so their existence easily dominated the Polish visual landscape. “The street was the poster gallery.” stated Henryk Tomaszewski. Posters were easily reproduced on cheap paper with transportable lithographic presses, and were put up on the miles of fence that enclosed the construction sites rebuilding Poland. Because of its reproducible nature, the Communist government saw the poster as the perfect vehicle for propaganda, safer and less �threatening� than individualistic works of art. Two major bodies governed poster production; the WAG (Graphic Arts Publishers) and later, Film Polski, as the result of a government-structured patronage system which reportedly paid well.
The Polish fervor for poster art resulted in the First International Poster Biennial in 1966, and two years later the first poster museum in Europe opened in Warsaw, both of which are still in existence today. Magazines held poster competitions, the biennials attracted huge crowds and the collecting and selling of posters became widely popular. In the 1970�s, strikes and protests were rampant and a new order of poster designer further utilized poster art as a vehicle for dissent. The styles became more personal and angry, furthering the tradition of Polish poster art as sly political protest.
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PAIN / war
SOCIAL CONTROL
The first half of the 20th century represented an extremely rich period in the history of visual culture. As technology advanced in printing and photography it became apparent that the world was becoming increasingly dependant on visual forms of communication. Consequently graphic design was beginning to play a major role in all aspects of life. Design was instrumental in communicating with the masses and, as a result, it was identified as a key tool in political campaigns the world over. Political leaders would enlist their country’s best graphic designers (whose complicity was not necessarily optional) to work on their ideological campaigns. Creative expression was being harnessed into, in many cases, crass propaganda. The line between propaganda and political advertising can be vague. Design is an effective tool because it has the power to evoke emotion which makes it effective for persuasion. Design plays on its audience’s emotion to motivate them to take the desired action. In a governmentally regulated media images can quickly begin to communicate a very one sided argument; a hallmark of propaganda. There are two ways in which to consider design’s persuasive power. On the one hand, if no counter argument is presented in a design one can defensibly consider it propaganda. On the other hand, explicitly persuasive design can serve as catalyst for revolution and as a way to challenge the hegemony. In either case design is used to persuade however it is persuasion with opposing agendas.
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propaganda
By definition propaganda is the dissemination of information explicitly aimed at influencing behaviour in an impartial and highly emotional way. Facts are presented selectively and can therefore be accused of misinforming by omission. By this definition we are surrounded by propaganda. What is missing in this definition is the notion of control. Propaganda is the controlled dissemination of messages and information and this has occurred primarily through design since the early part of the 20th century. It can be hard to look at some images and be capable of feeling anything other than pain, disgust or anger. It is difficult to view an image of Adolf Hitler and admire the graphic design. However it is interesting to consider the role that graphic design played in the Nazi Germany. Artists in Nazi Germany were heavily controlled; the content and method of communication was subject to governmental oversight. Graphic design from this period was not about freedom and creativity. All forms of art, including design, were censored and regulated.
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PAIN / social war control
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Germany 1930s Poster Intended to appeal to children to support Hitler. Artist Unknown
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PAIN / social war control
Germany 1930s Poster Election poster of April 1933 urges voters to opt for a greater Germany in choosing Hitler. Artist Unknown
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India 2000 Karunanidhi Political Street Graphic Handpainted Illustration & type Image is intended to draw support for a corrupt political leader by showing him in a positive light. Artist Unknown
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PAIN / war
Italy 1935 Book Cover Lithograph Italian Fascist Youth Battalion Handbook by Zedda
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Italy 1932 Cover(left) and Inside Pages(right) Lithograph on tin 23.5 x 21.5 cm Futurism, a movement which started out as a literary art form, urged for an abolition of traditional views on expression in order to embrace the new world of machines and technology. Ultimately, when used within a fascist context, futurism would become synonymous with fascism. by Tullio dĂAlbisola
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PAIN / social war control
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Italy 1932 Magazine Cover Lithograph Cover design for the Fascist Youth Magazine Fascist Magazine Gioventu Fascista. Designed under Benito Mussolini’s Fascist State. by Cesare Gobbo
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PAIN / social war control
Italy 1930s
Amidst the uncertainty of the interwar period graphic arts in Italy underwent considerable changes. Particularly in the 1930s the realm of creative design was a mixture of traditional and modern styles. The country itself was going through economic troubles and fascism, the dictatorial political regime of the time, was utilizing visual means to promote government involvement in everyday lives of Italians. The Great Depression of the early 30s resulted in inflation, severe wage-cuts, and civil unrest. Nonetheless, graphic arts flourished in this environment as many production houses came under government control and were thus state funded. To capture public interest posters inspired by Italy’s own avant-garde movement called Futurism tried to promote a clear nationalistic message, while reflecting the emerging dynamism of modern life. Futurism, a movement which started out as a literary art form, urged for an abolition of traditional views on expression in order to embrace the new world of machines and technology. Ultimately, when used within a fascist context, this modernist approach lost its vitality. However, a movement towards simplified forms and bold colors, as well as creative approaches to typography is evident in the work of most famous graphic designers of the decade. Around this time the first
PAIN / social control
artist-books began gaining popularity, as they were an adequate medium for both visual artists and writers. Illustration and lithograph printing were the primary means or rendering messages, although photomontage was not uncommon in advertising. Consequently, the social and political state of the country in 1930s provided designers with a plethora of visual approaches which have a distinctive Italian style whether relying on Futurist machine aesthetic or a more traditional simplified vernacular.
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revolution
Graphic design is often typecast as a tool used exclusively for soulless consumerism and a weapon in ideological warfare. However graphic design can, thankfully, be much more than this. Design has a more humanist, vernacular and artistic side. As much as design has been used to promote politics, products and war, it has also been instrumental in serving as the voice of the people. Design has played a significant subversive role in cultural, political and social revolution. It can be a catalyst for, and an expression of, a people’s cry for change.
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PAIN / social war control
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Hong Kong 1999 Poster Digital Design The characters translate to the Communist Saying “Serving the People”. When read in order the characters form the shape of an “X” over the face of Chairman Mao. by Alan Chan
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PAIN / social war control
Hong Kong 1990s
As a major capitalist city, Hong Kong has a well-established mass media and visual communication system. A high number of publications are distributed daily; there are over ten television-broadcasting stations and a blooming entertainment industry. The streets in Hong Kong are saturated with commercials, billboards, signage, and logos. The demand of graphic designs in Hong Kong is huge The 1990s in Hong Kong was full of political changes and crisis. Located in Southern China, Hong Kong was a colony of Britain for more than a hundred years and is now a special administrative region of China since 1997. After the transition of sovereignty from Britain to China, it maintained a separate legal, political and economic system from China. Before 1997, most people were pessimistic toward the transition and skeptical about the Chinese Government. After the Tiananmen Massacre in 1989 in Beijing, in which thousands of students protesting for democracy were killed, many became fearful that they would lose their freedom after the handover. In the poster Serving the People, on the face of Chairman Mao is written the Communist 5s saying “serving the people” that must be read in the shape of an “X”. This poster questions Chinese Communism and shows hidden resentment toward the Chinese government.
Out of fear and hope for a better future, many people emigrated in the 1990s; those who stayed continued to struggle with identity crisis. Having been a colony of Britain for almost a century and living in the shadow of the handover, Hong Kong people yearned for their own identity. Many pro-democratic political groups appeared attempting to re-claim political self-determination. On the other hand, artists and designers attempted to communicate Hong Kong’s unique identity by incorporating culture-specific elements. The poster, Discover Asia, is composed of a backdrop of a red-white-blue plastic bag, which has been commonly used by the grass roots in Hong Kong, contrasted with tall buildings that represent economy and wealth. In another poster, People, the designer reconstructed nine Chinese words and used different sayings to expose Hong Kong people’s attitude and identity.
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Poland 1977 Poster Polish poster art during the 1970s was a vehicle for political protest and dissent. by Jearsy Czermianski
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PAIN / social war control
Russia 1980s Poster For the play “Soviet Poetry of the 1930-1940s”. The words read “Allow me to share my words”. by Andrey Kolosov
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Russia 1935 Poster “Long Live the working and peasant Red Army a faithful guard of the Soviet borders.” by Gustav Klutsis
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PAIN / war
Cuba 1969 Poster “Celebrates the tenth anniversary of the revolution the film camera is seen as a weapon in the revolutionary struggle� by Alfredo Restgaard
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Germany 1930 Rebellion Paper “Die Zukunft� against the Nazi party by Franz Ehrlich
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PAIN / social war control
Germany 1932 Photomontage This image was published in a magazine and was intended to show that Hitler’s campaign was being funded by large financial concerns. The motto “Millions stand behind me” adds to the irony. by John Heartfield
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Germany 1935 Photomontage Parodies a speech made by Hermann Goering: “Iron makes the country strong, butter and lard make the country fat�. by John Heartfield
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PAIN / social war control
Germany 1930s
During the 1930’s Germany was entangled in a web of fascism and Nazi empowerment. The decade began with the end of an important design school. The Bauhaus, which was making large strides in efforts to merge technology and art into a unified practice. The Nazi party shut down the school in 1933. As a textile and printmaking student at the Bauhaus, Anni Albers often worked with geometrical shapes that were simple yet bold and eye-catching. These principles were tied to Bauhaus as a school and their influence can still be felt today. John Heartfield was an artist that sought to tell the truth behind the seemly impressive promises Hitler and his party were making. In his 1935 piece, “Hurrah, die Butter ist alle!” or “Hurray, the Butter is finished!” he directly illustrates a quote from one of Hitler’s party members. Heartfield was eventually banned from Germany during the Nazi rule, as his work created controversy and raised questions that the Nazi regime deemed as unwanted. In 1936, Germany was given a chance to present itself on the world stage at the Berlin Olympics. Despite rumors of unfair dictatorship, which buzzed around the event, the poster for the Olympics reflects strength showing a figure with his arm raised in glory.
This bold Olympic poster gave the impression of a unified and bright nation. The car that is today know as the Volkswagen was part of Hitler’s plan to bring affordable cars to the people. Originally know as the “KDF Wagen” it was designed with affordability in mind. The advertisements focused on the joy and satisfaction of the vehicle owners, this helped people trust the intentions of their leader. This idea along with the ideas previously mentioned played roles in shaping the German nation as well as influencing design that came after.
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DISCRIMINATION 50
PAIN / war
In our postmodern society we exist in an image-based communication system. This requires that we as individuals develop a certain amount critical thinking and rhetoric when it comes to visual culture. The French philosopher Jacques Derrida introduced his concept of deconstruction in his book of Grammatology published in France in 1967. Deconstruction, unlike modern criticism, rejected the idea that meaning could be uncovered by studying the way form and content worked to communicate essential humanistic messages in literature, art and design. (Lupton 3) Instead deconstruction was a way of analyzing meaning not by looking at the theme, objects or signs that exist within something but rather on the institutional systems that frame their production (Lupton 3). Although design offers a form visual history, images only offer the viewer a limited view of the past. Derrida’s theory of deconstruction highlights the importance of examining the factors that motivated and framed the production of an image. Derrida’s concept of deconstruction is particularly relevant when it comes to looking at designs that create and perpetuate cultural stereotypes. Throughout our visual history, unfortunately, design has worked towards creating racist, classicist and sexist stereotypes. Design is not a weapon on its own; it is not divisive on its own. However it can be used to service malicious intent.
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perpetuate
The word ‘stereotype’ is tied to typography and the history of print. The term was originally coined by the French printer Fermin Didot in 1974. He gave the name to an innovative printing process in which pages of handset type were transformed into papier mâché molds (Kelly). These molds were used to generate duplicate plates which enabled a printer to generate many duplicate plates without the need for having to pay attention to individual details each time. Cultural stereotypes are essentially the duplication of one originally fabricated “plate” that can be used without needing to actually consider the details of the individual. Individuals are thus grouped into their prescribed cookie-cutter mold. Unfortunately the ability to produce mass quantities of the same image has contributed to the perpetuation of stereotypes. The irony is that the technological advances that were supposedly meant to spread information and unite people also has the power to divide us and sustain the “simplistic dualities that underlie stereotyping.” (Kelly).
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PAIN / discrimination war
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Germany 1938 Poster 27 x 40 cm Man of African is portrayed playing jazz whilst wearing the star of David on his lapel. Artist Unknown
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PAIN / discrimination war
USA 1940 Poster Silkscreen by Cleo Sara
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India 2008 Signage System Computer Design 88 x 55 cm This signage system was developed for navigation through a mall. It is based on the Indian class system or Caste system. by Carlos Coelho & Aman Khanna
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PAIN / discrimination war
India 2000s
With a rapidly developing economy, radical political influences and changing social dynamics, India emerged as a major world power in the twenty-first century. Yet design in India is at its crossroads. At a macro level, India built a design aesthetic based on elements of streets like hand-painted illustrations. At a micro level, design has unveiled itself as a combination of Indian influences derived from a western aesthetic. The 2000�s has seen India thriving as the worlds largest democracy constructed against the odds of illiteracy, multiple religions and racial heterogeneity. Yet, conflicts, terrorism, and massacre in the name of religion also define the decade. This decade built a society made of a small elite minority, a rising middle class and 800 million people living on $2 a day. About 55% of children living in rural areas suffer from malnutrition. (Kamdar). Despite these jarring economic inequities, India�s booming advertising industry provided a sense of national community. Indian companies worked on associating the consumer product with western quality standards while providing an experience that affirms cultural integrity (Kamdar). About two-thirds of the population still employs a culture that is deeply rooted in pre-scientific philosophies and religions. The political situation was extremely unpredictable
with the transition in Indian politics away from the national parties towards a coalition based on regional parties. Politicians continued to rely on the visual to reach the rural and the illiterate and to overcome the barriers created by the linguistic diversity. Design culture in India is still in the midst of defining itself, breaking free from traditional forms and borrowing from the other cultures.
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liberate
In a sense cultural stereotypes can be defeated by fighting fire with fire. If we consider very simply Derrida’s theory of deconstruction, its foundation comes from concepts first proposed by Ferdinand de Saussure. Saussure wrote on the subject of semiotics, which is basically the study and analysis of cultural signs and how they are developed. Designers use signs as a means of communicating a concept through an image. The more we see a sign in a certain context we begin to attribute a certain meaning to it. The sign then becomes the signifier of something. In a sense then the only way to undo what a sign stand for is to re-represent it and promote it as signifier for something else. In this way design has the power not only to perpetuate cultural stereotypes but also to challenge them and liberate their subjects. Design again serves as a catalyst for change and a powerful weapon in the war against cultural stereotypes.
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PAIN / discrimination war
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USA 1968 Magazine cover for Esquire Photograph Satirizes the modern icon Muhammad Ali as a martyr pierced by arrows. by George Lois
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PAIN / discrimination war
USA 1965 Magazine cover for Esquire Photograph Provocative image which challenges feminine stereotypes. by Milton Glaser
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South Africa 1988 Poster A bandaged bloodstained hand shaped like Africa conveys the pathos of suffering and revolution. by Gunter Rambow and Michael van de Sand
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PAIN / war
France 1986 Poster “Apartheid Racism: the cancer of the world� by Grapus
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Poland 1965 Poster Lithograph 76 x 52 cm Poster for the American film How the West Was Won. The Polish designer uses the ‘stereotypical’ Native American face to express there feelings as an outsider to western culture. by Jerzy Treutler
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PAIN / discrimination war
Poland 1960s
Polish graphic design from the 1960s was vibrant, individualistic and whimsical in a time for that country that was anything but. While the western world was exploring the concept of free love, Poland was in recovery from the destructive occupation of their country by Nazi Germany during World War II. Poland, which had once been an independent, multicultural nation, had been turned into a corrupt Soviet satellite state that had lost much of its diversity and life. Poles in the 1960s lived under complete control of their Soviet-run communist government, which which crippled many aspects of life, including graphic design, which was mostly deemed unnecessary by the state. Poster design, however, was well-funded by the state, as it was seen as a way to brighten streets, and for the government to communicate quickly to the public. In the 1960s, Polish posters became more than propaganda, and were incredibly experimental. The four posters shown here are examples of revolutionary work during this time. Jan Lenica’s poster was commissioned by the state for an opera. Although the subject was menial, Lenica’s engaging style give it importance. Jerzy Treutler’s poster for the American film How the West Was Won, a colourful piece showing a stereotypical Native American face, is an example of the energy of Polish designers
in the 60s, as well as the Polish role of outsider to western culture. Henryk Tomaszeweski pushed boundaries by inserting references to the oppression of the Soviet state into his work, like in the stark, black and white poster shown here, which echoes the coldness of Polish streets. Finally, Roman Cieslewicz’s poster, made for a play that was shut down by censors, igniting student protests across Poland. The image of a crumbling man of stone, with a hole where his heart should be, became an iconic metaphor for a society on the brink of collapse, and which foreshadowed Poland regaining its independence in 1989.
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def. 1 an agreeable or enjoyable sensation or emotion
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PAIN / war
PLEASURE
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69
Inspiration is a recurrent theme in design. It is normally spoken about in terms of what inspires a designer or a particular design. However, what about how a design functions to inspire others? Leaders inspire people with visions about how things can change, improve and evolve. One of the capabilities of design is to make an internal vision external. Design can re-imagine things rather than merely reflecting the way things are. Design can inspire by enabling people to see the impossible made possible. This can change what we see as possible. An idea can take shape in an image and become a vision for a people. Graphic design came to prominence in the years following WWII and was highly influenced by modern art movements. This is worth noting because graphic design employs the techniques of abstraction first developed by modernist painters. The influential designer Paul Rand defined the designer in his book Thoughts on Design (1947) as “a professional who tempers the instinct of the artist with the functional requirements of advertising� (quoted in Lupton 193). Abstraction in graphic design is about balancing obscurity with universally recognized forms in order to effectively evoke an emotional response (Lupton 193). How we respond to design sometimes is more about cognitive response than conscious analysis. We can feel inspired by something we see and know not to be real because it nonetheless evokes a positive feeling. This can instinctive response can prove highly motivational and inspirational.
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PLEASURE / inspiration
INSPIRATION
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PLEASURE / inspiration
vision
Thomas Edison was one of the greatest innovators in American history. Edison was not a designer nor was he and artist but he developed many of his most creative ideas through a process of visual representation (Caldicott 105). Edison would transpose the kaleidoscope of ideas in his mind into a series of drawings. The use of visual metaphor enabled Edison to do two things. Firstly it let him take something known and evolve it towards the unknown and secondly this process enabled him to “see” how a yet unperfected machine might function. Designers, like Edison, work in visual metaphors. Images and visual metaphors function to enable the viewer to “see” potential yet unknown futures. ‘Seeing’ the future can, for instance, influence a voter’s decision, act as a catalyst for a civil rights movement or promote shifts in cultural paradigms. Many visionary leaders and people of influence have relied on design to show a future that is as yet unknown.
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USA 1968 Magazine cover for Esquire Photograph John F. Kennedy led the United States through the Cuban Missile Crisis and made heartfelt commitments to the civil rights movement and the space race. by George Lois
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PLEASURE / inspiration
USA 1965 Magazine cover for Esquire Photograph This is represents a collage of visionaries from the 1960s. by George Lois
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USA 1967 Poster Silkscreen Che Guevara iconic facial features that came to symbolize the spirit of revolution. by Roman Cieslewicz
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PLEASURE / inspiration
USA 1960s
The United States remembers the 1960s as a time when the nation looked forward to a brighter, yet uncertain, future. It was an era of weighty decisions made in the name of hopeful ideals, a time between the 1950s’ idyllic façade and the 1970s’ cynicism. John F. Kennedy is perhaps the iconic president of “The Sixties”: he led the United States through the Cuban Missile Crisis and made heartfelt commitments to the civil rights movement and the space race; his premature death affected the American psyche much as his rise to power had. Lyndon B. Johnson continued JFK’s work by erasing the last legal barriers to equality for African-Americans; his political fortunes waned, however, as the Vietnam War raged on.The 1960s hosted the crowning moment of the civil rights movement and the rise of the counterculture. Martin Luther King’s 1968 assassination divided those who saw the civil rights leader as a fallen hero from those who saw only a nuisance finally dealt with. The hippies found new ways to express their break with majority culture. This landscape proved to be fertile ground for artists and designers. Warhol’s Pop Art appropriated methods of production commonly used by graphic designers of the time, toying with the idea of mass production with his Marilyn Monroes and soup cans.
Designer George Lois, in his position as art director for Esquire magazine, played a major part in designing the 1960s. His covers, often satirizing modern icons, have themselves become iconic—Muhammad Ali as a martyr pierced by arrows, Warhol himself drowning in a tin of Campbell’s Soup, Sixties youth icons arranged in a crosshairs. Lois evoked the darker impulses that “The Sixties” in America imply.
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Russia 1935 Poster “Long Live the working and peasant Red Army a faithful guard of the Soviet borders.” by Gustav Klutsis
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PAIN / war
Russia 1935 Poster “Long Live the working and peasant Red Army a faithful guard of the Soviet borders.� by Gustav Klutsis
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motivation
If we consider inspiration to be a project proposal than motivation is its action plan. Once the seed of an idea has been planted in people’s minds than they must be shown how the outcome can come to fruition. Motivation can be understood as what we as individuals do to maximize a sense of pleasure and can determine why we do something. Design can communicate how a project provides a sense of pleasure to those involved. Design can evoke feelings of empowerment through an individual’s involvement in a project or through collective effort.
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India 2008 Free Newspaper Digitally 61 x 91 cm Freedom of speech is an important component of a democratic society. by Santosh Padhi
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Germany 1936 Poster 62 x 100 cm This poster for the Olympics reflects strength showing a figure with his arm raised in glory. This bold Olympic poster gave the impression of a unified and bright nation. by Franz Wurbel
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Japan 1961 Poster Photo engraving 55 x 101 cm This design, based on Japan’s National flag, served to renew the appreciation of the Rising Sun’s dynamic simplicity and the Nation’s emblem. by Kamekura Yusaku
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Japan 1960s
The Tokyo Olympics of 1964 was a turning point for all of Japan, and design was no exception. The 1964 Olympic posters designed by Kamekura Yusaku were all made by multi-colored photoengraving, highlighting the technology of the Japanese printing industry. The Rising Sun and the Olympic Emblem (fig.1) design from Japan’s National flag, served to renew the appreciation of the Rising Sun’s dynamic simplicity. (Yusaku 25) Due to the success of the Olympics, Japan’s rapid economic development accelerated and consumer society emerged. With the advances in photographic and printing techniques photography became an important medium in advertising. Untitled (fig.2), is an advertisement poster for Shiseido’s seasonal makeup promotions, supported by accurate portrayal of colors started in 1961 to showcase latest makeup and fashion. Tadanori Yokoo (fig.3), designed by Tadanori Yokoo (1936-) represents the “Yokoo style” and an international symbol of Japanese pop art. Two Mt. Fuji’s are placed in the poster’s four corners. In front of one of the Mt. Fuji’s is a bullet train, a symbol of “reborn” postwar Japan and Mt. Fuji, a symbol of old (or changeless) Japan.(Thorton 48) Asahi Stiny beer (fig.4), a poster for designed by Kazumasa Nagai, the Co-founder
and director of the Nippon Design Center. The NDC constituted a joint venture between eight major Japanese companies, and brought them together with designers for the purpose of using effective, innovative advertising to encourage the development of Japanese industry. (Saiki 31)With the NDC, industry acknowledged design as a key to economic growth.
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China 2005 Poster 48 x 68 cm The communication goal of this poster is to deliver the message “change your thoughts, change your life�: if one thinks of things in a positive way, one will have a happier life. by TingTing Peng
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China 2008 Logo The logo of “First World Mind Sports Games� and symbolizes a Chinese truelove knot. This knot represents affinity, friendship, solidarity, communication and good luck. by ShaoHua Chen
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China 2007 Poster 70 x 48 cm The image content of this poster creates a united national emotion that the Beijing Olympics is a dream for every Chinese citizen “Impossible Is Nothing�. by TBWA/ Shanghai creative team
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China 2000s
For the last 20 years, the design industry in China has improved enormously. China is not only a huge manufacturer in the world anymore. People started to take notice of “Designed in China” instead of “Made in China”. The Chinese contemporary designers tend to bring the Chinese design into the international. The improvement in Chinese design is evidence that proves the Chinese consumer market is blooming. It reflects that Chinese design is in a vital and dynamic phase. “Happy Thinking, Happy Living” poster created by a student, TingTing Peng from Tsinghua. She used the old Chinese cloud symbol to create the shape of a brain. The Chinese cloud pattern contains vital and rich emotions. It is one of the main images in the Chinese lucky. The communication goal of this poster is to deliver the message “change your thoughts, change your life”. If one can think of things in a positive way, one will have a happier life. “The Dream of the Red Chamber Characters-Drawing Book” is designed by Yon Wu. “The Dream of the Red Chamber” is the most famous classical Chinese novel. It is remarkable for its many characters and its accurate portrayal of the social structures and psychology of 18th-century Chinese aristocratic life. The design concept is to blend the traditional
Chinese elements in a modern look with the special printing materials (unique paper and fabrics) and die-cutting printing techniques. “Adidas Olympic- Impossible Is Nothing” poster was created by TBWA/ Shanghai creative team. The context of this poster creates a united national emotion that the Beijing Olympics is a dream for every Chinese citizen. The slogan “Impossible Is Nothing” was to play on the Chinese hopes that their athletes would top the medals table in 2008.
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In late 19th century Europe graphic design changed classification from ‘fine art’ to ‘applied art’. The exact distinction between the two is an argument that has followed the discipline from that moment on. Graphic design is considered applied as it is considered to serve a more utilitarian function. Graphic design, or more broadly speaking communication design, surrounds us and serves many functions. Some of these are not necessarily linked directly to an emotional response but a more reasoned one, for instance road signs, newspapers, reference manuals and logos. Important functions of design are to enhance and improve readability and to enhance navigation through a variety of situations. This is worth noting as commercial design and advertising has done wonders to demonize the design profession and the important functions it serves outside of corporate advertising. Design can certainly aid in selling a product or an idea but this is not its sole function. Lifestyle has, since the 1960s, been inextricably linked to consumerism. Graphic design has undoubtedly been a key proponent in advertising and marketing and the selling of goods specifically because it can engage us emotionally. We are surrounded by images that are intended to evoke feelings of desire and stir up a quest for pleasure. Some do this with the empty intention that we buy ‘stuff’ yet others promote perhaps a more worthy monetary spend by promoting of the arts and entertainment industry. Graphic design, as well as being informative or seductive, can aim to entertain.
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LIFESTYLE
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entertainment
In the history of graphic design the promotion of arts and entertainment has afforded many graphic designers the opportunity for more artistic freedom. For instance, following WWII Poland came into the Soviet bloc during which time arts and culture came under centralized state control. Polish artists and designers, despite working under the State Publishing agency, were determined to claim relative self-government from Soviet directives (Aynsley 142). Graphic artists working on promotional film posters were not provided with any pre-film publicity material from which to work with for concept development. Film posters were therefore unconstrained by existing marketing information and so ended up functioning as blank canvases to exercise their creative inventiveness (Aynsley 142). Much of the work produced during this time would prove inspirational for subsequent generations of graphic designers.
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Italy 1969 Advertisement A salient shift in cultural paradigms that emerged in the 1960s was “the anesthetization of every day life� and self identity constructed through the consumption of consumer goods. Artist unknown
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USA 1966 Poster Silkscreen The hippy movement was defined by lifestyle choices and deeply influenced the music of their generation. by Wes Wilson
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USA 1966 Poster Illustration The hippy movement was defined by lifestyle choices and deeply influenced the music of their generation. by Milton Glaser
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USA 1960s
Looking at history in a global perspective, United States of America is still a young growing nation born around 230 years ago. However, America has become the largest national economy in the world with its advanced science and technology. When was the beginning of this rapid growth? The key era lies just four decades ago known as the ‘swinging sixties’ (Myerson, 18). The new youth generation from post World War II period was no longer constrained by old perspective and was looking forward for a better future. Art, design and music began to be appreciated and also became stylish. From parents of design and music, Pop design came to life through inexpensive publications like advertisements, comics and posters. Milton Glaser, George Lois and Wes Wilson were famous designers coming from this decade. Aside from design being stimulated by America’s economic wealth and freedom, design was also driven by the antiwar movement during late 1960s. Millions of graphic images and publications outraged from protests against government’s actions in the Vietnam War. Graphic art has never been manipulated in such massive quantities. Especially the iconic piece by Roman Cieslewicz, it illustrates Che Guevara iconic facial features that
came to symbolize the spirit of revolution. Che Guevara iconic graphic art is also being used massively after his death symbolizing the counter cultural movement.
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USA 1942 Poster Lithography 68 x 100 cm Although the 40s were defined by WWII, the film industry boomed. Ninety million Americans went to the movies every week during WWII. by Bill Gold
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USA 1945 Poster Lithography 68 x 100 cm Artist Unknown
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USA 1955 Film Poster by Saul Bass
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Poland 1969 Poster Designed for the Polish film “Hadrian�. Poster art became an artistic outlet for graphic designers in Poland during Soviet rule. by Henryk Tomaszewski
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India 2007 Poster Handpainted and digitally generated 68 x 98 cm Bollywood is a multi million dollar a year industry and produces more the 800 films a year. by Piyush Pandey
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Swiss 1934 Poster Show idyllic winter pastime in the Alps. by Herbert Matter
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consumerism
There were several salient shifts in cultural paradigms during the 1960s; the aestheticization of every day life, the democratization of consumer goods and self-identity constructed through the consumption of goods. American movies and TV shows led the way in showcasing an international consumerism. By the late 1970s film placed second among American exports. American films therefore proved instrumental in projecting a lifestyle that appealed to the masses by glamorizing a youthful, consumerist middle class. From this point entertainment would become inextricably tied to the propagation of consumerism. The aestheticization of daily life and promotion of lifestyle through consumer goods inevitably had a pronounced effect on graphic design. As popular culture became centered around consumerist leisure and imagery, the demand for commercial graphic design grew exponentially.
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USA 1946 Advertisement by Paul Rand
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Japan 1937 Poster Woodblock 91 x 61.5 cm From the late 1920s to the mid 1930s Japan was an industrial state with a growing consumer culture that relied on commercial art to promote and sell its products. by Tada Hokuu
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Japan 1965 Advertisement 73 x 103 cm A large corporation brought 8 major Japanese companies together with designers in the 60s for the purpose of developing effective, innovative advertising to encourage the develop Japanese industry. by Kazumasa Nagai
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Japan 1961 Poster 73 x 103 cm Advances in photographic and printing techniques meant they became an important mediums in advertising. This poster shows how the accurate portrayal of colors enabled the designers to better showcase latest makeup and fashion. Artist unknown
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Italy 1960s Advertisement The Vespa is an exemplary model of esteemed Italian design. It became a national symbol of youth and freedom and the new emerging youth consumer market. Artist unknown
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Italy 1960s
The following works of design were created in Italy throughout the 1960s. The 1960s brought enormous economic prosperity, as well as transformation, to Italy. The Sixties had been a period of great Modernist achievements. Designers produced an extraordinary array of domestic furnishings, which manufacturers soon marketed at an international scale. Stylistically this work often perpetuated the biomorphic aesthetic of the Fifties, though with quite different theoretical underpinnings. Increasingly, a new “high tech” geometric look became more apparnent. The influence of American rock and roll, television, film, and the “blue jean” aesthetic swept Europe and introduced a greater informality in Italian society. This change in lifestyle was reflected in the forms, materials, and arrangement of furnishings. The works that have been selected were at the peak of design in terms of material, language, design and technology. The use of geometric shapes as well as color was used frequently in the designs to make the images have life. This stylization is evident in Franco Grignani’s 1969 advertisement for “Alfieri & Lacroix.” Franco Grignani was an Italian designer who had his own studio named Franco Grignani & Co. This studio was based
out of Milano, Italy and was a great influence for his designs. The city was dominant in fashion, architecture, film and art. The entire advertisement is done using simple geometric shapes in the dominant triangle and the thick black lines with the use of primary colors blue, red and yellow. This technique creates a captivating advertisement that would make one stop and place it all together. During this decade, designers were using the technique of offset lithography to produce their works, as it was the simplest and most effective way. Ultimately, however, the phenomenal success of Italian design in the 1960s was founded on a number of distinctive Italian attributes. Of large importance was the respect accorded to design as one of the most creative and internationally influential aspects of Italian art. Government, industry, universities, the media, and the general public of Italy embraced this central attitude.
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Russia 1935 Poster “Long Live the working and peasant Red Army a faithful guard of the Soviet borders.” by Gustav Klutsis
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Russia 1935 Poster “Long Live the working and peasant Red Army a faithful guard of the Soviet borders.� by Gustav Klutsis
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The rapid development of computer technology in the 1980s had a marked effect on graphic design. The advances in technology contributed to creating a cultural milieu of synchronicity - “ancient and modern cultures, Eastern and Western thought, handicraft and industrial production [past and present]”- all combined to create a “continuum of information and visual form” (Meggs 414). Technology facilitated the exchange of ideas creating a globalized pluralism in graphic design. Graphic designers across the globe were highly influenced by modern design canons such as Bauhaus, Constructivism and Geometric Abstraction as well the new International Style (or Swiss Style). However, there are many designers that that avoided being “colonized” by western graphic design. They would develop a unique voice that drew upon the vernacular and cultural traditions of their nation. Graphic designers would appropriate from their past and combine with modernist canons which would in turn contribute to the development of their national aesthetic.
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CULTURE
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tradition
The infusion of traditional practices, symbols and signs into a graphic designer’s work helps to promote and preserve a sense of national heritage. However one reason that tradition and heritage was resisted and International style adopted by many designers is rooted in the years following WWII. Wartime violence and destruction became attached to the concept of nationalism which was reinforced through art and design. Nationalism became synonymous with ethnic particulars, cultural specificity and ideological fundamentalism (Matheson). This created a necessity for designers to create and promote impartiality. And so following WWII there was a conscious effort made to eradicate nationalistic qualities from design. However, despite the pervasiveness of International Style and the history of design being hijacked as a weapon of ideological warfare, traditional national aesthetics have managed to find their place in design. Particularly in recent years it would appear that vernacular design is rising in popularity as tradition and cultural specificity are no longer uniquely considered nationalistic. The infusion of tradition in design can be symbolic of a celebration of diversity and cultural roots. In aesthetic terms it inspires diversity.
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Japan 1988 Poster Offset Print Sato’s work, compositionally, shows a strong relationship to traditions in Japanese fine art through his center composition and organization of space. by Koichi Sato
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Japan 1978 Magazine Spread Ishioka looked for ways to integrate Japanese traditions into Western design. by Eiko Ishioka
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Japan 1981 Poster 103 x 72.8 cm Tanaka uses geometric abstraction to visually render the very traditional image of a Geisha. by Ikko Tanaka
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Japan 1980s
From the late 1970s through to the late 1980s the Japanese economy was enjoying what is commonly referred to as the “Japanese asset bubble”. Japan was leading the way in technological innovation, stock and real estate markets soared, and from its crippled post WWII state Japan had become the second strongest economy in the world, rivaled only by the USA. Within this bubble of wealth graphic design houses emerged to handle the work generated by a booming industry and the wealthy governmental and cultural institutions. In all areas of society people were starting to pay more attention to design. The West was starting to play Pac Man, listen to Sony Walkmans and the design of “anything manufactured from traditional handicrafts to industrial products was regarded as one of the elements supporting Japanese economy.”. (Heller 2002). Japanese graphic designers of the period were, like designers all over the world, heavily influenced by modern design canons such as Bauhaus, Constructivism and Geometric Abstraction. However, in Japanese society there is a deep rooted appreciation and dedication to aesthetics dating back to at least the sixth
century. Visual communication is spiritually grounded in religious and cultural practices, and is an integral part of daily life. Whilst aesthetics in Japan are intrinsically linked to tradition, Japanese graphic design developed a characteristically strong integration of Western design idioms and use of new technologies whilst maintaining a clear respect for national tradition and culture. This successful integration of influences was making design a distinctive trademark of Japan.
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China 1998 Digital Design Having been a colony of Britain for almost a century and living in the shadow of the handover, Chinese designers attempted to communicate Hong Kong’s unique identity by incorporating culturespecific elements. by Alan Chan
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China 2003 Poster The artist takes the advantage of the effect on rice paper, and lets the character and image run into each other like in Chinese paintings. by He Jianping
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ethnicity
Ethnicity is an important way for individuals to identify with one another through the sharing of a common heritage. It is related to the recognition of a common cultural, linguistic, religious and behavioural background. Ethnicity has been tied to both race and nationality and the argument over which one more strongly defines someone’s ethnicity is one that has followed us throughout history. As far as design is concerned, ethnicity is strongly tied to tradition and vernacular practices. Design in many countries has served to celebrate the specificity of origins in aesthetics and art. In design, and elsewhere, ethnicity and common heritage is celebrated.
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South Africa 2007 Magazine Cover 21.5 x 28 cm In contemporary South Africa graphic design shows a mixture of global aesthetics, and authentic roots. Each designer makes their way and creating design history. Artist unknown
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South Africa 2007 Magazine Cover 21.5 x 28 cm Artist unknown
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South Africa is a country with a rich and intense history of visual language that employs expressive graphic image and textual narrative. These deeply rooted visual traditions of South Africa stem chiefly from vernacular images, typography, colours, illustration and craftwork based on spiritual themes. Although imagery for the purpose of communication has always been in practice, a non-formal approach has been more common, since graphic design as a profession is relatively new to South Africa. Due to lack of access to materials and limited freedom of speech within South Africa throughout the 1970’s during the apartheid struggle, the battle was taken on and visually fought by designers and artists in other countries. It has been offered by historian Philip Meggs that “by default, a South African design heritage is being formed by artists outside the nations boundaries” (Caban). Today, the manufacturing industry and levels of international trade within South Africa are significant enough to support opportunities for designers. The first graphic approach seen in South Africa is designers working for advertising agencies who strive and are inclined to produce “westernized” work.
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The pressures to adopt western lifestyles affect contemporary design in that the use of traditional vernacular imagery within work has been declining. The second being freelance designers who tend to approach and take on humanitarian and cultural projects. These designers proudly pull at the resources available to them from the rich visual traditions, distinct landscape and spirit of their country to display in their work. As seen in contemporary graphic design in South Africa such as within Design Indaba magazine, a mixture of global aesthetics, and authentic roots emerges with each designer making their way and creating design history.
Japan 1999 Magazine Cover Since ancient times, the Japanese have demonstrated the ability to borrow foreign material and integrate them into their own culture. by Tadanori Yokoo
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Cuba 1968 Poster The aesthetics of this poster unites Latin American use of bright dense colours with drawn image. by RaĂšl MartĂŹnez
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Japan 1957 Magazine Cover Exemplifies the Japanese skill in printing technique. by Yasaku Kamekura
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conclusion
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conclusion
CONCLUSION
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Bibliography This bilbliography is intended to give readers a place to start in finding more information about graphic design in countries around the world. The first list includes the works cited in the short essays written by students of Design Core III, Spring 2009. The second list includes works referenced in developing the editorial. Works cited for short Essays 1
3
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Bendavid- Val, Leah. Propaganda and Dreams. New York: Edi tion Stemmle, 1999. Lafont, Maria and Verlag Prestel. Soviet Posters. New York: Prestel Publishing Ltd., 2007. “Art Russia 1930”. Concerning Socialist Realism: Recent Publications on Russian Art. 15 March 2009. <http://findar ticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0425/is_4_58/ai_59552693> Yasinskaya. Revolutionary Textile Design Russia in the 1920s and 1930s. New York: The Viking Press, 1983.
Zhang, Hongxing and Lauren Parker. China Design Now. South Kensington, London: V&A Publishing, 2008. 47-55.
“Bauhaus”. Bauhaus- Archiv Museum of Design. 11 April 2009. <http://www.bauhaus.de/english/bauhaus1919/index.htm> Evans, David. John Heartfield AIZ/VI 1930-38. New York: Kent Fine Art, Inc., 1992. “John Heartfield”. John Heartfield: Art. 11 April 2009. <http://www.towson.edu/heartfield/art/5.html> “Olympics 1936”. Nazi Olympics Berlin 1936. 11 April 2009. <http://www.ushmm.org/museum/exhibit/online/ olympics/?lang=en>
Kamdar, Mira. Planet India. New York: Scribner, 2007.
Aulich, James and Marta Sylvestrova. Political Posters in Central and Eastern Europe: 1945-95. Vancouver: UBC Press, 1999. Das Polnische Plakat von 1892 bis Heute. Hoscule der Kunste. Berlin, 1980. Davies, Norman. God’s Playground: A History of Poland. New York: Columbia University Press, 1982. Garton Ash, Timothy. The Polish Revolution: Solidarity. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2002. Katagishi, Shoji. Henryk Tomaszewski. San Francisco: Chronicle Books, 1997. Mulroy, Kevin. Western Amerikanski: Polish Poster Art of the American Western. Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1999.
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Rohozinska, Joanna. A Complicated Coexistence. Central Europe Review, 2000. 14 Hiesinger, Kathryn and Felice Fishcher. Japanese Design A Survey Since 1950. New York: Harry N. Abrams Incorpo rated, 1995. 6-45, 104-132 Newark, Quentin. What is Graphic Design? An Essential Design Handbook. Switzerland: Rotovision, 2002. 244-250 Meggs, Philip B. A History of Graphic Design, 3rd Ed. Toronto: New John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1998. 417-423 Aynsley, Jeremy. A Century of Graphic Design: Graphic Design Pioneers of the 20th Century. New York: Octopus Publishing 2001. 196-197, 230-231. “Ikko Tanaka”. Ikko Tanaka, 71, Japanese Graphic Designer. 9 March 2009. <http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9800E5D71 13BF937A15752C0A9649C8B63> 15 Caban, Geoffrey. World Graphic Design- Contemporary graph ics from Africa, the Far East, Latin America, and the Middle East. New York: Merell, 2004. “Design Indaba”. Design Indaba. 8 March 2009. <http://www.designindabamag.com> “Design Indaba”. Interactive Design. 8 March 2009. <http://www.interactiveafrica.com/> “Design Indaba”. Orange Juice Design. 7 March 2009. <http://www.ijusi.co.za/>
Works cited for editorial Matheson, Ben. Website. In Type We Trust: Typography and National Identity in the Age of International Style and Global Citizenship <http://www.benmatheson.com/?p=115> Kelly, Janice. Typecasting: On the Arts and Sciences of Human Inequality Journal of Social History. Winter, 2007. <http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m2005/is_2_41/ai_ n24221657/> Miller Caldicott, Sarah and Michael J. Gelb. Innovate Like Edison: The Success System of America’s Greatest Inventor. New York: Peguin Group. 2007. 105 Lupton, Ellen and J.Abbott Miller. Design, Writing, Research: Writing on Graphic Design. New York: Princeton Architectural Press. 1996. Meggs, Philip B. A History of Graphic Design. 3rd Ed. New York: John Wiley & Sons Inc. 1998. “Consumerism”. Desire, not necessity, drives spending –Consumerism - Brief Article - Statistical Data Included. 10 April 2009. USA Today (Society for the Advancement of Education), August 2002. Aynsley, Jeremy. A Century of Graphic Design: 20th Century. London: Octopus Publishing Group Ltd.
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