Learning to Teach
Korean
A quick reference to Korean language, research and cultural practices
Prepared by Seong-Chul Shin
Korea Research Institute The University of New South Wales 2011
Learning to Teach Korean: A quick reference to Korean language, research and cultural practices. Seong-Chul Shin. Produced as part of the National Asian Languages and Studies in Schools Program (NALSSP) Project with the support of the Department of Education, Employment and Workplace Relations. Project managed by the Korea Research Institute, University of New South Wales. Project directed by Gi-Hyun Shin. Project coordinated by Sungbae Ko. Published online (http://www.ceklser.org/) by Korea Research Institute, The University of New South Wales Sydney NSW 2052 Australia Phone: +61 2 9385 4466 Email: kri@unsw.edu.au URL: http://www.kri.unsw.edu.au/ ISBN
Š Korea Research Institute and Seong-Chul Shin, 2011 (except where otherwise indicated). You may use, copy and communicate this material for non-commercial educational purposes* provided you retain all acknowledgements associated with the material. *For the avoidance of doubt, such non-commercial educational purposes include the training of school and university staff.
Table of Contents
Acknowledgements Introduction
1
Chapter 1: Features and Structures of the Korean Language
3
1.
Brief Features of Korean 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8
2.
Korean word structure 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 2.10 2.11 2.12 2.13 2.14
3.
Genetic affiliation and historical development Dialectical variations Writing systems The sound system Korean vocabulary Agglutinative morphology SOV syntax Honorifics
3 3 3 3 4 5 5 6 6 7
Word classification Nouns Pronouns Numerals Verbs Adjectives Determiners Adverbs Particles Derivational morphology Inflectional morphology Compounding Abbreviation Grammaticalization
7 7 10 11 12 12 13 14 16 17 26 31 43 44
Grammatical Structure of Korean
45
3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7
Sentence types Embedded clauses Case marking Delimiter constructions Numeral constructions Modality and tense aspect Passive and causative constructions
45 52 59 65 67 69 73
3.8 3.9 3.10 3.11
Complex predicate constructions Negation Adverbial constructions Honorifics and politeness strategies
Chapter 2: Research on Korean Language Learning and Teaching 1. Misspellings in Korean: Types and Patterns 2. Types of Lexical Errors 3. Particle Substitution Errors: Nominative-by-Accusative 4. Locative Substitution Errors 5. Semantic Similarity and Lexical Errors 6. Perceptions on Acceptability of Lexical Items 7. Perceptions on Teachers’ Instructional Language 8. Motivation and Learning Style Preferences 9. Language Use and Maintenance 10. Other Research
Chapter 3: Teaching Korean Culture 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
Insa (greeting) – the Korean Way Family Tree and Family Motto Hanbok and Jeol Korean Food Other Cultural Activities
Appendices Appendix 1: The Korean Sound Systems Appendix 2: Korean Orthography Appendix 3: Korean Vocabulary Appendix 4: Loan Words Appendix 5: Background – the Land and the People Appendix 6: Cultural Symbols of Korea References and Further Readings
78 81 83 85
88 88 91 93 97 101 105 108 111 114 120
122 122 126 129 132 135
138 138 144 146 150 154 169 175
Acknowledgements
This reference book has been prepared as part of the NALSSP project led by the University of New South Wales and managed by the University’s Korea Research Institute (formally The Korea-Australasia Research Centre) and funded by the DEEWR under the NALSSP’s Stategic Collaboration and Partnership Fund (Round One) for the project entitled “Towards the Establishment of Centre of Excellence for Korean Language and Studies Education and Research”. I would like to thank the staff and the Project team of the Korea Research Institute for their support, and in particular Dr GiHyun Shin, the NALSSP Project Director, who kindly offered me the opportunity to prepare these teacher support and training materials. Also, I wish to thank Yoona Kim for her enthusiastic assistance and Brad Wilke for his invaluable last minute help in proofreading the draft version.
1 Introduction
This reference book aims to help Korean language teachers in Australian and other similar school systems gain a better understanding of the linguistic and cultural features that are related to the teaching and learning of Korean as a second language. It presents linguistic features and structures of Korean, some research findings in Korean L2 learning and cultural topics integrating linguistic and cultural activities. It also includes a range of updated or addtional information about the Korean language, Korea and Korean people in the appendices. The descriptions given in the book are in English, with specific examples and terms given in Korean or both languages. It has been argued that there is lack of teacher support and training materials in Korean and yet there are a number of existing and newly-developed materials which may be utilised but still need to be examined in terms of their reliability, relevance, suitability, adaptability and perspectives. This work was commenced in the belief that the materials should be easily accessible, prepared economically, integrative in the content and glocalised in the perspective and adoptable for teacher support and training. A range of existing and latest materials have been investigated and examined to determine the suitability of utilising them for this reference book, and parts of the descriptions are based on selected reference books, research articles and various print or online materials. This book consists of four parts: Chapter 1: Features and Structures of the Korean Language; Chapter 2: Research on Korean Language Learning and Teaching; Chapter 3: Teaching Korean Culture; and Appendices, which provide additional resources on Korean language, and socio-cultural facts and information. Chapter 1 presents basic features, word structures and grammatical structures of Korean with examples in a summarised format. It is designed to be utilised by teachers as as a quick reference to prepare lessons and as a resource to deepen their understanding and knowledge of Korean linguistic structures. Some of the discriptions as well as the linguistic terms, classifications and examples in this chapter are based mainly on The Korean Language by Ho-Min Sohn (1999). Chapter 2 presents research findings of some studies that deal with issues relating to Korean L2 learning and teaching, along with pedagogical implications and suggestions. It is intended to assist teachers to understand the linguistic items and methodogical issues that facilitate or hinder students’ learning of Korean and that may need to take into account in their teaching. The research topics include types of misspellings, types of lexical errors, particle substitution errors, classroom instructional language, motivation and learning styles, and language use and maintenance. The findings of these research topics were extracted or summarised from my journal articles. Chapter 3 presents cultural topics such as insa (greeting), family, hanbok, food and folk games, integrating cultural activities and accompanying linguistic elements. This chapter is to help teachers integrate cultural aspects into the process of language teaching by explaining cultural elements and/or conducting cultural activities. Some examples might need a little modifications depending on the nature of course and students but most examples should be adoptable without much alterations. The descriptions of this chapter were summarised, extracted or modified mainly from Ancillary Cultural Materials for
2 Teaching Korean as a Second Language co-authored by Hyun Chang, Seong-Chul Shin and Sang-Oak Lee (1998). Last but not least, the Appendices present some specific or general information on such topics as Korean sound systems, orthography, vocabulary, Korea and its people, and cultural symbols. This section is intended to provide additional information to supplement the main chapters and to give teachers updated information about Korea from broad perspectives. The factual and cultural information should be useful as a general introduction to Korea. Where possible and necessary, teachers are encouraged to update or add details for their own use. This book may be regularly updated online (www.ceklser.org) and readily printable for use in training or teaching contexts. It is hoped that this book offers a handy and useful tool to teachers and trainee teachers of Korean for their teaching and deeper insights into Korean language and how it works in L2 situations.
Seong-Chul Shin, PhD School of Languages and Linguistics University of New South Wales
3 Chapter 1: Features and Structures of the Korean Language This chapter presents a summary of basic features, word structures and grammatical structures of Korean along with examples. It is designed to be utilised by teachers as a quick reference to prepare lessons and as a resource to deepen their understanding and knowledge of Korean linguistic structures. Parts of the discriptions as well as the linguistic terms, classifications and examples in this chapter are based mainly on Ho-Min Sohn (1999) 1 . Some descriptions have been modified to suit the objectives of this reference book.
1. Brief Features of Korean This section summarises the key salient features of the Korean language. 1.1 Genetic affiliation and historical development It has been claimed by many linguists that Korean and Japanese belong to the Altaic language family. The two languages are grammatically quite similar to each other and are widely regarded as each other’s closest sister language although they are not mutually intelligible. The greatest milestone in the history of the Korean language is the invention of the Korean alphabet (Hangeul) by 세종대왕 in the fifteenth century. It made Korean textual materials available, and as a result, the development of Korean has been captured in a systematic manner throughout the past five hundreds years. (ibid, p. 11) 1.2 Dialectal variations The Korean language consists of seven geographically-based dialects including the central dialect (서울 and vicinity) which has been designated as the standard dialect in South Korea. Despite geographical and socio-political dialectal differences, Korean is relatively homogeneous, with excellent mutual intelligibility among speakers from different areas. (ibid, p.12) 1.3 Writing systems The Korean phonetic alphabet (Hangeul 한글) was created by King Sejong 세종대왕 and his assistants (scholars in the Royal Academy) in 1443. Its creation was based on an intensive analysis of the sound patterns of Korean and phonological theories available at that time. Three basic vowel symbols depicted heaven (round dot), earth (horizontal line) and man (vertical line) following cosmological philosophy. 한글 symbols are combined into syllable blocks. In forming a syllable block, a consonant symbol is placed first, then a vowel or diphthong symbol, and then a consonant symbol, if needed, in left-to-right and top-to-bottom order. Korean texts are written either purely in 한글 or by means of a mixed script of 한글 and Chinese characters that are used to represent only Sino-Korean words and morphemes. (ibid, p.13) 1
Ho-Min Sohn (1999), The Korean Language. Cambridge University Press.
4 1) Simple consonant letters: ㄱ, ㄴ, ㄷ, ㄹ, ㅁ, ㅂ, ㅅ, ㅇ, ㅈ, ㅊ, ㅋ, ㅌ, ㅍ, ㅎ. 2) Twin (ssang) consonant letters: ㄲ, ㄸ, ㅃ, ㅆ, ㅆ, ㅉ. 3) Consonant clusters: ㄳ, ㄵ, ㄶ, ㄺ, ㄻ, ㄼ, ㄽ, ㄾ, ㄿ, ㅀ, ㅄ. 4) Vowels and diphthongs: ㅏ, ㅑ, ㅓ, ㅕ, ㅗ, ㅛ, ㅜ, ㅠ, ㅡ, ㅣ, ㅐ, ㅒ, ㅔ, ㅖ, ㅚ, ㅟ, ㅝ, ㅙ, ㅞ, ㅢ. (ibid, pp. 139-140) 5) Basic Vowels and Consonants (24 letters) = Consonants (14) + Vowels (10) C V
Letter Name Letter Name
ㄱ 기역 ㅏ 아
ㄴ 니은 ㅑ 야
ㄷ 디귿 ㅓ 어
ㄹ 리을 ㅕ 여
ㅁ 미음 ㅗ 오
ㅂ 비읍 ㅛ 요
ㅅ 시옷 ㅜ 우
ㅇ 이응 ㅠ 유
ㅈ 지읒 ㅡ 으
ㅊ 치읓 ㅣ 이
ㅋ 키읔
ㅌ 티읕
ㅍ ㅎ 피읖 히읗
6) Twin consonants and diphthongs (16 letters) = Consonants (5) + Vowels (11) C
V
Letter ㄲ Name 쌍기역 Form ㄱ+ㄱ Letter ㅐ Name 애 Form ㅏ+ㅣ
ㄸ 쌍디귿 ㄷ+ㄷ ㅒ 얘 ㅑ+ㅣ
ㅃ ㅆ ㅉ 쌍비읍 쌍시옷 쌍지읒 ㅂ+ㅂ ㅅ+ㅅ ㅈ+ㅈ ㅔ ㅖ ㅘ 에 예 와 ㅓ+ㅣ ㅕ+ㅣ ㅗ+ㅏ+ㅣ
ㅙ ㅚ 왜 외 ㅜ+ㅣ ㅜ+ㅓ
ㅝ ㅞ 워 웨 ㅜ+ㅓ+ㅣ ㅜ+ㅣ+ㅣ
ㅟ ㅢ 위 의 ㅜ+ㅣ ㅡ+ㅣ
7) Syllabic examples of Hangeul letters
1 2 3 4 5
Consonant-Initial
Medial vowel
Consonant-Final
Combination
ㄷ ㅎ ㅁ ㄱ (ㅇ)
ㅐ ㅏ ㅣ ㅜ ㅓ
( ) ㄴ ㄴ ㄱ ( )
대 한 민 국 어
1.4 The sound system Korean has nineteen consonants, ten vowels and two semivowel phonemes. There is a three-way contract (lax-aspirate-tense) in stop consonants, a two-way contrast (lax-tense) in the alveo-dental fricatives, and no contrast (only aspirate) in the glottal fricative, as in lax (plain): ㅂ, ㄷ, ㅈ, ㄱ, ㅅ; aspirate: ㅍ, ㅌ, ㅊ, ㅋ, ㅎ; and tense: ㅃ, ㄸ, ㅉ, ㄲ, ㅆ. The remaining four consonants are ㄹ, ㅁ, ㄴ, ㅇ.
5
Place of articulation articulatory manner stop lax aspirated tensed fricative aspirated tensed nasal liquid lateral or flap
voiceless or voiced voiceless voiceless voiceless voiceless voiced voiced
Consonants Bi-labial Alveodental
Palatal
Velar
ㅂ
ㄷ
ㅈ
ㄱ
ㅍ ㅃ
ㅌ ㄸ ㅅ ㅆ ㄴ ㅣ
ㅊ ㅉ
ㅋ ㄲ
ㅁ
Glottal
ㅎ ㅇ
The Korean vowel system consists of five front vowels (three unround: ㅣ, ㅔ, ㅐ; two round: ㅟ, ㅚ) and five back vowels (three unround: ㅡ, ㅓ, ㅏ; two round: ㅜ, ㅗ).
Place lips tongue high mid low
unround ㅣ ㅔ ㅐ
Vowels front round ㅟ ㅚ
unround ㅡ ㅓ ㅏ
back round ㅜ ㅗ
The Korean phonetic syllable structure is of the form (C) (G) V (C). Thus, for instance, the single-syllable English word strike is borrowed in Korean as a five-syllable load word 스.트.라.이.크, with the insertion of the vowel [ㅡ] to make it conform to the Korean syllable structure. (ibid, p.14) 1.5 Korean vocabulary Korean has borrowed a large number of Chinese words and characters. Such borrowed Chinese words and characters have become integral parts of the Korean vocabularies. All of these Chinese character-based words are called Sino-Korean or Chinese-character words. The Korean vocabulary is composed of three components: native words and affixes (approximately 35%), Sino-Korean words (approximately 60%), and loan words (approximately 5%). (ibid., pp. 12-13) 1.6 Agglutinative morphology Korean is called an ‘agglutinative’ language, in that a long chain of particles or suffixes with constant form and meaning may be attached to nominals (nouns, pronouns, numerals, noun phrases, etc.) or predicate (verb or adjective) stems.
6
여자들만의 골프 ‘the golf (played) by females only’
Example
여자 Head noun ‘female’
Form Meaning/ Function
만 Delimiter particle ‘only’
의 Genitive particle 의
골프 Noun ‘golf’
가시었겠습니다‘(a respectable person) may have gone’
Example Form Meaning/ Function
들 Plural suffix
가 Head VS ‘go’
시 Sub. hon. suff.
었 Past tense suff.
겠 Presump. modal suff.
습 Addressee hon. suff.
니 Indic. mood suff.
다 Decl. suff.
(ibid.p. 15)
1.7 SOV syntax Korean is an SOV language. Thus, in normal speech, the predicate (verb or adjective) comes at the end of a sentence or a clause, but the subject and other major constituents preceding the predicate can be scrambled rather freely for emphatic or figurative purposes, as long as the predicate retains the final position. Also, contextually or situationally understood elements (including subject and object) are left unexpressed more frequently than not. (ibid., p. 15) 1.8 Honorifics Korean is an honorific language in that sentences can hardly be uttered without the speaker’s approximate knowledge of his social relationship with his addressee and referent in terms of age category (adult, adolescent, or child), social status, kinship, in- or out-groupness, and/or the speech act situation. Category Address-reference terms Nouns and verbs
Pronouns Case particles Verbal suffixes Six speech levels
Example 김 교수 [plain] vs. 김 교수님 [hon.] ‘professor Kim’) 밥 [plain] vs. 진지 [hon.] ‘rice, meal’ 자다 [plain] vs. 주무시다 [hon.] ‘sleep’ 있다 [plain] vs. 계시다 [hon.] ‘stay, exist’. 나 [plain] vs. 저 [humble] ‘I’ 가/이 [neutral] vs. 께서 [hon.] (nominative) Zero [plain] vs. –(으)시 [hon.] (subject honorific) Zero [plain] vs. –(스)ㅂ [hon.] (addressee honorific) In declarative sentence, for example, : deferntial level –(스)ㅂ니다
7 polite level –어요/–아요, blunt level –소/–오, familiar level –네, intimate level –어/–아 plain level –다. (ibid., p. 16)
2.
Word Structure of Korean
This section presents a summary of how Korean words are classified, how they are formed and how they inflect for various functions. 2.1 Word classification Categories Noun Verb Adjective Determiner Adverb Particle
Subcategories Proper, counter, defective, verbal, adjectival, common Main/auxiliary, transitive/intransitive Copula, existential, sensory, descriptive Demonstrative, qualifier, quantifier Negative, attributive, modal, conjunctive, discoursal Case, delimiter, conjunctive
2.2 Nouns 1) Proper nouns: names of persons, places, books, institutions, countries, continents, and other objects of unique reference. 2) Numeral counters: a numeral + native, SK, and a few loan words, e.g. Counters Native
마리 채 자루 켤레
SK
Loan
명 권 개 동 장 다스
Meaning animals houses long slender objects pairs of shoes, stockings, gloves people book volumes items buildings flat objects, eg. sheets of paper dozen
Example 개 두 마리 ‘two dogs’ 집 열 채 ‘ten houses’ 연필 두 자루 ‘two pencils’ 양말 세 켤레 ‘three pairs of socks’ 여섯 명, 6 명 (육 명) ‘six people’ 책 아홉 권(9 권) ‘9 books’ 45 개 (사십오 개) ‘ 45 items’ 병원 13 동 (십삼 동) ‘Ward No 13’ 종이 50 장 (오십 장) ’50 sheets of paper’ 연필 열 다스 ’10 dozens of pencils’
8 gram 그램 Note: 사람 ‘person’, 병’bottle’, 갑 ‘case’ are both common nouns and counters.
20 그램 (이십 그램) ’20 grams’ Common: 사람이 많다. ‘There are many people’ Counter: 두 사람 ‘two persons’
3) Defective nouns (bound nouns): Preceded by a demonstrative, a clause, or another noun + a defective noun, e.g. Defective nouns 가/까/지 것 곳 김
나름 나위
Meaning ‘whether, if, assumed fact’ ’fact, thing, event’ ‘place’ ‘chance, occasion’ ‘dependence, style’ ‘necessity’
녘
‘toward’
노릇
‘role, the verge’ ‘during’
동안 데
‘place’
등
‘etc’
듯
‘likelihood’
따름
‘nothing but’
때문
’reason, because of’ ’reason, possibility’ ‘size, extent,
리 만
Example 5 시까지 거기에 도착할지 모르겠다. ‘I do not know whether I will arrive there by 5.’ 비가 올 것 같아요. ‘It seems that it will rain.’ 어느 곳에서 만날까요? ‘Where [which place] shall we meet?’ 시내에 가는 김에 머리도 깍아야지. ‘I should also have hair cut while I am going to city.’ 용호도 그 나름의 생각이 있어요. ‘Yongho has his own idea.’ 더 말할 나위 없어요. ‘It is needless to say (more).’ 새벽녘에 무슨 소리가 났어요. ‘At the peep of dawn a noise was heard.’ 형 노릇 하기도 힘들어요. ‘It is hard to play (the role) as an older brother.’ 방학 동안 한국에 갔다왔어요. ‘I have been to Korea during the school holidays.’ 여행하기에 좋은 데가 어딘가요? ‘Where is a good place to travel?’ 주말에 운동, 쇼핑, 독서 등을 했어요. ‘On the weekend I read, exercised, and did some shopping andso on..’ 비가 올 듯 말 듯하다. ‘It is likely or unlikely to be raining.’ 이 기계는 삶을 편하게 할 따름이다. ‘This machine is nothing but to ease one’s life.’ 차 사고 때문에 학교에 늦었다. ‘I was late for school because of a car accident.’ 수미가 약속을 잊을 리가 없어요. ‘Sumi can’t forget the promise.’ 나는 1 년 만에 호주에 돌아왔다.
9
만큼
말 무렵 바 분 뻔 뿐 성
worth’ 만큼 ‘as much as, much’ ‘the end’ ‘around the time when’ ‘way, method, point’ ‘person’ ’the verge, coming near’ ’alone, only’
수
‘appearance, impression’ ‘thinking, plan’ ‘way, ability’
이
‘person’
적
‘time, experience, occasion’ ‘assumed fact, probability, method’
셈
줄
즈음 쪽 쯤 턱 채
‘occasion, time’ ‘direction’ ‘approximati on’ ‘reason, degree’ ‘intact, as it is’
‘I came back to Australia after one year’s absence.’ 내가 일한 만큼 대우를 받고 싶어요. ‘I want to be treated/paid as I have worked.’ 12 월 말에 한국에 갈 거예요. ‘I am going to Korea at the end of December.’ 해질 무렵에 해변가에 나가 보세요. ‘Around sunset time, go out to the beach.’ 그 책을 읽고 깨달은 바가 있어요. ‘I have learned a lesson after reading the book.’ 이 분이 제 한국어 선생님이세요. ‘This (person) is my Korean language teacher.’ 큰 일 날 뻔 했어요. ‘I was almost in big trouble.’ 제가 아는 사람은 이 사람 뿐입니다. ‘This (person) is the only person I know of.’ 될 성 싶은 일을 해야지요. ‘You should do what it appears to succeed.’ 방학이 되면 여행을 갈 셈이다. ‘I am thinking of travelling in the school holidays.’ 저는 한국말을 할 수 있어요. ‘I can speak Korean.’ 저 이가 바로 그 영화 배우다. ‘That (person) is the very actor.’ 그 가수를 만난 적이 있어요. ‘I have met the singer.’ 저는 존이 한국 사람인줄 몰랐어요. ‘I did not know that John was Korean.’ 용수는 기타를 칠 줄 알아요. ‘Yongsu can play the guitar.’ (lit knows how to play…) 매년 이 즈음에 축제가 열려요. ‘The festival is held at this time of the year. 이 쪽으로 오세요. ‘Please come this way.’ 다섯 시 쯤에 만나자. ‘Let’s meet at about 5.’ 턱 없이 비싸군요. ‘It is (too) expensive without a reason.’ 수미는 입은 다문채로 앉아 있었어요. ‘Sumi was sitting with her mouth closed.’
10 척
존이 공부하는 척하고 있었어요. ‘John was pretending to study.’
‘false show, pretence’
4) Verbal nouns: denote activity. An activity noun + a native verb such as 하다 ‘do’, ‘make’ and 되다 ‘become, get’ > transitive or intransitive verbs, e.g. Type
Native
SK
Loan
Transitive
사랑한다 (love-do) ‘loves’ 셈한다 (countingdo) ‘counts’
Intransitive
씨름한다 (wrestling-do) ‘wrestles’ 지랄한다 (epileptic fit-do) ‘goes crazy’
공부한다 (study-do) ‘studies’ 구경한다 (sightseeing-do) ‘sightsees’ 망한다 (perishingdo) ‘perishes’
브리핑한다 (briefing-do) ‘briefs’ 노트한다 (taking notes-do) ‘takes notes’ 데이트한다 (datingdo) ‘dates’
근무한다 (workingdo) ‘works’
아르바이트한다 (work-do) ‘(student) works part-time
5) Adjectival nouns: indicate stativity. A stativity noun + a native adjective such as 하다 ‘be (in the state of)’ or (이)다 ‘be’ (copula) > stative verbs, e.g. Type
Native
SK
Stative
지루하다 ‘boredombe) ‘is boring’ 딱하다 (pity-be) ‘is pitiful’ 따뜻하다 (warmth-be) ‘is warm’ 가뜩하다 (fullness-be) ‘is full’
행복하다 (happinessbe) ‘is happy’ 필요하다 (necessitybe) ‘is necessary’ 다행이다 (much luckbe) ‘is lucky’ 열심이다 (diligencebe) ‘is diligent’
Loan 젠틀하다 ‘is gentle’ 핸섬하다 ‘is handsome’ 스마트하다 ‘is smart’ 테크니칼하다 ‘is technical’
6) Common nouns: all the other types of nouns. 2.3 Pronouns 1) Personal, reflexive, and reciprocal pronouns Subclass First person Second person
Style/Form Plain Humble Plain Familiar
Singular 나 저 너 자네
Plural 우리 (들) 저희 (들) 너희(들) 자네들
11 자기 자기들 당신 당신들 그대 (obsolete) 그대들 (obsolete) 댁 댁들 Deferential 어르신 어르신들 Thing D-것 D-것들 Child D-애 D-애들 Adult-familiar D-사람 D-사람들 Adult-blunt D-이 D-이들 Adult-polite D-분 D-분들 Plain 저 (-자신) 저 (-자신)들 Neutral 자기 (-자신) 자기 (-자신)들 Deferential 당신 (-자신) 당신 (-자신)들 서로 (들) ‘each other, one another’ 피차 ‘each other, both sides’ 상호 ‘mutual(ity), reciprocal(ity)’ Intimate Blunt
Third person
Reflexive pronouns
Reciprocal pronouns
2) Interrogative-indefinite pronouns Category Interrogativeindefinite Compounds
Example 누구 ‘who, someone’, 아무 ‘anyone’, 무엇 ‘what, something’, 어디 ‘where’, somewhere’, 언제 ‘when, some time’, 얼마 ‘how much, some amount’ 어느 애/사람/분 ‘who, someone’.
3) Demonstrative-pronouns Category Demonstrativepronouns
Example 이후 ‘after this’, 그 이후 ‘since that (time)’, 저 같이 ‘like that’ 여기 ‘here’, 거기 ‘there (near you)’, 저기 ‘over there’.
2.4 Numerals Points of attention Native numerals SK numbers Loan words In counting items: a native or SK numerals + a counter
Example 하나, 둘, 셋 … 열, 스믈, 서른…. 아흔... 1 (일), 2 (이), 3 (삼) …. 100 (백)…. rarely used for numeral over ten 열 명 or 10 명
12 Five native numerals, 하나, 둘, 셋, 넷, 한 명, 두 권, 세 시. and 스: contracted to 한, 두, 세, 네, and 스므, respectively, when followed by a counter In writing: Arabic numerals are 1999 년, 12 시, 50 명. commonly used 2.5 Verbs 1) Main and auxilary verbs Category Transitivity Main verbs Auxiliary verbs
Example transitive 먹다 ‘eat’, 알다 ‘know, 사다 ‘buy’, etc. 버리다 ‘finish up’ (e.g. 먹어 버리다 ‘finish eating’); 주다 ‘do (something) for (someone)’ (e.g. 도와 주다 ‘help someone’), etc.
intransitive 달리다 ‘run’, 놀다 ‘play’, 발전하다 ‘develop’, etc. 나다 ‘come from’ (e.g. 태어나다 ‘be born’); 지다 ‘become’ (e.g. 풀어 지다 ‘get to be untied); 보이다 ‘appear, look’ (e.g. 좋아 보이다 ‘look good’), etc.
2) Verbs by syntactic behaviour Category locomotive processive inchoative cognitive emotive causative passive common
Example 가다 ‘go’, 오다 ‘come’ 나다 ‘happen’, 들다 ‘enter’ 되다 ‘become’, 지다 ‘get, become’ 생각하다 ‘think’, 믿다 ‘believe’, 알다 ‘know’ 좋아하다 ‘like’, 슬퍼하다 ‘feel sad’ 먹이다 ‘feed’, 읽히다 ‘cause to read’ 먹히다 ‘be eaten’, 쫒기다 ‘be chased’ 자다 ‘sleep’, 놀다 ‘play’, etc.
2.6 Adjectives Points of attention/Category Adjective vs verb: (i) Adj.: VS+ Zero non-past +다 (ii) V: VS +는 or ㄴ+다 Copula Existential
Example Adj: 예쁘다 ‘be pretty’, 좋다 ‘be good’. V: 먹는다 ‘eats’, 본다 ‘sees’ 이다 ‘be’, 아니다 ‘not be’ 있다 ‘exist, stay, have’,
13 없다 ‘not exist, not stay, lack’ 슬프다 ‘be sad’, 부럽다 ‘be envious’, 덥다 ‘be hot’ Descriptive 빨갛다 ‘be red’, 젊다 ‘be young’, 건강하다 ‘be healthy’. Note: 있다, 하다, 크다, 감사하다, 계시다, 밝다: both verbs and adjectives. Sensory
2.7 Determiners Category
Example
Definite Demonstratives 이 ‘this’, 그 ‘that’ 저 ‘that over there’ 이 사람 ‘this person’ 그 책 ‘that book’ 저 차 ‘that car over there’ Category Qualifiers: Pre-noun words qualitatively modifying the head noun.
Category Quantifiers: Pre-noun words quantitatively modifying the head noun
Indefinite 어느 ‘which, any, a certain
어느 학교, ‘which school, a certain school’ 어느 때 ‘which day, one certain day’ Example
새 ‘new’: 새 차 ‘new car’ 헌 ‘used’: 헌 옷 ‘used clothes’ 현 ‘current’: 현황 ‘current situation’ 무슨 ‘what/some kind of’: 무슨 차 ‘what/some kind of car’ 다른 ‘another’: 다른 책 ‘another book’ 오른 ‘right-hand side of’: 오른 쪽 ‘right-hand side’ 왼 ‘left-hand side of’: 왼 쪽 ‘left-hand side’ 별별 ‘all kinds of’: 별별 물건 ‘all kinds of objects’ 딴 ‘different’: 딴 생각 ‘different thought’ 웬 ‘what manner/sort of’: 웬 일 ‘what sort of event/reason’ 여느 ‘ordinary’: 여느 때 ‘ordinary time’ 어떤 ‘what/some kind of’: 어떤 학교 ‘what kind of school’ 옛 ‘old’: 옛 이야기 ‘old story’, etc. Example 매 ‘every’: 매일 ‘everyday’ 전 ‘whole’: 전교 ‘the entire school’ 첫 ‘first’: 첫 만남 ‘first-time meeting’ 초 ‘beginning’: 초 여름 ‘early summer’ 각 ‘each’: 각 자 ‘each person’ 모든 ‘all, every’: 모든 학생 ‘every student’ 몇 ‘how many, several’: 몇 개 ‘how many (units)’
14 온 ‘entire’: 온 세계 ‘the whole world’ 약 ‘approximately’: 약 30 분 ‘approx. 30 minutes’ 여러 ‘many’: 여러 곳 ‘many places’ 여남은 ‘some ten odd’: 여남은 사람 ‘some ten people or so’ All numerals that occur before a numeral counter: quantifiers.
2.8 Adverbs 1) Negative adverbs Category Negative adverbs
Example 안 (아니) ‘not’: 안 가요 ‘not going’ 못 ‘not possibly, cannot, unable’: 못 먹어요 ‘cannot eat’
2) Attributive adverbs Category
Example
Time adverbs
아직 ‘still, yet’ 아까 ‘a while ago’ 잠시 ‘for a while’ 차차 ‘by and by’ 즉시 ‘immediately’ 항상 ‘always’ 이미 ‘already’.
이따가 ‘after a while’ 곧 ‘soon’ 방금 ‘just now’ 벌써 ‘already’ 늘 ‘always’ 비로서 ‘for the first time’ 영영 ‘forever’.
Place adverbs
이리 ‘this way’ 그리‘that way’ 저리 ‘that way over there’ 절로‘towards that direction’ 어디 ‘where, somewhere’ 잘 ‘well’ 어서 ‘quickly’ 힘껏 ‘with all one’s might’ 크게 ‘large’ 깊이 ‘deeply’ 그럭 저럭 ‘somehow’ 아주 ‘very’ 점점 ‘gradually’ 지극히 ‘extremely’ 조금 ‘a little’
가까이 ‘near’ 곳곳이 ‘everywhere’ 멀리 ‘far way’ 여기 ‘here’.
Manner adverbs
Degree adverbs
몹시 ‘highly’ 꼭 ‘surely’ 많이 ‘a lot’ 편히 ‘comfortably’ 빨리 ‘fast’ 별로 ‘(not) particularly’. 그리 ‘(not) so much’ 매우 ‘very’ 퍽 ‘very’ 대단히 ‘very’
15 훨씬 ‘by far’ 가장 ‘the most’ 거의 ‘almost’.
더욱 ‘all the more’ 약간 ‘slightly’ 여간 ‘(not) ordinarily’.
3) Modal adverbs - the speaker’s feeling, opinion or attitude Category
Example
Modal adverbs
아마 ‘perhaps’, 정말 ‘indeed’, 제발 ‘please’, 혹시 ‘by any chance’, 과연 ‘truly’, 만일 ‘if’, 물론 ‘of course’.
비록 ‘although’, 부디 ‘by all means’, 사실상 ‘in fact’, 설마 ‘on no account’, 다행히 ‘fortunately’, 도대체 ‘in the world.
4) Conjunctive adverbs Category
Example 즉 ‘that is’ 하물며 ‘much more, much less’ 혹은 ‘or’ 고로 ‘therefore’ 그래서 ‘therefore’ 그러나 ‘but’ 그런데 ‘by the way’
Conjunctive adverbs
그리고 ‘and’ 그렇지만 ‘however’ 오히려 ‘rather’ 더구나 ‘moreover’ 도리어 ‘rather’ 따라서 ‘accordingly’.
5) Discoursal adverbs Category Discoursal adverbs
yes/no response
Example 그럼 ‘certainly’ (intimate) 응 ‘yes’ (intimate)
야 (plain) 이봐 (intimate) 여보게 (familiar) 여보, 여보시오 (blunt) interjection 아이고 ‘oh!’ 아니 ‘good heavens!’ 자 ‘well’ Address – ‘hello’
예/네 ‘yes’ (polite) 아니 (오) ‘no’ (polite) 그래요 ‘that’s right’ (polite). 여보세요 (polite) 여보십시오 (deferential).
저런 ‘oh my!’ 제기랄 ‘damn it’ 어머나 ‘oh my!’.
16 2.9 Particles 1) Case particles Function Nominative Accusative Genitive Dative Goal Locative-static Locative-dynamic Source Ablative Allative (directional) Instrument Capacity Comitative Connective Comparative Equative Vocative
Particles 가/이, 께서 를/을 의 ‘of, ‘s’ 에, 에게, 한테, 께 ‘to’ 에, 에게, 한테, 께 ‘to’; 더러, 보고 ‘(tell, ask) to’ 에, 에게, 한테, 께 ‘on, at, in’ 에서, 에게서, 한테서 ‘on, at, in’ 에서, 에게서, 한테서, 께서 ‘from’ 부터 ‘starting from’ 로/으로 ‘towards’ 로/으로(써) ‘with’ 로/으로 (서) ‘as’ 와/과, 하고, 랑/이랑 ‘with’ 에(다(가)) ‘in addition to’; 며/이며, 하며, 하고, 랑/이랑, 와/과 ‘and’; 나/이나 ‘or’ 보다 ‘than’ 처럼 ‘as, like’; 같이 ‘like’; 만큼 ‘as much as’ 야/아 (plain), ZERO/이 (familiar/intimate), 이(시)어 (hyper-deferential)
2) Delimiters Function Topic-contrast Inclusion Limitation Toleration Concession Inception Bounds Comprehensiveness Addition Exhaustion Dissatisfaction Alternative Contrariness
Particles 는/은 ‘as for’ 도 ‘also, too, indeed’ 만 ‘only, solely’ 야/이야 ‘only if it be, as only for, finally’ 라도/이라도 ‘even, for lack of anything better’ 부터 ‘beginning with’ 까지 ‘as far as, even, up to’ 마다 ‘each, every’ 조차 ‘even, as well’ 마저 ‘so far as, even’ 나마/이나마 ‘in spite of’ 나/이나 ‘rather, or something’ 커녕 ‘far from, on the contrary’
17 밖에 ‘(not) except for, other than’ 다 (가) ‘to’ (only in transitive sentences) 들 (e.g. 어서오세요들 ‘Welcome, you all.’) 요 (e.g. 알고말고요 ‘Of course I know.’) 그려 ‘indeed, I confirm’ (sentence-final)
Exclusiveness Goal focus Plurality Politeness Confirmation
3) Conjunctive particles, e.g. 만(은) ‘but’ and 고 ‘that’(quotative).
2.10 Derivational morphology 1) Noun derivation Below are presented frequently used prefixes and suffixes that derive a noun from another noun and relevant examples of the derived nouns. (1) Native Korean prefixes Prefixes
Meaning
Example
알-
‘naked, tiny, true’
암 (ㅎ)참한홀가랑군맏-
‘female (animal) ‘true, real’ ‘’big, peak’ ‘single’ ‘small, dead’ ‘extra’ ‘first’
맨-
‘bare’
날낱-
‘raw’ ‘each, small’
외풋숫덧
‘only’ ‘premature’ ‘pure, innocent’ ‘added’
알몸 ‘naked body’; 알개미 ‘very small ant’; 알부자 ‘truly rich person’ 암놈 ‘female animal’; 암캐 ‘female dog’; 참기름 ‘true oil; 참말 ‘true remark, truth’ 한길 ‘main street’; 한숨 ‘sigh’ 홀아비 ‘widower’; 홀몸 ‘unmarried person’ 가랑비 ‘drizzle’; 가랑잎 ‘dead leaf’ 군살 ‘superfluous flesh’; 군음식 ‘snack’ 맏아들 ‘the eldest son’; 맏며느리 ‘eldest daughter-in-law’ 맨발 ‘barefoot’; 맨밥 ‘boiled rice served without any side dishes’ 날고기 ‘raw meat’; 날계란 ‘uncooked egg’ 낱개비 ‘each split piece of wood’; 낱돈 ‘odd money, small change’ 외아들 ‘only son’; 외길 ‘single path’ 풋사랑 ‘puppy love’; 풋고추 ‘unripe red pepper’ 숫총각 ‘innocent bachelor’ 숫처녀: ‘pure virgin’ 덧신 ‘overshoes’; 덧문 ‘outer door’
18 (2) Sino-Korean prefixes Prefixes 전전중진가과구경외피생시신다대-
Meaning ‘entire’ ‘former’ ‘heavy’ ‘dark thick’ ‘temporary’ ‘excessive’ ‘old’ ‘light’ mother’s side’ ‘receiving’ ‘living’ ‘husband’s family’ ‘new’ ‘multi-‘ ‘great’
Example 전세계 ‘the whole world’ 전사장 ‘former president/managing director’ 중공업 ‘heavy industry’ 진보라 ‘dark purple’ 가건물 ‘temporary building’ 과소비 ‘excessive spending’ 구시대 ‘old age’ 경공업 ‘light industry’ 외할머니 ‘maternal grandmother’ 피보험 ‘the insured’ 생지옥 ‘living hell’ 시어머니 ‘mother-in-law’ 신여성 ‘modern girl’ 다목적 ‘multi-purpose’ 대가족 ‘big family’
(3) SK negative prefixes Prefixes 비불부무몰미-
Meaning ‘un, anti-, non-‘ ‘non-, in-, un-, ir-‘ ‘non-, in-, un-, ir-‘ ‘no-, -less, ir-‘ ‘non-, -less, no’ ‘not yet, un-, in-‘
Example 비공개 ‘not open to the public’ 불가능 ‘impossibility’ 부동산 ‘immovable property’ 무책임 ‘irresponsibility’ 몰상식 ‘senselessness’ 미완성 ‘incompleteness’
(4) Native Korean suffixes Suffixes -아지 -장 -쟁이 -질 -이 -깔 -꾸러기 -꾼
Meaning (diminutive) (intensifier) ‘practitioner’ ‘activity’ ‘person’ (intensifier) ‘over-indulger’ ‘doer’
Example 강아지 (dog-) ‘puppy’ 끝장 (end-) ‘the very end’ 점쟁이 ‘fortune-teller’ 걸레질 ‘(mop-) ‘mopping’ 절름발이 ‘cripple’ 색깔 ‘colour’ 잠꾸러기 ‘late riser’ 일꾼 ‘labourer’
19 -머리 -내 -네 -보 -씨 -둥이
(vulgarizer) ‘all the way’ ‘group, family’ ‘thing, person’ (derogatory) ‘mode’ ‘person, thing’
주변머리 ‘adaptability’ 일년내 ‘through the whole year’ 미아네 ‘Mia’s family’ 털보 (hair-) ‘hairy person’ 말씨 (speech-) ‘mode of expression’ 잠퉁이 ‘sleepyhead’, 모퉁이 (angle) ‘corner’
(5) Sino-Korean suffixes Suffixes -자 -장 -장 -적 -학 -화 -회 -기 -구 -경 -사 -상 -성 -식 -대 -여
Meaning ‘person’ ‘chief’ ‘place’ ‘-ic’ ‘study’ ‘-ization’ ‘meeting’ ‘machine’ ‘exist, mouth’ ‘around’ ‘person’ ‘in’ ‘nature’ ‘style, method’ ‘age, generation’ ‘excess’
Example 과학자 ‘scientist’ 위원장 ‘committee chair’ 운동장 ‘athletics field’ 비과학적 ‘unscientific(ity)’ 언어학 ‘linguistics’ 비군사화 ‘demilitarization’ 동창회 ‘alumni association’ 비행기 ‘airplane’ 비상구 ‘fire exit’ 14 일경 ‘around the 14th’ 이발사 ‘barber’ 역사상 ‘in history’ 전통성 ‘traditionalism’ 한국식 ‘Korean style’ 80 년대 ‘1980s’ 30 여 ‘over 30’
(6) Nouns from verbs Nominalizer suffixes
Meaning
-이
‘act, thing’
-(ㄱ)ㅐ, 게
‘-er’
-기
‘act, thing’
-보
‘thing, person’
Example 먹이 (먹 eat-) ‘animal food’ 벌이 (벌 earn-) ‘money making job’ 집게 (집 pick up-) tweezers’ 마개 (막 stop-) ‘stopper’ 날개 (날 fly-) ‘wing’ 보기 (보 see-) ‘example’ 빼기 (빼 subtract-) ‘subtraction’ 째보 (째 tear-) ‘hare-lipped person’ 울보 (울 cry-) ‘cry-baby’
20 -(으)ㅁ/-엄
춤 ‘dance’ 주검 (죽 die-) ‘corpse, death’ 얼음 (얼 freeze-) ‘ice’ 이름 (이르 tell -) ‘name’
‘fact, thing’
(7) Nouns from adjectives Nominalizer suffixes
Meaning
-이
‘quality’ (in colour terms) ‘quality’
-기
‘quality’
-둥이 -(으)ㅁ
‘one, guy’ ‘fact, thing’
-앙/-엉
Examples 거멍 (검+엉) ‘black’ 노랑 (놀+앙) ‘yellow’ 추위 (추우 cold-+이) ‘coldness’ 길이 (길 long-+이) ‘length’ 키 (크 big-+이) ‘stature, height’ 크 기 (크 big-) ‘size’ 세기 (세 strong-) ‘strength’ 검둥이 ‘black guy’ 기쁨 ‘happiness’
(8) Nouns from verbal clauses Nominalizer suffixes
Meaning
-이
‘act, thing’
-기
‘act, thing’
Examples 귀걸이 (귀 ear-걸 hang-) ‘earring’ 해돋이 (해 sun- 돋 rise-) ’sunrise’ 밭갈이 (밭 field- 갈 plough-) ‘ploughing’ 가을걷이 (가을 autumn- 걷 collect-) ‘harvest’ 해바라기(해 sun 바라 gaze-) ‘sunflower’ 술래잡기 (술래 hoodman 잡 catch-) ‘tag’
(9) Nouns from sound-symbolic adverbs Sound-symbolic adv +이 개굴 croaking-+이 꿀꿀 grunting-+이 맴 chirping-+이 뚱뚱 fatty-+이
Example 개굴이 ‘frog’ 꿀꿀이 ‘pig, greedy person’ 매미 ‘locust’ 뚱뚱이 ‘fat person’, etc.
21 2) Verb derivation Below are some commonly used verbal prefixes and suffixes. Verbal prefixes modify the meaning of the cooccuring verb roots, thus having adverbial meaning (Sohn H-M, p 224). (1) Common verbal prefixes Prefixes
Meaning
Example
처(쳐)짓엇내늦-
‘reckelessly’ ‘randomly, hard’ ‘crookedly’ ‘outwardly’ ‘late’
처먹다 ‘eat greedily’ 짓밟다 ‘overrun’ 엇가다 ‘go awry’ 내놓다 ‘put out’ 늦되다 ‘ripe/grow late’
비빗-
‘twisted’ ‘aslant’
비웃다 ‘scorn’ 빗나가다 ‘go astray’
설-
‘insufficiently’
덧-
‘additionally’
엿-
‘stealthily’
설익다 ‘be half-cooked or ripe’ 덧걸다 ‘hang (sth) on top’ 엿보다 ‘spy on’
쳐넣다 ‘push in’ 짓이기다 ‘mesh’ 엇걸다 ‘stack’ 내던지다 ‘throw out’ 늦반하다 ‘belatedly fall in love’ 비틀다 ‘contort’ 빗서다 ‘stand a bit sidewise’ 설죽다 ‘be half-alive’ 덧나다 ‘grow extra’ 엿듣다 ‘eavesdrop’
(2) Verbs from verbs Suffixes
Example
Intensifier -치 Causative and passive suffixes 이, -히, -리, -기 Intensifier -조리 Intensifier -까리 Intensifier -뜨리
닫치다 ‘close’ 덮치다 ‘attack’ 보이다 ‘show, be seen’ 맡기다 ‘entrust’ 먹히다 ‘be eaten 감기다 ‘be wound’ 말리다 ‘dissuade’ 읊조리다 ‘recite gently’ 뇌까리다 ‘repeat’ 깨뜨리다 ‘smash’
(3) Verbs from nouns Suffixes -지
Meaning/function ‘get characterized by’
Example 그늘지다 (shade-) ‘get shaded’ 밑지다 (bottom-) ‘suffer from a losss’ 숨지다 (breath-) ‘die’
22 배다 (belly-) ‘conceive’ 빗다 (comb-) ‘comb (hair’ 신다 (shoes-) ‘wear shoes’ 띠다 (belt-) ‘tie a belt’
Zero verbalizer
(4) Verbs from adjectives Suffixes Causative suffixes -이, -히, -추, -(이)우, etc.
Example 높이다 ‘heighten’, 좁히다 ‘make narrow’, 낮추다 ‘lower’
(5) Verbs from adverbs Suffixes
Meaning/function
-지
‘get characterized by’
-이 -거리
‘be doing’ ‘keep doing’
-대
‘do repeatedly’
Example 아롱지다 ‘get mottled’ 얼룩지다 ‘become stained’ 끄덕이다 ‘nod’, 속삭이다 ‘whisper’ 중얼거리다 ‘keep muttering’ 반짝거리다 ‘keep twinking’ 중얼대다 ‘mutter repeatedly’ 삐걱대다 ‘creak repeatedly’
(6) Casuative verbs from intransitive and transitive verbs (with a causative suffix, e.g. -이,-히, -리, -기, -키, -(이)우, -구, -추 and –애). Stem
Example (Stem + Causatuve suffix + 다)
-이 -히 -리 -기 -키 -(이)우
나 ‘come out’; 먹 ‘eat’ 잡 ‘hold’; 넓 ‘be wide’ 놀 ‘play’; 울 ‘cry’ 웃 ‘laugh’ 하 ‘do’ 밀 ‘push’; 자 ‘sleep’ 쓰 ‘put on’: 크 ‘be big’
-추 -구 -애
늦 ‘be late’ 돋 ‘rise’ 없 ‘not exist’
내다 ‘take out’; 먹이다 ‘feed’ 잡히다 ‘give as security’; 넓히다 ‘widen’ 놀리다 ‘have ~ play’; 울리다 ‘cause ~ cry’ 웃기다 ‘make ~ laugh’ 시키다 ‘cause ~ to do’ 미루다 ‘postpone’; 재우다 ‘make ~ sleep’ 씌우다 ‘make ~ put on’; 키우다 ‘enlarge, raise’ 늦추다 ‘delay, loosen’ 돋구다 ‘raise’ 없애다 ‘eliminate’
Suffixes
23 (7) Passive verbs from transitive verbs (with a passive suffix –이, -히, -기 and –리). Suffixes -이 -히 -기 -리
Stem 묶 ‘bind’; 쌓 ‘pile’ 걷 ‘lift’; 밟 ‘step on’ 쫒 ‘chase’; 뜯 ‘tear out’ 밀‘push’; 듣 ‘hear’
Example (Stem + Passive suffix + 다) 묶이다 ‘be bound’; 쌓이다 ‘be piled’ 걷히다 ‘be lifted’; 밟히다 ‘be stepped on’ 쫒기다 ‘be chased’; 뜯기다 ‘be torn out’ 밀리다 ‘be pushed’; 들리다 ‘be heard’
3) Adjective derivation Adjectives are derived mostly from other adjectives, nouns and verbs, by attaching suffixes. (1) Adjectives from adjectives (by suffixation) Suffixes -앟/-엏 -직(찍)하 -갑/-겁 -다랗 -(으)죽죽하/ -(으)족족하 -(으)스름하/ -(으)스레하
Meaning
Examples (Adjective + Suffix +다)
‘give the impression’ 까맣다/꺼멓다 ‘be black’, (in colour or shape) 노랗다/누렇다 ‘be yellow’ ‘rather, sort of’ 묵직하다 ‘be rather heavy’, 널찍하다 ‘be rather wide’ ‘give the feeling of’ 달갑다 ‘be a bit satisfying (sweet-)’, 무겁다 ‘be heavy’ ‘rather, sort of’ 길다랗다 ‘be rather long’ 높다랗다 ‘be rather high’ ‘-ish, slightly’ 붉으죽죽하다 ‘be reddish’ 깜으족족하다 ‘be blackish’ ‘-ish, slightly’ 가느스름하다 ‘be rather thin’ 붉으스레하다 ‘be reddish’
(2) Adjectives from nouns Suffixes
Meaning
-지
‘be characterised by’
-겹
‘be full’
-롭
‘be characterised by’
-맞
‘give the impression of’
Examples (Noun + Suffix +다) 언덕지다 ‘be hilly’ 기름지다 ‘be fertile’ 눈물겹다 ‘be touching’ 힘겹다 ‘be strenuous’ 자유롭다 ‘be free’ 향기롭다 ‘be fragrant’ 익살맞다 ‘be humourous’
24
-답
‘be suggestive of, seeming’ ‘be like, worthy of’
-엽 (업)
‘be in the state of’
-스럽
방정맞다 ‘be rash’ 사랑스럽다 ‘be adorable’ 수다스럽다 ‘be talkative’ 정답다 ‘be affectionate’ 사내답다 ‘be manly’ 귀엽다 ‘be cute’ 노엽다 ‘be offended’
(3) Adjectives from verbs Suffixes
Meaning
Examples (Noun + Suffix +다)
-ㅂ/읍/업
‘able, in the state of’
-부
‘in the state of’
그립다 ‘be missing’ (그리-) 놀랍다 ‘be surprising’ (놀라-) 우습다 ‘be funny’ (웃-) 아프다 ‘be sick’ (앓-) 미쁘다 ‘be trustworthy’ (믿-) 고달프다 ‘be tired’ (고닳-)
(4) Adjectives from adjectives (by prefixation) Prefixes 엇-
Meaning
올-
‘obligquely, about’ ‘early, all’
새/시-
‘deep, vivid’
드얄-
‘very’ ‘peevishly’
Examples (Prefix + Adjective +다) 엇비슷하다 ‘be similar’, 엇구수하다 ‘be rather tasty’ 올차다 ‘be substantial, sturdy’, 올곧다 ‘be upright’ 새까맣다 ‘be deep black’, 새노랗다 ‘be vivid yellow’ 드높다 ‘be very high’, 드세다 ‘be very strong’ 얄밉다 ‘be mean and nasty’, 얄굳다 ‘be perverse’
4) Adverb derivation Adverbs are derieved mostly from other adverbs, nouns, verbs, adjectives or determiners by means of suffixies. (1) Adverbs from adverbs Suffixes Adverbializer -이/히 Intensifier -장
Examples (Adverb + Suffix) 일찍이 ‘earlier’; 가득히 ‘fully’ 곧장 ‘straightaway’
25 좋게끔 ‘to be good’ 마침내 ‘at last’
Intensifier –끔 (after the adverbializer –게) -내 ‘finally’ (2) Adverbs from nouns Suffixes Adverbializer -여/혀 (after a monosyllabic adjectival noun root) Adverbializer –이 (after a reduplicated noun) -껏 ’to the utmost’ -내 ‘all the way’
Examples (noun + Suffix) 전혀 ‘totally, utterly’ (SK 전- totality) 행여 ‘by chance’ (SK 행- luck) 나날이 ‘day by day’ (날 – days) 낱낱이 ‘one by one’ (낱- unit) 힘껏 ‘with all one’s might’ 마음껏 ‘withall devotion’ 여름내 ‘all summer’ 마침내 ‘finally’
(3) Adverbs from native or SK adjectival nouns Suffixes Adverbializer -이/-히
Example (Adjectival noun + Suffix) 확실히 ‘surely’ 속히 ‘quickly’ 깨끗이 ‘cleanly’
(4) Adverbs from adjectives Suffixes Adverbializer -이/-리
Adverbializer -게
Example (Adjectival noun + Suffix) 같이 ‘like, together’ (같- same) 새로이 ‘newly’ 멀리 ‘far away’ 재미있게 ‘with fun’ 하얗게 ‘white’ 급하게 ‘hurriedly’
(5) Adverbs from determiners Suffixes
Meaning/Function
-리
‘direction’
-만
‘only’
-토록
‘extent’
Examples (Adjectival noun + Suffix) 이리 ‘this way’ 저리 ‘that way over there’ 그만 ‘to that extent only, that much’ 이만 ‘to this extent only, this much’ 이토록 ‘to this extent’
26 그토록 ‘to that extent’ 5) Determiner variation With the relativizer suffix –ㄴ/은 some verbs and adjectives are fossilized into determiners. Verbs/Adjectives 옳다 외이갖다
Meaning ‘be correct’ ‘outside-be-‘ ‘be well furnished, have all sorts’ ‘gather’ ‘what-be-‘ ‘why-be-‘
모두다 무엇이왜이-
Example (Verb or Adjective + Suffix) 오른’right-hand side’ 왼 ‘left’ (<외+이+ ㄴ) 갖은 ‘all kinds of’ 모든 ‘all’ 무슨 ‘what kind of’ (<무엇이+ㄴ) 웬 ‘what kind of’ (<왜+이+ㄴ)
2.11 Inflectional morphology 1) Morphlogical structure The sequential morphological structure of non-terminal suffixes and enders may be summarised as follows. Optional non-terminal elements occur strictly in the order given, following the verb stem (Sohn H-M, p 233). (Predicate stem) + Inflectional suffixes
Non-terminal suffixes
Subject honorific
Enders
Tense/aspect Modal
e.g. (피곤하) + 시 + 었 + 겠 ‘(a respectable person) must have been tired’
a. Sentence Enders b. Embedded-clause enders i. Nominal enders ii. Complement enders iii. Conjuctive enders iv. Relative enders +
습니다.
27 2) Non-terminal suffixes The forms of non-terminal inflectional suffixes are as follows. Category Subject honorific Tense/aspect
Function past/present perfect past past/past perfect intention or conjecture prospective
Modal
Suffixes -(으)시 -았/었 -았었/었었 -겠 -(으)ㄹ
3) Sentence enders (1) Categories: Sentence (main clause) enders consist of three suffix categories addressee honorific, mood and sentence (S)-type. The following diagram summarises the elements of sentence enders. (ibid, p 234) Sentence enders
Addressee honorific
Mood
a. Indicative b. Retrospective c. Requestive (d. Suppositive)
S-Type
a. Declarative b. Interrogative c. Propositive d. Imperative
(2) Sentence enders by speech levels and four major sentence types Speech levels
Declarative
Interrogative
Imperative
Propositive
Plain Intimate Familiar Blunt Polite Deferential Neutral
-(ㄴ)다 -어/아 -네 -(ㅅ)오 -어요/아요 -(스)ㅂ니다 -(ㄴ)다
-니?/ -느냐? -어/아? -나/는가? -(ㅅ)오? -어요/아요? -(스)ㅂ니까? -(느)냐?
-어라/아라 -어/아 -게 -(으)오 -어요/아요 -(으)십시오 -(으)라
-자 -어/아 -세 -(으)ㅂ시다 -어요/아요 -(으)십시다 -자
28 (3) Mood in sentence enders a) Indicative mood suffix: an act or state as an objective fact; b) Retrpsoective mood suffix: an act or state as the speaker’s past observation or experience; c) Requestive mood suffix: the speaker’s request or proposition; d) Suppositive mood suffix: the speaker’s supposition or make a casual suggestion, or to seek agreement (like an English tag question). Mood suffix Mood Indicative Retrospective Requestive Suppositive suffix suffix suffix suffix suffix S-type Decl. Interr. Decl. Interr. Prop. Imp. All 4 Plain -ㄴ/-는 -느, -니 -더 -더, -디 (-거) Intimate -지 Familar -네 -느 -데 -더 -거 Blunt -시 Polite -데 -더 -지 Defer. -니 -니 -디 -디 -시 -시 Decl: Declarative; Interr: Interrogative; Prop: Propositive; Imp: Imperative. Sentence enders with mood suffix Mood suff. Indicative
Retrospective
S-type/style Plain
Declarative -ㄴ다, 는다
Interrogative -느냐, -니
Declarative 더라
Interrogative -더냐, -디
Intimate Familiar Blunt Polite Deferential
-아/어 -네 -소 아/어요 -ㅂ/습니다
-아/어 -는가 -소 -아/어요 -ㅂ/습니까
데 -데요 -ㅂ/습디다
-던가 -던가요 -ㅂ/습디까
Mood suff.
Requestive
Suppositive
S-type/style
Propositive
Imperative
Dec/Interr/Prop/Imp.
Plain Intimate Familiar Blunt Polite Deferential
-세 -ㅂ/읍시다 -(으)십시다
-거라 -게 -(으)십시오
-지 -지요 -
29 (2) Other minor sentence enders Sentene enders
Function
Example
-군(요) -네(요) -지(요) -(으)ㄹ래(요) -(으)ㄹ라 -어라/아라 -(으)ㅁ세, -(으)마, (으)ㄹ게(요).
apperceptive apperceptive suppositive intentive admonitive exclamatory Promissive/ assurance
크군(요) 좋네(요) 먹지(요) 볼래(요) 다칠라 아름다워라 돌려줌세, 돌려주마, 돌려줄게(요).
4) Embedded-clause enders (1) Types of embedded clauses Four embedded clauses types: norminal, complement, conjunctive, and relative clauses take clause ender suffixes, i.e. nominalizers, complementizers, conjunctors and relativizers (or adnominalizers), respectively. (ibid, p 238). Embedded clause types Nominal enders Nominalizers
Complement enders
Suffix
Example
-ㅁ/음‘(do/be) ing’ -기(before a nonnegative predicate) -지 (before a negative predicate) ‘to …’ -고 (before the desiderative adjective ‘want’ – 싶-)
감 ‘going’, 갔음 ‘having gone’ 가기 시작한다 ‘begins to go’ 가지 못한다 ‘is unable to go’
Complementizers ‘infinitive suffix –어/아 adverbializer –게 ‘so that’ adverbializer –도록 ‘so that, to the point where’
죽어 간다 ‘is in the process of dying’ 가게 했다 ‘caused (someone) to go’ 가도록 했다 ‘arranged (someone) to go’
가고 싶었다 ‘wanted to go’
30 Conjunctive enders Relative enders
Conjunctors
(See below).
Relativizers
(See below).
(2) Conjunctive enders Some conjunctors allow the past / perfect suffix –았/었 and co-occure with the modal suffix –겠 while others don’t. Conjunctors
Meaning/function
-지만 -아서/어서 -거든 -게 -고 -고(서) -느라 (고) -느라면 -는데 -다가 -어다가 -더라도 -어도 -도록
‘but, although’ ‘and then, so’ ‘provided that, if’ ‘(in a way) so that’ ‘and (also)’ ‘and then, after (doing)’ ‘as a result of...’ ‘while doing, what with doing’ ‘given that, and, but’ ‘and then, while’ ‘and then (shift of location), ‘even though’ ‘although, but’ ‘so that, to the point where, until’ ‘whether, or’ ‘in order to, for the purpose of ‘ ‘intending’ ‘if, when’ ‘while …at the same time’ ‘while .. yet’ ‘but, though’ ‘since, as, so’ ‘when, as, because’
-든지 --(으)러 -(으)려고 -(으)면 -(으)면서 -(으)면서 -(으)나 -(으)니 -(으)니까
+ the past / perfect suffix –았/었? yes no yes no yes no no no yes yes no yes yes no
+ modal suffix – 겠? yes no yes no yes no no yes yes yes no no no no
yes no no yes no yes yes yes yes
no no no yes no yes yes yes yes
31 (3) Relative enders Tense/aspect or mood Non-past Past Prospective Past prospective Retrospective Past retrospective
Relativizers -(으)ㄴ/는 -ㄴ/은 - (으)ㄹ -었을/았을 -던 -었던/았던
Verb Example (‘eat, go’) 먹는, 가는 먹은, 간 먹을, 갈 먹었을, 갔을 먹던, 가던 먹었던, 갔던
Adjective Example (‘good, big’) 좋은, 큰 좋을, 클 좋았을, 컸을 좋던, 크던 좋았던, 컸던
5) Irregular predicates There are seven types of predicates that change their final sound before an inflectional suffix that begin with a certain sound. (ibid, p 241) Type ㄷ-irregular ㄹ-irregular
르-irregular ㅂ-irregular ㅅ-irregular 으-irregular ㅎ-irregular
Change Stem-final ㄷ becomes ㄹ before a vowel. Stem-final ㄹ is deleted before ㄴ, ㅂ, ㅅ and ㅇ. Final 르 becomes ㄹㄹ before a suffix beginning with 어, 아 Final ㅂ sound becomes 우 before a vowel. Final ㅅ is deleted before a vowel. Final 으 is deleted before another vowel. Final ㅎ is deleted before a nasal consonant and a vowel
Example 걷는다 – 걸었다; 묻는다 – 물었다 밀었다 – 민다; 알았다 – 압니다; 놀았다 – 노신다 나른다 – 날라요; 모른다 – 몰라요 춥다 – 추워라; 맵다 – 매워서 젓는다 – 저어라; 짓는다 – 지으니 크다 – 커서; 쓴다 – 써라 빨갛다 – 빨간; 노랗다 – 노란
2.12 Compounding 1) Compound nouns Compounding is the most common process of creating new words, and compound nouns are the most numerous and varied among the types of comounds.
32 (1) Native compounds Type 1: N+N
Example
Original Meaning
Compounded Meaning
Subcompounding
참기름 철새 이슬비 콧물 물개 눈물 보름달
‘seasame oil’ ‘migratory bird’ ‘drizzle’ ‘nasal mucus’ ‘seal’ ‘tears’ ‘full moon’
Co-compounding
안밖 앞뒤 논밭 오누이 밤낮 손발 위아래
(true-oil) (season-bird) (dew-rain) (nose-water) (water-dog) (eye-water) (half a lunar monthmoon) (inside-outside) (front-rear) (rice field-dry field) (brother-sister) (night-day) (hand-foot) (up-down)
‘inside and outside’ ‘front and rear’ ‘farm’ ‘brother and sister’ ‘day and night’ ‘hand and foot’ ‘upper and lower’
Type 2: Adv+
Example
Original Meaning
Compounded Meaning
Adverb + Noun
얼룩소 곱슬머리 오목눈 뻐꾹새 부엉새 산들바람 똑딱단추 잘못 이만저만
(mottles-cow) (curly-hair) (concave-eye) (cuckooing-bird) (hoot-bird) (gentle-wind) (snapping-button) (well-unable) (this much-that much)
‘brindled cow’ ‘curly hair’ ‘sunken-in eye’ ‘cuckoo’ ‘owl’ ‘gentle breeze’ ‘snap button’ ‘mistake’ ‘no small quantities’
Adverb + Adverb
Type 3: N+Pred+Nom
Noun + Predicate + Nominaliser
Example
Original Meaning
Compounded Meaning
젖먹이 목걸이 밥벌이 본보기 소매치 기 술래잡 기 낮잠
(milk-eat-er) (neck-hang-thing) (meal-earn-Nom) (example-see-Nom) (sleeve-hit-Nom)
‘baby’ ‘necklace’ ‘job’ ‘model’ ‘pickpocket’
(tagger-catch-Nom)
‘hide and seek’
(day-sleep-Nom)
‘nap’
33 눈웃음 새우잠 Type 4: NomPred+Nom
(eye-laugh-Nom) (lobster-sleep-Nom)
‘smile’ ‘sleeping curled up’
Example
Original Meaning
비빔밥
(mix-Nom-rice)
걸림돌 갈림길
(be caught-Nom-stone) (be divided-Nom-road)
Type 5: Pred+N
Example
Original Meaning
Compounded Meaning
Predicate (V) + Noun
꺽쇠 누비옷 접칼 고드름 (곧+어름) 늦잠 늦벼
(break-iron) (quilt-clothes) (fold-knife) (straight-ice)
‘clamp’ ‘quilted clothes’ ‘pocketknife’ ‘icicle’
(late-sleeping) (late-unhusked rice)
‘late rising’ ‘late-ripening rice’
Nominalised predicate + Noun
Predicate (Adj) + Noun
Type 6: Det+N
Determiner + Noun
Example
Original Meaning
Compounded Meaning
저승 이승 그전 어느덧 왼손 새달
(that-world) (this-world) (that-front) (some-short space of time) (left-hand) (new-month)
‘the world of the dead’ ‘this world’ ‘former days’ ‘before one know’ ‘left hand’ ‘next month’
Example
Original Meaning
Compounded Meaning
찬물 못난이 밀창 데릴사위
(cold water) (badly-shaped-person) (pushing window) (invited son-in-law)
‘cold water’ ‘stupid person’ ‘sliding door’ ‘son-in-law living with one’
Example
Original Meaning
Compounded Meaning
미닫이 높낮이 보살핌
(push-close-thing) (high-low-ness) (see-look about-Nom)
‘sliding door’ ‘relative height’ ‘looking after’
Type 7: Rel+N Relative clause + Noun
Type 8: Pred+Pred+Nom Predicate + Predicate +
Compounded Meaning ‘cooked rice mixed with vegetables’ ‘obstacle’ ‘forked road’
34 Nominalizer
돋보기 두루말이
(raise-see-thing) (surround-roll-Nom)
‘long-distance glasses’ ‘rolled stationary’
(2) Sino-Korean compounds About sixty percent of all Korean vocabulary items are SK, so there are numerous SK compounds consisting of two or more roots. Most SK words are nouns, while only a small number are adverbs. Type (1): Semantic fusion Metaphorical association
Type (2): Subcompounding N+N
V+N Adj+N V+Ad or Ad+V
Type (3): Co-compounding Opposite meaning
Example
Original Meaning
Compounded Meaning
내외 타계 산수 삼천리 강산
(inside-outside) (other-world) (mountain-water) (three-thousand-mile river-mountain)
‘husband and wife’ ‘death’ ‘scenery’ ‘Korea’
Example
Original Meaning
Compounded Meaning
춘몽 책상 물가 학교 입구 다행 잡지 특필 대서 확대 감소
(spring-dream) (book-table) (thing-price) (study-house) (enter-mouth) (much-luck) (miscellaneous-paper) (specially-write) (instead-write) (expand-large) (deduct-small)
‘spring dreams’ ‘desk’ ‘price’ ‘school’ ‘entrance’ ‘good luck’ ‘magazine’ ‘writing specially’ ‘writing for a person’ ‘enlargement’ ‘reduction’
Example
Original Meaning
Compounded Meaning
천지 좌우 주야 남매 부모 생사 남녀노소
(heaven-earth) (left-right) (day-night) (brother-sister) (father-mother) (life-die) (male-female-oldyoung)
‘unverse’ ‘right and left’ ‘day and night’ ‘brothers and sisters’ ‘parents’ ‘life and death’ ‘people of all ages’
35 동서남북 Similar meaning
Meaningless in the 2nd syllable
Type (4): Argument-Pred Subject-predicate
Object-predicate
Oblique-predicate
Adjunt-predicate
우주 법률 행복 목욕 부패 부가 의자 모자 상자
(east-west-southnorth) (house-house) (law-regulation) (luck-luck) (bathe-bathe) (rot-fail) (attach-add) (chair-son) (hat-son) (box-son)
‘four directions’
Example
Original Meaning
Compounded Meaning
일몰 두통 유명 위법 결석 박수 재호 출전 체험 완행 축소 선점
(sun-set) (head-ache) (exist-name) (violate-law) (vacate-seat) (clap-hand) (stay in Australia) (come out-war) (body-experience) (slow-go) (reduce-small) (ahead-occupy)
‘sunset’ ‘headache’ ‘being famous’ ‘violation of law’ ‘absence’ ‘hand clapping’ ‘residence in Australia’ ‘going to the war’ ‘personal/real experience’ ‘going slow’ ‘reduction’ ‘prior occupation’
‘universe’ ‘laws and regulations’ ‘happiness’ ‘bath’ ‘rotting, spoiling’ ‘imposition’ ‘chair’ ‘hat’ ‘box’
(3) Loan-word based compounds Example
Original Meaning
Compounded Meaning
아이스티 오픈게임 백미러 볼펜 샐러리맨 비닐가방
(ice-tea) (open-game) (back-mirror) (ball-pen) (salary-man) (vinyl-Jpn bag)
‘iced tea’ ‘match before the main event’ ‘rearview mirror’ ‘ball-point-pen’ ‘salaried man’ ‘vinyl bag’
36 (4) Hybrid compounds Type: SK + Native (NT)
Example
Origianal Meaning
한국말
(Korea-langauge)
동쪽 약밥
(east-side) (medicine-rice)
NT N + SK N
밥상 발병 물만두
(rice-table) (foot-illness) (water-dumpling)
Loan/SK/NT N compounding
암달라
(dark-dollar)
지프차 장티프스 계란후라이 초여름 매달 옛친구 걸상 붙장 된장 들창 밀창 책꽂이 구두닦이
(jeep-vechicle) (intestines-typhus) (egg-fry) (first-summer) (every-month) (old-friend) (hang-table) (attach-chest) (thick-soy) (raise-window) (push-window) (book-insert-thing) (shoe-polishperson) (husband’s homeliving)
SK N + NT N
NT/SK Det + SK/NT N NT V + SK N NT Rel + SK N
SK N + NT V + Nom
시집살이
Compounded Meaning ‘the Korean language’ ‘eastern direction’ ‘flavoured glutinous rice’ ‘dining table’ ‘foot trouble’ ‘water-boiled dumpling’ ‘black market dollars’ ‘jeep’ ‘intestine-typhus’ ‘fried egg’ ‘early summer’ ‘every month’ ‘old friend’ ‘chair’ ‘built-in cupboard’ ‘soybean paste’ ‘push-up window’ ‘sliding window’ ‘bookshelf’ Shoeshine boy’ ‘living with one’s husband’s family’
2) Compound pronouns Type
Example
Third-person pronouns
이/그/저것
Functional/original meaning
(D ‘this/that/that over there’ - thing) (D-child) 이/그/저애 이/그/저사람 (D-adult person) familar (D-adult person) blunt 이/그/저이 (D-adult person) polite 이/그/저분
Compounded Meaning ‘D thing’ ‘D child’ ‘D person’ ‘D person’ ‘D person’
37 SK secondperson, reflexive, reciprocal pronouns
당신 자기 자신 상호 피차
(self-body) (self-body) (self-body) (mutually-mutually) (that-this)
Native-SK pronoun Native pronouns
그녀
(that-woman)
이제 저기
(this-time) (that-place)
어디
(which-place)
‘you, himself (hon.)’ ‘self, oneself’ ‘one’s self’ ‘each other’ ‘both, each other’ ‘she’ ‘now’ ‘that place over there’ ‘where’
4) Compound numerals (1) 1 to 10: Native or SK numerals (2) Multiples of 10 (20 to 90): Native numerals (3) 100, 100, 10,000, 100 million, and 1 trillion: SK numerals Example
Native
SK
11
열하나 (10-1) 쉰다섯 (50-5)
십일 (10-1) 오십오 (5-10-5) 삼백육십일 (3-100-6-10-1) 삼천만 (3-1000-10,000)
55 361 30 million
SK-native
오십다섯 (5-10-5) 삼백예순하나 (3-100-60-1)
(4) Approximate numerals Type Native
SK
Example 한둘 두세 (셋) 서너 (넷) 네다섯 대여섯 일이 이삼 삼사 사오
Arabic numerals/Meaning ‘1 or 2’ ‘2 or 3’ ‘3 or 4’ ‘4 or 5’ ‘5 or 6’ ‘1 or 2’ ‘2 or 3’ ‘3 or 4’ ‘4 or 5’
38 5) Compound verbs (1) Native cmppounds Type 1
Example
Original Meaning
Compounded meaning
N+ Intrans.
겁나다 길들다 금가다 살찌다 신나다 숨지다
(fear-come out) (road-enter) (line-go) (flesh-grow-fat) (excitement-occur) (breath-fall)
‘be scared’ ‘get used to’ ‘crack, split’ ‘gain weight’ ‘get excited’ ‘breathe one’s last breath’
Type 2
Example
Original Meaning
Compounded meaning
N+Trans.
마음먹다 밥하다 사랑하다 속태우다 손보다 힘입다
(mind-eat) (rice-do) (love-do) (inside-burn) (hand-see) (power-wear)
‘intend, plan’ ‘cook rice’ ‘love’ ‘worry onself’ ‘fix’ ‘owe, be indebted to’
Type 3: V+Complem. +V Infinitive –어/-아
Transferentive -어다/-아다
Conjunctive –고
Type 3 Juxtaposition
Example
Original Meaning
Compounded meaning
봐주다
(see-give)
빌어먹다 알아듣다 없어지다 해 (<하여)내다 내려다보다 바라다보다 들여다보다 쳐다보다 물고늘어지다 파고들다 짜고들다
(beg-eat) (know-hear) (not exist-become) (do-let out) (lower-see) (gaze-see) (put in-see) (raise-see) (bite-hang) (dig-enter) (organise-enter)
‘give a favour to, look after’ ‘live as a beggar’ ‘understand’ ‘disappear’ ‘finish up’ ‘look down’ ‘gaze at’ ‘look in’ ‘look up’ ‘hang on tenaciously’ ‘look into’ ‘plot’
Example 굶주리다 꿰매다 드나늘다
Original Meaning (starve-hungry) (pierce-bind) (enter-go out-enter)
Compounded meaning ‘go hungry’ ‘sew’ ‘frequent’
39
Type 4 Adv.+V
뛰놀다 매달다 보살피다 오르내리다
(jump-play) (tie-suspend) (see-look about) (ascend-descend)
Example
Original Meaning
가로막다 그만두다 더하다 바로잡다 소곤소곤하다 잘하다
(across-block) (that much-put down) (more-do) (correctly-hold) (in whispers-do) (well-do)
‘skip about’ ‘bind up, hang’ ‘look after’ ‘go up and down’ Compounded meaning ‘obstruct, interrupt’ ‘stop doing’ ‘add’ ‘straighten up’ ‘whisper’ ‘do habitually’
(2) SK-native and loan-native compounds Type 1: SK-Native V. Intransitive
Transitive
Type 2: Loan- Native V.
Example
Original Meaning
간타다 기막히다
(liver-burn) (vitality-blocked)
망하다 공부하다 벌주다 혼나다
(ruin-do) (studying-do) (punishment-give) (soul-take out)
Example
Original Meaning
데모하다
(demonstration-do)
리드하다 카피되다
(lead-do) (copy-become)
Compounded meaning ‘be anxious’ ‘suffocate, feel choked’ ‘go to ruin’ ‘study’ ‘punish’ ‘give a good scolding’ Compounded meaning ‘demonstrate (against)’ ‘lead’ ‘get copied’
40 6) Compound adjectives (1) Native compounds Type 1: N+Adj. Free N+ Adj
Bound N+Adj.
Type 2
Example 값싸다 눈멀다 배부르다 배다르다 허물없다 건방지다 넉넉하다 듬뿍이다 따뜻하다 착하다
(price-cheap) (eye-far) (belly-bulgy) (belly-different) (fault-lack) (conceit-exist) (sufficiency-be) (full-be) (warmth-be) (niceness-be)
Example
Adj/Adv+Adj.
검푸르다 굳세다 끈끈하다 못하다 미끌미끌하다
Type 3
Example
Adj+Emphasizer –디+Adj. (-디: ‘and, very’)
Original Meaning
Compounded meaning ‘be cheap’ ‘be blind’ ‘be full, satisfied’ ‘be of a different mother’ ‘be on friendly terms’ ‘be overbearing’ ‘be enough’ ‘be full’ ‘be warm’ ‘be nice, virtuous’
Original Meaning (black-blue) (solid-strong) (sticky-be) (bad-be) (slippery)
쓰디쓰다 젊디젊다 착하디착하다
Compounded meaning ‘be blue-black’ ‘be firm and strong’ ‘be sticky’ ‘be inferior’ ‘be slippery’
Original Meaning
Compounded meaning
(bitter and bitter) (young and young) (gentle and gentle)
‘be very bitter’ ‘be very young’ ‘be very gentle and good’
(2) SK-native and loan-native compounds The majority of the SK-native type is SK adjectival nouns + the native verb 하다 ‘be (in the state of)’. Also, the loan-native type consists of a loan noun + a native adjective (mostly 하다). Type SK-native
Example 행복하다 과학적이다 선하다
Original Meaning (happiness-be) (scientific-be) (good-be)
Compounded Meaning ‘be happy’ ‘be scientific’ ‘be good’
41 다행이다 모던하다 스마트하다 터프하다 테크니칼하다
Loan-native
(good luck-be) (modern-be) (smart-be) (tough-be) (technical-be)
‘be lucky’ ‘be modern’ ‘be smart’ ‘be tough’ ‘be technical’
7) Compound determiners Type
Example
Original Meaning
어떤 그런 무슨 몇몇 모든 온갖 별별 크나큰 머나먼 기나긴
(which-kind-be-RL) (that-kind-be-RL) (what-be-RL) (a few-a few) (collect-RL) (entire-kinds) (specialty-specialty) (big-and-big) (far-and-far) (long-and-long)
Example
Original Meaning
NAT demonstratives NAT qualifiers / quantifiers
SK determiners Emphasizer affix -나 ‘and, very, extremely’
Compounded Meaning ‘what / some kind of’ ‘that kind of’ ‘what kind of’ ‘several’ ‘all’ ‘all kinds of’ ‘various kinds of’ ‘very big’ ‘very far’ ‘very long’
8) Compound adverbs (1) Native compounds Type 1 N+N
Type 2 Reduplicated N + Adverbializer suffix (AD)
오늘날 밤낮 여기저기 차례차례 Example 간간이 나날이 다달이
(today-day) (night-day) (here-there) (order-order) Original Meaning
Compounded Meaning ‘nowadays’ ‘day and night’ ‘here and there’ ‘one by one’ Compounded Meaning
(space-space-AD) ‘at times’ (day-day-AD) ‘day by day’ (month-month-AD) ‘every month’
42 Type 3
Example 이러 저럭
Compound predicate (mostly Adj) + AD
이러나 저러나 이렇게 그러나 그리고 틀림없이
Original Meaning (this-way-AD thatway-AD) (this-way-whether that-way-whether) (this-way-AD) (that-way-but) (that-way-and) (mistake-lack-AD)
Compounded Meaning ‘somehow or other’ ‘at any rate’ ‘in this way’ ‘but’ ‘and’ ‘surely’
Type 4
Example
Original Meaning
Compounded Meaning
Determiner + bound N
그냥 그대로 이리 한층 온통 요즘
(that-idea) (that-as) (this-way) (one-floor) (all-state) (this-time)
‘as it is’ ‘like that’ ‘this way’ ‘all the more’ ‘entirely, totally’ ‘nowadays, these days’
Type 5
Example
Original Meaning
Compounded Meaning
Reduplicated onomatopoeic or other adverbial forms
가득가득 꼭꼭 골고루 오래오래 너무너무 드문드문
(fully x 2) (without fail x 2) (evenly x 2) (long x 2) (extremely x 2) (rare x 2)
‘fully’ ‘for sure’ ‘evenly’ ‘for a long time’ ‘very, extremely’ ‘occasionally’
Type 6
Example
Original Meaning
Adv+Adv
잘못 좀더 이리 저리 곧잘 곧바로
(well-unable) (a little-more) (this-way that-way) (straightaway-well) (straightaway-directly)
Type 7 Other sporadic combinations
Example 줄곧 그토록 (그러 하도록) 여보
Original Meaning
Compounded Meaning ‘in a long way’ ‘a little more’ ‘here and there’ ‘readily’ ‘at once’ Compounded Meaning
(line-straightaway) (that-way do-until)
‘all the time’ ‘to such an extent’
(here-look)
‘hello, say’
43 Type 8
Example
Original form
아사삭 주루룩 대구루루 둥둥실
Partial reduplication (CV or CVC)
Compounded Meaning
아삭 주룩 대굴 둥실
‘cruching, crisping’ ‘pouring hard’ ‘rolling’ ‘floating gently’
(2) SK compounds Type
Example
Original Meaning
Compounded Meaning
SK adverbs
점점 차차 즉각 만일 다소 단지
(gradually-) (order-) (immediate-time) (ten thousands-one) (much-less) (only-only)
‘gradually’ ‘by and by’ ‘immedidately, at once’ ‘by any chance, if’ ‘more or less’ ‘merely, however’
9) Compound particles Type
Example
Original Meaning
Comp. Meaning
Nominal element (N) + case, delimiter and/or conjunctive particles
+에서 N N+에서까지도 N+하고만의 N+만이 N+으로만은 N+으로부터만의
(at-from) (at-from-even-also) (with-only-of) (only-NM) (with-only-as for) (direction-from-only-of)
‘from, at N’ ‘even at N’ ‘only with N’ ‘only N (subject)’ ‘only with N’ ‘only from N’
2.13 Abbreviation The majority of abbreviations are observed in SK compounds, especially in non-human proper nouns. The preferred pattern is to reduce a four-syllable form to a two-syllable one, taking the first and third syllables. Type 1 4 syllables
Full form 한국은행 노동조합 영국미국 연세대학
Abbreviation 한은 노조 영미 연대
Meaning ‘Bank of Korea’ ‘labour union’ ‘England and America’ ‘Yonsei University’
44 Type 2 4+ syllables
Full form 자동판매기 노동자 사용자 대학입학시험 변호사협회
Type 3
Abbreviation 자판기 노사 대입(시) 변협
Full form 전자계산 일본식 비밀판매 대한민국
Irregularities (semantic or other reasons)
Type 4
Full form
SK abbreviations
신문지 창작품 인조견사 인생칠십고래희
Type 5 Loan words
Full form 아파트먼트 에어콘디셔너 헬리콥터 킬로그램 코카콜라
Abbreviation 전산 일식 밀매 한국 Abbreviation 신문 창작 인조 고희 Abbreviation
아파트 에어콘 헬기 킬로 콜라 오버 볼포인트 펜 볼펜 데몬스트레이션 데모 수퍼마켓 수퍼 티셔츠 티
Meaning ‘vendining machine’ ‘labour and management’ ‘college entrance exam’ ‘the Bar Association’ Meaning ‘electronic calculation’ ‘Japanese style (dish)’ ‘illicit sale’ ‘Republic of Korea’ Meaning ‘newspaper’ ‘creative work’ ‘artificial silk’ ’70 years of age’ Meaning ‘apartment’ ‘air-conditioner’ ‘helicopter (SK 기 ‘plane’) ‘kilometre’ ‘Coca-Cola’ ‘overly sensitive’ ‘ball-point pen’ ‘demonstration’ ‘supermarket’ ‘T-shirts’
2.14 Grammaticalization Many new words and expressions have developed from other words or larger constructions through a long period of evolution. New sentence enders among these grammticalization phenomena are particularly relevant to teaching contexts. Below are examples of new sentence enders that have been created by contracting various complex constructions (Type 1). Other enders have been developed from conjunctive, nominal, or other constructions by way of main clause deletion (Type 2).
45 Type 1
Contextual meaning
Original form
-(으)ㄹ래 -(으)ㄹ라 -잖아 -을게 -을 것 같다 -나보다
‘I intend to’ ‘I warn you that …’ ‘you see!’ ‘I assure you that ….’ ‘it seems that …’ ‘it appears that…’
-(으)려고 해 ‘intends to do’ -(으)리라 ‘will/may’ -지 아니 해 ‘Isn’t it the case that…?’ -을 것 이어 ‘it will be the case that…’ -을 것과 같다 ‘is the same as’ ‘-나 본다 ‘see whether…’
Type 2 -을걸 -다니까 -다면서
3.
Contextual meaning ‘I wish/suppose that …’ ‘I told you that …’ ‘I heard that …’
Original form -을 것을 ‘(PRS fact/thing AC) -다고 하니까 (DC QT say-because) -다고 하면서 (DC QT say-while)
Grammatical Structure of Korean
This section presents a summary of the syntactic and semantic characteristics of contemporary standard Korean. 3.1 Sentence types 1) Declarative, interrogative, propositive, and imperative A simpe sentence or the main clause of a complex sentence belongs to one of four basic sentence types: declarative (making a statement), interrogative (asking a question), propositive (making a proposal), and imperative (making a command) (ibid, p 269). Type 1 Declarative
Type 2 Interrogative
Speech level plain intimate familiar blunt polite deferential neutral Speech level plain intimate familiar
Example: ‘It is raining.’ 비가 온다. 비가 와. 비가 오네. 비가오오. 비가 와요. 비가 옵니다. 비가 온다. Example: ‘Is its raining?’ 비가 오니? / 오(느)냐? 비가 와? 비가 오나? /오는가?
46 blunt polite deferential neutral Type 3 Propositive
Type 4 Propositive
Speech level plain intimate familiar blunt polite deferential neutral Speech level plain intimate familiar blunt polite deferential neutral
비가오오? 비가 와요? 비가 옵니까? 비가 오(느)냐? Example: ‘Let’s come here again’ 여기 또 오자. 여기 또 와. 여기 또 오세. 여기 또 옵시다. 여기 또 와요. 여기 또 오십시다. 여기 또 오자. Example: ‘Come here again’ 여기 또 와라. 여기 또 와. 여기 또 오게. 여기 또 오오. 여기 또 와요. 여기 또 오십시오. 여기 또 오라.
2) Verb sentences There are several types of intransitive and transitive verb sentences in Korean. The simplest form of verb sentences is an intransitive type consisting of a subject and a verb (optionally + modifier(s) or adjuncts). The most productive form of transitive verb sentences consists of a subject and an object in the nominative and accusative cases, respectively. Type: Intransitive (1) S in the nominative case and V (+modifiers/adjuncts)
Example 아빠가 작년에 일본에 배로 갔어요. ‘My dad went to Japan by boat last year.’ 인호는 감기때문에 집에서 쉬어요. ‘Inho is resting at home due to a cold.’
47 (2) Two nominative cases: S and C (complement) both in the nominative case, with 되다 ‘become’, 들다 ‘suffer from’ (lit. ‘enter’), 나다 ‘appear’, etc.
샘이 한국에서 영어 교사가 되었어요. ‘Sam became an English language teacher in Korea.’
엄마가 감기가 들었어요. ‘Mom caught a cold.’ (3) V denoting recioprocity and 남미가 언니와 싸웠어요. a nominal with 과/와/하고 ‘Nami fought with her older sister.’ ‘and, with’. 수미와 그 남자가 키스했어요. ‘Sumi and the man kissed.’ or ‘The man kissed Sumi.’ (4) Passive sentences: a 도둑이 경찰에게 잡혔다. ‘patient’ subject in the ‘The thief was caught by a policeman’ nominative case and an ‘agent’ nominal in the locative case 미아는 도둑한테 지갑을 빼앗겼다. +에게/한테 ‘by’. ‘Mia was robbed of her wallet by a thief’ (5) Nominative 저 그림이 마음에 들어요. +dative/locative with 들다 ‘That picture appeals to my taste.’ ‘enter, appeal’, 나다 ‘appear, happen, occur’, 내 친구가 병에 걸렸어요. ‘My friend has fallen ill.’ 걸리다 ‘hang, be caught, suffer from’, 정들다 ‘become 부모님께 감사해요. fond of’, 인사하다 ‘greet’, ‘I thank my parents.’ 감사하다 ‘thank’, 매달다 ‘cling to’, 의지하다 ‘depend on’,etc.
Type: transitive (1) S in the nominative case and O in the accusative case (2) Receiving verbs 받다 ‘receive’, 당하다 ‘undergo’, etc. with 에게(서) /한테(서) ‘by, from’ (3) Passive verbs with 에게 / 한테 ‘by’ (4) Ditransitive verbs, eg.주다 / 드리다 ‘give’, 가르치다
Example 형이 극장에서 내 친구를 만났어요. ‘My older brother met my friend at the theatre.’ 나는 저 상점 주인에게서 창피를 당했어요. ‘I was humiliated by the shop owner over there.’
나미는 남학생한테 발을 밢혔어요. ‘Nami got her foot stepped on by a male student.’ 엄마는 저에게 용돈을 주셨어요. ‘My mom gave pocket money to me.’
48 ‘teach’, 지시하다 ‘direct’, 제시하다 ‘show’; Ditransitive causative verbs 보이다 ‘show’, 입히다 ‘dress (someone), 먹히다 ‘feed (someone). (5) Double accusative cases
인호는 수미한테 한글을 가르쳤어요. ‘Inho taught Hangeul to Sumi.’ 나미는 인호에게 자기 사진을 보였다. ‘Nami showed a picture of herself to Inho.’
형이 개를 꼬리를 잡았어요. ‘My older brother caught the dog by its tail.’ 제 남동생은 의학을 공부를 해요. ‘My younger brother studies medicine.’
3) Adjective sentences Adjective sentences may be grouped into two: objective adjectives (the copula, descriptive adjectives and locational adjectives) and sensory adjectives (subjective or psycho-emotive adjectives). Type 1: Copula sentences
Example
1) The copula 이다 ‘be’
저 애는 천재이다. ‘That child is a genius.’ 2) The negative copula 하지만 나는 천재가 아니다. 아니다 ‘be not’ (<안 ‘But I am not a genius.’ ‘not’+이다) marked with the case 가 in negative sentences 3) The copula with a 제 여동생은 열심이에요. nominal complement, e.g. ‘My younger sister is deligent.’ 열심+이다, ‘be diligent’, 걱정+이다 ‘be worrisome’ 저는 시험이 걱정이에요. ‘As for me, the test worries me.’ 4) 하다 (or ㅎ다) ‘be in the 저희 할머니는 건강하세요. state of ‘ behaving like a ‘My grandma is also healthy.’ copula 날씨가 좋지(가) 않아요. ‘The weather is not good.’ 비가 올 듯 하다. ‘It seems that it will rain.’
49 Type 2: Descriptive adjectives (the largest subclass) 아름답다 ‘be beautiful’, 젊다 ‘be young’, 똑똑하다 ‘be clever, smart’ 현명하다 ‘be wise’, 차다 ‘be cold’, 행복하다 ‘be happy’, etc.
Example 저 집이 아주 아름다워요. ‘The house over there is very beautiful.’ 제 남동생은 아주 똑똑해요. ‘My younger brother is very smart.’ 물이 너무 차요. ‘The water is too cold’
Type 3: Locational adjectives
Example
Existence, location and possession adjectives marked by the particles 에게 /한테/께 ‘at, to (an animate)’ or 에 ‘at, to (an inanimate)’: eg. 있다 ‘be, stay, have’, 계시다 ‘be, stay (hon), 없다 ‘be not, not stay, do not have’, 많다 ‘be much, many, have a lot’, 적다 ‘be little, few, do not have a lot’.
나에게 좋은 생각이 있어요. ‘I have a good idea.’ (lit. ‘There is a good idea with me.’)
Necessity adjectives eg. 필요하다 ‘be necessary, need’
미아에게/미아가 돈이 필요해요. ‘Mia needs money.’
Type 4:Seonsory adjectives Transitive sensory: eg. 부럽다 ‘be envious, envy’, 밉다 ‘be hateful, hate’, 싫다 ‘be disagreeable, dislike’ Intransitive sensory: eg. 심심하다 ‘be bored’, 감사하다 ‘be thankful’
Both intransitive and transitive: eg. 무섭다 ‘be scared, fear’, 슬프다 ‘be sad, feel sad’, 고맙다 ‘be thankful, thank’. Both sensory (human subject) and
민수한테 책이 많아요. ‘Minsu has many books.’ (lit. ‘There are many books with Minsu.’)
Example 나는 네가 부럽다. ‘I envy you.’ (Subject: only the first person in declaratives) 저는 조금 심심해요. ‘I am a little bored.’ (여러분께) 감사합니다. ‘Thank you (all). / I am thankful (to you all).’ 나는 무서워요. ‘I am scared.’ 나는 저 개가 무서워요. ‘I fear that dog.’ 날씨가 추워요. (descriptive: non-
50 descriptive (non-human subject): eg. 춥다 ‘be cold’, 좋다 ‘be good, like’, 재미있다 ‘be interesting’, 예쁘다 ‘be pretty’ , 무섭다 ‘be scary’, 외롭다 ‘be lonely’
Special transitive sensory: – 싶다 ‘be desirable, wish’, only with the nominalizer siffix -고
human) ‘The weather is cold.’ 나는 추워요. (sensory: human) ‘I am cold.’ 이 그림이 좋아요. (descriptive) ‘This picture is good.’ 나는 이 그림이 좋아요. (sensory) ‘I like this picture.’ 나는 방학에 한국에 가고 싶어요. ‘I wish to go to Korea during holidays.’
4) Topic-stacking sentences In Korean simple sentences there are a wide variety of sentences where multiplesubject (or multi-nominative) and multiple-object (or multi-accusative) appear. Type (1) Sentential topic or subject (ST or SS)
(2) Anaphoric (3) Possessive (4) Class-member (5) Static location (6) Stage-setting (7) Quantification (8) Possession and static location
Example 미아가 눈이 하나가 커요. ‘Mia has one big eye.’ (미아 – ST or SS of the following sentence; 눈 – ST or SS of the remaining sentence) 미아는 자기가 갔어요. ‘(As for) Mia, (she) herself went.’ 호주가 경치가 좋아요. ‘Australia has nice scenery.’ 꽃은 장미가 제일 아름다워요. ‘(As for) flowers, roses are most beautiful.’ 시드니가 한국인들이 많아요. ‘Sydney has many Koreans.’ 날씨가 비가 오겠어요. ‘The weather, it may rain.’ 인호는 몸이 무게가 120 킬로가 나가요. ‘Inho weighes 120 kg.’ 우리 집이 지붕이 위가 구멍이 났어요. ‘The top of the roof of our house has a hole.’
51 5) Subjectless sentences In Korean the subject referring to the speaker in declarative sentences and to the hearer in interrogative sentences are frequently omitted (but imaginable), although real subjectless sentences are rare. Type 1: Speaker and Hearer ‘You’ in interrogative sentences ‘I’ in declarative sentences
Type 2: Expressive speech acts Apology
Thanking Greeting Congratulation
보다 ‘seem’ 하다 ‘appear’
어디 가세요? ‘Where are (you) going?’ 병원에 좀 가요. ‘(I) am going to the hospital.’ Example
실례합니다. ‘Excuse (me). 미안합니다. ‘(I) am sorry.’ 죄송합니다. ‘(I) am very sorry.’ 고맙습니다. ‘Thank (you).’ 감사합니다. ‘(I) appreciate (it).’ 안녕하세요? ‘How are (you)?’ 축하합니다 ‘Congratulations!’
Type 3: Lacking a corresponding subject 같다 ‘be same’, 이다 ‘be’,
Example
Example [선생님이 오신] 것 같다 ‘It seems that the teacher has come.’ [제 친구가 한국으로 돌아갈] 거예요. ‘My friend will return to Korea.’ [엄마가 기쁘신]가 봐요. ‘My mom appears to be happy.’ [김 선생님이 피곤하신] 듯 해요. It appears that Teacher Kim is tired.’
6) Word order Korean is an SOV language but due to the well-developed case-marking system, word order among the major constituents in a sentence is relatively free as long as the predicate-final constraint is maintained. However, among noun phrases that carry various cases, there seems to be a preferred or neutral word order as shown below. (ibid, p 293).
52 Order of cases Time 에 Place 에/에서 Subject 가/이, 께서 Comitative 과/와, 하고 Instrument (으)로 Source; Ablative 에서, 에게서, 한테서, (로)부터 Goal/dative; directional 에, 에게, 한테, 께; (으)로 Object; complement 을/를, 이/가
Example 오늘 밤에 시드니 오페라 하우스에서 유명한 지휘자가 시드니오케스트라단과 여러가지 악기로 모짜르트 작품 중에서 청중들에게 아름다운 음악을
3.2 Embedded clauses In complex sentences containing two or more predicates embedded clauses appear. There are five basic types of embedded clauses in Korean: a. conjunctive clause; b. relative clause; c. complement clause; d. nominalised clause and e. quotative clause. 1) Conjunctive constructions In conjunctive constructions, a sentence may contain two or more clauses that are conjoned either co-ordinately or subordinately.
(1) Coordination Type 1: Simultaneity / sequentiality -거니와 ‘not only … but also, as well as’ -고 ‘and, and also, as well’ -고(서) ‘and, and then’ -(으)며 ‘and, and on the other hand’ -(으)면서‘while’
Example 나는 돈도 없거니와 시간도 없어서 … ‘I don’t have time as as well as money so…’ 나는 호주에 살고 용수는 한국에 살아요. ‘I live in Australia and Yongsu lives in South Korea.’ 우리는 밥을 먹고(서) 인삼차를 마셨습니다. ‘We had meals and then drank insam tea.’ 한국 가수가 춤추며 노래해요. The Korean singer is dancing and singing.’ 우리는 밥을 먹으면서 이야기를 했습니다. ‘We talked while eating.’
53 Type 2: Contrastiveness -지만 ‘but, yet, nevertheless’ -거나 ‘or, or else, what(when-, how, etc.) ever’ -느니 ‘rather, instead of doing’ -(이)든(지) ‘or, or else, what- (how-, etc.) ever’ -(으)나 ‘but, however’
Example 날씨는 흐리지만 비는 내리지 않아요. ‘It is cloudy but it is not raining.’ 오늘은 춥거나 바람이 불거예요. ‘It will probably be cold or windy today.’ 수미를 기다리느니 내가 가겠다. ‘I would (rather) go, instead of waiting for Sumi’. 밥이든 국수든 아무거나 주세요. ‘Please give anything whether it is rice or noodle.’ 값은 좀 비싸나 질은 좋아요. ‘The price is a little expensive but it’s a good quality.’
(2) Subordination Type 1: Cause-effect
Example
-어(서)/아(서) ‘so, and then, as, so …that’ -느라고 ‘while doing, as a result of’ -(으)ㅁ으로/므로 ‘because, due to’ -(으)니 ‘since, as, after’
오늘 머리가 아파서 학교에 못 갔어요. ‘I had a headache so I couldn’t go to school today.’ 어젯 밤에 숙제를 하느라고 늦게 잤어요. ‘I went to bed late last night because of my homework.’ 그 돈은 내 것이 아니므로 경찰에 신고했어요. ‘Because the money is mine, I reported it to police.’ 12 시 되니 배가 고파요. ‘As it is 12 o’clock, I feel hungry.’ 버스가 복잡하니까 택시를 타자. ‘Since it is crowded in the bus, let’s take a taxi.’
-(으)니까 ‘as, since, because, when’ Type 2: Conditional -어야/아야 ‘only if’ -건대 ‘when, if’ -거든 ‘if, when, provided that’ -다가는 ‘if keep doing or being’ -(으)면(은) ‘if, when’
Example 날씨가 좋아야 소풍을 갈 수 있어요. ‘Only if the weather is fine, we can go on a picnic.’ 내가 미리 말하건대, 그 제안은 승낙할 수 없다. “If I may say in advance, I can’t approve the proposal.’ 할 말이 있거든 해 보세요. ‘If you have anything to say, please do so.; 그 물을 먹다가는 배탈이 날 거야. If you keep drinking the water, you will suffer from stomach trouble.’ 돈이 있으면 여행을 갈 거예요. ‘If I have money, I will travel.’
54 Type 3: Concessive
Example
-자 ‘even if’ (only with past tense) -어도/아도 ‘even though, although’ -건만 ‘even though, while’ -더라도 ‘even though, granted that’ -되 ‘although, even though, yet’ -(으)ㄹ지언정 ‘even if’ -(으)지라도 ‘even though, regardless of’ -(으)ㄹ망정 ‘even though’ -(으)나마 ‘even if’
운전을 배워 보았자, 차도 없는데 쓸 데 없죠. ‘Even if I learn driving, it’s useless as I don’t have a car.’ 내 일 비가 와도 우리는 바닷가에 갈 거예요. ‘Even if it rains tomorrow, we are going to the beach.’ 시험 날이 다가오건만 집중이 안 돼요. ‘Although the test date is near, I can’t concentrate.’ 일이 어렵더라도 포기하지는 마세요. ‘Even though it is difficult to do the work, don’t give up.’ 외출은 하되 저녁 8 시까지는 돌아와야 된다. ‘Although you may go out, you should return by 8pm.’ 죽을지언정 수술은 안 받겠어요. ‘Even if I die, I will not have an operation.’ 날씨가 좋지 않을지라도 난 떠날거야. ‘Even though the weather is not good, I will leave.’ 빚을 지을망정 굶지는 말아요. ‘Even though you may fall into debt, don’t go hungry.’ 맛은 좋지 않으나마 좀 들어 보세요. ‘Even if it may not be tasty, please have some.’ 값이 비싼들 얼마나 비싸겠어요? Even if it may be expensive, how expensive will it be?’
-(으)ㄴ들 ‘even if, granted that’ Type 4: Intentive
Example
-(으)러 ‘to, in order to, intending to’ -(으)려(고) ‘to, in order to, with the intention to’ -고자 ‘wanting to, intending to’ Type 5: Resultative -게(끔) ‘so that’ -도록 ‘so that, to that extent that’
책을 찾으러 도서관에 가요. ‘I am going to library to find a book.’ 한국말을 배우려고 자주 한국 비디오를 봐요. ‘I often watch Korean videos to learn Korean.’ 수미는 좋은 점수를 받고자 최선을 다해요. ‘Sumi does her best to receive good marks.’ Example 알아들을 수 있게끔 천천히 말씀해 주세요. ‘Please speak slowly for me so that I can understand.’ 사고가 나지 않도록 조심하세요. ‘Please be careful, so that no accident occurs.’ 용수는 그 여자를 죽도록 사랑했어요. ‘Yongsu loved her to death.’
Type 6: Background -다시피‘as, in a way
Example 선생님도 아시다시피 저는 한국에 관심이 많습니다.
55 such that it is possible’ -듯(이) ‘like, as, as if’ -(으)을수록 ‘the more … the more’
‘As you know, I have lots of interest in Korea.’ 그는 밥 먹듯이 거짓말을 해요. ‘He lies as he eats.’ 날씨가 더울수록 바닷가에 사람들이 많아요. ‘The warmer it is, the more people come to the beach.’ Example
Type 7: Temporal sequence
인천에 도착하자마자 전화하겠습니다. ‘I will call you as soon as I arrive in Incheon.’ 미수는 5 시가 지나서도 나타나지 않았다. ‘Misu didn’t turn up even after 5.’ 그 알약을 먹고서 병이 나았어요. ‘I got well after I took the tablet.’ 학교에 가다가 용수를 만났어요. ‘On my way to school, I met Yonsu.’
-자 (마자) ‘as soon as’ -어/아서도 ‘even after’ -고(서) ‘after, and then’ -다(가) ‘while doing, do and then’
2) Relative clause constructions A relative or adnominal clause is a clause modifying a head nominal by using the relativizer suffix –(으)ㄴ. Predicate Verb 보다 ‘see’ Adj. 크다 ‘be big’
Indicative
Retrospective
Prospective
non-past past
-는 -(으)ㄴ
보는 본
-던 -았/었던
보던 보았던
-(으)ㄹ -았/었을
볼 보았을
non-past past
-(으)ㄴ -
큰 -
-던 -았/었던
크던 컸던
-(으)ㄹ -았/었을
클 컸을
Four subtypes of relative clauses: (1) relative clauses proper; (2) fact-S type clauses; (3) headless relative clauses; and (4) coreferent-opaque clauses (constructions with a head noun denoting one of the five senses). Type
Example
Relative clauses proper
내가 만난 여자 ‘the woman whom I met’ 네가 간 극장 ‘the theatre you went to’ 젊어지는 샘물 ‘the well-water by which one becomes young’
Fact-S type clauses: eg, 사실 ‘the fact (that)’,
내가 여자를 만난 사실 ‘the fact that I met a woman’
56 소식 ‘the news (that)’, 증거 ‘the evidence (that)’, and defective nouns, eg. 것 ‘fact, thing’, 듯 ‘as if’, 줄 ‘how to, assumed fact’ Headless relative clauses: 것 ‘thing, fact, assumed fact’
Coreferent-opaque clauses: the five senses
선생님이 오시겠다고 하신 약속 ‘the promise that my teacher would come’ 수지는 피아노 칠 줄을 알아요. ‘Suji knows how to play the piano’ 나는 진수가 가는 것을 보았어. ‘I saw Jinsu going.’ 선생님이 사무실에서 나오시는 것을 보았니? ‘Did you see the teacher when he came out of his office?’ 나는 갑자기 고기 굽는 냄새를 맡았다. ‘I suddenly smelled the smell of (somebody) broiling meat.’ 나는 갑자기 아기 우는 소리를 들었다. ‘I suddenly heard the sound of a baby crying.’
3) Complement clause constructions A complement clause modifies or complements the verb or adjective of the matrix clause in which it is embedded. There is a set of suffixes (complementizers) that relate a complement clause to the main predicate (auxiliary verbs), as shown below. Complementizer (1) -어/아 ‘to, in the state of being’ 지다 ‘get to be, become’ 주다 ‘do for’ 하다 ‘show signs of being’ 있다 ‘be in the state of’ 가다 ‘continue to’ 내다 ‘do all the way thoroughly’ 놓다 ‘do for later’
Example (V or Adj.) + Complemntizer -어/아 + Aux. 그 소식을 듣고 슬퍼졌어요. ‘Hearing the news, I was saddened.’ 저는 여동생의 숙제를 도와 주었어요. ‘I helped my younger sister out with her homework.’ 수미는 개를 무서워 해요. ‘Sumi is scared of a dog.’ 벽에 여러 그림이 걸려 있어요. ‘A number of paintings are hung on the wall.’ ‘인호는 학교에 걸어 가요. ‘Inho walks to school.’ 경찰이 그 물건을 찾아 냈어요. ‘The police found that item’. 한국에 여행할 계획을 세워 놓았어요. ‘I made a plan to travel to Korea.’
57 오다 ‘continue to’ 버리다 ‘finish up, end up with, do completely’ 보이다 ‘appear, seem’ 보다 ‘try, experience’ 빠지다 ‘be extremely…’ 대다 ‘(do) a lot’ 두다 ‘get it done’
Complementizer (2) -어야/아야, ‘only if, only to the extent that’ 하다 ‘have to, must’ 되다 ‘have to, get to be’
Complementizer (3) -거니 ‘with confidence that, with assurance that’ 하다 ‘think, assume’ 생각하다 ‘think, assume’ Complementizer (4) -게 (끔) ‘(emphatic) ‘so that’ 하다 ‘cause, arrange, make’ 만들다 ‘cause, make’ 되다 ‘turn out, get to be, it is arranged (so that)’
저는 한국어를 2 년동안 공부해왔어요. ‘I have been studying Korean for 2 years.’ 남동생이 과자를 다 먹어 버렸어요. ‘My younger brother finished up all the cookies.’ 김선생님은 젊어 보여요. ‘Teacher Kim looks young.’ 그 사람의 말을 들어 봅시다. ‘Let’s (givr it a try and) listen to the person.’ 용호는 게을러 빠져서 믿을 수 없어요. ‘Yongho is very lazy so I can’t trust him.’ 저 아이가 계속해서 울어 대요. ‘That child over there keeps on crying.’ 이 책은 제 책상 위에 놓아 두세요. ‘Please keep this book on my desk.’ Example (V or Adj.) + Complemntizer -어야/아야 + Aux. 이 숙제를 내일까지 내야 합니다. ‘I should hand in this homework by tomorrow.’ 한국에 가려면 비자를 받아야 돼요. ‘If you want to go to Korea, you should get a visa.’ Example (V or Adj.) + Complemntizer -거니 + Aux. 인호는 자신이 제일이거니 해요. ‘Inho assumes that he himself is the best.’ 친구가 도와 주겠거니 생각했어요. ‘I thought that my friend would help me.’ Example (V or Adj.) + Complemntizer -게(끔) + Aux. 선생님은 용수가 사무실에서 기다리게 했어요. ‘The teacher made Yongsu wait in his office.’ 인호는 수미가 파티에 오게 만들었어요. ‘Inho made Sumi come to the party.’ 우리 형은 그 회사에서 일하게 되었어요. ‘My older brother managed to work for the company.’
58 Complementizers (5) Example -고 , ‘with, and, in the state of (V or Adj.) + Complemntizer -고 + Aux. doing’ 있다 ‘be ~ing’ 제 친구가 지금 기다리고 있어요. ‘My friend is waiting now.’ 말다 ‘end up doing’ 너무 슬퍼서 울고 말았어요. ‘So sad, I simply cried.’ 나다 ‘just finish doing’ 점심을 먹고 나니까 졸려요. ‘As I have had lunch, I feel sleepy.’ 보다 ‘do and then realise’ 우선 먹고 보자. ‘Let’s eat first (and see).’ 싶다 ‘want, wish, desire’ 한국 노래를 잘 부르고 싶어요. ‘I want to sing Korean songs.’ 다니다 ‘go around ~ing’ 그 사람은 항상 청바지를 입고 다녀요. ‘He goes around always wearing blue jeans.’ Complementizers (6) -고 ㄴ(는) ‘habitually’ -고자 ‘wanting to, ready to, willing to’ -다시피 ‘in a way that tends to do, nearly’ -도록 ‘so that, to the extent that’ -(으)려(고) ‘intending to, ready to’ -(으)려니 ‘assuming that’
-(으)ㅁ직 ‘likely to, worth doing’
-(으)면 ‘if’
Aux. 하다 ‘habitually do’ 하다 ‘intend, wish’ 하다 ‘almost do, behave’ 하다 ‘cause, arrange, make’ 하다 ‘intend to’
Example 나는 일요일엔 축구를 하곤 해요. ‘I occasionally play soccer on Sundays.’ 누구나 시험 결과를 알고자 해요. ‘Everyone wants to know the result of the exam.’ 어제는 하루종일 자다시피 했어요. ‘I slept almost all day yesterday.’
유리가 깨지지 않도록 조심하세요. ‘Please be careful not to break the glass.’ 저는 이번 방학에 한국에 가려고 해요. ‘I am going to go to Korea during this vacation.’ 하다 ‘assume’ 그가 오려니 하고 기다렸어요. ‘I waited assuming he would come.’ 생각하다 나는 그가 정치가려니 생각했어요. ‘assume’ ‘I assumed that he was a politican.’ 하다 ‘be likely 열무 김치가 먹음직하네요. to, worth doing’ ‘The radish Kimchi looks delicious.’ 스럽다 ‘be 용수는 믿음직스러워요. likely to, worth ‘Yonsu is reliable.’ doing’ 하다 ‘wish, ‘빨리 성인이 되었으면 해요. desire, hope’ ‘I wish I could become an adult quickly.’ 싶다 ‘wish, 학교를 일찍 졸업했으면 싶어요.
59 desire’
‘I wish to graduate from the school early.’
4) Nominalised constructions A nominalised clause functions syntactically as a nominal, by using nominalizer suffixes. Nominalised suffix
Example
-기 ‘the act of, the fact that' (non-factivity) -고 (obligatorily before 싶다 ‘being wishful') -지 (before 않 ‘not’, 못 ‘cannot’) or 말다 ‘stop, don’t do'
나는 그 사람 다시 만나기(가) 무섭다. 그 남자를 또 만나고 싶어요. 나미는 울지 않았어요. / 울지 못했어요. 울지 말아요.
5) Quotative constructions Type 1 Direct quotation -라고/하고 Type 2: Indirect quotation Declarative
Example 미아가 ‘빨리 와’ 라고 소리쳤다.
Particle
Imperative
-다고 -라고 (only after the copula –이) -느냐고 (after a verb stem) -(으)냐고 (after an adjective stem) -(으)라고
Propositive
- 자고
Interrogative
Example 수미는 내일 한국에 간다고 했다. 미아는 고등학생이라고 했다. 수미가 나에게 방학에 어디 가느냐고 물었다 수미는 한국이 좋으냐고 물었다.
선생님이 사이몬에게 조용히 하라고 하셨다. 영이가 토요일에 시티에 가자고 했다.
3.3 Case marking Grammatical cases indicate the grammatical relation that a noun in a nominal expression has in relation with its predicate, another noun, a clause or a discourse. Cases may be
60 divided into two groups: (a) those that mainly indicate syntactic functions of nominals (eg. nominative, accusative and genitive) and (b) those that mainly express semantic functions of nominals (eg. dative, goal, locative, source, directional, instrument and function). (ibid, p 327) 1) Syntactic cases: nominative, accusative and genitive Nominative -이/가, -께서: introduce new information or indicate ‘exclusiveness’ (-이/가) Function Example As the subject 미아가 저기 온다. ‘Mia is coming over there.’ As the object of a transitive adjective 너는 미아가 좋니? ‘Do you like Mia?’ As the complment of the copula: 나는 도둑이 아니에요. 이다 ‘be’ or 아니다 ‘not be’ ‘I am not a thief.’ As the complement of the verb: 민호는 학생 회장이 되었다. 되다 ‘become’ ‘Minho became a school captain.’ As the sentential subject 미란이가 눈이 커요. ‘Milan has big eyes.’ As an exclusive topic 내가 미아가 부러워. It is I who envies Mia.’ Accusative –를/을 Function As the direct object of a transitive verb As the direct object of a passivetransitive verb Purpose of an action by a movement verb Duration or distance by an action Object of a cognate verb Objects in multiple object constructions Clausal object constructions As an alternative for a static locative particle –에/에게/께 in emphasis for exclusiveness
Example 인호는 나미에게 꽃을 보냈어요. ‘Inho sent flowers to Nami.’ 나미는 인호에게 발을 밟혔어요. ‘Nami got her foot stepped on by Inho.’ 우리는 토요일 밤에 영화구경을 가요. ‘We are going to the movie on Saturday night.’ 제 남동생이 어제 열 시간을 잤어요. ‘My younger brother slept ten hours yesterday.’ 저는 제임스하고 춤을 추웠어요. ‘I danced (a dance) with James.’ 삼촌은 차를 현대를 두 대를 샀어요. ‘My uncle bought two Hyundai cars.’ 그 죄수들은 밥을 먹기를 거부했어요. ‘The prisoners refused to eat. 나는 그 돈을 엄마를 드렸어요. ‘I gave the money to mum.’ 엄마하고 아빠는 교회를 갔어요.
61 ‘My mum and dad went to church.’ 선생님은 민수를 사위를 삼으셨어요. ‘My teacher made Minsu her son-in-law.’
As an alternative for a capacity particle (으)로 before certain transitive verbs Genetive 의 Function Possession Relationship Authorship Classification Pertinence Origin Location Reference Argument
Example 수미의 구두 ‘Sumi’s leather shoes’ 너의 아빠 ‘your dad’ 황순원의 소나기 ‘Hwang Sunwon’s book Shower’ 두 권의 책 ‘two books’ 축제의 계절 ‘a season for festival’ 호주의 소고기 ‘beef from Australia’ 시드니의 인구 ‘the population of Sydney’ 사랑의 노래 ‘a song of love’ 남북의 통일 ‘unification of South and North Korea’
2) Dative, locative, goal and source Dative 에/에게/한테/께 ‘to’ Occuring with ditransitive verbs: 주다 ‘give’, 보이다 ‘show’, 가르치다 ‘teach’, 명령하다 ‘order’, 보고하다 ‘report’, 알리다 ‘inform’, etc.
Example 수미는 할머니께 돈을 드렸어요. ‘Sumi gave money to her grandma.’
Stative locative 에/에게/한테/께 ‘at, in, on’ Occuring with existential, static and passive verbs: 많다 ‘be much’, 있다 ‘exist’, 살다 ‘live’, 남다 ‘remain’, 걸리다 ‘get caught’, 밢히다 ‘be stepped’, etc.
Example 민수에게 책이 많아요. (lit) ‘Many books are at Minsu.’ ‘Minsu has many books.’
Dynamic locative 에서/에게서/한테서/께 ‘at, in, on’ Occuring with acvtivity verbs: 놀다 ‘play’, 자다 ‘sleep’, 공부하다 ‘study’, 먹다 ‘eat’, etc.
Example 용호는 학교에서 놀았어요. ‘Yongho played at school.’
62 Goal 에/에게/한테/께 ‘to’ Occuring with movement verbs: eg. 가다 ‘go’, 오다 ‘come’, 다니다 ‘go to and from’, 오르다 ‘climb’ and nondative transitive verbs: eg. 보내다 ‘send’, 놓다 ‘put’, 칠하다 ‘paint’, 쓰다 ‘write’, 모이다 ‘gather’, 앉다 ‘sit’.
Example 민호가 선생님께 갔어요. ‘Minho went to the teacher.’ 수미는 선물을 한국에 보냈어요. ‘Sumi sent a present to Korea.’
Source 에서/에게서/한테서 ‘from’ Occuring with movement verbs: eg. 가다 ‘go’, 오다 ‘come’, 받다 ‘receive’
Example 용호가 학교에서 왔어요. ‘Yonho came from school.’
3) Directionl, instrumental and function Directional (으)로 ‘towards, to, for’ Example
민수는 한국으로 떠났다. ‘Minsu left for Korea.’ 나는 한국에 안 가기로 했어요. ‘I decided not to go to Korea.’
Instrumental (으)로 ‘with, of, by, in’ (Emphatic: (으)로써) Example
아빠가 물고기를 손으로 잡았어요. (instrument) ‘My dad caught fish with hands.’ 우리 가족은 제주도에 배로 갔어요. (means) ‘My family went to Jeju Island by boat.’ 수미네는 집을 나무로 지었어요. (material) ‘Sumi’s family built a house with wood.’ 삼촌이 차 사고로 돌아가셨어요. (cause) My uncle died of car accident.’
63 Functional (으)로 ‘as, for, in the capacity of, in terms of’ (Emphatic: (으)로서) 민호는 교환 학생으로 한국에 갈 거예요. Minho is going to Korea as an exchange student.’
Example
4) Ablative Type
Example
부터 ‘from’
내일부터 방학이 시작됩니다. ‘School holidays start from tomorrow.’ Directional/instrumental 비행기가 인천으로부터 지금 막 도착했어요. + 부터: (으)로 부터 ‘The airplane has just arriveed from Incheon.’ ‘from the direction of, starting from, starting 한국 역사는 단군으로부터 시작된다. with’ ‘Korean history begins with Tangun.’ Source or dynamic locative + 부터: 에서 부터 ‘starting from a place of’ Honorific source or dynamic locative + 부터: 께서 부터 ‘from a respectable person’
나는 오늘 집에서부터 걸어왔어요. ‘I walked here from home today.’
우리 집 가훈은 할아버지께서부터 전해진 것입니다. ‘Our family motto has been passed on from my grandpa.’
5) Comitative and connective Type : Comitative Formal: 와/과 ‘with’ Informal: 하고, (이)랑 ‘with’ Sense of reciprocity with reciprocal verbs: eg. 결혼하다 ‘marry’, 닮다 ‘resemble’, 만나다 ‘meet’, 싸우다 ‘fight’, 같다 ‘be same’, 다르다 ‘be different’
Example 수미가 진호와 함께 골드코스트에 갔다. ‘Sumi went to the Gold Coast with Jinho.’ 나는 어제 민호하고/랑 시내에 갔어요. ‘I went to city with Minho yesterday.’ 어제 용호가 수미와/하고/랑 결혼했어요. ‘Yonho married Sumi yesterday.’ 오늘 아침 민호 부모님과 만났습니다. ‘I met with Minho’s parents this morning.’
64 Type: Connective 와/과, 하고, (이)랑, ‘and’ (이)며 ‘and’
(이)나 ‘or’
Example 오늘은 수미와/하고/랑 제가 제일 먼저 왔어요. ‘Today Sumi and I came first.’ 수미 엄마께서 김밥이며 불고기 같은 여러 가지 맛있는 한국 음식을 만들어 주셨어요. ‘Sumi’s mum made lots of delicious Korean food such as Kimbap and Bulgogi for us.’ 형이나 제가 가겠어요. ‘Either my older brother or I will go.’
6) Comparative Type Demonstrative +보다 (더)/덜 ‘(more/ess) than’ D+보다 ‘rather than’ D+만큼 ‘as much as, equal to’ D+처럼 ‘like, the same as’ D+같이 ‘like, the same as’ 중에서’among’, 가운데서 ‘among’ or 에서 ‘at, in’ + 가장 ‘most’ or 제일 ‘most, first’
Example 수미가 미아보다 더/덜 예뻐요. ‘Sumi is more/less pretty than Mia.’ 그 사람은 학자라기 보다 정치가입니다. ‘He is a politican rather than a scholar.’ 용수는 인호만큼 농구를 잘 해요. ‘Yongsu plays basketball as well as Inho.’
미아는 반 학생들 가운데서 가장 커요. ‘Mia is the tallest among the students in the class.’
7) Vocative Address terms in Korean are used to draw the attention of the addressee in a discourse context and reflect the relationship between the speaker and addressee in terms of social status. Type Honorific title suffix -님 Plain address term: 아/야 (the addressee: an adult; the speaker: an adult equal or inferior or a child) 아/야 (with plural nominals) 아/야 (in idiomatic expressions)
Example 선생님 ‘Sir!, Madam!’ (lit. ‘esteemed teacher’) 동민아, 어디 가니? ‘Tongmin! Where are you going?’ 용수야, 안녕! ‘Hi, Yong-su.’ 애들아! ‘Guys!’ 바보야! ‘You fool!’
65 Intimate address terms: 이/zero (the addressee: adolescent persons (generally male) or inferior adult relatives; the speaker: another adolescent or an adult Hyper-deferential address terms: 이(시)어/여 (the addressee: figures not living in face-to-face situation, eg. God, one’s deceased lover (in a literary style) or a group of people in writing)
동민이, 자네가 먼저 가게. ‘Tongmin! You go first.’ 용호, 우리 같이 일하보세. ‘Yongho! Let’s work together.’ 주여! ‘Lord! 하나님이시어! ‘Oh, God! 임이어! ‘Oh, my beloved’ 한국인들이어, 일어나라! ‘Koreans! Wake up!’
3.4 Delimiter constructions Delimiter particles delimit the meaning of the coocurring element with little syntactic function. Delimiters can be classified into two types: constituent delimiters (occurring in nound phrases and with adverbs and complement clauses) and sentential delimiters (occurring at the end of a sentence and/or after any major constituent). (ibid, p 345). Most of the important delimiter particles are given in 2.9 under ‘Korean Word Structure’, and constituent delimiters may be grouped into three sets of delimiters in order of occurrence (10 번까지+만+은 뽑자 ‘Let’s select only up to number 10.’), as shown below. 1) Constituent delimiters Type 1: Exhaustion: -마저 ‘even, also, so far as, on top of’ Comprehensiveness: -마다 ‘each, every’ Bounds: -까지 ‘till, up to, even, as far as’ Inception: -부터 ‘starting from’ Type 2: Limitation: -만 ‘only, solely’ Addition: -조차
Example 그 집은 아들마저 잃었어요. ‘That family lost even their son (in addition to other losses).’ 저는 날마다 일기를 써요. ‘I write my diary everyday.’ 언제까지 기다릴거예요? ‘Unitl when will you wait?’ 내일부터 수업에 늦지 마세요. ‘Don’t be late for the class from tomorrow.’ Example 민수는 공부는 안 하고 잠만 자요. ‘Minsu doesn’t study and only sleeps.’ 그 아이는 자기 이름조차 못 써요.
66 ‘even, as well’ ‘That child can’t write even his name.’ Exclusiveness: -밖에 10 분밖에 없으니 서두르세요. ‘(not) except for, ‘There is no time except for 10 minutes, so please hurry up.’ other than’ Example
Type 3:
Topic-contrast: - 미수는 눈이 커요. 는/은 ‘as for, (when unstressed: topic) ‘Misu has big eyes.’ (when stressed: contrast) ‘Misu (in contrast with other persons) regarding’ has big eyes.’
Inclusion: -도 ‘also, too, indeed’
미수는 눈은 커요. (unstressed 미수는: topic) (눈은 whether stressed or not: contrast) ‘As for Misu, her eyes are big (in constrast with other body parts.) 저는 학생이에요. “I am also a student.’
용수는 공부도 잘 하고 운동도 잘 해요. ‘Yongsu not only studies well, but also plays sports well.’ Toleration: - 저는 어제서야 그 소식을 들었어요. (이)야 ‘I heard the news only yesterday.’ ‘only if it be, as only for, finally’ Alternative: - 커피나 홍차를 마실 거예요. (이)나 ‘I am going to drink coffee or red tea.’ ‘or the like, or so, or something, 주말에 등산이나 갈까요? about’ ‘Shall we go mountain-climbing or something on the weekend?’ Concession: 조그만 돈이라도 저축을 하는 게 좋아요. -(이)라도 ‘It is good to save even small amount of money.’ ‘even, even if, as a last recourse’ 우리 모두 배가 고픈데, 아무거라도 먹읍시다. ‘We are all hungry so let’s eat anything (whatever it is).’ 2) Sentential delimiters Sentential or discoursal delimiters affect the whole sentence in terms of the speaker’s perception or modality in a discourse situation. (ibid, p348)
67 Type
Example
어서오세요들 ‘Welcome, you all.’ 먹어들 보자. ‘Let us all try eating.’ 빨리들 떠나자. ‘Everybody, let’s leave quickly.’ Politeness: –요 그런데요, 저는요, 못 가겠습니다요. ‘But, I am unable to go.’ ‘Apperceptive’ confirmation: 이제 가봅시다 그려. –그려 ‘I realise, how about?’ ‘How about leaving now?’ Concessive hesitancy: –만(은) 저는 안 갑니다만(은). ‘but’ ‘(I am sorry but) I am not going.’ Plurality: plural particle -들 (not suffix –들)
3.5 Numeral constructions 1) Time expressions Type Temporal counters: 시 ‘o’clock’, 분 ‘minutes’, 초 ‘second’, 간 ‘duration of time’ Hours: Native numbers + 시
Example 1 시 (한 시) ‘1 o’clock’ 10 분 (십 분) ’10 minutes’ 20 초 (이십 초) ’20 seconds’ 30 분간 (삼십분간 ’30 minutes’ 2 시 (두 시) ‘2 o’clock’
In military affairs, Sino-Korean numerals Minutes and seconds: 분, 초 (Only SinoKorean numerals) Duration of time: 간 (at the end of time expressions)
14 시 (십사 시) ’14 o’clock’ 10 분 20 초 (십 분 이십 초) ’10 minutes and 20 seconds’ 2 시간 ‘two hours’
Obligatorily after 시 and optionally after 분 and 초 a.m. and p.m.: 오전, 오후 (before the time expressions)
10 분 (or 10 분간) ’10 minutes’
In military affairs, hours are extended to the concept of 24 o’clock, Half: 반
22 시 (이십 이 시) ’22 o’clock’
(Used for thirty minutes but not for thirty seconds.) Days of the month, months, years: Sino-Korean numerals + 일 ‘day’, 월
2 분 반 초 (x)
오전 10 시 (열 시) ’10 a.m.’
2 시 반 ‘2:30’; 반 시간 ‘half an hour’
1 일 (일 일) ‘one day’ 3 월 (삼 월) ‘the 3rd month’
68 ‘month’ or 년 ‘year’ (Note: 6 월, 10 월) Sequence of the days of month, months, years: the year + the month + the day Duration of time (days and years): SK+ 일 (간); SK + 년 (간) Duration of months: SK + 개 + 월 (간) (Note: 개 ‘item’ referring to the number of months.) Native system –days of the month
Duration of days and years in native terms: Native numeral + 달 ‘month, moon’ or 해 ‘year, sun
2020 년 (이천이십 년) ‘(year) 2020’ 6 월 (유월 – Not 육월) ‘the 6th month’ 10 월 (시월 – Not 십월) ‘the 10th month’ 2020 년 4 월 2 일 ‘2 April 2020’ 20 일 (간) ’20 days’, 2 년(간) ‘two years’ 3 개 월 (간) ’3 months’
하루 ‘1 day’, 이틀, ‘two days’ , 사흘 ‘three … 하룻 날 ‘1st day’, 이튿 날 ‘2nd day’ …. 한 달 ‘1 month’, 두 달, ‘two month’, 한 해 ‘1 year’, 두 해 ‘ 2 years’, etc.
2) Ordinals, frequency, and number Ordinals: Native numerals + native ordinalizer 째,
SK ordinals: the SK ordinalizer 제 + SK numerals Possessive construction usually without the genitive particle Frequency: Native or SK numerals + 번 ‘times’
첫 째, 둘 째, 셋 째,… ‘first, second, third…’ (Note: The first numeral 한 ‘one’ is replaced by 첫 ‘first’) 첫 번째, 두 번 째, 세 번 째… ‘first time, second time, third time…’ (Note: The defective noun 번 ‘turn, time’ may be placed after the numeral) 5 번 째 (오 번 째), 10 번 째 (십 번 째)… ‘fifth, tenth…’ (Note: If 번 is used, SK numerals are permitted to occur with 째) 제 10 ‘tenth’
둘 째 사람, ‘the second person’ 열 번 째(의) 남자, ‘the tenth man’ 제 1 과 (제 일 과) ‘lesson one’ 한 번, 두 번, 스므 번… ‘one time, two times, twenty times …’ 20 (이십) 번, 100 (백) 번... ‘twenty times, 100 times’ (Note: With SK numerals, 번 occurs only for multiples of
69
Numerical order: SK counter + 번 ‘number’ (generally for animates); or SK + 호 ‘number’ (generally for inanimates) House numbers: 번지 ‘number-land’
ten (from 20) and above) 5 (오) 번 ‘No 5’ 26 (이십육) 호실 ‘Room No 26’.
12 번지 ‘#12’
3) Classifier constructions Type Noun + Numeral + Counter
Numeral + Counter + Genitive + Noun
Example 책 두 권 ‘two books’; 학생 세 명 ‘three students’; 어른 다섯 분 ‘five elderly people’; 개 열 마리 ‘ten dogs’. 두 권의 책, two books’; 세 명의 학생 ‘three students’; 다섯 분의 어른 ‘five elderly people’; 열 마리의 개 ‘ten dogs’
3.6 Modality and tense-aspect 1) Sentence enders (addressee honorific, mood and clause-type) Speech type Mood Plain level: ‘eat, go, be good/like, be big’
Declarative Indicative Retrospective 먹더라. 먹는다. 가더라. 간다. 좋더라. 좋다. 크다. 크더라.
Speech type Declarative Mood Indicative Retrospective Intimate 먹어. level 가. 좋아. 커.
Interrogative Indicative Retrospective 먹느냐? 먹니? 먹더냐? 먹디? 가느냐? 가니? 가더냐? 가디? 좋으냐? 좋니? 좋더냐? 좋디? 크냐? 크니? 크더냐? 크디?
Interrogative Indicative Retrospective 먹어? 가? 좋아? 커?
70 Speech type Mood Familiar level
Declarative Indicative Retrospective 먹네. 먹데. 가네. 가데. 좋네. 좋데. 크네. 크데.
Interrogative Indicative Retrospective 먹는가?, 먹나? 먹던가? 가는가?, 가나? 가던가? 좋은가?, 좋나? 좋던가? 큰가?, 크나? 크던가?
Speech type Mood Blunt level
Declarative Indicative Retrospective 먹소, 먹으오. 가소. 좋소. 크소.
Interrogative Indicative Retrospective 먹소?, 먹으오? 가오? 좋소? 크오?
Speech type Mood Polite level
Declarative Indicative Retrospective 먹어요. 먹데요. 가요. 가데요. 좋아요. 좋데요. 커요. 크데요.
Interrogative Indicative Retrospective 먹어요? 먹던가요? 가요? 가던가요? 좋아요? 좋던가요? 커요? 크던가요?
Speech type Mood Deferential level
Speech Type Plain Intimate Familiar Blunt Polite Deferential
Declarative Indicative Retrospective 먹습니다. 먹습디다. 갑니다. 갑디다. 좋습니다. 좋습디다. 큽니다. 큽디다.
Interrogative Indicative Retrospective 먹습니까? 먹습디까? 갑니까? 갑디까? 좋습니까? 좋습디까? 큽니까? 큽디까?
Propositive
Imperative
먹자. 가자. 먹어. 가. 먹세. 가세. 먹읍시다. 갑시다. 먹어요. 가요. 잡수십시다. 가십시다.
Speech type/enders Plain Intimate
Apperceptive 먹는구나. 가는구나. 좋구나. 크구나. 먹는군. 가는군.
먹거라. 가거라. 먹어. 가. 먹게. 가게. 먹으오. 가오. 먹어요. 가요. 잡수십시오. 가십시오. Declarative Promissive-assurance 먹으마. 가마. 먹을게. 갈게. -
71
Faimiliar Blunt Polite Deferential
좋군. 크군. 먹는군요. 가는군요. 좋군요. 크군요. -
먹음세. 감세. 먹을게요. 갈게요. -
2) Modal elements: -겠 and -(으)ㄹ/리 –겠 (termed as the definite future suffix or the deductive-reasoning suffix): the speaker’s/hearer’s intention or volition, and the speaker’s/hearer’s presumption or conjecture. -(으)ㄹ/리(termed as the prosopetive suffix or the presumptive suffix): probabability or predictability. (ibid, pp 360-61) Example
Intention or Presumption: -겠
Speaker’s/hearer’s intention or 저는 안 가겠어요. volition ‘I don’t intend to go.’ 선생님은 가시겠어요? ‘Do you intend to go?’ 눈이 왔겠다. ‘I presume that it (has) snowed.’
Speaker’s/hearer’s presumption or conjecture
아시겠습니까? ‘Do you think you know; Do you understand?’ Probability / predicatability -(으)ㄹ/리 Probability Precdicatability
Example 수미가 오리라고 생각해요. ‘I think Sumi will come.’ 네가 만날 사람은 김선생님이야. ‘The person you will meet is Teacher Kim.’
3) Tense and aspect Type Generic present
Example 나는 버스로 학교에 가요. ‘I go to my school by bus.’ 내 여동생은 예뻐요. ‘My young sister is pretty.’
72 Present progressive Present Progressive (aspect) Present Perfect Simple past Simple past and past perfect Past Perfect Past Progressive (aspect) Future
용수가 저기 와요. ‘Yongsu is coming over there.’ 수미가 오고 있어요. ‘Sumi is coming (at the moment). 이제 여름이 왔어요. ‘Now summer has come.’ 미아가 어제 한국으로 떠났어요. ‘Mia left for Korea yesterday.’ 내가 전화했을 때 미아는 이미 한국으로 떠났었어요. ‘When I called, Mia had already left for Korea.’ 그 때 수미가 막 왔었어요. ‘At that time Sumi had just come.’ 집에 가고 있었어요. ‘I was going home (at that time). 우리 식구는 내일 골드코스트로 떠나요. ‘My family will leave for Gold Coast tomorrow.’ Tense Forms in Specific Types
Type
Forms/Tense
Example
Resultative verbs (RV): 닮다 ‘take after’, 입다 ‘wear’, 늙다 ‘get old’, etc. Transferentive constructions: -다(가) ‘while doing, and then’ Future perfect
RV + -았/었: Present. RV +-았/었+-았/었: Past
언니는 엄마를 닮았어요. ‘My older sister takes after my mum.’ 저는 그 날 친구 옷을 입었었어요. ‘I had worn my friend’s dress on that day.’
VS+다(가): Imperfect event VS+았/었다 (가): Perfect event
용수가 교회에 가다가 왔어요. ‘Yongsuo came be on his way to church.’ 용호가 교회에 갔다가 왔어요. ‘Yongho went to chuch and came back.’
Future time word and VS+-았/었 VS+-았/었 +-았-었: Past event situation – no longer true at present
너 내일 죽었어! ‘You are a dead person tomorrow!’ 수미는 한국으로 떠났었어요. ‘Sumi had left for Korea (but she may be here now).’
Double-past
Embedded tense Type Relative tense-aspect: the embedded event time
Example 제 남동생은 아침밥을 안 먹고 학교에 갔어요. ‘My younger brother did not have breakfast and went
73 denoted by the main caluse to school.’ tense Absolute tense-aspect: the 용수는 잤고 나는 공부했어요. utterance time in ‘Yongsu slept and I studied.’ coordinate clauses 나는 그 컴퓨터가 좋았으나 사지 않았어요. ‘I liked the computer but didn’t buy it.’ Tense in Embedded Clauses Type Embedded clauses allowing non-past tense only: -아/어 (infinitive) -게 ‘so that’ -도록 ‘to the point where’ -자마자 ‘as soon as’ -아서/어서 ‘as, since’, etc. Embedded clauses allowing either past or non-past tense: -(으)면서 ‘while’ -다(가) ‘and then’ -(으)ㅁ, -기 (nominalizers) -것 ‘fact’ -듯 ‘as if’ -체/척 ‘pretence’ -고 (quoative), etc.
Example 돈을 꾸어 책을 샀어요. ‘I borrowed money and bought the book.’ 남동생은 비가 그치자마자 밖으로 나갔어요. ‘My younger brother went out as soon as the rain stopped.’
미아는 많이 잤으면서 피곤해 했어요. ‘Mia felt tired even though she had slept a lot.’ 나는 용수가 숙제를 안 했음을 알았다. ‘I knew that Yongsu didn’t do his homework.’ 용수는 아팠다고 했다. ‘Yongsu said that he had been sick.’
3.7 Passive and Causative Constructions Passives and causatives in Korean are expressed by derivational suffixes such as -이, -히, -리, -기. (ibid, p 367) 1) Passive Sentences Change of Structure: (1) the object to the subject (2) the active verb to the matching passive verb (3) the subject to the agent with a locative goal/particle. Locative goal/particles functioning as agentive: 께 ‘by’ (human, deferential); 에게
74 ‘by’ (animate, formal); 한테 ‘by’ (animate, informal); 에 ‘by’ (animal, inanimate) Passive suffixes: -이, -히, -리, -기 Passive verbs Active (transitive) 파-‘dig’
Passive (intransitive) 파이- ‘be dug’
놓- ‘put’
놓이- ‘be put’
먹- ‘eat’
먹히- ‘be eaten’
읽- ‘read’
읽히- ‘be read’
끌- ‘pull’
끌리- ‘be pulled’
팔- ‘sell’
팔리- ‘be sold’
쫒- ‘chase’
쫒기- ‘be chased’
끊- ‘cut’
끊기- ‘be cut’
Example 땅에 구멍이 파였어요. ‘A hole is dug in the ground.’ 가방이 식탁에 놓여 있어요. ‘A bag is placed on the table.’ 개구리가 뱀한테 먹혀 버렸어요. ‘A frog was swallowed by the snake.’ 성경은 널리 읽혀집니다. ‘The Bible is widely read.’ TV 광고에 끌려 샀어요. ‘I bought it because I was enticed by TV ads. 그 집이 제일 잘 팔렸어요. ‘That house was best sold.’ 그는 경찰에 쫒기고 있습니다. ‘He is hunted by the police.’ 홍수로 다리가 끊겼어요. The bridge was cut by the flood.’
Verbs not allowing a passive suffix Type 하 ‘do’ verbs: 공부하다 ‘study’, 약속하다 ‘promise’, etc. Dative or benefactive verbs: 주다 ‘give’, 받다 ‘receive’, 돕다 ‘help’, etc. Cognitive verbs: 알다 ‘know’, 모르다 ‘do not know’, etc. Symmetrical verbs: 만나다 ‘meet’, 닮다 ‘take after, 싸우다 ‘fight’, etc. ‘ㅣ’ verbs: 가르치다 ‘teach’, 때리다 ‘hit’, 던지다 ‘throw’, 만지다 ‘touch’, 느끼다 ‘feel’ (one exception: 치다 ‘run over’ vs 치이다 ‘be run over’), etc. Passivization in Possessive constrctions Only with adversative Example passive verbs 밟히다 ‘be stepped on’, (Active) 용수가 뱀의 꼬리를 밟았다. 잡히다 ‘be caught’, ‘Yongsu stepped on the tail of a snake.’ 물리다 ‘be bitten’, 꼬집히다 ‘be pinched’, (Passive) 차이다 ‘be kicked’, 뱀의 꼬리가 용수에게 밟히었다. 잘리다 ‘be cut’, etc. ‘The tail of a snake was stepped on by Yongho.’
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Use of the phrasal agentive form Agentive form Example The idiomatic phrase –에 의해(서)/-에 의하여 ‘by, owing to, in accordance with’
저 건물은 주인에 의해서 학교에 팔렸다. ‘That building was sold to the school by the owner.’
Idiomatized passive constructions Idiomatic passives
Example
날씨 – 풀리다 ‘weather- be cleared’, 감기 – 걸리다 ‘cold – be caught’, 밥 - (안) 먹히다. ‘food – (not) be eaten’, etc. Lexical passive verbs Type Pure lexical passive verbs: 치다/때리다 ‘hit’ vs 맞다 ‘be hit’, etc.
Compound passive verbs: verbal noun + 당하다, ‘undergo’, 받다 ‘receive, suffer’, 듣다 ‘hear’, 맞다 ‘receive’, 되다 ‘become’, etc.
날씨가 풀렸어요. ‘The weather has cleared up.’ (lit. ‘The weather was cleared.’) 용수가 감기에 걸렸어요. ‘Yongsu has caught a cold’ (lit. ‘Yongsu was hooked by a cold.’)
Example (Active) 용수가 민호를 때렸어요. ‘Yongsu hit Minho.’ (Passive) 민호가 용수한테 맞았어요. Minho got hit by Yongsu.’ 창피주다 ‘insult’ vs 창피당하다 ‘be insulted’ 수미는 친구들한테 창피당했어요. ‘Sumi was insulted by her friends.’ 존경하다 ‘respect’ vs 존경받다 ‘be respected’, 그 정치가는 사람들한테 존경받아요. ‘That politician is respected by people.’ 꾸중하다 ‘scold’ vs 꾸중듣다 ‘be scolded’ 인호는 선생님한테 꾸중들었어요. ‘Inho was scolded by his teacher.’ 야단치다 ‘scold’ vs 야단맞다 be scolded’, 수미는 아빠한테 야단맞았어요. ‘Sumi was scolded by her dad.’ 사용하다 ‘use’ vs 사용되다 ‘be used’,
76 이 방법은 과학자들에 의해서 사용된다. ‘This method is used by scientists.’
Phrasal passive verbs Type VS + 어/아 지다 ‘get to be, become (change of state)’: 주어지다 ‘be given’, 미루어지다 ‘be postponed’ 눌러지다 ‘be pressed’, 맡겨지다 ‘be entrusted’ 넘겨지다 ‘be passed over’, etc. The agentive: -의 의해(서)
Example 주다 ‘give’ vs 주어지다 ‘be given’ 이 과제가 (선생님에 의해서) 우리한테 주어졌어요. ‘This task was given to us (by our teacher).’ 미루다 ‘postpone’ vs 미루어지다 ‘be postponed’, 회의가 내일로 미루어졌어요. ‘The meeting was postponed to tomorrow.’ 누르다 ‘press’ vs 눌러지다 ‘be pressed’, 벨이 (방문자에 의해서) 눌러졌다. The bell was pressed (by a visitor). 맡기다 ‘entrust’ vs 맡겨지다 ‘be entrusted’ 많은 돈이 (고객에 의해서) 은행에 맡겨진다. A lot of money is entrusted to bank (by customers). 넘기다 ‘pass over to’ vs 넘겨지다 ‘be passed over’ 이 사건은 (학부모들에 의해) 법원에 넘겨졌어요. ‘The incident was passed over to the court (by parents).
2) Causative sentences Causative constructions: (i) ‘A causes something to B.’; (ii) ‘A causes (makes, lets, enables, permits, gets, or has) B (to) do something’; made by (a) introducing a new subject(agent) to a basic sentence, (b) changing the subjectof the basic sentences into a direct (in an intransitive basic sentence) and or indirect object (in a basic transitive sentence) and (c) replacing the basic sentence predicate with a causative verb or verb phrase. (ibid, pp. 373-374).
77 Type (1): Short-form Suffixation: attaching causative suffixes: -이, -히, -리, -기(키), -(이)우, -구, -추
Example Basic stems Causative stems Adjectives 높다 ‘high’ 높히다 ‘heighten’ 넓다 ‘wide’ 넓히다 ‘widen’ 좁다 ‘narrow’ 좁히다 ‘narrow (sth)’ 낮다 ‘low’ 낮히다 ‘lower’ 길이 넓다. ‘The road is wide’ 인부들이 길을 넓힌다.‘Workers are widening the road.’ Intranstive verbs 녹다 ‘melt’ 녹이다 ‘melt (sth)’ 눕다 ‘lie down’ 눕히다 ‘lay’ 알다 ‘know’ 알리다 ‘inform’ 남다 ‘remain’ 남기다 ‘leave (sth)’ 깨다 ‘wake up’ 깨우다 ‘wake (sb up)’ 달다 ‘get hot’ 달구다 ‘make hot’ 미아가 웃었어요. Mia laughed.’ 내가 미아를 웃겼어요. ‘I made Mia laugh’. Transitive verbs 보다 ‘see’ 보이다 ‘show’ 입다 ‘wear’ 읽히다 ‘cause to wear, dress’ 걷다 ‘walk’ 걸리다 ‘walk’ 넘다 ‘go over’ 넘기다 ‘pass (sth) over’ 타다 ‘ride’ 태우다 ‘cause to put on’ 준희가 새 옷을 입었어요. ‘Junhee put on new clothes.’
Lexical causative verbs
Fossilized
엄마가 준희한테 새 옷을 입혔어요. ‘My mum dressed new clothes to Junhee.’ 하다 ‘do’ 시키다 ‘cause to do, order’ 가다 ‘go’ 보내다 ‘send’ 자라다 ‘grow’ 기르다 ‘raise, grow (sth)’ 움직이다 ‘move’ 움직이다 ‘move (sth)’ 우리 집 정원에 채소가 잘 자라요. ‘Vegetables are growing well in our garden.’
아빠가 정원에 채소를 기르세요. My dad grows vegetables in the garden.’ lexical 늘(이)다‘expand’ 늘어뜨리다 ‘dangle (sth)’
78 causative verbs: -(아)어 뜨리다 (intensified causativizer)
기울(이)다 ‘tilt’ 기울어뜨리다 ‘tilt (sth) forecefully’ 줄을 늘이세요. ‘(Please) lengthen the string.’ 줄을 늘어뜨리세요. ‘(Please) hang down the string.’
Type (2): Long-form -게 하다 ‘cause (to do/beat)’
Example Indirect causation 보게 하다 ‘permit/arrange (sb) to see’ 좁게 하다 ‘make (sth) narrow’ 집 주인이 집 안을 보게했어요. The owner let us to see the inside of their house.’ 인부들이 길을 좁게 했어요. Workers made the road narrow.’ With a negative element: not permitting 못 자게 하다 ‘do not let/make (sb) sleep’ 못 먹게 하다 ‘do not let/make (sb) eat’ 친구들이 나를 못 자게 했어요. ‘My friends did not let me sleep.’ 엄마가 아이스크림을 못 먹게 했어요. My mum did not let me eat icecream.’
3.8 Compex predicate constructions Three general types of complex predicates: (i) relative (a relative clause predicate + a head noun + a main clause predicate); (ii) serial (denoting sequential actions or states as a single coextensive or extended event) and (iii) auxiliary (both consisting of a complement clause predicate + a complementizer (e.g. –어/아, -고, -게) + a main clause predicate). Type (1): Relative The speaker’s (in statements) and the hearer’s (in questions) modality (feeling, thinking, conjecture, etc): -는/ㄴ/은 것 같다 ‘seem, appear’ -(으)/ㄹ 것이다 ‘will probably’ -는가 보다 ‘seem, appear’ -(으)ㄹ 성 싶다 ‘appear’, - (으) ㄹ 듯하다 ‘look as if’, etc. Exclusive activity or stativity:
Example 비가 온 것 같아요. ‘It seems that it has rained.’ 비가 올 것이다. ‘It will probably rain.’ 비가 오는 가 보다. ‘It seems to be raining.’ 비가 올 성 싶어요. ‘It appears to be raining.’ 비가 올 듯 해요. ‘It looks as if it will rain.’ 나는 내 의무를 다 할 뿐이다/따름이다.
79 -(으)ㄹ 뿐이다 ‘be/do only’ -(으)ㄹ 따름이다 ‘do nothing but’ Possibility / impossibility: -(으)ㄹ 수(가) 있다 / 없다 ‘can/cannot’
Type (2): Serial
I do nothing but my duty.’
용수는 다리를 다쳐서 달릴 수(가) 없어요. ‘Yongsu is unable to run because of a leg injury.’
Example
Two predicates: Predicate + the infinite suffixal complementizer - 용수는 떡을 손으로 집어 먹었어요. 어/아 + Predicate. ‘Yongsu (picked up) and ate the rice cake with his fingers.’ 구워먹다 ‘roast and eat’ 수미가 가방을 안 들고 갔어요. 깎아먹다 ‘peel and eat’ ‘Sumi did not take her bag with her.’ 들고가다 ‘take (sth) with’ 들여다보다 ‘look into’ 따라붙다 ‘catch up with’ 따라죽다 ‘kill onself with’ 사주다 ‘buy and give’ 잡아가다 ‘take (a suspect) to’ 잡아먹다 ‘slaughter and eat’ 집어먹다 ‘pick up and eat’, etc.
우리는 동굴 속을 들여다 보았다. ‘We looked into the cave.’ 곰이 물고기를 잡아 먹었어요. ‘The bear caught and ate the fish.’ 엄마가 새 옷을 사 주셨어요. ‘My mum bought a ne cloth for me.’
(Note: -어/아 < -어/아서) Three predicates: Predicate + – 어/아 + Predicate + –어/아 + 빗물이 방으로 스며들어온다. Predicate. The rain water is penetrating into the bedroom.’ 스며들어가다/오다 ‘penetrate 빨리 뛰어내려와! into’ Jump down quickly! 기어들어 가다/오다 ‘crawl into’ 뛰어내려오다 ‘jump down’ Predicate + the conjunctive –고 complementizer + Predicate: 파고들다 ‘inquire into’ 물고가다 ‘carry by the mouth’ 꿇고앉다 ‘kneel down’ 놀고먹다 ‘idle away, etc. Predicate + the transferentive –어다/아다 complementizer +
용수는 사물을 파고드는 경향이 있어요. ‘Yongsu tends to delve into subjects.’ 고양이가 생선을 물고갔어요. ‘The cat carried a fish by its mouth.’ 나는 한참 동안 하늘을 쳐다보았다. ‘I looked up at the sky for a while.’
80 Predicate: 쳐다보다 ‘look up’ 내려다보다 ‘look down’ 내(어)다보다 ‘look out’ 돌아다보다 ‘look back’, etc. Type (3): Auxiliary (a) Sensory Sensory construction for a third person’s internal feeling: Sensory adjectives + -어/아 하다 ‘show signs of being’ (> transitive verb).
내가 방에 들어갔을 때 인호는 창 밖을 내다보고 있었다. ‘When I entered the room, Inho was looking out of the window.’ Example Intransitive Transitive verbs adjectives 기쁘다 기뻐하다 슬프다 슬퍼하다 덥다 더워하다 피곤하다 피곤해하다 나는 기쁘다. ‘I am happy.’ 너도 기쁘니? ‘Are you also happy?’ 수미는 기뻐한다./기뻐하니? ‘Sumi is happy./ Is Sum happy?’ Transitive adjectives Transitive verbs 좋다 좋아하다 부럽다 부러워하다 밉다 미워하다 싫다 싫어하다 무섭다 무서워하다 나는 수미가 부러워요. ‘I envy Sumi.’
민수는 수미를 부러워해요. ‘Minsu envies Sumi.’ Desiderative construction for a 나는 한국 음식이/을 먹고 싶어요. third person’s wants and wish: ‘I want to eat Korean food.’ Object (Accusative particle) + VS +고 싶어하다 ‘be wishful’, 수미는 아이스크림을 먹고 싶어해요. be desirable, wish’. ‘Sumin wants to eat icecream.’ Type (3) Example Auxiliary (b) Benefactive Action verb + the infinitive 수미가 용호를 도와주었어요. suffix –어/아 + benefactive ‘Sumi helped Yongho (for him).’ auxiliary verbs 주다, 드리다, 나는 할머니께 편지를 읽어드렸어요. 다(달)- ‘(do) for (someone)’ ‘I read a letter to my grandma (for her).’
81
나는 수미에게 그 사진을 보여 달라고 했어요. ‘I asked Sumi to show me the picture (for me).’ Type (3) Auxiliary (c) Aspectual Progressive and resultative aspects: -고 있다, -어/아 있다 Habitative aspect: -곤 하다
Example
그 사람이 책상에 앉아 있어요. ‘He is sitting on the desk.’ 이 약국에서 약을 사곤 했어요. ‘I used to buy medicine from this chemist.’ Persistentive aspect: -어/아 가다, - 그 일이 잘 되어 가요. 어/아 오다 ‘gradually, persistently, ‘That work is under way smoothly.’ away/hither’ Terminative aspect: -어/아 버리다 친구와 만날 약속을 잊어 버렸어요. ‘do completely, get through’ ‘I forgot the appointment to meet with a friend.’ Sustentive aspect: -어/아 두다 ‘get 이런 것을 알아 두면 좋아요. it done just in case’, -어/아 놓다 ‘It is good to know this kind of thing.’ ‘do for later, get it over with now’ Experiential (or attemptive) aspect: 이 문제를 잘 생각해 보세요. -어/아 보다 ‘try to, have the ‘Think about this problem carefully.’ experience that’ Type (3) Auxiliary (d) Permission
Example
Permission and concession: 이제 집에 가도 좋습니다./됩니다. VS + the conjunctive suffix ‘It is okay to go home now.’ –어도/아도 (‘even though’) + 좋다 ‘be good’ or 되다 ‘do, be okay’ Prohibition: 거기서 사진 찍으면 (찍어서는) 안 VS +(으)면 (‘if) or (어/아)서는 (‘if’) 됩니다. + 안 되다 ‘not do, be not okay’ ‘You should not take photos there.’
3.9 Negation 1) Sentential negation Type
Example
Short-form: 수미는 오늘 학교에 안 갔어요. Negative adverbs 안 (아니) ‘not’ and ‘Sumi didn’t go school today.’ 못 ‘not possibly’, cannot, unable’ in 용수는 오늘 학교에 못 갔어요. declaratives and interrogatives ‘Yongsu could’t go to school today.’
82 Long-form: VS+지 않다 and VS+지 못 하다.
수미가 오늘 밥을 먹지 않았어요. ‘Sumi didn’t eat meals today.’
용수가 오늘 밥을 먹지 못했어요. ‘Yongsu could’t eat meals today.’ Long-form VS+지 말다 ‘stop doing, 너는 오늘은 학교에 가지 마 (<말아). don’t do’ in imperatives and ‘As for you, don’t go to school today.’ propositives. 오늘 학교에 가지 말자. ‘Let’s not go to school today.’ Idiomatic expressions: 수학은 수미가 인호보다 못하다. 못하다 ‘be inferior’, As for maths, Sumi is inferior to Inho.’ 못마땅하다 ‘be unsatisfactory’, etc.
그 사람이 하는 짓이 못마땅해요. ‘What he does is unsatisfactory.’
말고 ‘except for, not but’
인호 말고 민수가 갔어요. ‘It’s not Inho but Minsu who went.’
말고는 ‘except for’
수미 말고는 아무도 안 왔어요. ‘Nobody came but Sumi.’ 너 숙제 했니? ‘Did you do your homework?’
아니 as a sentential adverb: ‘No’
아니. ‘No.’ Negative constructions with negative 민지는 전혀 예쁘지 않아요. polarity items: (i) adverbials 전혀 ‘at ‘Minji is not pretty at all.’ all’, 결코 ‘after all’, 별로 ‘particularly’, 좀처럼 ‘rarely’, 통 ‘in 아무도 안 왔어요. all, entirely’, etc.; (ii) pronominal ‘Nobody came.’ compounds 아무도 ‘anyone’, 아무 것도 ‘anything’, etc.; and (iii) 선생님 밖에 오시지 않았어요. ‘Nobody came except the teacher.’ delimiters 밖에 ‘except for’, etc. 2) Constituent negation Type
Example
Inherently negative predicates: 없다 ‘not exist’, 모르다 ‘not know’, etc. Idiomatized negative words: 안되다 ‘be pitiful’, 괜찮다 ‘be all right’,
저는 한국 역사에 대해 몰라요. (opposite: 알다) ‘I do not know about Korean history.’ 용수가 큰 사고를 당했다니 안됐어요. ‘I regret to hear that Yongsu had a big accident.’
83 편찮다 ‘be sick’, 못쓰다 ‘be useless’, 못되다 ‘be less than, bad’, 잘못이다 ‘be wrong’, etc.
그 전화는 이제 못써요. ‘That phone is now useless.’
하는 행동을 보면 그 아이는 못됐어요. ‘By his behaviour, he is no good.’ Negation by Sino-Korean 비도덕적 ‘immoral’, 비공식 ‘informal’ negative prefixes: 불법 ‘illegal’, 불가능 ‘impossible’ 비-, 불-, 부-, 무-, 몰-, 미-, 부적당 ‘unsuitable’, 부족 ‘insufficient’ (im-, in-, dis-, un-, non-, ir-, 무능 ‘incompetent, 무법 ‘unlawful’, etc. etc), etc.
3) Double negation and rhetorical negation Type Double negation: Usually a short-form negative (안) first + long-form negative (-지 않) second. Short-form or long-form + the negative copula 아니다 ‘be not’
Example
용수가 학교에 안 가지 않았어요. ‘It is not the case that Yongsu didn’t go to school.’
용수가 학교에 안 간 것은 /가지 않은 것은 아니다. ‘It is not that Yonsu didn’t go to school.’ Rhetoric negation: 수미가 안 오겠다! A negative construction interpreted as ‘I am pretty sure Sumi will come.’ positive, and a positive one as negative in rhetoric questions, etc. 인호가 왔겠니?! ‘Do you think Inho has come? I don’t think so.’ Rhetoric confimatory expression 비가 왔잖아요? –지 않 (-잖) ‘doesn’t it/didn’t it? / It rained, didn’t it?’ isn’t it/wasn’t it?’ (equivalent to tag questions in English)
3.10 Adverbial constructions 1) Attributive adverbials: time, place, manner and degree Type: Time Points of time Duration Relative time Repetition/Frequency
Example 오늘 ‘today’, 지금 ‘now’, 언제 ‘when?’ 늘 ‘always’, 오래 ‘long’, 영영 ‘forever’ 이미 ‘already’, 일찍 ‘early’, 아직 ‘yet, still’ 가끔 ‘sometimes’, 매일 ‘everyday’, 종종 ‘often’
84 Type: Place
Example 여기 ‘here’, 곳곳이 ‘every place’, 어디 ‘where?’ 이리 ‘this way’, 저리 ‘that way’ 멀리 ‘far away’, 가까이 ‘near’
Location Direction Distance Type: Manner
Example
Lexical (i): Non-onomatopoeic Lexical (ii): Onomatopoeic Clausal (i): the adverbializer -이 Clausal (ii): the adverbial suffix 게 Clausal (iii): the infinitive –어/아 and the conjunctive suffix -고
잘 ‘well’, 어서 ‘quickly’, 빨리 ’quickly, fast’, 일부러 ‘on purpose’, 마구 ‘carelessly’, 많이 ‘much’, 깊이 ‘deeply’ 똑똑 ‘with snaps’, 탕탕 ‘bang-bang’, 울긋블긋 ‘colourfully’ 쥐 죽은 듯이 ‘as if rats were dead’, 자유가 없이 ‘without freedoom’, 눈이 올 것 같이 ‘as if it is going to snow’ 붉게 익다.’be red ripe’, 멋있게 살다 ‘live nicely’, 친절하게 돕다 ‘kindly help’, 아름답게 꾸미다 ‘decorate beautifully’ 작아 보이다 ‘looks small’, 커 보이다 ‘looks tall/big’, etc. 기를 들고 오다 ‘come holding a flag’, 차를 타고 가다 ‘go by (riding) a car’, etc.
Type: Degree
Example
가장 ‘most’, 거의 ‘almost’, 극히 ‘extremely’, 너무 ‘overly’, 매우 ‘very’, 아주 ‘very, quite, really’, 꽤 ‘considerably’, 전혀 ‘entirely’, 제일 ‘most’, 참 ‘truly’, 하도 ‘excessively’, 썩 ‘awfully, greatly’, 퍽, ‘very’, 훨씬 ‘by far’, etc. Negative polarity 전혀 ‘absolutely, at all’, 그다지/그리 ‘so much, particularly’, 여간 ‘ordinarily’, 이만저만 ‘in no small degree’, etc. Clasual: the 병이 나도록 ‘to the extent that one gets sick’, projective suffix – 날이 새도록 ‘till the dawn breaks’, etc. 도록 ‘so that, to the extent that’ Lexical
2) Modal adverbials – the speaker’s feeling, opnion or attitude Type Assertive
Exclusive
Example 제발 ‘please’, 그야말로 ‘indeed, truly’, 과연 ‘indeed’, 물론 ‘of course’, 부디 ‘at any cost’, 실로 ‘indeed’, 도대체 ‘on earth’, 역시 ‘after all’, etc. 꼭 ‘surely’, 오직 ‘only’, 오로지 ‘only’, 다만 ‘only’, 단지 ‘merely’,
85 etc. Descriptive 재수없이 ‘unluckily’, 차라리 ‘rather’, 좀 ‘just, please’, 어째서 ‘why’, 마침 ‘fortunately’, 다행히 ‘fortunately’, 왜 ‘why’, etc. Hypothetical 아마 ‘maybe’, 혹시 ‘by any chance’, 글쎄 ‘well’, 마치 ‘as if’, 만일 ‘if’, 설마 ‘on no account’, 설사 ‘even if’, etc. 3) Discoursal adverbials – Address terms and interjections Address terms – personal names and/or honorific titles, professional titles and kinship terms are closely interrelated to different speech styles. Speech style
Example
Deferential
수미! ‘Sumi!’, 바보야 ‘Idiot!’, 얘 ‘Child!’, etc. 이봐 ‘Hello’, 형 ‘Old brother!’, 누나 ‘Older sister!’, etc. 이봐요 ‘Hello!’, 김과장 ‘Department Chief Kim!’, etc. 김박사(님) ‘Dr Kim!, 김선생(님) ‘Teacher Kim!’, 할아버지 ‘Grandpa!’ 선생님 ‘Sir!’, 과장님 ‘Dept Chief!’, 할머님 ‘Grandma!’, etc.
Type
Example
Plain Intimate Blunt Polite
Interjections 아이고 (아이구)! ‘Oh!, Oh my gosh!’, 아니! ‘Oh My!, Why!’, 아야! ‘Ouch!, 아차! ‘Heavens!’, 어머나! ‘Good grief! (used by females), 저런 ‘Good Heavens!, etc. 아이고 배야! ‘Oh! My stomach aches!’ 아차! 숙제를 놓고 왔네! ‘Oh my heavens! I left my homework at home!’
3.11 Honorifics and Politeness Strategies 1) Lexico-honorifics Type (1): Personal Pron. 1st Person 2nd Person
Example 저: to a senior or an adult equal 나: to a child or a younger adult 어르신: to an older person of over sixty years of age 댁: to an adult stranger; not to a social superior 당신 : to an adult inferior (and between husband and wife) 자기: to an adult with intimate relationships (eg. lovers, spouse)
86
3rd Person
자네: a superior to a much youner adult or adolescent inferior 너: to a child or equivalent; to a close ‘friend’ of the same ages. Demonstrative 분: ‘D esteemed person’ D 이: ‘D person’ D 사람: ‘D person’ D 애: ‘D child’
Type (2): Address-reference terms All kinds of professional titles including department chief, nurse, taxi or bus driver Diversified kinship terms General terms eg. 선생 ‘sir’, ,마담 ‘madam’, 선배 ‘senior’,부인 ‘madam’, etc. Type (3a): Honorific words Meaning ‘wife’ ‘house’ ‘son’ ‘(female’s) older brother’ ‘words’ ‘meal’ ‘name’ ‘age’ ‘stay’ ‘eat’ ‘sleep’ ‘die’
Example (Noun, Predicate) Plain 처, 아내, 마누라 집 아들 오빠 말 밥 이름 나이 있다 먹다 자다 죽다
Type (3b): Honorific words Meaning ‘give’ ‘accompany’ ‘see’ ‘inform’ ‘ask’
Example (Predicate) Plain 주다 데리다 보다 알리다 묻다
Type (3c): Honorific words Function Nominative (subject) Source Dative/locative/goal
Honorific 부인, 사모님, 여사 댁 아드님 오라버니/오라버님 말씀 진지 성함 연세 계시다 잡수시다 주무시다 돌아가시다
Humble 드리다 모시다 뵈다 아뢰다 여쭙다 Example (Particle)
Neutral 가/이 에게서/한테서 에게/한테
Honorific 께서 께 께
87
Type (4): Subject- and addressee-honorific suffixes Subject honorification
Addressee honorification
Example -(으)시: VS+ -(으)세요/-(으)셔요, etc. 선생님께서 가세요./ 가셔요. ‘The teacher is going.’ -(스)ㅂ: -(스)ㅂ니다, -(스)ㅂ니까, etc. 이 그림이 좋습니다./ 좋습니까? ‘This picture is good.’/ ‘Do you like this picture?’
2) Syntactic honorifics AH (Speech) level
Address form
Subject ‘you’
Predicate suffix
Deferential 어르신 어르신 -(으)시 Def./Polite (SN)-선생님 선생님 -(으)시 Pol./Blunt SN-선생 SN-선생 -(으)시/na Blunt 여보세요/여보시오 댁 -(으)시 Pol./Blunt FN-씨 FN-씨/당신 -(으)시/na Familiar/Intimate na GN-군/GN(이) 자네 Intimate na GN-씨, 자기 (야) GN-씨, 자기 Intimate/Plain na GN-아 (야) 너 선생님, (선생님은) 언제 떠나시겠습니까? ‘When are you going to leave, teacher?’ (AH: Addressee Honorific; SN: surname; FN: full name; GN: given name) 3) Strategic politeness expressions – Decreasing degrees of politeness Degrees of politeness Decreasing polite speech
Impolite speech
Example 실례지만 문 좀 열어주시겠어요? ‘Excuse me, but would you kindly open the door for me?’ 문 좀 열어 주시겠어요? 문 열어 주시겠어요? 문 좀 열어 주세요. 문 열어 주세요. 문 여세요. 문 열어요. 문 열어. 문!
88 Chapter 2: Research on Korean Language Learning and Teaching This chapter presents a summary of some research results that relate to the teaching and learning of Korean. The descriptions in this chapter have been extracted or summarised from scholarly journal articles. Some details have been modified to provide up-to-date information or suit the purpose of this reference book. Respective sources are provided under each section. 1. Misspellings in Korean: Types and Patterns 2 1) Data and Subjects Written examination papers administered at three universities (one Korean and two Australian); a free composition type of data and a reformulation type of data (Corder 1981); completed by 82 (49.1%) 2nd and 85 (50.9%) 3rd Year English-L1 students of Korean; a total of 635 valid spelling errors out of 167 examination papers. 2) Descriptive Statistical Results (1) The single most frequent error type: the substitution of ㅊ by ㅈ (6.0%), followed by the substitution of ㅐ by ㅔ (5.5%). Table 1 below shows the overall frequencies of 40 spelling error types. (2) Three groups of the most frequent error types where one type of error occurred more than 60 times ranging 10%: (a) confusion of ㅈ and ㅊ (11.2%); (b) confusion of ㅓ and ㅗ (10.2%); and (c) confusion of ㅐ and ㅔ (9.6%), as shown in the Table below. Table: Three most frequent types of misspellings (groups) Error Type Group ㅈ for ㅊ and ㅊ for ㅈ ㅓ for ㅗ and ㅗ for ㅓ ㅐ for ㅔ and ㅔ for ㅐ Total
No of Errors
Percentage
71 65 61 197
11.2% 10.2% 9.6% 31.0%
(3) 12 other groups of considerably frequent error types occurring 10 or more times each, including: (a) t-th-tt substitution; (b) l-related; and (c) p-ph-pp substitution. (4) 15 frequent error types: slightly more consonant error types (8 types) than vowel error types (7 types); in terms of percentage value: slightly more vowel 2
Source: Shin S-C (2007), “Types and Patterns of English L1 Students’ Misspellings in Korean”, Journal of Korean Language Education, 18-3: 99-122. International Association of Korean Language Education. ISSN: 1225-6137.
89 misspellings (24.3%) than consonant misspellings (22.1%); and in all 40 types: more misspellings of consonants (35.3%) than those of vowels (31.3%). 3) Description of Error Types Category
Type
Palatal stops (11.2%)
ㅈ>ㅊ ㅊ>ㅈ
Mid-back vowels (10.2%)
ㅗ ㅓ ㅔ ㅐ
Mid- and lowfront vowels (9.6%) Category Alveolar stops (5.4%)
> > > >
ㅓ ㅗ ㅐ ㅔ
Type ㄷ>ㄸ ㄷ>ㅌ ㄸ>ㄷ ㅌ>ㄷ
Labial stops (4.3%)
ㅌ>ㄸ ㅂ >ㅍ ㅍ>ㅂ ㅂ>ㅃ ㅃ>ㅍ
Example *아짐(아침) ‘morning’; *잭 (책) ‘book’ *차가용 (자가용) ‘family car’, *찼어요 (잤어요) ‘(sb) slept’ *본호 (번호) ‘number’; *곤강 (건강) ‘health’ *별러(별로) ‘not really/particularly’; *일번 (일본) Japan *담베(담배) ‘cigarette’; *네일 (내일) ‘tomorrow’ *가개 (가게) ‘shop’; *숙재 (숙제) ‘homework’ Example *다라가요 (따라가요) ‘follow’; *대 (때) ‘occasion’, ‘the time’ *보동 (보통) ‘usually’; *도요일 (토요일) Saturday *절때 (절대) ‘absolutely'; *딲아요 (닦아요) ‘clean’ *통안 (동안) ‘during’, ‘duration’; *통그라미 (동그라미) ‘circle’ *톡톡하고 (똑똑하고) ‘be clever and’ *비우면(피우면) ‘if one smokes’, *비곤해서 (피곤해서) ‘because (sb) is tired’ *복잪해서(복잡해서) ‘because (sth) is complex’, *평 (병) ‘disease/sickness’ *나바요 (나빠요) ‘(sb/sth) is bad.’, *나브다지요 (나쁘다지요) ‘They say it’s bad, don’t they?’ *아빴습니다 (아팠습니다) ‘was sick’
4) Patterns of Error Types (1) Mismatch in three-series consonants: Misspellings of the three-series consonants. Pairs of the lenis, aspirated and tensed consonant sounds are mismatched, particularly between (a) ㅈ and ㅊ; (b) ㄷ and ㄸ; (c) ㄷ and ㅌ; (d) ㅂ and ㅍ; (e) ㄱ and ㄲ; and (f) ㅅ and ㅆ. (2) Mismatch in vowel sounds: Six groups of vowel misspellings: (a) 어 and 오; (b) 애 and 에; (c) 오 and 우; (d) 아 and 어; (e) 왜 and 외, and (f) 으 and 우. (3) Misuse of nasals and lateral: Nasal-related and 6.0% lateral-related misspellings: (a) ng and n; (b) when using l between vowels (e.g. 일음 for 이름 ‘name’); between (c) m and n (e.g. 단배 for 담배 ‘cigarette’); (d) when using ‘ㄴ’ between
90 vowels (e.g. 아주먼니 for 아주머니 ‘middle-aged woman’) and (e) by adding ‘ㅇ’ to the end of a neighbouring syllable (e.g. 영행 for 여행 ‘travel’). (4) Omission and addition of ‘ㅎ’: The grapheme ‘ㅎ’ was omitted or added, particularly when it came after, before or between nasals (e.g. 다행이 for 다행히 ‘luckily’) or when it came at a syllabic initial (소와 for 소화 ‘digestion’). (5) Miscellaneous errors: Small in number and sporadic: a wrong graphic association or a wrong pronunciation. 5) Explanations (1) Three-series Consonants: The three-series consonant spellings involve differentiating the sound value of lenis [-tense, -aspirate], aspirated [+tense, +aspirate], and tensed [+tense, -aspirate] consonants, and the failure to do so is largely attributable to the confusion between their sound features. (2) Vowels: A very high frequency of errors observed in two pairs of vowel spellings: 애 and 에, and 어 and 오 are primarily attributable to the “phonetic closeness” between them (H-M Sohn 1986: 498) and the mismatch in sound features between English and Korean approximate sounds, but the habitual tendency of both Korean L1 and L2 speakers to follow easiness in pronunciation is also related to the frequent erratic productions in written form. (3) General aspects: Romanization, which is introduced at an early stage in some textbooks, the ‘visual’ aspects (i.e. ‘visual’ similarities) as opposed to ‘oral’ aspects, conjugations of irregular verbs, mora (i.e. the length of a syllable) and sound shift phenomena such as resyllabification are closely related to the results of the study. 6) Teaching Implications KFL learners have trouble with identifying the exact match between the target sound in Korean and the perceived sound in their mind. It is often daunting for the KFL learners to distinctly perceive and produce a sound/spelling on the basis of the degree of aspiration, the tenseness or the sound qualities when the sound of the concerned Korean vowel or consonant does not exactly match with any of the English vowels or consonants. An effective way of teaching and learning may be drawn from the fact that orthography or spelling is not just a matter of spelling or pronunciation but also a matter of meaning. As a word consists of sound, meaning and symbol, it is necessary to apply these three concepts to spellings. Learners need to be given not only orthographic symbols and phonological explanations about sound features but also a semantic reinforcement which highlights the difference in meaning made by spellings in question. Learners need to be aware whether a syllable they transcribe has a meaning (‘sensical’) or not (‘non-sensical’).
91 2. Types of Lexical Errors 3 1) Data and Subjects 141 written examination papers administered at three Australian universities; free composition and reformulation data; 305 lexical errors; produced by 71 second- and third-year English-L1 students. 2) Results (1) The most frequent four error types were errors of wrong word choice, semantic similarity, overgeneralisation and literal translation in the order of frequency. Table 1. Frequency of Error Types Wrong word choice Semantic similarity Overgeneralization Literal translation Formal similarity Omission or incompletion Word coinage Idiomatic collocation Sino-Korean numeral collocation Redundancy Code-shifting
85 (N) 45 39 33 23 18 15 15 14 10 8
26 (%) 14 12 10 7 6 5 5 4 3 2
(2) Students of Korean were having more difficulties in selecting words appropriate for particular contexts or situations and in differentiating lexical items with similar meaning. (3) They also tend to over generalize the lexical item that they have learnt and to literally translate the reformulated item or the item stored in their L1. (4) The overwhelmingly dominant errors came from nouns and verbs. Nouns (53%) were the most common form of error, followed by verbs (33%).
3
Source: Shin S-C (2002), “Australian Students’ Lexical Errors in Korean: Type, Frequency and Cause”, Journal of Korean Language Education, 13-1: 307-338. International Association of Korean Language Education. . ISSN 1225-6137.
92 Table 2. Errors by Word Class (N/%) Word Class Nouns Verbs Adjectives Adverbs Idioms Total
Total 162 (53) 101 (33) 22 (7) 15 (5) 5 (2) 305 (100)
3) Description of Error Types Type
Example
Wrong word choice
*공공수송 (대중교통) ‘public transport’; *교제 (회사) ‘(trading) company’; *결혼 협동자 (결혼 상대자) ‘marriage partner’; 사회적이다 (사교적이다) ‘to be social’ *휴일 (휴가) ‘recreational leave’; *한국 집 (한국(인) 가정) ‘Korean home’; *세상 여행 (세계 여행) ‘round-the-world-trip; *좋아하다 (좋다) ‘to be good’; *작다 (적다) ‘to be few’ 다음년 (다음 해/내년) ‘next year’; 이년 (올해/금년) ‘this year’; 비행기세 (비행기 요금) ‘airfare’; 집비 (집세) ‘rent’; 있고 싶다(갖고 싶다) ‘to wish to have’. *압력 (스트레스) ‘pressure’; *외국 언어 (외국어) ‘foreign language’; *활동 (행사) ‘activity (event)’; *인간자원 (인력관리) ‘human resources (organization)’; *놀다 (하다) ‘to play (sports)’; *소리를 만들다 (떠들다) ‘to make noise’. *선생외(회) (생선회) ‘raw fish’; *광고학 (관광학) ‘tourism study’; *잊어먹다 (잃어버리다); *놓다 (넣다) ‘to put something in’
Confusion by semantic similarity Overgenerlization
Literal translation
Formal similarity
4) Explanations (1) Many errors are attributable to wrong word selection in essence. In some cases, the wrong word choice may be due to failure to differentiate between subtle semantic differences. Many of these errors are believed to be due to the wrong selection of a dictionary definition. (2) Some errors seem to be related to a lack of knowledge about the conceptual differences between the competing words. It is probably due to the similarity in phonology or orthography, but it also may be due to the semantic association of two words. (3) Students overgeneralize their knowledge on the basis of their earlier learning, especially in the construction of time phrases, and counters or suffixes that are used with noun phrases. (4) Other common lexical errors occur by literally converting L1 items, and such errors are due to a strong interference from English. This type of errors have been made
93 by sticking to the literal meaning of the English version or to the way the words or phrases are expressed in English. (5) Some other errors are attributable to confusion by formal similarities. They are related to occasional or habitual confusion due to the similarities in the formal and phonological aspects. In particular, words ending with nasal sounds seem to carry phonological confusion factors. (6) More than half of the total errors involved nouns, followed by verbs and adjectives; students’ lexical developments are still in the early stages, where nouns and verbs are more frequently used to form a basic sentence, or that students attempted to or were asked to attempt to make sentences requiring abstract nouns for concepts that are beyond their L2 proficiency. (7) A large number of the errors produced are intralingual, which is an encouraging sign in students’ lexical developments, in that as learning proceeds, intralingual errors are generally more produced than interlingual transfer. 5) Teaching Implications The findings would be useful for the design of remedial programs and the development of teaching materials including a learner dictionary. For instructors, there is a need to devise pedagogically effective learning and teaching strategies that prevent fossilization of certain errors in students’ lexical developments. For students, it is desirable to understand and be able to use vocabulary with multiple meanings, for example, by reading L2 language materials as much as they can, rather than relying solely on a dictionary. 3. Particle Substitution Errors: Nominative (이/가)-by-Accusative (을/를)4 1) Aims: to explore the sentential constructions that ‘trigger’ nominative-by-accusative substitutions and attempt to provide some possible linguistic and pedagogical explanations for the cause. 2) ‘Triggering’ Grammatical Elements (1) The cause of the nominative particle substitution is associated with existential verbs e.g. 있다 ‘exist, stay, have’, 없다‘do not exist, do not stay, do not have’, 많다 ‘be much, many, have a lot’ or 적다 ‘be little, few, do not have a lot’. a)
4 시에는 다른 수업을 (수업이) 있어요. ‘I have another class at 4.’
b) 할 일을 (일이) 많아요. 4
Source: Shin S-C (2006), “Substitution Errors by English L1-KFL Learners: Nominative-byAccusative”, International Review of Korean Studies, 3-1: 59-90. Korea-Australasia Research Centre. ISSN 1449-7395.
94 .
‘I have many things to do.’
(2) The misinterpretation of the case of the noun referred to by descriptive adjectives causes the nominative particle substitutions. a)
김치를 (김치가) 너무 매워요. ‘Kimchi is too spicy.’
b) 단어하고 문법을 (문법이) 아주 어려워요. ‘Vocabulary and grammar are very difficult.’ (3) The substitution of the nominative particle by the accusative particle is caused by the misinterpretation of the noun preceding intransitive verbs. a)
우리 학교 근처에 독방을 (독방이) 나왔어요. ‘(lit.) A single room came up (for lease) near my school.’
b)
자주 역에 기차를 (기차가) 늦게 온다. ‘Often the train arrives late at the station.’
(4) Transitive sensory (or psychoemotive) adjectival verbs such as 싫다 ‘be disagreeable, dislike’ cause confusion in the choice of a particle for the object. a)
대학 생활을 (생활이) 싫어요. ‘I dislike university life.’
b)
매운 음식을 (음식이) 싫었지만 지금(은) 좋아요. ‘I disliked spicy food, but now I like it.’
(5) Sentences containing inchoative verbs such as 되다 ‘become’, 지다 ‘get, become’ affect the occurrence of the substitution errors in the nominative particle. a) 신문 기자 아니면 특파원을 (특파원이) 되고 싶어요. ‘I would like to become a newspaper journalist or foreign correspondent.’ b) 지금 수영을 (수영이) 좋아졌어요. ‘Now (my) swimming has got better.’ (6) Adjectival verbs that denote necessity are responsible for another type of substitution error in the nominative particle. 학생비자와 여권을 (여권이) 필요해요. ‘(He/she) needs a student visa and a passport.’
95 (7)
KFL learners often wrongly interpret the subject in the embedded clause as
the object of ‘do you know…’ or the interrogative ‘where’. 제일 좋은 한국 식당을(식당이) 어디인지 아세요? ‘Do you know where the best Korean restaurant is? 3) Explanations (1) English L1-KFL learners tend to wrongly perceive the existential and possessive verbs as transitive verbs which take an object, thereby attaching the accusative particle to the subject in replacement of the nominative particle. This seems to be associated with at least two grammatical reasons, both of which are related to interference from English. (2) One of the most significant causes of the nominative substitution is related to the use of adjectives which refer to necessity such as 필요하다 ‘need, be necessary / needed’. One cause is interference from English translation. A necessity is expressed often by the transitive verb ‘need’ in English, but in Korean it is expressed by its adjectival verb 필요하다 ‘be necessary / needed’. (3) A descriptive sentence requires a pattern such as ‘S + 이/가 Descriptive Verb’, but some learners interpret the subject nominal not as the subject of the descriptive verb but as the object, thus using the accusative particle instead of the nominative particle. (4) Some sensory words are intransitive, while some other sensory adjectives are ‘always used as transitive’. These transitive sensory words appear to need the accusative particle for the object, but in transitive constructions the object is in the nominative case with those sensory adjectives. This is where many English L1KFL learners are confused and produce substitution errors. (5) In negative sentences the nominal complement takes the nominative case, thus forming the negative predicate –이/가 아니다. Unlike in positive sentences where the nominal complement is unmarked, this provides learners with a source for the erroneous substitution of the nominative particle. There are at least two reasons for this. One is that some KFL learners wrongly perceive the nominal complement as the object of 아니다 ‘be not’, and the other is that students mistakenly assume that the nominal which occurs after the subject nominal is the object of the sentence. (6) Inchoative verbs such as 되다 ‘become’, 지다 ‘get, become’ and processive verbs such as 나다 ‘happen, occur’ and 들다‘enter, suffer from’. The complement nouns of these verbs are in the nominative case and what is more important is that inchoative sentences consisting of the inchoative verb 되다 and processive sentences occur with two nominative cases. In inchoative sentences both a subject noun and a complement noun are in the nominative case, and in processive sentences also, both a subject (an experiencer) and a complement (a theme) are in the nominative case. (7) In passive sentences where a passive verb occurs with a ‘patient’/goal subject in the nominative case and the ‘patient’/goal subject is ‘targeted’ by the ‘agent’ nominal
96 which is marked by 에게 or 한테 meaning ‘by’ in English. In this context, some learners tend to wrongly perceive the ‘patient’/goal as the ‘target’ i.e. object of the ‘agent’ or the agent’s action rather than as the subject of the sentence. (8) There are a large number of common intransitive verbs and many locomotive verbs, which are all widely used in KFL learning contexts. Learners need to be aware that the ‘experiencer’ who does or shows such actions should not be seen as an object involved in the state or action but as the subject of the sentence. (9) Relative clauses with the defective noun 것 are often termed ‘headless relative clauses’ as they behave as if they do not have a head. The problem in such constructions is in the embedded subject that should be in a nominative case, and some learners often perceive the nominal as the direct object of the main verb, placing it in the accusative case. Another type of relative clause relates to the ‘factS type’, particularly those in the interrogative clause. Some learners perceive the subject in an embedded interrogative relative clause as the object of the main clause. (10)In Korean, there are many types of simple sentences where more than one nominative case appears. They have the constituent structure where the NP plays a role, not as a subject of a predicate verb or adjective, but as a sentential subject taking the remaining whole sentence as its predicate, and the following nominativemarked nominal is again the sentential subject of the remaining sentence. The nominative-marked nominals cannot be in the accusative case. (11)Use of defective nouns also provides the source of nominative-accusative substitutions. There are a large number of defective nouns, and these defective nouns are used with the nominative particle, typically in such constructions as existential, inchoative, and negative adjectival VS + -지 않. (12)The quotation as the subject should be in the nominative case but some learners tend to perceive it as the object of the complement nominal, partly because of confusion associated with the psycholinguistic process, since it is not a single word but a full sentence consisting of usually three or more words, and partly because of insufficient knowledge about such sentence types as copular, adjective and intransitive sentences. 4) Teaching Strategies It may be necessary to organise a remedial class and carry out remedial exercises/activities using the linguistic information, with a particular focus on nominative-accusative particles. The instructor may use erroneous constructions produced by a single student or a group of students in class or commonly produced by various groups at different levels. The first step for remedial teaching is to demonstrate the errors on a board or screen, with the selected key erroneous parts which show the particle substituted by the accusative particle in bold. It is desirable to re-write both the erroneous noun phrase wrongly marked by the accusative particle and its predicate part since the accusative-marked phrase alone does not reveal the error but it becomes clear only when it is contextualised with the predicate. The second step is to demonstrate the correct form and/or methods of construction along with some explanation. It would be effective to demonstrate the
97 correct form along with the accusative-marked phrase accompanying an appropriate dynamic (or action) verb for comparison. Explain why the nominative case, instead of the accusative case, is required in the adjective/descriptive constructions. The possible explanations might be that: 1) An adjective construction is different from a transitive construction in that the former does not normally require an object, thus the accusative particle, as its constituent, while the latter does; 2) if a nominal is used as the subject of the sentence, use the subject particle – 이/가 instead of the object particle –를/을; 3) unless the intention is to contrast the subject with a seen or unseen counterpart or stress it, use the nominative particle – 이/가 instead of the topic particle –은/는; 4) if the predicate that refers to the nominal is an adjective/descriptive (or intransitive) verb, use the nominative particle for the nominal instead of the accusative particle; 5) the accusative particle is normally attached to the object nominal, which is the object of the dynamic or action verb, and thus it is not used in a normal adjective construction which does not require an object; 6) with the existential adjectival verb 있다/없다, which is interpreted as not only ‘there is’ (existence/location) but also ‘have’ (possession) that requires an object in English, use the formula – ‘As for X+TOP, Y+NOM exists (issta)’ to indicate existence, location and possession, unless intended to contrast or stress, in which case the nominative particle is replaced by the topic particle; and 7) in transitive constructions that use transitive sensory adjectival verbs such as 좋다 ‘like’, 부럽다 ‘envy’, the object is not in the accusative case but in the nominative case. Where possible and appropriate, intentionally highlight the subject nominal being located immediately before the predicate by giving a Koreanoriented English pattern – ‘As for X+TOP, Y+NOM Predicate’. 4. Locative Substitution Errors 5 1) Subjects and Data 167 written examination papers administered at the three universities; Level 2 and Level 3 students who had studied for a minimum of 150-200 hours to 300-400 hours in a formal setting; L1 speakers of English; 138 locative errors (locative-static -에 and locative-dynamic -에서). 2) Results (1) Nearly all the locative-dynamic particle (-에서) errors were caused by substitution (97%), while substitutions of the locative-static particle (-에) were relatively low (63.9%).
5
Source: Shin S-C (2008). “Locative Substitution Errors by English L1-KFL Learners”. The Language and Culture, 4-1: 23-43. The Korean Language and Culture Education Society. ISSN 1738-3641.
98 (2) A relatively larger proportion of the errors with the particle was due to omission (26.4%). Many L1 speakers of Korean omit the goal particle –에 when they refer to a destination, usually in a casual context and/or casual speech.
Error Patterns Substitution Omission Addition
Table 1: Locative Error Patterns Locative-static –에 Locative-dynamic –에서 (out of 72) (out of 66) 46 (63.9) 64 (97.0) 19 (26.4) 2 ( 3.0) 7 (9.7) 0
(3) The largest portion of locative substitution types and the gravity of substitutions occur between locative particles. Substitutions of the locative-dynamic particle were made overwhelmingly with the locative-static particle (93.8%) and more than two thirds (70%) of the locative-static particle substitutions were made with the locative-dynamic particle. Table 2: Locative Substitutions Locative Particles (=N) Locative Substitution Number (Percentage) 60 (93.8) Locative-dynamic –에서 (64) Locative-static –에 32 (70.0) Locative-static –에 (46) Locative-dynamic –에서
3) Description of Errors (1) Substitution of Locative-dynamic –에서 If there is any substitution error in the locative-dynamic case, then there is more than a 90% chance it will be substituted by the locative-static particle. a) 지금 대학교에 (>대학교에서) 한국어를 공부하고 있어요. ‘Now I am studying Korean at university.’ b) 교실에(>교실에서) 식사하면 안 돼요. ‘You should not eat in the classroom.’ c) 도서관에 (>에서) 일해요. ‘(I) work at the library. d) 때때로 교실에 (>교실에서) 자요. ‘Sometimes (I) sleep in the classroom.
99 (2) Substitution of Locative-static -에 The most common factors which account for the locative -에 substitutions come from the misinterpretation of some frequently used existential and descriptive verbs such as 있다 and 나쁘다 into dynamic verbs. a) 동그라미 안에서 (>안에) 세모가 있어요. ‘There is a triangle inside the square.’ b) 시골에서 (>시골에) 위험한 짐승이 많이 있어요. ‘There are many dangerous animals in the country.’ c) 서울에서 (>서울에) 교통이 복잡하고 공기가 나빠서… ‘Because traffic is complex and air is bad in Seoul…’ Confusion with the use of the time indicator -에 ‘at, in, on’ is another cause for the substitution. d) 내일 오후 3 시에서 (>3 시에) 대학교 입구에서 만납시다. ‘Let’s meet at the entrance of university at 3 tomorrow afternoon.’ e) 겨울에서 (>겨울에) 눈이 많이 와요. ‘It snows (lit. snows come) a lot in winter.’ Some other substitution errors were caused probably due to confusion with the goal particle -에 that usually accompany locomotive, processive and locational verbs. f)
차가 고장이 나는데 (나서) 수업에서 (>수업에) 못 가요. ‘(My) car was broken, so I couldn’t go to (my) class.’
g) 저는 회사에서 (>회사에) 입사한 지 여섯 달 됐어요. ‘It’s been six months since I entered the company.’ h) 부엌에서 커피에서 (>커피에) 설탕을 놓았어요 (넣고 있었어요.) ‘I was putting sugar in coffee in the kitchen.’ 4) Explanations (1) The statistical information is relevant to the design of teaching materials, in particular the sequencing and presentation of the locative and its related particles in KFL textbooks. The analysis of three textbooks used in the source institutions reveals a remarkable inconsistency or imbalance in the sequence and frequency of the locative particles presented in the main text of each textbook. (2) The locative-static particle –에 is introduced and presented more vigorously than the locative-dynamic particle –에서 in the first part of the introductory curriculum, and the locative-dynamic particle is presented later than its counterpart and more consistently in the later period of time. The goal particle –에 is presented earlier
100 than the locative-dynamic but more actively in the similar period of time in the later stage. The time indicator –에 is very intensively introduced in the first part of lessons then not presented for a while and then revisited most actively and consistently later. The source particle –에서 is most sparsely introduced and taught. (3) The particle –에, whether it is the locative-static particle, the goal particle or the time indicator, is far more frequently presented or used than the particle –에 in the teaching materials and classroom. This may make KFL learners much more familiar with the particle. Learners would internalise the concept of the locativestatic particle more confidently than its counterpart form since it was introduced and taught earlier, and thus is more familiar to them. This could hinder the learning of the locative-dynamic particle which is normally introduced later. When the locative-dynamic particle is introduced, the two other –에 particles (goal and time indicator) are also actively presented or consistently revisited. This may cause the learners to confuse the locative-dynamic particle with other particles or make them pay less attention to the locative-dynamic particle. (4) The sequence, ordering and frequency of the particles in KFL course books are largely inconsistent, imbalanced and distant from a psychological logic that can facilitate the process of language acquisition by reflecting a certain ‘natural’ sequence of the learner’s “approximate systems” (Nemser 1974). 5) Teaching Implications (1) The locative-dynamic particle is used to indicate the location normally in constructions that contain a dynamic or action verb. From a learner’s point of view, the nature of the dynamicity of the verb may become clearer when it accompanies an object word in ‘SOV’ type of sentences but not all ‘SOV’ sentences mention the object. The nature of a verb and the nature of sentence construction (e.g. presence or absence of an object) could add to confusion on the part of the KFL learners in perceiving the dynamicity of a verb in a sentence. (2) There is a relative lack of input or training regarding the proper use of the locativedynamic particle. KFL learners have more time and training in learning the locative-static particle than the locative-dynamic particle, which means they become more familiar with the use of the static particle and, as a consequence, learners tend to keep using the static particle instead of the dynamic one. (3) In most cases, KFL course books provide insufficient explanations about the usage in a very confusing sequence and simplistic manner. It is important to present learning materials in a pedagogically effective and psychologically ‘natural’ way so that the materials can facilitate rather than hinder students’ learning. (4) From a psycholinguistic perspective, the function of -에, which is used as locativestatic, dative and goal particles, is ‘wider’ than that of -에서, which is used as locative-dynamic and source (‘from’) particles. If learners tend to rely on the more familiar form, it is almost certain that the wider appearance of the identical form will play a role in the choice of the locative-static particle in place of the locativedynamic particle. Also, the locative-static particle is shorter than the locativedynamic particle, and this might lead less confident learners to choose the ‘shorter’
101 one. Learners tend to choose a ‘simple and familiar form’ rather than any form randomly in a confusing situation. (5) The substitution of the locative-dynamic particle is essentially due to overapplication of the locative-static particle -에, and it is affected largely by the misinterpretation of adjectival verbs as dynamic ones or insufficient knowledge of the typical occurrence of the locative-static or goal particle with some specific types of verb such as (a) locomotive verbs; (b) existential verbs; and (c) static verbs. (6) The frequent locative substitution errors can occur when there is a lack of extra input or training in the sentence constructions that carry more restrictions beyond the general application of the locative particles. This means that after the general usage of the locative particles is introduced, it is necessary to review the usage to revise it for learners by providing additional teaching and learning input for verbs and sentence constructions which carry ambiguity or extra restrictions. 5. Semantic Similarity and Lexical Errors 6 1) Aims: to present findings of an analysis of lexical errors caused by semantic similarity and discusses pedagogical implications for teaching of vocabulary in Korean. 2) Errors of Semantic Similarity: Categorical Examples (1) Synonymic words Some lexical errors can be caused by occasional or consistent confusion due to semantic similarity. These errors are related to a lack of knowledge of the conceptual differences between the competing words, rather than the resulting from random choice or complete ignorance of the meanings. a)
차하고 집하고 일을 (>직업이) 없이 결혼하야지 (하지) 마세요. ‘You shouldn’t marry without a car, house and job (<work).’
b) 보통 일꾼이 (>직장인들이) … 5 씨 (시) 오후 (오후 5 시까지) 일을 합니다. ‘Usually employees (<labourers) work until 5 in the afternoon.’ c)
6
바쁜 활동 (>일) 별로 없습니다. ‘There is not much busy thing (<activity).’
Source: Shin S-C (2007), “Lexical Errors Caused by Semantic Similarity in Korean”, Teaching Korean as a Foreign Language, 32: 141-170. KLI Institute of Language Research and Education. ISSN 15988201.
102 Competing concepts: 일 ‘work’, 직업 ‘job’, 직장 ‘workplace’, 취직 ‘getting a job’, 자리 ‘position’ or ‘place’ and 일 as a secondary or functional meaning ‘a matter, thing, or experience’; 일꾼 ‘labourer’, 노동자 ‘labourer (more formal and broader than 일꾼)’, 직장인 ‘employed person’, 회사원 ‘complany employee’,고용인 ‘employee, and 인부 ‘sundry labourer’; 휴일 ‘a holiday’, 휴가 ‘leave of absence’, 방학 ‘school vacation’ and 공휴일 ‘a public holiday’ , etc. (2) Words of Similar Meaning and Sound Some lexical errors contain competing pairs of words with similarity in meaning and pronunciation. a)
비판을 (>비난을) 하면 안 좋아요. ‘It’s not good to criticise unfavourably (<critically review).’
b) 세상에서(>세계에) 잘 알려지는 (>알려진) 박물관과 궁전들이 너무 많습니다. ‘There are so many museums and palaces that are well known to the world (<the society).’ c)
호주는 유럽 같은 전설을 (>전통을) 다라가요 (따라가요). ‘Australia follows the European tradition (<legend).’
Competing concepts: 비평 ‘criticism, comment, review’, 비판 ’criticism, judgement’ and 비난 ‘criticism, denunciation’; 세상 ‘the world, society, the public’ and 세계 ‘the world, the earth, international’; 전설 ‘legend, tradition’ and 전통‘tradition, convention’, etc. (3) Words of Semantic Association This is the case where the learners have chosen words semantically associated with the correct forms, words that are not completely out of context, but still do not fit completely in the context. a)
허용치보다 많은 것이 (것은) 관세를 (<세금을) 내야 해요. ‘You must pay tax (<tariff) on things that are over the permissible quantity.’
b) 수업에 (>교실에서) 담배를 피우려면 (피우면) 안 돼요. ‘You should not smoke a cigarette in the classroom (<class).’ c)
의견이 (>생각이) 변경되었어요 (바뀌었어요).
103 ‘My mind (<opinion) has changed.’ Competing concepts: 관세 ‘tariff’ and 세금‘tax’; 수업 ‘class (class work)’ and 교실 ‘classroom’; 의견 ‘opinion’ and 생각 ‘thought, idea’; 보수 ‘reward’ and 보상금 ‘compensation’, etc. (4) Words of Derivational Association: ‘Time words’ Some errors are caused by confusion between words sharing a semantic origin, particularly between time-related nouns: between 시 ‘o’clock’ and 시간 ‘period of time’, between 시간 and 시절 ‘season’, and between 월 ‘month of the year’ and 개월 ‘period of month. a)
대학교까지 1 시반에 (>1 시간 반이) 걸립니다. ‘It takes 1 hour (<o’clock) and a half to [go to] the university.’
b) 오늘 오후 3 시간에 (>3 시에) 대학교에서 만나자. ‘Let’s meet at university at 3 o’clock (<hour) this afternoon.’ c)
자유 시절이 (>시간이) 없다고 봐요. ‘I think there is no free time (<season).’
d) 입사한지 6 월이 (6 개월이) 됐어요. ‘It has been 6 months (<6th month/June) since (I) joined the company.’ (5) Specific Words: ‘Korean’ and ‘Family’ Some specific words cause confusion to KFL learners in relation with their usage and semantic distinction. The examples include ordninary words such as ‘Korean’ and ‘family’. a)
한국 (>한국어) 수업 시간에. ‘In a Korean language (<Korea) class’
b) 한국 가정의 집은 (>한국인 가정은) ‘A Korean home/household (<Korea(n) family members’ house)’ c)
좋은 가족을 (>가정을) 만들고 싶어요. ‘I would like to make a nice home (<family members).’
(6) Words of Concord Relationship
104 Other errors include some word groups in concord relation. a) 결혼 짝을 (>상대자를) 만나는 거가 쉽지 않기 때문에… ‘Because it is not easy to meet a marriage partner (<pair/mate)’ b) 일본 관광인들이 (>관광색들이) 많았습니다. ‘There were many Japanese tourists (<tourism workers).’ (7) Examples of Competing Verbs Below is a list of some typical examples of semantically competing verbs that often provide a source of verb errors. 오다‘to go and see’ vs. 돌아오다 to see’ 오르다‘to rise, go up’ vs. 늘다 ‘to increase’ 증가하다 ‘to increase’ vs. 커지다‘to get bigger/larger’ 작다‘to be small in height’ vs. 적다‘to be small in number’ 쓰다 ‘use’ vs. 이용하다 ‘make good use of’ 시키다‘order’ vs. 부탁하다 ‘do someone a favour’ 늙다‘to be old (animate)’ vs. 낡다 ‘to be old (inanimate)’ 거절하다‘refuse, reject, decline’ vs. 거부하다‘refuse, reject 변하다‘undergo a change’ vs. 바뀌다 ‘be changed, replaced, alternated’ 마시다 ‘to drink’ vs. 삼키다 ‘to swallow’ 3) Explanations (1) Words of similar meaning: A lot of words used by learners share certain semantic components with the correct words or associate semantically with them. For pedagogical purposes it is useful and necessary to identify those competing words that appear not only in learners’ compositions but also in other sources within the range of their expected learning, and to clarify their semantic boundary and usage. (2) Words of similar meaning and form: What makes learners more confused is the case where not only the meaning of competing words but also their forms are similar. These words share both semantic and orthographic components, and thus appear to cause greater confusion in psycholinguistic aspects. A large portion of these pairs of words come from the same or associated semantic origin in essence but are cases where their semantic domain has been diversified, shifted or expanded to more specific and detailed aspects. These types of words puzzle not only KFL/KSL learners but also Korean L1 speakers in distinguishing one from another. Competing pairs of words that share both semantic and graphic components become more complicated as lexical items become more elaborated or specialized according to the specific context or referent. (3) Words of similar form: Some confusionis attributable to the formal similarity of the competing words, and in such cases, learners erroneously apply the incorrect word that has little or no semantic relations but only shares certain formal components with the correct one. This case is different from that of homonyms in that the
105 written forms and pronunciation of a competing pair of words are not the same but similar. It may overlap with aspects of orthographic errors but it is largely different from spelling errors in that the production of errors in this case is not due to an orthographic or phonological shift but due mainly to the mismatch between the learner’s intention and the outcome of the intention, and this is related to the understanding about the definitional or semantic differences between competing words that are similar in form. 4) Teaching Implications (1) Lexical errors caused by semantic similarity demonstrate the importance of identification and clarification of such words of similarity. Such a grouping or comparison should be considered in conjunction with a future development of teaching materials and should work as an effective strategy for remedial teaching and reinforcement. (2) When learners are not confident about the definitional concepts or semantic restrictions, they tend to rely on their memories or dictionaries to select what is available or what looks and sounds suitable. KFL/KSL learners’ problem with concepts reinforces the necessity of a learner dictionary which is not only linguistically well phrased but also pedagogically friendly and relevant. (3) Where applicable, a co-occurrence strategy which presents competing words with matching lexical items should be able to give learners a succinct but clearer idea about the usage of potentially problematic words. (4) It is suggested to undertake some types of practical exercises for remedial class with a particular focus on the usage of lexical items with semantic and formal similarities. Some possible exercises include slot-filling drills, correction of errors, substitution drills, choice between lexical items; matching to make sentences Intensive repetition of target items and making conceptual features salient to learners are still important in foreign language pedagogy. However, it is important that where possible teachers should move away from excessive drilling and individual working through of exercises and find ways in which structure-based drill exercises can be incorporated with communicative activities. 6. Perceptions on Acceptability of Lexical Items 7 1) Aims: to examine the acceptability of the use of some Korean competing lexical items in contextualized sentences and to investigate how Korean L1 and L2 speakers judge the use of the items for each specific context: i) ‘means of public transport’: 쓰다 ‘use’ vs 이용하다 ‘make (good) use of’; ii) ‘dream’: 변하다 ‘undergo a change’ vs 바뀌다 ‘change/be changed’; and iii) ‘boarding house’: 오다 ‘come’ vs 돌아오다 ‘come back’. 7
Source: Shin S-C (2006). “Acceptability of Some Korean Lexical Items Judged by Korean L1 and L2 Speakers”. Teaching Korean as a Foreign Language, 31: 153-171. KLI Institute of Language Research and Education. ISSN 1598-8201.
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2) Subjects: Korean L1 (25) and L2 (16) speakers residing in Sydney. The L1 speakers were born, grew up and educated in Korea up to at least high school and in some case tertiary studies. Their age ranged from 16-25 (72%), 26-35 (16%) and to 36-45 (4%). The L2 speakers were born in Australia or came to Australia at an early age and did all or most of their schooling in the Australian educational system. They all belonged to the age group 16-25, and their average length of Korean learning experiences through educational systems such as ethnic schools and high school programs prior to the investigation was approximately 3.5 years. Their main language was English. 3) Data collection: A survey questionnaire consisted of six sentences containing the lexical items in question, and the subjects were asked to indicate how acceptable they think each lexical item is in the sentences, by choosing one of the responses given in four-point scale (two positive and two negative responses). 4) Results (1) The two groups shared the same distribution pattern of percentages in all items except one in overall positive and negative responses. But there are some differences between the two groups in the evaluation of ‘extremely or a little awkward’ lexical items. L2 speakers seem to evaluate the use of those items less severely than L1 speakers. (2) 대중 교통 수단 ‘means of public transport’ a) 대중 교통 수단을 써야 돼요. ‘You must use means of public transport.’ b) 대중 교통 수단을 이용해야 돼요. ‘You must make good use of means of public transport.’ The significant majority of L1 (76%) and L2 (68.7%) speakers gave negative responses to the match of 대중 교통 수단 ‘means of public transport’ and 쓰다 ‘use’, and only 24% and 31.3%, respectively, judged it acceptable. Instead, they clearly (96% and 87.5%, respectively) indicated that the phrase matches the verb 이용하다 ‘make (good) use of’. L2 speakers judged the use of 쓰다 slightly less severely than L1 speakers. (3) 꿈 ‘dream’ a) 내 꿈은 점점 변해진 것 같아요. ‘I think that my dream has gradually undergone a change.’ b) 내 꿈은 점점 바뀐 것 같아요.
107 ‘I think that my dream has gradually changed.’ The majority of L1 (84%) and L2 (68.7%) speakers assessed that the match between 꿈 ‘dream’ and 변하다 ‘undergo a change’ was extremely or a little awkward. The absolute majority (92% and 87.5%, respectively) of the two groups, instead, gave positive judgments to the match between 꿈 and 바뀌다 ‘change/be changed’. Among L2 speakers, as many as 31.3% judged 변하다 acceptable in the context, so they evaluated the match of 꿈 and 변하다 less severely than L1 speakers. (4) 하숙집 ‘boarding house’ a) 저는 하숙집에 오자마자 하숙집 아주머니한테 인사를 받아요. ‘As soon as I come to my boarding house, I am greeted by the lady owner.’ b) 저는 하숙집에 돌아오자마자 하숙집 아주머니한테 인사를 받아요. ‘As soon as I return to my boarding house, I am greeted by the lady owner.’ The considerable majority of L1 speakers (64%) judged that the match between 하숙집‘boarding house’ and 오다 was acceptable in that particular context, while the slight majority of L2 speakers (56.2%) assessed it as inappropriate or awkward. Both groups, however, largely agreed to the use of 돌아오다 ‘come back’ as acceptable. Interestingly, the majority of L1 speakers judged the use of both 오다 (64%) and 돌아오다 (64%) equally acceptable in the context, while L2 speakers gave a clearly positive judgment (87.5%) to the use of 돌아오다 but two closely dividing negative (56.2%) and positive (43.8%) opinions for the use of 오다. 5) Summary (1) Both L1 and L2 Korean speakers perceived that 대중 교통 수단 ‘means of public transport’ should be used with 이용하다 ‘make (good) use of’ rather than 쓰다 ‘use’, with the L1 group being more decisive and strict in such a judgment. (2) The two groups again agreed that 꿈 ‘dream’ works with 바뀌다 ‘change/be changed’ instead of 변하다 ‘undergo a change’, but the L2 group was also lenient with 변하다. (3) The L1 group judged that 하숙집 works well with both 오다 ‘come’ and 돌아오다 ‘come back’, while the L2 group was not certain about the match with 오다 but perceived that it works much better with 돌아오다. Overall, the L1 speakers judged much more uniformly than the L2 speakers on the use of the lexical items, and L2 speakers were less decisive and more lenient.
6) Explanations
108 L1 speakers generally have more concrete knowledge about the usage and referent range of an L1 lexical item than L2 speakers. Quite often L2 speakers misjudge the semantic boundary or struggle themselves to match the conceptual range of an L2 item with that of their L1. Another reason might relate to L1 interference. L2 speakers’ judgment on the use of an L2 item could be made on the basis of their knowledge of the use of its equivalent in L1, thus overly or narrowly conceptualized. 7) Teaching Implications (1) L2 speakers evaluate awkward or inappropriate lexical items that received relatively higher negative responses less severely than L1 speakers. In other words, L1 speakers judged lexical errors to be more serious than L2 speakers, and L2 speakers were more lenient than L1 speakers. (2) The findings reinforce the need to provide L2 learners with adequate input about the semantic restrictions of competing lexical items. (3) The concepts of those and other competing words and their associated semantic components, as well as their acceptable (or unacceptable) match with each other require a clear explanation in KFL instruction and materials. (4) Similarly, KFL learners need to be aware of the various expressions of the concept of ‘change’, their subtle differences and associated matches. In addition to 변하다 and 바뀌다, there are a number of 변(‘change’)-verbs such as 변경하다(plan, course, etc.), 변모하다 (physical feature, e.g. shape), 변심하다 (one’s mind), 변형하다(form, biological feature, e.g. cell), 변천하다 (times, generation, phases) and 변화하다 (situation, condition, weather, season, etc.). (5) In KFL contexts, there are a number of paired lexical items that need to be defined more accurately, appropriately and inclusively in terms of their referent range, lexical domains and semantic restrictions. Teachers should pay more attention to those competing items, and perhaps utmost attention to erroneous/extremely awkward expressions that interfere with communication. 7. Perceptions on Teachers’ Instructional Language 8 1) Aims: to investigate perceptions of both teachers and students on such issues as the roles of the L1 and L2 in the language classroom; the instructional language in class activities, the instructional language in non-language courses; the appropriate point of time and frequency of the use of the L1, and its educational value and effect. 2) Subjects: 27 teachers working in two Korean institutions (teachers of Korean: 89%) and 39 students studying Korean in a Sydney college.
8
Source: Shin, S-C. (2009). "Language Instructors' Use of Learners' L1 and L2 in Classroom: Perceptions by Students and Teachers of Korean". Journal of Korean Language Education, Vol. 24. 31p (165-195). Seoul National University Korean Language Education Research Institute. ISSN: 12278823.
109 3) Data collection: survey questionnaire consisting of two sections: 1) the use of the L1 by the teacher in a second or foreign language class; 2) classroom roles of language instructors. 4) Results (1) The teachers had a conservative or negative opinion on the use of the learner’s L1 in class, while the student-respondents were positive or less negative and more flexible towards the use of the L1. Key findings are summarised below. (2) The teacher-respondents understood that the learner’s L1 can be used occasionally when needed in beginner courses but as the course level gets higher the frequency should be less and eventually there should be completely no use or minimal use of the learner’s L1. However, the students perceived the extent of the use of the learner’s L1 much higher than the teacher group in each proficiency level. (3) The teacher-respondents generally stated that the learner’s L1 should not be used at all or should be used only occasionally when necessary in class-related functional situations, e.g. when giving learning instructions or explaining grammatical and cultural elements and when giving the meaning of vocabulary or expressions. But again the student group expected the L1 to be used more often or one step higher in the frequency scale than that desired by the teacher group. (4) The teachers agreed that the use of the learner’s L1 was not desirable during speaking, listening, reading and writing activities. They were particularly negative about L1 use during speaking and listening activities. In contrast, the students indicated that the learner’s L1 can be used occasionally to very frequently during each of the four macro-skills activities. (5) In content-based non-language classes, the largest proportion of teacherrespondents had a positive opinion of the use of the learner’s L1, but, more than one third of the respondents said it was not desirable. As expected, this is compared with the response from the majority of the students who were positive about the learner’s L1 indicating that the learner’s L1 should be used frequently or all the time during the non-language classes. (6) The teacher group thought that the use of the learner’s L2 is important in L2 courses regardless of whether they are language skill-based or content-based. In addition, the teachers believed that the use of the learner’s L1 and switching between the L1 and L2 have negative effects on the learner’s learning process. In the meantime, the student group agreed with the teachers about the positive effect of the use of the L2 on the learner’s learning, but unlike teachers they were positive about the use of L1 in non-language classes and also the code-switching between L1 and L2 as being helpful for class management and understanding. (7) The majority of teachers agreed that their speed of utterance, pronunciation, use of appropriate vocabulary and the complexity of sentences and topics are all important ecological factors which would have an effect on the learner’s understanding. The teacher’s pronunciation and vocabulary in particular were considered to have more effect on learner’s understanding. The students, however, perceived the speed of utterance, pronunciation and the complexity of sentences as bigger factors in the learner’s comprehension ability.
110 (8) The teacher group thought that the use of an elaborated L2 would be more useful than a simplified L2 for the learner’s language acquisition although they did not have a clear cut common view regarding the form of classroom language. On the other hand, the student group preferred and regarded simplified conversational L2 more important than elaborated L2. (9) Both teachers and students had common views on the role of teacher as classroom instructor. However, the difference between them is that the teacher group were sticking to the stereotypical principal roles that are generally expected in formal educational settings, whereas the student group was strongly expecting roles as stimulator and adviser from the teacher as well. 5) Teaching Implications (1) The issue here is whether it is more helpful for second language acquisition to minimise or totally ban the use of the learner’s L1 in L2 learning settings as desired by the teachers in this survey, or whether it is more desirable to conduct classes with more flexible attitudes towards the use of the learner’s L1 as preferred by the student-respondents, particularly if we are to support the current practice of language teaching based on ‘learner-centred’ methodology. (2) The second implication is on the educational philosophies and the educational effects. As we have observed the teacher-respondents were divided in half and could not give a unified opinion on the questions about the content-based non-language classes, there is a question about whether the use of the L1 is desirable in nonlanguage courses like linguistics or society, and such a question falls under the educational philosophy of a particular institution as to whether the priority should be placed on the acquisition of language skills or the intake of knowledge and understanding. In looking at this question, the learner’s linguistic competence should also be examined along with the educational setting where the language is taught, but what is more important is to examine which method has more educational benefits for learners. (3) The third point to consider is which form of L2 will work better and be more beneficial for L2 acquisition. The teachers themselves in the survey were divided in half in their views on elaborated and simplified L2. As a reference, there are some studies in ESL (e.g. Parker and Chaudron, 1987) that show that the elaborated L2 was more effective to the acquisition of ESL but it appears that there has been no report on this topic in KFL or KSL thus far, and this is an area that requires a longitudinal classroom-based study. If such research proves that elaborated modifications are more valuable in terms of language acquisition, teachers should try to provide redundant information by repeating and paraphrasing teacher speech rather than simplifying it. (4) Lastly, the responses from the teachers in relation to the roles of teacher represent the typical perception about the traditional roles of teachers such as instructor and assessor. The question is whether this kind of typical perception is desirable in this global era where educational goals, settings and methodologies change, and the conventional teacher-student relationship is being re-established. This question should be examined in relation to such roles as motivator and guide, which were
111 low-valued by the teachers but were strongly expected by the students in the survey. The findings seem to implicitly indicate that rigid or flexible positions work commonly in forming perceptions of the use of the learner’s L1/L2 and the teacher’s role.
8.
Motivation and Learning Style Preferences 9
1) Aims: to investigate the motivational factors, learning experiences and learning-style preferences of the learners at the Sydney’ College (Ultimo) of TAFE NSW and to examine views on cultural components which should be placed in the language program and the learners’ first image or impression of Korea and Korean people. 2) Subjects: 81 respondents (54 female) and 27 male) studying Korean at the College; mostly in their 20s, from various ethnic backgrounds with Chinese background formed the largest portion (30%), followed by Anglo-Saxon or Scottish Australians, Vietnamese and Indonesians. Most respondents have studied Korean less than 1 year (61.7%) or about 1 year (27.2%). 3) Data collection: survey questionnaire consisting of four sections, ie. Reasons for the study of Korean language, learning experiences and expectation, learning-style preferences, and first image impression of Kore and Korean people. 4) Results (1) Why study Korean?: The following three reasons were shown to be very relevant to students’ choices: a) to understand TV drama and films in Korean; b) to hold conversations with Korean people; and c) found the Korean language interesting. Beside these reasons, three reasons receiving strong support from the students as being relevant or very relevant for their choices were: d) to have a personal relationship with Koreans; e) to be able to get around Korea; and f) to understand Korean people and their way of life. (2) For most respondents, job prospects, written correspondence, and Korean arts were not the immediate reasons for their study of Korean, and the capacity to understand newspapers and magazines, literary works and family influence on their motivation do not appear to be very relevant. 9
Source: Shin, S-C. (2009). “Students' Motivation, Learning Experiences and Learning-Style Preferences: A Survey on Australian College Students of Korean”. The Language and Culture 5-2. 31p (1-31). The Korean Language and Culture Education Society. ISSN: 1738-3641.
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(3) The results discussed above suggest that there were two important motivational factors influencing student choice. • A utility factor - the capacity to understand Korean drama and films; the aspiration to communicate in Korean; the hope to put the language to use overseas. • An interest factor - the interest in the Korean language itself; personal relationship with Koreans; an interest in Korean people and their way of life. (4) Learning experience and expectation: a) The most enjoyed aspects were: (a) Conversation and speaking practice; (b) Role-play, games and fun ways of teaching/learning; (c) Learning to read and write, and comprehension; (d) Learning the Hankul alphabet; (e) Learning Korean as a new language; (f) Korean songs, drama and films; b) The least enjoyed aspects were: (a) Grammar; (b) Vocabulary and pronunciation; (c) Learning numbers; (d) Homework and tests; (e) Classroom practices/management. c) The most interesting cultural aspects were: (a) Showing respect, relationships, and associated language; (b) Food, drinking and table manners; (c) Music, drama and films; (d) Way of life and way of thinking; (e) History; (f) Body language; (g) Traditional costume. d) Cultural aspects ‘I wish to learn more’ are: (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f)
Lifestyle, customs and daily life; Art, entertainment and media; Culture in the language; History; Food and cooking; Others (e.g. fashion, business, literature, education).
113 (5) Learning-Style Preferences: Two learning methods were most preferred, and these were learning by conversation practice in class (56.8%) and through pictures, films and videos (40.7%). This learning-style preference reflects the findings dealing with the aspects of language learning they most enjoyed, which was presented in the previous section. Other preferable learning methods include learning by error correction, writing something and doing something. Table: Learning-Style Preference Learning preferences By conversation in class Through pictures, TV drama and films My teacher to tell me all my mistakes By writing something Korean words by doing activities
No (%) out of 81 per item 46 (56.8) 33 (40.7) 26 (32.1) 25 (30.9) 21 (25.9)
(6) First image or impression of Korea and Korean people: a) The overwhelming majority of respondents gave very positive comments on Koreans, Korea and its culture, while some respondents gave mixed or neutral views. Comments on negative images or impressions were very minimal. b) The positive image or impression of Korean-speaking people that the students perceived is summarized in a variety of positive attributes such as ‘sincere, kind, lovely, respectful, polite, fun-loving, high spirited, friendly, hospitable, hardworking, honest, straight, interesting, humorous, proud, nice, gentle, close bond, welcoming, vibrant, united, neat, good-looking, good skin, stylish and good at arts and sports’. c) To them Korea was a country which has both old and new: ‘rich in culture’ with a ‘long history’ and yet ‘technologically advanced’. They perceived positive impressions of both traditional costumes and modern fashion. Two of the national brands, Tae-kwon-do and Kimchi, were among their first images of Korea, while Korean entertainment such as TV drama and music along with Korean celebrities greatly appealed to them. d) Some students commented in a neutral or dispassionate way. This feeling was expressed in contrastive words such as ‘proud and selfish’, ‘friendly but conservative’, ‘rude and romantic’ and ‘divided but rich in culture’. e) The comments on negative perceptions of Korea were minimal in number and were most likely based on the respondents’ own personal experience and observations. Most comments were made on the appearance, behaviour and quality of Korean people (eg.“Small eyes”; “Very formal”; “They smell like bulgogi (BBQ)”; “I felt that they are a bit insular keep to themselves”; “Blunt”; “Not good at English”). f) Generally speaking, the students’ statements on the first images or impressions the students received are fair and insightful in that the comments represent quite an accurate and balanced view on the typical character of Korea and its people. The respondents seem to have observed Korea from an international perspective and as objectively as they could. This is not a bad sign in terms of the students’
114 attitude towards Korean. Rather, it demonstrates the students’ analytical capacity, which could lead to a deeper understanding of Korea. 5) Implications (1) In short, the findings show that the respondents are very practical and integrative (rather than instrumental) about their learning of Korean, and very positive about the target country and its people. They wish to learn conversational Korean through fun language activities, to be aware of everyday life in Korea with updated information and to do something interesting, for example, something relating to food, cooking and entertainment culture. It is desirable that the Korean program at the College and other institutions with similar educational goals and settings should reflect the findings. (2) If this type of vocational Korean program is to be successful, it is important to have internal and external demand basis, have an easy access to transport and be easily accessible by anyone who is interested in Korean. (3) Furthermore, it is desirable to set up a socio-educational program or institution in metropolitan cities such as Sydney in collaboration with the Korean government initiative such as the King Sejong Institute project initiated and managed by the Korean Ministry of Culture, Sports and Education. To promote Korean widely in the community, it is inadequate to rely only on education through school and university programs. We need not only elite-oriented tertiary or systematic educational programs but also a well-structured community-based life-long education program. (4) In addition to the Hallyu (Korean Wave) phenomenon (eg. K-Pop),which has gained considerable popularity among the Asian migrant community in Sydney and other big cities, there are a considerable number of Australians such as public servants, business people, families of international marriages, families with adopted Korean children who need, or wish to have access to community-based Korean programs. Both institutional and community efforts should be made in providing more non-award socio-educational models of Korean programs for the general public, government employees and business people in the community. 9. Language Use and Maintenance 10 1) Aims: to address issues of Korean migrant children’s language use and maintenance that are faced by the Korean community in multicultural Australia, and to examine whether or how “Hallyu” or Korean Wave, which is a vigorous socio-cultural phenomena in Asia and beyond, has impacted on the maintenance of language and cultural practices.
10
Source: Shin S-C (2008). “Language Use and Maintenance in Korean Migrant Children in Sydney”, Teaching Korean as a Foreign Language, 33: 139-168. KLI Institute of Language Research and Education. ISSN 1598-8201.
115 2) Subjects: 149 children (88 girls/59.1% and 61 boys/40.9%) attending three Korean community schools; Years 4-6 primary and Years 7-9 junio high; their age range was from 9 to 16, with 10 (17.7%) to 12 (25.2%) years of age being the largest group. A large group of respondents were in Year 7 (37 or 25%), Year 4 (31 or 20.9%) and Year 6 (26 or 17.6%); The length of stay in Australia was 5 to 15 years (except one 16 years) with the mean length of residence in Australia being 8.8 years. 3) Data collection: survey questionnaire consisting of four sections: background data; frequency of language use; language preference; and socio-cultural aspects and language learning. 4) Results (1) Frequency of language use: The age of the interlocutors has great influence on the language chosen. With their grandparents (60.0%), parents (36.7%) and other Korean adults (47.0%) the response of ‘always’ using Korean is in stark contrast to ‘always’ using Korean with their siblings (13.7%) and their Korean friends (10.1% and 13.5%). This is probably due to a large extent to the language abilities and preferences of the interlocutors. In other words, some children would use Korean with adults as part of the process of developing their ethnic identity. However, in many cases it is more likely that they would choose to use Korean themselves or be requested to use Korean at home or in community situations. Table 1: Frequency of Use of Korean (%) Interlocutors
Always Usually
Sometimes Rarely Never
1) with grandparents 2) with parents 3) with other Korean adults 4) with siblings 5) with Korean friends at school 6) with Korean friends when socialising 7) in dreams 8) in prayer
60.0 36.7 47.0 13.7 10.1
10.7 37.3 34.2 25.3 23.0
12.7 19.3 13.4 30.8 24.3
6.7 6.7 2.7 17.8 31.1
10.0 11 0 2.7 12.3 11.5
13.5
25.0
36.5
18.9
6.1
12.8 20.1
14.2 18.1
21.6 34.9
18.9 13.4
32.4 13.4
(2) The extent that the respondents participated in the Korean community by visiting various venues or participating in community events was also investigated. The single biggest influence is that of Korean churches where 67.1% of the respondents attended on a weekly basis. But if we look at the overall trend of the cumulated frequencies Korean shops have greater influence. 11
It is possible that 10% of the respondents did not have grandparents (e.g. as they had passed away), did not yet have a chance to talk with them or talked in languages (e.g. English) other than Korean.
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Table 2: Visiting Korean Venues and Participating in Korean Events (%) Venues and Events Churches / temples Shops Restaurants Functions /events
Weekly 67.1 57.7 14.0 20.8
Monthly 4.0 11.4 28.2 16.7
Sometimes 12.0 28.9 49.7 50.0
Seldom 8.7 1.3 8.1 22.2
Never 8.0 0.7 0 9.0
(3) The influence exerted by the Korean mass media was also investigated. The Korean mediaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s biggest influence was from Korean songs with 45.9% of the respondents listening to Korean songs most days of the week. But visual media (videos, DVDs, TV) have a greater overall effect than any other media. More students listen to Korean music or watch videos on a day to day basis, but newspapers (or magazines) and radio programs do not seem to have much appeal as 61.1% seldom or never read them and an overwhelming 82.3% seldom or never listen to Korean radio programs. Table 3: Frequency of Use of Korean Media (%) Media
Most days
Weekly
Sometimes
Seldom Never
Newspapers / magazines Videos, DVDs, TV Radio Songs
6.3 36.7 5.4 45.9
14.6 20.4 3.4 14.4
18.1 29.9 8.8 24.7
21.5 8.8 20.4 8.9
39.6 4.1 61.9 6.2
(4) Contact with people in Korea: The frequency of using emails or the internet in communicating with Korea is much higher than that of post as expected, at 20% on a fortnightly basis and 39.3% on a monthly or less frequent basis. 40.7% seldom or never email or chat on the internet with people in Korea. The means which was most frequently used by the respondents in contact with Korea was phone calls, with 30% phoning on a fortnightly basis and 52.1% on a monthly or occasional basis. The majority (62.3%) of respondents seldom or never communicated with Korea by post. Table 4: Frequency of Contact with People in Korea Means of contact Phone Emails /internet Post
Fortnightly 30.0 20.0 3.5
Monthly 18.1 10.3 0.9
Sometimes 34.0 29.0 24.8
Seldom 11.1 11.7 24.1
Never 6.9 29.0 38.2
(5) Language Preference: The students were asked whether they read English or Korean language books other than those required to be read for school. 19.4% of
117 the respondents did not read for pleasure. Among those who read for pleasure and answered the question about the type of books they read, overwhelming 87.6% show overall preference for English books with only 12.4% preferring or strongly preferring Korean books. Table 5: Types of Books Read for Pleasure Questions Reading for pleasure?
Type of books?
Answers Yes No TOTAL English books only More English books More Korean books Korean books only TOTAL U/A
% 80.6 19.4 100 33.6 54.0 10.6 1.8 100
(6) Types of Friends: The students were asked if they had more Korean friends than non-Korean friends or not, 60.4% said that they had more or only non-Korean friends, with 39.6% having more or only Korean friends. Table 6: Types of Friends Types of friends Korean friends only More Korean friends More non-Korean friends Non-Korean friends only TOTAL
% 1.9 37.7 47.2 13.2 100
(7) The language use in reply: The students were asked how often they used English in reply to a Korean stimulus. The respondents were more likely to reply in English to a Korean stimulus with others of a similar age than adults. They used English in reply to their parents (39.5%) more often than other adults (30.6%), and with their friends (65.3%) than with their siblings (58.6%). The interaction with adults was more likely to be bilingual between Korean and English, with more frequent replies in Korean to other adults.
Table 7: Frequency of Reply in English when Spoken to in Korean (%)
118 Interlocutors Friends Siblings Parents Other adults
Always 26.4 23.4 18.0 18.8
Often 38.9 35.2 21.5 11.8
Sometimes 22.9 27.6 31.3 25.7
Seldom 6.9 5.5 18.8 20.8
Never 4.9 8.3 10.4 22.9
(8) Easier language: The students were asked as to the language they found easier for each of the four language skills, i.e. speaking, listening, reading and writing. In all four skills English was perceived as being much easier than Korean. The greatest margin was for writing, where 82.6% found English easier. Table 8: Easier Language in Four Skills (%) Language skills Speaking (N=135) Listening (N=136) Reading (N=134) Writing (N=132)
English 75.6 66.2 80.6 82.6
Korean 20.0 29.4 14.9 13.6
U/A 4.4 4.4 4.5 3.8
(9) Overall preference: The respondents were then asked about their overall preference for using English or Korean. They showed 49.3% preferring English, only 13.8% preferring Korean and 29.7% having preference in either language, while 7.2% having not decided or answered. Overall, a large number of respondents who gave comments said that they found English easier and were more comfortable with it than Korean, so they preferred to use English in everyday situations, but at the same time many others were confident in and comfortable with both Korean and English and/or recognised the need to use Korean. (10) Socio-cultural aspects and learning Korean: Students were asked about whether they felt they were motivated to learn more Korean by cultural activities performed by visiting high-profile Korean entertainers. The majority (60.4%) of the respondents agreed or strongly agreed to that motivational factor while 38.8% disagreed or strongly disagreed to that idea. Similarly, more than the half (58.3%) of them were also motivated by Korean community events and cultural activities but the remaining students did not agree.
Table 9: Motivation Influenced by Hallyu and Community Events
119 Answers Strongly agree Agree Disagree Strongly disagree U/A TOTAL
Visiting stars & entertainers % 5.6 54.8 25.3 13.5 0.8 100
Community Events % 3.8 54.5 31.8 9.1 0.8 100
(11) Interested cultural activities: The students were asked about what Korean cultural activities/aspects they are interested in or wish to learn about. They were more interested in food/cooking (30.8%), followed by songs and music (27.3%) and dances (11.6%). Table 10: Socio-Cultural Activities Favoured by Students Activities Songs and music Dances Student/family life Food/cooking Pot-making Korean painting Brush-writing TOTAL
% 27.3 11.6 9.9 30.8 7.0 7.6 5.8 100
(12) Motivating factors: The students were asked about the most important motivating factors for studying Korean. The four reasons receiving strong support (10% or more) from the students as being most important were: • Family and relatives (26.9%) • Korean way of life and culture (14.9%) • Korean media, music and films (13.4%) • Travel (10%) 5) Summary and implications (1) The respondents seem to make distinctions between the languages they need to use ‘inside’ and ‘outside’, and according to interlocutors. The students clearly indicated that they chose to use Korean in conversations with grandparents, parents and other Korean adults but they preferred not to use Korean (i.e. preferred to use English) in all other situations given in the question. It appears that this separate everyday language management is related to family policy factors including parental language attitudes (Schwartz 2008). (2) This result was reinforced by the language preference indicated by the students. They were strongly in favour of English in all other areas in question such as book
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(3)
(4) (5)
(6)
(7)
(8)
(9)
reading, friends, verbal response and language skills. English books were preferred overall to Korean books, and they had more non-Korean friends. The test of language preference provided by the question about answering in English when spoken to in Korean showed reasonable ‘loyalty’ to Korean in replying to their parents or other adults but a strong preference to English in replying to their friends and siblings. The strong majority of the respondents found English easier to use than Korean in all four macro-skills areas. The majority agreed that visiting Korean entertainers and local community events provided a certain influence on their motivation to study Korean. However, they were more interested in contemporary cultural elements such as food, music and dances, with minimal interest in ‘traditional’ cultural activities such as brushwriting, pot-making and Korean painting. Overall, their motivational factors to study and maintain Korean came from integrative orientation: language of family, Korean way of life and Korean entertainment. Ethnic communities in Australia vary in their relative emphasis on the core values of their culture (Smolicz et al. 2001), and the children in the Korean community placed their emphasis on those three factors as their core values. It is clear that the subject group was integratively motivated. They were interested in studying their or their parents’ mother tongue in order to be able to identify with their family, or because they were interested in understanding the culture and way of life of Korean people. If the students enjoy studying Korean for family reasons for now, this might well encourage positive attitudes to further integrative or instrumental reasons with the growing maturity of the students and their increasing concern with job opportunities. This type of change in attitudes may be further facilitated when “social distance” (Shuman 1976)—cultural, technical, economic and political status—between Australia and Korea is perceived to be closer, heightened and tangible. In the process of developing children’s attitudes towards the language of their family, it is probably parents or family who play the most influential role. The results of this survey indicate that the attitudes and motivation of the students were closely related to immediate family and cultural reasons mostly encouraged by their parents and community.
10. Other Research Studies on Korean language policy include: Shin, S-C. (2010). “Strategic Direction and Tasks for the Global Expansion of Korean Language Education”. Journal of the International Network for Korean Language and Culture 7-2: 93-119. The International Network for Korean Language and Culture. ISSN: 1738-2793.
121 Shin, S-C. (2010). The Current State of Korean Language Education in Australian Schools. Carlton South, Vic: Education Services Australia. (funded by the Australian Government DEEWR under the School Languages Program and managed by Asia Education Foundation).
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Chapter 3: Teaching Korean Culture
This chapter presents Koreans’ cultural practices, relevant linguistic elements and cultural activities which can be conducted in Korean language classes at schools. The descriptions in this chapter are extracted, summarised or modified mainly from Chang H., S-C. Shin and S-O. Lee (1998) 12. Some details have been modified to provide up-to-date information or suit the purpose of this reference book. 1. Insa (greetings) – the Korean Way 1) Cultural Notes (1) Greetings: Korean culture takes manners very seriously and as a means of showing respect. In Western countries including Australia, shaking hands is very common as a "greeting", but in Korea, bowing is a more common "greeting". Bowing is done in a number of different ways, depending on the situation and some other factors such as age, relationship and status. In Korean culture, people often perform a bow while shaking hands. In some situations, shaking hands is performed differently from the way what the Westerners (Australians) normally do. When two Koreans who have a “power” relationship shake hands, the junior or younger person is expected to use two hands rather than one. The right hand is actually used to shake hands, whilst at the same time, the left hand grasps the right wrist, as a sign of respect. (2) 45 degree bow: This is the most commonly practised bowing and is normally performed when bowing to a superior or senior person. The superior or senior person then usually responds by nodding or bowing to a slightly lower degree. (3) Exchanging Business Cards (myeongham): In Korea, the first step to establish any business relationship is the exchange of mywongham. It is an essential part of any first-time business meeting. Koreans feel comfortable when they know and see who they are meeting. Myeongham has several different styles and normally includes one’s contact details. Some people use Korean alphabet only but a mixture of Korean and Chinese characters is more common. Depending on the type of work, an English version may also be provided, usually on the back of the card. These days some put their photos and even a message. Whatever it takes, it is important to create the best possible impression of your workplace and yourself. Proper manners are also essential in exchanging myeongham. 2) Linguistic Elements and References The following lists provide the basic minimum vocabulary and sentence patterns required for the relevant activities. Depending on the interests and needs of students in a 12
Chang, Hyun, Seong-Chul Shin and Sang-Oak Lee (1998). Ancillary Cultural Materials for Teaching Korean as a Second Language. National Korean Studies Centre [defunct] and the Department of Education, Employment, Training and Youth Affairs.
123 particular activity, teachers are encouraged to add vocabulary and grammatical items that they consider useful. (1) Activity 1: Bowing a) Vocabulary: 인사, 절, 목례, 공손히, 반갑게, 조용히, 인사하다, 절하다, 머리/고개를 숙이다, 꿇다, 허리를 굽히다, 45도, 90도, -쯤, 윗 사람, 아랫 사람, 만나다, 먼저, 어깨, 손, 무릎, 위치, 건네다, 받다, 손목을 쥐다. b) Structural Patterns: - -를/을 VS+(으)ㄹ 때 (만날 때) - -를 숙여 인사하- 좀 더(머리를/고개를) 숙이-. c) References: - Types of dress: 한복, 양복, 치마, 저고리, 복 주머니 - Speech tones: 조용히, 공손히, 얌전하게, 다소곳이 - Types of insa: 목례, 45도 절, 90도 절, 큰 절, 거수경례 - New Year’s bow and gift: 세배와 세뱃돈. (2) Activity 2: Shaking Hands a) Vocabulary: 악수, 악수하다, 손을 내밀다, 오른손, 왼손, 손목, 두 손, 받쳐들다, 잡다, 고개/머리를 숙이다, 윗 사람, 아랫 사람, 먼저, 나중에, 가볍게, 흔들다. b) Structural Patterns: - -VS+면 (손을 내밀면, 악수를 신청하면) - -VS+(으)면서 (손을 내밀면서, 고개를 숙이면서) - A(으)로 B를/을 받쳐들- (왼손으로 오른손을 받쳐들-). c) References: - Shaking hands between friends, young and old, and men and women - Shaking hands at business meeting situations - Postures and positions of body parts when shaking hands. (3) Activity 3: Exchanging (Business) Cards a) Vocabulary: 명함, 제, 여기, 이름, 이다, 아니다, 있다, 없다, 대학교, 대학생,
124 공손히, 주다, 감사하다, 회사, 주소, 전화 번호, 팩스, 뒷면, 한문, 영문, 사진. b) Structural Patterns: -
Formal-polite style Respectful Language: e.g. 주다-드리다 -VS+(으)(시)면 (있으시면) 선생님의 ( )를/을 좀 주시겠습니까? (e.g. 명함) 제 ( )입니다.
c) References: - Types of myeongham - Standard positions of information on cards - Proper manners in exchanging cards. 3) Cultural activities (1) Activity 1: Bowing a) Task: Students are to take turns in conducting different types of bows. b) Instruction for teachers: The teacher may choose to show the students some visual materials including video, which contain different typeas of bows and/or to demonstrate with some brief explanations. Divide the students into pairs and appoint a ‘senior’ or ‘superior’ in each pair to conduct (practice) bowing according to the situation. c) Instructions for students: 45 degree Insa: - Look at the person’s face but not directly into their eyes; - Head down about 45 degrees, as a sign of respect, and your eyes look at the floor; - Both hands should hang naturally down beside your legs. Do not swing them or put them in your pocket. (2) Activity 2: Shaking hands a) Task: Students are to shake hands with one another appropriately. b) Instructions for teachers: The teacher may choose to show the students some visual materials inclusing video, which contain different types of handshaking and/or to demonstrate with some brief explanations. Divide the students into pairs and set up the situation, e.g. ‘junior/senior’, between classmates, men/boys and women/girls. The teacher make sure that students make these actions gently with proper demeanour.
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c) Instructions for students: Between a ‘senior’ and a ‘junior’: - The ‘senior’ person has to offer his hand first; - The ‘junior’ person gently grasps the senior’s hand, with the left hand of junior supporting his right wrist, as a show of respect for the senior; - While shaking hands, the junior person also does a simple bow as a sign of respect. Between close friends (in the same or similar age): - It does not matter who offers the hand first; - You do not normally use two hands; - Shake your friend’s right hand. You may gently pat the back of your friend’s shoulder. Between a man/boy and a woman/girl: - If a boy is senior, he can offer his hand to a girl and the procedure will be the same as for ‘between a senior and a junior’ above. - If a girl is senior, she can offer her hand to any man or woman, and the procedure will be the same as for ‘between close friends’ above. - Note that, in Korea, shaking hands between a man/boy and a woman/girl is not customary and is practiced in limited circumstances. (3) Activity 3: Exchanging Myeongham a) Task: Students are to make their own myeongham and exchange with one another in a culturally appropriate manner. b) Instructions for teachers: The teacher is to show the students the standard format of myongham and some authentic Korean myongham. Students are then to design/make a number of their own myongham with genuine or imaginary details. When they are ready, set up the situation, where students exchange their cards in pairs and/or in groups. c) Instructions for students: When you receive a business card from a senior person: - Stand and receive the card with two hands as a show of respect; - Say ‘thank you’ in Korean and perform a simple bow; - Briefly read it and lay it on the table in front of you during the conversation; - Then put it in your wallet or card holder politely. Do not put it in your back pocket. When you give a away your business card to a senior person: - Have your myongham ready; - Stand, and hold out your myongham with the written information facing the
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receipient so that it can be read straight away; Give it with two hands with a simple bow. You may say ‘(This) is my myongham.’ at this time. While giving your myongham, be sure to pronounce your name and the name of institution you are affiliated with.
4) Suggested Topics for Discussions (1) What social gestures are more commonly practised by Koreans? (2) What are the differences in roles and manner of performance of handshaking in Western versus Korean culture? (3) How do the interpersonal relationships operate in Korea? What are the important factors which determine the choice of gestures? (4) In what ways should you present your myeongham? What would you do when you receive a myeongham from someone else, particularly from a senior person.
2. Family Tree and Family Motto 1) Culture Notes (1) Family: Korea is one of the most family-oriented countries in the world. The traditional family in Korea is where family members from two or three generations live in the same house and share the same family rules. However, the way in which a family is formed differs from period to period and society to society. In modern Korean society, family life is changing rapidly with modernisation and the improvement of the social status of women. The number of people in the family is smaller than it was before, producing the so called nuclear family. The younger generation does not have a traditional family concept as the older generation. Lifestyles have also changed a lot over time and been affected by "Western" society and values. (2) Jokbo (Family Genealogy): From around the 16th century, Koreans began to trace their family origins and to compile a genealogical table as the family legacy. The genealogical table details the history of one’s family, important historical events and the achievements of ancestors who distinguished themselves as officials or scholars. The record of each family unit contains the personal data of the family head and family members. In this way, the family table functions as a vertical record of generations forming a family line. The most common Korean surnames which cover the majority of the population are 김, 이, 박, 안, 장, 조, 최, 정, 한, 강, 유 and 윤. (3) Family Motto: In Korea, family values are seen as very important. Each member of the family is well aware that the family should be placed first, be peaceful and disciplined as the home is believed to form the basis for social life. Traditionally, the head of the family, the grandfather or father chooses a particular motto to guide the family members. Family mottoes are handed down to the younger generation to maintain the tradition of the family and naturally contribute to a strong bond
127 between family members. (4) Calligraphy: Traditionally, calligraphy was the art of a gentleman. Nowadays, people don’t practice calligraphy as an essential requirement to be a gentleman, but the tradition continues. Some people take it as a profession, some others practice it as their favorite hobby. A considerable number of women also spend their time and money learning or practising calligraphy. Many primary and secondary school students choose a calligraphy class in their extra-curricular hour. If you visit Korean homes, the chances are you will see calligraphic works hanging on the wall of the living room or main bedroom. The content of the works usually express family mottoes. 2) Linguistic Elements and References The following lists provide the basic minimum vocabulary and sentence patterns that are required for the relevant activities. Depending on the interests and needs of students in a particular activity, teachers are encouraged to add vocabulary and grammatical items that they consider useful. (1) Activity 1: Family Trees a) Vocabulary: Kinship terms: 나, 어머니/엄마, 아버지/아빠, 할아버지, 할머니, 외할아버지, 외할머니, 오빠/형, 누나/언니, 남동생, 여동생, 삼촌, 고모, 고모부, 작은 아버지/숙부, 작은 어머니/숙모, 이모, 이모부, 사촌, 조카. Occupation (optional): 교사, 간호사, 주부, 고등학생, 중학생, 초등학생, 대학생, 세일즈맨, 회사원, 비서, 사서, 전기공, 기술자, 사업가, 의사, 요리사, 농부, 사진사, 교수, 이발사, 실업자, 변호사, 목사, 경비원, 과학자, 정치가, 목사, 스님, 비구니 스님, 신부님, 수녀님, 대학교 총장. b) Structural Patterns - VS + (으)세요. - Adverbials (e.g. 예쁘게, 크게, 둥글게)+ 그리다/쓰다. - Noun + 위에 / 옆에 / 아래에 / 안에 Noun + 를/을 써 넣다. c) References - Typical Korean family names - A genealogy (족보) and family system/unit - Social trends towards occupational preference. (2) Activity 2: Family Motto in Calligraphy a) Vocabulary: 가훈, 붓, 벼루, 먹, 종이, 벼루받침, 종이받침, 물, 붓글씨/서예, 잡다, 갈다, 붓다, 쓰다, 천천히, 살짝, 똑바로, 이렇게, 내리다, 찍다, 돌리다, 흘리다,
128 적시다, 정하다, 써보다. b) Structural Patterns: - VS + 고 (e.g. 잡고, 돌리고, 쓰고) - VS + 지 마 - (e.g. 아직 쓰지 마-). c) References: - Historical backgrounds of a calligraphy and Hangeul calligraphic styles (e.g. 흘림체, 궁체, 고체) - Sa-gun-ja (the Four Gracious Plants: plum, orchid, chrysanthemum and bamboo) - Well known calligraphers and family mottoes (e.g. 가화만사성). 3) Cultural Activities (1) Acitivity 1: Family Trees a) Task: Students are to make up their own family trees. b) Instructions for teachers: The teacher may choose to show the students some pictures and/or photos of Korean families. Hand out some examples of family trees. After doing some work on vocabulary and some basic sentence structures, students are directed to make up their own family trees. c) Instructions for students: - Using the paper provided, draw your own family tree; - Label your family members in Korean; - In addition to kinship terms, label the names, ages and/or occupations of the family members as well; - Using an OHP or Powerpoint, introduce your family members to the class. (2) Activity 2: Family Motto in Calligraphy a) Task: Students are to write their own family motto in calligraphy. b) Instructions for teachers: The teacher first will need to have a brainstorming session for family mottos, or students to create their own family mottoes as their homework and bring them to the calligraphy session. Show the students some examples of typical Korean family mottos which are relatively easy to understand. It does not have to be a set phrase of Chinese-derived words and in fact, students should be encouraged to use the words and expressions they have learned as much as possible. Next, the teacher may choose to show the students some pictures displaying the proper position of each calligraphy tool on the desk and to explain how to grind the ink stick on the ink-stone, how to hold the brush and how to write each syllable/stroke.
129 c) Instructions for students: - First, think about and construct your family motto; - Show the draft to your teacher and if necessary alter the wording; - Lay a mat or newspaper on your desk; - Place the calligraphy tools in the appropriate position on the desk; - Put a spoonful of water in the ink-stone and slowly grind the ink stick until it produces dark black ink. Use your brush to test the colour of the ink; - When satisfactory, practice some syllables and words with your brush on a newspaper several times before actually writing on the blank paper; - When you fell a little confident, move your brush to the calligraphy paper and write your family motto. 4) Suggested Topics for Discussions (1) What was the traditional structure of the Korean family, and how has that changed in modern society? (2) How important is genealogy to Koreans? What is included in the genealogical record? (3) What is the role of family mottos for Koreans? What are some usual themes of family mottos? (4) What historical and cultural importance does calligraphy have in Korean society? What are the tools of Korean calligraphy? How are they used?
3. Hanbok and Jeol (Traditional deep bow) 1) Cultural Notes (1) Hanbok: The traditional Korean costume called hanbok varies with the distinct weather of the four seasons. As a symbol of Korean traditional culture, the development of hanbok mirrors the changing patterns of Korean life. It is well known for the characteristic beauty of its curving lines. The unique beauty of hanbok is further highlighted by its unique color match. (2) Hanbok clothes are worn by Koreans of all ages, particularly on traditional holidays and when attending social affairs having a Korean overtone. Some of the basic elements of today’s hanbok, namely the jeogori (jacket), baji (trousers) and durumagi (overcoat), were probably worn at a very early date, but it was not until the Three Kingdoms period that the two-piece costume of today began to evolve. Today’s hanbok are patterned after those worn by women of yangban (upper class) households during Joseon. Yangban women wore wrap-around chima 12 pok (a width of cloth) wide and lapped it on the left side while commoners were prohibited from wearing chima of more than 10 or 11 pok and were required to lap it on the right. (3) Jeol (Traditional bow): Requires a junior or younger person to kneel down on the floor, with proper postures. It is normally practised on special days (e.g. New Year’s Day) or at traditional ceremonies (e.g. a wedding, ancestor worship rituals
130 and funerals). The recipient of jeol is usually someone who is of an older generation in the family (e.g. grandparents and parents) or someone who commands personal respect for some other reasons (e.g. a teacher). 2) Linguistic Elements and References (1) Activity 1: Hanbok a) Vocabulary: 한복, 바지, 저고리, 치마, 속치마, 속바지, 소매, 동정, 고름, 대님, 조끼, 마고자, 허리띠, 두루마기, 버선, 단추, 고무신, 입다, 벗다, 신다, 매다, 손을 포개다, 머리를 숙이다, 무릎을 꿇다, 앉다. b) Structural Patterns: - VS + 고 - VS + ㄴ / 은 다음 / 후에; VS + 고 나서 - VS + (으)세요. c) References: - Types of Hanbok and occasions to wear them. - Hanbok and its historical development. - Colors and design of Hanbok. - Special days and Hanbok. (2) Activity 2: Jeol a) Vocbulary: 한 발, 두 발, 뒤로, 물러서다, 오른손, 왼손, 위에, 아래에, 가볍게, 포개다, 바닥에 대다, 무릎를 구부리다. 무릎을 꿇다, 머리를 숙이다, 천천히, 일어나다, 앉다, 우아하게. b) Structural Patterns: - VS+(으)면서 (손을 대면서, 머리를 숙이면서) - VS+ㄴ/은 채로 (무릎을 꿇은 채로, 앉은 채로) - 손을 모으다, 발을 모으다. c) References: - Types of insa: 절 - New Year’s bow and gift: 세배와 세뱃돈 - Special occasions and 절 3) Cultural Activities (1) Activity 1: Hanbok
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a) Task: Students are to try on Hanbok. b) Instructions for teachers: The teacher will need to show the students some visual materials including videos about various types of hanbok. Give some explanations about its historical and cultural background. Then demonstrate how to wear a hanbok. c) Instructions for students: Men/boys: - Trousers – tighten the baggy trousers by folding a tuck at the waist and fasten with a tie. - An inner jacket – tie the coat strings so that the collar ends line up; - Traditional sock – tie ankle bands; - Vest – At this time, make sure that the vest is lined up with the jacket; - Overjacket – make sure that the jacket’s sleeves do not protrude out from the overjacket; - Overcoat – used when attending a ritual ceremony or going out. Women/girls: - Inner bloomer and then petticoat; - Skirt. Tighten the skirt by overlapping the right hem over the left one; - Inner jacket; - Socks, with its curving nose pointed upward; - Jacket. Line up the fastening strings. Ensure that the jacket covers the white seam of the skirt; - Trinket. Thread the trinket loop on a coat string before fastening it with another string; - Overcoat – used when going out; It is proper to wear a scarf neatly around the neck; and - Traditional shoes. (2) Activity 2: Jeol a) Task: Students are to learn how to jeol (traditional deep bow). b) Instructions for teachers: The teacher will need to show the students some visual materials including videos about how to conduct jeol. Give some explanations about its historical and cultural background. Then demonstrate how to do jeol. The instructor may take the role as a recipient of jeol ot appoint a student. The teacher need to make sure that students make this practice with proper demeanour. c) Instructions for students: Ordinary male jeol: - Put your right leg one step backward and bend knees to touch floor;
132 - Touch the floor with two hands and bend the head slowly over one’s hands; - Rise slowly and move one or two steps backward with two hands gathered together; and - Then, wait for senior person’s advice or words of encouragement. Ordinary female jeol: - Move your left leg one step backwards and, with your right leg folded upward, sit down on the floor gracefully; - The hands go down to touch the floor to support the body; - Bend the hand as a gesture of salute; and - Stand up and listen to senior person’s advice or words of encouragement. 4) Suggested Topics for Discussions (1) Describe how to put on a male or female hanbok. What are the main parts of a hanbok? What different types are there? (2) What kind of Korean dresses do you know? What colours are favoured in Korean dresses? (3) What historical and cultural significance does hanbok have for Koreans? (4) How is jeol different from other types of Korean insa? (5) On what special occasions is usually jeol conducted?
4.
Korean Food
1) Cultural Notes (1) Korean food consists of a wide variety of grains and side dishes. Rice, either plain or cooked with other grains, is the main dish at all Korean meals. Rice is accompanied by a variety of side dishes that vary greatly according to the region and the season. In general, the Korean diet is high in grains and vegetables which add much fibre to the diet, moderate but adequate in protein, both meat and vegetables, moderate in calories, and low in fat and sugar. It provides a wellbalanced diet, but may be a bit high in salt if soy sauce is used heavily. It may or may not be red peppery hot; it is a matter of individual taste. (2) A formal dinner usually consists of a number of different kinds of food and if it is a special occasion, such as a first birthday, wedding, sixty-first birthday or other festive occasion, several kinds of dishes are added on top of everyday meals. Barbecued Beef in Korean style called pulgogi (literally meaning ‘fire meat’) is the most favoured worldwide. Thinly sliced tender beef is marinated with a seasoning mixture of soy sauce, chopped garlic and green onions, sugar, toasted sesame seeds, sesame oil, and black pepper, then, barbecued. (3) On the day of the full moon in the eighth month of the lunar calendar, known as chuseok, the joy of the harvest is celebrated in traditional chuseok rites offered to family ancestors, by the cooking of new rice and the making of songpyeon. This half-moon-shaped rice cake is an important food to celebrate chuseok on the full
133 moon day and night. (4) The flavor and color of songpyeon differ with the addition of mugwort, pine endodermis, and gardenia to the rice flour. This is then kneaded with boiling water and kept in a small damp cloth so that it may be kept for a long time, without drying out. Ingredients such as hulled red beans, new season green mung beans, honey and sugar are mixed with salt to give flavor as a filling to the songpyeon. Small pieces of songpyeon dough are broken off, about the size of a chestnut, and a curved well is made in the center, into which the filling is placed and then the songpyeon are shaped like a half moon. Pine needles are placed in between layers of songpyeon inside an earthenware steamer, and then steamed and rinsed swiftly in cold water and covered lightly in sesame seed oil. 2) Linguistic Elements and References (1) Activity 1: Cooking Bulgogi (Korean BBQ) a) Vocabulary: 고기, 불고기, 쇠고기, 설탕, (큰)숟가락, 양파, 간장, 깨소금, 참기름, 후추, 상추, 깻잎, 마늘, 실파, 술(청주), 부드럽게 (하다/만들다), 얇게, 썰다, 저미다, 절이다, 재우다, 넣다, 섞다, 주무르다, 굽다, 양념, 재료. b) Structural Patterns: - (고기)를 얇게 썰다/저미다 - -을 (술/소금물)에 절이다/재우다 - -을 (술)에 부드럽게 하다/만들다 - (기름)과 (후추)를 넣다/섞다 - 굽다, 굽고/구우니, 구워 c) References: - Names of Spices (설탕, 간장, 깨소금, 참기름, 후추, 마늘, 실파). - Names of Meat (쇠고기, 돼지고기, 닭고기, 양고기). (2) Activity 2: Making Sonpyeon a) Vocabulary: 떡, 송편, 추석, (햅)쌀, 가루, (송편)소, 쑥, 팥, 녹두, 콩, 꿀, 깨, 대추, 밤, 삶다, 체, 치다, 반죽, 빚다, 솔잎, 깔다, 시루, 찌다, 찬물, 헹구다, 참기름, 바르다. b) Structural Patterns: - (밤)을 (물)에 삶다 - (가루)를 (체)에 치다 - (솔잎)을 (시루)에 깔다 - (떡)을 (시루)에 찌다
134 -
(떡)을 (찬물)에 헹구다 (참기름)을 (떡)에 바르다
c) References: - Names of grains (쌀, 보리, 콩, 팥, 녹두, 깨, 옥수수, 수수, 율무, 조). - Names of rice cakes (떡, 흰떡, 송편, 증편, 시루떡, 무지개떡, 인절미). 3) Cultural Acitivities (1) Activity 1: Cooking Bulgogi a) Task: Students are to learn how to prepare and cook bulgogi. b) Instructions for teachers: The teacher may choose to show the students some pictures and/or photos of bulgogi. Then introduce the ingredients: 600g of top round or tenderloin of beef, 3 tbsp of sugar, 2 tbsp of chopped garlic, 6 tbsp of soy sauce, 1 tbsp of powdered sesame mixed with salt, 2 tbsp of sesame oil, black pepper, lettuce, garland chrysanthemum, sesame leaves, garlic ans small green onion. Divide the class into small groups to prepare the dish in cooperation. c) Instructions for students: - Slice the beef thinly and score lightly with a knife to make it more tender. Cut it into bite-sized pieces and marinate it in the sugar (and optionally rice wine). - Mix the marinated beef thoroughly with the soy sauce, chopped garlic, sesame salt, and sesame oil. - Broil the seasoned beef over hot charcoal on a grill or in a fry pan. Alternative, you may use an oven-broiler heated to 570F for ten minutes. Bulgogi is often served with lettuce and/or sesame leaves, chrysanthemum and minced garlic. (2) Acvitity 2: Making songpyeon a) Task: Students are to learn how to prepare and make songpyeon. b) Instructions for teachers: The teacher may choose to show the students some pictures and/or photos of songpyeon. Introduce the ingredients: 10 cups of rice, 1 tbsp of sugar, ½ teaspoon of honey, 1 teasppoon of salt, ½ tbsp of sesame oil, pine needles, ½ cup of jujubes, ½ cup of chestnuts, ½ teaspoon o f cinnamon, ½ cup of green (mung) beans, 2 tbsp of roasted and ground sesame seeds, and ½ cup of red beans. Divide the class into small groups for them to work together in preparing songpyeon. c) Instructions for students:
135 -
-
After washing the rice well in water, let it soak in water overnight. The next day, drain the rice and grind it together with a little salt. Mix the ground rice flour well by hand, then put it through a sieve. Add ½ cup of boiling sugar water to 3 cups of the ground rice flour and knead well. After kneading, wrap the dough in a damp cloth. Break off pieces of dough about the size of chestnut, put in the desired filling and shape into songpyeon. Wash the pine needles well, then dry out all the moisture. Lay the dry pine needles in an earthenware steamer, place the shaped songpyeon on top, and steam. After taking out the steamed rice-cakes and rinseing them in cold water, cover them lightly in salt and sesame oil and serve.
4) Suggested Topics for Discussions (1) (2) (3) (4)
What kind of Korean food have you ever tasted? What kind of Korean food do you like most? Isn't the Korean food too spicy? How do you like it? What kind of Korean drinks do you know?
(Notes: Teachers (and students) may wish to choose other food items such as Gimbap and Japchae. This food activity may be conducted as part of the school’s special event such as ‘Korean Day’ or a special project such as ‘Masterchef Korean Food Challenge’.)
5
Other Cultural Activities
1) Folk games: eg. jegi-chagi, yeon-making/flying, ssireum, juldarigi (1) Objectives: Students should be able to – a) b) c) d) e)
understand understand the historical background of Korean popular folk games; learn jegi-chagi/shuttlecock-kicking for action; make yeon and enjoy yeon-naligi/flying; demonstrate the ssireum/Korean-style wrestling activitity; discuss some of the similarities and differences that exist between traditional folk games and those of other countries.
(2) Cultural Notes Folk games are a mix of religious, social, and artistic elements. Many of the ones enjoyed throughout the year are generally symbolic of a wish for the collective welfare of the players. Jegi is a Korean shuttlecock that Korean children use in a kicking game. Jegi is
136 usually played by boys in the Lunar New Year’s Day season and the way to play is to kick it up in the air using the instep of the foot. There are many ways of playing a kicking game and normally it can be kicked in one of the three ways: with either foot and touching the ground between kicks; with either foot but not touching the ground between kicks; or kicking with alternate feet. In the old days, kite-flying, yeonnalligi, usually took place in the country and cities by boys and young men between the first and the fifteenth days of the first lunar month. On the last day, they wrote letters meaning ‘warding off bad luck’ or ‘away evils, come blessings’ on the kite and flew it as high as they could, then the kite string was cut with its whole length, symbolizing the expulsion of misfortune and diseases in the coming new year. Kite-flying is also appreciated by elderly men and the greatest excitement is in an engagement where both kites are managed so as to cross their strings and the friction between the two threads causes one thread to break. This is the main kind of kite flying contest and kite fliers eagerly sharpen their threads, by treating the thread in glue mixed with porcelain or glass powder and letting it dry. The thread becomes rough and coarse. Popular summer games include ssireum. Ssireum was a kind of wrestling and the national folk sport for men at the season of 'the fifth day of the fifth moon (May in the lunar calendar)' called tano or on ‘the fifteenth day of the eighth moon (August)’. It was held for farmers and the top prize for the strongest winner was a bull. This sport is now so much in fashion nearly everywhere all the year round. Modern Korean wrestling contests are held in nationwide series and are also propagated overseas. Korean style tug-of-war, Juldarigi, which is played after a community ritual, is rich in religious implication and is designed to foretell the year’s harvest, not to speak of increasing community spirit and fitness of the people involved. 2) Art - Samulnori (1) Objectives: Students should be able to a) Understand how to play samulnori, the Korean four-piece percussion ensemble; b) Appreciate the histotorical and cultural background of samulnori. c) Gain a general understanding of the traditional music, art and dance. (2) Cultural Notes Korean music is closer to life than any other art. Korean music consists of wind instruments, percussion instruments and stringed instruments. Koreans used these instruments to perform at royal or religious ceremonies or other special occasions such as harvest festival.
137
Samulnori is played by four people with four instruments: a small drum, a gong, a small gong, a double-headed drum shaped like an hourglass. It is spotlighted on the international stages of Korean music and dance. Both players and audience easily get in high spirits. While the Western orchestra or chamber music has delicate and harmonic expression of rhythm and melody, Korean samulnori has a rather rough and na誰ve expression of percussive rhythem and spirits. If possible, it is suggested that the teacher get the audio and/video tapes of samulnori and try to imitate them before students start practicing.
138 APPENDICES The Appendices section presents some specific or general information on such topics as Korean sound systems, orthography, vocabulary, Korea and its people, and cultural symbols. It is intended to provide an additional information to supplement the main chapters and to give teachers an updated information about Korea from broad perspectives. Sources of the information are given under specific subsection. Appendix 1: The Korean Sound Systems 13 한국어의 음운체계 1. 한글 자모의 수는 스물넉 자로 하고, 그 순서와 이름은 다음과 같이 정한다. ㄱ(기역), ㄴ(니은), ㄷ(디귿), ㄹ(리을), ㅁ(미음), ㅂ(비읍), ㅅ(시옷), ㅇ(이응), ㅈ(지읒), ㅊ(치읓), ㅋ(키읔), ㅌ(티읕), ㅍ(피읖), ㅎ(히읗) ㅏ(아), ㅑ(야), ㅓ(어), ㅕ(여), ㅗ(오), ㅛ(요), ㅜ(우), ㅠ(유), ㅡ(으), ㅣ(이) 위의 자모로써 적을 수 없는 소리는 두 개 이상의 자모를 어울러서 적되, 그 순서와 이름은 다음과 같이 정한다.
13
• • • • •
ㄲ(쌍기역) ㄸ(쌍디귿) ㅃ(쌍비읍) ㅆ(쌍시옷) ㅉ(쌍지읒)
• • • • • •
ㅐ(애) ㅒ(얘) ㅔ(에) ㅖ(예) ㅘ(와) ㅙ(왜)
• • • • •
ㅚ(외) ㅝ(워) ㅞ(웨) ㅟ(위) ㅢ(의)
Source: http://www.korean.go.kr/09_new/dic/rule/rule01_0306.jsp
139 2. 받침의 발음 받침소리로는 ‘ㄱ, ㄴ, ㄷ, ㄹ, ㅁ, ㅂ, ㅇ’의 7 개 자음만 발음한다. 음절 말 위치에서 실현되는 자음으로는 ‘ㄱ, ㄴ, ㄷ, ㄹ, ㅁ, ㅂ, ㅇ’의 7 개가 있음을 규정한 것이다. ‘훈민정음’에서는 ‘ㅅ’이 하나 더 있어서 8 종성(終聲)이었는데, 그 뒤에 ‘ㅅ’이 ‘ㄷ’으로 실현됨으로써 현대 국어에서는 7 개가 되었다. 받침 ‘ㄲ, ㅋ’, ‘ㅅ, ㅆ, ㅈ, ㅊ, ㅌ’, ‘ㅍ’은 어말 또는 자음 앞에서 각각 대표음 [ㄱ, ㄷ, ㅂ]으로 발음한다. • •
닦다[닥따] 키읔[키윽]
• •
웃다[욷ː따] 있다[읻따]
• •
꽃[꼳] 쫓다[쫃따]
• •
앞[압] 덮다[덥따]
겹받침 ‘ㄳ’, ‘ㄵ’, ‘ㄼ, ㄽ, ㄾ’, ‘ㅄ’은 어말 또는 자음 앞에서 각각 [ㄱ, ㄴ, ㄹ, ㅂ]으로 발음한다. • • •
넋[넉] 넋과[넉꽈] 앉다[안따]
• • •
외곬[외골] 핥다[할따] 값[갑]
(예외) 다만, ‘밟-’은 자음 앞에서 [밥]으로 발음하고, ‘넓-’은 다음과 같은 경우에 [넙]으로 발음한다. • (1)
밟다[밥ː따] , 밟소[밥ː쏘] , 밟지[밥ː찌] , 밟는[밥ː는→밤ː는] , 밟게[밥ː께] , 밟고[밥ː꼬]
• (2) 넓-죽하다[넙쭈카다] ,넓-둥글다[넙뚱글다]
140 겹받침 ‘ㄺ, ㄻ, ㄿ’은 어말 또는 자음 앞에서 각각 [ㄱ, ㅁ, ㅂ]으로 발음한다. • • •
닭[닥] 흙과[흑꽈] 맑다[막따]
(예외) 다만, 용언의 어간 말음 ‘ㄺ’은 ‘ㄱ’ 앞에서 [ㄹ]로 발음한다. •
맑게[말께] , 묽고[물꼬] , 얽거나[얼꺼나]
3. 한국어 소리에 관한 주요 사항은 다음과 같이 정리 할 수 있다. 3.1 된소리 한 단어 안에서 뚜렷한 까닭 없이 나는 된소리는 다음 음절의 첫소리를 된소리로 적는다. 1) 두 모음 사이에서 나는 된소리 • • •
소쩍새 어깨 오빠
2) ‘ㄴ, ㄹ, ㅁ, ㅇ’ 받침 뒤에서 나는 된소리 • • •
산뜻하다 잔뜩 살짝
다만, ‘ㄱ, ㅂ’ 받침 뒤에서 나는 된소리는, 같은 음절이나 비슷한 음절이 겹쳐 나는 경우가 아니면 된소리로 적지 아니한다. • • •
국수 깍두기 딱지
여기서 말하는 ‘한 단어 안’은 하나의 형태소 내부를 뜻하는 것으로 풀이된다. 예시어 중, ‘소쩍-새, 아끼-다’ 따위는 두 개 형태소로 분석되는 구조이긴 하지만, 된소리 문제는 그중 한 형태소에만 해당하는 것이다. 3.2 구개음화 ‘ㄷ, ㅌ’ 받침 뒤에 종속적 관계를 가진 ‘- 이(-)’나 ‘- 히 -’가 올 적에는, 그 ‘ㄷ, ㅌ’이 ‘ㅈ, ㅊ’으로 소리나더라도 ‘ㄷ, ㅌ’으로 적는다.(ㄱ을 취하고, ㄴ을 버림.)
141
ㄱ
ㄴ
ㄱ
ㄴ
맏이
마지
핥이다
할치다
해돋이
해도지
걷히다
거치다
굳이
구지
닫히다
다치다
같이
가치
묻히다
무치다
끝이
끄치
3.3 ㄷ 받침 소리 ‘ㄷ’ 소리로 나는 받침 중에서 ‘ㄷ’으로 적을 근거가 없는 것은 ‘ㅅ’으로 적는다. • • •
덧저고리 돗자리 웃어른
‘ㄷ’ 소리로 나는 받침이란, 음절 끝소리로 발음될 때 [ㄷ]으로 실현되는 ‘ㅅ, ㅆ, ㅈ, ㅊ, ㅌ’등을 말한다. 이 받침들은, 뒤에 형식 형태소의 모음이 결합될 경우에는 제 소리값대로 뒤 음절 첫소리로 내리 이어져 발음되지만, 단어의 끝이나 자음 앞에서는 — 음절 말음으로 실현될 때는 모두 [ㄷ]으로 발음된다. ‘ㄷ’으로 적을 근거가 없는 것이란, 그 형태소가 ‘ㄷ’ 받침을 가지지 않는 것을 말한다. 예컨대 ‘걷-잡다(거두어 붙잡다), 곧-장(똑바로 곧게), 낟-가리(낟알이 붙은 곡식을 쌓은 더미), 돋-보다(←도두 보다)’ 등은 본디 ‘ㄷ’ 받침을 가지고 있는 것으로 분석되고, ‘반짇-고리, 사흗-날, 숟-가락’ 등은 ‘ㄹ’ 받침이 ‘ㄷ’으로 바뀐 것으로 설명될 수 있다. 이런 경우는 ‘ㄷ’으로 적을 근거가 있는 것이지만 • • • • •
갓-스물 걸핏-하면 짓-밟다 풋-고추 햇-곡식
따위는 ‘ㄷ’으로 적을 근거가 없는 것이다. 표준어를 소리대로 적는다는 원칙을 적용하면 ‘덛저고리, 돋자리, 얻셈, ……’처럼 적어야 할 것이지만, 고래의 관용 형식에 따라 ‘ㅅ’으로 적기로 한 것이다. 표기법은 보수성을 지닌 것이어서, 특별한 이유가 없는 한 재래의 형식을 바꾸지 않는 게 통례로 되어 있다.
142 3.4 두음법칙 한자음 ‘녀, 뇨, 뉴, 니’가 단어 첫머리에 올 적에는, 두음 법칙에 따라 ‘여, 요, 유, 이’로 적는다. (ㄱ을 취하고, ㄴ을 버림.)
ㄱ
ㄴ
ㄱ
ㄴ
여자(女子)
녀자
유대(紐帶)
뉴대
연세(年歲)
년세
이토(泥土)
니토
요소(尿素)
뇨소
익명(匿名)
닉명
다만, 다음과 같은 의존 명사에서는 ‘냐, 녀’ 음을 인정한다. • • •
냥(兩) 냥쭝(兩-) 년(年) (몇 년)
단어의 첫머리 이외의 경우에는 본음대로 적는다. • •
남녀(男女) 당뇨(糖尿)
접두사처럼 쓰이는 한자가 붙어서 된 말이나 합성어에서, 뒷말의 첫소리가 ‘ㄴ’ 소리로 나더라도 두음 법칙에 따라 적는다. • •
공염불(空念佛) 남존여비(男尊女卑)
단어 첫머리에 위치하는 한자의 음이 두음 법칙에 따라 달라지는 것은 달라지는 대로 적는다. 음소 문자인 한글은 원칙적으로 1 자 1 음(소)의 체계를 취하지만, 표의 문자인 한자의 경우는, 국어의 음운 구조에 따라 두 가지 형식을 취한 것이다. 본음이 ‘녀, 뇨, 뉴, 니’인 한자가 첫머리에 놓일 때는 ‘여, 요, 유, 이’로 적는다. • • • • • • •
연도(年度) 열반(涅槃) 요도(尿道) 육혈(衄血) 이승(尼僧) 이토(泥土) 익사(溺死)
143 다만, 의존 명사인 ‘냥(←兩), 냥쭝(←兩-), 년(年)’ 등은 그 앞의 말과 연결되어 하나의 단위를 구성하는 것이므로, 두음 법칙을 적용하지 않고 소리 나는 대로 적기로 한 것이다. • • •
금한냥 은 두 냥쭝 십년
‘년(年)’이 ‘연 3 회’처럼 ‘한 해 (동안)’란 뜻을 표시하는 경우엔 의존 명사가 아니므로, 두음 법칙이 적용된다. 한편, 고유어 중에서도 다음 의존 명사에는 두음 법칙이 적용되지 않는다. • • •
녀석(고얀 녀석) 년(괘씸한 년) 님(바느질 실 한 님)
‘랴, 려, 례, 료, 류, 리’가 단어의 첫머리에 올 적에는, 두음 법칙에 따라 ‘야, 여, 예, 요, 유, 이’로 적는다.(ㄱ을 취하고, ㄴ을 버림.)
ㄱ
ㄴ
ㄱ
ㄴ
양심(良心)
량심
용궁(龍宮)
룡궁
역사(歷史)
력사
유행(流行)
류행
예의(禮儀)
례의
이발(理髮)
리발
다만, 의존 명사는 본음대로 적는다.
144 Appendix 2: Korean Orthography 14
한글 맞춤법 1. 체언은 조사와 구별하여 적는다. (예) 떡이, 떡을, 떡에, 떡도, 떡만 즉, 체언과 조사를 구별하여 적는다는 것은 결국 체언의 끝 받침을 조사의 첫소리 자리로 내리 이어 적지 않는 것을 말한다. 2. 용언의 어간과 어미는 구별하여 적는다. (예) 먹다, 먹고, 먹어, 먹으니 다시 말해 용언의 어간과 어미를 구별한다는 것은실질 형태소인 어간의 형태를 고정시키고, 형식 형태소인 어미도 모든 어간에 공통적으로 결합하는 통일된 형식을 유지시켜 적기로 한 것이다. 예컨대 어간 형태소 ‘늙-’에 어미가 결합한 형태를 소리 나는 대로 적는다면, 늘꼬 늑찌 능는 늘그니 ② ( ③ ( ④ ( 늘께 늑쏘 능네 늘거서 처럼 되어서, 어간의 형태가 어떤 것인지, 어미와의 경계가 어디인지 알아보기가 어려워진다. 이 경우 역시, ‘늙-고, 늙-지, 늙-는, 늙-으니’처럼 어간과 어미의 형태를 분명히 구별함으로써, 어간이 표시하는 어휘적 의미와 어미가 표시하는 문법적 의미가 쉽게 파악될 수 있는 것이다. ①
(
3. 어미 뒤에 덧붙는 조사 ‘요’는 ‘요’로 적는다. (예) 읽어- 읽어요, 참으리- 참으리요 4. 둘 이상의 단어가 어울리거나 접두사가 붙어서 이루어진 말은 각각 그 원형을 밝히어 적는다. (예) 국말이, 꽃잎, 끝장 5. 사이시옷은 다음과 같은 경우 에 받치어 적는다. ㄱ. 뒷말의 첫소리가 된소리로 나는 것 (예) 햇볕, 혓바늘, 바닷가 14
Source: http://www.korean.go.kr/09_new/dic/rule/rule01.jsp
145
ㄴ. 뒷말의 첫소리 ‘ㄴ, ㅁ’ 앞에서 ‘ㄴ’ 소리가 덧나는 것 (예) 잇몸, 냇물, 빗물 ㄷ. 뒷말의 첫소리 모음 앞에서 ‘ㄴㄴ’ 소리가 덧나는 것 (예) 깻잎, 뒷일 6. 단어의 끝모음이 줄어지고 자음만 남은 것은 그 앞의 음절에 받침으로 적는다. (예) 본말
준말
기러기야
기럭아
어제그저께
엊그저께
어제저녁
엊저녁
가지고, 가지지
갖고, 갖지
디디고, 디디지
딛고, 딛지
146 Appendix 3: Korean Vocabulary 15 한국어의 어휘
1. 다른 언어처럼 한국어에도 많은 단어가 있다. 한국어 대사전에는 30 만에서 40 만 개 정도의 단어가 실려 있다. 그렇지만 사전에 있는 단어를 모두 알고 쓰는 사람은 없으며, 사람마다 아는 단어가 다르다. 사전에 있기는 하지만 이제는 거의 쓰기 않는 말이 있는가 하면, 새로 쓰기 시작하여 아직 사전에 오르지 않는 말도 있다. 아래의 단어들은 최근에 쓰기 시작하여 사전에서 찾아도 그 뜻을 알기 쉽지 않은 단어들이다. 갓길: 차가 다니는 길 옆에 낸 길. 노래방: 돈을 내고 노래를 부르는 곳. 도우미: 도와 주는 사람. 몰래카메라: 몰래 찍는 카메라. 배꼽티: 배꼽이 나오는 짧은 웃옷. 새내기:새로 들어온 사람. 신입생.
2. 한국어의 단어 중에는 한자어가 많다. 한자어는 중국 문자인 한자로 적을 수 있는 단어를 말한다. 한자어가 많은 이유는 오랫동안 한자를 사용했기 때문이다. 한국어를 적는 데 한글을 사용한 것은 주로 20 세기에 들어와서이며 그 이전에는 한자를 많이 사용했다. 이처럼 한자를 오랫동안 사용하게 되면서 한자로 적을 수 있는 단어도 많이 사용하게 된 것이다. 가구, 건물, 고아….. 위에 든 단어들은 한국어에서 자주 사용되는 단어들이다. 한자로 적을 수도 있다. 같은 한자가 여러 단어에 사용되는 경우가 많기 떄문에 소리와 뜻이 비긋한 단어들이 한국어에는 많다. 가구, 가문, 가사…. 위에 든 말에는 모두 ‘집’을 뜻하는 말인 ‘가’ 가 들어 있다. 국가, 국군, 국기…. 위에 든 말에는 모두 ‘나라’를 뜻하는 말인 ‘국’이 들어 있다. 개학, 방학, 학교…..
15
Source: 조남호 (2003), 한국어의 어휘, 한국어 연수 교재, 국립국어원.
147 위에 든 말에는 모두 ‘배움’을 뜻하는 말인 ‘학’이 들어 있다. 또한 한자에는 글자는 다르지만 소리는 같은 것이 많이 때문에 한국어에서 사용되는 한자어 중에는 소리는 같고 뜻은 다른 말도 많다. 방화: 불을 끔, 방화: 불을 지름 부자: 돈이많은 사람, 부자: 아버지와 아들 한자어와 달리 원래부터 한국어에 있던 말은 고유어라고 한다. 고유어도 적지는 않지만 한자어보다는 수가 적다. 아래에 일부 고유어를 보인다. 가슴, 값, 누나, 눈, 돈, 돌, 머리, 무릎, 바위, 빚, 아래, 아버지, 어머니, 언니, 얼굴, 오빠, 위, 잠, 허리 한자어는 학문을 할 때 사용하는 말에 많고, 고유어는 일상생활에서 사용하는 말에 많다. 그래서 글에 따라 한자어가 많기도 하고 고유어가 많이고 하다. 예를 들어 전문 서적에는 한자어가 많고, 소설 같은 문학 작품에는 한자어가 적다. 한국어에는 거의 같은 뜻으로 사용되는 한자어와 고유어의 짝이 적지 않다. 아래에 일부 예를 보인다. 값- 가격, 집안일-가사, 흰빛- 백색 최근에 들어서 한자를 별로 사용하지 않게 되면서 한자어도 점점 쓰이지 않고 있다. 자주 사용되는 말은 그대로 사용하지만 어려운 한자어는 아예 쓰지 않거나 쉬운 말로 바꾸고 있다. 한자어를 뺴도 다른 언어로부터들어온 말들이 있다. 이들은 다른 언어로부터 들어왔다고 하여 외래어라고 한다. 외래어는 예전에도 있었지만 최근에 많이 늘고 있다. 특히 영어에서 온 외래어가 많이 늘고 있다. 한국은 20 세기 초에 일본을 지배를 받았기 때문에 한국에는 일본어에서 온 말도 적지 않다. 그렇지만 이들 말은 잘 안 쓰려고 하고 또 계속다른 말로 바꾸어 왔기 때문에 지금은 많이ㅣ 줄어들었다. 고뿌(잔, 컵), 간즈메(통조림), 구루마(수레, 달구지), 닌징(당근), 다마네기(양파), 뭄빼(일바지, 왜바지), 벤또(도시락), 요지(이쑤시개), 자부동(방석) ( )안에 있는 말은 바꾸어 쓰도록 제시된 말이다. 3. 한국어에는 뜻이 다른 말이 많다. 한국어의 특징 중의 하나는 자음과 모음만 바뀌면서 뜻이 약간씩 다른 말이 많다는 점이다. 이 단어들이 서로 뜻이 어떻게 다른가를 밝히기는 무척 어렵낟. 먼저 모음이 바뀌는 얘를 일부 보인다. ㅏ/ㅓ 까맣다/꺼멓다, 캄캄하다/ 컴컴하다, 반들반들/ 번들번들, 발딱/벌떡, 방글방글/ 벙글벙글, 찰싹/철썩, 팔짝/펄쩍 ㅗ/ㅜ
148 고깃고깃/구깃구깃, 고소하다/구수하다, 꼬불꼬불/꾸불꾸불, 꼭/꾹, 도란도란/두런두런, 소곤소곤/수군수군, 졸졸/줄줄, 포근하다/푸근하다 자음은 ‘ㄱ/ㄲ/ㅋ’, ‘ㄷ/ㄸ/ㅌ’, ‘ㅂ/ㅃ/ㅍ’, ‘ㅈ/ㅉ/ㅊ’처럼 평음, 경음, 격음으로 바뀐다. 평음, 경음, 격음이 모두 있는 경우도 있고 어느 하나가 없는 경우도 있다. 아래에 일부 예를 보인다. 깜깜하다/캄캄하다(ㄲ/ㅋ), 뎅뎅/뗑뗑(ㄷ/ㄸ), 바르르/파르르(ㅂ/ㅍ) 자음과 모음이 함께 달라지면서 여러 단어가 되기도 한다. 작가닥, 짤까닥, 착카닥, 절거덕, 쩔꺼덕, 철커덕 위의 예에서는 모음 ‘ㅏ/ㅓ’가 바뀌고 자음 ‘ㅈ/ㅉ/ㅊ’, ‘ㄱ/ㄲ’ㅋ’이 바뀌어서 여러 단어가 만들어졌다. 자음과 모음이 바뀌는 말 중에는 의성의태어가 많다. 그래서 한국에는 의성의태어가 많은 언어이기도 하다. 사물의 소리나 모양을 흉내낸 말을 의성의태어라고 한다. 예를 들어 짐승의 울음 소리를 흉내낸 말 중에 아래와 같은 말들이 있다. 음메(소), 멍멍(개), 야옹(고양이), 꼬끼오(닭), 삐악삐악(병아리), 꿀꿀(돼지), 어흥(호랑이) ( ) 안이 짐승의 이름이다. 이러한 의성의태어는 어는 언어에도 있으며 언어마다 소리를 다르게 표현한다. 그런데 한국어에서는 자음과 모듬이 바뀌면서 어감이 조금씩 바뀌는 말이 많기 때문에 의성의태어도 많은 것이다. 위에 제시한 말 중에서도 ‘꿀꿀’에 대해서 모음이 바뀐 ‘꼴꼴’이 이쓰며, ‘삐악삐악’에 대해서 자음이 바뀐 ‘비악비악’이 있다. 4. 한국어에는 관용구가 많다. 한국어에도 다른 언어처럼 단어는 아니지만 둘 이상의 단어가 모여 다른 뜻으로 쓰이는 말이 있다. 아래에 둘 이상의 단어가 모여 원래의 뜻과는 다른 뜻으로 쓰이는 예를 일부 보인다. 이들은 흔히 관용구라고 한다. 깨가 쏟아지다 : 부부가 매우 다정하게 생활하다 돌을 던지다 : 남의 잘못을 비난하다 바가지를 쓰가 : 보통 값보다 비싸게 물건을 사다 비행기를 태우다 : 남을 지나치게 칭찬하다 뼈만 남다 : 몹시 여위다 색안경을 쓰다 : 남을 편견을 가지고 보다 콩밥을 먹다 : 감옥에 갇히다 파리를 날리다 : 장사가 안 되어서 손님이 없다
149 여러 단어가 모여 다른 뜻으로 쓰이는 말에는 속담도 있다. 속담은 오랫동안 사람들이 쓰는 동안에 비유적인 뜻이 생기고 표현도 다듬어진 말을 가리킨다. 아래에 일부 예를 보인다. 가는 날이 장날: 가는 날이 마침 시장이 서는 날이라는 뜻으로, 생각하지 않던 일이 우연히 일치할 때 하는 말. 가는 말이 고와야 오는 말이 곱다 : 남에게 좋게 말해야 남도 내게 좋게 말 한다는 뜻으로, 내가 남에게 잘해야 남도 나에게 잘 한다는 말. 가물에 콩 나듯 : 비가 계속 오지 않을 때 콩이 나듯 한다는 뜻으로, 일이 드물게 생길 때 하는 말.
150 Appendix 4: Loan words 16 외래어 표기법 1. 외래어와 외래어 표기법 외래어의 사전적 정의는 외국어에 기원을 두고 있지만 한국어처럼 사용되는 말들이다. 그러나 <외래어 표기법>의 표기 대상은 완전히 한국어 어휘로 정착된 것뿐만 아니라 최근에 한국어에서 쓰이기 시작한 비교적 낮선 말들과 외국의 인명, 지명을 포함한다. 오래전에 한국어에 들어와 완전히 한국어 어휘화한 것들은 사실상 표기 혼동의 염려가 별로 없어서 외래어 표기번의 주요 놀의 대상이 되지 않는다. 그러나 처음 들어와 사용되는 말들은 사람에 따라 다른 표기를 할 가능성이 많으므로 외래어 표기법의 주요 대상이 된다. 고유어나 한자어와 달리 외래어만을 적기 위한 방법을 따로 마련하는 이유는 무엇일까? 그것은 외래어의 경우 특별이 어형이 불안정해서 따로 표기법을 정해 두지 않으면 표기가 혼한해질 가능성이 많기 때문이다. 한국어의 외래어 표기법은 가능하면 외국어의 발음에 가깝게 적는다는 원칙을 가지고 있다. 그런데 음운 체계가 한국어와 다른 외국어의 발음을 어떤 글자로 적는 것이 가장 가까 운지에 대해 사람들마다 생각이 달라서 여러 가지 표기가 나타난다. 예를 들어 ‘supermarket’의 경우 ‘슈퍼마켓, 수퍼마켓, 슈퍼마킷, 슈퍼마켙, 수퍼마켙’등의 다양한 표기가 사용되고 있으며 ‘chocolate’도 ‘초컬릿, 초콜릿, 초콜렛, 쵸코렛, 쪼코렛’등 매우 여러 가지 어형이 쓰인다. 그런데 이렇게 사람마다 다르게 적고 있는 외래어를 그대로 놓아둔다면 같은 개념을 지시하는 말의 표기가 각각이어서 글을 쓰거나 말을 할 떄 큰 혼란을 가져올 것이다. <외래어 표기법>은 이렇게 다양하게 나타나는 외래어의 표기를 통일하고 어형을 고정하여 언어생활의 표준을 제공하기 위한 것이다. 2. 외래어 표기법의 기본 원칙 제1항 외래어는 한국어의 현용 24 자모만으로 적는다. 이 규정은 외래어를 표기하기 위해 맞춤법에서 정한 24 자모 이외의 특수한 기호자 문자를 사용해서는 안 된다는 것이다. 외래어도 언어 생활에 사용되는 한 한국어 어휘이므로 이는 당연한 것이다. 그러나 외래어의 발음을 정확하게 나타내기 위해 새로운 자모를 만들어 써야 한다고 주장하는 사람들이 많이 있다. 예를 들어 영어의 [f,v]는 한국어에는 없는 소리여서 한글로는 정확하게 적을 수 없다. 이 소리들을 현행 표기법대로 [f]는 ‘ㅍ’로, [v]는 ‘ㅂ’ 으로 적으면 [p], [b]소리와 구별할 수도 없을뿐더러 실제 발음과는 너무 멀어지므로, 이 소리들을 적기 위한 문자를 새로 만들어야 한다고 주장하는 사람들이 있다. 그러나 이것은 외래어 표기의 목적을 잘못 이해하는 데서 오는 불합리한 주장이다. 외래서 표기는 한국 사람들이 일상적인 언어 생활을 하는 가운데 표기형을 동일하게 위한 것이지, 외국어로 의사소통을 할 때 쓰기 위해서 만들어진 것이 아니다. 만약 외래어만을 적기 위해 새로운 문자를 도입한다면 세계 언어에 있는 수많은 소리들을 나타내기 ㅟ해 얼마나 많은 문자나 부호가 필요하게 16
Source: 정희원(2002), 외래어 표기법, 바른 국어 생활, 국립국어원)
151 될지 알 수 없는 일이다. 일상적인 언어 생활에서 꼭 필요하지도 않은 외국어 발음을 나타내기 위해 새로운 문자나 부호를 만들어 쓰기 하는 것은 국민들에게 지나친 부담을 지우게 될 것이으로 피해야 한다. 제2항 외래어의 1 음운은 원칙적으로 1 기호로 적는다. 이것은 외국어에서 하나의 소리는 한국어에서도 하나의 소리에 대응시켜 기억하고 사용하는 데에 편리하게 하려는 뜻이 담겨 있다. 만약 하나의 소리인 [f]를 경우에 따라 ‘ㅍ’과 ‘ㅎ’ 두 가지로 적도록 한다면, 어떤 단어에서 ‘ㅍ’로 적고 어느 단어에서는 ‘ㅎ’로 적어야 하는지를 따로따로 익여야 할 것이다. 이들을 일일이 기억하기란 매우 어려운 일일 테고 결과적으로 표기를 예측하기 어려워 지게 된다. 그러나 외국어에서 하나의 음운이라도 음성 환경에 따라 여러 가지 다른 소리로 실현될 때에는 불가피하게 두 기호로 적어햐 할 대가 있다. ‘원칙적으로’라는 단서는 이러한 경우를 위해서 붙여진 것이다. 제3항 외래어의 받침에는 ‘ㄱ,ㄴ,ㄹ,ㅁ,ㅂ,ㅅ,ㅇ’만을 적는다 이것은 외래어를 적기 위해 여기에서 예시한 것 이외의 자음들 (ㄷ,ㅈ,ㅊ,ㅋ,ㅌ,ㅍ,ㅎ)과 겹자음(ㄲ, ㄺ, ㄻ 등)을 받침으로 써서는 안 된다는 것이다. 따라서 ‘커피숖, 디스켙, 케잌’같은 표기는 잘못된 어형이다. 그러나 고유어는 ‘잎, 꽃, 밭’등의 예에서 볼 수 있듯이 겹자 어음을 포함한 모든 자음들이 받침으로 쓰일 수 있다. 고유어를 표기할 때’ ㄷ,ㅈ,ㅊ,ㅋ,ㅌ,ㅍ,ㅎ’등을 받침으로 쓰는 이유는, 그것이 어말이나 자음 앞에서는 제 음가대로 소리 나지 않도라도 모음 앞에서는 그 음가대로 발음되기 때문이다. 즉, ‘잎’을 ‘입’으로 쓰기 않는 이유는 ‘잎이 [이피]’, ‘잎을[이플]’과 같이 모음으로 시작하는 조사 앞에서는 ‘ㅍ’소리가 발음되기 때문이다. 그러나 외래어의 경우는 모음으로 시작하는 조사와 결합할 때에도 [커피쇼피], [커피쇼페서]와 같이 발음하지 않고 항상 [커피쇼비], [커피쇼베서]로 발음하므로 ‘커피숍’이라고 써야 한다. 이 규정 중 외래어 받침에서 ‘ㄷ,ㅈ,ㅊ,ㅋ,ㅌ’의 대표음을 ‘ㄷ’이 아니라 ‘ㅅ’ 으로 정한 것은 주의를 요한다. 예를 들어 ‘racket’의 경우 어말이나 자음 앞에서는 [라켇], [라켇도]와 같이 발음되지만, 모음으로 시작하는 조사와 겹합할 때에는 하상 [라케시], [라케슬]로 발음되므로, ‘라켇’이 아니라 ‘라켓’으로 적는 것이다. 제4항 파열음 표기에는 된소리를 쓰지 않는 것을 원칙으로 한다. 한국어의 파열음은 같은 위치에서 예사소리(ㅂ,ㅅ,ㄱ), 된소리(ㅃ, ㄸ, ㄲ,), 거센소리(ㅍ,ㅌ,ㅋ)의 세 가지로 구분된다. 그러나 대부분의 외국어는 파열음이 무성음(p,t,k), 유성음(b,d,g) 두 가지로만 구분된다. 외국어의 유성파열음을 가장 가깝게 나타낼 수 있는 표기는 평음이다. 따라서 [g]는 ‘ㄱ’으로, [d]는 ‘ㄷ’으로, [b]는 ‘ㅂ’으로 표기한다. 그러면 무성파열음은 된소리나 거센소리로 표기할 수밖에 없다. 그러나 같음 무성파열음이 언어에 따라서 한국어의 거센소리에 가까운 경우도 있고 된소리에 가까운 경우도 있다. 예를 들어 영어나 독일어의 무성파열음은 된소리에 가깝다. 실제로 한국어 화자들은 ‘파티’, ‘트럭’, 컵’ 등 영어에서 비롯한 외래어는 거센소리로 적으면서 프랑스에서 온 외래어는 ‘빠리(Paris)’, ‘카페(café)’, ‘떼제베(TGV)’ 등 된소리로 적는 경향이 있다.
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그러나 원칙 제 4 항은 언어마다 조금씩 음성적 차이가 있는 무성파열음을 한국어로 옮길 때에는 거센소리로만 적도록 규정하고 있다. 만약 무성파열음을 언어에 따라 거센소리와 된소리로 구분하여 적도록 한다면, 어떤 단어를 표기하기 위해 그것이 어느 언어에서 온 말인가를 하나하나 따져 보아야 할 것이다. 그리고 세상 모든 언어를 대상으로 그 언어의 무성파열음이 한국어의 된소리에 가까운지 거센소리에 가까운지를 경정해야 하는데, 그것도 사실상 불가능하다. 한 언어의 발음은 다른 언어의 문자로 표기할 때, 정확한 발음을 나타내기는 어차피 불가능하므로 비슷하게 옮겨 적을 수밖에 없다. 일부 언어의 무성파열음이 한국어의 된소리에 아깝다고는 해도 아죽 똑같은 것은 아니므로 규정의 간결성과 체계성을 위해서 어느 한 가지로 통일하여 표기하는 것이 바람직하다. 제5항 이미 굳어진 외래어는 관용을 존중한다. 외래어는 그 차용 경로가 다양하다. 문자를 통해서 들어오기도 하고 외국인의 발음을 들어서 옮겨오기도 하며, 원어에서 직접 들어오는 것도 있고 제 3 국을 통해서 간접적으로 들어오는 것도 있다. 또 오래전부터 쓰여 온 것도 있고 최근에 들어서 들어온 것도 있다. 이렇게 다양한 경로를 통해서 들어온 외래어 중 오랫동안 쓰여져 아주 굳어진 것은 관용대로 적도록 한다. 수용 경로와 방식이 다양한 외래어를 일정한 규칙에 따라서만 적으면 언어 현실에 크게 어긋날 수 있어 결국 혼란만을 초래하기 때문이다. 관용을 인정하는 표기의 대표적인 예가 ‘라디오’와 ‘카메라’이다. 영어 ‘ radio’의 발음은 [reidiou]이고, ‘camera’의 발음은 [kamera]이므로 표기법에 따르면 ‘레이디오’와 ‘케머러’가 될 것이다. 그러나 이들은 오래전부터 ‘라디오, 카메라’라고 쓰던 관습이 굳어져 있는 데 지금에 와서 규정에 맞는 표기인 ‘레이디오’와 ‘캐머러’를 쓰도록 한다면 온란만 더해질 것이다. 이러한 경우에는 관용적 표기를 인정하여 ‘라디오, 카메라’를 옳은 표기로 정한다. 3. 외래어 표기법의 실제 어말 파열음의 표기 무성파열음 [p,t,k]로 끝나는 외래어를 한국어로 옮기려면 그 자음을 받침으로 적거나 아니면 ‘으’로 받쳐 적는 두 가지 방법이 있다. 즉 ‘robot[r b t]’ 의 표기는 ‘로봇’이러나 ‘로보트’이거나 둘 중 하나가 될 것이다. <외래어 표기법>에 따르면 다음 두 가지 경우에만 자음 앞이나 어말 무성파열음을 받침으로 적도록 하고 있다. 첫째, 짧은 모음 다음의 어말 무성파열음은 받침으로 적는다. 그래서‘robot[r b t]’ , ‘book[buk]’은 ‘로보트, 부크’가 아니라 ‘로봇, 북’으로 적어야 한다. 이들 단어의 끝소리인 [t,k] 앞의 모음이 짧은 소리이기 때문이다. 둘째, 짧은 모음과 유음([l,r]) 이나 비음([m,n, ŋ]) 이외의 다른 자음 사이에 오는 무성파열음은 받침으로 적는다. 예를 들어’act[ækt]’의 짭은 모음 [æ]와 자음 [t]사이의
153 [k]는 ‘애크트’로 적을 수도 있고 ‘액트’로 적을 수도 있을 것이나, 이 규정에 따라 ‘액트’로 적어야 한다. ‘action [æk n], lipstick[lipstick]’도 마찬가지로 ‘애크션, 리프스틱’이 아니라 ‘액션, 립스틱’이 된다. 위에서 제시한 두 가지 경우 이외의 어말과 자음 앞의 무성파열음은 ‘으’를 붙여 적는다. 예를 들어 ‘tape[teip], cake[keik], flute[flu:t]’는 어말 무성파열음 앞의 모음이 이중 모음이거나 장모음이므로 ‘테잎, 케익, 플룻’으로 적지 않고 ‘테이프, 케이크, 플루트’로 적어야 한다. ‘mattress[mætris]’는 파열음 [t]가 단모음 [æ]와 유음 [r] 사이에 오므로 ‘맷리스’가 아닌 ‘매트리스’로 적는다. ‘sickness [siknis]’는 파열음 [k]가 단모음 [i]와 비음 [n]사이에 오므로 ‘식니스’가 아닌 ‘시크니스’로 적어야 한다.
154 Appendix 5: Background: The Land and the People 17 1. Geography Korea is situated on the Korean Peninsula, which spans 1,100 kilometres north to south. The Korean Peninsula lies in the north-eastern part of the Asian continent, where Korean waters are joined by the westernmost parts of the Pacific. The peninsula shares its northern border with China and Russia. To the east is the East Sea, beyond which Japan lies. To the west is the Yellow Sea. In addition to the mainland, Korea includes some 3,200 islands, including Jejudo, Ulleungdo and Dokdo. The Korea peninsula encompasses a total of about 223,000 square kilometres, almost the same size as the United Kingdom or Ghana. Some 45 percent of this area, or about 99,000 square kilometres, is considered cultivable, excluding land reclaimed from the sea. Mountainous terrain accounts for some two-thirds of the territory, much like Portugal, Hungary or Ireland. The lifting and folding of Korea's granite and limestone base create a breathtaking landscape of scenic hills and valleys. The Taebaeksan Mountain Range runs the full length of the east coast, where the lashing waves of the East Sea have carved out sheer cliffs and rocky islets. The western and southern slopes are rather gentle, forming plains and many offshore islands honeycombed with inlets. The highest peak is on Mt. Baekdu in North Korea along the northern border facing China. It rises 2,744 meters above sea level and is an extinct volcano with a large crater lake named Cheonji. The mountain is regarded as an especially important symbol of the Korean spirit and is mentioned in Korea's national anthem. Considering its smallish territorial size, Korea has a relatively large number of rivers and streams. These waterways have played crucial roles in shaping the lives of Koreans and in the nation's industrialization. The two longest rivers in North Korea are the Amnokgang (Yalu River, 790 kilometers) and the Dumangang (Tumen River, 521 kilometers). These rivers originate from Mt. Baekdusan and flow to the west and the east, respectively. In the southern part of the peninsula, the Nakdonggang and the Hangang (or Han River) are the two major waterways. The Hangang flows through Seoul, the capital of South Korea, and serves as a lifeline for the heavily concentrated population in the central region of modern Korea. Surrounding the peninsula on three sides, the ocean has played an integral role in the lives of the Koreans since ancient times, contributing to the early development of shipbuilding and navigational skills. Further information can http://blog.joinsmsn.com. 17
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Source: official websites of various South Korean and other governmental organisations as well as reliable media sources. Some details have been modified to provide up-to-date information or suit the purpose of this reference book. The information sources are given unden the subsection.
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G20-Countries: the Area of Land (Unit: km2)
Rank 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
Country Russia Canada USA China Brazil Australia India Argentina Saudi Arabia Mexico Indonesia South Africa Turkey France Japan Germany Italia UK Korea Republic
Area 17,075,200 9,984,670 9,826,630 9,596,961 8,511,965 7,692,208 3,237,782 2,766,890 2,149,690 1,964,375 1,919,440 1,219,912 779,452 551,695 377,835 357,021 301,336 244,820 100,032
Comparison 170 times 99.8 times 98.2 times 95.9 times 85 times 76.8 times 32.3 times 27.6 times 21.4 times 19.6 times 19.1 times 12.1 times 7.8 times 5.5 times 3.7 times 3.5 times 3 times 2.4 times
2. Climate Korea's climate is regarded as a continental one in terms of temperature and as a monsoonal climate from a precipitation standpoint. The climate of Korea is characterised by four distinct seasons: spring, summer, fall, and winter. Spring lasts from late March to May and is warm. Flowers, including the picturesque royal azelea blossom, cover the nation's mountains and fields during this time. Summer lasts from June to early September. It is a hot and humid time of year. Autumn lasts from September to November, and produces mild weather. Winter lasts from December to mid-March. It can be bitterly cold during this time due to the influx of cold Siberian air. Heavy snow in the northern and eastern parts of Korea makes for favourable skiing conditions. Further information can be found from: http://www.korea.net/
3. Population South Korea's total population was estimated at 49.35 million in 2009. Expatriates accounted for 1.8 percent of the Korean population. According to the Ministry of Public
156 Administration and Security, the number of non-Korean residents in Korea increased 23.3 percent year-on-year to 891,341. Nearly half of immigrants were workers hired by local firms. Spouses â&#x20AC;&#x201C; mostly women - and children from international marriages accounted for 16.2 percent or 144,385 and 6.5 percent or 58,007, respectively. Students made up 6.3 percent, according to the statistics. The number of Korean-Chinese residents recorded 378,345, or 42 percent of the total number of the expats. Their number increased 44 percent from the previous year. Southeast Asians were 22.2 percent, Chinese 15.8 percent, South Asians 3.7 percent, Americans 3 percent, Japanese 2.7 percent and Mongolians 2.4 percent. About 66 percent of the alien population resides in industrial areas in Seoul and Gyeonggi Province. About 65,500, or 7.4 percent, acquired Korean nationality, the statistics said. Further information can be found from: http://kostat.go.kr/
4. History 1) Gojoseon People began living on the Korean Peninsula and its surrounding areas from some 700,000 years ago. The Neolithic Age began some 8,000 years ago. Relics from that period can be found in areas throughout the Korean Peninsula, mostly in coastal areas and in areas near big rivers. The Bronze Age began around 1,500 to 2,000 B.C. in present-day Mongolia and on the peninsula. As this civilization began to form, numerous tribes appeared in the Lioaning region of Manchuria and in northwestern Korea. These tribes were ruled by leaders, whom Dangun, the legendary founder of the Korean people, later united to establish Gojoseon (2333 B.C.). The founding date is a testament to the longevity of Korea's history. This heritage is also a source of pride that provides Koreans the strength to persevere in times of adversity. Further information can http://blog.joinsmsn.com.
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and
2) Three Kingdoms and Gaya Town-states gradually united into tribal leagues with complex political structures which eventually grew into kingdoms. Among various tribal leagues, Goguryeo (37 B.C.- A.D. 668), situated along the middle course of the Amnokgang (Yalu River), was the first to mature into a kingdom. Goguryeo's aggressive troops conquered neighboring tribes one after another, and in 313, they even occupied China's Lolang outposts. Baekje (18 B.C.-A.D. 660), which grew out of a town-state located south of the Hangang River in the vicinity of present-day Seoul, was another confederated kingdom similar to
157 Goguryeo. During the reign of King Geunchogo (r. 346-375), Baekje developed into a centralized and aristocratic state. Silla (57 B.C.-A.D. 935) was located in the southeast corner of the peninsula and was initially the weakest and most underdeveloped of the three kingdoms. However, because it was geographically removed from Chinese influence, it was more open to non-Chinese practices and ideas. Its society was built on an advanced Buddhist order that was markedly class-oriented, including a military that featured a unique corps of young aristocratic warriors called Hwarang. Gaya (42-562) began as a type of confederation, formed when several tribes from the Nakdonggang River came together. 3) Unified Silla and Balhae By the mid-sixth century, the Silla Kingdom had brought under its control all of the neighboring town-states within the Gaya Confederation. Through an alliance with the Tang Dynasty of China, Silla unified the Korean Peninsula in 668 and saw the zenith of its power and prosperity in the mid-eighth century. It attempted to establish an ideal Buddhist country. Bulguksa Temple was constructed during the Unified Silla period. However, its Buddhist social order began to deteriorate as the nobility indulged in increasing luxury. Silla had repelled Tang attempts to subjugate Goguryeo and Baeche by 676. Then in 698, the former people of Goguryeo who resided in south-central Manchuria established the Kingdom of Balhae. Balhae included not only people of Goguryeo, but also a large Malgal population. Balhae established a government system centered around five regional capitals, which was modeled after the Goguryeo Kingdom's administrative structure. Balhae possessed an advanced culture which was rooted in that of Goguryeo. Balhae prosperity reached its height in the first half of the ninth century with the occupation of a vast territory reaching to the Amur River in the north and Kaiyuan in south-central Manchuria to the west. It also established diplomatic ties with Turkey and Japan. Balhae existed until 926, when it was overthrown by the Khitan. Many of the Balhae nobility, who were mostly Goguryeo descendants, moved south and joined the newly founded Goryeo Dynasty. 4) Goryeo The Goryeo Dynasty (918-1392) was founded by Wang Geon, a general who had served under Gungye, a rebel prince of the Silla Kingdom. Choosing his native town of Songak (present-day Gaeseong in North Korea) as the capital, Wang Geon proclaimed the goal of recovering the lost territory of the Goguryeo Kingdom in northeast China. Wang Geon named his dynasty Goryeo, from which the modern name Korea is derived. Although the Goryeo Dynasty could not reclaim lost lands, it achieved a sophisticated culture represented by cheongja or blue-green celadon and flourishing Buddhist tradition.
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No less significant was the invention of the world's first movable metal type in 1234, which preceded the Gutenberg Bible of Germany by two centuries. About that time, skilled Korean artisans also completed the herculean task of carving the entire Buddhist canon on large woodblocks. These woodblocks, numbering more than 80,000, were intended to invoke the influence of Buddha for the repulsion of the Mongol invaders. Called the Tripitaka Koreana, they are now stored at the historic Haeinsa Temple. 5) Joseon
In 1392, General Yi Seong-gye established a new dynasty called Joseon. The early rulers of Joseon, in order to counter the dominant Buddhist influence during the Goryeo period, supported Confucianism as the guiding philosophy of the kingdom. The Joseon rulers governed the dynasty with a well-balanced political system. A civil service examination system was the main channel for recruiting government officials. The examinations served as the backbone for social mobility and intellectual activity during the period. The Confucian-oriented society, however, highly valued academic learning while disdaining commerce and manufacturing. During the reign of King Sejong the Great (1418-1450), Joseon's fourth monarch, Korea enjoyed an unprecedented flowering of culture and art. Under King Sejong's guidance, scholars at the royal academy created the Korean alphabet Hangeul. It was then called Hunminjeongeum, or "proper phonetic system to educate the people." King Sejong's interest in astronomical science was comprehensive. Sundials, water clocks, celestial globes and astronomical maps were produced at his request. King Sejo (r.1455-1468) later established an institutional framework for government by publishing a compendium of legal codes, called Gyeongguk Daejeon. In 1592, Japan invaded the peninsula to pave the way for its incursion into China. At sea, Admiral Yi Sun-sin (1545-1598), one of the most respected figures in Korean history, led a series of brilliant naval maneuvers against the Japanese, deploying the geobukseon (turtle ships), which are believed to be the world's first ironclad battleships. From the early 17th century, a movement advocating Silhak, or practical learning, gained considerable momentum among liberal-minded scholar-officials as a means of building a modern nation. They strongly recommended agricultural and industrial improvements along with sweeping reforms in land distribution. The conservative government aristocrats, however, were not ready to accommodate such drastic change. In the latter half of the Joseon era, government administration and the upper classes came to be marked by recurring factionalism. To rectify the undesirable political situation, King Yeongjo (r.1724-1776) eventually adopted a policy of impartiality. He was thus able to strengthen the royal authority and achieve political stability.
159
King Jeongjo (r.1776-1800) maintained the policy of impartiality and set up a royal library to preserve royal documents and records. He also initiated other political and cultural reforms. This period witnessed the blossoming of Silhak. A number of outstanding scholars wrote progressive works recommending agricultural and industrial reforms, but few of their ideas were adopted by the government. 6) Japanese Occupation In the 19th century, Korea remained a "Hermit Kingdom," adamantly opposed to Western demands for diplomatic and trade relations. Over time, a few Asian and European countries with imperialistic ambitions competed with each other for influence over the Korean Peninsula. Japan, after winning wars against China and Russia, forcibly annexed Korea and instituted colonial rule in 1910. Colonial rule stimulated the patriotism of Koreans. Korean intellectuals were infuriated by Japan's official assimilation policy, which even banned Korean-language education in Korean schools. On March 1, 1919, a peaceful demonstration calling for independence spread nationwide. The Japanese authorities ruthlessly repressed the demonstrators and their supporters, slaughtering thousands. Although it failed, the March 1 Independence Movement created strong bonds of national identity and patriotism among Koreans. The movement led to the establishment of a Provisional Government in Shanghai, China, as well as an organized armed struggle against the Japanese colonists in Manchuria. The Independence Movement is still commemorated among Koreans every March 1, which is designated a national holiday. During the colonial period, Japan's economic exploitation of Korea continued. The lives of Koreans deteriorated under colonial rule until the end of World War II in 1945. 7) Founding of Republic Koreans rejoiced at Japan's World War II defeat. However, their joy was short-lived. Liberation did not instantly bring about the independence for which the Koreans had fought so fiercely. Rather, it resulted in a country divided by ideological differences caused by the emerging Cold War. Korean efforts to establish an independent government were frustrated as U.S. forces occupied the southern half of the peninsula and Soviet troops took control of the north. In November 1947, the United Nations General Assembly adopted a resolution that called for general elections in Korea under the supervision of a UN Commission. However, the Soviet Union refused to comply with the resolution and denied the UN Commission access to the northern half of Korea. The UN General Assembly then adopted another resolution calling for elections in areas accessible to its commission. The first elections in Korea were carried out on May 10, 1948, in the areas south of the 38th parallel. This parallel came to divide the Korean Peninsula into South and North.
160 Syngman Rhee was elected the first President of the Republic of Korea in 1948. Meanwhile, north of the 38th parallel, a communist regime was set up under the leadership of Kim Il-sung. On June 25, 1950, North Korea launched an unprovoked fullscale invasion of the South, triggering a three-year war which drew in U.S., Chinese and other foreign forces including Australian forces. The entire peninsula was devastated by the conflict. A cease-fire was signed in July 1953. Korea's growth-oriented, export-led economic development since the 1960s was so remarkable that it earned the expression "the Miracle on the Hangang River" in the 1970s. Subsequently, Seoul successfully hosted the 24th Olympics in 1988 and Korea co-hosted the 2002 FIFA World Cup soccer finals with Japan. Through these occasions, Korea has demonstrated to the world its rich cultural heritage and love of art, as well as modern technologies. In the 1950s, Korea ranked among the poorest countries. Today, its economy is around the 12th largest in the world, and the nation is determined to become even more of a global economic leader throughout the new millennium. The Republic of Korea has steadily followed the path to mature democracy and market economy. Even though the legacies of the Cold War still linger on this peninsula, Korea today is poised to make a new economic take-off. The Koreas are also working toward a durable structure of peace on the peninsula and promoting common prosperity for South and North Korea through peace, reconciliation and cooperation. Further Information can http://blog.joinsmsn.com.
be
found
from
http://english.president.go.kr/
and
161 5. Organization of the Government Administration
(Source: http://english.president.go.kr/government/branch/branch.php)
162 Below is a list of Korean Government offices with their website addresses. President’s office: http://english.president.go.kr Board of Audit and Inspections: http://www.bai.go.kr/ National Intelligence Service: http://eng.nis.go.kr Office of Minister for Special Affairs (OMSA): http://www.omsa.go.kr/ Ministry of Government Legislation: http://www.moleg.go.kr/english/ Ministry of Patriots and Veterans Affairs (MPVA): http://english.mpva.go.kr/ Fair Trade Commission Korea (FTC): http://eng.ftc.go.kr/ Financial Services Commission (FSC): http://www.fsc.go.kr/eng/index.jsp Civil Rights Commission (CRC): http://www.acrc.go.kr/eng_index.html Ministry of Strategy and Finance (MOSF): http://english.mosf.go.kr/ National Tax Service (NTS): http://www.nts.go.kr/eng/ Korea Customs Service (KCS): http://english.customs.go.kr/ Public Procurement Services (PPS): http://www.pps.go.kr/english/ Korea National Statistical Office (KNSO): http://www.nso.go.kr/eng2006/emain/index.html Ministry of Education Science and Technology (MEST): http://english.mest.go.kr/ Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Trade (MOFAT): http://www.mofat.go.kr/english/main/index.jsp Ministry of Justice (MOJ): http://www.moj.go.kr/HP/ENG/index.do Supreme Prosecutor’s Office (SPO): http://www.spo.go.kr/user.tdf?a=user.renewal.main.MainApp&lang=eng Ministry of Unification (MOU): http://www.unikorea.go.kr/CmsWeb/viewPage.req?idx=PG0000000394 Ministry of National Defence (MND): http://www.mnd.go.kr/mndEng_2009/main/index.jsp Military Manpower Administration (MMA): http://www.mma.go.kr/eng/ Defence Acquisition Program Administration (DAPA): http://www.dapa.go.kr/eng/index.jsp Ministry of Public Administration and Security (MOPAS): http://www.mopas.go.kr/gpms/ns/mogaha/user/nolayout/main/english/userEngM ainDisplay.action National Police Agency (KNPA): http://www.police.go.kr/eng/index.jsp National Emergency Management Agency (NEMA): http://www.nema.go.kr/eng/index.jsp
163 Ministry of Culture, Sports and Tourism (MOCST): http://www.mcst.go.kr/english/index.jsp Cultural Heritage Administration (CHA): http://english.cha.go.kr/ Ministry for Food, Agriculture Forestry and Fisheries (MIFAFF): http://english.mifaff.go.kr/main.tdf Rural Development Administration (RDA): http://www.rda.go.kr/ Forest Service: http://english.forest.go.kr/foahome/user.tdf?a=user.index.IndexApp&c=1006 Ministry of Knowledge Economy (MOKE): http://www.mke.go.kr/language/eng/ Small and Medium Business Administration (SMBA): http://eng.smba.go.kr/main.jsp Korean Intellectual Property Office (KIPO): http://www.kipo.go.kr/en/ Ministry for Health Welfare and Family Affairs (MIHWAF): http://english.mw.go.kr/front_eng/index.jsp Korea Food and Drug Administration (KFDA): http://eng.kfda.go.kr/index.php Ministry of Environment (MOE): http://eng.me.go.kr/ Korea Meteorological Administration (KMA): http://web.kma.go.kr/eng/index.jsp Ministry of Labour (MOL): http://www.moel.go.kr/intro/intro_2010/intro.html Ministry of Gender Equality (MOGE): http://english.moge.go.kr/index.jsp Ministry of Land, Transport and Maritime Affairs (MOLTMA): http://english.mltm.go.kr/intro.do Korea Coast Guard (KCG): http://www.kcg.go.kr/in_site/english/ Multifunctional Administrative City Construction Agency (MACCA): http://www.happycity.go.kr/ 6. Government and Political Conditions The Republic of Korea (commonly called as "South Korea") is a republic with powers nominally shared among the presidency, the legislature, and the judiciary, but traditionally dominated by the president. The president is chief of state and is elected for a single term of 5 years. The 299 members of the unicameral National Assembly are elected to 4-year terms. Suffrage is universal at age 19 (lowered from 20 in 2005). South Korea's judicial system comprises a Supreme Court (http://eng.scourt.go.kr/), appellate courts, and a Constitutional Court (http://english.ccourt.go.kr/). The judiciary is independent under the constitution. The country has nine provinces and seven administratively separate cities--the capital of Seoul, along with Busan, Daegu, Daejeon, Gwangju, Incheon and Ulsan. Political parties include:
164 Grand National Party (GNP) (http://www.hannara.or.kr/), Democratic Party (DP) (http://english.minjoo.kr/), Liberty Forward Party (LFP) (http://www.jayou.or.kr/) and New Progressive Party (NPP) (http://www.newjinbo.org).
7. Economy The following economic figures are based on statistics and information which are currently available (2009). For the latest statistics, please also see the websites of the Bank of Korea: http://bok.go.kr/statistics and Korea Bureau of Statistics: http://kostat.go.kr/. (Statistics: 2009)
• GDP (purchasing power parity): $1.364 trillion. • GDP per capita: US $17,074 (2009) • Unemployment rate: 3.6% • Inflation rate (consumer prices): 2.8% • Natural resources: Coal, tungsten, graphite, molybdenum, lead, hydropower • Agriculture: Products--rice, root crops, barley, vegetables, fruit, cattle,
pigs,
chickens, milk, eggs, fish. Arable land--16.58% of land area.
• Industry:
Electronics, telecommunications, automobile production, chemicals, shipbuilding, steel.
• Trade:
Exports--$363.5 billion: semiconductors, wireless telecommunications equipment, motor vehicles, computers, steel, ships, petrochemicals. Imports-$323.1 billion: crude oil, food, electronics and electronic equipment, machinery, transportation equipment, steel, organic chemicals, plastics, base metals and articles.
• Major export markets (2008): China (21.5%), U.S. (10.9%), Japan (6.6%), Hong Kong (4.6%).
• Major
importers to South Korea (2008)--China (17.7%), Japan (14.0%), U.S. (8.9%), Saudi Arabia (7.8%), U.A.E. (4.4%), Australia (4.1%).
Over the past several decades, the Republic of Korea has achieved a remarkably high level of economic growth, which has allowed the country to rise from the rubble of the Korean War into the ranks of the Organization for Cooperation and Development (OECD). Today, South Korea is Australia’s third or fourth-largest trading partner and is the 12th-largest economy in the world. In the early 1960s, the government of Park Chung-Hee instituted sweeping economic policy changes emphasizing exports and labour-intensive light industries, leading to rapid
165 debt-financed industrial expansion. The government carried out a currency reform, strengthened financial institutions, and introduced flexible economic planning. In the 1970s Korea began directing fiscal and financial policies toward promoting heavy and chemical industries, consumer electronics, and automobiles. Manufacturing continued to grow rapidly in the 1980s and early 1990s. In recent years, Korea's economy moved away from the centrally planned, governmentdirected investment model toward a more market-oriented one. South Korea bounced back from the 1997-98 Asian financial crisis with assistance from the International Monetary Fund (IMF), but its recovery was based largely on extensive financial reforms that restored stability to markets. These economic reforms helped Korea return to growth, with growth rates of 10% in 1999 and 9% in 2000. The slowing global economy and falling exports slowed growth to 3.3% in 2001, prompting consumer stimulus measures that led to 7.0% growth in 2002. Consumer over-shopping and rising household debt, along with external factors, slowed growth to near 3% again in 2003. Economic performance in 2004 improved to 4.6% due to an increase in exports, and remained at or above 4% in 2005, 2006, and 2007. With the onset of the global financial and economic crisis in the third quarter of 2008, annual GDP growth slowed to 2.3% in 2008 and just 0.2% in 2009. Economists are concerned that South Korea's economic growth potential has fallen because of a rapidly aging population and structural problems that are becoming increasingly apparent. Foremost among these structural concerns are the rigidity of South Korea's labor regulations, the need for more constructive relations between management and workers, the country's underdeveloped financial markets, and a general lack of regulatory transparency. Korean policy makers are increasingly worried about diversion of corporate investment to China and other lower wage countries, and by Korea's falling foreign direct investment (FDI). President Leeâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s economic agenda necessarily shifted in the final months of 2008 to dealing with the global economic crisis. In 2009, the economy responded well to a robust fiscal stimulus package and low interest rates.
8. North-South Economic Ties Two-way trade between North and South Korea, which was first legalized in 1988, rose to almost $1.82 billion in 2008 before declining sharply thereafter. Until recently, South Korea was North Korea's second-largest trading partner after China. Much of this trade was related to out-processing or assembly work undertaken by South Korean firms in the Kaesong Industrial Complex (KIC). Much of the work done in North Korea has been funded by South Korea, but this assistance was halted in 2008 except for energy aid (heavy fuel oil) authorized under the Six-Party Talks. Many of these economic ties have become important symbols of hope for the eventual reunification of the peninsula. For example, after the June 2000 North-South summit, the two Koreas have reconnected their east and west coast railroads and roads where they cross the DMZ and have improved these transportation routes. South Korean tour groups have used the east coast road to travel from South Korea to Mt. Geumgang in North Korea since 2003, although the
166 R.O.K. suspended tours to Mt. Geumgang in July 2008 following the shooting death of a South Korean tourist by a D.P.R.K. soldier. Unfortunately, these North-South economic ties have been seriously damaged by escalating tensions following North Koreaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s torpedoing of the South Korean warship Cheonan in March 2010.
9. Foreign Relations South Korea joined the United Nations in August 1991 along with North Korea and is active in most UN specialised agencies and many international forums. The Republic of Korea has also hosted major international events such as the 1988 Summer Olympics, the 2002 World Cup Football Tournament (co-hosted with Japan), and the 2002 Second Ministerial Conference of the Community of Democracies. In 2010, South Korea hosts the R.O.K.-Japan-China Trilateral Summit as well as the G-20 Seoul Summit. Economic considerations have a high priority in Korean foreign policy. The R.O.K. seeks to build on its economic accomplishments to increase its regional and global role. Along with Australia, South Korea is a founding member of the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) forum and chaired the organisation in 2005. The Republic of Korea maintains diplomatic relations with more than 170 countries and a broad network of trading relationships. It has strong economic, political and strategic partner relationships with Australia. The United States and Korea are allied by the 1953 Mutual Defense Treaty. Korea and Japan coordinate closely on numerous issues. This includes consultations with the United States on North Korea policy. Further Information can be found from http://www.state.gov; http://www.mofat.go.kr/; and http://www.dfat.gov.au/
10. Religion Freedom of religion is protected under South Koreaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s constitution. Roughly half (53.1% in 2005) of the South Korean population actively practice some form of religion. Most religious believers in South Korea follow Buddhism (22.8%), Christianity (Protestants) (18.3%) and Catholics (10.9%). Although only 0.2% of South Koreans identify themselves as Confucianists, Korean society remains highly imbued with Confucian values and beliefs. A small minority of South Koreans practice Islam, Shamanism (traditional spirit worship), and Chondogyo ("Heavenly Way"). 46.5% of South Koreans practice no religion. Further Information can be found from www.kostat.go.kr and http://www.state.gov.
167 11. Science and technology The Ministry of Science and Technology (MOST) is mandated to provide central directions, planning, coordination and evaluation of all science and technology activities in the country; and formulate S & T policies, programs, and projects including technology cooperation, space technology, and atomic energy in support of national development priorities (http://english.mest.go.kr/) By all indications, the growth of Korea’s electronics industry epitomises its rapid advance over the past six decades and, to a certain extent, may be said to have driven it. After the Korean War (1950-53) the country was a divided and demoralized nation in abject poverty, lacking non-human natural resources and facing never-ending security threats. It was thought of the utilization of its abundant manpower, development of new and prospective industries, encouragement of import substitution, promotion of exports, the effective use of aid from the U.S. and the coordination of government policies with Korea’s new entrepreneurial class. 1) The 1970s: decade of consumer goods, higher tech Building on a background of government policies that nurtured industrial development, Korea underwent an economic leap forward during the 1970s. This advance was largely pushed by a series of new inventions, the government electronics promotion policy and the 1974 establishment of the Masan Free Export Zone as well as the Gumi Export Industrial Complex. In 1970, Korea started the production of black-and-white transistor TV sets and by the mid-1970s some 13 companies were producing more than one million of these a year. In 1974, Korea National, a joint venture between Anam Industries and National Electric of Japan, produced and exported 29,000 color TV sets. Samsung Electronics and GoldStar (currently LG Electronics) began the production of color TV sets for export in 1977. The three companies made 110,000 sets that year. Yet, color broadcasting did not begin in Korea until 1980. Radios, electronic watches and cassette tape players took a large part of the business in the second half of the decade. Small and portable cassette players, ‘must-have’ items, were especially favored by youths and generally popularized consumer electronics. Samsung produced its first magnetrons in 1979 and marketed Korea’s first microwave oven that year. 2) Telecommunications “If you can’t communicate, you can’t operate” is a saying that is equally applicable to Korea’s development. Prior to 1986, the few phones that Korea had were under a manually operated switching system but in that year a pilot electronic switching system, the TDX-1, was installed for 362 subscribers. This was followed in 1989 by the TDX-10 which later evolved into the CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access) system. CDMA is
168 used in 2G and 3G mobile phone communications and allows many signals to occupy a single transmission channel, increasing the number of customers that can utilize the limited frequencies. The Electronics and Telecommunications Research Institute (ETRI) strove to expand and commercialize CDMA in Korea through a 1992 tie-up with Qualcomm of the U.S., enabling Korea to be on an equal footing with developed countries and to get into the mobile phone business. In 1996, the predecessors to SK Telecom started commercial services and in 2008 chalked up a market share of 50.5 percent. The company started the world’s first Digital Multimedia Broadcasting (DMB), also known as mobile TV, in 2005 for sending multimedia such as TV signals to mobile devices such as mobile phones, and replacing FM radio. 3) IT and the Internet Sambo Trigem was established in 1980 and produced Korea’s first microcomputer that year. Since then a myriad companies have entered the market but Samsung and LG continue as the top contenders with a combined market share in 2009 of over 50 percent. Samsung sells more than 10 million PCs worldwide while Korea’s IT spending is expected to increase from $16.1 billion in 2010 to around $20.3 billion in 2014. Areas subject to prospective growth are cloud computing (delivering services over the Internet), notebook PCs and flash memory. A 2007 study by Nielsen showed that Koreans are the world’s most wired people with 80 percent having access to the Internet. Computer ownership for the same year stood at 88 percent, the highest internationally. In 2010, according to the OECD, more than 90 percent of Korean homes have broadband access, while PC cafes are open 24 hours a day. Such market penetration augurs well for the industry. As part of its policies to induce foreign investments and foster private investment, the Korean government has placed semiconductors, nanotechnology and robotics on a list of prospective future technologies. This strategy will very likely procure new markets for the industry. Government R&D funding and collaboration with top scientific institutes are also positive harbingers for the future. R&D is vital for the new products Korea needs. Samsung Electronics spent US$6.4 billion on research and development in 2009 and the company says this amount will certainly increase in the future. For Samsung, enjoying the ability to afford the necessary investment and with huge economies of scale in making TVs and phones among other products the future seems rosy. That of other companies is less certain but if there is no second downturn, Korea may be able to look forward to more bright years for its electronics industry. (Source: http://www.koreatimes.co.kr/www/news/biz/2010/09/291_72034.html)
169 Appendix 6: Cultural Symbols of Korea 18 1. Bulgogi: The Emblem of Korean Meat Dishes
(Source: http://www.hansik.org)
Bugogi is a seasoned dish of thinly sliced beef which is broiled over a fire. While the ‘bul’ in bulgogi means fire, ‘gogi’ means meat. Bulgogi, a dish with a history that spans some 2,000 years, was reserved for royalty during the Joseon Dynasty (1392-1910), when it was known as neobiani. Bulgogi, along with galbi, is widely regarded as the most representative Korean meat dishes. 2. Bibimbap: A dish that encompasses the Principle of Nature
(Source: http://www.korea.net/; http://www.hansik.org)
Located in the southwest of the Korean peninsula, Jeonju is widely perceived as the food capital of Korea. To this end, bibimbap constitutes the very essence of Jeonju’s food 18
Source: Yoo M-J and Lee J-H (2008), 100 Cultural Symbols of Korea, Discovery Media.
170 culture. Bibimbap is a healthy dish consisting of rice mixed with gochujang (red pepper sauce), beef, and various vegetables such as bean sprouts, spinach, bracken, radish, and zucchini. 3. Kimchi: The Taste of 2,000 Years
(Source: http://www.kimchiworld.kr/; http://www.korea.net/)
Kimchi is in all likelihood the most popular of Korean foods. The term ‘Kimchi’ literally means, “vegetables fermented in salt” in Korean. A variety of vegetables can be used to make kimchi; these include Chinese cabbage, turnips, squash, eggplants, sesame leaves, Korean lettuce, and stone leeks. Kimchi is created by adding salt, garlic, red pepper powder, ginger, anchovies or shrimp, pear juice, and chestnuts to the vegetables. Traditionally, kimchi consisted simply of vegetables stored in salt to which a few basic spices were added. By the 1600s red chili peppers and pickled fish had become the main ingredients in kimchi. The modern era has seen pears, chestnuts and pine nuts also be added to this dish. Kimchi is the main staple of the Korean diet and a dish that Koreans enjoy throughout their entire lives.
4. Hangeul: The Alphabet of Love (For photo images please refer to the Korea National Tourim Orgainisation homepage: http://korean.visitkorea.or.kr/) Hangeul was invented in 1443 by King Sejong, who was the fourth of the Joseon Dynasty (1392-1910). King Sejong invented a new writing system that featured 28 letters which he called Hunminjeongeum, which means the proper language for the instruction of the people. This writing system is now known as Hangeul. While Korea had long had its own language, it did not prior to the invention of Hangeul by King Sejong have its own writing system. As a result, Koreans had up until that point utilized the Chinese writing system. Aware of this situation, King Sejong set out to analyze the contemporary state of Korean phonology and to create a new alphabet system.
171 Hangeul is the only writing system in the world for which we can pinpoint with exactitude the period in which it was created, the identity of its creator, and its founding principles. While Hangeul originally consisted of 28 phonemic letters, only 24, 14 consonants and 10 vowels are now utilized. E.O. Reischauer, a professor at Harvard University, and J.K Fairbank praised the excellence of Hangeul as follows: “Hangeul is in all likelihood the most scientific of all writing systems presently used in the world.”
5. Taegeukgi: The National Flag of the Republic of Korea
(Source: http://aus-sydney.mofat.go.kr/)
The term Taegeuk literally means the “state of chaos that existed before the creation of the sky and earth.” In this regard, while the red portion of the taegeuk symbol signifies yang, the blue section is meant to denote yin. This yin and yang can in turn be expressed as the moon and sun, or earth and heaven. Taegeuk thus has been taken to mean a complete circle in which yin and yang encounter one another, or an unlimited universe. The flag was first referred to as the taegeukgi in the March 1st, 1919 Declaration of Korean Independence signed by 33 national representatives during the Japanese colonial era.
6. Hanbok: Clothing of the wind (For photo images please refer to the Korea National Tourim Orgainisation homepage: http://korean.visitkorea.or.kr/) The hanbok, the traditional Korean costume, developed under the influence of Buddhism, Confucianism, China and even the Mongols. While people these days wear a hanbok on special occasions and holidays, Koreans used to wear it on a daily basis. A hanbok consists of upper and lower garments. The basic components of a hanbok are a skirt (chima) and jacket (jeogori) for women, and pants (baji) and a jacket (jeogori) for men. The hanbok dates as far back as the Three Kingdoms Era (18BC-660AD). The hanbok is
172 a beautiful article of clothing which boasts exquisitely harmonized lines and patterns. The colors of the cloth, designs, and ornaments combine to create the hanbokâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s refined and magnificent mood.
7. Taekwondo: A martial art which involves the training of both body and mind (For photo images please refer to the Korea National Tourim Orgainisation homepage: http://korean.visitkorea.or.kr/) Taekwondo is a traditional Korean martial art whose history spans some 2,000 years. Taekwondo is more than a simple fighting sport such as wrestling and boxing; it is a spiritual exercise and a performing art which combines both stillness and motion. Furthermore, Taekwondo is an international sport which not only highlights Korean culture and thought, but one in which etiquette is regarded as being important. Taekwondo is an international sport which some 50 million non-Koreans the world over have partaken of. Taekwondo became an official sport during the Sydney Olympic Games in 2000. 8. Ssireum: A sport based on the notion of humanism
(Source: http://ssireum.sports.or.kr/)
Ssireum is a traditional Korean sport in which two people wearing a belt that is wrapped around their waists and thighs compete to bring any part of their opponentâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s body to the ground using a serious of techniques and their own brute strength. Based on the notion of humanism, ssireum is a scientific and rational sport in which little harm or injury is inflicted to oneâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s opponent.
173 9. Tripitaka Koreana: Buddhist Scriptures
(Source: http://www.haeinsa.or.kr/tripitaka/)
The Tripitaka Koreana (National Treasure no.32) has long been housed in Haeinsa Temple located in Hapcheon, Gyeongsangnam-Do Province. Due to the high number of printing plates involved, it is also known in Korean as the Palman Daejanggyeong (Eighty-thoughand Tripitakas). In this regard, the Tripitaka Koreana represents the most precise and complete Buddhist scriptures remaining in the world. Produced during the Goryeo Dynasty (918-1392) over a period of 16 years (1236-1251), the Tripitaka Koreana was initially intended to serve as a rallying cry for the people of Goryeo to rise up and repel the invading Mongols and restore stability to a deeply fractured society. 10.
Pansori: Korean opera
(Source: http://www.koreapansori.com/)
Pansori is a Korean traditional performing art in which one singer (changja or sorikun) tells a dramatic story while a drummer (gosu) plays on in the background. Although outwardly similar to Western-style opera, pansori stands out because of the fact that it features only one singer conveying stories amidst various rhythms emanating from a drummer. As the changja must play all the characters that appear in a story, she or he must have the ability to carry out vocals in various octaves. Meanwhile, the gosu, or the drummer, must possess the ability to always choose the appropriate rhythm at the right time. As such, the gosu can make or break a pansori performance.
174
11.
The DMZ: The path to reunification
(Source: http://www.korea-dmz.com/)
Having officially divided the Korean peninsula into South and North Korea ever since the Korean War ended in July 1953, the DMZ (Demilitarized Zone) is an area that evokes great sadness amongst the Korean people. The DMZ truncates the Korean peninsula at its center (38th parallel), effectively dividing the nation into Southern and Northern parts. The DMZ spans 250km from east to west and 4km from north to south. Fortunately, the two sides have managed to avoid any huge conflagrations or even all-out war over the past 50 years. The DMZ has remained off limits to all human traffic for more than 50 years. This has resulted in Koreansâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; inheriting a setting that has over time become a natural preserve the likes of which has rarely been seen anywhere else in the world. The DMZ is both an ecological treasure trove and a haven for wildlife.
175 References and Further Readings Ahn, S-C. 2009. Korean Phonology. Saffron Books, EAP. Byon, A. S.2008. Korean as a Foreign Language in the USA: The Instructional Settings. Language, Culture and Curriculum, 21:3, 244–255. Routledge. Byon, A. S. 2009. Basic Korean – A Grammar and Workbook. Routledge. Chang, H., S-C. Shin and S-O. Lee. 1998. Ancillary Cultural Materials for Teaching Korean as a Second Language. National Korean Studies Centre and Department of Education, Employment, Training and Youth Affairs, Caberra. Choo, M. and W. O’Grady. 1996. Handbook of Korean Vocabulary. University of Hawaii Press. Choo, M. and W. O’Grady. 2003. The Sounds of Korean – A Pronunciation Guide. University of Hawaii Press. Education Project Team. 2007.An Investigation of the State and Nature of Languages in Australian Schools. Research Centre for Languages and Cultures Education, University of South Australia. Edwards, J. 1985. Language, Society and Identity. Basil Blackwell. Erebus Consulting Partners Project team (2002a). Evaluation of the National Asian Languages and Studies in Australian Schools Strategies. Erebus Consulting Partners. Erebus Consulting Partners Project team (2002b). Review of Commonwealth Languages Other Than English Programme. Erebus Consulting Partners. Hong, J. et al. 2008. Hangeul in the World. Pagijong Press. Ihm, H-B, K-P. Hong and S-I. Chang. 1988. Korean Grammar for International Learners. Yonsei University Press. Kim-Renaud, Y-K. (ed). 1997. The Korean Alphabet – Its History and Structure. Kim-Renaud, Y-K. 2009. Korean – An Essential Grammar. Routledge. King, R. and J-H. Yeon. 2002. Continuing Korean. Turtle Publishing. Korea Foundation. 2010. Hangeul – Korea’s Unique Alphabet. Seoul Selection. Kwon, H-Y (ed.). 1995. Korean Cultural Roots – Religion and Social Thoughts. Integrated Technical Resources. Lee, Dong-Jae. 2003. Korean language education and pedagogy for secondary school students in the U.S.: A short cut to globalization of the Korean language, Journal of Korean Language Education14:2, 205–226. Lee, K-K. and J. P. Linskey. 2003. Korean Traditional Culture. Jimoondang. Lee, S-O. and D-S. Park (eds). 1998. Perspectives on Korea. Sydney: Wild Peony. Lo Biano, J (with Slaughter, Y). 2009. Australian Education Review – Second Languages and Australian Schooling. Australian Council for Educational Research. Park, M-S. 1997. Communication Styles in Two Different Cultures: Korean and American. Han Shin Publishing. Park, B. 2009. 500 Basic Korean Adjectives. Hollym International. Schools (NALSAS) Taskforce. 1998. Factors influencing the uptake of Modern Standard Chinese. Schwartz, M. 2008. “Exploring the relationship between family language policy and heritage language knowledge among second generation Russian-Jewish
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