between researchers and practitioners. A summary is given in Table 2. Table 2: Characteristics of different types of interdisciplinarity43 Multidisciplinary
Interdisciplinary
Transdisciplinary
Which is the main motive?
Mainly instrumental
Both instrumental and critical
Both instrumental and critical
Is there any cooperation between disciplines?
To some extent
Yes
Yes
Is there (active) cooperation between researchers and practitioners during the research process?
No
No
Yes
Are methodologically challenging issues addressed?
To some extent
Yes, to a certain degree
Yes, to a certain degree
Are epistemologically challenging issues addressed?
To a minor degree
To some extent, but not necessary
Yes, to a certain degree
In summary: The challenges and problems often need approaches that go beyond the disciplinary boundaries. In this context it would be very beneficial if educational sciences could be combined with complementary scientific fields such as cognitive neuroscience, developmental psychology (developmental science), sociology of education (child studies), and child public health.
The position of scientific knowledge threatened At the same time, there is a tendency for the trust in science to diminish. This change is based on several different conditions. One is that the public’s confidence in authorities decreases in the postmodern society. This has been found in the World Value Survey.44 Another is the varied view of what science is. Science is a way of understanding the world, but there are certain characteristics that separate science from nonsense. Documented methods and Mobjörk, M. (2009). Crossing the framing of transdisciplinarity. Örebro: Örebro University, Centre for Housing and Urban Research Series Report number 64, p. 29. 44 Inglehart, R. (1997). Modernization and postmodernization. Cultural, economic, and political change in 434 societies. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press. 43
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