Gender related issues in STEM by Nahed AbdelRahman

Gender Related Issues in STEM Dr. Beverly J. Irby Dr. Jennifer Boswell Nahed Abdelrahman Editors

Dr. Rafael Lara-Alecio Dr. Fuhui Tong Assistant Editors Gretchen Glasscock Advancing Women. Com and Advancing Women in Leadership Journal Publisher

Forward

Having a history is a prerequisite to claiming a right to shape the future……. Sara Evans 1989 On October 1, 1847, an amateur astronomer, Maria Mitchell, identified a new comet with a Danish made telescope. Living on the island of Nantucket and perusing the heavens nightly, Ms. Mitchell became familiar with the nighttime sky, its constellations, the planets hovering, occasionally visible and star like, near the moon and of course, any abnormalities that would appear. In that year, the King of Denmark said he would award a gold medal to the first man to discover a comet with one of Denmark’s fine new telescopes. Alas! It was a woman, Maria Mitchell, and her discovery was as remarkable for its appearance in the sky as it was for the gender of the discoverer. Maria Mitchell’s discovery made the headlines of the day, and she came to the attention of Matthew Vassar less than 20 years later when he was searching for a world class astronomer to teach the women of Vassar College. After much cajoling and convincing on Matthew Vassar’s part, Ms. Mitchell, a self taught astronomer, agreed to take the position and remained at Vassar until her death in 1889, promoting the participation of generations of women in the sciences. I studied the life and work of Maria Mitchell when, as a young woman, I yearned to understand the narratives of women who pursued science in America long before I did. In 1989, Vassar held a celebration of Maria Mitchell upon the centennial of her death, and I had the privilege of talking about her as an educator. It was joyous to recall the ways she accompanied her students, all women, to different parts of the country to get a glimpse of even a partial solar eclipse. While at this centennial, I met Vera Rubin, an internationally renowned astronomer, member of the National Academy of Science and a recipient of the National ii

Medal of Science and a former Vassar student. She told me of the parties that ensued around the bust of Maria Mitchell, especially on October 1, 1947, celebrating the 100th anniversary of the discovery of her comet. I imagined Dr. Rubin and her fellow students dancing around the statue which they had adorned with scarves and ribbons. The tacit message for Dr. Rubin and her classmates was that there existed a world class astronomer, a woman - whose lifeâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s work was in education and in the heavens and who did this 100 years before they came along. Following the work of Maria Mitchell was exciting as she mentored many of her students. These included the astronomers, Antonia Maury and Mary Whitney, and the chemist, Ellen Swallow Richards. Mary Whitney became the director of the Vassar Observatory and professor of astronomy after Mitchell's retirement. Antonia Maury helped catalog the stars at the turn of the twentieth century, and Ellen Swallow Richards was a sanitary engineer, examining the home cleaning products emerging at the time of the industrial revolution. I also studied the geologist Florence Bascom, whose work at Bryn Mawr was a matter of legend and who became known as the Stone Lady as she was seen frequently on horseback mapping regions of the Appalachian Mountains, the first woman geologist hired by the United States Geological Survey. Through their life stories, I learned that, for these nineteenth century women, pursuing careers in science was challenging. As women, they were thought of as odd or strange for their interests, and as scientists they were often excluded from professional gatherings because of their gender. Why then, did they pursue scientific careers? The answer lies in the nature of science or as Dr. Bascom put it, in the joy of the pursuit. The process of doing science was important and engaging and an abiding passion for many women of science whose voices are yet to be heard. Knowing them gives women today a sense of entitlement and identity. There were those who came before todayâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s women, forging careers in science, and then there will be those who will follow. This is an issue of social entitlement to public sphere success in the natural and applied sciences or what we refer to today as STEM fields. Nobel Laureate, Dr. Barbara McClintock (1902-1992), summarized her feelings for her work when she was awarded the Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine in 1983. She stated, "It might seem unfair to

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reward a person for having so much pleasure over the years, asking the maize plant solve specific problems and then watching its responses." This collection of chapters and many other volumes and narratives exploring the lives and work of women in STEM are a necessary part of contemporary discourse, because we are consistently in need of research and role models in exploring the lives and work of women in the sciences. Contrary to some thinking, even in 2014, it is never automatically assumed that women can and have excelled in STEM fields and that they do indeed make extraordinary contributions that advance knowledge and discovery. It is necessary to explore the lives and work of girls and women and find ways to encourage their participation in science, technology engineering and mathematics. We need these studies and others, and we must find ways to see femalesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; STEM aspirations as typical of our time.

Janice Koch Ph.D. March 18, 2014

Evans, Sara (1989). Born for Liberty: A History of American Women. New York: Free Press, 1989 iv

Preface

If we’re going to out-innovate and out-educate the rest of the world, we’ve got to open doors for everyone. We need all hands on deck, and that means clearing hurdles for women and girls as they navigate careers in science, technology, engineering, and math. First Lady Michelle Obama, September 26, 2011

One of the things that I really strongly believe in is that we need to have more girls interested in math, science, and engineering. We’ve got half the population that is way underrepresented in those fields and that means that we’ve got a whole bunch of talent … that is not being encouraged... President Barack Obama February 2013

We initiated this preface by the words of the current sitting U.S. President and the First Lady in 2014. They emphasized the need for women and girls increase in the STEM fields; we believe that these words are not only for the United States, but also are for other worlds communities. The six chapters that appear in this book are based on over a decade of work in the area of gender related issues in STEM. In the lead chapter, The Role of a Transforming Experience in Encouraging Young Women to Pursue Careers in STEM Fields, Besecke and Reilly proposed the importance of a transforming experience in encouraging girls and women to pursue careers in science and technology. In the second chapter, Learning about the Human Aspect of the Scientific Enterprise: Gender Differences in Conceptions of Scientific Knowledge, Burton tested a unique teaching method that emphasizes the human endeavor of pursuing scientific knowledge as a possivi

ble relief to the isolating and inhospitable methods of teaching science, to compare the academic performance of girls and boys and an exploration into the cognition boys and girls use to make sense of scientific activities. Lemons and Parzinger presented the third chapter, Psychological Congruence: The Impact of Organizational Context on Job Satisfaction and Retention of Women in Technology, characteristics of culture and climate that influence job satisfaction and intentions to leave of women in Information Technology, and they considered the moderating effect of traditional and non-traditional gender schemas. In Chapter 4, The Status of Graduate Women in STEM, Ferreira reported on a study related to the status of graduate women in STEM fields (science, technology, Engineering and mathematics) using doctoral degrees awarded by U.S. universities between 1994 and 2009. In the fifth chapter, Women in STEM: Whatâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Spatial Reasoning Got to Do With It?, Polnick and Jasper concentrated on how and why women perform differently on spatial reasoning measures and how these differences can impact their pursuance of STEM related careers. The final chapter, Women and STEM: A Systematic Literature Review of Dissertation in Two Decades (1994-2014), Irby, Abdelrahman, and Phuong included a systematic review of 20 years of dissertation research conducted in the United States on STEM and women.

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Acknowledgement

The editors of this book acknowledge Gretchen Glasscock, the publisher of the award-winning website-- www.advancingwomen.com. She has worked tirelessly for over 20 years in helping to establish parity for women in the workplace, science, math, engineering, technology, and leadership. We acknowledge her work in supporting the only openaccess journal for womenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s leadership issues-- that in and of itself acknowledges her as a leader in the area of social justice. She is the author of the book, The 20 Percent Solution: Create a Website for Almost Passive Income. She is a mentor to many in the specific area of technology as it relates to STEM.

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No part of this book may be reproduced in any written, electronic, recording, or photocopying without written permission of the publisher or author. The exception would be in the case of brief quotations embodied in the critical articles or reviews and pages where permission is specifically granted by the publisher or author. Although every precaution has been taken to verify the accuracy of the information contained herein, the author and publisher assume no responsibility for any errors or omissions. No liability is assumed for damages that may result from the use of information contained within.

Publisher: Gretchen Glasscock, Advancing Women (advancingwomen.com)  Editors: Beverly J. Irby, Jennifer Boswell, Nahed Abdelrahman; Assistant Editors: Rafael Lara-Alecio and Fuhui Tong, Educational Leadership Research Center, Educational Administration and Human Resource Development, College of Education and Human Development, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX  Library of Congress Catalog Number: 2014910421  ISBN: 978-0-9915682-9-1 Cover Designer: Ahmad Bakr First Edition  ix

About the Authors: Chapter 1 The Role of a Transforming Experience in Encouraging Young Women to Pursue Careers in STEM Fields Leslie M. Besecke, Ph.D., MBA Dr. Leslie Besecke’s professional interest in women and science originated during undergraduate training in Zoology and Women’s Studies at Miami University, Ohio. She earned her Ph.D. from Northwestern University in Neurobiology & Physiology in conjunction with Northwestern’s Center for Reproductive Science and taught in both Neurobiology and Women’ Studies Departments during her graduate training. After years working in academic science and later in pharmaceutical discovery, she currently encourages girls (and boys) to embrace science in her community by organizing and judging local and regional school science fairs, and by giving guest science presentations and guided discussions on women and science. Anne Reilly, Ph.D. Professor Anne Reilly is currently Associate Dean for Faculty and Research in the Quinlan School of Business at Loyola University Chicago, following administrative positions in Loyola’s Office of the Provost and the Graduate School of Business. Her academic background includes a Ph.D. in organizational behavior (Northwestern University), an M.B.A. in finance (University of Iowa), and a B.A. in economics, summa cum laude Dr. Reilly’s research about women and science draws from her interest in gender and career development, and is further influenced by her experiences as a mother of three daughters (Knox College).

About the Authors: Chapter 2 Learning about the Human Aspect of the Scientific Enterprise: Gender Differences in Conceptions of Scientific Knowledge

Erin Peters Burton, Ph.D. Dr. Erin Peters Burton is an Associate Professor of Educational Psychology and Science Education at George Mason University and her research involves measuring and developing student scientific epistemologies. Her work has shown promise in demonstrating a connection between content knowledge and nature of science knowledge. She continues to develop research projects that investigate ways that students and teachers can utilize self-regulation not only to learn scientific knowledge but also to learn how scientific knowledge is developed and validated. She has won several state and national awards for teaching and research and holds a National Board Certification in Early Adolescent Science.

About the Authors: Chapter 3 Psychological Congruence: The Impact of Organizational Context on Job Satisfaction and Retention of Women in Technology

Mary A. Lemons, Ph.D. Dr. Mary Lemons earned her Ph.D. in Business Administration with a management concentration from The University of Memphis in 1996. She also holds a M.B.A. and a B.B.A. from Memphis State University. Currently employed by the University of Tennessee at Martin as Professor of Management, her publications include more than 70 articles and conference proceedings. She has won numerous awards for research as well as a national teaching award. Dr. Lemons’ research focuses on human resource management, organizational justice, organizational commitment, cultural diversity, and women in technology.

Monica J. Parzinger, Ph.D. Dr. Monica Parzinger received her PhD from the University of Memphis in Information Systems. She also earned a Bachelor’s degree from Bowling Green State University as an Accounting major, and MBA from the University of Kentucky. She currently serves as chair of the Finance and Quantitative Management department of the Bill Greehey School of Business, St. Mary’s University, San Antonio, TX. Her teaching and research emphasis is busi-

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ness analytics, information technology management, corporate social responsibility, and accounting information systems. She has published in numerous academic publications and conference proceedings and serves on the board of the local chapter of the Association of Information Technology Professionals.

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About the Authors: Chapter 4 The Status of Graduate Women in STEM

Maria Ferreira, Ph.D. Dr. Maria Ferreira is an Associate Professor at Wayne State University in Detroit, where she teaches graduate courses, runs the science education program and is the PI on a variety of grant projects. Dr. Ferreira's research focuses on the social contexts of education and how the culture of educational organizations facilitates or limits access to knowledge. She has examined social contexts of education under two main areas: School culture within the construct of caring, and departmental culture as a reflection of the culture of science and its impact on gender equity in science and engineering.

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About the Authors: Chapter 5 Women in STEM: Whatâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Spatial Reasoning Got to Do

with It?

Barbra Polnick, Ed.D. Dr. Barbara Polnick is a professor at Sam Houston State University and has over 38 years in education as a teacher, math consultant, K-8 supervisor, assistant principal, and curriculum director. With over 51 national presentations, 22 peer-reviewed articles, six book chapters, as well as 14 research monographs and technical reports, her research focuses on gender and social justice issues, women in leadership, teacher leadership in mathematics, early childhood and mathematics learning, and teaching in online environments. She currently serves as co-editor of the Advancement of Women in Leadership online journal and the Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development P.A.L. Research Online Journal and as Chair for the AERA SIG Research on Women and Education.

William Jasper, Ph.D. Dr. Bill Jasper received his doctorate in mathematics education from Texas A & M University. Since 2000, Dr. Jasper has taught undergraduate mathematics courses for elementary and middle school mathematics teachers, as well as graduate courses in mathematics for middle school/secondary teachers at Sam Houston State University, and was selected for the SHSU Excellence in Teaching Award in 2006. He has 17 publications and has been awarded over $1 million in grant funding since 2000. His research interests include professional development of middle school mathematics teachers, spatial visualization, mathematics for English Language Learners, and mathematical reasoning through problem solving.

About the Authors: Chapter 6 Women and STEM: A Systematic Review of Dissertations Over Two Decades (1994-2014) BEVERLY J. IRBY, Ed.D. Dr. Beverly Irby is currently Program Chair and Associate Department Head for Educational Administration and Human Resource Development, TAMU. She is also the Director of the Educational Leadership Research Center. She has a Bachelor of Science in Education degree with a double minor in math and science and master’s and doctoral degrees are from The University of Mississippi. Her primary research interests center on issues of social responsibility, including women’s leadership issues, bilingual and ESL education administrative structures, curriculum, instructional strategies. She is the author of more than 100 refereed articles, chapters, books, and curricular materials for Spanish-speaking children. Her work is published in prestigious research and instructional journals. and as science components of SRA McGraw-Hill’s early childhood curriculum. She is the recipient of the AERA and RWE Willystine Goodsell Award, the Texas Council of Women School Executives Margaret Montgomery Leadership Award, the Diana Marion-Garcia Houston Area Bilingual Advocacy Award, the National Association of Bilingual Education and the AERA Educational Researcher Review of the Year, and the TAMU Administrator Women’s Progress Award 2014. She is the co-developer of a 21st century leadership theory, The Synergistic Leadership Theory, one of the only leadership theories that purposefully included women in the development and validation of the theory.. She has garnered in funding for grants and contracts in access of $20,000,000 awarded by the U.S. Department of Education, OSERS, TRIO, IES via TAMU Research Foundation, and NSF. She is the co-founding editor of the Advancing Women in Leadership Journal. She is editor of the Mentoring and Tutoring Journal (Routledge: Taylor and Francis, and sponsored by the National Council of Professors of Educational Administration). She has held the title of the Texas State University System Regents' Distinguished Professor during her tenure with the System.

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NAHED ABDELRAHMAN Nahed Abdelrahman is a second-year doctoral student in Public School Administration at the Department of Educational Administration and Human Resources. In 1995, she received her Bachelorâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Degree in English Language Arts and worked as an English as second language teacher for more than 8 years in Egypt. She taught both middle and high school students. In 2005, she started a new career as se worked as a program coordinator for Egypt Education Reform Program (ERP). The latter aimed to help the Ministry of Education create new policies in order to be transferred from the centralized education system to the decentralized system by giving Egypt states and districts more authorities in decision making. In 2009, and after fulfilling her role in ERP, she came to the United States to enroll in the Lyndon Baines Johnson School of Public Affairs in the University of Texas at Austin. She received her Masters of Public Affairs (MPAFF) in 2011. Since 2012, she has served as a founding member of El Dostor Political Party in Egypt. She also serves as a training specialist in the Training and Culture Committee in El Dostor. Nahed AbdelRahman. She currently serves as the Assistant Editor of both the Mentoring and Tutoring Journal and Advancing Women in Leadership Journal. Her research interests include education reform,and social justice in education.

TAM TO PHUONG Tam To Phuong is a third-year doctoral student in Human Resource Development program, Texas A&M University, USA. Among several of her research interests, faculty development in higher education is her first priority. She is the first author in two submitted papers: (a) Faculty development in Southeast Asia Higher Education: A Review of Literature, and (b) Experience of Vietnamese Faculty in their Professional Development. She is currently working as a research assistant in a project on emerging leadership development in the Bush School of Government and Public Services at Texas A&M University. Her major research topic is about junior faculty development in public universities in Vietnam. She will complete her PhD program in 2016 and return to Foreign Trade University, Vietnam, where she has been a lecturer since 1995.

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Introduction

As editors of the book, we thank you for having an interest in the topic that has occupied our attention during this decade. Women are still struggling to step up in fields that were stereotyped in favor of men in recent times. STEM is one of these fields in which women are still at the beginning of the race. Many authors who are interested in gender equity and equality have been occupied with this topic. They wanted to examine women’s impact on STEM, challenges women face in such a career, and women’s experiences that result from entering STEM careers. Because we believe in the importance of examining the current status of women in STEM fields, we decided to publish this book. Who should read this book? Should the readers be women who are working or planning to work in STEM? Should the readers be feminist activists, politicians, scholars, or social workers? Should the readers be only women? Readers should not only be all of those who are mentioned above, but but also anyone interested in equity and justice. This is a book for those who examine the sociological changes due to the economic changes. This is a book for everyone who is interested in addressing social challenges and how such could be solved. If you are one of those people, this book will help you consider gender issue, specifically women’s issues in STEM, from a different lens. The idea for this book came up several years ago in discussion with the editorial team of the Advancing Women in Leadership Journal. When we reviewed manuscripts focusing on women submitted to the journal, we sensed the tremendous need for attention to women leadership in the fields of STEM. 18

STEM is usually considered to a male-dominated field(s) and many women in STEM struggle with challenges and difficulties in such work and subsequently in their lives. In this book, scholars who seek social justice and equity provide readers with the perspective of women in STEM from a critical view. By reviewing womenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s experiences, the authors of this book pursue what can be done for womenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s development in STEM. Beverly J. Irby

CHAPTER 1

The Role of a Transforming Experience in Encouraging Young Women to Pursue Careers in the STEM Fields Leslie M. Besecke and Anne H. Reilly

We live in a society exquisitely dependent on science and technology, in which hardly anyone knows anything about science and technology. Carl Sagan, Ph.D., Astrophysicist and Author, 1934-1996

Like many plant scientists, I had a mentor who inspired me. When I was six years old, I was given a little plot of land in the backyard for which I was solely responsible. I watched the seeds grow; I learned the names of the plants. Thatâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s what started me on my path. Kayri Havens-Young, Ph.D., Medard & Elizabeth Welch Director of Plant Conservation Science and Senior Scientist, Chicago Botanic Garden

Introduction

In more than the half-decade since our first article was published in 2006 in Advancing Women in Leadership, very little has changed in terms of the centrality of technology to our daily life: Scientific and technological progress continue to be among the key engines upon which our economy and culture depend for the continually improving standard of living enjoyed by much of Western society. The plethora of technology tools and applications has only continued to grow, and at remarkable speed. Whether leading to unprecedented space exploration, access to the human genome, or simply faster and better consumer products, scientific discoveries and the scientific method that drives them occupy a place of respect and importance in our society and in the marketplace. Similarly, those pursuing science as a career, including researchers, physicians, and engineers, have access to information that can make valuable differences in human lives. In addition, they often enjoy commensurate access to higher pay and higher standards of living associated with such careers (United States Department of Labor, 2004a, 2010). Although some gains have been made in the life sciences, six years later gender disparity still exists in science and technology career development. Unfortunately, equal participation in and contribution to careers in science by all those with the greatest ability and interest, regardless of gender, has not yet been achieved. For decades, women have been greatly underrepresented in science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM) careers (National Science Foundation, 2003). Tables 1 and 2 present some selected summary statistics for degrees granted and annual earnings among the United States workforce for 2002 and comparative data for 2009-10, categorized by gender, field of study, and occupation. As these tables show, although women earn the majority of bachelorâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s, masterâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s, and doctoral degrees granted overall (United States Department of Education, 2003; 2010), the number of women currently em21

ployed in STEM fields remain a minority (National Science Foundation, 2003; United States Department of Labor, 2004b; 2010). In fact, the United States Department of Labor has defined these careers to be among those that are nontraditional choices for women. Table 1 also illustrates that the percentage of doctorates awarded to women is below 30% for computer and information scientists, engineers, mathematicians, and physical scientists and technicians, although these are among the fastest growing industries in the United States economy (United States Department of Labor, 2004b). The comparative data for 2008-09 indicated that computer science in particular has shown a drop at all degree levels in terms of women’s participation. Furthermore, as Table 2 shows, women in these occupations continue to earn significantly less than men in every category. Table 1. Number of Degrees Conferred by U.S. Institutions, 2001-02 and 2008-09 Bachelors Masters Doctoral Total 02-09 % to Women Total 02-09 % to Women Total 02-09 % to Women Total, All Fields (in 000’s)

1,292/1,602 57%/57%

482/657

59%/60%

44/68

46%/52%

Biological/Life Sciences

60/ 81

60%/59%

6/10

58%/58%

4/7

44%/53%

Computer/Information Sciences Engineering Mathematics Physical Sciences/Science Technologies

47/38

28%/18%

16/18

33%/ 27%

0.75/1.6

23%/22%

74/85 12/15 18/22

19%/16% 47%/43% 42%/41%

27/38 3/5 5/6

21%/23% 42%/41% 38%/39%

5/8 1/1.5 4/5

17%/22% 29%/31% 28%/32%

Data adapted from U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 2003 and 2010

Table 2. Full-Time Workers in U.S. and Weekly Earnings, 2002 and 2010 Annual Averages (in 000’s) Total, 16 years & older Engineers Math & Computer Scientists Natural Scientists

Number of Workers 100,204/99,531 1,889/2,215

Percent Women 44%/45% 11%/11%

Median Weekly Earnings $ 609/$747 $1,161/$1,255

Women’s Earnings as % of Men’s 78%/81% 86%/80%

1,808/3,202

30%/25%

$1,096/$1,289

81%/84%

475/592

35%/39%

$ 958/$1,062

86%/84%

Data adapted from U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Report 972, September 2004 and 2010.

Proficiency and interest in the sciences are similar for boys and girls in the United States at age 9, but a significant gender gap begins to appear by age 13, as measured by mean scores on the NAEP mathematics assessment (United States Department of Education, 2000). By twelfth grade, males consistently have more positive attitudes than females about mathematics and science (United States Department of Education, 2000). Although girls’ average GPA in high school math and science courses has consistently outpaced boys’ average GPA in these courses over the past decade (e.g., 2.76 for girls v. 2.56 for boys in 2005), well over 40,000 more boys than girls took advanced placement tests in STEM fields in 2009 (American Association of University Women, 2010). Turner and Bowen in their 1999 study of college-age men and women concluded that a widening divide exists between the life sciences and math/physical science in terms of relative career attractiveness to men and women, in that women are actually slightly overrepresented in a survey of intended majors for incoming college freshman in the field of biology but are at least two to threefold less interested in choosing engineering, computer sciences, or technical majors than were men. Similar results were found a decade later: female first year college students are much less likely than males to say they intend to major in a STEM field (American Association of University Women, 2010). However, even in science fields where the number of bachelor’s, master’s, and doctoral degrees awarded has reached parity, such as biology (United States Department of Education, 2003; 2010), it is clear that increases in numbers of women beginning or completing scientific training are not translating into equality of long-term participation in scientific careers. The AAUW “Why So Few?” report notes that by college graduation, men outnumber women in nearly every STEM field, with women’s representation declining further in graduate school and yet again in the transition to the workplace (2010:xiv). And as Tables 1 and 2 illustrate, salaries for women graduates with science degrees remain significantly lower than men with similar credentials.

Individual female scientists, their employers, and the U.S. economy as a whole are all greatly affected by the under representation of women in science and technology related careers. On an individual basis, Table 2 illustrates that fewer women than men enter these high paying fields, and those women who do earn less than their male counterparts. A leaking pipeline metaphor (Hanson, 1996) is useful in describing the obstacles that work against women’s persistence in science related careers, such as fewer job opportunities and the constraints of balancing career and family. From a more macro perspective, the underrepresentation of women in scientific and technological careers, coupled with the leaking pipeline out of those careers, means that organizations and the United States economy as a whole are unable to access the potential talent and skills of the female half of the general population. Simply put, companies are not maximizing their use of the available skilled labor pool. In an economic era characterized by ever-increasing competition, this gender inequity is a critical waste of financial and intellectual resources. Furthermore, the paucity of women's voices in these careers has allowed science to develop without the full input from all of human experience, and, as an institution, it suffers because of this. The purpose of our study was to explore some key factors that influence women’s initial career choices into scientific fields in the business, government, and academic sectors of employment. In particular, the role of early enriching experiences and mentoring relationships will be examined as a positive influence on women’s selection and success in science, math, and technology (American Association of University Women, 2004; Norby, 1997). In addition to the many well-established factors that help to guide an individual’s career choice, women who choose careers in scientific fields have a subset of common early experiences that encourage them to pursue a career path still regarded as contrary to traditional gender roles for women. For many women, these early events represent a transforming experience that introduces the girl or woman to science as an opportunity for her. This transforming experience is composed of personal contact with a mentor or role model and often an inti24

mate involvement with the scientific process that serves as an invitation into the world of scientific inquiry. We propose a model for womenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s career selection in these nontraditional fields and discuss the implications for increasing the numbers of women in science, mathematics, and technology careers.

Career Choices for Women in the STEM Fields Efforts to understand the driving forces behind the underrepresentation of women in the sciences have considered a variety of factors that may impact career choice. For example, studies have examined gender differences relating to academic performance and preparation at the high school, college, and graduate levels (American Association of University Women, 1998; U.S. Department of Labor, 2004b) access to educational and career resources both in and outside the classroom (American Association of University Women, 2004), and retention of women interested in science careers while in the leaking pipeline (Brush, 1991; Hanson, 1996) during the training period and in their early jobs. Significant social, personality, and social psychological differences have been identified for women pursuing traditional versus nontraditional careers for females. For example, Lemkauâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s (1983) comprehensive review of the personality and background of women in male-dominated occupations reports that these women have high levels of maternal employment and unusual opportunities to witness a wide range of male and female work models. Lemkauâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s respondents frequently report having been encouraged and supported in pursuing higher education and masculine as well as feminine endeavors. In a longitudinal study spanning ten years, Mills (1997) found that personality traits, when added to high mathematics ability, increased the probability that young women would pursue a career in science or mathematics. Individual intelligence and academic proficiency are clearly associated with success in science, math, and technology fields (Mau, 2003; Mills, 1997; Nauta, Epperson, & Kahn, 1998). Women in science tend to be independent and emotionally stable with a high need for achievement and a high academic and social self-esteem (Lobel, Agami-Rozenblat, & Bempechat, 1993). Chat26

terjee and McCarrey (1991) presented data in which sex-role attitudes were examined in women in both sex-typical and non-sex-typical fields. Their data indicated a higher autonomy score and a less sex-typed self-concept in women in nontraditional fields. According to Mortimer, Dennehy, and Lee (1992), parental education level had the most effect on the educational plans and occupational aspirations of adolescents. Lemkau (1983) suggested that women in nontraditional occupations have more frequently experienced family environments enriched by varied models in which they were stimulated to explore an unusually broad range of behaviors and career options. These women were more likely to report the positive influence of men, including fathers and male teachers, while women pursuing sex-typical careers reported more female influences, but this effect may be a reflection of the status of women in these careers at the time of Lemkau’s work. Norby (1997) suggested that having a family member employed in a science or technology-related career was an important factor in influencing women’s career choices in these areas. Scholars of publications and the popular press alike have argued for the importance of mentoring and hands-on experience as strategies for retaining women science, mathematics, and engineering majors (e.g., "Women in Science Say Mentors are Crucial,” Chicago Tribune, Fitzgerald, 2002; "Balancing the Equation," National Council for Research on Women, 2001). Researchers, Ragins and Cotton (1999), found that protégés, especially females who are informally mentored, are more satisfied with their mentors, receive more career help, and enjoy more psychosocial benefits in terms of friendship, social support, role modeling, and acceptance. One of the key recommendations proposed in the American Association of University Women “Why So Few?” report is to provide girls with successful female role models in STEM occupations, to challenge negative stereotypes using examples of satisfied, productive women scientists and engineers.

The Transforming Experience In this chapter, we propose the importance of a transforming experience in encouraging girls and women to pursue careers in science and technology. We define this transforming experience broadly: important and path-setting interactions with role models and mentors, which can include individual intervention, counseling, laboratory projects, the opportunity to interact with scientists, and personal relationships. These transforming experiences have a dynamic role in fostering the confidence and perseverance necessary for girls to make and then act on their initial choice towards science or technology: “By creating a ‘growth mindset’ environment, teachers and parents can encourage girls’ achievement and interest in math and science.” (American Association of University Women, 2010:xiv). For example, with the encouragement of a mentor a girl might be able to challenge family or personal gender stereotypes or surmount external obstacles, such as classroom harassment, to reach her goal of a career in science.

Method The first author contacted 33 individuals employed across the United States and invited them to participate in this field study. The response rate was 91%, yielding a sample of 30 respondents aged 26 to 46 who are currently working in scientific fields. Twenty were women and 10 were men. Although a convenience sample, the respondents were chosen to maximize diversity. Thus, they included Ph.D.'s, masterâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s, and bachelor's degreed scientists in different career stages employed in academic, industrial, and governmental sectors across various scientific disciplines. Ethnic backgrounds included the United States, India, South Africa, and China. Table 3 summarizes the structured interview questions, which focused on having respondents recall how they were introduced to science and what influences they felt helped them choose science as a career. Over a 3-month period, the first author conducted these individual interviews using an e-mail dialogue format. On average, the e-mail dialogues lasted 30 minutes. The e-mail interview format allowed the researchers both to contact scientists across the United States and to allow the study participants to respond in a convenient format.

Table 3 Structured Interview Questions 1. Why did you decide to pursue a career in science? 2. How would you rate the role of your family/parents in your decision? 3. Were there other influences on your choice to pursue a career in science? 4. How early was your first interest in or exposure to science? 5. Do you remember any special experiences that helped to influence your career decision? 6. Do you see any obstacles to recruiting more girls/women entering and staying in science careers? 7.What other careers had you considered other than science? 8.What are the greatest benefits and drawbacks to a career in science for you as a woman/man?

Printed e-mail texts provided transcriptions of these qualitative data. The first author analyzed the contents of the 30 transcripts, searching for shared key themes. The second author then compared a sample of the transcripts with the content analysis to check consistency in coding. The key themes identified in the interview transcripts are summarized in Table 4. While the ability to generalize from 30 respondents is of course limited, Table 4 illustrates some intriguing factors that appear to influence career choice in science and technology.

Table 4 Content Analysis Results: Key Factors Influencing Womenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Career Choice of Science, Math, Technology Key Factors

Description

Parental and Family Variables

General support for choices Absence of discouragement for nontraditional career

Personality Variables

Strong math/science aptitude High need for achievement High academic and social self-esteem Less sex-typed self-concept

Results and Discussion Experiential Variables (The transforming experience)

Mentors and role models Enriching opportunities: laboratory work, independent studies Exposure to broad range of career choices

Results of Discussion As Table 4 illustrates, we identified three broad categories of career influences. First, the specific role that families play in encouraging women to pursue science education and science careers may be composed both of support for girls' interest in the sciences, but also the absence of discouragement for disciplines and careers that are nontraditional for girls and women. Second, innate personality variables and their expression, such as high need for achievement, play a part in influencing the choice of a scientific or technical career. Third, the importance of transforming experiences in affecting a science career choice, including interactions with role models, mentors, and individual-

ized encouragement and counseling, was underscored throughout the e-mail dialogues.

Parental and Family Influence In general, women with careers in science reported very little direct parental influence in their choice of science as a career. In fact, most women suggested that their parents were supportive of them and their education in general, but that they did not do anything in particular to encourage or discourage science and math careers over any other. As one female professor of zoology reported, "They didnâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t play much of a role...neither went to college...they were just ecstatic I attended college. They donâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t understand what I do, but are extremely proud and supportive of my educational goals.â&#x20AC;? Although many researchers have linked early family influence to career choice, it is possible that what is actually important for girls pursuing science careers is the more generalized support from parents and the absence of gender-stereotyped discouragement that may be at the core of how families help foster interest in science and science careers (Norby, 1997). In contrast, all ten of the male scientists surveyed reported having a parent who was employed as a scientist and also being steered into science careers and away from others perceived as less financially rewarding.

Personality Variables Our e-mail dialogues tended to support the personality variables reported in the literature as associated with women's career choice into scientific jobs (e.g., Mau, 2003; Mills, 1997). For example, a common theme that emerged was the high math/science proficiency coupled with the high need for achievement required for success as a scientist. One academic biologist noted, “I think this notion of science as a difficult field may keep girls from pursuing it. After all, there truly are easier (and more lucrative) ways to make a living.” An endocrinologist reported, “I could work 20 hours a day seven days a week and there would still be things I don’t understand or know. This can be frustrating and difficult given the many other demands on women’s time and energy.” Several women respondents also noted the importance of strengthening academic and social self-esteem, especially given the perception of science as a non-traditional career choice for women (Lobel et al., 1993; American Association of University Women, 2010). According to one woman doctor in our sample, “I think girls need to receive more positive encouragement in very specific ways. Lack of confidence is a major obstacle. The notion that boys are better with laboratory equipment is also damaging to girls.” An academic researcher commented, In retrospect, I was not confident about my intellect or abilities, but I was always an excellent student. Now I know this is a common experience for a girl, especially in adolescence. At the time, however, it didn’t occur to me that I was bright and capable of pursuing any of a number of career options.

Role Model Influence and Enriching Experiences The data supported the importance of a role model/mentor and an enriching experience sometime in high school or college (Nauta et al., 1998; American Association of University Women, 2010). In general, men recalled being talented and interested in nature and science courses; a career in that field, according to a male engineer, “naturally followed.” In contrast, 17 of the 20 women respondents were able to name key teachers and professors as well as detail the specifics of their interactions, which included independent study opportunities, individualized encouragement, and counseling. The women all attributed their science preparation, interest in science, and career aspirations to these interactions. A female biomedical researcher noted, “It was my undergraduate advisor, Dr. S-...She was so supportive and demanding and the first person to suggest to me I might have a special aptitude.” These results support earlier research emphasizing the importance of individual mentoring experiences between teacher and student in the sciences (American Association of University Women, 2004).

The Case for the Importance of a Transforming Experience These reported differences between women’s and men’s career choice influences may, in part, be due to recall and reporting differences, since it is likely that men had similar opportunities for mentoring and independent study. What seems clear is that for women, these interactions were important enough to serve as a transforming experience for them as they were choosing careers. The detail and language used in describing these interactions are vivid and concrete, even decades later. One woman physician recalled, I had a science teacher in grade school (italics added) who made science fun...he staged a rubber band fight in the class, explaining that when a rubber band was drawn and ready to shoot it had potential energy...when it was released, that potential energy was converted to kinetic energy.

The fact that in many cases the mentoring relationships continue to the present also underscores the relative importance these happenings have for these women. According to a female medical researcher, I worked in Beth D’s lab as a college senior...and unconsciously I clung to her because the mere presence of a successful woman in science was a novel image in my experience and obviously filled a void...she’s still one of my biggest supporters, even ten years after college.

Many examples of such transforming events were evident throughout the email dialogues in this study among these women who have pursued science careers and seem satisfied thus far in their career choices. Another woman scientist stated, My high school biology teacher was instrumental in sparking my interest in biology. I decided as a junior after taking anatomy that this is what I wanted to study in college. Choosing research as a career came in college because of another great professor who became my advisor and whose lab I did my honors project.

Our studyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s results support the findings of Evettsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; (1998) work: the influence of mentors, teachers, and other transforming events during graduate training and even earlier in high school may be gender differentiated. Women tend to report receiving support, encouragement, or special attention or interest that helped them in the pursuit of a scientific career, whereas, as Evetts reported, the men interviewed did not refer to such sources of influence.

Obstacles for Women in Science, Mathematics, and Technology The researchers’ interview results also provide some thought-provoking data concerning the obstacles encountered by women choosing to pursue these nontraditional career paths. Both men and women respondents agreed that there are many obstacles that hinder girls from entering and staying in science careers. The interview data ranged from simple comments saying "science is male dominated” to more reflective responses. Women in science, math, and technology face many of the same hurdles confronted by women in other nontraditional fields, including lack of support from male colleagues, competition and power struggles, and rigid, traditional corporate cultures (Mau, 2003; Evetts, 1998; Norby, 1997). One of the male scientists in our sample explained, Science is very similar to corporate America in that it’s very much a boys' club. For the most part, it seems to be a relatively small group of fat cats helping each other out and taking turns scratching each other's backs. They have their traditions and rules, with the purpose of keeping power exclusively to themselves. As a man, the benefit is that the doors open easier, it's easier to be taken seriously, and you enter with some measure of respect already granted to you. I'm not saying that this is right. There is nothing more unfair than women having to fight for what is normally just given to men….Hard work does not pay off in this world, it's all in who you know and even more importantly, if they like you….I'm sure that as bad as it is for a man, it's a million times harder for a woman. In addition to the "old boys' network,” our study respondents also noted the perception of science as an isolated, demanding, and inflexible career as an impediment to this career choice. A female neuroscientist commented,

I believe that one of the greatest obstacles to girls entering the sciences lies in the presentation of science. If more teachers presented science in a fun way, I think more girls would go into the field. Perhaps more exposure to women scientists would help. Also, I would say that companies need to make it easier for women to be both mothers and scientists by being more flexible and not staying with the 50-plus hour a week mentality. This respondent is touching on another likely obstacle to girls: careers in science are demanding, and it can be difficult to envision the balancing of multiple roles (i.e. mother, spouse) within the context of a science career. Another academic researcher also touched upon the issue of science's "image": Girls need to see that science involves a great deal of interaction and is not simply about collecting data. Analyzing that data, discussing it with colleagues, and presenting it is an exciting part of science as well. I think much of the population is under the misunderstanding that science is separate from the rest of the culture, which is, of course, absurd. The impression that science is devoid of relevance or cooperative interpersonal interaction can be another large obstacle for recruitment of girls into science (Brush, 1991; American Association of University Women, 2010).

Suggesting a Career Choice Model A model outlining key factors involved in science and technology career choice emerges from this discussion and may be generalizable to other career choices in nontraditional fields for women. Figure 1 outlines this proposed model. Girls and women pursuing scientific careers (and, perhaps, other nontraditional careers for women) need to include key gender-related variables, at least while women are still a visible minority in the field. Family characteristics include a low degree of gender stereotyping, in addition to parental support and active encouragement for nontraditional careers, while personality variables that are important are high self-esteem and high need for achievement. The Figure 1 model illustrates that while many factors are important in career choice, the transforming experience plays a central role in influencing girls and women to select a career in science, mathematics, and technology. In our model, this transforming experience is defined as important and path-setting interactions with role models and mentors, which include individual interventions, counseling, laboratory projects, and personal relationships. Even when most other factors (such as scientific aptitude and family encouragement) are present, a transforming experience (perhaps at several stages including high school, college, and/or graduate school) may yield the confidence and perseverance necessary for the initial choice towards science to be made and acted upon. Recently, researchers have demonstrated the importance of a supportive, growth-oriented learning environment in fostering girlsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; abilities and interest in STEM fields (American Association of University Women, 2010). A transforming experience also affects the other inputs and the double-headed arrows in the model indicate this. For example, with the encouragement of a mentor, a girl might be able to challenge family or personal gender stereo40

types, surmount external obstacles, or confront classroom harassment to reach her goal of a career in science.

Figure 1. A model of career choice for women in science, mathematics, and technology.

Implications and Recommendations In this study, we investigated some key factors that influence women's initial career choices into scientific fields. In particular, the role of early enriching experiences and/or mentoring relationships emerged as a positive influence on women's selection and success in scientific and technical fields. While our research is limited by its reliance on past experiences and hindsight as well as sample size, some interesting issues emerged, which have some important implications for organizations seeking to encourage the development and retention of women scientists and technologists. First, girls should be given early opportunities to develop exposure to and confidence in their abilities in science-related activities. Lower confidence in one's ability to understand and partake in science courses is the beginning of girls and women underestimating their abilities and opting out of science as a career. Along with eliminating the well-documented sex biases that exist in classrooms and guidance counselor offices, some girls may benefit from single sex classrooms when studying math and science (American Association of University Women, 1998). Turner and Bowen (1999) found a higher proportion of women in mathematics and physical sciences at womenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s colleges as compared to coeducational institutions. Second, there may be a misunderstanding among the general population as to the activities involved in science and science careers. Brush (1991) noted that scientists may be stereotyped as extremely bright but socially awkward (â&#x20AC;&#x153;nerdsâ&#x20AC;?); he argued further that when women scientists are featured in the popular press, they are often portrayed as atypical scientists and atypical women. A public relations campaign for science and technology may be necessary, both to illustrate the full breadth of possibility, opportunity, and power of a science career, as well as to demonstrate its real-world applications and rele42

vance to human health and life (see American Association of University Women, 2010; NASA, 2011). Second, there may be a misunderstanding among the general population as to the activities involved in science and science careers. Brush (1991) noted that scientists may be stereotyped as extremely bright but socially awkward (“nerds”); he argued further that when women scientists are featured in the popular press, they are often portrayed as atypical scientists and atypical women. A public relations campaign for science and technology may be necessary, both to illustrate the full breadth of possibility, opportunity, and power of a science career, as well as to demonstrate its real-world applications and relevance to human health and life (see American Association of University Women, 2010; NASA, 2011). Our 2006 study results suggested and our 2012 update confirmed that it is imperative for all students, but particularly girls, to have the opportunity for enriching and transforming experiences related to science. The intervention of key figures appears to be a major influence for girls pursuing nontraditional fields in general, and science fields in particular, at least until equity has been achieved in what are now nontraditional fields for women (see American Association for University Women, 2004). In addition to equity in the classroom and awareness of stereotypes (American Association for University Women, 2010), girls need hands-on experiments, role models and mentors, special encouragement, and opportunities to meet scientists and to see the interactive process of scientific explorations and discovery. Teachers and professors can help through encouraging girls' participation in clubs, field trips, and science correspondents (i.e., pen pals). Parents can facilitate science-related opportunities by such activities as networking with family and friend scientists, vacation activities, and camp opportunities. Many universities participate in the Women in Science and Engineering Research (WISER) program, a research program aimed at women undergraduates. WISER was created in 1993, specifically as a means to stop the “leaking pipeline” and retain women college students in science and engineering. An43

other resource is the Committee on Women in Science, Engineering, and Medicine (CWSEM) is a standing committee of the National Research Council (NRC). Established in 1990, CWSEM’s mandate is to coordinate, monitor, and advocate action to increase the participation of women in STEM fields, including medicine. An example of a program that is attempting to correct the deficit of role models in daily life for girls and young women is the Role Model Project for Girls, which provides examples of women professionals in a wide range of nontraditional careers and is available on CD-ROM and at their web site, womenswork.org. One high-profile organization encouraging girls and women to explore careers in STEM fields is NASA. Through its “Aspire 2 Inspire” program and its Women@NASA website resources, NASA provides examples describing the early-career experiences of young women scientists, supported by Twitter feeds offering interaction opportunities with these high-achieving women. An illustration is a business role model group, Women in Apprenticeships and Non-Traditional Occupations (WANTO), which serves as a resource for internships, field trips, and mentors for individual women and as a consultant to businesses interested in recruiting and retaining highly-skilled women in such nontraditional occupations. The paucity of females in STEM fields is a problem worldwide. In 2008, Google began its “Mind the Gap!” program at its research and development center in Israel, with the collaboration of the Israeli National Center for Computer Science Teachers. This program seeks to encourage girls to enter the field of computer engineering, offering monthly visits to the Google office as well as university events and conferences. According to a blog report, over 2,500 girls have participated so far, and “The scheme seems to be making an impact, with approximately 40 percent of participants reported as choosing computer science as a high school major after attending” (Segalov, 2012, para. 4). Institutionalized mentoring efforts such as these and others within industry, academia, and government are excellent steps toward addressing the needs of female students with the aptitude for STEM careers. Science and our world44

wide economy need to continue to make the full participation of girls and women a priority within STEM fields to realize the potential that exists for real scientific progress and achievement in our time.

References American Association of University Women. (1998). Separated by sex: A critical look at single sex education for girls. Washington, DC: Author. American Association of University Women Educational Foundation. (2004). Under the microscope: A decade of gender equity projects in the sciences. Washington, DC: Author. American Association of University Women. (2010). Why so few? Women in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics. Washington, DC: Author. Brush, S. G. (1991). Women in science and engineering. American Scientist, 79, 404419. Chatterjee, J., & McCarrey, M. (1991). Sex-role attitudes, values and instrumental expressive traits of women trainees in traditional vs. nontraditional programmes. Applied Psychology: An International Review, 40(3), 281-297. Evetts, J. (1998). Gender and career in science and engineering. London: Taylor & Francis. Fitzgerald, J. (2002). Women in science say mentors are crucial. (2002, May 29). Chicago Tribune. Hanson, S. L. (1996). Lost talent: Women in the sciences. Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press. Lemkau, J. P. (1983). Women in male-dominated professions: Distinguishing personality and background characteristics. Psychology of Women Quarterly,8, 144-165. Lobel, T. E., Agami-Rozenblat, O., & Bempechat, J. (1993). Personality correlates of career choice in the kibbutz: A comparison between career and noncareer women. Sex roles, 29(5-6), 359-370. Mau, W. C. (2003, March). Factors that influence persistence in science and engineering career aspirations. Career Development Quarterly, 51, 234-243.

Mills, C. J. (1997). Gender differences in mathematics and science achievement: The role of personality variables. Research Report 1999, Johns Hopkins University: Center for Talented Youth. Mortimer, J. T., Dennehy, K., & Lee, C. (1992). Influences on adolescents' vocational development. Berkeley, CA: National Center for Research in Vocational Education. (ED 352 555). NASA Release 11-392 (2011, November 21). NASA expands Women@NASA website to encourage girls to pursue STEM careers. Retrieved from http://www.nasa.gov/home/hqnews/2011/nove/HQ11-392. Nauta, M. M., Epperson, D. L., & Kahn, J. H. (1998). A multiple groups analysis of predictors of higher level career aspirations among women in mathematics, science, and engineering majors. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 45, 483-496. National Council for Research on Women. (2001). Balancing the equation: Where are women and girls in science, engineering, and technology? New York, NY: Author. National Science Foundation, Division of Science Resources Statistics (2003). Science and engineering doctorate awards: 2002. (NSF 04-303). Arlington, VA: Project Officer, Susan T. Hill. Segalov, M. (February 2, 2012). Mind the gap: Encouraging women to study engineering. Google Blog. Retrieved from http://www.googleblog.blogspot.com/2012/02/mind-gap-encouraging-women-tostudy.html

CHAPTER 2

Learning About the Human Aspect of the Scientific Enterprise: Gender Differences in Conceptions of Scientific Knowledge Erin Peters Burton

Since the launching of Sputnik, reports from the United States government have indicated that there is a critical shortage of elementary and secondary students who are interested in science (see National Research Council, 2007; National Commission on Mathematics and Science Teaching for the 21st century, 2000; National Research Council, 1998). Especially notable is the lack of girls and women who pursue science as a career (NCES, 2001). Even more startling, the number of women majoring in computer science has declined steadily over the past 20 years, as has the number of women employed in computing related occupations (National Science Foundation [NSF], 2011; Hayes, 2010; U.S. Department of Labor, 2011). Although government is aware of the shortage of students interested in science, efforts have not improved the poor scores from students in the United States when compared to other countries (TIMSS, 1999, 2003, 2007). Younger United States students tend to score equally with other industrialized countries, but as students progress through the grade levels, older students rank much lower than other countries. It can be interpreted from these test scores that as students reach the secondary level of education, they become less interested in learning about science. 48

One possible connection to studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; lack of interest in science in the United States is the way in which science is taught in secondary school and in college. College students who do not consider themselves science-minded have chosen to leave the field of science because of the competitive and isolating way in which science is taught (Seymour, 1995; Tobias, 1990). The perception that science is isolating and unfriendly is also evident in the finding that girls in secondary school feel that science is irrelevant to them because of the isolating and competitive methods of science instruction (Baker & Leary, 1995), and tend to have low self-efficacy in their performance in science class, especially in the physical sciences (Britner, 2008). A variety of social and environmental factors lead women to pursue careers in other areas, including lack of female role models, negative stereotypes, classroom and workplace bias, exposure to scientific concepts devoid of context, and low self-efficacy (Bayer Corporation, 2010; Britner, 2008; DuBow, 2011; Etzkowitz, Kemelgor, & Uzzi, 2000; Flanagan & Nissenbaum, 2008; Halpern et al., 2007; Heeter & Winn, 2008; Hill, Corbett, & St. Rose, 2010; Nauta & Kokaly, 2001; NSF, 2011, 2010, 2006a, 2006b; Steinke, 2004, 2005). Secondary school is a key moment in the formation of girlsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; educational and career paths (AAUW, 1996; Bayer Corporation, 2010; Harris Interactive, 2011; Hayes, 2008; Kafai, Heeter, Denner, & Sun, 2008; Kelleher, 2008). Unfortunately, it is during this time that girls tend to perceive that science is isolating, unfriendly, boring, and irrelevant (Barker & Garvin-Doxas, 2004; Hayes, 2010; Margolis & Fisher, 2002). The purpose of this study was to test a unique teaching method that emphasizes the human endeavor of pursuing scientific knowledge as a possible relief to the isolating and inhospitable methods of teaching science, to compare the academic performance of girls and boys and an exploration into the cognition boys and girls use to make sense of scientific activities.

The Shortage of Women in Science The absence of women in science is a persistent problem that reduces the amount of progress that can be made in the field of science. Lack of women in the field means limited perspectives in generating scientific knowledge (Blickenstaff, 2005). Synthesis of the research on why girls and women do not pursue science points to nine possible reasons: (a) biological differences between men and women, (b) girls’ lack of academic preparation for a science career, (c) girls’ poor attitude toward science and lack of positive experiences with science in childhood, (d) the absence of female scientists as role models, (e) science curricula are irrelevant to many girls, (f) the pedagogy of science classes favors male students, (g) a chilly climate exists for girls in science classes, (h) cultural pressure on girls to conform to traditional gender roles, and (i) an inherent masculine worldview in scientific epistemology (Blickenstaff, 2005). Much of the research done to explore the reasons for the lack of girls and women in science cannot explain fully the phenomena. Although some cognitive difference between men and women were found in two meta-analyses by Janet Shibley Hyde in 1996, the differences in spatial perception (d=.43) and mathematical ability (d=.45) cannot alone explain the 20 to 1 ratio of men to women found in scientific careers. Girls’ and womens’ lack of preparation for studying advanced science has not convincingly been shown to be a barrier to a science career. Girls are well-prepared to pursue science courses, but still choose to avoid them (Cole, 1997; Erwin & Marutto, 1998). Neither biological differences nor lack of academic preparation can account for the low number of girls and women who are involved in scientific pursuits. Examining other factors, such as attitudes toward science, role models, pedagogy, and scientific epistemology leads us to more substantial contributions to the reasons behind girls’ and women’s dislike of science. Weinburgh (1995) 50

conducted a meta-analysis of girlsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; and boysâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; attitudes toward science and found that boys had a more positive attitude toward science (d=0.20), especially in general science and earth science (d=0.34). Baker and Leary (1995) interviewed 40 girls about their experiences in science and found that girls noticed a lack of role models and could not imagine themselves as scientists. Additionally, they found that girls were more interested in biological sciences rather than physical science because they had a need to care for humans and animals. In an investigation of 1,500 physics students in 16 universities across the United States, it was found that women were more successful if they took a high school course that emphasized depth rather than breadth of the subject (Hazari, Tai & Sadler, 2007). The quality of teaching at the university level also has an impact on the perseverance of girls and women in science. Seymour (1995) found that students who have switched from a science major to a non-science major, 90% of the students had a concern about the pedagogy. The students reported that the instructors were not easily approachable, and they over used competition in the grading system to the detriment of collaboration among students. These findings were corroborated by Tobias (1990) who found that undergraduate students who switched majors felt isolated in their studies. Lastly, it has been extensively argued by authors such as Evelyn Fox-Keller, Jane Gilbert, Sandra Harding, and Donna Haroway that science inherently has ways of knowing that exclude a feminine perspective. Henwood (1996) on scientific epistemology revealed the deeply gendered nature of scientific knowledge. Because science is based upon positivist objective rationality, the subject of science in school tends to be unattractive to girls and women (Harding, 1991; Kerr, 2001). There is a large body of evidence that points to the need for a different type of teaching science if we intend to improve girlsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; attitudes toward science and increase the number of women who pursue science as a career.

Inclusive Ways to Teach Science Calls for new ways to teach science include an emphasis on the human endeavor of science and for making science more relevant to a feminine perspective. Among other conclusions, Blickenstaff (2005) suggested that given the factors that influence the number of women pursuing science careers, curriculum developers should create assignments that emphasize quality of life issues in science and illustrate that the scientific enterprise can provide careers that focus on caring. Gilbert (2001) put forward the idea that to challenge the assumptions that go along with science and its masculine roots, we seek new meanings for women and science to create spaces that women can truly intellectually engage with the scientific enterprise. Jones, Howe, and Rua (1999) found that the girls rarely engaged in science experiences outside of a classroom setting and propose that curriculum take that into account. Taasoobshirazi and Carr (2008), in their work on gender and expertise in physics, advised that a more authentic view of expertise in subjects like physics be taken so that females do not continue to be derailed in their success early in their school careers. In creating new ways to teach science that focus on the human element, we can develop programs that will allow young women to maintain their feminine perspective, rather than having to adopt an artificial masculine identity.

Emphasizing the Scientific Enterprise in Curriculum Curriculum emphasizing hands-on activities that illustrate how humans endeavor to gain scientific knowledge may show students that science is a social and creative undertaking, and help girls to envision science as a career choice. Scientific inquiry is a curricular choice that can make the subject of science more collaborative, engaging, and authentic (National Research Council, 1996, American Association for the Advancement of Science, 1993), but has been historically difficult to put into practice (Bybee, 2000; Costenson & Lawson, 1986; DeBoer, 2004). Although it is intuitive to think that just by conducting scientific inquiry that students will understand how scientists operate, there is a body of research demonstrating that explicit, reflective instruction in the nature of science has been found to be more effective in expressing the scientific enterprise to students (Gess-Newsome, 2002; Khishfe & Abd-El-Khalick, 2002). The nature of science can be defined as the inherent guidelines which scientists use to obtain and verify knowledge in their field (Lederman, 1992). Curriculum that teaches the nature of science demonstrates that the endeavor of constructing scientific knowledge requires particular habits of mind that are simultaneously organized, creative, and rigorous. It shows that scientists do not act alone, but have social networks to help with thinking through problems. Lastly, this type of curriculum would make clear that all scientific claims are backed up with empirical evidence, and that historical factors have played a role in the progress of scientific knowledge discovery. Making nature of science knowledge explicit and reflective diminishes the mysterious process of obtaining scientific knowledge to students, especially girls, and emphasizes the human side of doing science. In this study, I explored the effectiveness of teaching the explicit, reflective nature of science through a self-regulatory model where students can compare 53

their results of inquiry to the ways scientists work. The self-regulatory model frames the discipline of science in a human context rather than a factual context. Additionally, the self-regulatory model of teaching the nature of science requires students to be self-reflective about their work and can enhance selfefficacy in science learning because of the supportive methods in the model. Several measures of academic success have shown improvement using selfregulated learning strategies (Zimmerman, 1989) including strategy use (Pressley, Goodchild, Fleet, Sajchowski, & Evans, 1987; Weinstein & Underwood, 1985), intrinsic motivation (Ryan, Connell & Deci, 1984), academic studying (Thomas & Rohwer, 1986), classroom interaction (Rohrkember, 1989; Wang & Peverly, 1986), use of instructional media (Henderson, 1986), metacognitive engagement (Corno & Mandinach, 1983), and self-monitoring learning (Ghatala, 1986; Paris, Cross & Lipson, 1984). The intervention in this study approaches the teaching of the nature of science in an explicit and reflective way that enhances the humanistic perspective of scientific knowledge construction. The following research questions were central to the study: RQ1: Do comparison and experimental groups differ as a function of gender on science studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; content knowledge, nature of science knowledge, and self-regulatory efficacy of learning? RQ 2: How do male and female students report the process of cognition when participating in Metacognitive Prompting Intervention-Science?

Method An embedded mixed-methodology was chosen for this study because the research questions involved both the processes of the students (investigated through qualitative techniques) and the outcomes of the students (investigated through quantitative techniques). I employed a quasi-experimental design over two years. This research was not originally intended to discern responses by gender, but later became a natural progression of the work. Students in the experimental group (n = 37 girls, n=42 boys) and comparison group (n=41 girls, n=46 boys) were pre-tested on content knowledge, nature of science knowledge, and self-regulatory efficacy of learning. All classes were taught by the same teacher who was instructed in educational research so that contamination between the different strategies employed by the different groups would not occur. Each class had approximately equal numbers of girls and boys, a deliberate decision by the teachers on the middle school team. During the class, students worked in groups comprised of both girls and boys assigned by the teacher. I visited the classroom daily over the six weeks of the unit each year for two years of the study to maintain fidelity of the teacher to the intended interventions.

Study Setting and Participants Over 2 years, 166 students from an urban middle school in the mid-Atlantic region of the United States participated in the study. The middle school serves 928 students, grades six through eight. Seventeen percent of students from this school receive free or reduced price for lunches. The sample population consisted of 7.9% Black students, 10.7% Hispanic students, and 69.2% White students, and 12.2% mixed racial identification.

Study Design The four modules of instructional material in which the intervention was placed were based on guided scientific inquiry (National Research Council, 1996). Both the experimental group (N=79) and the comparison group (N=87) were given four sequential guided inquiry lessons on electricity and magnetism. The lessons were taught for 45 minutes each day over a 6-week period and had three main pedagogical elements: (a) student prior knowledge, (b) hands-on activities prompting the construction of knowledge about scientific content and processes of the specific content and, (c) student-generated summary of three overarching principles guiding the physical phenomena (National Research Council, 1996). Student prior knowledge was generated in each of the four lessons. A think-pair-share paradigm was used at the beginning of the lesson, and students were asked to write their thoughts individually for three minutes about the topic to be studied for the think portion, share ideas with a partner for five minutes for the pair portion, and participated in a whole class discussion for the share portion. The second section of the lesson consisted of the hands-on activities that were designed to have students observe the phenomena, write descriptions of the physical interactions in the inquiry, and organize an explanation for the core physical interactions in the activity. Lastly, students were expected to use higher-order thinking by describing three or four big ideas that characterize the behavior of the phenomena, backing up their descriptions with empirical evidence. Students worked in the same assigned co-ed groups of three or four for the entire inquiry lab. Although both groups were given identical content knowledge and science process tasks, each group was given a different way to develop nature of science knowledge. The experimental group was given checklists and questions that facilitated the scrutiny of their science process work with the guidelines of 57

scientific inquiry (Metacognitive Prompting Intervention â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Science or MPI-S). The comparison group learned about the nature of science implicitly through the collaborative hands-on science, and was given additional content questions to account for equal time-on-task. The checklists and questions given to the experimental group, based on the self-regulation work of Zimmerman (2000), attempted to model scientific thinking for a specific aspect of the nature of science, and to teach students to align their decisions during the inquiry with the guidelines inherently used in the scientific community. MPI-S focused only on the nature of science, and was free of content instruction. To show how the checklists and questions were content free, an example of the checklists and questions for the empirical aspect of the nature of science is provided here. The first prompt is an example of an empirical observation made by a scientist that includes detailed descriptions and standard units. The second prompt is a checklist for students to compare their decisions in the inquiry to the empirical nature of science. The third prompt is a short checklist for students to align their work with the nature of science and a short list of questions asking about student reasoning for the validity of their empirical evidence. Lastly, the fourth prompt is a longer list of questions probing studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; rationales in their decisions about inquiry processes and construction of knowledge based on empirical evidence. MPI-S was given to the students iteratively to encourage repeated practice in the training. Overall, students were to use the first prompt as a model to do their work, the checklists to reflect on the alignment to the scientific enterprise to their work, and the questions to demonstrate rationale for their decisions regarding valid, empirical data.

Quantitative Data Sources Mixed methodology was chosen for this study to explain the student outcomes of the intervention through quantitative results, as well as explaining the processes the students used to achieve the outcomes with qualitative results. Quantitative data were gathered from pre-and post-tests of nature of science knowledge, content knowledge, and self-efficacy of learning. Qualitative data were gathered from student work products, think aloud protocols, and focus group interviews.

Test of Electricity-Magnetism Knowledge (TEMK) This TEMK test assesses individual attainment of content in the topics of magnetism, static electricity, current electricity, and electromagnetism using 19 short response items. Each question on the TEMK was open-ended and used visual, logical, and analytical forms of communication to assess the content goals. The assessment was designed by the researcher and was evaluated for content and construct validity by a team of national award winning teachers who taught physical science with the same age group of students as the participants. The Cronbach alpha reliability on the TEMK scoring was measured at .82, indicating high reliability within the test. In order to determine content validity, two questions were chosen from the same grade level test that was designed for the National Assessment of Educational Progress or NAEP (National Center for Educational Statistics, 2007). The NAEP, otherwise known as “The Nation’s Report Card” in the United States, is given to a random sample of students nationally and represents the level of content knowledge for students across that country (National Center for Educational Statistics, 2007). A sample item from the TEMK is “Why are some materials magnetic while others are not?” The rating criteria for the NAEP were identical to the rating criteria for the TEMK content test for this study. An omitted answer received a 0, a partially correct answer received a 1, an answer that was essentially correct but had a minor flaw received a 2, and a completely correct answer received a 3. Raters of this assessment were given a code book that indicated the level of answers for each score. Forty percent of the questions on the TEMK were randomly given to three other raters to determine inter-rater reliability with a Cohen’s kappa statistic which was found to be .92, indicating substantial agreement.

The Views of the Nature of Science- Form B (VNOS â&#x20AC;&#x201C;B) The VNOS-B (Lederman, Abd-El-Khalick, Bell, & Schwartz, 2002) assessed student understanding of inherent guidelines used to conduct science and consists of seven open-ended questions corresponding to the seven identified aspects of the nature of science: (a) scientific knowledge is durable, yet tentative, (b) empirical evidence is used to support ideas in science, (c) social and historical factors play a role in the construction of scientific knowledge, (d) laws and theories play a central role in developing scientific knowledge, yet they have different functions, (e) accurate record keeping, peer review and replication of experiments help to validate scientific ideas, (f) science is a creative endeavor, and (g) science and technology are not the same, but they impact each other (McComas, Almazroa, & Clough, 2005; Lederman, 1992). Lederman, AbdEl-Khalick, Bell, & Schwartz (2002) argued that nature of science knowledge is best gathered using qualitative methods, and because free-response best represents student knowledge. Each answer on the VNOS-B was ranked using a 0-3 scale: 0 representing no answer, 1 representing novice knowledge, 2 representing emerging knowledge, and 3 representing proficient knowledge using a rubric designed from the research literature recommendations. Because the nature of science tends to be more tenuous than content knowledge, 100% of the responses were used to calculate inter-rater reliability. Cohenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s kappa analysis of the reliability resulted in .94 which indicates a substantial agreement. In addition to the scoring rubric, questions from the VNOS-B were included in the focus group interviews, as suggested in the literature (Lederman, Abd-ElKhalick, Bell, & Schwartz 2002).

Self-Efficacy for Learning Form (SELF) The SELF scale (Zimmerman & Kitsantas, 2005) is a 19-item survey designed to test student self-efficacy for learning. The items ask students to determine their ability to complete self-regulated learning strategies on a percentage scale divided into increments of ten percent, ranging from “Definitely Cannot Do It” to “Definitely Can Do It”. It is designed to have students self-report on a variety of situations that require academic self-regulatory efficacy such as reading, note taking, test taking, writing, and studying. High scores on this scale represent a high ability to be self-regulatory in academic strategies. This scale has a reliability coefficient of .97 and was highly correlated to teacher reports on students.

Qualitative Data Sources and Collection Medhods In order to triangulate data and to capture the process students used to produce the learning outcomes, qualitative data were collected and analyzed. Sources of qualitative data were student written products, think-aloud protocols, and focus group interviews.

Student Products from Inquiry Units Student learning outcomes for the inquiry units, given to both the experimental and the comparison groups focused on observable phenomena in electricity and magnetism. For example, the first module guided students to investigate interactions between permanent magnets that were oddly shaped. Students were challenged to use empirical evidence to determine the location of the poles of the magnets, and then to determine the role of domains in magnetic orientation. The completed student products resulted in written responses to student prior knowledge, open-ended content questions, explanation of processes to obtain results, summarization of findings into enduring understandings and how the evidence from the activities support their ideas, and a reflection on student cognition during the inquiry. Two other trained science educators who were not directly involved with the project coded 80% of the student products (randomly selected) using the code-book developed by the researcher which resulted in a Cohenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s kappa of .92 agreement in coding.

Think Aloud Protocol Think aloud protocols are used to draw out student thinking that may not be apparent on the surface of a field observation (Ericsson & Simon, 1993). Students were instructed to talk aloud about what they were thinking throughout the course of one of the lessons, instead of focusing on the answer to the problem. During the think aloud protocol, the researcher would probe student thinking when students mentioned that they changed their minds based on evidence or on communicating with other students in their group. Randomly selected students from each group, six students per group for each year of the study, were videotaped while they performed an investigation from the intervention. The total number of students involved in the think aloud protocols over two years was twenty-four, 14 girls and 10 boys.

Focus Group Interview A focus group was chosen as a method of data collection because based on the researchers experience with eighth grade students, they often feel more comfortable communicating as a group rather than as an individual. After each of the two years of the intervention, six members were randomly chosen from the explicit group and six members were randomly chosen from the implicit group to participate in focus group interviews, totaling 12 members of the experimental group (7 girls and 5 boys) and 12 members of the comparison group (6 girls and 6 boys). The members of the focus groups were not the same students as the members of the think aloud groups. A semi-structured protocol was needed due to the flexibility to explore phenomena that emerged. Sample questions from the semi-structured protocol were (a) How did you act like a scientist in that lesson? (b) How do you think science class is different from English, history or math class? (c) How can you think about your thinking? (d) What does it mean to you to think like a scientist? (e) Are there other ways of thinking? (f) Do scientists behave differently than other people? Two additional researchers independently open-coded transcripts of the think alouds and the focus group interviews for categories, which were grouped into themes. The interrater reliability among three researchers was a Cohenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s kappa of .73 agreement among the themes. The researchers met to discuss the coding and adjust the themes until there was a Cohenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s kappa of .90 for consensus agreement. Narrative data from the think aloud and the focus group interviews were transcribed using the software, Transana. Data were open coded verbatim (Strauss & Corbin, 1998) to maintain fidelity of the message of the participants then axially coded to consolidate themes (Gibbs, 2002). An educational researcher, a teacher educator, and a science teacher independently coded the student 66

work products and the interviews. There was initially an 88% agreement among the codes that emerged for the three coders, and after discussion and collapsing of the codes into larger categories, the agreement among the three coders reached 94%.

Results Because both girls and boys participated in the experimental and comparison groups, initial analysis focused on groups differences, which is a factor in reducing expectancy effects in studying gender as a variable. After this preliminary analysis demonstrated significant differences between the entire experimental group and the entire comparison group, girls in the experimental group were compared to the boys in the experimental group on all measures. Figure 1 illustrates the process of analysis for this project. Data Analysis

Figure 1. Data analysis process. Girls in the experimental group (M = 2.73, SD = 0.41) significantly outperformed boys (M = 1.63, SD = 0.40) in the experimental group on content knowledge F(1,79) = 5.14, p < .01 and on nature of science knowledge F(1,79) 68

= 13.18, p < .01. However, there were no significant differences between girls and boys in the experimental group on self-regulatory efficacy F(1,79) = .19, p = .91. Overall, the experimental group (boys and girls) outperformed the control group (boys and girls) in content knowledge F(1, 166) = 12.77, p < .01, and nature of science knowledge F(1, 166) = 38.95, p < .01, but no significant differences occurred for self-regulatory efficacy F (1, 166) = .322, p = .57. Considering that the both genders in the experimental group outperformed both genders in the comparison group and girls in the experimental group outperformed boys in the experimental group significantly, girls in the experimental group demonstrated the greatest positive change of all subgroups. The qualitative data explain of the processes that girls and boys in the experimental group used in learning the nature of scientific knowledge. The work given to the students during the inquiry, otherwise known as student work products included questions about how students utilized cognition in the activities and the nature of their knowledge. Themes clearly emerged when the answers given by girls and boys in the student product were analyzed separately and placed on a matrix. Six queries that addressed the nature of scientific knowledge were asked at the end of each activity: (a) Explain how your observations would be clear to other people, (b) Are you behaving more like a scientist (an expert)? Explain. (c) Did you initially ignore any observations or data? (d) Are your data organized clearly to illustrate your point? (e) Is there a similarity among the facts that lead to a â&#x20AC;&#x153;big ideaâ&#x20AC;? or conclusion? and (f) How did you use creativity to arrive at your conclusions? Although boys and girls worked together to achieve consensus on results and explanations during the activity, the questions about cognition were assigned as homework and each student answered them individually. Each question with representative results of the emergent themes will be discussed below.

Explain How your Observations Would be Clear to Other People Girls who responded to this question defined clarity as either being generated by group consensus, indicated by the word “we” in their writing, or as being accepted to an outside audience, indicated by the word “they” in their response. Boys who responded depended on the decisiveness of the phenomena, such as the change in strength of a magnet, or on the competency of their abilities, indicated by the word “I” in the majority of responses. For example, the girls rationalized the clarity of their responses by indicated the ability of a group of people to understand them, “…because we organized it well enough to understand,” “…because we applied what we know and we tried to cover the purpose,” and “…because we discussed with our group.” The girls also indicated that clarity could be achieved by imagining what an outside audience would think of their display of data, “they would think it was clear” and “another class could read it and see what we did.” In only one case out of 37 did a girl use the pronoun “I” in her response to this question rather than the pronoun “we.” The responses of the boys for this question were markedly different, as they focused on either the clarity of observation arising from the distinctiveness of the phenomena or from their own ability. Some of the boys described the phenomena again to emphasize the clarity (or lack of clarity) of their observations, “…because the magnet rubbed against the scissors more and it became more magnetic,” and “…one of the numbers was an outlier, so someone might get confused.” A large majority of the responses from boys for this question rationalized the clarity because of their high competence in describing phenomena, “because I said how things were done and used descriptive words,” “…because I proved it with the experiment,” “…because my observations can be explained with my data”, and “…because I stated them clearly.” 70

Language indicating the consideration of a group of people occurred only once in 42 responses from boys, “…because our data did not make sense…” Themes that emerged showed that girls tended to depend on group interaction, and boys tended to rely on physical phenomena or their own ability to determine clarity of observations.

Are You Behaving More Like a Scientist (An Expert)? Explain. Another very clear difference emerged between responses of girls and of boys when asked if they felt they had more expert knowledge as a result of participating in the activities. Thirty-five out of 37 girls responded positively. For example, “Yes because now I think about past labs I may have done, I also think from other people’s perspectives and I don’t ever leave out information.” The remaining two responses from the girls were “maybe” and “just a little.” Whereas the majority of boys (38 out of 42) responded negatively and did not feel as though they were more expert. Sample responses from boys stated, “I’m not sure, I always thought like this but I never wrote it down” and “No, you need to know a lot more to be an expert.” Only one boy answered in a positive way, “Yes because we done more experiments and answer more questions about the investigation.” These results indicate that there is a very strong difference between girls and boys regarding the perception of the level of expertise of a scientist.

Did You Initially Ignore any Observations or Data? When asked about their ability to be more inclusive of detail in their observations as the activities went on, the majority of girls responded that they could have improved their initial observations, while the majority of boys responded that they wouldn’t have changed their initial observations because it was factual. Of the responses from the girls, 33 indicated that they could have improved their data collection, one indicated that it wouldn’t have changed, and three left the question blank. Representative examples of responses from girls are as follows, “Probably but not on purpose,” “Yes, I could have been more detailed,” and “Yes, I could have labeled them better.” More boys left the question blank (n=12) but from the boys who answered, the majority answered in very definite terms that what they initially observed was accurate and would not be changed. Sample responses from the boys state, “It was only what I saw,” “I stuck to the science part,” and “No, I didn’t.” Girls in this study tend to be in some way aware of bias due to prior experiences in observation, but boys were much more concrete in their perception of the validity of observation.

Are Your Data Organized Clearly to Illustrate Your Point? All boys and all girls responded affirmatively to this question, but the reasons for their answers were different and mirrored the girls’ tendency toward tentativeness and the boys’ tendency toward convergent answers. Most of the girls described a specific concept that the data were illustrating. For example, “Yes, because it showed the concept of connecting and how it happened.” However, six of the girls who responded made concessions about how they could have accomplished more, such as “Yes, but it could have been more complete,” and “Yes, but I didn’t do as much of the work as I could have.” The boys answered positively, but never mentioned that the data could have been displayed in other ways. Their responses indicated a perception of knowledge as static, such as, “Yes, because they’re drawn like the display was,” “Yes, because it showed the observations in a descriptive way,” “Yes because I proved the facts and things in the lab,” and “Yes, the data was strong to the point.” All of the responses of the boys reasoned that an accepted procedure was followed which therefore led to an organized data display. The way the boys responded (a positivist orientation) and the way the girls responded (a more tentative, conceptual orientation) corroborates the results of the gender differences in the responses of the other cognitive question asked about data collection and display. The responses of the girls and boys resulted in similar answers to the other question about data, “Did you initially ignore any observations or data?” Where the boys answered in a more self-directed right/wrong way and the girls showed more tendencies for knowledge to be dependent on perspectives.

Is There a Similarity Among the Facts that Lead to a “Big Idea” or Conclusion? This question yielded the most distinct results of all of the questions regarding cognition. All girls answered yes and explained a concept found in the activities. Only one boy out of 42 answered yes and all other boys answered no without any explanation. This is a surprising difference because boys and girls worked together during the activity, but the girls distinctly saw a trend in the data and the boys did not. Representative answers from the girls include, “The facts could explain that the farther away the coils the less amount of magnetism” and “The stronger the magnet the more paperclips picked up as in coils.” Boys had less complete answers than the girls. One boy did answer, “Yes the numbers were similar,” but all other boys answered “no” without any elaboration. Based on the answers to this question, girls clearly saw a link between the activity and the theory driving the activity, where the boys did not see similarities among the facts found during the activity to lead to a conclusion.

How Did You Use Creativity to Arrive at Your Conclusions? Again, girls and boys approached this question differently. Girls reported being creative by choosing which variables to change, such as “By coming up with different variables,” “For the variables we used # of coils and space between,” and “We tested the effect of the current with three different amounts of batteries and coils.” Boys answered in a more conceptual way and demonstrated that they regarded creativity in science as thinking more about why the phenomena happened. Sample answers from the boys include, “I used creativity by keeping an open mind,” “Just see what is going on,” and “I imagined the domains and what they were organized in the power of the magnet/nail.” In this case, girls answered in a more procedural way and the boys answered in a more conceptual way.

Focus Group and Think Aloud Results Qualitative data from the focus groups and the think aloud protocol parallels the differences found between girls and boys in the cognitive questioning from the student work products. The focus groups and think aloud were conducted with boys and girls together, but the responses of boys and girls were analyzed separately. For the purposes of this study, the experimental boy and experimental girls were the only responses taken into consideration. The purpose of the focus groups was to probe student understanding of the nature of scientific knowledge, and the processes students used to access and construct knowledge. The girls in the experimental group tended to answer questions about the characteristics of scientists with answers that were more aligned with the nature of science, but boys did not show same inclination. When girls were asked to indicate characteristics of scientists, they answered, “scientists have great imaginations . . . when they don’t know how to do it, they try things until they can show it” (Creative NOS), “science is more than just facts, you can elaborate on them” (Empirical NOS), and “when you have more technology you can use it to change theories” (Tentative NOS). Boys overwhelmingly responded to questions asking about the characteristics of scientists by elaborating on their appearance, “scientists wear white lab coats and have crazy hair… they work in their labs a lot.” As seen in the cognitive questioning, girls in the experimental group tended to rely more on evidence in making conclusions and boys relied more on authority when they developed the “big ideas” in their inquiry. In the co-ed groups, the students often came to different conclusions based on the same evidence. Part of the task of the inquiry was for each lab group of three or four students to come to consensus about the conclusions based on the data they collected. Students in the think aloud protocols and focus groups discussed the ways they 77

worked out the conflicts in the groups. As with the qualitative analysis of the questions, only the experimental group was considered because of their exposure to the explicit means of learning the nature of science. All seven girls described that their way to resolve discrepancies with the conclusions was to return to the physical data and perform the investigation again, “When we had a disagreement, we kind of figured out what made sense and what didn’t make sense. Eventually we all came to an agreement that we didn’t do something right. Then we went back and changed it.” Four of the five boys in the focus group, reported that they were convinced that the conclusion was appropriate only when the teacher indicated the “right” answer, “We waited until the class discussions at the end. Then Ms. White (the pseudonym for the teacher) told us what the answer was.” This trend is analogous to the gender differences found in the cognition questions where boys answered in a more authoritative way and the girls indicated that perception played a role in their conceptualization of the data.

Discussion Results of the exploration of differences between 8th grade girls and boys in learning nature of science knowledge given explicit, reflective learning prompts show clear differences in both outcomes and processes. Girls significantly outperformed boys on the content and nature of science knowledge measures, discussed different learning processes in the interviews, and answered questions about their cognition differently even though mixed gender groups performed the science inquiry together. However, the boys and girls did not show significant differences in the self-regulatory efficacy measure. A discussion of the qualitative and quantitative results, organized by research question, follows.

RQ1: Do Comparison and Experimental Groups Differ as a Function of Gender on Science Students’ Content Knowledge, Nature of Science Knowledge, and SelfRegulatory Efficacy of Learning? Given the same intervention prompting nature of science knowledge in an explicit, reflective manner, girls outscored boys on the content test which focused on the major concepts of electricity and magnetism. Content knowledge in the intervention was developed through connecting new hands-on experiences to prior knowledge and making conclusions about the major ideas that governed the hands-on experiences. To a large extent, students had to work collaboratively to develop a consensus about what data to collect, how to organize the data, and how to develop conclusions about the trends found in the data. Groups, all of which were populated by both girls and boys, designed a peer review system to make sure their ideas were valid. All members of the group had to agree that the actions taken in the activity as well as the reasons for the actions taken during the activity were sound. As reported in the cognition questions, girls oriented their expertise of electricity and magnetism knowledge toward the group, evidenced by their frequent use of the word “we”. Girls seemed to easily accept the construction of knowledge through the group, and reported depending on the group to discuss and confirm information. Boys, conversely, reported their orientation of knowledge acquisition as being generated by the interaction of themselves with the content. This is evidenced in their answers to the cognition questions being dominated by the use of the word “I” as the source of information. Additionally, the qualitative data showed girls ability to form “big ideas” from hands-on experiences, and the boys did not think they could develop overriding ideas from several different hands-on activities. Finally, the evidence in the interviews points to the girls’ 80

ability to construct knowledge in a group. Girls reported that they relied on evidence to solve any discrepancies their group had while taking data. Boys reported that they relied mainly on authority, in the form of a book or of a teacher, to solve difficulties they encountered in the activities. Boys tended to orient themselves to finding the one right answer that was provided by an expert. Girls may have increased content knowledge because the intervention was designed to draw heavily on group interactions to develop knowledge. Girls reported being more comfortable with this type of learning, and they were able to accept knowledge that was developed by a group. The performance of girls over boys on learning nature of science knowledge may be attributed to the metacognitive prompts, because they described the processes of developing scientific knowledge as a human endeavor. The metacognitive prompts explicitly described the scientific enterprise as being influenced by human bias, being collaborative, and being creative. The prompts were designed to override the thinking the science is conducted entirely by the scientific method and to show that the process of acquiring scientific knowledge is more iterative than linear. The girls reported the prompts as being helpful to revise their work in the hands-on activities. A representative comment from the focus group from a girl reported, “I thought about the checklists and realize that I didn’t do something as well as I could have. I thought about how I might explain it to other people and I wrote it in more detail.” Also, girls realized that the data generated in the hands-on activities could be improved upon, whereas the boys were satisfied with their display of data if it led to a convergent answer. This evidence points to girls’ ability to recognize the tentative nature of science which states that the scientific knowledge we have now is largely stable, but can be changed given compelling data. When asked about the role of creativity in science, girls answered in a more procedural way, and boys answered more conceptually, but not oriented specifically toward science. Although the girls saw some creativity in science generated by their design of the hands-on activities, the boys tended to connect their responses about creativity with school work, rather than with science. For example, the boys re81

ported that you can be creative in science by keeping an open mind. Finally, evidence that illustrates how girls comprehended nature of science knowledge is seen in the interview responses. Girls tended to talk about what scientist did in an everyday capacity. Boys described the appearance of scientists as being â&#x20AC;&#x153;mad scientistsâ&#x20AC;?, a phenomena also seen in the Draw-A-Scientist Test (Chambers, 1983). All of the indications of comprehension of nature of science knowledge from girls tended to show scientists and scientific endeavors as more human. Self-regulatory efficacy measures did not show any differences between girls and boys. This may be because 8th graders not exposed to the ways scientists do their work (Hogan, 2000) and the students were learning nature of science knowledge for the first time. Students, especially young students, do not immediately display self-efficacy when learning something new (Bandura, 1997). Research using prompting to enhance writing skills (Nuckles, Hubner & Renkl, 2009) also showed no increase in self-efficacy with undergraduate psychology students, which corroborates the findings of this study. Boys and girls at the eighth grade level were not very confident in learning independently whether they were given a prompting intervention or not.

RQ 2: How do Male and Female Students Report the Process of Cognition when Participating in Metacognitive Prompting Intervention-Science? Overall, girls and boys reported different processes of cognition when given prompts to align their hands-on work with the methods of scientists. Girls saw the process of cognition as a group endeavor, whereas boys reported the process as being generated by themselves, with guidance from books or from the teacher. Even though the girls and boys worked in mixed groups, the girls proceeded through the activities utilizing physical evidence to develop general ideas about the behaviors of electricity and magnets. Boys conducted the activities using physical means, but did not rely on their results to generate their knowledge about magnets and electricity. Rather they referenced authoritative sources and confirmed the big ideas they found in the data with what was published in books or by confirming the idea with the teacher. The ways they generated knowledge were linked to the ways in which boys and girls communicated the knowledge. Girls tended to provide rational about the correctness of their answers by group consensus and boys provided the rational about the correctness of their answers by showing that the ideas they generated matched what was known by the scientific community. The intervention (MPI-S) seemed to be successful in illustrating science as a human endeavor and as a result engaged girls so that they gained more content knowledge and knowledge about the nature of science.

Implications It is well documented that the United States is suffering a shortage of scientists, especially women scientists (NCES, 2001). Even students who begin their undergraduate studies in the sciences often become unhappy with the culture of learning in science. Students, especially female students, become disillusioned with the competitive, isolating way that science classes are conducted at universities (Tobias, 1990). Showing students early in their schooling that science need not be linear and the scientific enterprise is a human endeavor may encourage more students to pursue science as a career. MPI-S can be one way to scaffold student understanding to show that science is creative and social, which is different than the traditional model. The development of scientific knowledge is often taught at the K-12 level as a spontaneous, brilliant thought of a singular genius. For example, there are many textbooks that teach the idea that an apple dropping on Newton’s head as the source of the idea for the law of gravity. Most students cannot relate to this because they think they are not smart enough. Teaching the nature of science with prompts shows the enterprise of science in more human terms, and can illustrate to students that being “scientific-minded” does not mean you need to be a genius. This realization can open up new career paths in science for students who had not previously considered it. Prompting students to check their thinking against the way the discipline’s expectations can have implications for engaging students who do not consider themselves “science – minded”. Students do not often have an understanding of the scientific community or the process of construction and verification of knowledge in science (DeSautels & Larochelle, 2006; Hogan & Maglienti, 2001). Students who use MPI-S gain experience in checking their thinking against scientific thinking which helps them to understand what knowledge is 84

scientific and what knowledge is not scientific. This method explicitly connects the knowledge that students are learning with ways knowledge is generated and validated, opening the opportunity for students to become independent learners. For girls especially, prompting nature of science knowledge may have a positive impact on the ways the value the discipline of science.

S E C T I O N 27

References

AAUW. (2004). Under the microscope: A decade of gender equity projects in the sciences. Retrieved from http://www.aauw.org/learn/research/upload/underthemicroscope.pdf Abd-El-Khalick, F., Bell, R. L. & Lederman, N. G. (1998). The nature of science and instructional practice: Making the unnatural natural. Science Education, 36, 404-420. American Association for the Advancement of Science. (1993). Benchmarks for Science Literacy. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. Baker, D. & Leary, R. (1995). Letting girls speak out about science. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 32, 3-27. Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. New York, NY: W. H. Freeman. Barker, L. J., & Garvin-Doxas, K. (2004). Making visible the behaviors that influence learning environments. Computer Science Education, 14(2), 119-145. doi:10.1080/08993400412331363853 Bayer Corporation. (2010). Bayer Facts of Science Education XIV. Female and minority chemists and chemical engineers speak about diversity and underrepresentation in STEM. Retrieved from http://bayerfactsofscience.online-pressroom.com/ Blickenstaff, J.C. (2005). Women and science careers: Leaky pipe or gender filter? Gender and Education, 17, 369-386. Britner, S. L. (2008). Motivation in high school science students: A comparison of gender differences in life, physical, and earth science classes. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 45(8), 955-970. doi:10.1002/tea.20249 Bybee, R. W. (2000). Teaching science as inquiry. In J. Minstrell & E. vanZee (Eds.), Inquiring into inquiry learning and teaching in science (pp. 20-46). Washington, DC: American Association for the Advancement of Science Press. Chambers, D. (1983). Stereotypic images of the scientist: The draw-a-scientist test. Science Education, 67, 255-265. Cole, N.S. (1997). The ETS gender study: How females and males perform in educational settings. Princeton, NJ: Educational Testing Service. 86

Constenson, K., & Lawson, A. (1986). Why isn’t inquiry used in more classrooms? The American Biology Teacher, 48(3), 150-158. Corno, L. & Mandinach, E. (1983). The role of cognitive engagement in classroom learning and motivation. Educational Psychologist, 18, 88-108. Deboer, G. E. (2004). Historical perspectives on inquiry teaching in schools. In L.B. F lick and N.G. Lederman (Eds.), Scientific inquiry and nature of science (pp. 17-35). Boston, MA: Kluwer Academic Publishers. DeSautels, J., & Larochelle, M. About the epistemological posture of science teachers. Online at http://www.physics.ohio-state.edu/~jossem/ICPE/D3.html on January 15, 2006. DuBow, W. (2011). NCWIT Scorecard: A report on the status of women in information technology. Boulder: National Center for Women & Information Technology. Retrieved from http://www.ncwit.org/pdf/Scorecard2010_PrintVersion_WEB.pdf Ericsson, K. A., & Simon, H. A. (1993). Protocol analysis: Verbal reports as data. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press. Erwin, L., & Marutto, P. (1998). Beyond access: Considering gender deficits in science education. Gender and Education, 10, 51-69. Etzkowitz, H., Kemelgor, C., & Uzzi, B., with Neuschatz, M. (2000). Athena unbound: The advancement of women in science and technology. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press. Flanagan, M., & Nissenbaum, H. (2008). Design heuristics for activist games. In Y. Kafai, C. Heeter, J. Denner, & J. Sun (Eds.), From Barbie to Mortal Kombat (pp. 265-280). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Gess-Newsome, J. (2002). The use and impact of explicit instruction about the nature of science and science inquiry in an elementary science methods course. Science & Education, 11, 55-67. Ghatala, E. S. (1986). Strategy monitoring training enables young learners to se lect effective strategies. Educational Psychologist, 21, 434-454. Gibbs, G. (2002). Qualitative data analysis: Explorations with NVivo. Philadelphia, PA: Open University Press. Gilbert, J. (2001). Science and its ‘Other’: Looking underneath ‘woman’ and ‘science’ for new directions in research on gender and science education. Gender and Education, 13, 291-305. Halpern, D., Aronson, J., Reimer, N., Simpkins, S., Star, J., & Wentzel, K. (2007). Encouraging girls in math and science (NCER 2007-2003). Washington, 87

DC: National Center for Education Research, Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. Department of Education. Retrieved from http://ncer.ed.gov Harris Interactive. (2011). STEM perceptions: Student & parent study [commissioned by Microsoft]. Retrieved from http://www.microsoft.com/presspass/press/2011/sep11/09- 07MSSTEMSurveyPR.mspx Harding, S. (1991). Whose science? Whose knowledge? Thinking from women’s lives. New York, NY: Open University Press. Hayes, C. C. (2010). Computer science: The incredible shrinking woman. In T. Misa (Ed.), Gender codes: Why women are leaving computing (pp. 25-49). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley/IEEE Computer Society Press. Hayes, E. (2008). Girls, gaming, and trajectories of IT expertise. In Y., Kafai, C., Heeter, J., Denner, & J. Sun (Eds.), From Barbie to Mortal Kombat (pp. 217-230). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Hazari, Z., Tai, R. H., & Sadler, P. M. (2007). Gender differences in introductory undergraduate physics performance: The influence of high school physics preparation and affective factors. Science Education, 23, 847-987. Heeter, C., & Winn, B. (2008). Gender identity, play style, and the design of games for classroom learning. In Y. Kafai, C. Heeter, J. Denner, & J. Sun (Eds.), From Barbie to Mortal Kombat (pp. 281-300). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Henderson, R. W. (1986). Self-regulated learning: Implications for the design of instructional media. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 11, 405-427. Henwood, F. (1996). WISE choices? Understanding occupational decision-making in a climate of equal opportunities for women in science and technology. Gender and Education, 8, 199-214. Hill, C., Corbett, C., & St. Rose, A. (2010). Why so few? Women in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics. Washington, D.C.: American Association of University Women. Retrieved from http://www.aauw.org/learn/research/upload/whysofew.pdf Hogan, K. (2000). Exploring a process view of students’ knowledge about the nature of science. Science Education, 84, 51-70. Hogan, K., & Maglienti, M. (2001). Comparing the epistemological underpinnings of students’ and scientists’ reasoning about conclusions. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 38, 663-687.

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CHAPTER 3

Psychological Congruence: The Impact of Organizational Context on Job Satisfaction and Retention of Women in Technology Mary A. Lemons and Monica Parzinger

Information Technology personnel wear many hats and carry many titles. It is not unusual to envision a programmer sitting at a keyboard when computer related jobs are discussed, but the category also encompasses positions of management and interaction with information users. Project managers, database administrators, network administrators, systems analysts, chief information technology officers, call center support staff, software engineers, and hardware technicians are just samples of the titles and job descriptions that fall into this group of the specialized workforce under the IT heading. As highlighted in a special issue of Human Resource Management call for papers (11-29-04), Information Technology (IT) workers have unique characteristics thus having the potential for disparate effects of human resource policies. Couger and Zawacki (1978) identified differences in motivation as well as other characteristics among Information Technology personnel. For example, IT managers in general have both lower social needs and higher growth needs than other managers (Couger, Zawacki, & Opperman, 1979). Strong occupational norms, and perhaps even a subculture, have formed for this group of professionals due to several factors. One of these factors is the extremely dynamic field itself in which Information Technology workers must function. 90

The specialized up-to-date skills that must be developed have a very short life span. This requires employees to focus on professional development in addition to their daily work responsibilities, which can lead to an imbalance between work life and family life or outside activities. Stress can also be a factor. Many IT employees are on call 24/7, expected to work long hours and weekends. When problems arise with the organization’s information systems or new projects approach implementation deadlines, IT personnel are summoned for unanticipated assignments. These factors, indicative of the profession’s culture, can lead to dissatisfaction with the job and ultimately lower productivity and/or increased turnover. Yet another aspect of the profession that can impact the IT working environment is the proportion of males and females in the field that hold radically differing gender schemas. Gender schemas refer to cognitive structures of organized prior knowledge regarding the role expectations of individuals based on biological sex. The IT field has traditionally been considered “male” and as with any profession that has been dominated by one gender, stereotyping occurs. The potential for unconscious bias in personnel selections for projects and promotions can contribute to stress and the loss of valuable qualified employees. Although current societal attitudes continue to identify men with technology, the growing area of computers and technology has certainly lured women away from traditional roles and career paths. Once in the field of IT, however, the women may not find the male culture of technology as attractive. In 1971, the female proportion of computer systems analysts and other specialists was only 9%. By 1990, this figure had jumped to 35%. But in 1993, a decline was noted in the proportion of females to 30% (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 1995). In 1993, the National Science Foundation reported 255,000 women in the computer field; this figure decreased to 240,900 in 1995. A similar trend was found in the female share of computer and information science bachelors’ degrees. The female portion was 14% in 1971, increased to 37% in 1984, but declined to 28% in 1993. Today, only 22% of all computer programmers are 91

female, and 20.9% of software engineers are women (U.S. Department of Labor, 2011, http://www.bls.gov/cps/home.htm). The number of women versus men in IT positions is also unbalanced. An indication of the scarceness of females in high ranking IT positions is the composition of membership in the Society for Information Management (SIM). This society is an organization of senior male and female IT executives. Of SIMâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s 2,700 members, only 195 were women in 1997 (Wilde, 1997). In 2009, a female sub-group was formed and today boasts a membership of over 40 (http://www.simnet.org/?page=About_SIM0). The United States is not alone in its shortage of IT skills and decline in representation of women in this field. A study of the status of women in the IT industry in the United Kingdom suggests that even though the IT industry does not exclude women, it does little to promote them or to retain them (Panteli, Stack, Atkinson, & Ramsay, 1999). Trends such as these have raised questions and prompted gender research in the IT arena. Although the environment can have a positive or negative impact on all IT workers, there is reason to believe that females in the field more often leave the organization due to their negative experiences sometimes driven by the culture. In a study of women entering and exiting computer related occupations, Wright noted that women leave computer work more than men when controlling for differences in background, education, experience, specialty, and industry. In general, women can more easily enter IT fields and acquire salaries close to that of their male counterparts. However, pressures exerted by the culture found in these occupations results in them leaving the industry (Wright, 1996). Although aspects of culture are often referred to when describing the work environment and explaining behavior, there frequently lacks a clear distinction between organizational culture and climate. For some, there is no distinction and the terms are used interchangeably. For this article, we use explanations proposed by Svyantek and Bott (2002) that define organizational culture as a 92

set of shared values and norms held by employees. These values and norms guide interactions with peers, management, and clients. Organizational climate, on the other hand, represents employeesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; perceptions of organizational policies, practices and procedures that support creativity, innovation, safety or service (Patterson, Warr, & West, 2004). Climate might be considered a manifestation of culture (Schein, 1985, Schneider, 1990). The atmosphere created by the established norms and perceptions of policies and procedures can impact an individualâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s level of job satisfaction and intentions to leave the organization (Hatton, et. al., 1999; Reigle, 2001). Thus, the purpose of our article is to first identify characteristics of culture and climate that influence job satisfaction and intentions to leave of women in IT. We then consider the moderating effect that traditional and non-traditional gender schemas may have on the relationships just described (Figure 1). Finally, we offer propositions and suggestions for future research in this area. ! Gender Schema

Organization al Culture

Intent to Leave

Leadership Style

Organizational Climate

Job Satisfaction

Figure 1. The relationship between contextual variables and job satisfaction and intent to leave leadership.

Transformational and Transactional Styles There is an extensive amount of research on leadership and its impact on an organization. Two forms of leadership often discussed in the literature are transformational and transactional. It is believed that the leadership style utilized, particularly during transition, can influence success during transformation and change. In general, the transformational leader possesses charisma and is able to be supportive rather than directive when the situation allows (Hersey & Blanchard, 1969). Transformational leaders use charisma and expert knowledge to lead. The transactional leader appeals to employees' selfinterest rather than raise the levels of morality and motivation (Burns, 1978). Transactional leaders use rewards, punishment, and the power of their position to lead. A more recent theory in leadership studies is collaborative leadership. Researchers have suggested that the nurturing, supportive style of leadership found in most women is more congruent to collaborative leadership concepts than transactional styles (Eagly & Johannesen-Schmidt, 2001; Rosenthal, 1998). Leadership studies often focus on a top ranking corporate officer. However, lower ranking employees such as immediate supervisors and team leaders are often in the position to influence behavior (Bass & Avolio, 1994). Francis J. Yammarino (1994) noted, â&#x20AC;&#x153;Transformational leaders need not occupy the highest or most prominent positions to influence others. Transformational leaders can occupy a variety of positions at various levels of organizations and be formal or informal leadersâ&#x20AC;? (p. 39). Transformational leadership processes may align followers' work-oriented values with those of the greater group or organization (Bass, Waldman, Avolio, & Babb, 1987; Burns, 1978; Conger & Kanungo 1988). In other words, wherever the stance in the hierarchy, the

leader can have a tremendous impact on the direction of the organizational culture. Because of the pervasiveness of gender stereotypes, people generally believe that men and women differ in many areas, including personality traits, physical characteristics, role behaviors, and occupational positions (Deaux & Major, 1990). Typical gender stereotypes may include women staying home to care for the home and children and men working to provide for the family. In the United States, children are socialized according to gender stereotypes. For example, little boys are encouraged to play sports, whereas little girls are socialized to play with dolls. Sporting activities lead to competitive, assertive behavior, but playing with dolls encourages supportive, nurturing behavior. The next time you go to McDonaldâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s, notice the difference between the boy and the girl happy meals. A few years ago, they gave out teddy bears as the toy included with the meal; the girl meals had teddy bears with ballerina clothes, whereas the teddy bears in the boy meals were dressed as firemen. The process that a society uses to socialize children to their gender roles is known as gendertyping (Bem, 1984). Because gender attribution may be universal (at least to some degree), gender stereotypes and their resulting assumptions may take precedence over other forms of categorization (Kessler & McKenna, 1978). In response to gender-typing, research has been conducted to examine the difference between leadership styles of women and men. Rosenthalâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s (1998) research in the area of women and politics suggests that women are better equipped to be integrative leaders. Berdahl and Anderson (2005) found that women prefer more egalitarian roles, whereas men feel more comfortable in a hierarchical situation. They also suggest that women work better in collaborative work teams than do men. Likewise, Eagly and Johannesen-Schmidt (2001) examined women and collaborative research. They found that women are better at collaboration than men. Collaboration is the core of transformational leadership, which emphasizes trust, open communication, shared vision and shared power (Berdahl & Ander95

son. 2005). The socialization process of women in the U.S. teaches the importance of these concepts. Thus, women in IT may be more comfortable and satisfied with a transformational leadership style than with a transactional style. The following propositions were developed to examine the relationship between leadership style and intent to stay with an organization and job satisfaction.

Proposition 1 1a: Female IT Professionals experience higher levels of job satisfaction when led by a transformational leader than when led by a transactional leader. 1b: Female IT Professionals are less likely to leave an organization when led by a transformational leader than a transactional leader.

Organizational Culture High tech is much more gay friendly and less White than Wall Street, but is every bit as sexist. I remember being frustrated at Microsoft in 1989 that I knew there were more gay men there than women, period. This is a very serious point – all the liberalism in the world will first benefit each and every different type of man, before it starts to benefit women. (Anonymous email from Systers website, 2007).

The above comment was posted on the website of Systers, a networking outlet for women in technology. It is unclear whether she is describing her organizational culture or the general culture of IT organizations. Indeed, there does not appear to be total agreement on the definition of culture. However, its importance in an organizational setting is recognized in all lines of business, including Information Technology (Preston, 2002). And, while there is not agreement, either on the level of analysis or interpretations of quantitative measurement of culture, organizational behavior is often explained by the examination of the organizational context (O’Reilly et al., 1991). Researchers, therefore, have focused on the values and assumptions that form culture. As O’Reilly and colleagues (1991) explained, “If there is strong and widespread agreement about the salience and importance of specific values, a central value system or unit culture may exist.” (p. 493) Researchers have provided us with empirical evidence of the importance of “fit” between an employee and the organizational culture. O’Reilly et al (1991) demonstrated that the fit between an individual’s preference for a particular culture and the culture of the organization joined is related to commitment, satisfaction, and turnover. Van Vianen (2000) looked at both the organizational preferences between a newcomer and the organizational values and the fit between the newcomer and others in the organization. One finding of this study suggests that when a newly hired employee’s concern for people fit 98

with the supervisorâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s concern for people, higher levels of organizational commitment resulted. Turnover intentions were also lowered. Young and Hurlic (2007) developed a model of person-organizational fit based on gender theories, gender enactment, person-group fit and person-organization fit. They suggest that deviations from accepted gender-related behaviors can lead to stress and lower levels of self-efficacy, while also influencing career decision-making. In an article entitled â&#x20AC;&#x153;The Decline and Fall of High-Tech Corporate Cultureâ&#x20AC;? Ross describes the relationship between organizational culture and the high rate of turnover for many people in software development and test positions (2000). Ross notes that many people in these stations change jobs or companies almost annually. Three drivers of this behavior were identified. The first is the huge demand for skilled software workers. This allows people to change jobs more frequently. A second reason is the practice of rewarding individual behavior rather than teamwork. This fosters unhealthy competition. A third possible reason for the frequent job change as identified by Ross is the placement of immature or insecure persons in management roles. Persons that lack relevant experience and/or compassion can have an adverse impact on culture (Ross, 2000). The support for a fit between organizational culture and employees exists. But do identical cultures impact males and females differently? Van Vianen and Fischer (2002) examined the relationships among gender, organizational culture preferences and ambition. In this research a feminine dimension of organizational culture was operationalized with three scales: positive feedback, peer cohesion, and participation. Masculine dimensions of organizational culture were operationalized also with three scales: work pressure, effort, and competition. Gender differences in culture preferences were found for lower level employees, but not for employees at management levels. In general they found that, even in more feminine-oriented organizational cultures, managers have relatively high masculine culture preferences compared with other employees in the same organization. We developed the following propositions to explore this relationship. 99

Proposition 2 2a: Female IT professionals experience higher levels of job satisfaction when they perceive the cultural environment as more feminine than masculine. 2b: Female IT Professionals are less likely to leave an organization when they perceive the cultural environment as more feminine than masculine.

100

Organizational Climate There appears to some controversy over the definition of organizational climate just as there is over organizational culture. It is typically thought of as shared perceptions of organizational policies, practices, and procedures, both formal and informal. It may reflect the organization’s goals and the means to reach those goals (Siu, 2002). It is a descriptive concept referring to facts about the organizational environment (Patterson, et al, 2004). As above, another member of Systers made the following observation when asked about the fairness of the promotion process in her IT organization. “Women don’t get promoted because they have to fight to be assigned any projects of ‘value’ and promotion at my company is based on your ‘results’ and the value of those results to the corporation. I actually think being measured on your results is a good thing, but if I can only be assigned low-value projects then by definition my value is low. Hence the evaluation and promotion procedure looks very, very fair. Problem is that without good assignments I can’t get the right inputs to put into that very fair process” (Anonymous email from Systers website, 2007).

101

Proposition 3 3a Female IT professionals experience higher levels of job satisfaction when they perceive an organizational climate more characterized by affiliation and involvement than competition and work pressure. 3b: Female IT Professionals are less likely to leave an organization when they perceive the organizational climate is more characterized by affiliation and involvement than competition and work pressure.

102

Proposition 4 Gender schemas refer to cognitive structures of organized prior knowledge regarding the role expectations of individuals based on biological sex. Individuals who reject traditional gender roles use non-traditional gender schemas to process relevant information whereas individuals who reject behavior that does not match their sex use traditional gender schemas (Bem, 1993). Culture assigns emotional and behavioral roles to men and women (Girvin, 1978). As children, individuals examine the gender appropriateness of behavior, becoming gender conformists by rejecting behavior that does not match their sex or becoming gender nonconformists by rejecting traditional gender-roles (Bem, 1993). Gender schema theory explains when gender-stereotyped behaviors and attitudes may occur. The two fundamental presuppositions regarding the process of individual gender formation are adopted from both social learning theory (Kreitner & Luthans, 1984) and cognitive-development theory (Kohlberg & Ullman, 1974). First, like social learning theory, gender schema theory states that the developing child internalizes gender lenses that are embedded in the discourse and social practices of the culture. Second, as with cognitive-development theory, once internalized, these gender lenses predispose the individual to construct a self-identity that is consistent with these lenses. Individuals who engage in high levels of gender-schematic processing also engage in high levels of genderstereotyped behaviors; thus, gender schematic processing results in many of the gender differences that exist in the United States (Bem, 1984, 1993). General research in attribution theory supports gender schema contentions â&#x20AC;&#x153;that women who have been perceived as performing well may not receive credit for their performance, which tends to be attributed to factors other than abilityâ&#x20AC;? (Nieva & Gutek, 1982, p. 73). Deaux and Emswiller (1974) provided 103

substantial evidence that both men and women participants attribute the cause of success of a man on a masculine task to skill (an internal characteristic) whereas they attributed the cause of success of a woman on the same masculine task to luck (an external characteristic). Taynor and Deaux (1975) reported similar results that women who performed well on a masculine task were seen as more deserving of reward and as exerting more effort (an unstable characteristic) than equally performing men. Even when no performance evaluation difference existed, good performance was perceived as more representative of the men’s than of the women’s general intelligence (Deaux & Emswiller, 1974) and ability (Taynor & Deaux, 1975). Deaux and Emswiller (1974) also found that men were perceived as more skillful overall than women. These studies report differential attribution of skill and luck for the masculine tasks, but the same results were not found on the feminine task, which indicates that “sex-typing of the task seems important in making attributions about ability versus task difficulty” (Nieva & Gutek, 1982, p. 73). Feminine tasks were perceived as requiring less ability and effort than masculine tasks (Nieva & Gutek, 1982). Because individuals with traditional gender schemas engage in more stereotyped behaviors and attitudes than individuals with nontraditional gender schemas (Bem, 1993), traditional individuals may believe that women in upper management positions are there as the result of luck rather than qualifications. Thus, attribution theory helps explain why gender schema theory may be useful as a framework for examining the contextual factors of IT organizations. Individuals with traditional gender schemas make different causal attributions than individuals with nontraditional gender schemas. The combination of gender schema theory and attribution theory enables researchers to understand how perceptions of the organizational context may affect IT employees differently. Gender schemas can influence judgments of people’s competence, ability and worth by skewing perceptions and evaluations of men and women (Valian, 2004). Researchers examined a wide variety of jobs and organizations using 486 work groups examined male-female differences in performance ratings 104

and found that, when the proportion of women in the group was small and cognitive ability, psychomotor ability, education, and experience differences were controlled, women received significantly lower performance ratings than men (Sackett, DuBois, & Noe, 1991). These findings support sex stereotyping literature which purports that women receive differential treatment in maledominated situations, such as gender segregated areas within organizations, simply because they are female (Kanter, 1977; Maurer & Taylor, 1994). Gender segregation may result in a token status for women when they try to enter predominately male occupations. According to Kanter (1977) women are viewed as tokens when at least 85% of the workforce is male. Flynn and Shore (1992) described tokens as "people who have different characteristics than others in a given situation (normally the work group), and as such, are frequently in the minority" (p. 482). This situation creates pressure because they become visible whether they want to or not, and "because members of the dominant group exaggerate differences according to stereotypes they believe" about them (Morrison & Von Glinow, 1990, p. 203). Because the majority group usually treats tokens differently due to their token status, this is a form of discrimination (Flynn & Shore, 1992). In addition, tokenism also affects the majority group (Cianni, 1992). This suggests that women may be uncomfortable in their token status, whereas the men around them may also be uncomfortable. When applying these theories to the male dominated IT field, we can speculate that stereotyping and discrimination are prevalent, although perhaps on an unconscious level. Lemons and Parzinger (2007) conducted research on the gender schemas of IT men and women and compared them to the general public. These findings conclude that women in IT experience the strongest non-traditional gender schemas of all the groups, with women in the general public coming in second. Men in IT, on the contrary, experienced the highest level of traditional gender schemas, even higher than men in general. When moderated by individual gender schemas, the relationship between organizational culture in IT and job satisfaction and/or intent to lead may

105

change from one employee to another. We developed the following proposition to explore this relationship:

Proposition 4 4a:Gender schemas moderate the relationship between organizational culture and job satisfaction.

4b: Gender schemas moderate the relationship between organizational culture and intent to leave.

106

Conclusion Rapid growth in the computer and data processing services industry should result in ample opportunities for both men and women in information technology. Competition among businesses will create incentives for increasingly sophisticated technological innovations, and organizations will need more IT employees to implement these new technological changes. In addition to employment growth, many job openings will result annually from the need to replace workers who move into managerial positions, transfer to other occupations, or who leave the labor force. Growing numbers of IT personnel will be needed to implement, safeguard, and update systems and resolve problems. However, dissatisfaction with processes and culture can lead to women exiting IT positions despite the dire need for qualified personnel. The anecdotal evidence of organizational context in the IT arena leads to basic research questions. What are the prevalent aspects of organizational culture in the IT field? What are the drivers of IT culture? Does the culture impact female employees differently than male employees? Although empirical analysis lies beyond the scope of this article, we offer a model and propositions to encourage future research in the area. Our model suggests that leaders can have a significant impact on an organizationâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s culture and climate. The atmosphere created by the established norms and perceptions of policies and procedures can impact an individualâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s level of job satisfaction and intentions to leave the organization. The model also suggests that gender schemas may have a moderating effect on the relationship between culture and the two outcome variables. In order to rank the best companies to work for in the information technology industry, Collett a 2004 article in Computerworld examined techniques used by 107

organizations determined to improve the environment for IT workers (Collett, 2004). Examples included extra days off during the week, high-speed Internet connections at home, ping-pong tables at work, appreciation receptions and even managers cooking weekend breakfasts for the specialists that are unexpectedly called into the office on an early Saturday morning. According to Collett, the high level of commitment to employee recognition found in the highest-ranked companies comes from a deep-rooted culture created by company founders. We hope this chpater will serve as an impetus for future research in the area of women in IT. One problem we have encountered in research regarding women in business concerns data collection. Companies are hesitant to allow researchers into their organizations to investigate practices regarding disparities between men and women. The men who hold power in organizations, and thus, can make decisions regarding data collection, also frequently undervalue gender research. Our request to collect data from one company resulted in rejection because the men in charge of making the decision disagreed with the gender schema questions. Non-traditional students who work full-time in IT provide one approach to collecting data in order to examine the relationships herein. Zahra and LaTour (1987) suggested that nontraditional students who are working full-time hold views and opinions much more congruent to the real-world population than do traditional, non-employed students or students who work part-time. Researchers have found that the use of nontraditional students is appropriate when studying general behavioral concepts (Kruglanski, 1975) because they often exhibit attitudes similar to those of society in general (Gordon, Slade, & Schmitt, 1986). Thus, nontraditional students are useful for studying issues that have broad social implications. As organizations are often reluctant to allow researchers to collect data regarding gender issues, LaTour, Champagne, Rhiel, and Behling (1990) conclude that student samples â&#x20AC;&#x153;are often the only data source availableâ&#x20AC;? (p. 69). Until the gender disparities in IT are eliminated, the Internet provides a means of uniting women throughout the industry. Web sites, such as Systers, 108

provide a forum for women to discuss sex discrimination and a multitude of other topics relevant to women in the information technology field. The web site is http://www.systers.org. Other websites have surfaced which address the unique issues of females in technological fields. Advancing Women can be found at http://www.advancingwomen.com. Women in Technology International can be found at http://www.witi.com and Computer Professionals for Social Responsibility is located at http://www.cpsr.org/dox/home.html. The web address for the Association for Women in Computing is http://www.awc-hq.com. These are only a few sources that are providing a means of sharing information.

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CHAPTER 4

The Status of Graduate Women in STEM Maria M. Ferreira

The demand for science and engineering-related employees has been increasing steadily and all indicators point to a continued growth in STEMrelated jobs. Between 1994 and 2003 jobs in STEM fields grew by 23% (Pantic, 2007). This demand is expected to grow due to a rise in jobs related to new technologies -- the “knowledge economy” -- and increase in the number of baby boomers retiring within the next 15 years (Pantic, 2007; Tornatzky, Macias, Jenkins, & Solis, 2006). Concerns about the US’ scientific and technological future were reflected in the 2007 National Academies of Science’s report Rising Above the Gathering Storm, which led to the passage of the America Competes Act with the purpose of increasing support for STEM-related education and research (Hurtado, Cabrera, Lin, Arellano, & Espinosa, 2009). As a result, a steady supply of students entering the STEM pipeline is essential if the United States is to remain economically and technologically competitive. Although women’s degree attainment in STEM related fields has been increasing, especially at the bachelor and master’s degree levels, their representation in doctoral degrees has not been as significant, particularly in the physical sciences and engineering (Carl, 2010). The reasons for the continued underrepresentation of women in science and engineering no longer focuses on the deficit model that somehow women and girls are less capable of rigorous intellectual work than are men and boys. Instead, the arguments have been focusing 116

on sociocultural variables -- from the socialization of children into gender specific roles, to a climate in science classes that tends to favor males (Campbell & Beaudry, 1998; Fox, 2001; Subramanium & Wyer, 1998; Talbani & Hasanali, 2000; Ong, 2005; Tenenbaum & Leaper, 2003; Witt, 2000). At the doctoral level women often report conflict between graduate work and family responsibilities; lack of support from spouses and significant others; and greater stress and anxiety when trying to balance their academic work with personal responsibilities (Ferreira, 2003; Lovitts, 2001; Williams-Tolliver, 2010). Women also face other challenges when working in male-dominated environments. Graduate women often fell less integrated in their department cultures and report more negative experiences with faculty (Ferreira, 2002, 2003; Golde, 2000; Herzig, 2004). Women tend to be excluded from informal networks and receive less support from their advisors (Ferreira, 2002; 2003; Herzig, 2004; Lovitts, 2001; Nettles & Millet, 2006). The research advisor is particularly important in the socialization of graduate students into the discipline. Graduate students want advisers who play the role of mentor and treat them as junior colleagues (Davis, 1999; Ferreira, 2006; Herzig, 2004; Lovitts, 1996). Instead, advisors often serve as gatekeepers of graduate women success (Ferreira, 2003; Golde, 2000). Studies examining women graduate studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; relationship with STEM faculty and advisors report negative interactions as well as lack of mentoring, and feeling invisible and isolated (Ferreira, 2003; Herzig, 2004). This is particularly prevalent in STEM fields, with few female faculty members who can serve as mentors and role models to graduate women (Ferreira, 2003; Herzig, 2004; Sax 2001). Other researchers have found communication norms in academic science favoring males (Buxton, 2001; Conefrey, 2000; Ong, 2005), which results in a greater attrition rate for women in doctoral programs (Ferreira, 2002; 2003; Fox, 2001; Herzig, 2004; Lovitts, 2001; Nettles & Millet, 2006). Because graduate work in STEM is often characterized by collaborative work in projects headed by the studentâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s advisor, most of the socialization of students occurs within a community of practice (Lave & Wenger, 1991; Lave, 117

1997). Thus, learning becomes “situated” within the community, or communities, in which it takes place or what Lave (1997) called, “the situated character of learning” (p. 17). Indeed, the Ph.D. thesis in science is primarily an apprenticeship in research (Conefrey, 2000). It is during this time that graduate students are socialized into the values and norms of the discipline. According to Lave and Wenger (1991) an individual’s participation in a specific community of practice is at first “legitimately peripheral,” increasing progressively as one’s level of competence increases, leading eventually to full participation and membership in the community. Thus, graduate school marks the point in which most graduate students begin to participate in the reproduction cycle of their discipline’s community, and peers, faculty, and especially their research advisor play key roles in this trajectory.

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Purpose of the Study In my study, I examined the status of graduate women in STEM fields (science, technology, engineering, and mathematics) using doctoral degrees awarded by U.S. universities between 1994 and 2009. The following two questions guided the data analysis: 1. What changes occurred between 1994 and 2009 in womenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s doctoral degree attainment in STEM? 2. What role do foreign women play in the percentage of doctorate degrees awarded to women in STEM during this period?

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Data Sources and Analysis The data for this chapter were obtained from the summary reports (years 1994-2009) of Doctorate Recipients from United States Universities, published by the National Science Foundation. The yearly Survey of Earned Doctorates (SED) is based on questionnaires that graduate students in every U.S. institution fill out upon completion of their doctorate. The questionnaire is used to collect data on gender, race/ethnicity, citizenship, field of study, parental education background, time to complete degree, sources of financial support, future plans, and level of indebtedness upon completion of degree. For this paper, a 15 year comparison was computed for the years 1994-2009 in 5 year intervals to determine trends in womenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s doctoral degree attainment in STEM fields. Science fields were broken down into biological, physical, and earth and space sciences. The other STEM fields included computer science, engineering and mathematics and statistics. The data presented in the 19942009 summary reports were desegregated to determine differences related to gender and citizenship and examine changes in womenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s doctoral degree attainment over time. Percentage growth was computed to determine differences in doctoral degrees between U.S. citizen and resident women and foreign women.

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Results As results in Table 1 show, in the period between 1994 and 2009 women made steady progress in the percentage of doctorate degrees they received in STEM disciplines. Indeed, in 2009 women received 41.1% of all doctorates in STEM, a 72.8 percentage growth from 1994. However, the percentage of doctorates awarded to women varied by discipline. Although in 2009 women received over 50% of the doctorates in the biological sciences, they only received 21.6% of the doctorates in engineering and 22.3% in computer science. Analysis of the data by STEM discipline also indicates a gain of about 11 points between 1994 and 2009 for all disciplines, except computer science in which the difference was only 7 points.

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Table 1 Doctoral Degrees in STEM by Gender: 1994-2009 Discipline

1994

1999

2004

2009

All STEM Fields Total Men Women % to Women

26,205 18,165 7,921 30.2

25,940 16,737 9,086 35.0

26,573 16,266 10,307 38.8

33,284 19,595 13,689 41.1

Biological Sciences Men Women % to Women

5,203 3,076 2,109 40.5

5,583 3,171 2,394 42.9

5,491 2,948 2,543 46.3

7,429 3,535 3,894 52.4

Physical Sciences Men Women % to Women

3,977 3,128 828 20.8

3,579 2,733 831 23.2

3,345 2,432 913 27.3

4,416 3,031 1,385 31.4

Earth/Space Sciences Men Women % to Women

824 635 183 22.2

805 591 210 26.1

540 360 180 33.3

724 436 288 39.8

Computer Science Men Women % to Women

903 762 137 15.2

855 692 156 18.2

910 709 201 22.1

1,574 1,223 351 22.3

Engineering Men Women % to Women

5,822 5,150 635 10.9

5,332 4,505 789 14.8

5,931 4,884 1,047 17.7

7,915 6,203 1,712 21.6

Mathematics and Stats Men Women % to Women

1,118 879 236 21.1

1,083 803 277 25.6

1,065 764 301 28.3

1,536 1,060 476 31.0

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The Role of Citizenship in Womenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Representation in STEM Foreign students comprise a significant percentage of the student body in STEM disciplines in United States universities, particularly at the doctoral level. In fact, the percentage of foreign students receiving doctoral degrees in STEM from U.S. universities has gone from 30.6% in 1994, to 38.2% in 2009, reflecting a 58.7% percentage growth. (See Table 2 and Figure 2a and 2b). Furthermore, the growth in the percentage of doctorates awarded to foreign students varies greatly by discipline. For example, whereas the percentage of doctorate degrees in the biological sciences awarded to foreign students grew from 21.4% in 1994 to 28.5% in 2009, reflecting a 7.1 point difference, in the physical sciences and computer science the difference during the same period was almost 14 points. Indeed, in 2009 over 50% of the doctorates in engineering and computer science were awarded to foreign students, whereas in physical sciences and mathematics the number was 43.7% and 48.7% respectively. (see Table 2 and Figures 2a and 2b). Given the important role that foreign students play in the number of doctorates awarded in STEM, the data were further desegregated to determine the role that citizenship played in the percentage of doctorates awarded to women. Results in Table 3 and Figure 3 show that much of the gains that women have made in the past 15 years are mostly due to the increase in doctorates awarded to foreign women. Indeed, while the percentage of doctorate degrees awarded to all women in the 15-year period increased steadily, the percentage awarded to United States citizen and resident women during the same period changed little. For example, in the biological sciences women experienced an 11 point gain between 1994 and 2009, whereas citizen and resident women experienced only a 4 point gain for the same period. In the physical 123

sciences, computer science, engineering and mathematics citizen and resident women experienced a fraction of the gains that all women achieved, from 0.0 points in computer science to 3.1 in engineering, whereas women as a whole experienced gains between 7.1 and 11 points in these same disciplines. Earth and Space Sciences was the only STEM area in which citizen and resident women experienced a substantial gain of 8.9 points, although still only about half of the total points that all women experienced. Given the important role that foreign students play in the number of doctorates awarded in STEM, the data were further desegregated to determine the role that citizenship played in the percentage of doctorates awarded to women. Results in Table 3 and Figure 3 show that much of the gains that women have made in the past 15 years are mostly due to the increase in doctorates awarded to foreign women. Indeed, while the percentage of doctorate degrees awarded to all women in the 15-year period increased steadily, the percentage awarded to United States citizen and resident women during the same period changed little. For example, in the biological sciences women experienced an 11 point gain between 1994 and 2009, whereas citizen and resident women experienced only a 4 point gain for the same period. In the physical sciences, computer science, engineering and mathematics citizen and resident women experienced a fraction of the gains that all women achieved, from 0.0 points in computer science to 3.1 in engineering, whereas women as a whole experienced gains between 7.1 and 11 points in these same disciplines. Earth and Space Sciences was the only STEM area in which citizen and resident women experienced a substantial gain of 8.9 points, although still only about half of the total points that all women experienced. The role that foreign women played in the percentage of doctorates in STEM awarded to women in this 15-year period became more apparent when the percentage growth between 1994 and 2009 was computed for each group. As indicated in Table 4 and Figure 4, of the 3 groups of women (all women, citizen/resident women and foreign women), the foreign women group experienced the largest percentage growth in every STEM discipline, 124

whereas citizen and resident women experienced the lowest (See Table 4 and Figure 4).

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Discussion and Conclusion The results presented in this paper portray a complex picture regarding womenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s doctoral degree attainment in STEM areas during a 15-year period, from 1994 to 2009. While the percentage of doctoral degrees in STEM awarded to women as a group increased steadily, reaching 41% of all doctorates in 2009, women representation varied by field. For instance, although in 2009 women received over 50% of the doctorates in the biological sciences, they only received 21.6% of the doctorates in engineering and 22.3% of the doctorates in computer science. In the physical sciences and mathematics women also continue to be underrepresented, receiving in 2009 only 31% of the doctorates. As a result, women still have a long way to go in order to achieve equitable representation in most STEM fields. The results also suggest that much of the gains that women experienced during this period in STEM doctoral degrees were due primarily to the increasing number of foreign women receiving doctorates from US universities. Indeed, the percentage growth between 1994 and 2009 in STEM doctorates awarded to foreign women was over 100% in every discipline. For example, in 1994 foreign women received only 1,427 doctorates in STEM, while in 2009 that number was 4,038, reflecting a 183% growth in 15 years. On the other hand, citizen and resident women received 6,494 doctorates in 1994 and 9,651 in 2009, reflecting a more modest percentage growth of 48.6% for the same period. Furthermore, foreign womenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s gains have been greatest in STEM areas in which women have had difficulty making inroads such as computer science and engineering. In fact, the percentage growth for foreign women in these two areas was 341.9% in computer science and 357.8% in engineering, whereas for US and resident women the percentage growth was 71.3 in computer science and 91.1 in engineering.These results lead to questions concern126

ing the reasons for the low gains in STEM doctorates awarded to US citizen and resident women. Although many foreign women who receive doctorates in STEM from United States universities possibly will secure jobs in the United States, thus contributing to the representation of women in STEM, the modest growth in STEM doctorates achieved by United States citizen and resident women should be of concern to those interested in gender equity. Data collected by the National Science Foundation indicate that between 2001 and 2009, United States citizen and resident women received about 49% of the bachelor degrees in STEM. However, it appears many of these women decided not to pursue graduate degrees, since the number of United States citizen and resident women receiving master’s degrees varied between 34 and 37%, whereas at the doctoral level the percentage changed to about 29%. As a result, the STEM pipeline leaks many United States women between bachelor’s and doctoral degrees. These results confirm recent studies examining doctorate degree attainment by women completing bachelor’s degrees in science during the 92-93 academic year (Carl, 2010; Nitopi, 2010). The reasons for the loss of this talent might be many and complex. One wonders if United States citizen and resident women are not seeking doctoral degrees because: (a) they shift to professional fields such as education and health professions; (b) they find employment opportunities at the bachelor and master’s levels; or (c) United States universities are not investing in the recruitment and mentoring of these women because they have a steady supply of foreign students. Another possible reason is that these women do try to pursue doctoral degrees in STEM, but they do not complete them, either leaving with a master’s degree, or simply quitting. Researchers have consistently found women leaving doctoral programs in STEM at a much higher rate than men (Ferreira, 2002; 2003; Fox, 2001; Herzig, 2004; Lovitts, 2001; Nettles & Millet, 2006). The reasons that these researchers uncovered included: (1) a perceived role conflict between a career in science and having a family (Ferreira, 2003; Williams-Tolliver, 2010); (2) lack of support from faculty and research advisors (Ferreira, 2002; 2003; Golde, 2000; Herzig, 2004); and (3) an overall chilly cli127

mate that continues to exist in many STEM departments (Ferreira, 2002; 2003; Conefrey, 2000). Given that an increasing number of foreign women are enrolled in STEM doctoral programs, one must presume they face the same challenges as their United States counterparts. If so, perhaps they have greater resilience, since Smallwood (2006) found a higher attrition rate for American than for foreign students. If Ogbu’s theory of social adjustment is correct, foreign students “volunteered” to come to this country in search of greater opportunities. As such, they exhibit “primary” cultural differences before arriving to the US and are therefore more willing to “accommodate” to the dominant culture (Ogbu, 1992). On the other hand, United States students might be more resistant and less willing to accommodate to practices that they might perceive as exclusive and unfriendly. Given the many questions that these suppositions raise, research is needed examining in detail the experiences of women in STEM to uncover differences in experiences and coping strategies between United States and foreign women. Research is also needed investigating reasons for the decline in United States students’ pursuit of doctoral degrees in STEM. One must wonder whether the continuous cuts to public education are resulting in a shortage of students, forcing institutions to rely increasingly on foreign students to fulfill their enrollment goals.

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Buxton, C. A. (2001). Feminist science in the case of a reform-minded biology department. Journal of Women and Minorities in Science and Engineering, 7, 173-198. Campbell, J. R. & Beaudry, J. S. (1998). Gender gap linked to differential socialization for high- achieving senior mathematics students. Journal of Educational Research, 91, 140-47. Carl, J. E. (2010). Factors related to the persistence and attainment of graduate degrees in the sciences by women science majors (Doctoral Dissertation, St. John's University). Conefrey, T. (2000). Laboratory talk and women’s retention rates. Journal of Women and Minorities in Science and Engineering, 6, 251-264. Davis, K. S. (1999). Why science? Women scientists and their pathways along the road less traveled. Journal of Women and Minorities in Science and Engineering, 5, 129-153. Ferreira, M. M. (2006). Graduate students’ description of the ideal science advisor: Implications for graduate women’s success. Advancing Women in Leadership Journal, 20, 78-92. Ferreira, M. M. (2003). Gender issues related to graduate student attrition in two science departments. International Journal of Science Education, 25(8), 969-989. Ferreira, M. M. (2002). Context factors related to women attrition from a graduate science program: A case study. Advancing Women in Leadership Journal 12(1), 1-10. Fox, M. F. (2001). Women, science and academia: Graduate education and careers. Gender and Society, 15(5), 654-666. Golde, C. (2000). Should I stay or should I go? Student descriptions of the doctoral attrition process. The Review of Higher Education, 23, 199-227.

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Herzig, A. H. (2004). â&#x20AC;&#x153;Slaughtering This Beautiful Math": Graduate women choosing and leaving mathematics. Gender and Education. 16(3), 379-395. Hurtado, S., Cabrera, N. L., Lin, M. H., Arellano, L., & Espinosa, L. L. (2009). Diversifying science: Underrepresented student experiences in structured research programs. Research in Higher Education. 50(2), 189-214. Lave, J. (1997). The culture of acquisition and the practice of understanding. In D. Kirshner and J. A. Whitson (Eds). Situated cognition: Social, semiotic, and psychological perspectives. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. pp. 17-35. Lave, J. & Wenger, E (1991). Situated learning: Legitimate peripheral participation. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press. Lovitts, B. E. (1996). Who is responsible for graduate student attrition - the individual or the institution? Toward an explanation of the high and persistent rate of attrition. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, New York. (ERIC Document Reproduction Services No. ED 399 878). Lovits, B. E. (2001). Leaving the ivory tower: The causes and consequences of departure from doctoral study. New York, NY: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. National Research Council. (2007). Rising above the gathering Storm: Energizing and employing America for a brighter economic future. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. National Science Foundation. Doctorate recipients from United States Universities: Summary reports (1994-2009). Division of Science Resources Statistics, Author. Nettles, M. T. & Millett, C. M. (2006). Three magic letters: Getting the Ph.D. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press. Nitopi, M. (2010). An examination of the factors related to women's degree attainment and career goals in science, technology, and mathematics (Doctoral dissertation, St. John's University). Ogbu, J. U. (1992). Cultural diversity and learning. Educational Researcher, 21(8), 514. 130

Ong, M. (2005). Body projects of young women of color in physics: Intersections of gender, race, and science. Social Problems, 52(4), 593-617. Pantic, Z. (2007). STEM sell. New England Journal of Higher Education. 22(1), 25-26. Sax, L. (2001). Undergraduate science majors: Gender differences in who goes to graduate school. The Review of Higher Education. 24(2), 153-172. Smallwood, S. (2006). Driven by foreign students, doctoral degrees are up 2.9% in 2005. Chronicle of Higher Education. 53(15), A12. Subramaniam, B. & Wyer, M. (1998). Assimilating the “culture of no culture” in science: Feminist intervention in (de)mentoring graduate women. Feminist Teacher, 12(1), 12-28. Talbani, A., & Hasanali, P. (2000). Adolescent females between tradition and modernity: Gender role socialization in South Asian immigrant culture. Journal of Adolescence, 23(5), 615-627. Tenenbaum, H. R., & Leaper, C. (2003). Parent-child conversations about science: The socialization of gender inequities? Developmental Psychology, 39(1), 34-47. Tornatzky, L. G., Macias, E. E., Jenkins, D., & Solis, C. (2006). Access and achievement: Building educational and career pathways for Latinos in advanced technology. Report on a national study of Latino access to postsecondary education and careers in information technology. (ERIC Document Reproduction Services No. ED502061) Williams-Tolliver, S. (2010). Understanding the experiences of women, graduate student stress, and lack of marital/social support: A mixed method inquiry (Doctoral Dissertation, Capella University). Witt, S. D. (2000). The influence of television on children’s gender role. Childhood Education, 76(5), 322-24.

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CHAPTER 5

Women in STEM: Whatâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Spatial Reasoning Got to Do with It? Barbara Polnick &William Jasper

Much discourse has occurred around the need to attract more women into the STEM fields, specifically, physics, engineering, and technology. Despite the lure of higher salaries, women have not traditionally studied nor pursued jobs in these fields to the same degree their male counterparts have (Halpern, 2004). A wide range of speculation and research has been conducted regarding why women do not enter or stay in these fields. Within this discourse, numerous factors have been explored: attitude and motivation (Prentice & Miller, 2006); aptitude for the skills in these fields (Halpern, 2004; Linn & Petersen, 1986; Nemeth & Hoffmann, 2006); cognitive differences (Halpern, 2004; Jordan, Wustenberg, Heinze, Peters & Jancke, 2002) ; hormonal influences (Hausmann, Slabbkoorn, Van Goozen, Cohen-Kettenis, Gunturken, 2000; Linn & Petersen, 1985); learning styles or strategies (Chen, Czerwinski, Macredie, 2000; Choi, McKillop, Ward, & Lâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;hirondelle, 2006); as well as interest and attitude (Fennema & Sherman, 1977; Metz, Donohue, & Moore, 2012). As mathematics education researchers, the authors have participated in numerous efforts to attract and retain women into advanced studies of mathematics to provide a foundation for participation in a variety of math-related fields, including the gender-challenged fields of chemistry, physics and engineering. It is has been our experience in the university classroom, professional development grants, and school classrooms observations, that girls and women tend to be especially challenged by the concept of spatial reasoning, also described as spatial thinking, spatial relations, spatial visualization, and spatial skills. These skills are critical in a variety of scientific, technological, engineering, and mathematical (STEM) fields (Halpern, 2000; Koch & Scott, 2011; Nemeth & Hoffmann, 2006; Sorby, 2001; Ut132

tal, Miller, & Newcombe, 2013). In fact, proficiency in working with threedimensional spatial problems is considered a predictor of success in a number of technical fields such as engineering, computer design, and structural chemistry (Bartmans & Sorby, 1996; Sorby, 2001).

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Purpose of the Study We, the authors, recognize as did Linn, & Petersen (1986), that girls and boys, and women and men, are both similar and different and that the true value in gender work is in pursuing the more interesting questions regarding in what ways are men and women similar and different within a given context. In this chapter, we concentrate on how and why women perform differently on spatial reasoning measures and how these differences can impact their pursuance of STEM related careers. Working in this particular skill area with undergraduate and graduate students over the past ten years has served as a catalyst for our investigating how spatial reasoning may be related to the problem of attracting and retaining women into certain mathematically-related fields. This need encouraged us to explore two questions in this narrative inquiry: 1. How does spatial reasoning ability impact womenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s opportunities to pursue STEM careers? 2.

Can women enhance their spatial reasoning skills? If so, how?

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Method The method that we employed for this investigation may best be described as a narrative review (Irby & Lara-Alecio, 2012). In this systematic process, we based our conclusions on the findings of multiple studies that were identified in a comprehensive, systematic literature search. We completed the following steps in conducting this inquiry: 1.

Developed clear research questions to be answered or tested.

2. Conducted a thorough search for relevant studies published and unpublished using a systematic search strategy across several evidence sources and databases; and 3. Implemented an analytic process to determine what types of studies were to be included to limit selection bias. Searches were conducted using the terms “gender,” and/or “women,” at the intersection of “spatial relations,” “spatial visualization,” and “spatial reasoning.” Research studies selected were conducted after 1980 utilizing a wide variety of databases (e.g., JSTOR, EBSCO, ERIC, Education Complete, and PsycINFO). Search engines such as Google Scholar and EBSCO’s Discovery Service (EDS) were used in the searches. Studies were included in the review when the sample included both men and women or women alone, when the mean age was 15 or older and a direct relationship between gender and spatial relations was considered. Only studies that specifically reflected the research questions were included in this study.

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Introduction Regarded as one of the most basic reasoning abilities, spatial reasoning develops naturally from birth through adulthood (Linn & Petersen, 1985). Being able to reason spatially means you are able to visualize spatial patterns and mentally manipulate them. For example, Tangrams are 2-dimensional puzzle pieces that can be used to form other shapes. A person with good spatial reasoning skills might be able to quickly solve a Tangram puzzle, because they can visualize how the pieces would look flipped or even rotated and joined with other pieces (Jasper, Polnick, & Taube, 2012). Abilities to mentally visualize the movement of objects in space have been directly linked to success in careers such as engineering, mathematics, physics, and even architecture. More recently, researchers have found that spatial ability can even play a unique role in the development of creativity (Kell, Lubinski, Bengow, & Steiger, 2013; Nemeth & Hoffmann, 2006). Amongst the extensive research on gender and mathematics related fields, spatial ability surfaces as one area of significant gender disparity (Battista, 1990; Halpern, 2000; Koch & Scott, 2011; Metz, Donohue, & Moore, 2012; Moe, 2011). These differences are evident even when comparing groups of high performing males and females (Benbow & Stanley, 2000). While differences in spatial relations are generally acknowledged, the magnitude of these differences has been disputed over the past 30 years. In their meta-analysis of over 286 studies, Voyer, Voyer, and Bryden (1995) found that while differences in spatial relations existed, the degree of differences can diminish over time. One smaller study on the effects of gender on visualization and problem solving for female technology students did reflect no significant differences in visualization scores of males and females (Koch & Scott, 2011). These researchers concluded that the lack of differences could have been due to female participantsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; past experiences and interests in engineering and technology (2011).

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One of the problems we found while reviewing the extensive research on gender differences and spatial reasoning was the lack of agreement among the studies on the specific skills that make up spatial ability (Linn & Petersen, 1985; Yilmaz, 2009). Because researchers do not agree on the name and number of the components that define this ability, conducting meta-analyses of these studies is challenging. Despite the lack of agreement, most researchers do agree on the general description of spatial reasoning as the ability to mentally manipulate 2- and 3dimensional objects in space.

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How Do Gender Differences in Spatial Reasoning Impact Women’s Opportunities to Pursue STEM Careers? Several issues arise when considering how differences in spatial abilities can impact women’s opportunities to pursue STEM careers, especially in engineering and physics. We found that the types of assessments used to measure aptitude and cognitive abilities play a key role in both attracting women in STEM professions. Second, the issue of how cognitive differences, including how women approach solving problems, may come into play when analyzing impact in spatial reasoning performance in STEM fields. Thirdly, it became apparent to us that past experiences or environmental factors can and do influence women’s approaches and completion of the spatial tasks so critical to many STEM fields.

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Aptitude Assessments and Program Entrance Exams Most aptitude tests are normed and administered to students and adults under controlled conditions to assess general capabilities, including knowledge, cognitive skills and abilities, and aptitude in specific areas (Voyer, Voyer, & Bryden, 1995). Employers often use aptitude tests along with other selection procedures to screen applicants for hire in STEM-related jobs. Aptitude tests provide feedback to employers on specific sections to rate a “best fit” for the job applicant in terms of potential employment placement. In addition to using these assessments regarding potential career options, some programs in higher education utilize these tests to screen applicants for degree programs, such as engineering (Nemeth & Hoffmann, 2006). Aptitude tests used in STEM fields often contain items that measure spatial visualization skills, requiring test takers to mentally rotate two dimensional representations of three dimensional shapes through a number of positions (Battista, 1990), for example. Males have large advantages on tasks that require transformations in visuospatial working memory (Halpern, 2004) with sex differences noted by age 4 on some assessments. Specifically, the “difference between males and females on mental rotation tests is very large (close to 1 standard deviation), so large that many statisticians maintain that tests of statistical significance are not needed” (2004, 136). Two widely used standardized assessments are often used to measure spatial skills, the Mental Rotation Test (MRT) and the Mental Cutting Test (MCT). The MRT is one of the more popular assessments used to measure aptitude for engineering, space, architecture, chemistry, and some mathematics programs (Battista, 1990; Moe, Meneghetti, & Cadinu, 2008). For example, this assessment measures the ability to mentally retain the shape and placement of an object while rotating it in space. Traditionally, women do not score well on many components of the MRT (Moe, 2011). The MCT assesses spatial abilities in several ways, including: spatial 139

perception, spatial visualization, mental rotations, mental relations, and spatial orientation. International studies using the MCT in engineering programs have found relevant differences in male and female students’ spatial abilities, with women being less likely to score as well as their male counterparts on the MCT (Nemeth & Hoffmann, 2006). Many tests designed to measure general cognitive abilities contain items designed to measure spatial relations. This has significance in that studies have found that men tend to demonstrate a large advantage on visuo-spatial items on these cognitive assessments (Halpern, 2004). When women do not score as well or better than their male counterparts on assessments that are heavily weighted to measure spatial relations, it is less likely that they will gain entrance into prestigious STEM programs and even less likely they will be encouraged to pursue careers in fields such as engineering, physics, and architecture. While currently used as measures of abilities and predictors of success, employers and post-secondary program advisors may want to re-evaluate how they use these aptitude scores when selecting qualified candidates. Recent work in testing shows that “test scores can be manipulated by the way in which problems are posed and by whether there is an advantage to using verbal or visuospatial solution processes…” (Halpern, 2004, 139). Even if a person tests poorly, this typically does not prevent him or her from becoming involved in activities that require excellent spatial abilities. For instance, the skills involved in being an architect may come more easily to someone with pre-existing visualization skills, but an intelligent person can still learn these skills and exercise them on the job. The ability to think about objects this way is primarily an intellectual and analytical construct and has little utility in determining a person's potential for sustained success in a field. In addition, because these tests are timed, test-takers who can solve problems such as the mental rotation exercises but just need more time, are often penalized. There have been several studies conducted that illustrated that when enough time is provided on some mental rotation tests, sex differences disappear (Goldstein, Haldane, & Mitchell, 1990; Voyer, Voyer, & Bryden, 1995).

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Cognitive Differences In their functional brain activation study, Jordan, Wustenberg, Heinze, Peters andJancke (2002) examined cortical activation patterns for males and females who did not score substantially different on three mental rotation tests often used to measure spatial reasoning aptitude. They concluded that even among males and females who score equally well on these types of tests, there are still differences between genders in terms of cerebral activation patterns during the mental rotation activities, suggesting that males and females use different strategies when solving mental rotation tasks. Both learning style preferences and approaches to studying may also come into play when examining how different genders approach spatial visualization activities. For example, in their meta-analysis review of over 26 studies on gender differences in learning styles, Severiens and Ten Dam (1994) found that men are more likely than women to prefer abstract conceptualization modes of learning and that men and women vary in the affective components of approaches to studying. Other researchers such as Newcombe and Stieff (2012) cautioned us to avoid drawing conclusions about visual versus verbal styles of addressing spatial relations due to the lack of rigorous evaluation in studies.

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Environmental Influences Embedded in the gender debate regarding spatial relations is the issue of nature versus nurture. Environmental influences do impact spatial skills ability. Manipulation of environmental factors such as childhood play and educational experiences, can As early as pre-school, education researchers have observed that young girls when allowed to self-select, often choose to play in areas and with toys that encourage social engagements (e.g., playing dolls, playing in the house center, dress up); whereas, boys tend to select those activities which require manipulating things (e.g., the construction center, playing with Legos and blocks, playing with cars and trucks) (Polnick & Funk, 2005). From early on, girlsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; experiences reinforce language development and social norms while boys reinforce spatial reasoning by turning things over, taking them apart and putting them back together. In an international study examining gender differences in background and visualization ability for students enrolled in United States, German, and Polish technical universities, researchers found that women were much less likely to have participated in construction building activities and video games as children than men. These researchers conjectured that participation in these types of activities as children may be the starting conditions for developing spatial visualization skills (Gorska, Sorby, & Leopold, 1998). In addition to construction toys (i.e. Lincoln Logs and Legos) and video games, some researchers have found that musical experiences and creative art activities can also enhance spatial skills (Metz, Donohue, & Moore, 2012).

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Can Women Enhance Their Spatial Reasoning Skills? If So, How? Can spatial reasoning be improved with interventions such as life experiences or educational training? According to research over the past 15 years, the answer is “yes”. Several studies have investigated in detail how spatial skills can be improved (Jasper, Polnick, & Taube, 2012; Miller & Halpern, 2011; Necombe & Miller, 2013; Sorby, 2001; Uttal, Miller, & Newcombe, 2013; Uttal, Meadow, Tipton, Hand, Alden, Warren, & Newcombe, 2012). Three of these studies, specifically designed to measure improvement in spatial skills in women are described here. Recognizing the need to attract and retain more female engineering students, Sorby (2001) and colleagues designed a curriculum for two elective courses for improving students’ spatial visualization abilities. The effects of these courses were measured over time, including a long-term analysis of students’ grades in graphics courses as well as retention in their engineering program and the university. Students who took these elective courses showed significant improvement in their grades in their calculus and graphics courses, as well as skill improvement as measured by the Purdue Spatial Visualization Test: Rotations (PSVT:R). Significant to the study, they found that women demonstrated a greater improvement in their grades than men, thus reducing the “gate keeper” effect experienced by many females in graphics courses (2001). Miller and Halpern (2011) in their study of spatial training to improve long-term outcomes for gifted STEM undergraduates, found that after 12 hours of spatial training in skills involving mentally rotation and visualizing cross-sections of 3-D objects, there was a reduction in the gender gap and students’ skills improved when spatially enriching activities were included in training. The impact of these skills on improving student performance in their physics classes was noted. However, the study found that these changes were not sustained over time, and that exposure over longer periods of time (i.e. several years) may be necessary to address long-term gender gaps (2011). 143

Newcombe (2013) noted that from her meta-analysis where she examined hundreds of studies of the effects of education and training on different kinds of spatial ability, including analysis by gender, that just as IQ improves with schooling, spatial ability, too can be improved. In her analysis, she found that practicing tasks like mental rotation positively impacted test-takers’ scores. Incorporating games such as Tetris, where falling shapes must be rotated to fit together with other shapes with no gaps, produced spatial improvements and that these improvements translated to spatial tests items. In their meta-analysis of over 217 research studies investigating training of spatial skills Uttal, Meadow, Tipton, Hand, Alden, Warren, and Newcombe, (2012) concluded that “spatially enriched education could pay substantial dividends in increasing participation in mathematics, science, and engineering” (2012, p. 352). In this study, they found that “spatial skills are malleable and that even a small amount of training can improve spatial reasoning in both males and females” (p. 370). These researchers concluded that lack of experience with non-navigational spatial tasks such as mental rotation may account for the differences in improvement following training. The researchers found that women could substantially improve their spatial skill through academic coursework, practice on specific tasks, and integration of technology, such as playing computer games (2012).

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Conclusion Spatial ability is a category of reasoning skills that refers to the capacity to think about objects in three dimensions and to draw conclusions about those objects from limited information. These skills are valuable in many real-world situations and can be improved with practice. This ability is thought to develop when children explore their environments and gain experiences with how objects look from different perspectives. Some people who are otherwise intelligent and adept with reasoning skills may never develop spatial abilities to the same degree as other skills, and the reverse is also true. Men, on average, perform better on assessments of certain spatial tasks than women, as in the case of mental rotation tasks. The reason for these differences are sometimes credited to biological differences, but there is also evidence that it is a result of early and continuous exposure to visualization activities. Aptitude tests that emphasize spatial skills can be a gatekeeper for women who do not test well in this area but who do want to pursue STEM-related careers. In addition, beliefs that often stem from experiences that tend to stereotype women as not being good at mental rotations, for example, may diminish their sense of selfefficacy for success in mathematics-related careers in general (Moe, 2011). Tests do not emphasize not measure all spatial abilities. With the broad range of spatial skills, basing decisions on a single test or a single set of tasks should be taken with caution when evaluating the potential of an applicant for a program or job. It is believed that almost anyone can improve his or her spatial abilities with practice, and there are many games and activities that are designed to build these skills. Improving their spatial reasoning skills through education and practice can provide women with the ability to enhance their chances of participating in STEM fields such as technology, physics, or engineering. Being proficient in certain critical tasks like mental rotation, may yield higher scores on aptitude assessments,

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help women become more skillful in solving spatial reasoning problems, and build confidence and interest in STEM fields.

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CHAPTER 6

Women and STEM: A Systematic Literature Review of Dissertation in Two Decades (1994-2014) Beverly J. Irby, Nahed AbdelRahman, & Tam To Phuong

According to Carpenter and Acosta (2005), for 50 years policies have been promulgated in which individuals in governing bodies, organizations, and institutions have promoted women’s participation in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) -- fields that generally have been considered maledominated disciplines. In 2013, the U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Educational Statistics (NCES) reported that women received more undergraduate and graduate degrees, than did men. However, women in STEM work careers were relatively the same from 2001 to 2011 which gave rise to a steady 25% of women in such careers (Beede et al., 2011). Furthermore, Hughes (2014) stated that “women are still encountering a chilly climate over 40 years after policies were initiated to alleviate this problem” (p. 91); thus, the problem still exists that there are fewer women in STEM. The current U.S. President has recognized the need for promoting equity in STEM. According to a paper published by the Executive Office of the President (2013), President Barak Obama stated One of the things that I really strongly believe in is that we need to have more girls interested in math, science, and engineering. We’ve got half the population that is way underrepresented in those fields and that means that we’ve got a whole bunch of talent ...that is not being encouraged.... (para. 1) The President has supported five areas for such for women and girls in STEM: (a) understanding the status of women and girls in STEM, (b) engaging women and girls in STEM, (c) improving federal coordination to help support women and girls across STEM education, (d) encouraging compliance with legal protections for fe150

male students and employees in STEM academic departments, (e) providing better conditions for women in the workforce, (f) setting the standard with exceptional role models, and (g) global engagement. Since taking office, the President has taken steps to increase transparency around the status of women and girls in STEM fields through the collection and dissemination of critical participation and achievement data. In 2009, President Obama set an ambitious goal: to move U.S. students from the middle to the top in math and science achievement 2020. The key to accomplishing this vision rests not only in raising the number and performance of students currently excelling in STEM subjects, but also engaging girls and other students who are historically underrepresented in these areas. On a more global scale, the United Nations Economics and Social Council (UNESC) established in 1946 the Commission on the Status of Women. The UNESC is the principal global policy-making body dedicated exclusively to gender equality and advancement of women. In its 55th convening in 2011, according the United Nations (2014), the Commission recommended action in six areas: â&#x20AC;&#x153;(i) strengthening national legislation, policies and programmes; (ii) expanding access and participation in education; (iii) strengthening gender-sensitive quality education and training, including in the field of science and technology; (iv) supporting the transition from education to full employment and decent work; (v) increasing retention and progression of women in science and technology employment; and (vi) making science and technology responsive to womenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s needsâ&#x20AC;? (p. 1). As for our study, we purposed to conduct a systematic review of the literature over a 20-year time period (1994 to 2014) that has been published via dissertations at U.S. universities with regard to women and STEM. We chose this time period due to two publications written prior at the beginning of the 1990s decade and into the mid-point of that decade related to the glass ceiling for women in STEM. First, Reskin and Roos (1990) indicated that women were likely to hit a glass ceiling in male dominated fields. Additionally, in 1996, the Higher Education Research Institute reviewed occupations and found that women were less likely to hold careers in the STEM fields. We, therefore, decided on a 20-year review in which we would begin at 1994 during the time that the glass ceiling was being discussed in context of STEM fields for women. We selected dissertation research to 151

review due to our belief that this is where new ideas are seeded among blooming scholars and this is where mentors or advisors provide support for promoting the ideas of research. Therefore, the mentors/advisors of dissertations, in a sense, become gatekeepers to open or close the gates of ideasâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;of such ideas related to women and STEM. As we reviewed the literature, there were other questions we engaged which included: (a) What is the type of university (Research, Comprehensive, Public, Private)?, (b) What is the discipline in which the dissertation is published?, (c) Where the research took place (United States or abroad)?, (d) What is the gender of the mentors/advisors and mentees of the dissertations?, (e) What institutions are producing dissertations inclusive of women and STEM?, (f) What type of degree is being generated from the research (Doctor of Education or Doctor of Philosophy)?, and (g) What is the method used in the dissertation (qualitative, quantitative, or mixed)?

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Method To meet the research objectives, we adapted a systematic literature review approach to examine the dissertations on women in STEM fields, generated in the United States for the last 2 decades (between 1994 and 2014). Systematic literature review is a secondary method of “making sense of large bodies of information” (Petticrew & Reberts, 2006, p. 2) by “applying a protocol-driven approach” (Bearman et al., 2012, p. 626) to answer the specific research questions. According to Kiffer and Tchibozo (2013), systematic literature reviews differ from traditional literature reviews regarding the purpose and procedure. The purpose of the traditional review is to synthesize the knowledge investigated to identify the emerging research issues which also support researchers’ perspectives. Systematic reviews, on the other hand, aim to answer the research questions by “extract[ing] reliable data from literature” (p. 279). The body of literature investigated is used as the core to be analyzed for the research. In terms of procedure, a protocol driven approach used in systematic literature reviews is the key element distinguishing traditional one. Systematic reviews are guided by protocol, a set of step procedure, focusing on “more structured, transparent, and comprehensive approach” compared to narrative reviews (Bearman et al., 2012, p.626). We adopted a systematic approach to synthesizing available body of literature from dissertation abstracts for this study. First, the review can offer a mechanism for analyzing and mapping the information derived from a large number of current dissertations. It is possible to produce evidence-based knowledge from insights into certain aspects while having an overview of research on women in STEM. Second, such knowledge might provide meaningful implications to educational policy makers and faculty members wishing to make some changes in the women related issues in STEM fields. Finally, according to Bearman et al. (2012), a review using a systematic approach in higher education might contribute to the research quality enhancement in publications, as there is a “limited use” (p. 626) of this 153

methodology within higher education journals outside the health professional education field. In short, it is necessary to understand about women in STEM fields via dissertation research being produced from higher education institutions. Ultimately a systematic literature review is a rigorous approach, but it has limitedly been applied in higher education in general (Bearman et al., 2012).

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Inclusion/Exclusion Criteria Based on our research objectives, the following criteria guided how we determined the eligible dissertation in our preliminary search: • Dissertation focus: We were interested in dissertation on women in STEM fields. We excluded the dissertations on stem cells. • Year of completion: All dissertations including women issues in STEM fields completed or posted to ProQuest Dissertations and Theses between 1994 - 2014 were incorporated in the search. The selection of dissertations for review was completed in April, 2014. • Language and geography: The search and review was limited to dissertations written in English and generated in U.S universities.

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Protocol We determined the protocol for this review by adopting procedures based on the general guidelines of the Campbell Collaboration (2014) which is often used in education, justice, and social welfare. While implementing the study retrieval and appraisal activities, the three review team members worked closely with each other discussing the findings.

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Search Strategy Since the research team only reviewed dissertations in ProQuest Dissertation and Thesis – Full text, the world’s most comprehensive collection of dissertations and theses, no other body of dissertations was included such as those dissertations perhaps published by universities themselves. At times, the researcher does not wish for the dissertation to be published. ProQuest Dissertation and Thesis – Full text is the official digital dissertations archive for the Library of Congress and the database of record for graduate research. It may be found at the following website: http://www.proquest.com/products-services/pqdt.html. We searched three times, including one pilot and two actual searches, on the same ProQuest Dissertation and Thesis – Full text database. In the pilot search, after skimming through several abstracts, we determined that there was a high frequency of the word “stem” meaning “stem cells” instead of STEM fields was the target of the review. Thus, in the second search, the search terms were (a) women OR female or girl and (b) STEM OR SMET OR Science OR Technology OR Engineering OR Mathematics (NOT stem cells), we had a result of 9763 dissertation abstracts that meet all four inclusive criteria. We decided that this number was large for a research team of three members to review in our given timeframe. Thus, in the final search, we limited search terms using (a) women OR female OR girls and (b) STEM OR SMET (NOT stem cells), thus deleting the individual STEM field words (Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics). The search resulted in 653 dissertations that contained two key words women (or female or girls) and STEM (or SMET).

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Method of Selection Each abstract of the total of 653 dissertations was screened by one research team member and checked by the other two researchers to assure that the dissertations were about womenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s issues in STEM fields. The criteria and process, shown in Figure 1, were created for the process of screening. Discrepancies in between team members were resolved through discussion. Based on the criteria for the third and final search there were 658 eligible dissertations; however, 108 were excluded for not being about women, 375 were not set in STEM field, and six were not generated in the United States. The process resulted in 179 dissertations, which met all the inclusion criteria and which comprised the final sample. The Process of Systematic Literature Review

Figure 1. Section process and abstract screening. (Dists. = Dissertations)

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Data Extraction Data from the final sample of 179 abstracts were then extracted onto a matrix (on Microsoft Excel), containing relevant categories drawn from the research questions. All data extraction was completed and cross-checked by the research team members to ensure reliability. Data were collected from each abstract and coded on the following items: 1. Names of doctoral candidates 2. Name of U.S. Universities 3. Institutional types (1: Research; 2: Private; 3: Regional) 4. Disciplines 5. Years 6. Conducted in the U.S or abroad (1: in the U.S; 2: abroad) 7. Genders of doctoral candidates and Chairs (1: Male; 2: Female) 8. Methodology used in the dissertation (1: Quantitative; 2: Qualitative; 3: Mixed). In the analysis of each dissertation abstract, all items except 3, 4, and 5 in the prior listing could be finalized and filled in the excel sheets. Regarding Item 3, the institutional types, we checked information of each institution in the web site of US News. Related to Item 4, information about disciplines of most dissertations could be found out in the information page in the dissertation full texts. For Item 5, we found the gender information of students and committee chairs by finding their names either in the university website, Google, or social media sites.

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Findings In order to answer our research questions, data were collected via a systematic literature review from the dissertations that were generated at U.S. universities with topics related to women in STEM. Our findings were built on six themes related directly to the research questions: (a) university trends in publishing such dissertations, (b) discipline, (c) conducted on participants in the United State or abroad, (d) gender of both the researcher and the chair, (e) the institution type, (f) the type of degree earned that was used, and (g) method used. We also analyzed what date/ year the dissertation was published.

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University Trends In Figure 2, we present the various universitiesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; contributions on women in STEM research. Based on the available information, 97 universities adopted research on women in STEM in the duration starting from 1994 until 2014. Universities such as the University of California System universities have a greater focus on topics related to women and STEM, because about ten dissertations were generated on the topic during the past 20 years. North Carolina State University follows the University of California System universities with six dissertations being produced from North Carolina State University during the last 2 decades. Texas A&M University, University of Maryland, State University of New York, and the University of Pennsylvania generated four dissertations on the topic each during the same period. Each university from the remaining universities produced three dissertations. University trends in publishing and promoting research from doctoral graduate students is important to consider in light of where the research is emerging. For example, research production on women and STEM could be attached to the universitiesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; social justice, equity, and diversity agenda. In our review, it would appear that the majority of universities as a whole or the majority of the professors within those universities that promote such research are from California, North Carolina, Texas, Maryland, New York, and Pennsylvania.

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Figure 2. The university trends in adopting topics related to women and STEM.

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Dissertations and the Discipline Through studying the final selection of 179 dissertations, we found that most of them were produced based on the discipline of education. In Figure 3, we found that about 62% were produced in education schools/colleges, 13% were generated from psychology schools/colleges, and 5% from engineering and applied science schools/colleges. Business and sociology schools/colleges generated 6% of the dissertations, while 2% were produced from Arts and Sciences. the remaining 12% were generated from other types of schools/colleges. Education doctoral students tend to adopt topics related to women and STEM more than any other of their peers in the other disciplines. STEM fields may be of interest to education doctoral students due to the close connection of STEM emphasis in public schools. The fact that education doctoral students are producing a number of the dissertations might indicate that there is potential for teacher education, educational psychology, and educational administration to produce more awareness and commitment within the new teacher and administrator ranks.

Figure 3. The percentage of dissertations based on discipline.

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Location of Targeted Participants in the Dissertations As shown in Figure 4, researchers for the majority of the dissertations selected their participants from the United States. 177 dissertations out of the examined 179 were produced to answer questions related to the United States communities. In one dissertation, the researchers selected his participants from Kabul City in Afghanistan, while the other is a comparative study between Mexico and Texas. This finding indicates that there is a focus on STEM research and gender equity among U.S. populations in the U.S. universities producing the dissertations. 200$

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Figure 4. The location trend of the targeted participants for each dissertation

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Dissertations Based on Gender of Mentor/ Mentee Based on our data, female chairs or mentors are the predominant mentors to female doctoral researchers or mentees as they work on topics related to women in STEM. As shown in Figure 5, we found that 84 female researchers were supervised by female chairs of committees, while 63 female researchers were supervised by male chairs. Thirteen male researchers conducted dissertations on women and STEM and were supervised by male chairs, and approximately similar number (14 male researchers) were supervised by female chairs. One male researcher was supervised by both female and male supervisors, while four female researchers were supervised by a combined female and a male chair combination. Therefore, it appears that from our sample of dissertations that male researchers are likely to be equally divided in terms of a chair/mentor by gender. We also found that female researchers appear to be more interested in studying women in STEM fields than are their male counterparts.

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Figure 5. Dissertations based on gender of both researcher and chair.

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Institution Type In our research, we wanted to examine which institutions tend to produce dissertation topics related to women and STEM. Therefore, it was important to determine the major identity of each university in terms of being research-based university, regional university, or private university. In Figure 6, we illustrated that about 61% are research-based universities, 30% are private, while the remaining 9% are regional universities. Research-based universities are producing the majority of the dissertations on women and STEM; therefore, such may indicate that those doctoral students as new graduates and new scholars are going out to mentor and encourage other doctoral graduate students to study or research in this field.

Figure 6. Dissertations based on the identity of the universities.

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Dissertations Based on Earned Degree As demonstrated in Figure 7, about 25% of the doctoral degrees were earned as Doctor of Education degree (Ed.D.), while 75% are Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.). Most of the dissertations on women and STEM are being generated in the discipline of education and from research institutions. It is also of note that the majority of the dissertations being published are those coming from research universities where Ph.D. candidates may be more prevalent than are Ed.D. candidates. Additionally, there may be a rationale that the Ph.D. candidates may want to study this area at the higher education impact level and at a more theoretical or policy level, as opposed to Ed.D. candidates who usually conduct applied research in schools.

Figure 7. The type of the degree earned (Doctoral of Philosophy/ Doctoral of Education)

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Methods of Dissertation Research In examining the methodology of the 179 dissertations, we found that researchers more likely tend to use the quantitative methods in examining topics related to women and STEM. In Figure 8, we illustrate the methods mapping we conducted for the examined dissertations. About 81 dissertations were conducted using the quantitative methodologies, 62 dissertations were conducted using the qualitative methodologies, while 36 were conducted by using mixed methodologies. Apparently, researchers found that the questionnaires, surveys, and statistical data collections are more enticing for the research on women and STEM.

Figure 8. The percentage of dissertations produced by research method.

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Year of Contribution Research on women and STEM has been increasing over time. In Figure 9, we found that starting from 1995, only one dissertation had been conducted, while it reached 44 in 2013. The rapid increase in the number of the dissertation on women and STEM supports the argument that women and STEM issues are now more considered and more examined at the academic level. We observed that there were no dissertations presented about women and STEM during the years 1998 through 2001. There has been a definite upward trend in dissertations produced on this topic since the 2009 Obama initiative to push a women and girls in STEM agenda for schools and higher education. Perhaps the awareness of the disparity in genders in the STEM fields and the need to motivate gender equity has had an impact on scholarsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; research.

Figure 9. Numbers of dissertations produced during (1994-2013).

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Limitations of the Research Conducting a systematic literature review in STEM research is very broad when we include not only the STEM abbreviations but also the exact words science, technology, engineering, and mathematics. We found approximately 250,000 dissertations related to women and STEM in our initial search when we used the exact names of each category (science, technology, engineering, and mathematics). In order to include all research that conducted in these fields, we needed a larger team and longer timeframe. Such research needs teams and sub-teams to work on each category separately and then compile the results for all categories together. In our initial search, many dissertations about stem cells were also found. The research engine could not discriminate or exclude those dissertations even if doing several filtering processes. It took time to manually exclude all of these dissertations from our research. Data management techniques in ProQuest are not yet advanced to the point of approaching such exclusion. Gender identification was one of the serious limitations we encountered during our search process. The ProQuest Dissertation and Thesis does not include information about the gender identity of either the researchers or the chair. Therefore, we had to manually determine the gender by using the name of the individual. We had to find other sources to provide us with such information including the university official websites, Google, and Facebook. We must indicate that we believe that our information is accurate about the gender identity; however, for some of the participants, our assessment of their gender was based on their names.

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Further and Future Research One systematic literature review is not sufficient to cover all discussions about women and STEM. Several studies are needed to address the content of the dissertations discovered in our search. It is important to find the common issues in women and STEM that were discussed and determine what other issues that have not been addressed yet. As gender identity was one of the limitations that we faced, it is better for the future research to examine the variety of genders that may exist for researchers and chairs. Therefore, it is required to include an instrument such as an anonymous survey to address the sexual orientation of the participants. Furthermore, a larger team may be employed to conduct a systematic literature review to examine all dissertations that include STEM, with each term of science, technology, engineering, and mathematics not just with the abbreviation STEM.

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Conclusions and Implications Several practical implications for women wanting to work in STEM fields emerged from this research. About 84.4% of the researchers who conducted research about women and STEM are female, while only about 16% are male researchers. Similarly, the male chairs represent 45.5% comparing with 55.5% of female chairs. These results demonstrate that both female researchers and female chairs are more likely to be interested in issues related to women and recently to women and STEM. These results also are an indicator that may diminish the stereotype that women do not have the necessary expertise to study maledominated fields such as STEM. Women in higher education should encourage other young emerging scholars to research this field further and to begin to share the results of their research. Second, the study revealed that the most of the research-based universities are attracted to adopt topics related to women and STEM. In this study, about 62.5% of the universities in which the dissertations were generated are research-based universities. Therefore, university personnel can be aware about the support that can be granted to researchers in this specific field. Policies regarding grant support of such study on women and STEM may be needed to encourage additional dissertation research productivity. Additionally, policy briefs from the dissertation research may be needed to transfer the research to practice to actually move more women to STEM field careers. Most importantly, we believe that this research was a critical beginning point that can initiate interest around the world in reviewing the â&#x20AC;&#x153;what isâ&#x20AC;? in terms of dissertation research coming from universities. It is important for researchers and scholars to understand the historical perspective of research on women and STEM and to encourage movement forward in their mentoring of emerging scholars and of practitioners who remain in schools. New scholars leaving the university to begin their own trajectory in the academy tend to continue their already initiated line of 173

research; therefore, it is important to mentor those new scholars in their initial study of women and STEM. It is also important for school district practitioners who pursue the Ed.D. to investigate women and girls in STEM in terms of equity and programming in their schools and to work to improve policy in this field.

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References Bearman, M., Smith, C. D., Carbone, A., Slade, S., Baik, C., Hughes-Warrington, M., & Neumann, D. L. (2012). Systematic review methodology in higher education. Higher Education Research & Development, 31(5), 625-640. Beede, D., Julian, T., Langdon, D., McKittrick, G., Khan, B., & Doms, M., Office of the Chief Economist. (2011). ( No. ESA 04-11). D.C: US Department of Commerce. Carpenter, L. J., & Acosta, R. V. (2005). Title IX. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. Executive Office of the President. (2013). Women and girls in science, technology, engineering, and math (STEM). White House: Executive Office of the President. Hughes, R. (2014). The effects of a single-sex STEM living and learning program on female undergraduates’ persistence. International Journal of Gender, Science and Technology, 6(1). Retrieved from genderandset.open.ac.uk/

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Kiffer, S., &Tchibozo, G. (2013) Developing the Teaching Competences of Novice Faculty Members: a review of international literature, Policy Futures in Education, 11(3), 277289. http://dx.doi.org/10.2304/pfie.2013.11.3.277 Petticrew, M., & Roberts, H. (2008). Systematic reviews in the social sciences: A practical guide. John Wiley & Sons. The Campbell Collaboration (2014). Retrieved April 20, 2014 from http://www.campbellcollaboration.org/resources/research/the_production .php United Nations Women. (2014). Fifty-eight session: Access and participation of women and girls in education, training and science and technology, includ-

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ing for the promotion of women’s equal access to full employment and decent work. Retrieved from https://www.empowerwomen.org/~/media/Files/UN%20Women/Know ledge%20Gateway/ResourceFiles/2014/02/22/16/24/STEM%20issues %20paper%20CSW58.ashx?mw=992 U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics (2013). The Condition of Education 2013 (NCES 2013–037), Educational Attainment.

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Appendix A References of the Dissertations Adolfie, L. D. (2009). Women scientists and engineers managing national security federal research programs. (Ph.D., Capella University). ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/305163251?accountid=7082. (305163251). Agan, A. Y. (2013). The returns to community college. (Ph.D., The University of Chicago). ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/1424274333?accountid=7082. (1424274333). Banda, R. M. (2012). Perceptions of social support networks and climate in the persistence of Latinas pursuing an undergraduate engineering degree. (Ph.D., Texas A&M University). ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/1319256064?accountid=7082. (1319256064). Belichesky, J. (2013). Living Learning Communities: An Intervention in Keeping Women Strong in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics. (Ed.D., Loyola Marymount University). ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/1443848683?accountid=7082. (1443848683). Borum, V. O. (2010). Building a model of success: Examining black women with doctoral degrees in mathematics. (Ph.D., Columbia University). ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/749927433?accountid=7082. (749927433).

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Brown, L. O. (2011). South Dakota secondary school students' science attitudes and the implementation of NASA's Digital Learning Network's "Can a Shoebox Fly? Challenge". (Ed.D., Oklahoma State University). ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/876182331?accountid=7082. (876182331). Burnette, S. F. (2013). Resiliency in Physics: The Lived Experiences of African-American Women Who Completed Doctoral Physics Programs. (Ph.D., North Carolina State University). ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/1459432338?accountid=7082. (1459432338). Byington, T. C. (2006). Post-DVM educational intentions among third-year veterinary medical students: A hierarchical analysis of mentoring, gender, and organizational context. (Ph.D., Washington State University). ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/304966239?accountid=7082. (304966239). Campbell, C. L. (2011). Effective recruitment and retention of women in the aerospace industry. (Ph.D., Capella University). ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/911024153?accountid=7082. (911024153). Can, S. H. (2006). Exploring law enforcement decision making: Developing and testing models through incident command simulation training for law enforcement. (Ph.D., Sam Houston State University). ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/304957893?accountid=7082. (304957893). Carmichael, K. Y. (2007). Plugging the leaky pipeline: How academic deans support the persistence of underrepresented minority students in science and mathematics. A case study. (Ed.D., University of Southern California). ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/304806691?accountid=7082. (304806691).

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Castro, M. K. (2013). From the Mouths of Men: A Model of Men's Perception of Social Identity Threat Toward Women in the Workplace and Endorsement of Identity Safety Behaviors. (Ph.D., Columbia University). ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/1367592660?accountid=7082. (1367592660). Chen, T. T. (2004). A longitudinal test and a qualitative field study of the glass ceiling effect for Asian Americans. (Ph.D., The Pennsylvania State University). ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/305145284?accountid=7082. (305145284). Conrad, W. M. (2009). Female STEM majors wanted: The impact of certain factors on choice of a college major. (D.B.A., University of Phoenix). ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/305120050?accountid=7082. (305120050). Copping, K. E. (2011). High school students' career aspirations: Influences of gender stereotypes, parents, and the school environment. (Ph.D., The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill). ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/901112329?accountid=7082. (901112329). Coxon, S. V. (2012). The malleability of spatial ability under treatment of a FIRST LEGO League-based robotics unit. (Ph.D., The College of William and Mary). ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/916772349?accountid=7082. (916772349). Cradoc Moore, L. (2007). The career choices of underrepresented doctoral recipients. (Ph.D., The Claremont Graduate University). ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/304889642?accountid=7082. (304889642). Cross, D. S. (2012). Comparison of Marketing Techniques to Enroll Females at a Major Aeronautical University. (Ph.D., Northcentral University). ProQuest Dissertations and The179

ses, Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/1287199554?accountid=7082. (1287199554). Cruz-Duran, E. (2009). Stereotype threat in mathematics: Female high school students in allgirl and coeducation schools. (Psy.D., St. John's University (New York)). ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/304993813?accountid=7082. (304993813). Dabney, K. P. T. (2012). Differences within: A comparative analysis of women in the physical sciences --- Motivation and background factors. (Ph.D., University of Virginia). ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/1012333428?accountid=7082. (1012333428). Dancu, T. N. (2010). Designing Exhibits For Gender Equity. (Ph.D., Portland State University). ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/851538015?accountid=7082. (851538015). Darlington, L. M. (2008). Factors that Influence the Satisfaction and Persistence of Undergraduates in Computer Related Majors. (Ph.D., Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University). ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/1030449851?accountid=7082. (1030449851). Deacon, M. M. (2011). Classroom learning environment and gender: Do they explain math self-efficacy, math outcome expectations, and math interest during early adolescence? (Ph.D., University of Virginia). ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/893138606?accountid=7082. (893138606). Dowell, E. M. (2010). University-sponsored student support services utilized and valued by African American students attending select predominately-White public institutions of higher education in the Midwest region of the United States. (Ph.D., Oakland University). ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, Retrieved from 180

http://search.proquest.com/docview/839009112?accountid=7082. (839009112). Dowey, A. L. (2013). Attitudes, Interests, and Perceived Self-efficacy toward Science of Middle School Minority Female Students: Considerations for their Low Achievement and Participation in STEM Disciplines. (Ed.D., University of California, San Diego). ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/1449841674?accountid=7082. (1449841674). Dun, M. (2010). Father-daughter attachment and quality of relationships: Influencing daughters' choices of non-traditional careers. (Ph.D., Alliant International University, San Diego). ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/821979344?accountid=7082. (821979344). Ebert, E. K. (2012). Understanding adolescent student perceptions of science education. (Ph.D., University of Nevada, Las Vegas). ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/1315237319?accountid=7082. (1315237319). Edwards, S. L. (2013). Stem in the Ohio labor market a mismatch or a missed opportunity. (Ed.D., University of Pennsylvania). ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/1436228529?accountid=7082. (1436228529). Eicher, M. (2013). Corporate Mentors and Undergraduate Students: A Qualitative Study of the Advancing Women in Construction Mentorship Program. (Ph.D., Arizona State University). ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, . (1473903011). Espinosa, L. L. (2009). Pipelines and pathways: Women of color in STEM majors and the experiences that shape their persistence. (Ph.D., University of California, Los Angeles). ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/304854082?accountid=7082. (304854082). 181

Evans, C. A. (2013). Exploring community colleges in the stem education landscape: Development of stem college major choice model. (Ph.D., Brandman University). ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/1490603119?accountid=7082. (1490603119). Fadigan, K. A. (2003). A longitudinal study of the educational and career trajectories of female participants of an urban informal science education program. (Ed.D., Temple University). ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/288098659?accountid=7082. (288098659). Falvey, L. J. (2012). Gendered patterns in high achievement in mathematics for grades 4, 6, and 8. (Ph.D., University of Rhode Island). ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/1267746866?accountid=7082. (1267746866). Farkis, J. C. (2011). Early school experiences related to gender disparities in K-8 mathematics and science. (Ph.D., Northeastern University). ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/885422420?accountid=7082. (885422420). Farro, S. A. (2009). Achievements and challenges of undergraduates in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics fields in the Ronald E. McNair Program. (Ph.D., Colorado State University). ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/304862598?accountid=7082. (304862598). Galloway, S. N. (2012). African American women making race work in science, technology, engineering, and math (STEM). (Ph.D., The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill). ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/1024150524?accountid=7082. (1024150524). Ganley, C. M. (2011). Gender differences in math performance across development: Exploring the roles of anxiety, working memory, and stereotype 182

threat. (Ph.D., Boston College). ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/871871053?accountid=7082. (871871053). Garcia, Y. V. (2013). A case study exploring science competence and science confidence of middle school girls from marginalized backgrounds. (Ph.D., University of Northern Colorado). ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/1428371735?accountid=7082. (1428371735). Garrett-Howard, C. E. (2012). Factors Influencing Advancement of Women Senior Leaders in Aerospace Companies. (D.B.A., Walden University). ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, . (922671977). Geist, M. R. (2008). A methodological examination of a focus group informed Delphi: A mixed methods investigation of female community college science, technology, engineering, and mathematics students. (Ph.D., University of Northern Colorado). ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/304539470?accountid=7082. (304539470). George-Jackson, C. E. (2009). Rethinking the STEM fields: The importance of definitions in examining women's participation and success in the sciences. (Ph.D., University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign). ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/288140511?accountid=7082. (288140511). Gilrane, V. L. (2013). Behavioral Correlates of Metastereotypes: The Relationship between Impression Management and Supervisor Perceptions of Women in STEM. (Ph.D., George Mason University). ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/1372276347?accountid=7082. (1372276347). Glenn, T. H. (2013). The Effects of Motivation on Student Performance on Science Assessments. (Ph.D., Walden University). ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, Retrieved 183

from http://search.proquest.com/docview/1440110591?accountid=7082. (1440110591). Golde, C. M. (1996). How departmental contextual factors shape doctoral student attrition. (Ph.D., Stanford University). ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/304264327?accountid=7082. (304264327). Goldman, E. G. (2010). Lipstick and labcoats: Undergraduate women's gender negotiation in STEM fields. (Ph.D., New York University). ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/527861100?accountid=7082. (527861100). Grays, S. D. (2013). WISE Women: A Narrative Study of Former Living-Learning Community Participants' Experiences as STEM Majors. (Ed.D., North Carolina State University). ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/1459431766?accountid=7082. (1459431766). Grisham, A. (2006). Science education for girls: A partnership between Girl Scouts and NASA. (Ed.D., University of Nevada, Las Vegas). ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/304962961?accountid=7082. (304962961). Groome, M. (2007). Student questions in urban middle school science communities of practice. (Ph.D., Columbia University). ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/304862965?accountid=7082. (304862965). Hafza, R. J. (2012). Attitudes about high school physics in relationship to gender and ethnicity: A mixed method analysis. (Ph.D., Mercer University). ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/1041257801?accountid=7082. (1041257801). 184

Hall, A. R. (2011). College readiness: The evaluation of students participating in the Historically Black College and University program in Pre-Calculus and the Calculus sequence. (Ph.D., Southern University and Agricultural and Mechanical College). ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/912740769?accountid=7082. (912740769). Harvel, K. R. T. (2010). The relationship between Core-Plus Mathematics Project and student achievement. (Ph.D., Wayne State University). ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/807668781?accountid=7082. (807668781). Heaverlo, C. A. (2011). STEM development: A study of 6th--12th grade girls' interest and confidence in mathematics and science. (Ph.D., Iowa State University). ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/894337556?accountid=7082. (894337556). Heilbronner, N. N. (2009). Pathways in STEM: Factors affecting the retention and attrition of talented men and women from the STEM pipeline. (Ph.D., University of Connecticut). ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/304871257?accountid=7082. (304871257). Herling, L. (2011). Hispanic women overcoming deterrents to computer science: A phenomenological study. (Ed.D., University of South Dakota). ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/1013441827?accountid=7082. (1013441827). Hirshfield, L. E. (2011). Authority, Expertise, and Impression Management: Gendered Professionalization of Chemists in the Academy. (Ph.D., University of Michigan). ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/918195630?accountid=7082. (918195630). 185

Hoepner, C. C. (2010). Advanced placement math and science courses: Influential factors and predictors for success in college STEM majors. (Ed.D., University of California, Los Angeles). ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/822456968?accountid=7082. (822456968). Hogue, B. A. (2012). Gender Differences in Self-Efficacy and Sense of Class and School Belonging for Majors in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) Disciplines. (Ph.D., Walden University). ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/1151828287?accountid=7082. (1151828287). Holden, T. L. (1997). Gender, voice, and technology: Teachers writing about their history with technology. (Ed.D., University of Cincinnati). ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/304364708?accountid=7082. (304364708). Holmes, K. M. (2013). The perceived undergraduate classroom experiences of African American women in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM). (Ph.D., University of Maryland, College Park). ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/1461770562?accountid=7082. (1461770562). Howell, L. (2010). Computer-assisted instruction in an urban school setting: Fifth-grade teachers' perceptions and students' attitudes toward science. (Ph.D., Texas A&M University). ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/856582307?accountid=7082. (856582307). Huelskamp, D. (2010). The effects of podcasts of STEM professionals on middle school science students interests in STEM careers. (Ed.D., Ball State University). ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/848504762?accountid=7082. (848504762).

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Hughes, R. M. (2010). The process of choosing science, technology, engineering, and mathematics careers by undergraduate women: A narrative life history analysis. (Ph.D., The Florida State University). ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/872912695?accountid=7082. (872912695). Hurner, S. M. (2009). Robotics as science (re)form: Exploring power, learning and gender(ed) identity formation in a "community of practice". (Ph.D., University of California, Davis). ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/304852605?accountid=7082. (304852605). Jackson, D. L. (2010). Transfer students in STEM majors: Gender differences in the socialization factors that influence academic and social adjustment. (Ph.D., Iowa State University). ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/749947503?accountid=7082. (749947503). Jacquot, C. (2009). Gender differences in science, math, and engineering doctoral candidates' mental models regarding intent to pursue an academic career. (Ph.D., The University of Texas at Arlington). ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/305180382?accountid=7082. (305180382). Jakes, P. J. (2013). Dual enrollment as a factor for women transitioning into STEM majors in Montana two-year colleges. (Ed.D., University of Montana). ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/1459215823?accountid=7082. (1459215823). Jenkins, F. L. (2012). Career Commitment and African American Women in Undergraduate STEM Majors: The Role of Science/Math Self-Efficacy, Department Climate, and Campus Climate at the Intersection of Race and Gender. (Ph.D., North Carolina State University). ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/1459459229?accountid=7082. (1459459229). 187

Jimarez, T. (2005). Does alignment of constructivist teaching, curriculum, and assessment strategies promote meaningful learning? (Ph.D., New Mexico State University). ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/305467011?accountid=7082. (305467011). Johnson, D. R. (2007). Sense of belonging among women of color in science, technology, engineering, and math majors: Investigating the contributions of campus racial climate perceptions and other college environments. (Ph.D., University of Maryland, College Park). ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/304850760?accountid=7082. (304850760). Johnson, M. L. (2013). Gender differences in the field of information security technology management: A qualitative, phenomenological study. (Ph.D., Capella University). ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/1346194893?accountid=7082. (1346194893). Johnson, P. D. (2004). Girls and science: A qualitative study on factors related to success and failure in science. (Ph.D., Western Michigan University). ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/305108424?accountid=7082. (305108424). Joseph, J. (2007). The experiences of African American graduate students: A cultural transition. (Ed.D., University of Southern California). ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/304806575?accountid=7082. (304806575). Kaenzig, L. M. (2009). The talent process of successful academic women scientists at elite research universities in New York state. (Ph.D., The College of William and Mary). ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/305038852?accountid=7082. (305038852). 188

Kier, M. W. (2013). Examining the Effects of a STEM Career Video Intervention on the Interests and STEM Professional Identities of Rural, Minority Middle School Students. (Ph.D., North Carolina State University). ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/1459459780?accountid=7082. (1459459780). Kingsbury, C. D. (2010). Perceptions of male versus female students enrolled in science, technology, engineering and mathematics courses regarding peer tutoring, a component for student retention. (Ph.D., The University of North Dakota). ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/867831505?accountid=7082. (867831505). Koch, A. J. (2013). Predicting Undergraduates' Persistence in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Math Fields. (Ph.D., University of Minnesota). ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/1461403501?accountid=7082. (1461403501). Koledoye, K. A. (2013). Differences in STEM degree attainment by region, ethnicity, and degree type. (Ed.D., Sam Houston State University). ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/1507564277?accountid=7082. (1507564277). Kumar, R. (2011). Nuts, bolts and a bit of mettle: How parents prepare their boys and girls for the STEM pipeline. (Ed.D., University of Pennsylvania). ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/868179315?accountid=7082. (868179315). Lange, S. E. (2006). The master degree: A critical transition in STEM doctoral education. (Ph.D., University of Washington). ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/304970538?accountid=7082. (304970538). 189

Lartson, C. A. (2013). Effects of design-based science instruction on science problem-solving competency among different groups of high-school traditional chemistry students. (Ph.D., University of Colorado at Denver). ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/1399160267?accountid=7082. (1399160267). Lee, J. A. (2008). Gender equity issues in technology education: A qualitative approach to uncovering the barriers. (Ed.D., North Carolina State University). ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/304536802?accountid=7082. (304536802). Lee, R. E. (2011). Navigating the science, technology, engineering, and mathematics pipeline: How social capital impacts the educational attainment of college-bound female students. (Ed.D., University of Southern California). ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/901464235?accountid=7082. (901464235). Legewie, J. (2013). School Context, Peers and the Educational Achievement of Girls and Boys. (Ph.D., Columbia University). ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/1356692097?accountid=7082. (1356692097). LeGrand, J. (2013). Exploring Gender Differences across Elementary, Middle, and High School Students' Science and Math Attitudes and Interest. (Ed.D., Northeastern University). ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/1330500629?accountid=7082. (1330500629). Leverington, M. E. (2010). Advanced Cognitive Abilities of Incoming STEM Students. (Ph.D., University of Nevada, Reno). ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/847489135?accountid=7082. (847489135). Lewinter, J. M. (2013). Factors that support women in being successful in engineering professions: Identity as a lens. (Ed.D., Teachers College, Columbia University). ProQuest Dis190

sertations and Theses, Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/1430900811?accountid=7082. (1430900811). Lopez, S. J. (2011). Achieving the apex: The lived experience of tenured women faculty within elite departments of mathematics. (Ed.D., University of Pennsylvania). ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/894252442?accountid=7082. (894252442). Lowery, S. E. (2004). Gender Equity Options in Science: Effect on attitudes and behaviors of college women. (Ph.D., Arizona State University). ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/305216383?accountid=7082. (305216383). Lunk, C. L. (2013). The sorority life: Sorority women's perceptions of their experiences at a polytechnic institution. (Ed.D., The University of Alabama). ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, . (1504840184). Lyon, L. A. (2013). Sociocultural Influences On Undergraduate Women's Entry into a Computer Science Major. (Ph.D., University of Washington). ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/1428432619?accountid=7082. (1428432619). Maguire, K. J. (2009). Post-college earnings of Iowa community college career and technical education students: Analysis of selected career clusters. (Ph.D., Iowa State University). ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/304904581?accountid=7082. (304904581). Mahoney, M. P. (2009). Student attitude toward STEM: Development of an instrument for high school STEM-based programs. (Ph.D., The Ohio State University). ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/304977028?accountid=7082. (304977028). 191

Marshall, K. S. (2013). Creating Computer Simulations In Middle Grades Mathematics: A Study of a Technology-Integrated Statistics Curriculum. (Ph.D., University of Colorado at Boulder). ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/1368244837?accountid=7082. (1368244837). Martin, C. L. (2011). Gender differences in career satisfaction among postsecondary faculty in STEM disciplines. (Ph.D., The University of Memphis). ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/894118874?accountid=7082. (894118874). McDaniel, A. E. (2011). Three essays on cross-national gender gaps in education. (Ph.D., The Ohio State University). ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/919557669?accountid=7082. (919557669). McDonald, J. (2013). Rethinking difference in "computing and I.T." work: Queering occupational (de)segregation research and practice. (Ph.D., University of Colorado at Boulder). ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/1491383636?accountid=7082. (1491383636). McPherson, E. M. (2012). Undergraduate African American women's narratives on persistence in science majors at a PWI. (Ph.D., University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign). ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/1447012935?accountid=7082. (1447012935). Medeiros, D. J. (2011). The influence of female social models in corporate STEM initiatives on girls' math and science attitudes. (Ed.D., University of Pennsylvania). ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/894252905?accountid=7082. (894252905). Millar, M. M. (2011). Interdisciplinary research among U.S. doctoral graduates: An examination of definitions, measurement, early career outcomes, and sex differences. (Ph.D., Wash192

ington State University). ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/877969028?accountid=7082. (877969028). Miller, B. A. K. (2013). The experiences of Panamanian Afro-Caribbean women in STEM: Voices to inform work with Black females in STEM education. (Ph.D., The University of New Mexico). ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/1507464876?accountid=7082. (1507464876). Miller, M. D. (2006). Science self-efficacy in tenth grade Hispanic female high school students. (Ed.D., University of Central Florida). ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/304949419?accountid=7082. (304949419). Mingle, L. A. (2013). Threats to success in mathematics: Examining the combined effects of choking under pressure and stereotype threat. (Ph.D., University of Illinois at UrbanaChampaign). ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/1466668892?accountid=7082. (1466668892). Mitchell, A. (2011). An Investigation of Faculty Relationships as a Source of Motivation for STEM Undergraduates at a Historically Black University. (Ph.D., Howard University). ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/878545858?accountid=7082. (878545858). Moakler, M. W., Jr. (2010). The influence of self-confidence on college freshmen science, technology, engineering, and mathematics major choice. (Ed.D., The George Washington University). ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/763612910?accountid=7082. (763612910). Moore, L. S. (2005). A conceptual model for determining career choice of CHROME alumna based on farmer's conceptual models. (Ph.D., Old Dominion University). ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, Retrieved from 193

http://search.proquest.com/docview/305381357?accountid=7082. (305381357). Morris, J. B. (2013). Gender differences in STEM related Advanced Placement exams. (Ed.D., Sam Houston State University). ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/1431455595?accountid=7082. (1431455595). Morritt, H. (1996). Women and computer-based technologies: A feminist perspective. (Ph.D., New York University). ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/304254861?accountid=7082. (304254861). Mouzes, M. (1995). How women learn to use computers: Overcoming negative attitudes toward computers during the learning process. (Ph.D., Texas A&M University). ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/304284162?accountid=7082. (304284162). Moyer, J. F.,III. (2013). Probeware in 8th Grade Science: A Quasi-Experimental Study on Attitude and Achievement. (Ed.D., Wilmington University (Delaware)). ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/1312761240?accountid=7082. (1312761240). Mussey, S. S. (2009). Navigating the transition to college: First-generation undergraduates negotiate identities and search for success in STEM and non-STEM fields. (Ed.D., University of California, San Diego). ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/304851833?accountid=7082. (304851833). Newman, C. B. (2011). Access and Success for African American Engineers and Computer Scientists: A Case Study of Two Predominantly White Public Research Universities. (Ph.D., University of California, Los Angeles). ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/909585153?accountid=7082. (909585153). 194

Nguema Ndong, A. (2011). Investigating the Role of the Internet in Women and Minority STEM Participation: A Case Study of Two Florida Engineering Programs. (Ph.D., University of South Florida). ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/912029873?accountid=7082. (912029873). Nitopi, M. (2010). An examination of the factors related to women's degree attainment and career goals in science, technology, and mathematics. (Ed.D., St. John's University (New York), School of Education and Human Services). ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/807674983?accountid=7082. (807674983). Notter, K. B. (2010). Is competition making a comeback? Discovering methods to keep female adolescents engaged in STEM: A phenomenological approach. (Ph.D., The University of Nebraska - Lincoln). ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/748170858?accountid=7082. (748170858). Olund, J. K. (2012). Women of science, technology, engineering, and mathematics: A qualitative exploration into factors of success. (Ph.D., California Institute of Integral Studies). ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/1017706915?accountid=7082. (1017706915). Opare, P. B. (2012). Factors that female higher education faculty in select science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) fields perceive as being influential to their success and persistence in their chosen professions. (Ph.D., Old Dominion University). ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/1286797837?accountid=7082. (1286797837). Parker, A. D. (2013). Family matters: Familial support and science identity formation for African American female STEM majors. (Ph.D., The University of North Carolina at Charlotte). ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, Retrieved from

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http://search.proquest.com/docview/1439141550?accountid=7082. (1439141550). Patton, J. E. (2013). Effects of social role perceptions of gender on STEM classes in middle school. (Ed.D., Trevecca Nazarene University). ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/1413325953?accountid=7082. (1413325953). Pena-Lopez, J. M. (2011). A study of persistence of undergraduate women majoring in engineering and math. (Ph.D., Florida Atlantic University). ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/921650169?accountid=7082. (921650169). Pina Houde, A. M. (2007). Portraits of Hispanic females participating in technical programs: Bridging the gap to science, technology, engineering, and mathematics careers. (Ph.D., New Mexico State University). ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/304842309?accountid=7082. (304842309). Pistilli, M. D. (2009). How female learning community students from the colleges of engineering, science, and technology experience Purdue University: A qualitative dissertation. (Ph.D., Purdue University). ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/375379803?accountid=7082. (375379803). Plane, J. (2010). Approaching gender parity: Women in computer science at Afghanistan's Kabul University. (Ph.D., University of Maryland, College Park). ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/855816693?accountid=7082. (855816693). Preston, S. D. (2009). Investigating minority student participation in an authentic science research experience. (Ph.D., The Pennsylvania State University). ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, Retrieved from 196

http://search.proquest.com/docview/304987792?accountid=7082. (304987792). Price, J. A. (2010). Essays on the economics of education and health. (Ph.D., Cornell University). ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/762787068?accountid=7082. (762787068). Price, K. M. (2010). Undergraduate women in STEM: Does participation in STEM extracurricular programs enhance success among students? (Ed.D., The Florida State University). ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/734612649?accountid=7082. (734612649). Quick, A. H. (2013). North Carolina enrollment patterns of females in Advanced Placement (STEM) courses. (Ed.D., Cambridge College). ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/1335637611?accountid=7082. (1335637611). Rabenberg, T. A. (2013). Middle school girls' STEM education: Using teacher influences, parent encouragement, peer influences, and self efficacy to predict confidence and interest in math and science. (Ed.D., Drake University). ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/1468451554?accountid=7082. (1468451554). Rabitoy, E. (2011). Supplemental instruction in STEM-related disciplines on a community college campus: A multivariate path-analytic approach. (Ed.D., California State University, Fullerton). ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/873882851?accountid=7082. (873882851). Ramirez, G. (2013). The cognitive mechanism underlying the math anxiety-performance relationship in early elementary school. (Ph.D., The University of Chicago). ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, Retrieved from 197

http://search.proquest.com/docview/1444609306?accountid=7082. (1444609306). Ramsey, L. R. (2011). A pyramidal model of sex stereotyping: Examining patterns of associations in the context of women in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics fields. (Ph.D., University of Michigan). ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/896364683?accountid=7082. (896364683). Ramsey, S. B. (2012). The effect of the Advanced Placement Training and Incentive Program on increasing enrollment and performance on Advanced Placement science exams. (Ph.D., Virginia Commonwealth University). ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/1017535444?accountid=7082. (1017535444). Reid, E. L. (2010). Exploring the experiences of African American women in an undergraduate summer research program designed to address the underrepresentation of women and minorities in neuroscience: A qualitative analysis. (Ph.D., Georgia State University). ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/577413933?accountid=7082. (577413933). Rhodes, A. E. (2013). The effect of teacher designed multimedia on student comprehension and retention rates within introductory college science courses. (Ph.D., Kansas State University). ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/1417767259?accountid=7082. (1417767259). Rhoton, L. A. (2009). Practicing gender or practicing science? Gender practices of women scientists. (Ph.D., Iowa State University). ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/304906810?accountid=7082. (304906810). Rice, D. N. (2011). The career experiences of African American female engineers. (Ph.D., Texas A&M University). ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/908886485?accountid=7082. (908886485). 198

Rion, C. (2007). Major changes: Student shifts among liberal arts, S.T.E.M. and occupational majors. (Ph.D., State University of New York at Albany). ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/304742765?accountid=7082. (304742765). Rios, D. (2010). Minority status and privilege in the academy: The importance of race, gender, and socialization practices for undergraduates, graduate students and faculty. (Ph.D., University of Michigan). ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/849540428?accountid=7082. (849540428). Ro, H. K. (2011). An investigation of engineering students' post-graduation plans inside or outside of engineering. (Ph.D., The Pennsylvania State University). ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/902152680?accountid=7082. (902152680). Robinson, J. H. (2007). Closing the race and gender gaps in computer science education. (Ed.D., Rowan University). ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/304703095?accountid=7082. (304703095). Robinson, N. R. (2012). An evaluation of community college student perceptions of the science laboratory and attitudes towards science in an introductory biology course. (Ed.D., The University of Alabama). ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/1284934577?accountid=7082. (1284934577). Robinson-Hill, R. M. (2013). The journey of a science teacher: Preparing female students in the Training Future Scientists after school program. (Ph.D., University of Missouri Saint Louis). ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/1468683851?accountid=7082. (1468683851). Robnett, R. (2013). The role of peer support for girls and women in the stem pipeline: Promoting identification with stem and mitigating the negative effects of sexism. (Ph.D., Univer199

sity of California, Santa Cruz). ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/1430500640?accountid=7082. (1430500640). Rodriguez Flecha, S. (2012). A descriptive study of high school Latino and Caucasian students' values about math, perceived math achievement and STEM career choice. (Ph.D., Washington State University). ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/1317048640?accountid=7082. (1317048640). Rosa, K. D. d. (2013). Gender, Ethnicity, and Physics Education: Understanding How Black Women Build Their Identities as Scientists. (Ph.D., Columbia University). ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/1282654401?accountid=7082. (1282654401). Rutherford, B. (2007). Interests and attitudes of engineering students. (Ph.D., Utah State University). ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/304805620?accountid=7082. (304805620). Ruxton, B. M. (2007). Measured vocational interests, expressed interests in college major, and interest congruence of college-bound women across time. (Ph.D., Iowa State University). ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/304853252?accountid=7082. (304853252). Ryland, A. (2013). A review of graduate STEM degrees by gender in the context of the Great Recession. (Ph.D., The University of Alabama). ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/1505373524?accountid=7082. (1505373524). Sales, Y. C. (2012). The Impact of Mentoring Relationships on the Career Success of Women Scientists in Corporate America. (Ph.D., Regent University). ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, Retrieved from 200

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Whitecraft, M. A. (2013). Understanding the Acculturation of Women in Science The Interplay of Episteme, Techne, & Phronesis in Retaining Females in Undergraduate Science. (Ph.D., Cornell University). ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/1317656571?accountid=7082. (1317656571). Wirt, J. L. (2011). An analysis of Science Olympiad participants' perceptions regarding their experience with the science and engineering academic competition. (Ed.D., Seton Hall University). ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/892713095?accountid=7082. (892713095). Woodcock, A. (2012). Implicit ingroup biases and performance under threat: Do successful counterstereotypic exemplars help or harm? (Ph.D., Purdue University). ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/1234206873?accountid=7082. (1234206873). Wyss, V. L. (2008). Questioning the gender critical mass theory in physics. (Ph.D., University of Virginia). ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/304438538?accountid=7082. (304438538). Yang, X. (2005). A quantitative analysis of factors that influence and predict students' intention to major in and complete an undergraduate program in STEM or non-STEM. (Ph.D., Kansas State University). ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/304994762?accountid=7082. (304994762). Yost, E. A. (2012). Surviving STEM: Mentoring, self-efficacy and career intentions of female graduate students in science, technology, engineering, and math. (Ph.D., The University of Alabama at Birmingham). ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/1095577791?accountid=7082. (1095577791). Younkin, W. G. (2009). The intersection of discipline and roles: Dr. Pauline Mack's story as an instrumental case study with implications for leadership in science, technology, engineer205

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About the Editors and Assistant Editors BEVERLY J. IRBY, Ed.D. is currently Program Chair and Associate Department Head for Educational Administration and Human Resource Development, TAMU. She is also the Director of the Educational Leadership Research Center. She has a Bachelor of Science in Education degree with a double minor in math and science and master’s and doctoral degrees are from The University of Mississippi. Her primary research interests center on issues of social responsibility, including women’s leadership issues, bilingual and ESL education administrative structures, curriculum, instructional strategies. She is the author of more than 100 refereed articles, chapters, books, and curricular materials for Spanishspeaking children. Her work is published in prestigious research and instructional journals. and as science components of SRA McGraw-Hill’s early childhood curriculum. She is the recipient of the AERA and RWE Willystine Goodsell Award, the Texas Council of Women School Executives Margaret Montgomery Leadership Award, the Diana Marion-Garcia Houston Area Bilingual Advocacy Award, the National Association of Bilingual Education and the AERA Educational Researcher Review of the Year, and the TAMU Administrator Women’s Progress Award 2014. She is the co-developer of a 21st century leadership theory, The Synergistic Leadership Theory, one of the only leadership theories that purposefully included women in the development and validation of the theory.. She has garnered in funding for grants and contracts in access of $20,000,000 awarded by the U.S. Department of Education, OSERS, TRIO, IES via TAMU Research Foundation, and NSF. She is the co-founding editor of the Advancing Women in Leadership Journal. She is editor of the Mentoring and Tutoring Journal (Routledge: Tay207

lor and Francis, and sponsored by the National Council of Professors of Educational Administration). She has held the title of the Texas State University System Regents' Distinguished Professor during her tenure with the System.

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JENNIFER BOSWELL, PhD. is an Assistant Professor at the University of Houston-Victoria. In 2005, she received her B.A. in Psychology from the University of North Texas and then her M.S. in Counseling and Development from Texas Woman’s University in 2007. Recently, she completed her Ph.D. in Counselor Education from Sam Houston State University in 2012. The title of her dissertation was “Conservative Christian Parents Perceptions of Child Parent Relationship Therapy.” Dr. Boswell serves as the Assistant Editor of the Mentoring and Tutoring Journal and as Managing Editor of Advancing Women in Leadership Journal. She also served as the Editor of the Michigan Journal of Counseling: Research, Theory, and Practice. Dr. Boswell has clinical experience working with children, adolescents, and families in community settings. Her research interests include the use of Child Parent Relationship Therapy (CPRT) with children and parents, the use of play therapy and filial therapy with children who have experienced trauma, the inclusion of religious and spiritual beliefs in the counseling process and counseling programs, qualitative methodology, application of Adlerian theory and methods in supervision, and mentorship of women in graduate counseling programs. Dr. Boswell has authored and co-authored numerous articles; made professional presentations at national, state, and local conferences; and has been very active in state and national counseling organizations. She has received several awards including the Emily Oe Counseling and Development Play Therapy Award and Scholarship, the Outstanding Practitioner Award from the Beta Kappa Tau chapter of Chi Sigma Iota, the Outstanding Counselor Educator Award – Doctoral Student, and the Excellence in Writing Award from Sam Houston State University.

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NAHED ABDELRAHMAN is a second-year doctoral student in Public School Administration at the Department of Educational Administration and Human Resources. In 1995, she received her Bachelorâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Degree in English Language Arts and worked as an English as second language teacher for more than 8 years in Egypt. She taught both middle and high school students. In 2005, she started a new career as se worked as a program coordinator for Egypt Education Reform Program (ERP). The latter aimed to help the Ministry of Education create new policies in order to be transferred from the centralized education system to the decentralized system by giving Egypt states and districts more authorities in decision making. In 2009, and after fulfilling her role in ERP, she came to the United States to enroll in the Lyndon Baines Johnson School of Public Affairs in the University of Texas at Austin. She received her Masters of Public Affairs (MPAFF) in 2011. Since 2012, she has served as a founding member of El Dostor Political Party in Egypt. She also serves as a training specialist in the Training and Culture Committee in El Dostor. Nahed AbdelRahman. She currently serves as the Assistant Editor of both the Mentoring and Tutoring Journal and Advancing Women in Leadership Journal. Her research interests include education reform,and social justice in education.

RAFAEL LARA-ALECIO, PhD. is currently is a Professor and the Director of the Bilingual Programs in the Department of Educational Psychology at Texas A&M University (TAMU). He is also the Director of the Center for Research and Development for Dual Language and Literacy Acquisition at TAMU. His primary areas of research and expertise include assessment and evaluation, bilingual and ESL methodologies, approaches and techniques, content area instruction in math and science, academic language acquisition in science, biliteracy, and parental involvement. He is an experienced early childhood, elementary, and secondary school bilingual teacher. For the past 23 years he has been directing the undergraduate, master and/or doctoral bilingual and/or English a second language (ESL) programs at Texas A&M University. In 1998, Dr. Lara-Alecio devel210

oped the first masterâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s bilingual program delivered via distance Texas Trans Video Network (TTVN), and then he delivered the first masters degree in bilingual education online in the State. Over 80 in-service bilingual/ESL teachers have graduated with masterâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s degrees and over one hundred have completed their certification in bilingual and/or ESL Education. In 2004, Dr. Lara-Alecio, with the assistance of bilingual/ESL doctoral students, developed the English as Second Language (ESL) Certificate Preparation Program, an on-line course. Today over 300 in-service ESL teachers have received training to obtain their certification in ESL Education.

FUHUI TONG, PhD., is an Associate Professor of Educational Psychology in the Bilingual/ESL Programs at Texas A&M University, has been engaged as key personnel on multiple U.S. DOE funded projects, including Field Initiated Research and an IES longitudinal research; she is also the Co-PI for the NSF research grant (Project MSSELL), and a current I3 validation study (Project ELLA-V). She has conducted several program evaluations on federally-funded projects; her primary expertise is bilingual/ESL assessment and evaluation, second language acquisition, and longitudinal data analyses and structural equation modeling.

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