Prepared b Apo ee Research under the direction of the NRTE i! Task Porce on Sustainable Transportation. The views expressed herein are ihpse of the authors and editors, and do not necessarily represent those 11Round Table or its members.
issue and providing
a neutral
issues and overcome-barriers analyzing
environmental
sustainability
in Canada;
using the products conclusion
meeting
ground
to sustainable
and economic
where they can work to resolve
development;
facts to identify
and
of research, analysis and national
consultation
on the state of the debate on the environment
.the extent of consensus
changes that will enh ante
and reasons for disagreement,
Table on Ihe he Economy
and the economy.
review the consequences
action or inaction, and recommend steps specific st&&ol&rs :ainability.
to come to a
of
can t&e to promote
-
M embers
ofthe National Round Table on the Environment and the Economy
The NRTEE is composed individuals
are appointed
variety of regions environmental round
of a Chair and up to 24 distinguished
by the Prime Minister
and sectors of Canadian
organizations,
as opinion Members
business,
and initiate
a
labour, academia,
of the NRTEE meet as a
table four times a year to review and discuss the ongoing
priorities,
These
leaders representing
society including
and First Nations.
Canadians.
work of the agency, set
new activities.
Chair
Dr. Stuart Smith President Philip Utilities Management Corporation
Dr. Douglas Knott Professor Emeritus University of Saskatchewan Lise Lachapelle President and CEO Canadian Pulp and Paper Association
Jean Belanger Ottawa, Ontario Allan D. Bruce Administrator Operating Engineers’ (local 115) Joint Apprenticeship and Training Plan Patrick Carson Vice-President Environmental Affairs, Loblaw Companies Ltd. Elizabeth Jane Cracker Co-Owner, Plovers
Anne Letellier de St-Just Lawyer Elizabeth May Executive Director Sierra Club of Canada Dr. Harvey L. Mead President Union quebecoise pour la conservation
de la nature
Karen A. Morgan President Woodnorth Holdings
G. Martin Eakins Partner KPMG Peat Marwick Thorne
H. Joseph O’Neill Vice-President, Woodlands Repap New Brunswick Inc.
Johanne Gelinas Commissioner Bureau d’audiences publiques sur I’environnement
Edythe A. (Dee) Parkinson President CS Resources Limited
Sam Hamad Associate Director Roche Ltd., Consulting Group
Carol Phillips Director, Education and International Canadian Automobile Workers
Dr. Arthur J. Hanson President and CEO International Institute for Sustainable Development Michael Harcourt Senior Associate, Sustainable Development c/o Sustainable Development Research Institute Dr. Leslie Harris President Emeritus Memorial University
Angus Ross \ President SOREMA Management Inc. and Chief Agent, SOREMA Canadian Branch Lori Williams Lawyer Harper Grey Easton Executive Director and Chief Executive Oficer
Cindy Kenny-Gilday Yellowknife, NWT
David McGuinty
Nat,oral kouodTable on ihe En\wsnmeni and theEconomy
Affairs
Suslamable Transporiol~an ,n Canado - Bockgrounder
Table of Cotitents Preface Executive
..v ii
............................................................. Summary
..i x
...................................................
Introduction.........:...:.............................................x
i
The Unsustainability of Transportation in Canada Unsustainable
Transportation:
Trends and Causes
Unsustainable
Transportation:
Impacts
Health Outcomes Global Climate
from Air Pollution Change
.2
.........................
.4
..................................
6
.....................................
.8
..............................................
Relative Modal Contributions
to Unsustainability
11
.........................
Analysis and Policy/Program Development Tools Visions of Sustainable Definitions
of Sustainable
Decision-Making Quantifiable Objectives
Transportation Transportation
Principles
Performance and Strategies
Jurisdictional
Transportation
28
.................
.29
...................................
for Sustainable
Roles and Activities
.25
..............................
for Sustainable Measures
.22
...................................
Transportation
30
.....................
34
......................................
Policy Options and Associated Jurisdiction and Timing Issues Where is Sustainable
Transportation
on the Policy Development
WhatHasWorkedandWhatHasNot.. Policy Instruments
for Sustainable
................................ Transportation
........................
Agenda?
.....
.44 .46 .53
Appendices Interviewees
.....................................................
..6 9
Bibliography.......................................................7 Decision-Making
Principles
..........................................
1 .77
l d‘ace Transportation
has pervasive
impacts,
both positive
and negative,
on the economy
of Canada
and on the quality of life of its citizens. Canada has a highly developed
integrated
transportation
transportation
network‘for
systems contribute
all sectors of society’to activities
the movement
strongly
of people and goods. Its
to economic
growth. They are necessary
meet their needs and aspirations
at any distance,
and
for
for access to other people and
from next door to the other side of the world.
But there is increasing
evidence
that the negative
consequences
of transportation
may be overwhelming
the benefits
we derive from it, and that there are serious risks to
society if we continue
our current
patterns
Governments
face increasing
infrastructure
and systems to meet continuous
occurring
between
difficulties
of transportation
in funding
concerns
An international
patterns,
the harmful
reported
Canada
coupled
with human
in developing
to include
on sustainable
pertaining
sustainable
transportation
is intended
to’stimulate
and for
and
development. and the Economy
to this debate, has undertaken
The purpose
of this program
emerging
and combines
thought
a Program
and discussion
transportation
Canadian
on Sustainable
of
that can be coordinated
and non-government among
on
is to assist the Government
in Canada
this with the results of interviews
the subsequent phases of the NRTEE Program
on
organizations.
stakeholders
Transportation,
will include workshops and the drafting of a state of the debate report.
-
(NRTEE),
from other levels of government
with key government
and
to sustainable
contribution
and actions
transportation,
settlement
have been widely researched
elements
a strategy for sustainable
sustainable
body of research,
in the long term. Effective measures
Round Table on the Environment
Transportation;
with the strategies ,,,q :n+,r,n+:,,n,,.r
based on an expanding
Many federal agencies, as well as those at the provincial
to make a concrete
Sustainable
is emerging,
in their strategies
The National
and those
growth in the use of fossil fuels for
effects of transportation
levels, have begun
transportation
alternatives
is
the world.
are not sustainable
in the literature.
municipal
wishing
consensus
trends in transportation,
communication mitigating
and around
Social polarization
health and the global climate as well as
from unrelenting
both in Canada
and use.
of transportation
those who have access to good transportation
other environmental
that present
expansion
growth in demand.
who do not. There are major threats to human
transportation,
development
during which
It
The report was prepared Task Force on Sustainable
by Apogee Research under the direction
Transportation.
many individuals
were interviewed
full responsibility
for the interpretation
issues in Canada.
The content
in the preparation
were reviewed
and
the authors
accept
of this report,
of the literature
and of the overall state of the
of the, report does not necessarily
of the NRTEE or the organizations
Johanne
While many documents
of the NRTEE
represent
the position
interviewed.
GClinas
Chair Task Force on Sustainable National
Round
Transportation
Tab!e on the Environment
and the Economy
National Round Table on the Environment and the Economy Task Force on Sustainable Transportation Chair
Al Cormier
Johanne Gelinas
Executive Vice-President
Commissioner
Canadian Urban Transit Association (CUTA)
Bureau d’audiences publiques sur I’environnement
John Hartman
NRTEE Member
Director, Transportation Transportation
Forums
Association of Canada
Edythe A. Parkinson President
Wayne Kauk
CS R&ources Ltd.
Manager, Sustainable Development
NRTEE Member
Environmental
Affairs
Transport Canada Lori Wiiams Lawyer
Ken Ogilvie
Harper Grey Easton
Director
NRTEE Member
Pollution Probe
David Bell
Viik Tom
Assistant Deputy Minister
Director, Environmental
Transport Canada
Transport Canada (AKPP)
Nomal RoundTable on the Eov~ronmen, and me Economy
Sustmable Transporiat~on 8" conoda -Backgrounder
Affairs
xecutive Summary By almost every measure, unsustainable pollutants
transportation
path: greenhouse
in Canada
gas emissions
decline in the face of competition
from trucking;
services -
transportation;
and the use of public transit
the fastest growing
There are many factors propelling ncluding
population
ransport.
and the competitive
But underlying
Canadians
contributing
economic
are already experiencing
to increased
The potential concentrations
incidence
transit
both in absolute
-
the explosion
of energy intensive
of
modes of
social values and structure.
health impacts
of unsustainable
air pollution
in Canada
is
illness, higher physician/emergency
gases from the burning
increased
mortalitv.
ridership
global and regional
for more than 80 percent
of oil use for
change. Not only are there more cars
trends to larger vehicles are pushing
has been declining
transportation
change the way they make decisions.
from mobility
public investments
up the in public
in some of Canada’s largest cities
-
have an important
While there are signs of positive
that individuals
public education
objectives
to accessibility
element
-
and governments efforts are called for, as
into transportation to minimize
policies, and a
the need for motor
in all of these changes is the use of quantifiable
to track progress
All levels of government
requires
Increased
of environmental
An essential measures
climates.
and in modal share over the last 10 years.
sustainable
well as full integration
of fossil fuels are causing
per vehicle. Despite continued
volumes
shift in emphasis
patterns,
system and political
and there is little sign of positive
transportation,
-
advantages
and are destabiljzing
average fuel consumption
performance
settlement
of respiratory
and trucks on the road, but consumer
transportation.
to fall.
along the path to unsustainability
the negative
road vehicles are responsible
transportation
for air
risks from global climate change are even greater. Increasing
of greenhouse
In Canada,
to
from
neonle with heart or lung disease. and nossiblv
of the ecosphere
Achieving
continues
Medical research shows that ground-level
room visits amone
demand
these factors are deep roots in Canadian
ifestyles, as well as in the country’s
transportation.
rail systems continues
there is increasing
Canadians
on an
of some air
source of air pollution
growth, low density urban
global communications
municipal
and concentrations
are on the rise; the use of environment-friendly
transportation
warming
appears to be headed
towards goals and targets.
international,
federal, provincial/territorial
role to play in achieving change, particularly
efforts have not coalesced into a well-formed
National RcundTable an the Env,ronmen,ord theEmany
national
sustainable
at the municipal
and
development. level, Canadian
strategy for tackling
urban
Up to now, policy responses regulations
to sustainable
and policies in the technology
emissions,
mandate
improvements
alternative
transportation
transportation
sector -
for example, to control
fuels.
There is widespread
agreement
that such regulatory/technology-based
by major, long-term
modes of transport
and shifts to lower energy consuming
reductions
yet, few steps have been taken to implement
sustainable
transportation
that rely on a variety of approaches, economic
incentives,
education
and technology
involving
all levels of government
are consistent
development.
with jurisdictional
exploit synergies
among
deterioration
Also essential
actions
situation,
incorporating
can be taken.to
sustainable
improve
or avoid further
of current
transportation
practices
sustainability (e.g., air quality non-
i
targets for sustainability planning
implementing
more stringent
into investment,
land-use
and
decisions standards
raising fuel prices to encourage
focusing
and
including:
in the most affected regions
transportation
technologies,
duplication,
of the change involved,.a
on the unsustainability
reforms zones)
approach
to ensure that policy packages
avoid unnecessary
and about actions that can be taken to support
attainment
and land-use
will evolve only over several decades or more.
of immediate
education
implementing
regulations,
is a coordinated
and other stakeholders
and complexity
of the current
providing
and control�
transportation
responsibilities,
system in Canada
However, a number
“command
policy instruments
policy instruments.
Given the magnitude transportation
decisions.
will require integrated
and information,
planning,
or non-motorized modes. As \ packages of policies with the
and business
including
approaches
in the use of high energy intensive
stronger
to affect a broad range of consumer
Achieving
air
in fuel quality and fuel efficiency, and promote
must be supported
potential
issues have focused on
mode shifting
for emissions
fuel efficiency
and reduced
on research and development
control
improvements
and fuel efficiency and alternative
vehicle use aimed at reducing
fossil fuel consumption
from transportation The above findings activities
recommendations thought
are based on a preliminary
in this sector, and are not intended
among
transporation
review of current
as a comprehensive
research and
set of
for action. It is hoped, however, that they will provide stakeholders,
and stimulate
food for
discussions on the future of sustainable
in Canada.
National RoundTable on he Environment ord theEconomy
fuel
Surtoinoble Tranrportatior tn Conoda- Bockgrounder
rtroduction The objective the.issues
of this report is to summarize
relating
environmentally
to how transportation sustainable
current
understanding
can be economically,
over the long term. The purpose
by Apogee Research for the NRTEE Task Force on Sustainable provide
background
foundation
information
This review covers the goals, strategies
important
that the actions
wherever Canada,
of Canada.
possible
socially and of the study, performed Transportation,
If sustainable
duplication
on Sustainable
and actions
was to
’
Transportation.
of all levels of government,
transportation
of any one jurisdiction
avoiding
of
in a concise format, which could be used as the
for later phases of the NRTEE Program
just the Government
in Canada
positively
is to be achieved, reinforce
or conflict. This is particularly
because of the fragmentation
of decision
making
not
it is
those of others, important
for transportation
in
in this
country. Chapter
1 of this report
and other commentators
summarizes
to conclude
reviews the most serious impacts health impacts contribution Chapter
that transportation
of unsustainable
of different
in the literature.
used or considered
in policy development
specific policy options
and internationally,
It describes
of transportation
It
including
in Canada. development
that
some of the broad tools that have been
for sustainable
that have been studied
and describes
unsustainable.
the relative
of analysis as well as policy and program
have been reported
Canada
1 also addresses
modes to the unsustainability
elements
has become
trends in transportation,
and global climate change. Chapter
2 outlines
summarizes
some of the trends that have led researchers
associated
transportation.
Chapter
and/or
implemented
jurisdictional
and timing
3 in
issues.
A H cronyms ACEEE
American Council for an Energy-Efficient
APEC
Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation
AQMP
Air Quality Management
CAAA
Clean Air Act Amendments
CAFC
Corporate Average Fuel Consumption
CAFE
Corporate Average Fuel Efticienq ?
CCME
Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment
CGSB
Canadian Government
CMHC
Canadian Mortgage and Housing Corporation
CMTC
City of Montreal Transit Commission
co
Carbon Monoxide
I
Economy
Plan (U.S.)
Standards Board
co,
Carbon Dioxide
COP3
Third Conference
ETBE
Ethyl Tertiary Butyl Ether
GDP
Gross Domestic Product
GHG
Greenhouse
GTA
Greater Toronto Area
GVRD
Greater Vancouver Regional District
I&M
Inspection
ICLEI
International
Council for Local Environmental
IEA
International
Energy Age&y
IPCC
Intergovernmental
of Parties of the UN Framework Convention
Gases
and Maintenance Initiatives
Panel on Climate Change
ISTEA
Intermodal
MCP
Model Communities
Surface Transportation
MOEE
Ontario Ministry of Environment
Act (U.S.)
Program and Energy
MT0
Ontario Ministry of Transportation
NGL
Natural Gas Liquid
NIMBY
Not in my backyard
NOx
Nitrogen Oxides
NRCan
Natural Resources Canada
NRTEE
National Round Table on the Environment
OECD
Organization
PNGV
Program for a New Generation
RMOC
Regional Municipality
RRADs
Respiratory-Related
TAC
Transportation
for Economic Cooperation
and the Economy and Development
of Vehicles
of Ottawa-Carleton
Restricted Activity Days
Association
of Canada
TFFC
Tax For Fuel Conservation
TTC
Toronto Transit Commission
(Ontario)
VKmT
Vehicle Kilometres Travelled
voc
Volatile Organic Compound
on Climate Change
Unsustainable Transportation: Trends and Causes Transportation Consider
in Canada
the following
Transportation human
to be headed on an unsustainable
is the fastest growing Resources
from Canadian
source of greenhouse
Canada
transportation
(NRCan)
gas emissions
from
projects that greenhouse
will rise 52 percent
between
1991 and
of greenhouse
the U.S. are approximately
three times greater than the average in other countries
for Economic
Cooperation
Despite tighter vehicle emissions concentrations increased
of ground
between
gases from transportation
gas
2020. Per capita emissions of the Organization
regulations
and Development and reductions
level ozone and particulates
These factors have combined the development been associated Government example,
to overwhelm
with ozone and particulates
responses
the most ambitious
Vancouver
Regional
District,
sources in 2020 at current the number
and in have
studies.
to reduce total emissions.
plan, the Air Quality
of
in vehicle technologies
Management
For
Plan of the Greater
level emissions
levels, in large part because of the expected
from all doubling
and dependent
of elderly people, who are no longer able to drive They are often isolated
on others for access to any needs outside their homes.
The relative decline and rationalization in the face of competition
of rail systems for moving from trucking.
Current
goods in Canada
market conditions
this modal shift despite the fact that energy use and associated
environmental
impacts
of trucking
I
are several times greater per tonne-kilometre
than those of rail. Air transportation transportation.
is the fastest growing
financing
the infrastructure point to continuing any projected
Despite continuing continues
source of air pollution
from
Both the public and private sectors face major challenges
indicators overwhelm
of
of vehicles in the region by that year.
and do not have direct access to good public transportation.
driving
the numbers
negative health impacts
will only stabilize ground
There is a growing population
continues
areas of Canada
they are driven each year.
in epidemiology
to date are not expected
and
in some air pollutants,
in urban
advances
and use of cleaner fuels. Increased
in Canada (OECD).
1981 and 1990, largely because of increases’in
new vehicles, the average size of vehicles and the distance
’
path.
trends:
activity. Natural
emissions
appears
needed advances
investments
to fall in Canada.
to meet relentless
increases
growth in air transportation in aviation
in
in demand.
at rates that will
fuel efficiency.
in public transit,
the modal share of transit
All
are
Governments
face declining
transportation
infrastructure.
governments additions
are divesting
financial themselves
to infrastructure
resources
From airports
for maintaining
and expanding
to highways to marine
of responsibility
that will be necessary
ports,
for funding
if current
the massive
demand
_
trends continue. Even if the financial
challenge
could be met, one observer transportation
of meeting
of future demand,
discover that these investments and analyses boomerang
airport
in that direction.
Our plans
by the return
patterns,
advantages
the explosion
of energy intensive
of global
modes of
to make transportation
these factors, however, are the deep roots unsustainable
structure.
Unlimited
of the
path? At first glance, it appears that
settlement
cars, trucks and aircraft, have combined
trends have in Canadian
system to
impact.“’
us on such an unsustainable
and the competitive
including
unsustainable. Underlying political
hasten our progress
so that our efforts are rewarded
growth, low density urban
communications transport,
infrastructure
effect in expanding
then we should not be surprised
usually with some force and destructive
What is propelling population
for transportation
systems. “If we build a freeway system or an extended
to meet some prediction
problem,
demand
suggests there is a boomerang
transportation
social values and lifestyles, as well as our economic
system and
For example:
personal
mobility,
often in single-occupant
as a right. Calls to curtail travel are seen as draconian
vehicles, is viewed by many measures
that impinge
on
basic freedoms. Cars continue
to be one of the most important
status symbols for many Canadians.
People see sport utility vehicles, high performance case of many teenagers,
any car at all as symbols
A home in the suburbs
remains
opposition
to high density
homeowners.
Ironically,
against such development The current
division
decision
making,
land-use
planning.
provincial demand
a key component
powers fragments
Municipalities legislation,
separates approve
Canadian
consumers
shipped
from Morocco
food products
demand
trucked
planning
development,
governments
is largely the responsibility
is only one of many examples
and development from
following
to face increased
The federal government
and get strawberries
and tomatoes
transportation
suburban
often argue
protection.”
much transportation
leaving provincial
for railways while trucking
dream. Fierce
(NIMBY) reactions
in the name of “environmental
of political
cars or, in the
often arises from nearby
these not-in-my-backyard
for highways to service those suburbs.
responsible
of the Canadian
or infill development
and in particular
planning
sports cars, luxury
of lifestyle and wealth.
has been
of provinces.
flown from Chile, tangerines
from Mexico. International
trade in
of the market’s ability to satisfy the
desires of consumers environmental,
with a growing
capacity and willingness
social and economic
increasing
the international
Children,
who in previous
public transit
consequences.
is
flow of goods. decades would have walked, ridden
bicycles or taken
to school, the hockey rink or the ballet class, are now driven because
of fear for their safety or the physical distances recreation
to pay, despite the
Trade liberalization
between
home, school and
facilities, and the lack of accessible alternatives.
Masses of people now take annual international
destinations.
vacations
using air transportation
A family of four flying to Disney World uses over
12 times more fuel than they would have consumed A passenger
to get to
flying from Toronto
making
to Paris consumes
enough
the same trip by car. fuel to drive a car for
about a year. The high costs of infrastructure of general tax revenues, such publicly
funded
serving suburban
areas are frequently
not by the people responsible
infrastructure
for the demand.
paid for out Access to
is seen as a right, while user fees are critic&d
, as tax grabs. Under current
market
transportation.
conditions,
Therefore,
users do not pay for the full social costs of
transportation
is “over-used”
from an efficiency
perspective.
Unsustainable Transportation: Impacts Transportation
has many negative
the market place’s seemingly impacts
impacts
that are not adequately
appetite
for more mobility.
insatiable
accounted
Key among
for in
these
are the following:
Human
health impacts
from ground
level air pollution.
Crop and forest damage from air pollution. Climate
change impacts
of greenhouse
gas emissions
from the burning
of
fossil fuels. Land use for transportation land for agricultural, Economic
inefficiency,
density, single-use Social isolation
infrastructure,
recreational,
and loss of regional
urban
in loss of natural
habitat
and
and other public uses. competitiveness
due to continued
sprawl, which is linked to automobile
from the barrier
everyday activities
resulting
residential
effects of transportation
low
dependency.
infr.astructure,
and from
for those who do not have direct access to cars.
Other environmental
impacts
related to the life cycle production,
of transportation
vehicles and infrastructure.
Death and injury
from accidents.
No’ional RoundTable on the Enwonmen~andtheEconomy
Sustamoble Tmnsportclt,on ,n Canada- Backgrounder
use and disposal
Time lost, costs, inconvenience Increasing
and environmental
time and distances
required
impacts
for commuting
of traffic congestion.
and travel for
other purposes. Reductions
in transit
Water pollution
service and ridership.
from runoff
from roads and other infrastructure.
Noise and vibration. There have been many estimates unsustainable
transportation.
developed,
external
estimates product
of the external
While it is unlikely
costs of the impacts
costs have been clearly shown to be substantial.
that external
costs represent
of
that precise values can ever be
approximately
5 percent
The OECD
of gross domestic
in OECD countries.
The most comprehensive transportation
study of external
costs and full cost pricing
in Canada was a report by the IBI Group for the Ontario
and Climate
Change Collaborative.2
This report presents
the following
Only buses come close to paying their full costs among transportation
for Transportation
conclusions:
passenger
modes.
Both intercity
car and airline travellers
transportation
pay less than the full cost of their
mode.
Passenger
rail is by far the most heavily subsidized
kilometre
basis, reflecting
Total subsidies
low ridership
for intercity
relative to service levels provided.
truck operations
at 2.19 cents per tonne-kilometre
mode on a per passenger-
(excluding
are considerably
fuel taxes and licence fees)
higher than they are for rail
freight, at 0.40 cents per tonne-kilometre. Urban
transit
provinces
and automobile
and municipalities
However, external
modes each receive total public subsidies
costs for urban
auto, at 10 cents per passenger-kilometre,
much higher than those of public transit. approximately In Canada, impacts
focus of attention
level air pollution
the impacts
of increasing
and carbon
dioxide.
concentrations
of the continuing
in the major urban government practices
of ground
areas of Canada.
level ozone, airborne
of human
The financial and regional
and to look for more cost-effective though
transportation
gases. Of particular
is being paid to the economic
low density
are forcing municipal
There is widespread,
costs for the latter are
in sustainable
and greenhouse
At the same time, much attention implications
External
are
1.4 cents per passenger-kilometre.
the primary
of ground
from
in the range of I2 cents per passenger-kilometre.
constraints
decision
particularly
on all levels of
makers to reconsider
consideration
Susimable Transpsmon,n Canado-Bockgrounder
are
particulates
and social
patterns,
ways to develop urban
by no means universal,
Nat,onol RoundTable on the Enwromen~o-d tneEcoromy
settlement
is on the concern
land-use
infrastructure. of more compact,
mixed-use
development
as one way to address this issue. There has been less emphasis,
until relatively
recently, on the connections
transportation
and patterns
between
the unsustainability
of
of land use.
Health Outcomes from Air Pollution In a recent assessment panels concluded Canada
include
hyperactivity,
of the health effects of air pollution
that “health pulmonary
respiratory
physician/emergency
symptoms,
At the “Conference Professor
hospital
Emeritus
of the Department
pollutants
presenting
Burnett
is a primary
ambient
of infants
and countries.
symptoms
in asthmatics,
Independent longitudinal atmosphere
and cardiopulmonary
particularly
associated
A report prepared concluded
hospital
“enhances
admissions
between
evidence
with increased
2.5 microns,
of Americans
. ...“J (PM10 respectively.)
in 17-year School of Public
elevated levels of sulphates
deaths. Sulphates
with the burning
the response
for pneumonia
Cancer Society and the Harvard
in the
and related fine particulates
are
of diesel fuels.
for the B.C. Ministry
that for each 10 micrograms
the following
by studies in other regions
(PMlO), are associated
studies of data on large numbers
studies by the American
and
.. . . There is independent
sizes of less than 10 microns’and
Health have shown a strong association
hospital
of “infections”
that ozone exposure
pollution
and increased
and PM2.5 refer to particle
between
was drawn from a study of hospital
and is corroborated
allergen in asthmatics
that both ozone and tine particulate
as the in
Dr. Bates cited the work of Dr. Rick
This conclusion
in Ontario,
at the
Road transportation,
below one year of age with a diagnosis
delivered
Health,”
ozone and particulates
a close association
There is also good evidence
to a subsequently
mortality?
in April 1996, Dr. David Bates,
to tropospheric
in establishing
in I68 hospitals
increased
of Health Care and Epidemiology
pointed
airway
use and
Air Quality, and Human
source of these pollutants.
ozone levels in summer.
admissions
medication
and possibly
the most severe health challenges.
of Health Canada
admissions
admissions
decrements,
with heart or lung disease, reduced
Probe and York University
of British Columbia,
function
increased
individuals
on Transportation,
by Pollution
University particular,
possible
two expert
level ozope at levels that occur in
pulmonary
room visits among
exercise capacity, increased cosponsored
effects of ground
inflammation,
in Canada,
of Environment,
Land and Parks
per cubic metre increase
health effects are estimated
in the level of PMlO,
to occur:5
0.8 percent
increase
in hospitalizations;
1.O percent
increase in emergency
9.5 percent
increase
in days of restricted
4.1 percent
increase
in school absenteeism;
1.2 percent
increase in reporting
room visits for respiratory
activity due to respiratory
of coughs.
Nmo-al Roundbbleon the Enwronmen, and theEconomy
illness;
and
symptoms;
To put the above impacts
in context, the B.C. Ministry
Parks and the Greater Vancouver 50 micrograms recently
Regional
District
per cubic metre as a 24-hour
improved
monitoring
Land and
have adopted
an objective
average. Preliminary
indications,
of tine particulates,
are that the objective
being met in many B.C. urban
areas. The provincial
indicated
are evident
that health concerns
of Environment,
medical
of from
is regularly
not
officer has recently
at levels as low as 20 micrograms
per
cubic metre.6 A national
air quality
objective
Protection
Act Working
Environmental Guidelines. objective,
for PM10 is being developed Group on Air Quality
This group has also decided to propose since the finer particles
health effects in the respirable Studies in the United of air pollution
particle
of a PM2.5
for the majority
of
category,
States have estimated
20,000-46,000
50-70 million
An estimated Estimates
the development
are believed to be responsible
and
the following
annual
health outcomes
from highway vehicles in 1991:
Approximately Roughly
by the Canadian
Objectives
cases, of chronic
respiratory-related
respiratory
restricted
illness.
activity days.
530 cases of cancer from air toxics associated
with highway use.
of cancer risk, however, are highly uncertain.
About 852 million
headaches
from carbon
monoxide
associated
with motor
vehicle use. An estimated attributed
40,000 premature
to particulate
from motor vehicle accidents.7 magnitude
as the number
Furthermore, sulphate
visits and hospitalization Policy making
the monetary
approach
in which benefits
different
has shown a strong association
is also
levels of several pollutants
and emergency
room
of proposed
are expressed
as reduced
for the Canadian
damages
scenarios
Council
of Ministers
health benefits,
for reducing
emissions
would range from a low of $10.8 billion
Regionally,
about 73 percent
corridor.
changes can be quantified.
value of health or other environmental
precursors
Approximately
in particulates.
between
work in Canada
policies, analysts use the so-called
that the total undiscounted regulatory
war.)
In
benefits
Damage Function from a base case,
forecast scenario.
A report prepared estimated
are of the same order of
rates.
by government emission
of deaths
Ongoing
is easier when impacts
achievable unreduced
to the number
killed in the Vietnam
rates in Ontario.
ambient
States of which 33,000 can be
comparable
(Note: these numbers
research at Health Canada
links between
order to estimate
a number
of Americans
levels and hospitalization
establishing
deaths in the United
matter -
of total benefits
99 percent
between
of the Environment 1997 and 2020, of two
of smog and particulate to a high of $38.2 billion.8
would be realized in the Windsor-Quebec
of these benefits
would relate to reductions
The Ontario annual
emission
organic
Ministry
of Environment
reduction
target of 45 percent
compounds
smog management
Smog Strategy for Canada. Committee
The MOEE has estimated benefits
achievable
$476 million.9
discounted
by meeting
Management
Plan.
present value of the health
this target would range from $320 million the uncertainties
since the benefit
categories
in estimating
to
monetary
are public goods with no market
study for the Greater Vancouver
Regional
District,
Land and Parks, and Environment
Canada
estimates
deaths, 33,000 hospital
days and five million
personal
averted by the Air Quality
emergency
room visits, I3 million
health symptoms
Management
in a net saving of $1.6 billion The last comment
the B.C. Ministry that “2,800 restricted
such as chest discomfort”
Plan for the Greater Vancouver
“It will also reduce damage to crops, materials
.. . the plan will cost $3.8 billion
to implement,
and property.
create benefits
activity
would be Regional
From 1985-2020,
of $5.4 billion
and result
over this time period.“‘0
on the health outcomes
of air pollution
left to Dr. Bates. “There is no task confronting attention,
Air Issues
with them.
of Environment,
District.
of the 1990 NOx/VOC
that the anuual
as
into a National
by the National
as an extension
The MOEE acknowledges
A cost-benefit premature
an
oxides (NOx ) and volatile
plan, which will be incorporated
The latter is being coordinated
in Ontario
values for health impacts prices associated
for nitrogen
(VOCs) in 2015 relative to 1990 levels. This target is proposed
part of a provincial Coordinating
and Energy (MOEE) is considering
from transportation
us that more cogently
than to ensure that we are building
a sustainable
society, at the very least, has to have air pollution
demands
is
our full
society for the future; such a
levels below those which injure
its members.“li
Global Climate Change Global climate change is an issue with potentially species than air pollution.
The Intergovernmental
of 2,500 leading
and climatologists
concluded
scientists
that increasing
the burning
concentrations
even greater risk to the human
Panel on Climate
of greenhouse
global and regional
There is also growing
of the ecosphere
evidence
that the measures
and local issues. For example, measures greenhouse
gas emissions
available
economic
from transportation
gas emissions
would ,also contribute
from transportation
and social benefits.
improving
For example
the design of streetscapes
lower cost urban automobiles. corresponding
infrastructure
for pedestrian
and reduced
in
to improvements
true. Measures
for dealing with
have also been shown to provide moving
to more compact and transit
social isolation
At the same time, single-occupancy reductions
for dealing with the
with a range of other global
that would result in major reductions
level air quality. The reverse is not necessarily
greenhouse
from
and
climates.
climate change issue are central to dealing simultaneously
in ground
has
gases in the atmosphere
of fossil fuels appear to be causing warming
destabilizing
Change, made up
from more than 100 countries,
urban
operations
for those without
vehicle use is reduced,
in per capita use of fossil fuels.
form and can result in
with
access to
However, “unless there is major policy intervention,
transportation
energy use
could increase 40 to 100% by 2025 and as much as 400% by 2100.“12 It should be noted that massive changes in individual required
worldwide
would also be
to avoid this scenario.
Continued expected
increases
in concentrations
to affect “unmanaged
(e.g., increases higher ambient natural
and collective behaviour of greenhouse
ecosystems
in health impacts temperatures),
from more frequent
from a doubling
of carbon
with
for more severe
effects suggest dramatic
dioxide (CO,) concentration
for the Ontario
Transportation
impacts
in the atmosphere. and Climate
are
health
ozone events associated
effects of sea level rise and the potential
disasters.“13 Other studies of specific regional
effort was conducted
gases in the stratosphere
(coral reefs, boreal forests), human
One such
Change
Collaborative.14 While transportation greatest concern sector accounts
systems consume
a wide range of resources,
is fossil fuels, and oil in particular. for more than 60 percent
Worldwide,
of oil products,
98 percent
of transportation
92 percent
in 1960 in spite of efforts by many governments
Projections forces, whether increasing
or unanticipated
Projections @ygg g:.gfj --n_-. -= .- _, ‘-
to encourage
energy use -
assuming
shifts in consumption
at the global, domestic,
energy consumption
about
has increased
from
substitution
or provincial
by the transportation
no major new
from changing
levels in Canada sector (Exhibit
market
all point to
1.1).
of Transportation Energy Consumption -“s.#s~~=sg& ‘ify~~i;~~~.i,-;: I~~~-~~.~“-EU16~~~~~~ k@&;;~&“sp ~&@~&~@~E~~ ~~~~~~~~~~~ &~@#@z .&&*&&&
..~-~l~bala’-::i”i;,.:
~l-:l.:‘:--::.~_:i,Isso-zoao
-.r~~~~~~!:co~~~~~~s~:~!~“~,\ I;-;
.a’ -..j
>:
y / ~~2~~@~~$ .“:I. L::f
73’
’
1. 1.8 :
;, ‘
~~~-;&++~‘-;rr --;g,; :=+: y,: ::Y:* j&&~~~~;~ ;, .. i Ti j_ : 52 :; I -.: _; L ‘. _ .- .i 2’ [ .--‘~r~~~~‘~~~~mbi~~~~il yr: ;- ,~p$j)_~D_IQ >;;-.- ..,; :I <.: & ; -1: &g& ~.j~~~~~$~~~~ \y;;;-;;:. ..;. : _ ?sqo-z;ls “-..f;‘ ::“- - :- ” 43 ; _” ; _A,.’ --: , _ ! z q&$&g&$~; -: ;:; -1.:.-.I : :,:_ ;h’;-lj90;&)g :’ - ‘. ._ ‘145- Sources: a Organization
for Economic
Cooperation
and Development,
Reduction Strategies beyond 2010 (Paris, 1995); b Organization Development, c Natural modified
Motor Vehicle Pollution:
for Economic
Environmental Criteria fir Sustainable Truns~ortation
Cooperation
and
(Paris, 1996), Table 2, p. 22;
Resources Canada, Canada’s Energy Outlook: 1992 to 2020 (Ottawa, September 1993), to reflect revisions to forecast demand in NRCan, Update 1994 (Ottawa, October 1994),
Table 3.1, p. 9; d B.C. Ministry
of Environment,
British Columbia, A Policy Paper (Victoria,
Land and Parks, Clean Vehicles and Fuels for
April 1995); e Apogee Research,
A Policy Instruments
Working Paper on Reducing CO, Emissions from the Transportation Sector in Ontario, paper prepared
of
and renewable.
of growth in transportation
policy interventions
which constitute
energy use. The latter percentage
other fuels, both non-renewable
the one of
the transportation
for the Transportation
f Bryan Smith, General
Motors
and Climate of Canada,
Change
Collaborative,
November
1995, p. 21;
Notes from the US. Car Talk Group, June 1995.
‘i)p#p*;ip. sI;;r;:ii-.-.
Natural Canada
Resources
Canada, projects that overall transportation
will increase by approximately
estimate
is based on current
52 percent
between
trends and assumptions
energy demand
in
1991 and .2020. This
by NRCan about the impacts
of
such factors as economic fuels, public transit
growth, transportation fuel efficiencies, shifts to alternative l5 In fact, transportation energy consumption and telecommuting.
could be higher than forecast if urban hoped-for become
reduction
in automobile
a reality. The projections
Transportation
transit
ridership
continues
use as a result of increased
to decline, or if the
telecommuting
are shown in more detail in Ehibit
Energy
does not
1.2.
Demand ( I99 7-2020)
PJ 3000 2,646
-*I .$ Motet Gasoline Diesel 2500
Aviation Fuels
/
I
1
Others 1.962
Source: Natural
Resources
1993), p. 25, modified 1994, Table 3.1, p. 9.
Canada,
Energy Outlook: 1992 to 2020 (Ottawa,
Canada’s
to reflect revisions
2020
2010
2000
1991
to forecast
demand
in NRCan,
September
Update 1994, October
~~~&~g&~~
Clearly, even if these forecasts indicate trends in transportation
demand
will not be met in this country fossil fuels in transport
in Canada,
will continue
dependence,
countries, century
of automobiles guarded
transportation
transportation
of large amounts
communities.
for sustainable
century,
simply because the use of
centres on the problem
“loss of community,
into neighbourhoods;
of global oil production
of current
to increase.
which includes
climate change; consumption intrusion
only the direction
conditions
over the next quarter
Much of the debate about sustainable automobile
accurately
reduced
of
air quality;
of space for roads and parking; boredom
iu the suburbs;
On a global scale, the imminent is also cause for concern.“16
peaking
and, in some in the next
Relative Modal Contributions to Unsustainability In 1994, transportation dioxide emissions from various transportation.
Air transportation,
of carbon
of emissions
1.3.
for more than 80 percent
at 8 percent,
clearly dominates
dioxide in Canada.
followed by diesel-powered
case of heavy trucks, the majority
of oil use for
is the next largest and fastest growing
the transportation
Gasoline-powered
use of energy and vehicles are the largest single
trucks and other vehicles such as buses. In the
of fuel is consumed
for intercity
Sales of cars in Canada have been stable or declining not only are total motor vehicle registrations per vehicle is increasing
because
Energy
growing,
movement
of goods.
in recent years, while those of
vans, sport utility vehicles and light trucks have been growing
Trakportation
of carbon
energy.
Road transportation emissions
in Exhibit
road vehicles are responsible
user of petroleum
for 3 1.4 percent
activity. 17The percentages
modes, by fuel, are summarized
In Canada,
contributor,
in Canada was responsible
from all sources of human
strongly.ts,
19As a result,
but average fuel consumption
of the market trend to larger vehicles.
Demand
( 7 99 7)
Fuel
Mode
Gasoline.
Rail 5.0% Marine
iesel
.o%
0% Aviation Fuels
8.0%
Source: Natural 1993), p. 22.
Heating Fuel Oil
T737 Petajoules
4.0%
Resqurces
8.0%
Canada,
Canadaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Energy Outlook: 1992 to 2020 (Ottawa, September
Energy demand
is expected
NRCan are based on assumptions increases
in demand
shown in Exhibit
to grow in all transportation about,increasing
for each mode. Projected
modes. The projections
fuel efficiency
annual
of
and anticipated
growth rates to the year 2020 are
1.4.
Annual Average Growth Rates for Transportation in Canada ( 7 99 7 -2020)
So&e: 1993),
Natural
Resources
Canada,
Canada? Energy Outlook: 1992 to 2020 (Ottawa,
These projections
and the assumptions
their 1994 Update. They will no doubt that energy demand
behind
Canada
them were revised by NRCan
is expected to grow for all modes, and that growth in aviation
policy interventions.
changes in societal behaviours
Again, by any definition
of sustainable
will and/or
transportation,
is headed in the wrong direction.
Trends Away
from
High Energy
Efficiency Modes
A useful way of looking
at the sustainability
of different
total life cycle of greenhouse unit of transport kilometre
in
change again in future. The general conclusions
be the fastest, still hold, if there are no significant government
September
p. 25.
delivered
for freight).
study, for passenger
gas emissions,
expressed
modes is to consider
in carbon
(either grams per passenger-kilometre
Exhibits
1.5 and 1.6 provide
and freight transportation
per
or grams per tonne-
such modal comparisons.
respectively.
the
dioxide equivalents,
from one
Greenhouse
Gas Emissions
by Mode Passenger Transport
Grams of CO, Equivalent
Source: David Martin
and Laurie Michaelis,
Research and Technology Strategy to Help Overcome
Environmental Problems in Relation to Transport (U.K. Atomic
Greenhouse
Gas Emissions
Energy Authority,
by-Mode
Freight
March
1992).
Transport
Grams of CO, Equivalent
Source: David Martin
and Laurie Michaelis,
Research and Technology Strategy to Help Overcome
Environmental Problems in Relation to Transport (U.K. Atomic
Energy Authority,
March
The figures shown are for U.K. vehicles. On average North American emit about 50 percent aircraft/car limitation account
more carbon
dioxide per passenger-kilometre.
ratio of about three and a car/transit of these kinds of comparisons,
the utility or benefit
ratio in the range of five. The
to the user of using the more energy intensive
impacts.
or mandated
targets, will result in choices that may be suboptimal
But such comparisons
do facilitate
possible ways to address the sustainable
automobiles
This results in an
of course, is that they do not take into
Market forces, in the absence of full cost accounting consumption
1992).
understanding
transportation
mode.
overall energy in environmental
of where to look for dilemma.
Urban Automobile Despite continued has been declining
Use versus Public Transit
public investments
in public transportation,
modal share over the last 10 years. 20 For example, Toronto,
at 43 persons/hectare,
enough
population
density to support
the spread of low density population
viable transit.
public transit,
and in
the core of the City of
at 35.7 persons/hectare, ridership
communities.
have high
has fallen. This fall is, at and
The latter has been made possible by
of the road network
in the Greater Toronto
on average is about five persons/hectare,
The population
ridership
volumes
job losses since 1988,.loss of growth momentum,
suburban
development density
although
and Metro Toronto,
least in part, due to recessionary the continued
transit
in some of Canada’s largest cifies both in absolute
of Metro Toronto
Area, where the
insufficient
represents
50 percent
for financially of the 4.5 million
people who live in the GTA. Urban
transit
is several times more energy efficient per passenger-kildmetre
the automobile.
Transit is also much less land-use
that it provides
access for those who do not drive cars. It follows that much more
progress
could be made toward sustainable
co&d be substantially opposite transit
direction,
increased
in urban
despite continued
intensive,
than
transportation areas. Current
and is more inclusive
in
if the modal share of transit trends are in fact in the
calls for increased
funding
priority
by public
advocates.
In the Greater Toronto trips was 14 percent
Area, transit
modal share, including
in 1991, a decrease of 3 percent
1991 in the GTA for all trips was 77 percent, population
in the GTA increased
by about
an increase 10 percent
modal share of total trips to the core of Toronto 41 percent
automobile
in transit
and 45 percent
use occurred
Between
(TTC) network
declined
by about
in public transit
to climb. Absolute
in the period
by about 43 percent. As a result, transit
Furthermore, to Transport
decreased
expected
to double from the current
the number
modal share decreased Regional
by
project of the GVRD and the
fleet of one million
to increase beyond
by 202 1. “Even with the
Management
Plan (AQMP),
the year 2000.“23 The measures
in the
AQMP focus primarily on local air quality. British Columbia projects that carbon dioxide emissions from transportation will increase by 12 percent from 1990 tb 2000 and 21 percent
by
District
of vehicles in the Lower Fraser Valley is
and the full GVRD Air Quality
are projected
increased
by about 8 percent.22
2021, a joint planning
of British Columbia,
emissions
ridership
1985 to 1992. In the same period, however, trips by car
Province
existing programs
to be
of services the
use in the Lower Fraser Valley
average trip speeds in the Greater Vancouver
(GRVD), in the same period,
Transit
despite extensive
levels of transit
drivers increased
According
the
decline
This trend is unlikely
Similarly;
in past decades, automobile
continues
on the Toronto
and rationalization
about 22 percent 11 percent.
In contrast; 1) in 1991 was
The same percentage
16 percent.
TTC has had to impose to make up for lost revenue. in British Columbia
District
level of ridership
reversed in the near future, given the fare increases investments
to 4.57 million.
(Planning
for public transit.
share in
of 3 percent.21 In this period,
in’ the core as in the GTA.region.
1988 and 1994, the absolute
Commission
GO Transit, for all daily
from 1986. Automobile
from 1990 to 2010.
Na~,onal RoundTable on the Env,ronmentond theEconomy
Susimable Tronspmoknm Canado - Backgrounder
Such are the powers of the market and the aspirations that they have, acting rationally transportation
freedom
create expanding the benefits political
of the automobile,
urban
used the personal
as well as increasing
sprawl, and to increase the distances
of road transport
are embedded
action in past generations,
disbenefits
of citizens for â&#x20AC;&#x153;mobilityâ&#x20AC;?
and in their own interests,
of continuously
disposable
between
transportation
aware of the
and low density land use.
Fossil Energy intensity and Freight Transport and Marine In Canada, or 479 million comparison, 100 million
Truck, Rail
the rail mode carries the greatest share of freight tonnage tonnes
trucking tonnes.
in 1992), followed by marine, in Ontario
The most important mode. Between
(54.3 percent
truck and air modes.24 By
carries the greatest share of freight, at 40.1 percent
This is followed by rail (37 percent
(23 percent or 57 million
to
While
in the public psyche and have driven much
the public is only now becoming
expanding
income,
activities.
tonnes)
and air (0.1 percent
or 92 million
tonnes),
or 250 thousand
or
marine
tonnes).
trend in the past two decades has been the growth of the truck
1980 and. 1990, tonnage
moved by truck increased
by 56 percent.
This
growth appears to have come at the expense of rail, since overall freight tonnage experienced
little.net
Transport
reports
measures
change in this period. The Canadian
the modal split between
shown in Exhibit
Institute
shares -
Institute
1989, report
rail and truck for 1989, using three different
Ground
Transport,
for CN Rail Intermodal,
of Guided
February
The energy consumption between
Ground
1.7.
of Rail and Truck Movement
Source: Canadian
of Guided
per tonne-kilometre
Estimation
of Goods
of Railway Freight Market
1993, p. 3.
of truck movement
of goods ranges
1.3 and 5.1 times greater than by rail .2s For movement of mixed freight over the U.S. Office of Technology Assessment estimates the energy
long distances, consumption
of rail ranges between
per tonne-kilometre).
Trucking
1,430 BTU per tonne-kilometre)
150 and 310 BTU per ton-mile
uses between
(220 and 450 BTU
770 and 980 BTU per ton-mile
for the same service.
(1,120 and
The above numbers transport
suggest the possibility
more sustainable.
rail do not compete
However,
directly. The Ontario
truck actually compete
at distances
cooperation
among
In the markets flexibility
small. Within
the two modes through where trucking
Some research contributed
in the urban
of rail, just as the long-term contributed Canada
to urban
i taxation
and subsidies
decisions
growth in the trucking
massive expansion
of businesses,
of low gasoline
mode. There has been limited
for encouraging
of roads
has been strongly
at the expense of land have
and complex
issue in
about the relative effects of forces that have accelerated
study of the long-term
on the modal split between
a larger portion
in past decades have
industry
prices and availability
to the strong market
approaches
time,
rates relative to
regions of the country.
There is no consensus
compared
fuller cost accounting potential
including
sprawl. However, this is a contentious
as it is in other countries.
between
value the response
and growth of the trucking
history
i
operations.
suggests that relative subsidy levels for trucking
to the competitiveness
of truck
this range there is increasing
shippers
The built infrastructure,
to the market
However, 90 percent
and are willing to pay premium
in recent decades, as well as the location responsive
truck and that rail and
moves less than 700 kilometres.
intermodal
dominates,
of trucking,
rail for these attributes.
estimates
for which there is direct competition
relatively
and reliability
Association
and 95 percent
of freight movement
truck and rail is therefore
Trucking
to rail to make freight
of goods movement,
over 500 kilometres.26
traffic moves less than 600 kilometres The percentage
of modal shifting
for the majority
impact
of
truck and rail, or the
of goods movement
to use intermodal
services.27 Given the contribution transportation innovative increased
of intercity
in Canada,
industry
policies and programs, long-term
customers
to reduce the tonne-kilometres
auto assembly
companies
of vehicle movements
opportunities
St. Lawrence
of just-in-time
planning
per tonne
include: work
closer to their
truck delivery of parts to
techniques,
used by major
corridor
to compete
Seaway. Since shipping
to intermodal
in Canada with trucking
to reduce
of goods transported?
and design, tax policy and technology
advances
truck/rail
where the marine
away from the marine
and actions, where cost effective, taken to enhance
be
services?
mode might have
and rail for freight movement
is the least fossil energy intensive
freight modes, factors causing modal shifting examined
and governments
logistics costs, be used more generally
to shift more goods movement
The main transportation significant
to be explored
to locate factories
logistics management
to reduce end-to-end
How could urban combined
Questions
to look for
to encourage
plants?
How could the advanced the number
instruments,
their suppliers
for suppliers
of
could work together
economic
operations.
manufacturers,
to develop incentives
to the unsustainability
and governments including
shifts to intermodal
How could automobile together
trucking
is the
â&#x20AC;&#x2122;
of these three mode should be
its modal share.
-
Air Transportation As noted above, air transportation for the foreseeable kilometre
serious a contributor
to greenhouse
Air transportation can contribute altitudes
of freight. If current
to rely on petroleum
effect. Nitrogen
the fastest growing
future. It is also the most energy intensive
or tonne-kilometre
aircraft continue
is forecast to remain
oxides produced to ozone formation.
mode per passenger-
rates of growth continue,
fuels, air transportation gas emissions
could also become during
and
is expected to become
contributor of aviation
to the greenhouse fuel at high altitude
Ozone is at its most effective as a greenhouse
gas at
of about 8,000 metres at the poles and 17,000 metres at the equator, in the
range where commercial NOx production dioxide emissions
jet aircraft fly. The indirect
at high altitudes
as
as road transportation.
a significant combustion
mode
greenhouse
could be approximately
effect resulting
from
equal to the effect of carbon
from aviation. 28 To date, there has been little work done in Canada, or indeed globally, on the sustainability of air transportation.
Footnotes J. Whitelegg,
“The Information
Society and Sustainable
Journal of World
Development,”
Transport Policy & Practice, vol. 2 (1996), p. 4. IBI Group, Full Cost Transportation Transportation Pollution
and Cost-Based Pricing’strategies
and Climate Change Collaborative,
(Toronto:
1995).
Air Quality and Human Health, Issues and Perspectives,
Probe, Transportation,
paper prepared
November
for Health Canada, March 1996.
David Bates, The Inconvenient the Conference
Implications
on Transportation,
of Current Data bn Air Pollution, presentation
Air Quality and Human
at
Health, York University,
April 25, 1996. Pollution
Probe, Transportation,
paper prepared B.C. Ministry
Air Quality and Human Health, Issues and,Perspectives,
for Health Canada, March 1996, p. 7. Land and Parks, Clean Vehicles and Fuels for British
of Environment,
Columbia, A Policy Paper (Victoria, April 1995), p. 11. D. McCubbin
Health Effects of Motor Vehicle Air Pollution in the U.S., as
and M. Delucchi,
cited in Apogee Research, Indicators of the Environmental prepared
for the U.S. Environmental
Hagler Bailly, ENVIRON Energy, Environmental the Canadian Ontario
Int’l., Environment
Canada, Ontario
of the Environment,
paper
Ministry
of Environment
October
and for
1995.
and Energy, Towards a Smog Plan for Ontario, A
Environment
Discussion Paper, and Supporting Document B.C. Ministry
Impacts of Transportation,
Agency, June 1996.
and Health Benefits of Cleaner Vehicles and Fuels, report prepared
Council of Ministers
Ministry.of
Protection
(Toronto,
June 1996).
Land and Parks, Clean Vehicles and Fuels for British
of Environment,
Columbia, A Policy Paper (Victoria, April 1995), p. 12. David Bates, The @convenient the Conference
Implications
on Transportation,
of Current Data on Air Pollution, presentation
Air Quality and Human
at
Health, York University,
April 25, 1996, p. 3. James P. Bruce, Drivers for Change, presentation Sustainable
Transportation,
Vancouver,
at the OECD conference,
Towards
March 1996.
Ibid. Environment
Canada, Smith and Lavender, and Sustainable
Impacts: An Ontario Perspective, paper prepared Collaborative,
Climate Change
for the Transportation
and Climate Change
August 1995.
Natural Resources
Canada,
‘1993), p. 25, modified October
Futures,
Canada’s Energy Outlook: 1992 to 2020 (Ottawa, September
to reflect revisions
1994, Table 3.1, p. 9.
to forecast demand
in NRCan,
Update 1994,
.
Automobile
Jeffrey Kenworthy,
Dependence
Best and the Worst, presentation Vancouver,
October
Environment
Conference
on Sustainable
the
Transportation,
1995.
Canada,
Canadaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Greenhouse
5/AP/4 (Ottawa, December Environment
in a Global Sample of Cities: Learningfrom
at the National
Gas Emissions: Estimates for 1990, Report EPS
1992), Table S.2, updated
by unpublished
data for 1994 from
Canada.
Transportation in Ontirio
and Climate Change Collaborative,
(Toronto,
November
A Strategy for Sustainable
Transportation
1995), p. 10.
Canada, Statistical Review of the Canadian Automotive Industry, 1996 Edition
Industry
(Ottawa, July 1996), Table 1.1. R.M. Soberman,
Rethinking
the Centre for Transportation University
Urban Transportation: Studies, University
of Toronto Joint Program
Lessons from Toronto, luncheon of Minnesota,
in Transportation,
February
address at
1995.
The Transportation
Tomorrow
Survey, 1991 & 1986 Travel Survey Summaries for the Greater Toronto Area (Toronto,
June 1994).
B.C. Ministry
of Environment,
Land and Parks, Clean Vehicles and Fuels for British
Columbin, A Policy Paper (Victoria, April 1995), p. 11. Ibid., p. 13. Transmode
Ontario Freight Movement Study, report prepared
Consultants,
Transportation
and Climate Change Collaborative,
U.S. Office of Technology
Assessment,
for the
June 1995, p. 5.
Policy Options for Energy Conservation
(July 1994), p. 249. Ontario
Trucking Association,
Government December
Submission of the Ontario Trucking Association
Task Force on the Commercialization
to the Federal
National Railway,
1995, p. 5.
IBI Group, Full Cost Transportation Transportation Netherlands,
of the-Canadian
and Cost-Based Pricing Strategies (Toronto:
and Climate Change Collaborative, Ministry
Policy of the Netherlands
of Housing
Spatial Planning
November
1995).
and the Environment,
on Air Pollution and Aviation (1995), pp. 28-30.
Ncl~onal RoundTableonIha hronment and iheEconomy
Government
Visions of Sustainable Transportation Vision statements current
present
desired futures in lieu of the outcomes
trends or the status quo. Therefore,
contains
underlying
assumptions related
Many visions
a vision typically
in sustainable
(particularly
transportation
transportation.
road), a specific region
emissions
(particularly
significant
constraint
off benefits
Instead,
are recorded
smog and greenhouse
in the literature.
social and economic
issues
most focus on a specific mode
(particularly
since addressing
urban
travel) or a specific set of air
gas emissions).
This is not necessarily
one aspect of sustainability
a
will often have spin-
on other aspects.
Visions for sustainable around
from
about where we will be if no action is taken.
to sustainable
However, few address the full range of environmental, involved
expected
talks about the future, but
transportation
are based on the consensus
developing
the world and in Canada that:
Transportation
has become
environmentally,
socially and economically
unsustainable. Deterioration
in the quality
social isolation, efficiency -
of life -
psychological
will continue
under
The most serious impediments in urban
automobile
density, single-use income Urban
use is highly correlated in major urban
form and transportation
economic
are continued
health and safety and economic
of goods and air transportation. to historical
patterns
areas, increasing
of low
disposable
in vehicle technologies.
consumers,
to pay the full environmental,
costs of their transportation
or land-use
transportation.
technology
and
required
for truly sustainable
It is uncertain
whether
there is any set of policies that could gain political
,
at this time and that would result in truly sustainable
The desired future portrayed components
social, decisions.
over the next 25 years or longer, even if steps are taken the massive changes in behaviour,
infrastructure
acceptance
growth I
systems have evolved under policies that do not
require market players, including
to induce
health effects, increased
transportation
truck transport
and advances
Change will be required
negative
energy costs, and reduced
trends.
to sustainable
development
of consumers
immediately
current
use, intercity
The growth in automobile
including
stress, increased
listed in Exhibit 2.1.
in vision
statements
typically
transportation.
includes
the
â&#x20AC;&#x2122;
Typicul Componenfs of Sustuinuble Trunsportufion Vision Sfutements Changed
public values based on understanding
and the benefits Increased
of sustainable
commitment
development
of the seriousness and transportation
of citizens and government
to achieving
of inaction practices. sustainable
transportation. Transition
from dispersed,
more compact, shipping
mixed-use
single-use
urban,
suburban
and rural development
and liveable neighbourhoods
needs and solve multiple
to
that reduce travel and
social, environmental
and economic
problems. Emphasis
on accessibility
Increased
availability
rather than mobility.
of more sustainable
cycling, public transit
alternatives,
and use of information
including
technologies
walking
and
to reduce travel
needs. Increased
use of more sustainable
as reduced
alternatives
for moving
goods in cities, as well
need to move goods over any distance.
Viable urban
and intercity
Transportation
rail systems.
and other urban
infrastructure
that is cost effective and
affordable. Elimination
of hidden
Integrated
transportation
Development needs without Source: Transportation February
1996).
subsidies. and land-use
and use of appropriate
decision technology
making. that increases
the need for cars or other energy intensive Association
of Canada,
motor
Urban Vision Sampler (pamphlet)
access to basic transport. (Ottawa,
Two contrasting and the Canadian outcomes
vision statements, Urban
in Canada.
Vision for Urban Transportation the Canadian
from the Transportation
illustrate
in Canada
Urban
statement
Association
the Ontario
in Canada
of Canada
transportation
system is A New
(TAC). It has been
of Canadian
Municipalities,
Transportation
and some of Canadaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s largest municipalities.
the TAC generic vision for urban
of Canada
in 1993 by the Urban
such as the Federation
Transit Association,
Change Collaborative
vision
published
of the Transportation
by organizations
Association
the range of possible transportation
Perhaps the most influential
Transportation Council
widely endorsed
Institute,
and Climate Exhibit 2.2 presents
in the year 2023.
A Generic Vision for Urbun Truns ortution in 2023 from
, the Transport&ion Associufiqn o P Cunudu A long-term
urban
development
plan has been approved.
It emphasizes
use town centres and high density, mixed use along connecting transit
has funding
and operating
Short- and medium-term approved.
priority
They emphasize
compact, design.
Transit, highways,
parking
coordinated
arterials,
across the urban
mixed-use
plans have been
communities
based on walking,
and truck routes are planned
and
area.
The percentages of trips made by walking, cycling, transit and high-occupancy all increasing; the percentage of trips made by single-occupancy The average distance An area-wide
and time for peak hour commuter
parking
cars are
cars is decreasing.
travel is decreasing.
strategy is in place and enforced.
Few places still require on-street The physically
Public
in those corridors.
community/neighbourhood
cycling and transit-friendly
multi-
corridors.
challenged
goods transfer.
enjoy universal
access to public transit
and services.
Roads and bridges are in good repair. Air pollution Urban
from motor vehicles is declining.
transportation
stable and sustainable
infrastructure revenue
and services are adequately
funded
from
sources.
Political leaders have the support
of a well-informed
public when making
decisions
and transportation
systems to serve the area.
on urban
Source: Tiansportation February
1996).
development
Association
of Canada,
Urban VisionSampler (pamphlet)
(Ottawa,
The Canadian substantially
different
assumption land-use
Urban
Institute,
approach
that sustainable and transportation
in its 1994 study Cities Without Cars, presented
to sustainable
transportation planners
transportation.
requires
from Toronto
their regions would be like if use of personal 2032 and 202 1 respectively. readers are directed Initially, possible
These visions
scenario
is “desirable,
working
toward sustainable
of existing moulds
for the purpose
Given how deeply ingrained
of securing
fresh perspectives
that the cities without
to permit
current
Visioning
is a powerful
the development
transportation
new ways of thinking
for anyone
tool to “break out
of new paradigms”29
patterns
are essential
insight
on the cars
are in our lifestyles, to create a sustainable
system.
No long-term Government
exercise “in which one of several
the teams concluded
transportation.
and methods
what
phased out by
and interested
feasible and even necessary.” This is a valuable
psyches and institutions, transportation
envisioned
was gradually
information.
Cities Without Cars was a visioning
futures~ [was] assumed
and Vancouver
automobiles
from the
cars, two teams of
are not easily summarized,
to the study for further
present.” After initial scepticism,
Starting
cities without
a
vision of sustainable
of Canada
transportation
or any provincial
has yet been embraced
by the
government.
Definitions of Sustainable Transportation Despite the voluminous surprisingly of sustainable conceived
transportation
by the Brundtland
“development and expanded
transportation,
derive from the definition Commission
to encompass
of sustainable
development.
development compromising
elaborations
a range of environmental,
ideas are found in the definitions
listed in Exhibit 2.3.
there are
it is clear that definitions
in 1983, sustainable
to meet their own needs.” Subsequent’
this definition
issues. Analogous
transportation
on sustainable
of the term. Nonetheless,
which meets the needs of the present without
of future generations economic
literature
few formal definitions
As
is the ability
have refined social and
of sustainable
Selected Definitions of Sustainable Environmentally endanger
sustainable
transportation
public health or ecbsystems
the use of renewable
resources
the use of non-renewable renewable
Trunsportution
is transportation
and meets mobility
that does not needs consistent
at below their rates of regeneration;
resources
with:
and
at below the rates of development
of
substitutes.
Source: Organization
for Economic
Cooperation
Environmental Criteria@
and Development,
Sustainable Transportation (Paris, 1996).
In economic
terms a sustainable
infrastructure,
transportation
labour, capital operating
system will have to optimize
costs, and logistics costs and benefits.
In social terms it will have to reduce noise, decrease accidents, environmental
impacts
and the associated In environmental
of transportation
stress and frustration
land-use
transportation
eliminate
and zoning
transportation,
congestion.
air, land and
policies will enable the development
systems which will provide
an optimal
balance between
and more sustainable
Source: D. Bell, R. Delaney
and R. Lewis, A Proposal for Sustainable Transportation -A
Sustainable capable
Transport
transportation of delivering
renewable, relatively compatible
Canada,
which ultimately inexhaustible
services. National
capacity
system that is: and performance;
means using solar energy, or failing this a
energy source such as nuclear
fusion;
with the kinds of places we want to live in;
clean, so that environmental affordable
transportation
1996).
is a transportation required
of peopleâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s
services and mobility,
healthy communities,
(Ottawa:
quality is maintained
to
mixed use and higher
and freight shippersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; needs for access to transportation
Framework
the
and it will have to apply reduce, reuse and recycle strategies
decrease waste. In the area of urban urban
including
and to reduce travel time
arising from, for example,
terms it will have to reduce and/or
water pollution; density
accidents,
or enhanced;
in terms of capital and operating/maintenance
and
costs.
Source: IBI Group, Full Cost Transportation and Cost-Bused Pricing Strategies (Toronto: Transportation and Climate Change Collaborative, November 1995).
Sustainable include
transportation
changing
entails elements
of several visions.
people and the way they live, changing
These visions
prices and changing
technology. “Changing
people and how they live” means reducing
transportation,
premised
are a destructive “Changing
the need for
on the belief that automobile
ecological
prices” means modifying
market forces to enhance
vehicle miles travelled
force. transportation
demand
system wide transportation
through
the use of
efficiency. The role of
public policy, in this vision, is to send the right signals to the economy the marketplace ecological
work for instead
of against sustainable
development
to make and
integrity.
“Changing
technology”
means employing
the impact
of transportation
appropriate
technologies
to reduce
on society.
Source: D. Gordon, Transportation and Energy: Sustainable Transportation and How We Get There (Washington, D.C.: American Council for an Energy-Efficient Economy, 1995).
A sustainable
transportation
system:
meets the access needs (transportation and goods) of the present
is powered
of economic
by renewable
does not pollute absorb/cleanse is technologically is economically
,
growth and rising populations);
air, land or water beyond
supports
local, national
the planet’s ability to
~
and financially
a desirable
energy sources;
CO,);
possible;
supports
Source: J. Hartman, retreat at Econiche
to meet their own access needs (which will
(inehaustible)
(especially
for people
generation;
allows all future generations grow because
capacity and performance
affordable;
quality of life;
Transportation House, 1995.
and global sustainable Association
:mEp;gp.b iiiiiiiii,”i. .I
of Canada,
development presentation
goals.
to Environment
Canada
Decision-Making Transportation
Principles for Sustainable
One of the basic barriers decision-making that, together,
to progress
principles.
toward sustainable
In particular,
the decisions
transportation
is current
(1) there is no central oversight
made create the transportation
to ensure
system we want (whatever
that may look like); and (2) some of the key decision-making
principles
now in use
work against sustainability. Achieving decisions
sustainable
transportation
are made by individuals
requires
changes in the way transportation
and governments.
Within
the literature,
there are
calls for changes to: Educate the public to sustainable
about the risks of inaction
development
Integrate
environmental
Integrate
land-use
and sustainable objectives
Shift the emphasis minimize
of shifting
policies.
policies so that transportation
responds
to
form.
in transportation
systems from mobility
to accessibility,
to
the need for motor transportation.
Ensure that transportation
decisions
full account
costs of such decisions.30
of the external
Use economic economic
instruments
of individuals,
more aggressively
business
creatively
take
(which â&#x20AC;&#x153;internalizesâ&#x20AC;?
external
to achieve sustainability.
about our vision of the future, without
current
transportation
Provide
accessibility/mobility
availability
and governments
to achieve specific environmental,
and social targets when fuller cost pricing
costs) is inadequate Think
benefits
approaches.
fully into transportation
and transportation
desired land use and urban
and the potential transportation
or urban
of high external
settlement
alternatives
being constrained
by
practices. in parallel with measures
cost transportation
infrastructure
to reduce the
and services, such as
road or air transportation. Look for the environmental, individuals
Ensure flexibility transportation
integrated
Transportation
Association Initiatives,
Change
benefits
to society and to
that meet the test of sustainability. and implementation
for sustainable
packages of policy measures
that can be
gained from new approaches.
C lists decision-making
Environmental Climate
practices
in policy development
by adopting
altered to reflect experience Appendix
social and economic
from transportation
principles
of Canada, Transport
that have emerged
the International Canada,
(1995) and the National
Round
Nat,ona' RoundTable an .he Ewronmsntand ,beEcorany
Council
Canadaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s National
from the
for Local. Action Program
Table on the Environment
Sus-amble Tmsptcrion,n Canada- Bockgrounder
on
and the
Economy.
The NRTEE’s set of principles
Towards Sustainable modified
Transportation,
by Environment
Quantifiable Quantifiable contribution
in March 1996, and was later
Performance Measures measures
of the transportation
of policy instruments
A paper by Transport toward achieving
at the OECD conference,
Canada.
performance
the sustainability
was presented
held in Vancouver
To meet Canadians’
to achieving
Canada
four “strategic
are essential
to provide
a baseline
for tracking
system as it evolves, and measuring _
goals and targets.
staff suggests performance
the
measures
of progress
objectives”:
needs for access to safe, efficient and affordable
transportation
services. To achieve continuous measures
improvements
to increase transportation
in the sustainable efficiency, improve
use of resources stewardship
through
and enhance
waste management. To respect ecosystem To promote
integrity.
more sustainable
transportation
Other sources of performance
measures
in Canada
and abroad.31
focus on the environmental
impacts
of
transportation. For example, Environment Canada has developed environmental _. . .. indicators tor Canadian passenger transportation based on the following series of interrelated
factors:
Human
activity:
how Canadians
travel (passenger-kilometres
Stress: fossil fuel use by automobiles Environmental depletion,
conditions:
urban
The OECD Pollution proposed
six quantitative emissions
emissions
climate change, urban
transit
and automobile
Prevention
and Control
oxides; emissions
emissions
support;
list of performance
for environmental
maintenance;
ozone
use (passenger-kilometres).
sustainable
Protection
compounds;
gases; land in use for motor Agency provides
a more
measures. 32 For all modes, quantifiable
effects relating
vehicle and parts manufacture;
and vehicle and parts disposal.
has also
transportation,
of volatile organic
of greenhouse
transport; and noise Ievels. A report for the U.S. Environmental provided
air quality, stratospheric
Task Group on Transport
criteria for environmentally
of nitrogen
of particulates;
comprehensive
(litres consumed).
etc.
Societal response:
namely:
by mode).
to infrastructure
construction
measures and
vehicle travel; vehicle maintenance
and
are
Indicators
of urban
sustainability. Housing
sustainability
overlap with indicators
For example, a 1995 workshop
Corporation
sustainability
and Environment
indicators
Mortgage
form.
per capita consumption.
modal splits, infrastructure
expenditures,
commuting
distance/time/mode,
vehicle-kilometres,
Several observations
can be made about the search for performance
First, sustainable
and
a wide range of urban
including:
density, mixed use, urban
Energy consumption:
by Canada
identified
that relate to transportation,
Land use/urbanization:
Transportation:
sponsored
Canada
of transportation
transportation
energy consumed,
pollution
produced.33 indicators.
has many facets, each of which could be measured
using a variety of indicators.
Prioritization
collection
Tracking
and manipulation.
may be necessary
accessibility
to avoid unwieldy
or safety perforâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;mance
data
may be less
important than environmental performance. Second, transportation has many environmental
effects, not all of which are equal
in importance.
here. For example,
Prioritization
highway runoff
will likely be necessary
may be less important
Third, it may be possible effects. For example, emissions
to use â&#x20AC;&#x153;reference
emissions
of other pollutants
than tracking
of a pollutant may be a suitable
tracking
air quality measures.
indicatorsâ&#x20AC;?
that represent
that are strongly reference
correlated
indicator
a group of with
for that entire group
of ,pollutants.
Objectives and Strategies for Sustainable Transportation Existing objectives
and strategies
relating
almost exclusively
on sustainability
for transportation
to be environmentally
following
to sustainable
from an environmental sustainable
transportation perspective.
focus For example,
in 2030, the OECD suggests the
goals:
Transport-related
nitrogen
ambient
dioxide and for ozone levels as well as for nitrogen
nitrogen
Volatile organic
oxide emissions
compound
emissions
are reduced
are reduced
to meet objectives
for
deposition.
to the extent necessary
to avoid
excessive ozone levels. Emissions
of particulates
are reduced
ambient
air levels.
Climate
change is prevented
to the extent necessary
by achieving
fossil fuel use that are consistent
per capita carbon
with the global protection
to avoid harmful
dioxide emissions
from
goals for the
atmosphere. Land surface in urban
areas is used for the movement,
motor vehicles (including ecosystem
protection
transport
and maintains
vehicles)
maintenance,
in a way that meets objectives
a high degree of mixed-use
National RoundTable on the EnwonmentandtheEconomy
and storage of
Surtmab'e Tmspor,at,on in Canado ~ aackgrounder
urban
for
structure.
Transportation concern
does not create excessive outdoor
noise levels that present
The OECD argues that, from the perspective be the most comprehensive and adjusted
and relevant.
of the 199Os, these objectives
However, they should be reviewed
seem to
frequently
accordingly.
The Second Assessment
Report of the Intergovernmental
(IPCC) says that stabilizing
carbon
dioxide concentrations
require
carbon
dioxide emissions
reducing
with further 80 percent
a health
or serious nuisance.34
worldwide
reductions
thereafter.
Other authors
Panel on Climate at near current
immediately
in emissions
in countries
currently
levels would
by 50 to 70 percent,
have argued that reductions
or more per capita should be achieved in industrialized
for increases
responsible
Change
of
countries
to allow
for very low levels of
emissions.35 These are challenging
targets, which have profound
systems. OECD countries Most countries emissions
have committed
have committed
themselves
to stabilizing
to reductions
The OECD indicates
of between
Germany
10 and 25 percent
that many countries
for transportation
transportation-related
at 1990 levels by 2000. Austria, Denmark,
committed
implications
to much more modest
goals.
greenhouse
gas
and the Netherlands
have
to be achieved in later years.
are reporting
difficulty
meeting
even these
modest targets. The international Third Conference Climate
situation,
Geneva, Switzerland
community
countries
endorse
should
if adopted,
States has formally
the U.S. proposal
the international
system’of
out in an atmosphere
for sustainable of crisis. Canada
level air quality standards
international
community.
Health Organization,
emission
Canada
continues
and emissions embraces
and the transportation
targets be adopted
the meeting,
emissions
implications.
transportation
on
of the Parties in
the science on climate change.
in Kyoto, and that, during
an international
1997, the
Convention
for Global Affairs, Timothy
accepted
that legally binding
would likely have major economic
Policy development
by
the developed
trading.
Such a protocol,
for Canada.
in Canada
is’not being carried
to work to harmonize regulations
its national
with those of the
the air quality guidelines vehicle emissions
of the World
standards
of the
States.
Canada
has committed
itself only to’stabilizing
levels by the year 2000, and is unlikely National
Framework
in July 1996, the U.S. Undersecretary
the United
He also presented
United
Nations
Change will be held in Kyoto, Japan. At the Second Conference
Wirth, indicated
ground
however, could change quickly. In December
of the Parties to the United
Action Program
on Climate
greenhouse
gas emissions
to meet even that modest Change
(1995) (NAPCC)
at 1990
target. Canada’s does not set out specific
objectives for reducing greenhouse gases from the transportation sector. While it does summarize the activities of various government departments that are expected to help reduce greenhouse these activities. To bring carbon the reductions measures
gases, it does not indicate dioxide emissions
recommended
from transportation
by governments
gains expected in Canada
from
into line with
by the IPCC would require far more aggressive policy
and changes in societal behaviour
consideration
the quantitative
than any so far in place or under serious
in Canada.
Nakmal RoundTable on he Ennronmen, and me Economy
Sustmable Transpor;o,,on m Canoda - Bsckpunder
However, the situation Municipal
and provincial
driven almost exclusively serendipitous, congestion shifting
could-change thinking
auto demand
British Columbia
today is
This may be
sources, such as roadway environmental
impacts
to other times and other modes. We seem to be at a unique and environmental
converge, with major implications
Reducing
for, new revenue
near future.
in Canada
budgets.
and user fees and tolls, can have positive
in history when economic
complementary
in the relatively
transportation
by the new reality of shrinking
because some proposals pricing
substantially
about urban
goals in urban
transportation
by point
may
for sustainability.
has perhaps
the most developed
clean air strategy based on three
policy objectives: the need for transportation
through
such actions
as land-use
planning
and telecommuting. Encouraging
alternatives
to the automobile
such as public transit,
carpooling
and cycling. Reducing
emissions
per vehicle-kilometre
through
the use of cleaner vehicles
and fuels. British Columbia
has not published
set specific targets for reducing intent
to support
carbon
Canadaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s com,mitment
levels by the year 2000, and to examine British Columbia
has also pushed
estimates
of the impacts
dioxide emissions.
to reduce greenhouse sustainable
approaches
to adopt the stringent
of these measures
or
It has, however, expressed gas emissions to further
emissions
its
to 1990
reductions.36
standards
of California. The Ontario sponsored
Transportation
and Climate
by the NRTEE, the Ontario
and other groups, has proposed
Round
a 12-point
Change Collaborative,
which was jointly
Table on the Environment
strategy for sustainable
(Exhibit 2.4). This strategy has not been formally of Ontario.
endorsed
and Economy
transportation
by the Government
A Recommended in Onfario
Strafegy
Design and implement
for Susfcrinuble
a broad range of programs
Transportation
to ensure that the public
understands the risks of climate change and the need to economize of fossil fuels. Implement
on the use
policies that will bring about more compact, mixed-use
development
in urban areas to shorten travel distances and reduce vehicular
travel demand. Establish decision-making deliver integrated
bodies in large urban areas to evaluate, plan and
transportation
and urban development,
as well as integration
of transit systems and services. Implement automobile Maintain
transit priority measures to make transit time competitive travel. sufficient funding
to ensure adequate transit funding
with
capacity, increase
the acceptability of using funds from user-pay sources to improve public transit and enhance transit service in areas with sufficient population density. Implement pricing and supply policies to control parking and encourage transfer to transit. Implement fuller cost pricing for transportation modes to discourage overuse of single-occupancy vehicles and encourage the use of more fuel-efficient technologies
and transportation
modes.
Develop a Memorandum of Understanding with automotive manufacturers to increase the availability of fuel-efficient models, recognizing the linkage between gasoline prices and consumer demand for more fuel-efficient vehicles. Implement mandatory vehicle inspection and maintenance programs in large urban areas to ensure the proper operation of emission control equipment. Maintain
incentives for the use of cleaner alternative fuels and explore tiays to
promote
further the development
and use of alternative
fuelled vehicles.
Develop an Ontario capability to participate in the U.S. governmentâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s and the Big Three auto manufacturersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; Partnership for a New Generation of Vehicles (PNGV). The PNGV is working to develop vehicles that will achieve a threefold increase in fuel efficiency over todayâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s vehicles, while maintaining performance utility and safety.
size,
Enhance intermodal freight transfer facilities and services and encourage development of new intermodal technologies and service levels. Sour&
Transportation
and Climate
Transportation in Ontario (Toronto,
Change November
Collaborative,
A Strategy for Sustainable
1995), pp. 6-7.
the
Jurisdictional Roles and Activities Every level of government sustainable
transportation.
responsibilities important
has several important
The following
and initiatives
interjurisdictional
lnternafional
jurisdictions
some of the key
and identities
some of the more
So&es
most important
Nations
set international
of these related to transportation ozone depleting
substances,
Change, and the 1996 Istanbul latter was the outcome Human
summarizes
issues raised in the literature.
Bodies such as the United stratospheric
roles to play in achieving
discussion
in different
,
are the 1988 Montreal
the 1992 Framework
Declaration
of Habitat
goals for sustainability.
on Sustainable
II, the United
Nations
Protocol
Convention
-Human Conference
The on
on Climate
Settlement.
The
on Sustainable
Settlements.
The OECD has been a strong player in the research, education policy development
aspects of sustainable
many of its studies and disseminated also influenced
policy making
transportation.
the practical
experience
for transportation,
and awareness,
It has published
and
the results of
of many countries.
particularly
It has
in the European
Community.
Federal
Government
The Canadian transportation
governmentâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s
key responsibilities
in the achievement
of sustainable
include:
Canadaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s contribution international
to the development,
protocols
negotiation
related to sustainable
of and commitment
development
to
and sustainable
transportation. Programs
of public
Monitoring
and evaluating
including
and awareness.
performance
health effects and impacts
National content
education
energy policy including fuels than gasoline
Developing
technologies
against national
air quality
standards,
on ecosystems.
measures
promoting
and diesel, and standards contributing
to reduced
the use of lower carbon for cleaner fuels.
fuel use and reduced
need for
transportation. Regulating
vehicle emissions
with the United Regulating.vehicle Regulating standards.
standards,
with particular
States and dealing with transboundary
attention
to harmonization
air and water pollution.
safety standards.
vehicle fuel efficiency
standards,
including
harmonization
with U.S.
â&#x20AC;&#x2122;
Harmonizing
sustainable
transportation
governments,
particularly
the United
economic&y
competitive
with other jurisdictions.
Using its taxation external
powers to apply economic
costs of transportation
social objectives,
consumer
Implementing
policies that improve
performance
of its own transportation
Change
Management
(NAPCC).
Commissioner Substances
and business
Strictly federal initiatives
initiatives
such as the on Climate
the newly established the Ozone Depleting
program.
it is clear that we are far from acceptable
being addressed
fuel
objectives.
and environmental
Development,
There is much more yet to do. Further,
those currently
and
In particular,
Action Program
include
and Sustainable
Plan and the federal FleetWise
economic
behaviour.
fleets.
much more to tell us in future about the impacts including
in ways that internalize
the energy efficiency
plays a key role in national
Despite these initiatives,
remains
to meet sustainability
Plan and Canada’s National
of Environment
air pollutants.
instruments
tax levers could be adapted
The federal government
and actions with other
or to meet specific environmental,
by changing
tax and income
NOx/VOC
strategies
States, to ensure Canada
it is apparent
levels of certain
that science has
of a broad range of pollutants,
by policy makers and those that are not now
the subject of policy focus. Canada’s NAPCC does not yet contain Moreover,
there is no indication
specific targets for the transportation
that the impact
of the program’s
measures
will enable Canada
emissions
at 1990 levels by the year 2000. The Voluntary
is the main national development
initiative
bodies -
sized enterprises,
The federal and provincial
reach to include Directors
a much broader
of the Transportation
now encourage
mainly
its members,
including
and energy ministries,
of carbon sponsors
achieving
sustainable
approach.
The program
transportation,
including
fuel taxes, to promote
provincial
Canadian
initiatives
and
or small and medium-
dioxide emissions
of Canada
In October endorsed
departments
in earlier submissions
from to expand
its
1996, the Board of
the VCR. The TAC will of transportation
that
to the VCR from
to sign on. despite extensive
is also silent on government
sustainable
section of the program
(VCR)
to have a major
of the VCR intend
Canada’s NAPCC is silent on the need for integrated
help in achieving
dioxide
and Registry
large corporations
form it is unlikely
range of organizations. Association
may or may not have been involved environmental
Challenge
since it does not address individuals
the source of the majority
transportation.
-
signed up. In its present
on transportation,
to stabilize carbon
under the NAPCC. The VCR is in its early stages of
with about 600 organizations
government impact
to meet its commitment
sector.
transportation
long-term
transportation.
packages of policies for international
attention
use of economic
changes in market behaviour In its present
is not a strategy with an expected
that may have an (unspecified)
to this
instruments, that could
form, the transportation outcome.
impact
It is a list of
on sustainability.
Provincial
Governments
The provinces
have jurisdiction
key role in working
over land-use
toward long-term
planning,
sustainability
province
has its own approach
to land-use
provinces
vest most land-use
responsibilities
planning.
are highly susceptible
Provincial Provincial
governments
responsibilities
at the municipal
and public transit, and regulation
Some provinces following
and licensing
illustrate
as municipal
from local homeowners.
capital and maintenance
decision
making.
costs of road infrastructure
of vehicles, fuel taxes, safety, policing
industry.
have initiated
examples
provincial
to NIMBY opposition
the registration
of the insurance
each
level. This tends to
communities,
also play a large role in transportation include
Currently,
In general, however, most
reduce the ability to â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;achieve higher density, mixed-use governments
an activity that may play a
in transportation.
programs
targeted
at sustainable
the range of responsibilities-and
transportation.
potential
The
roles for
governments.
British Columbia
has a Clean Vehicles and Fuels Program.
It expects this policy to
result in air quality levels in the Lower Fraser Valley that are similar in 2020 to what they are now, despite the projected initiatives
under
Improved
consideration
emissions
growth in vehicle use in that period. The range of
in the Clean Vehicles and Fuels Program
test levels and manufacturer
A heavy duty vehicle inspection A voluntary
scrap program
Encouragement
zero emission,
standards
of original
alternative-fuelled
Emissions Cleaner standards Cleaner standard,
vehicle conversions
equipment
encouraging
low and
vehicles. (OEM) manufacture
of
for fleet and heavy duty applications. programs.
of new vehicles.
diesel fuel, including for off-road gasoline,
standards),
manufacturer
fleet changes and demonstration labelling
and requirement
standards.
to California
vehicles, especially
including
minimum
Gasoline
vapour
pressure
in gasoline
improved
diesel performance
and diesel fuel
markets. the Canadian
detergent
methylcyclopentadienyl
reduction
(similar
warranties.
vehicles.
fuel efficient and alternative-fuelled
Encouragement
Government
gas and propane
vehicles meet low emission
B.C. low emission
performance
for trucks and buses.
for highly polluting
of natural
that converted
program
emission
include:
standards,
manganese
pressure
controls,
in summer
Government
Standards
and the elimination
tricarbonyl including
and extending
of
(MMT). reduction
of allowable
the application
to areas outside the Lower Fraser Valley.
Nat,acol RoundTable on the Enwonmen!andthe Economy
Board gasoline
Svsfamable TranspomonI" Conoda - Backgrounder
vapour
of vapour
pressure
Reformulated Renewable
gasoline. alternative
methyl tertiary
fuels such as ethanol,
ethyl tertiary
butyl ether (MTBE) as gasoline
Tax relief for alternative
transportation
butyl ether (ETBE) and
additives.
fuels, including
natural
gas, propane
and methanol. Stage I and II gasoline vapour Ontario,
in addition
Plan, is “pursuing
of the pilot inspection Metro Toronto mandatory ground
I&M program
in Ontario,
level pollutants,
1 percent
to Canada,‘since
Eastern Canada The province
has begun
appropriate
development
municipalities
within
for the community, requirements
the environment
associated
infrastructure,
as well as opportunities
Opportunities
for selective expansion
in Ontario. work on this
of such emissions
in
,
of a GTA Transportation investments
to yield optimum
benefits
The plan tiill address the
and rehabilitation
for optimizing
Plan in cooperation
“The plan is to ensure that
and the economy.
with the preservation
a
plan, aimed at reducing
50 percent
the city-region.
choices are made in transportation
has
to reducing
by 400 kilotonnes
It should be noted that international States.
in
plans for a
The government
from transportation
approximately
come from the United
with the regional
announced
Area (GTA), in addition
a smog management
level ozone and particulates.
issue is important
recently
dioxide emissions
of total emissions
developing
of the results
that has been in operation
with details still pending.
would reduce carbon
Management
in the
is the evaluation
(I&M) program
for the Greater Toronto
is currently
NOx/VOC
originating
the newer initiatives
and maintenance
that a program
Ontario
in the national
that will address emissions
for the past year. The government
year, or by about ground
to its participation
initiatives
sector ....“37 Among
transportation
estimated
recovery in the Lower Fraser Valley.
of existing
the use of existing facilities.
of the transpartation
network
will also be
assessed.“38 Statements meeting
describing
forecast demand
and more compact the traditional driving
urban
the new GTA Transportation for transportation
Plan are not clear on how
and the new objectives
form will be realized. The following
model of demand-responsive
transportation
of sustainability
statement
planning
suggests that
may still be
the effort:
The dynamic
growth of population
and Durham
will result in significant
and employment travel increases
in Halton, within
Peel, York
these regions.
Their city centres and development
nodes will attract many new trips. Other
major trip destinations
large industrial
commercial
development.
also form an important
will include
As a result, outbound and growing
component
parks and low density
commuters
from Metro will
of future travel demand.39
On the other hand, the document Significant decisions
advances
in terms of integrating
supported
An urban
structure
in the public
documents
economic
and transportation and environmental
consisting
describing
the GTA Transportation
environmental “Support
objective.
the goals of sustainable
the impact
at a minimum
substantial
complete. regional
of harmful
emissions
through
off green-fields
Plan to sustainable
declining
major long-term,
municipalities
in Canada,
planning
the directions
take now in developing
efforts such as the GTA
transportation
in Canada’s largest city-region
required
regional
planning.
congestion
municipalities
to integrate
range transportation
Priority
through
transportation
improve
air quality
Montreal
urban
management
of
for the
into municipal
the Ministry
region, which embraces
measures.
to
law has
the current
for a long-
about
transportation
to public transit
The major objectives
are to
as well as traffic flow in the region. One of the main factors driving modalshare
would require
for public transit
construction
is the fact that continuing
of several costly new bridges to access
Island.
At the end of 1995, the Government agency for the Montreal the Greater Montreal former regional
transit
of Quebec created a regional
region to address transit
agency, the City of Montreal
the region. It will have planning
transportation
and related transportation
Region. The new agency will have broader
agency has been created to foster a comprehensive throughout
planning
this provision,
the modal shift from automobiles
demand
the push for an increasing auto dependence
transportation
is being given to optimizing
and increasing
development
planning guide for municipalities. has taken the lead in developing
plan for the Montreal
I35 municipalities. infrastructure
and
has already been established Since 1993, provincial
in implementing
. Municipalities has created a transportation The Quebec Ministry of Transportation
land-use
effect on the sustainability
plan is under
and road deterioration.
To assist municipalities
and the
for decades to come.
and 10 regions, and a truck route network urban
government
and implementing
plans for the GTA could have a profound transportation
of the GTA
since the project is not
the Ontario
transportation
In Quebec, a multimodal
by
use of single occupancy
development.“42
transportation
Plan are infrequent,
minimize
in transportation
however, is the following statement as Vision for the GTA “: “[The Plan] respects the environment
However, because
province
to social,
to sustainable
reductions
At this stage it is not possible to assess the likely contribution
Transportation
urban
approach
issues.“41
vehicles, and by taking pressure Transportation
the five
In the same document,
part of “A Transportation reducing
Plan suggests
Among
in the GTA by taking a balanced
which requires
energy consumption.
transit
for future development.40
On the surface this does not appear to be a commitment transportation,
and provincial
of designated
has been endorsed
of the plan is the following:
development
such as:
land use and transportation
concept
centres and corridors
the plan will be based on any particular objectives
statements
at the Official Plan level have been made by regional
governments.
Nothing
also contains
Transit Commission. approach
needs in
powers than the The new
to transportation
powers related to both transit
and road
,
infrastructure. financial
It will also have dedicated
assistance
for transit
in collaboration
The concept
~established within described
implemented,
of transportation
and Municipal
As recognition
sustainability
there should be progress
Governments
grows that sustainable
transportation
will require
players in efforts toward sustainable
transportation.
Canadian
Municipalities
the 20% Club, whose 130 or more municipal
members
have, committed
cosponsors to actions
landfill
methane
One clear municipal planning
are coming
published
management; parking
has adopted
the following
from
is land-use
However, municipalities Association
of
sustainable
These cover a broad range of strategies the environmental,
Most frequently,
public transit
social and
municipal
efforts relate to
services; cycling infrastructure;
policies; and â&#x20AC;&#x153;greeningâ&#x20AC;?
of municipal
an official plan and an urban
pedestrian
fleets. For example,
transportation
policy that includes
items:
A network
of 130 kilometres
Pedestrian
infrastructure
pedestrian
priority
Intermodal
parking
A private parking street-reserved transformation
of bicycle paths.
such as underground
at metro stations.44 policy that discourages
parking
for residents
long-term
that involved
parking
downtown,
provides
and uses tax policy to discourage
of vacant land into outdoor
for Local Environmental
consumption.
walkways in the city core and
signals.
A green fleets program Council
transportation
communities.
and plans for improving
of local transportation.
infrastructure;
by 20 percent energy
1996, the Transportation
measures
traffic demand
of
and other activities.
an Urban Vision Sampler, which highlights
and individual
Montreal
forestation
higher density, mixed-use
efforts by eight municipalities.
impacts
gas emissions
toward sustainable
transportation economic
the Federation
from transportation,
recovery, urban
have many other roles to play. In February Canada
key
on climate change. Six of Canadaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s largest
role in working
to encourage
are becoming
For example,
to reduce greenhouse
1990 levels by 2005 .43 Reductions consumption,
governments
significant
and municipal
have committed
by
in the region.
regional
municipalities
plan
are implied
the plan. If the plan and the new institutional
sustainability
changes to travel patterns,
to
is not explicit in the transportation
above are successfully
toward environmental
network.
agency.
transportation
arrangement
public transit
region will continue
region. However, moves toward financial
the priorities
Regional
systems in the Montreal
with thenew
of sustainable
for the Montreal
that it will use to provide
services offered on the regional
The three existing major transit function
sources of revenue
joining
Initiatives
parking. a program
of the International
to reduce urban
transportation
energy
The approach complementary
in the Greater Vancouver
Regional
District
initiatives:
The Liveable Region Strategic Plan, which provides compact
mixed-use
Transport
communities
based on desired urban goods movement
Municipality
Plan, which provides
of Ottawa-Carleton
Community
environmentally
plans
cycling, public transit, c
controls
on many sources of air
(RMOC)
has adopted
related to development
two vision
of its
Vision: a region of communities
Association
The RMOC has adapted region have identified
of Canada’s Urban
Transportation
the generic TAC vision and decision
key concerns
that are
and diverse.
issues and needs of the Ottawa-Carleton
transportation.
Vision.
principles
to address
region. Public consultations
that have particular
relevance
in the
to sustainable
For example:
There is a desire for increased Many residents
Environment
opportunity
feel dependence
There is support
for improved
transit
service. one priority
Vision statement
by those surveyed economic
was developed
for the region: “Ottawa-Carleton
effective, affordable
use of public transit
needs to be reduced.
vision process, despite current
An overall Transportation adopted
to walk and cycle.
on the automobile
was ranked as a number
RMOC community
principles
making
healthy, safe, caring, prosperous
The Transportation
promoting
transportation
system:45
Ottawa-Carleton’s
the unique
for walking,
choice.
transportation.
as the basis for decision
transportation
plan including
transportation
long- and medium-term
form and priorities
Management
including
The Regional
a land-use
and then the automobile.
The Air Quality
documents
and increased
2021, which provides
pollution
is based on three
the
conditions. to encompass
all of the
will be a model region in
and accessible ‘transportation
and other environmentally
during
friendly
emphasizing
an increased
modes such as walking
and
cycling.” In February Wentworth
1993, the Council
adopted
2020: The Sustainable
of the Regional
a vision statement
and implementation
Region, as a basis for all regional
was premised
on the need to consider
environment
and health/social
Transportation,
Municipality
land-use
broader
among
making.
adopted
Vision
Vision 2020
the economy,
community
and program
are all under way using the goals and principles
report, entitled
decision
linkages
factors, if a sustainable
and other planning
of Hamilton-
the
is to be realized.
development for Vision 2920.
in the region
Hamilton-Wentworth
is Canadaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s designated
community
United Nationâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Local Agenda 2 1 Model Communities three-year around
research and development
the world are developing
planning.
Transportation
walking,
cycling, transit,
MCP is coordinated
collaboration
Program
participating
in which 14 municipalities
tools and models for local sustainable
is a key element, less reliance
with emphasis
on automobiles
by the International
Council
in the
(MCP). The MCP is a
on new land-use
and intermodal
from
development policies,
integration.
for Local Environmental
The
Initiatives.
sirzs.i~;L,:.: g~.DgJgqp;“‘l
/ t
&ggs~i~~~:“~l
!
~~~~@~;:~, “______
i .Ll”“.
z.
Footnotes Canadian
Cities Without Curs (Toronto, Vancouver,
Urban Institute,
Greater Vancouver
External costs of transportation transportation. isolation
are costs to society that are not borne by users of
These include costs of congestion,
of non-users,
air and water pollution,
(Ottawa: Transport
Canada,
gases.
for the U.S. Environmental
Protection
Economic
Sustainable Transportation
Impacts of Transportation,
paper prepared
Agency, June 1996.
Lura Group, Measuring Urban Sustainability: (Ottawa: Canada Mortgage
National
1996).
Apogee Research, Indicators of the Environmentul
Organization.for
injury and death to others, social
solid waste and greeenhouse
R. Lewis, A Proposal for Sustainable T'runsportation -A
D.Bell,R.Delaneyand Framework
1994), section on
Regional District, p. 3.
Canadian
Indicators Workshop Proceedings
and Housing
Corporation
and Environment
Cooperation
and Development,
Canada,
Environmental
1996).
Criteria for
(Paris, 1996), p. 62.
Ibid., p. 59. Ibid, p. 14. Ontario
Ministry
of Environment
Meeting the Challenge of Climate Change: A
and Energy,
Status Report on Initiatives in Ontario to Reduce Greenhouse Gus Emissions (Toronto,
1995).
Ibid. Ontario
Ministry
of Transportation,
The Challenges (brochure)
(Toronto,
Towards a Greater Toronto Area Transportation
Plan:
1995), p. 4.
Ibid., p. 8. Ibid. Ibid., p. 7. Federation
of Canadian
Intermodal a portion
The 20% Solution: A Municipal Approach to
Municipalities,
Addressing Climate Change (brochure)
(Ottawa, nd.),
parking is located at transit stations
p. 6.
to enable motorists
to use public transit for
of their trip.
Regional Municipality
of Ottawa-Carleton,
Vision, Principles and Issues, approved
Transportation
Master Plan -
by Regional Council, October
;ipkaicr.-. *,h:;“ii;&i;
1
Notiona, RoundTable an -he Enwonmenfordhe Em-my
Susainoble Trans,mlat,on in Conado- Backgrounoe~
Transportation
25, 1995.
Where is Sustainable Transportation on the Policy Development Agenda? Policy development starting
for sustainable
transportation
gate. The essence of the challenge
Professor William National
Rees of the University
Conference
on Sustainable
It seems that humankind, unsustainable
is, in a phrase, just out of the
faced in transportation of British Columbia
Transportation,
thoroughly
alienated
course which certainly
degrades
end with the ecological
economist
Terry Barker (1994) points
conclusion
“... is not that of a ‘deep green’ minority. and economic
Environment
consensus
and Development
Sustainable
Development,
transportation,
transportation
range of negative reductions
remains
environmental,
continuing
and industry,
It is the scientific,
by the UN Intergovernmental on
Council
for
Institute.“46
in the past-two decades in all modes of
the fastest growing
sector in terms of a broad
impacts.
Moreover,
despite
in recent years, as a result of the coordinated
smog, particulates,
sulphates
actions
and air toxics are
problems.
Policy responses combinations
by governments,
of regulation
broad range of consumer Governments investment
primarily
at the municipal
construction
more cost-effective evaluating
sector. Few
and can no longer base infrastructure growth by individual
levels is the decision
subway line in Metro Toronto,
alternatives
to focus on
decisions.
and provincial
were not widely debated.
the most cost-effective
continue
in the technology
packages of policies that can affect a
constrained on demand
of the Sheppard
policy options
stronger
and business
are financially
decisions
at least in North America,
and technology
steps have been taken to implement
example
and
Report, the (UN) Conference
social and economic
in some air pollutants
of governments
is set on an
“environment”
in Rio de Janeiro, the Business
advances
1995.
out, this sobering
and the World Resources
Despite major technological
to the
razing of the Earth. As
as expressed
Change, the Brundtland
by
in November
from nature, the natural
Cambridge
Panel on Climate
in a presentation
in Vancouver
which could plausibly
political
was expressed
transportation
mode. A current
in Ontario
to continue
where opportunities
More effort is required
alternatives
and in accounting
for in for
externalities. There are, however, many signs of change in the way decisions Regional way urban planning
metropolitan transportation approaches.
municipalities articulated
governments
systems will be developed
The Federation
have adopted
of Canadian
it advocates
Association
in future to support Municipalities
to rethink
the
new land-use
and some individual
for urban
transportation
of Canada. While the TAC acknowledges
will not lead to true sustainability,
right direction.
Nol,onol RoundTable on the Enwonmentand theEconomy
are being made.
are beginning
the generic vision and principles
by the Transportation
that the approaches
in all parts of Canada
S”ilal”aMe Tmnsporiailo” 1” Canodo - Backpounder
they are steps in the
However, Canadian and broad consensus
efforts have not coalesced into a well-formed
on a set of integrated
far, there has been little attention
and little action to address the aviation Climate
change is essentially~in
legally binding
post-2000
emissions
on Climate
Change.
Recent protocols
Specific
gases at 1990
development,
attention
including
U.N. Conference the beginnings
Nations,
sustainable
transportation,
of a global commitment
New organizations
economically
in the international
to which Canada
Development
at the
of the U.N. Framework
on the policy directions
on Sustainable
could
that much more aggressive and
could be vulnerable
as other countries
of the United
focused international
if it does
community.
is a signatory,
required
have
if sustainable
is to be achieved.
Habitat
II and the
in Rio are the most recent expressions
of
to policies for sustainability.
such as the International
Council
(ICLEI), created in 1990, arebecoming
movement.
of greenhouse
of the Parties (COP3)
not address the issue as seriously
Initiatives
emissions
targets will be the subject of negotiations
Canada
So
modes.
goal. Yet there are strong indications
I997 Third Conference
Convention
sustainability.
freight movement,
as an area for policy making.
stab&zing
strategy
does not have policies in place that would ensure transportation
meet this modest December
urban
of intercity
and marine
its infancy
targets have not yet been set beyond levels. Canada
actions for tackling
to the sustainability
national
for Local Environmental
a force in the local sustainability
Toronto-based
ICLEI now has about 200 member municipalities worldwide and expects its growth to continue. “47 By 1995 , 15 Canadian municipal governments had become
members
of ICLEI.
As stated in Chapter transportation
2, the OECD has been an active participant
research and policy development.
conferences
on the subject, the latest being Towards Sustainable
conference
hosted by the Government
of Canada
In 1994, the OECD and the European endorsed
It has sponsored
a comprehensive
strategic
framework
European
national
in Vancouver
Conference
strategy approach
is one of the most advanced governments
proposed
model for a comprehensive
the challenges
Canada.
for urban
In the United strong legislative
This integrated
Policy: The European
1990 and the Intermodal transportation
that includes
goals, including or program
response
evaluations
In conclusion, transportation outcome
strategy approach
It could
is discussed
transportation
further
are rooted in a (CAAA) of
Act of 1991. However, it has been level air quality in the CAAA are
in the U.S. and that societal and sustainability
to the climate change issue, are not incorporated
into project
of either act.
although
in Canada,
of sustainable
making
This
to date. It will be used by
the Clean Air Act Amendments
Surface Transportation decision
of Transport transportation.
strategy, at least for dealing with
noted by U.S. analysts that the clear targets fo,r ground driving
urban
Approach.”
States, moves toward sustainable framework
a
in March 1996.
as they develop their own policy responses.
also be used as a‘starting in the section “Integrated
Transportation,
of Ministers
to sustainable
in sustainable international
a number
of initiatives
are contributing
no focused strategy or program
transportation
can be achieved.
toward sustainable
yet exists to ensure that an
What Has Worked
and What Has Not
What Has Worked With the exception urban
of ground
level ozone, coefficient
air quality in Canada has benefited
of haze and nitrogen
from reductions
in emissions
pollutants
in the past 25 years. Progress has been made in acid deposition
pollutants.
Annual
carbon
monoxide
mean concentrations and volatile organic
has declined~ by 96 percent suspended
particulates
have all declined.
from air
dioxide and Particulate
of the ban on lead in gasoline.
although
this measure
of health effects or pollution
lead
Total
is now understood
sources. Particulates,
in fact,
an area of concern.48
Routine network
since 1974 because
have also declined,
not to be a good indicator remain
of sulphurs dioxide, nitrogen compounds
oxide,
of some
monitoring
for the period
of air monitoring
results from the National 1970-1994
stations
not necessarily
represent
pollution
community-wide
SuemhJo~ky of Seven
Surveillance
(NAPS)
are shown in Exhibit 3.1. The NAPS network
in most Canadian
100,000. The NAPS data represent
Air Pollution
cities with populations levels at individual
sampling
sites and may
air quality.
Air Pollutants
ppb = parts per billion; ppm = parts per million; coefficient of haze
consists
greater than
Measured
pg/m3 = micrograms
by .the NAPS
per cubic metre; COH =
Source: Pollution Probe, Transportation, Air Quality and Human Health, Issues and Perspectives, paper prepared for Health Canada, March 1996.
These improvements improved Canada.
have resulted
fuels developed Regulations
implemented
in response
to further
from changes in vehicle technologies to emissions
tighten
emissions
standards standards
The federal and B.C. governments transportation technology,
continue
have been financially
in its development
applications.
to be
important
air pollutant
not possible to predict how far the technology technology
be premature
on sustainable
introduced
however, it is
the transportation
to predict the long-term
a mandatory
called AirCare, for the one million
Valley. Under this program, volatile organic
emissions
market,
impact
of the
inspection
oxides have been reduced
by 18 percent,
is planning
and carbon
improvements
and also plans to introduce
mandatory
heavy duty vehicles. For this latter initiative,
and maintenance
light duty vehicles in the Lower Fraser
of nitrogen
compounds
British Columbia
effectiveness,
At present,
transportation.
In 1992, British Columbia
24 percent.
the fuel cell could make
emissions.
will penetrate
to attempt
of fuel cell
stage. If it can be successfully
in transportation,
to reducing
and it would therefore
Ballard Power
systems for
Ballard is a world leader in the development
for broad application
contributions
supporting
of electric propulsion
which is at the prototype/demonstration
commercialized
3 percent,
and
in the U.S. and
in both countries.
Systems of Vancouver
program,
imposed
to this program inspection
by
monoxide
by
to increase
and maintenance
the B.C. government
its for
has overwhelming
public support. Progress in reducing result of coordinated agreements
emissions
regulatory
of air pollutants
with vehicle manufacturing
taken place through Environment,
such mechanisms
Canadian
from transportation
action by the federal and provincial and fuel supply industries. as the Canadian
Energy Ministers
Council
and the National
has been the
governments, Coordination
of Ministers
and has
of the
Air Issues Coordinating
Committee.
What
Has Nof Worked
National
Level
In spite of the coordinating integrated
decision
governments.
Ground continue
economic,
issues among
consideration environmental development
all-levels of
decisions
of the federal
of policies and programs and social benefits, (including
designed
to
and so far little sense
transportation)
evident
in the
policies and programs. level ozone, inhalable
to be of concern,
their negative increased
noted above, there is a general lack of
about transportation
about sustainable
governmentâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s
activities
still drives most transportation
There is limited
combined
of urgency
making
Economics
government. produce
I
and respirable
particularly
health impacts.
by about 20 percent
particulates,
in view of emerging
and nitrogen epidemiological
As shown in Exhibit 3.1, ozone concentration since 198 1.
dioxide evidence has
of
Virtually
all growth trends point to more frequent
longer trips at lower speeds. Therefore, will be required current
further
just to hold emissions
use of light duty vehicles with
gains in automobile
emissions
at today’s levels. (Note: stabilizing
levels appears to be the limited
long-range
goal of the current
control
emissions
at
B.C. Policy on
Clean Vehicles and Fuels.). Since ground
level ozone appears
research is leading reductions
to increased
in total suspended
from a health perspective the literature
sustainable
over past decades),
transportation
(despite
we must conclude
that
has not been achieved. Moreover,
policies are unlikely
to result in sustainable
in future.
In 1994, the federal government on gasoline
and since epidemiological
over the health effects of particulates
particulates
suggests that current
transportation
to be increasing
concerns
announced
a one-time
of 1.8 cents per litre. The tax was justified,
effect on automobile
fuel consumption.
increase
in the excise tax
at least in part, by its expected
Given the elasticities
of demand
for automotive
fuels, it was clear from the outset that the new federal tax would have little impact overall fuel consumption range of 1 percent. variations
commitments intended expectation
the British government of 5 percent
climate change, initiated
annual
Challenge
and
in the
real price increase would be required package of other instruments,
decrease in greenhouse
and Registry, described
in Chapter
of Canada’s NAPCC. The future impact
transportation energy demand in Canada involve a large percentage of transportation
is uncertain users.
to life cycle reductions
of greenhouse
gas emissions.50 2, is one of the
of the VCR on
since the program
To the extent that the oil and gas sector participates contribute
industry
criteria and behaviours
with an integrated
to meet the IPCC target of a 60-80 percent initiatives
fuel taxes
This move was
rising fuel prices.
The OECD projects that a 7 percent
The Voluntary
a policy of increasing
signal to allow consumers,
to adjust a wide range of decision of continuously
to meet its
in real terms per year, indefinitely.49
for the next 20 years, in combination
principal
the range of short-term
in 1993, as one measure
to send a strong and long-term
governments
on
in the
price for the fuel.
for mitigating
by a minimum
In theory, the tax could reduce demand
However, the increase was well within
in the market
In contrast,
in Canada.
does not yet
in it, the VCR could in theory
gas emissions
from the transportation
sector. However, it is not clear from reviews of the VCR that there will be reductions greenhouse
gas emissions
production
of transportation
from the extraction
concludes
that “the upstream
resources
gas intensive
Oil, Canada’s largest producer,
oil production
sector will become
in the future by virtue
in the west. As conventional
oil and bitumen
SGA Consulting
more energy intensive
of the depletion
of fossil fuel
(tar sands) reserves are depleted,
more and more energy is expended trying to extract declining resources. For conventional oil production, processing and reinjection of increasing volumes produced
along with the oil requires
Exhibit 3.2, extracted
in
gas for the
fuels.51> 52
Based on the plans of Imperial and greenhouse
of crude oil and natural
from Imperial
increased
of water
energy use per barrel of oil produced.“53
Oil’ssubmission
to the VCR, reflects these trends.
CO; Equivulent Emissions per Unit of Production from lmperiul Oil U stream Operations (tonnes/thousan cf bbl oil equivalent production) ;,‘j6851L--‘“U;“‘“““;“:” /n”i-..-ij_ /jNi/._ ““~~‘“~‘-;~FFE~:~i_~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ ~pqg&gj& __:- z,.14 .y -. s;” _:*.. . - :N&&..&@.~ . - : .I -:..)/‘,YI- 59 .-.: : ;I:;:,I.: -.‘-1. ‘. $&+-
r ;
+.:: -. ,f . &” _ -.;. “1 )_ -. .’
Source: SGA Consulting,
An Analyis of Comprehensive Action Plans Received under the Canadian
Voluntary Challenge and Registry Program (dttawa:
It was not possible, within projections
are indicative
efficient extraction
Environment
this study, to determine
of industry
extraction
could reinforce
further
of transportation
Oil’s
may enable more in the exhibit.
oil toward oil sands, life energy consumption
that the increased
the future growth of carbon
consumption
Imperial
than is indicated
per unit of transportation
.increase. There appears to be a risk, therefore,
1995), p. 2.
whether
shifts away from conventional
dioxide emissions
from increased
Canada,
trends. New technologies
for any of the three segments
However, if future production cycle carbon
,,i _
may
energy intensity
dioxide emissions
of oil
expected
fuels. This is an area that warrants
investigation.
Provincial and Municipal levels In 1990, the Ontario
government
Tax for Fuel Conservation consuming
kilometres.
ratings below 6 litres/100
90 percent
kilometres.
of high fuel
an incentive
to alter purchase
There is no mechanism
will reduce annual would represent ‘approximately
for about
approximately
10 percent
8 percent
of annual
of the on-the-
the TFFC is likely to affect the fuel efficiency
to measure
Ministry carbon
a reduction 0.5 percent
the impact
1995 status report,
of
of Environment
dioxide emissions
in tax revenue
by 200 kilotonnes transportation
that the program
by the year 2000.54 This
from the Ontario
fleet of
energy consumption
to raise between
annually.55
Notional RoundTable on the Envirormenl o-d theEco-my
TFFC program.
and Energy estimated
in fuel consumption of the projected
of Ontario’s
Meeting the Challenge of Climate
in that year. The TFFC has been estimated
$55 million
of the approximately
of the total vehicle fleet each year.
However, in its November Change, the Ontario
For purchasers
decisions
new vehicle sales. New vehicle sales represent less than 1 percent
$100 rebate for vehicles with fuel
these two limits, a flat tax of $75 applies. The TFFC
road fleet in any given year. Therefore,
Ontario
feebate system called the
taxes purchases
It also provides
of vehicles falling within
thus provides
’
a graduated
vehicles. The tax ranges from $75 to $7,000 for vehicles with fuel economy
ratings above 9 litres/100 economy
introduced
(TFFC). This program
Sustmoble Transpr~kmm Canoda ~ Bockgrounder
$32 and
in
In a presentation Minnesota
to the Centre for Transportation
in February
Civil Engineering
Studies at the University
1995, Dr. Richard Soberman,
at the University
of Toronto,
then Chair of the Department
made important
has worked and what has not worked in the development the GTA. Some of his key remarks Centralized
controls
encouraged
high land-use
Toronto.
Outside
observations
of urban
during
periods
densities
along designated
transit
and employment
patterns
absence of strong planning
controls
growth
corridors
Had it not been for the intervention
of the Ontario a poorer
within
that emerged
led to automobile-dependent
today would have had more expressways,
in
regions:
of rapid population
Metro, residential
of
on what
transportation
could apply to many major urban
on zoning
of
urban
government
Metro in the
sprawl.
in 1971, Toronto
transportation
system, and less
repute as a good place to live. The concept
of balanced
choices between assumes
transit
automobile
transportation
does not work. If a plan really offers true
and automobiles,
transit
will not survive.
(Note: this
users do not pay the full costs of their use of urban
land, roads
and of air pollution.) Torontoâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s.early successes with subway construction in obvious transit-intensive corridors led to attitudes that now preclude any serious consideration of less capital-intensive
transit
alternatives
that may be more appropriate
to emerging
spatial patterns. Cost-based
subsidy policies encourage
construction, Athough
operation
Toronto
provides
use, expressways patterns
within
coincidence regulation
impacts
of transportation
and reliance
on land on
on technology
transportation fxes. It is no
to address the widespread
on technology
and using
to make vehicles cleaner and more fuel-
has been paid to policies that reduce the need for more efficient
to shift policy attention
values and behaviours
Clean air legislation Efficiency/Corporate
investment influence
to sustainable
convened
focused primarily
of technologies
and encourage
now an opportunity
of transit
as well.
focused on regulation
to force adoption
transportation
efficiency
of the impact
that the first few OECD conferences
efficient. Less attention
modifying
,
efforts to develop effective approaches
have untilâ&#x20AC;&#x2DC;recently
in all aspects of
und Burriers
Opportunities
negative
an example
inefficiency
and near Metro have had tremendous
of land development
International
transit
and procurement.
use of transportation
facilities. There is
toward more holistic
approaches
in all sectors of Canadian
and North American
introduction
Average Fuel Consumption
of new cars and, to a more limited
of Corporate
Average Fleet
led to improved
fuel
extent, new light duty trucks in the 1970s
and up to the mid- 1980s. While these standards
Nat~onoRoundT&e on.he E~â&#x20AC;&#x153;irmnent and ,beEconomy
Standards
to
society.
helped to constrain
SumnobleTmsprtotm \n Conadc - Backgrounder
growth in fuel
consumption increase,
across the continent,
gasoiine
due to growth in disposable
and diesel consumption
income
continued
to
and cheap fuel, as well as larger numbers
of vehicles and larger vehicles being driven longer distances. To date there are very few industrialized Singapore,
where growth in transportation
reasons are many but include Cultural
countries,
with the possible
fuel consumption
exception
of
has been halted. The
the following:
values in Canada
favour single-family
exurban
homes on large lots and
wide use of the private motor vehicle. Fuel prices are at historically percentage
of disposable
consumers
to purchase
well-established European
low levels in North America.
income
The relatively
for transportation
fixed has allowed
new vehicles and to drive them longer distances.
relationship
countries
used by consumers
between
gasoline
There is a
price and vehicle use. Fuel prices in
are typically
two to three times higher than in North America,
while per capita fuel consumption
in the EC is in the range of one third of that in
North America. It is argued that urban transportation America.
population
densities
The counterarguement
the automobile objectives,
and low density
urban
The availability
development.
may be forced to look seriously
of inexpensive
land, the economic
in road transport
in single-use
commercial
vehicle fleets that have overwhelmed
intercity
transport
government
encouraged
developments
subsidized
over
have encouraged
road infrastructure public transit
policies at all levels, combined in road and air transport
shipping
low density
that preclude
development,
of
massive
and personal in urban
and
areas and
of goods by rail.
Historically,
for rail, domestic
urban
of
on the automobile.
policies of governments
technologies
investments
at patterns
Europe, for models
liveable cities with less dependence
past decades and advances
wide use of
In order to meet sustainability
in other parts of the world, including
how we can have vibrant,
of “cheaper”
over many decades that has enabled
we in North America
development
in Europe than in North
is that it has been the availability
fuels and land in North America
urban
are much higher and that public
systems are more highly developed
and public urban
urban
financially
viable transit
The fact that governments move to more compact,
and suburban
at the expense of modal share
transport.
One of the major limitations
Governments
development
urban
have
with land-use
systems and foster automobile
are now fiscally constrained mixed-use
with market forces, have
policies
dependence.
may offer an opportunity
to
form.
of policy development
for sustainable
development
has been thit efforts to date have largely taken the form of doing those things “that are worth doing anyway” protection.
for economic
or other reasons in addition
As yet federal and provincial
agree on quantitative
greenhouse
progress toward sustainable
governments
gas emission
transportation.
in Canada
reduction
to environmental have not been able to
targets that would ensure real
With targets in place, it would be possible contributions Canada
of various
measures
to evaluate
or integrated
the absolute
packages of measures
toward such targets. Recent analyses of measures
transportation
in Canada
provide
the basis for linking
for reducing
and relative that could move the impacts
of
targets and the effectiveness
of
measures.5657,5%59
In Canada, jurisdiction among
over environmental
the federal government
international
community
environmental
future international
greenhouse
gas emission
negotiating
position
the national through
will attempt
position
reduction,
includes
powers. The National
One prominent Transportation,
technology
from single-occupant
shifting
to non-motorized
transport
urban
transit
in category
infrastructure
overwhelmed
by investments
numbers
are admittedly
in the transportation
1. Substantial
in road transport
It is unlikely
rough -
that governments integrated
of citizens
I - relative weighting:
transportation).
1000 field has been dominated have been made in
-
have suggested
and unlikely
but they suggest
transportation.
Transportation
in policy approaches
alone, even if coordinated
conference
as follows:
approaches
It will also take informed
transportation are taken by all action by the
and by businesses
to offer goods and services that contribute have a responsibility
about how they can change their behaviours
have been
have focused on
will be able to achieve sustainable
Hence governments
10
100
some would suggest outrageous
strategies.
relative
leverage seems possible. ,Mr. Britton’s
(in their choices as consumers)
be in their best interests
observers
the following
by all sectors of society. Limited
at the Towards Sustainable
policy measures
levels pursuing majority
investments
policy and public investment
the need to shift the emphasis
through
Towards Sustainable
may have to be placed to achieve truly sustainable
Other commentators addressed
- relative weighting:
3 and 4, where the most substantial
where priorities
is one mechanism
and services in Canada, but these investments
research and even more limited categories
transport
travel - relative weighting:
As noted above, policy development
to
classes of policy instruments:60
cars to “efficient”
of “unnecessary”
in the past by initiatives
Committee
in vehicles - relative weighting:
shifting
in relation
on climate change might be developed.
at the 1996 OECD conference,
of the different
improvements
elimination
position
would ensure that
interests
that policy makers should consider
of the effectiveness
that, in advance
work out a national approach
of provincial
Air Issues Coordinating
national
commentator
suggested
important
related to issues such as targets for
This anticipatory
consideration
is shared
2). It is likely that the
more aggressive targets for
the federal government
with the provinces.
which a coordinated
weighting
to establish
agreements
air pollution,
(see Chapter
issues such as climate change. It is therefore
of negotiating
provincial
issues, including
and the provinces
(seeing it to
to sustainable
to educate the public
to enable real change to occur. Many
that efforts to date have been very much at the margin
to result in real progress toward sustainable
transportation.
Measures
promoting
non-motorized barrier
the use of compact
forms of transport,
The report infrastructure
estimated
a more compact
capital, operating
Task Force estimated
automobile
competitiveness
of the collateral
1996
over the next 25 years
for the region.61 When
costs are taken into account, urban
sprawl would be
on governments
of the city-region
benefits
the as
in the global market.
of the Golden
that could be obtained
the more compact
report through
the
mixed-use
pattern. District
range planning
to those of the Golden
to adopt more compact
report have led the Greater Vancouver
urban
settlement
as an element
of its long-
strategy.
The Towards Sustainable transportation
Transportation
professionals.
federal departments further
pattern
cost savings of containing
use that could accompany
Similar conclusions
activities
development
public debate on the recommendations
little discussion
of transportation
in January
to $42.8 billion
as well as external
that the annual
the economic
The subsequent
Regional
of Ontario
This, it is argued, would reduce the cost burden
well as increasing
settlement
mixed-use
impacts
in new road, sewer and water
from $55 billion
and maintenance,
about $1 billion.
reduced
to reduce the social isolation,
of society.
that capital investment
could be reduced
by adopting
efficiency
of the GTA Task Force to the Premier
report)
generated
form and mixed land use, as well as
effects, public safety, health and environmental
and to increase the economic
â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;(Golden
urban
have the potential
at the provincial awareness
Preparation
for submission
advanced
of sustainable
to Parliament
and municipal
building
conference
among planners,
development
in December
levels present
the debate among strategies
by
1997 and the many
excellent
opportunities
for
policy makers and the public.
Policy Instruments for Sustainable Transportation Policy instruments changes required
are the levers governments
to create a sustainable
use to encourage
transportation
or mandate
the
system.
Maior Obiectives of Policy lnstrumen ts Regulatory/technology-based to address emissions efficiency
and impact
overwhelming
many other aspects of sustainability.
transportation
improve
fuel
However, the evidence
policy instruments
of growth in vehicle-kilometres
goods moved. If sustainable will be required.
have been used to date in North America
per unit of fuel consumption,
that regulatory/technology-based
not offset the impact in the literature
approaches
of air pollutants
travelled
is
have not and will
or tonne-kilometres
of
is to be achieved, there is broad consensus
that major changes in consumer
and business
values and behaviours
Regulafory/Techno/ogy-Based
Policies: Past and Current
Focus
Regulatory/technology-based
policies generally
Controls on air emissions: Direct regulatory the traditional Controls
approach
generally
decrease carbon kilometre
to reducing
target tailpipe
of vehicle emissions controls
gains in emissions
from regulation
has been sector.
do not
per vehicle-
tend to be offset by increased
of vehicles and by larger vehicles being driven longer distances.
Mandated
improvements
emissions
in fuel quality: Use of reformulated
of a range of pollutants.
Reformulations
such as levels of lead, benzene,
gasoline
and aromatics
and sulphur
fuels. In some cases, reformulated technologies
Like emission
to function
controls,
and vehicle-kilometres
Mandated
volatility
fuels are essential
and oxygenates
and cetane number to allow enhanced
in
of diesel
emissions
effectively.
In the long run, however, increased travelled
will necessitate
opportunities
numbers
other actions
to
of vehicles
if total emissions
are
significantly.
increases in fuel eficiency:
vehicle-kilometre
aromatics
fuel quality offers short- to medium-term
reduce vehicle emissions. to be reduced
content,
fuels can reduce
can involve changes to a range
of fuel characteristics
control
categories:
from the transportation
Such ,emission
Moreover,
or per tonne-kilometre
numbers
control
air emissions
emissions.
dioxide emissions.
fall into the following
can contribute
Lowering
to reduced
Changes
to vehicle weight, aerodynamic
ignition
and fuel management
the amount
of fuel consumed
fossil fuel use and reduced
drag, tire rolling resistance,
per
emissions.
transmissions,
systems and other vehicle components
can improve
fuel efficiency. Past experience
with mandating
North America,
showed that although
fuel efficiency
fuel efficiency, total transportation resulted
standards
fuel consumption
from growth in numbers
in the 1970s and 198Os, in
they led to improvements
in average fleet to increase. This
continued
of vehicles, increases
in distances
travelled
by
each vehicle, and higher growth in sales of vans and light duty trucks compared with cars. Part of the increased lower operating
The U.S. government Program
vehicle use has been attributed
by researchers
to the
costs that result from higher fuel efficiency. and the U.S. automobile
for a New Generation
industry
Vehicle (PNGV)
are cooperating
to developâ&#x20AC;&#x2DC;a
about three times more fuel efficient than current
North American
of federal and provincial
Canadian
governments
to establish
in the
mid-sized
car that is
vehicles. Efforts
participation
in the
PNGV have, so far, not been successful. Promotion
of alternative transportation
and fuel efficiency, petroleum-fuelled air emissions. carbon
content
However. further alternative
fuels: Even with stringent vehicles will continue
emission
reductions
emission
controls
to be major sources of
can result from use of lower
fuels such as alcohols, natural
gas, propane,
hydrogen,
and electricity in alternative
from renewable
resources
such as biomass
and environmental
effects of producing,
transporting
The rate and extent of market penetration by the state of technology,
operational
massive societal investment alternative
and solar energy. Choices
fuels should be driven by life-cycle analysis of the total economic,
fuels represent
and consuming
potential
for alternative
social
each fuel.
fuels is constrained
issues, low prices of conventional
fuels and the
already made in gasoline and diesel fuels. To date, approximately
1 percent of the transportation
fuels market
in Canada.
policy lnstrqmenis for Reducing and Shifting Transportafion Demand Truly sustainable reductions
transportation
is unlikely
in the use of high energy intensive
energy consuming
or non-motorized
technologies
to reduce transportation
growth, increasing
that continue
to reduce the costs of travelling
to sustainable
transportation
division
governments
of powers among
in Canada. Actions
policies or programs Federal income supplied
parking
provincial understood
of other jurisdictions.
for major additional
division of powers in transportation: and funding
can create conflicts
very with the
For example:
business
efforts to encourage
that this issue is now under
and municipal
planning
tax deductions
but not for employer-subsidized
and municipal
in
and advancing
greater distances.
federal, provincial,
in one jurisdiction
tax policies allowing
to
include:
makes land use and transportation
fragmented
income
that have the potential
Measures which account for the constitutional The current
in addition
energy consumption
per capita disposable
Some of the types of policy measures contributions
major, long-term
and shifts to lower
modes. Other policy instruments,
those applied to date, will be required the face of population
to be realized without modes of transport
transit
for employer-
passes work against
higher transit
use. It is
study in the federal Department
of
Finance. Effective use of fuel taxation term behavioural
as an economic
federal and provincial
efforts to reduce transportation
reinforced
or negated
movement.
can either be
tax policies.
for road and rail transport
makes it extremely
for encouraging
long-
between
powers.
fuel consumption
by federal or provincial
The split of responsibility approaches
for influencing coordination
levels since both have fuel taxation
Municipal
federal governments
instrument
changes in the market would require
difficult
between
the provincial
to develop integrated
policy
higher use of rail for both freight and passenger
and
Proposed
changes to Actual Assessment
of property
the already high municipal
tax burden
properties
further threatening
in the province,
taxes in Ontario
could triple
from $20 million to $60 million
on all rail
the financial viability of the rail
mode in Eastern Canada.e2 The federal government deliberations
is responsible
Canadaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s commitments federal government of the provinces Governments
for participating
on global and regional international to international
agreements.
enters into such international
in areas of provincial
in international
issues and for negotiating Conflict can occur if the
negotiations
need to find ways to ensure that interjurisdictional
compromise
without
the support
jurisdiction.
progress toward sustainable
issues do not
transportation.
Use of economic instruments to influence market behatiiour: The use of economic instruments,
including
taxes and fees, to send strong, long-term
for reduced automobile
use and to manufacturers
signals to consumers
for sale of more fuel-efficient
vehicles, has been the subject of much research and analysis internationally.
However,
there has been great resistance in North America to the use of fuel taxes for this purpose because of the entrenched
cultural values and beliefs of North Americans.
In contrast, the use of such instruments various European
countries,
including
appears to be gaining political support the United Kingdom,
in
despite the fact that fuel
prices in Europe are already two to three times higher than in North America. If major advances in fuel efficiency can be achieved in future from initiatives or the Hyper-Car
proposed
policies such as economic constrain
such as the PNGV
by Amory Lovins of the Rocky Mountain instruments
and/or emissions
Institute,
other
trading will be required to
increased personal vehicle use.
A wide variety of economic worldwide.
instruments.
has been suggested or implemented
Measures such as fuel taxation
affect the broadest range of transportation
users, and are said by their proponents to be among the most cost-effective measures. Alternatives such as vehicle registration fees and/or insurance premiums tied to annual vehicle or fuel use have been proposed. such as road congestion
More narrowly
focused instruments
pricing or gas guzzler taxes have also been suggested.
Changes in land use, urban design and transportation planning: Provincial planning
legislation,
urban settlement transportation
as well as regulation
patterns by encouraging
demand,
of zoning and building
more compact, mixed land use to reduce
increased use of non-motorized
cycling, and shifts to public transportation requiring
attention
integration modification
modes such as walking and
systems. Some of the~specific aspects
include:
of transportation
and land-use
of transportation
societal cost modal alternatives transportation
municipal
codes, can influence
systems;
decision
planning; making
to ensure selection
and interjurisdictional
integration
of least of public
long-term
commitment
improved
access for all citizens, as policies constraining
to providing
transportation
alternatives
to ensure
high energy intensive
modes take effect. Some- progress is starting implementation
to be made in sustainable
at the municipal
level in Canada.
two levels. At the regional
level, the planning
concerned
with changing
origin/destination
kilometres
travelled
integration
of transit
municipal
boundaries
and among
At the neighbourhood architectural
patterns
to minimize
and
on at least
networks
is
passenger-
modes. An example
a region to ensure optimized
of the above is services across
modes.
or street level, the contributions
or design solutions
for walking
planning
Change is happening
of transportation
using high fuel-consuming services within
transportation
to sustainability
that ensure close connection
and other non-motorized
tend to be
of activities,
modes, and urban.design
priority
that supports
quality public transit. Catalysts for change toward sustainability the International Association Urban
Council
of Canada,
the Federation
Transit Association,
Sustainable
at the local level include
for Local Environmental of Canadian
the Canadian
Urban
Cities, the Centre for Sustainable
the York University
Centre for Applied
Increased public education for sustainable
Initiatives,
Municipalities,
Institute,
the Canadian
the Institute
Transportation,
for
Pollution
Probe and
change
will only be possible
on the scale required
if the public
is well aware of
the risks of the status quo and is ready to change its values, behaviours beliefs. The literature
of
Sustainability.
and awareness: Achieving
transportation
the initiatives
the Transportation
suggests that the job cannot
and
be done solely by interventions
of governments. The public will have to be convinced
that it is in society’s long-term
interest
action to modify the way we live. The message will be much more palatable shown that there can be long-term
economic
changes needed to reduce transportation past battles for environmental industrial
processes
resisted regulation
and social and lifestyle benefits
from the
energy use. There are many examples
change. Some of the strongest
are leaders of companies
and industry
but have realized improved
profitability
advocates associations
to take
if it can be from
for clean up of who initially
from their subsequent
efforts to reduce waste.
A Menu
of Policy Inshwnent~
The literature policy measures contributions application
on sustainable
toward sustainable of policy instruments
“coordinated,”
transportation
that have been‘suggested,
describes
analysed
transportation.
and/or
Nalional RoundTable on ,he Enwronment and IheEmmy
are described
of individual
implemented
There are frequent
using specific approaches
and “phased.” These elements
hundreds
as
calls for the
that are “integrated,” in more detail below.
Suslmable Transporman m Canada - Bsckgaunder
An Integrafecf Approach: Instruments Achieving
sustainable
instruments.
politically
is too complex
and multifaceted
acceptable,
integrated
proposed. Management
are the Greater Vancouver
Transportation
Collaborative.
integrated
packages coordinated
Plan and the NOx/VOC
Sustainable
approaches,
instruments, planning,
provision
Regulatdry
“command
development.
that will be imposed
are policy instruments
fuel conversion
instruments
such as petroleum
that rely on
economic
transportation
and land-use
how these approaches
interact
become
less enforceable.
Mandating
technological standards,
of regulated
More stringent
include
vehicle emission
change is one possible
technological
Council
of Ministers
instruments. are prominent
and fuel efficiency
are important
term. However, even if the recommendations
of the Environment’s
vehicle emissions
of technological
standards
of
approaches
change.
regulations
include
of a vehicle fleet to use an alternative
rise due to the increases
Economic
instruments,
or “market-based behavioural
mandating
the conversion
fuel or electricity.
incentives,” change.
in
travelled.
Ecgnomic Instruments create price signals to encourage
for of
Task Force on Cleaner Vehicles
will eventually
of vehicles on the road and vehicle-kilometres
Other examples
of players,
and control”
role for regulatory
and fuel efficiency
for vehicle emissions
in the medium
and Fuels are implemented,
standards,
When the behaviour
needs to change, “command
fuel standards
standards
air emissions
people and
of vehicle fleets and speed limits.
refiners or auto makers, to be regulated.
of people and companies
Vehicle emission
that (1) command
work best when there is only a small number
millions
all or a portion
regulations,
in specified ways; and (2) specify the penalties
if they do not obey. Examples
mandatory
Regulatory
the number
package of
opportunities.
policy instruments
Understanding
an
an effective package.
instruments
fuel standards,
the Canadian
a comprehensive
reduction
and control”
and information,
to change their behaviour
examples
and Climate
Instruments
Regulatory
reducing
It does not present
of education
to developing
companies
Plan, and the Strategy for
packages are likely to contain including
and technology
is essential
into
District’s Air Quality
by the Transportation
to exploit the full range of emission
Effective integrated different
and objectives,
On the other hand, Canada’s NAPCC does not provide
package for transportation.
policy instruments
different
among ‘all levels of government.
Regional
proposed
by one or
to combine
already exist or have been
Management
in Ontario
to be addressed
weaknesses
packages of policy instruments
Examples
packages of policy
It will be necessary
each with its own strengths,
Some integrated
Change
will require.integrated
of policy instruments.
policy instruments,
‘Ihe Policy
transportation
The problem
even a small number
Packaging
are policy instruments
tha
of
In at least two Ways, encouraging of economic
instruments.
sustainable
transportation.
buying
transportation
of decisions,
a car instead
to make to achieving
of the transportation
such as walking to the store rather than
local rather than imported
than abroad, or driving
is an ideal application
has a contribution
On a daily basis, the sustainability
system is affected by millions driving,
sustainable
First, each individual
produce,
spending
a vacation
of a sport utility vehicle. Behavioural
such a “micro level” is not well suited to command-and-control raison d’etre of economic
lack of urgency
issue suggests that voluntary required.
When economic
increase
consumer
approaches instruments
of purchasing awareness
programs
can also improve
awareness
of the intent
Economic
instruments
neutrality,
experience
a significant
consumption.
reduced
economic
the United
programs
of economic
instruments
do. Education
instruments
by raising public
to have a dual effect on sustainability. energy consumption
from such instruments
from high
can be invested
in
fossil energy consumption. on a scale that would have a major impact
The design of individual
economic
would have to include
impacts
since large
instruments
consideration
on or
of issues such
and social equity. This implies that we could
shift away from income-based
cost effective and equitable. use of economic
education
could result in large changes in tax structure,
for Canada
The literature
they act as reminders
In this way, some economic
for transportation
instruments
could be generated.
packages of instruments
transportation
instruments.
modes. Revenue
that encourage
as revenue
are visible to consumers,
have the potential
towards sustainability
tax revenues
to lead to changes on the scale
the effectiveness
The use of economic progress
the sustainable
are unlikely
much as public
They can directly reduce demand other measures
but is the
surrounding
decisions.
of economic
fossil energy consuming
change on
approaches,
instruments.
Second, the current
of the consequences
locally rather
taxation
to heavier taxation
of
suggests that such changes are feasible and may in fact be Canada faces the particular
instruments
does not compromise
challenge
of ensuring
its economic
that the
competitiveness
with
States.
Public Education Public education
programs
social change through
are planned,
persuasion.
Littering,
targeted
approaches
recycling,
seat-belt
many other issues have all been the target of education change. “Social marketing”
can influence
behaviour
actions.
Frequently,
Achieving
transportation
voluntary
driving
to promote
awareness
to encourage
will require
sustained
and
social
of a problem,
and the costs and benefits
they also rely on moral suasion
sustainable
use, drunk
campaigns
by increasing
the actions that can be taken to reduce the problem,
to promote
of these
change. public education
for
several reasons: The unsustainability
of current
Public education,can
build a better and more widespread
environmental decisions
impacts
and personal
transportation
and costs associated behaviour.
trends is not well understood. understanding
with transportation
of the
infrastructure
Current
patterns
automobile,
of transportation,
are deeply ingrained.
significant
Public support
for some of the tougher
for political
Education encouraging
different
on the
change will not come without
policy instruments
the benefits
that will be needed
of tough measures
is
can provide
action. a wide range of policy instruments
types of behavioural
labelling,
about sustainable
environmental
transportation
suitable
change. Policy instruments
codes of practice,
into school curricula,
for include
vehicle
incorporating
information
media campaigns,
driver
and highway signs.
Transportation Altering
and Land-Use Planning
transportation
demand
and business
operations.
and land-use
infrastructure.
will, therefore, Decisions
regarding
encompasses
fuel efficiency training
Behavioural
our heavy reliance
changes in our way of thinking.
weak. Public education support
particularly
will require
changes in our lifestyles
These changes can only occur within Planning
be important
practices
to achieving
and other planning
a new transportation
related to transportation
long-term
related to public infrastructure
traffic control
significant
transportation
investments,
urban
and land use
sustainability.
development
approvals,
issues will be affected.
Technology Development There are two schools of thought development. regulatory
One position instruments
meet increasingly
to mandate
stringent
regarding
governmentâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s
is that governments
the private sector to develop new technologies
standards.
more active role in encouraging
role in technology
should focus strictly on using
Another
position
new technologies.
sees government
If government
playing
that a
is to play an active
role, it can act in several ways: Offer tax incentives, Participate
grants and other financial-incentives
in joint research and demonstration
Cell program hydrogen
in Canada, aimed at developing
fuel cell to produce electricity;or
Vehicles, aimed at developing
a mid-sized
programs,
for private sector research. such as the Ballard Fuel
a vehicle propulsion
the U.S. Program
system using a
for a New Generation
car with a fuel economy
of
rating of 80 miles
per gallon. Conduct
in-house
Governments
research through
Canada
agencies and institutes.
are already using all three policy approaches.
their use should be expanded. warnings
government
In fact; if the threats to the human
of the Intergovernmental
Panel on Climate
may be well advised to reconsider
is whether
species implied
by the
Change are taken seriously,
its research and development
favour of a major shift in focus to R&D that can contribute
to absolute
fossil fuel use in transportation.
Namal RoundTable on the Enmnmentond theEmmy
The question
Suiimoble iianspo.to,ion r Canado ~ Bockgrounder
priorities reductions
in in
Integrated Policy: The European Approach The OECD study Urban Travel and Sustainable Development an integrated integrated
approach
strategies
environmental approach
to policy instruments
(Exhibit
were not only necessary
and social -
but that “their benefits
will greatly outweigh
has been approved
by the European
policy approach
Best Practice: raise the effectiveness management
measures
Conference
contains of current
three main strands: planning
repeated
more economical
“All three strands
environmental estimated
friendly
annual
for car
increases
modes.
for those without
to reduce car travel . . . to
cars and to achieve sustainable
Together they could reduce substantially
All three strandsshould
to about 5 percent be pursued
starting
urban
the economic,
and social costs-of travel in CECD countries,
to be equivalent
in motor
and fewer car
and greater use of
of the policy package are necessary
accessibility
development.
cities. ’
demand
vehicles, shorter
trips, a shift in travel away from solo driving
improve
and traffic
with road capacity.
to promote
environmentally
of Transport.
. .. to the level of those in the best managed
SustainableDev$opment: introduce ’ fuel taxation
currently
of Gross Domestic immediately.
Product.”
Applying
Best
Practices would have its major impact in the period to the year 2000. The Policy Innovations strand is projected to be in place and effective by the year 2015. The effect of the first two strands
growth in transport
energy consumption
would be to slow but not stop the and other impacts
“Only the SustainableDevelopment strand, lowers urban emissions
car travel generally
of transportation.
with the other policies,
and reduces overall car travel, allowing
to meet the IPCC [Intergovernmental
target value [of a 60 to 80 percent
combined
reduction
Panel on Climate in CO, emission
CO,
Change]
levels] by
about 2030.” Source: Organization for Economic Development (Paris, 1995), Chapter
Cooperation 8.
and Development,
that
integrated
Transportation:
land-use
of
economic,
of Ministers
Policy Innovations: develop new policies aimed at bringing travel into balance
-
their costs.” The proposed
Integrated Approaches to Sustainable An OECD Example for Urban Travel The OECD integrated
offers an example
3.3).63 This study concluded
Urban Travel and Sustainable
A Coordinated
Approach:
All levels of government developing
and other stakeholders
and implementing
to the assessment,
A Role for Everyone
selection,
will likely be involved
packages of policy instruments. design and implementation
in
A coordinated
approach
of the packages is essential
for
several reasons. First, coordination jurisdictional
is required
responsibilities.
Each level of government
available to it and is constrained Second, coordination duplication
to create effective packages consistent in different
important
of policy instruments.
if a full costing approach
full costing, the total costs paid by transportation fees, user fees, fuel taxes and other payments external
policy instruments
ways in how it applies the instruments.
can avoid duplication
will be particularly
has different
with
users through
should
Avoiding is adopted.
Under
vehicle registration
equal the full public,
private and
costs.
Third, coordinated instruments.
packages will allow exploitation
For example,
public transit investments
instead
in more attractive
Policy instruments consumption
public transit As examples,
that mandate
fuel efficiency
maintain
a constant
will lower travel time and cost, thereby
prices and/or
for more travel on less congested
Given the magnitude
immediate situation.
road pricing
might offset
roads.
Do What We Can Now and Prepare for a
and complexity
of the change involved,
a sustainable
system will evolve only over several decades or more. Changes
forms and lifestyles will occur slowly. Some technologies gradually
of fuel efficiency. More
with higher fuel taxes to
fuel cost per vehicle-kilometre.
that decrease congestion
A Phased Approach: Sustainable Future transportation
some of the benefits
more travel. Higher parking
any tendency
However, lower fuel costs could mean
could be combined
or increasing
Policy instruments encouraging
standards
effects of
the following:
in fuel efficiency will decrease fuel
travelled.
people travel more, thereby offsetting
a fuel tax increase with
some of the undesirable
consider
increases
per vehicle-kilometre
stringent
policy
may have a much greater effect.
packages will counter
policy instruments.
among
inâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;fuel prices may cause some people to use
of private vehicles. However, coupling
Finally, coordinated individual
an increase
of synergies
emerge as new practicable reforms
Furthermore,
instruments
long-run
implemented
Logical starting Providing
points
education
the consequences sustainability, on reducing
technological
that can improve
now on the horizon
standards.
or avoid further
Nonetheless,
deterioration
to urban will
there are
of the current
changes will only occur if pushed
by policy
in the short run. for short-run
actions include:
on the unsustainability
of current
transportation
practices,
of not taking action, the actions to take to encourage
and the costs and benefits fossil fuel consumption
of those actions -
by encouraging
changes in public values and
behaviours.
National RoundTable on :he Environman, ord tk Ecmny
placing the emphasis
Sustoimble Tmiporto~ion m Ccnoda- Backgrounder
Implementing
reforms
in regions most affected by unsustainable
(air quality non-attainment Incorporating
targets for sustainability
use and transportation patterns
planning
into todayâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s infrastructure
decisions
that will determine
for many years to come. Governments
alternatives
are available
opportunities
mode shifting
standards available
Raising fuel prices to encourage technologies,
must ensure that accessible demand
shifts
to fully exploit the emissions
control
now.
fuel efficiency
improvements
and alternative
and reduced vehicle use, a policy instrument
as a national
Canadaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s particular from transportation.
priority,
strengths
on research and development
and is aimed at reducing
fuel
shown to
be effective in the 1970s. Focusing,
land-
modes.
of more stringent
and fuel efficiency
investment, transportation
as public values change and transportation
away from energy intensive Implementation
transportation
zones).
that builds on
fossil fuel consumption
Footnotes William Rees, Transport&ion, Conference
on Sustainable
International
presentation
October
Initiatives,
Probe, Transportation,
Biennial Report, May 1993-July
Air Quality and Human Health, Issues and Perspectives,
for Health Canada, March 1996, p. 9.
U.K. Royal Commission
on Environmental
Environment
(October
Organization
for Economic
Eighteenth Report: Transport and the
Pollution,
1994). Cooperation
and Development
and European
Urban Travel and Sustainable Development
of Transport,
An Analysis of Comprehensive
SGA Consulting,
Conference
of
(Paris, 1995), p. 25.
Action Plans Received under the Canadian
Voluntary Challenge and Registry Program (Ottawa: Environment Pembina
at the National
1995.
1995), p. 5.
paper prepared
Ministers
Vancouver,
Council for Local Environmental
1995 (Toronto, Pollution
Urban Form and Sustainability,
Transportation,
Canada, November
1995).
Canadaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Voluntary Challenge and Registry Program: An Independent
Institute,
Review (Drayton
Valley, Alta., November
SGA Consulting,
An Analysis of Comprehensive
1995). Action Plans Received under the Canadian
Voluntary Challenge and Registry Program (Ottawa: Environment
Canada, November
1995), p. 2. Ontario
Ministry
and Energy, Meeting the Challenge of Climate Change, A
of Environment
Status Report on Initiatives in Ontario to Reduce Greenhouse for the Canadian, Council of Ministers (Toronto,
November
of the Environment
Gas Emissions, report prepared and Council of Energy Ministers
20, 1995), p. 32.
Apogee Research, A Policy Instruments Working Paper on Reducing CO, Emissions from the Transportation Collaborative,
Sector
in Ontario, paper prepared
November
for the Transportation
and Climate Change
1995, p. 40.
Ibid. Osborne
Group, Des,Rosiers Automotive
Consulting
and Pilorusso
Reducing Greenhouse Gas Emissions from the Ontario Automotive the Transportation
and Climate Change Collaborative,
IBI Group, Full Cost Transportation Transportation
Cities, paper prepared
Eric Britton,
Sustainable
Reality Check, presentation Vancouver,
November
paper prepared
1995.
arid Cost-Based Pricing Strategies (Toronto:
and Climate Change Collaborative,
IBI Group, Initiatives to Limit Transportation Canadian
Research and Consulting, Sector,
November
Energy Consutiption
for Natural Resources
Transportation
Canada,
as a Dead End -
at the OECD conference,
March 1996.
Namncl RoundTable on the Enwonmentand theEconomy
1995). and Emissions in 1993.
Sustainable Transportation
Towards Sustainable
-A
Transportation,
for
Greater Toronto Area Task Force, Greater Toronto, Report of the GTA Task Force (Toronto, January
1996)) p. 111.
St. Lawrence WhatAdvisory Organization Development
& Hudson
Railway/Canadian
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Press,
bbendix C
m -Making Principles This appendix following
contains
principles
of sustainable
transportation
suggested
by the
agencies;
National
Round
Transportation Transport International
Table on the Environment Association
of Canada
Canada Council
Canadaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s National Canadian
and the Economy
Urban
for Local Environmental
Action
Program
on Climate
Initiatives Change
Institute
National Round Table on the Environment
and the Economy
At the request of the federal Minister of the Environment, the National Round Table on the Environment and the Economy (NRTEE) initiated a consultative process to develop a draft set of sustainable
transportation
the March
1996 OECD conference,
Towards Sustainable
Vancouver.
These draft principles,
following
page.
as amended
principles.
They were presented
Transportation,
at that meeting,
held in
are presented
on the
at
Sustainable Transportation
Principles
Transportation Association of Canada Decision-Making
Principles
Plan for increased
densities
Promote
walking
Increase
opportunities
Provide
higher
and more mixed land use.
as the preferred
mode of person
for cycling as an optional
quality
transit
trips. mode of travel.
service to increase
its attractiveness
relative
to the
private automobile. Create an environment Plan parking
supply
in which automobiles
can play a more balanced
and price to be in balance
with walking,
cycling
role. and transit
priorities. Improve
the efficiency
Promote
inter-modal
Promote
of the urban
goods distribution
and interline
new technologies
systems.
connections.
that
improve
urban
mobility
and
help
protect
the
environment. Optimize Design
the use of existing and
operate
transportation
transportation
systems to move people and goods.
systems
that
can be used by the physically
challenged. Ensure that urban
transportation
decisions
protect
Create better ways to pay for future transportation Source:-Transportation
Association
of Canada,
and enhance
the environment.
systems.
A New Vision for Urban Transportation, March 1993.
Transport Canada A discussion environmental sustainable
paper from Transport considerations
Canada
into decision
staff suggests principles
making
as a starting
for integrating
point for building
development.
Decision-Making
Principles
Respect for ecological Efficient
use of natural,
Promoting
manufactured
and social capital.
equity in terms of access to service, now and in the future.
Committing
to participatory
Environmental
stewardship
Source: D. Bell, R. Delaney Framework
integrity.
(Ottawa:
approaches. by all decision
makers.
and R. Lewis, A Propkalfor
Transport
Canada,
Sustainable Transportation
1966).
Nat\ona! Roundbble on .he EnwonmentandtreEconcmy
Susla,nabie Traniporv~~an m Canodo-Bockgrounder
-A
National
â&#x20AC;&#x2122;
Council for Local Environmental
International The International to municipalities
Council
to guide local authorities could be adapted transportation
by any level of government
Ecological integrity -
These principles,
Sustainable sustainable.
in the development
(transportation) The current
of key sectors of Canadian
impacts
The principle government
Reduction ofpoverty
-
Sustainable
Equity among generations
of aviation
are environmentally for the long term
“anticipate
needs to replace
to better manage
urban
transportation
requires
that all people’s needs
at any level help to create that is not distributed is fundamentally
flawed.
People’s needs should be met in a
the ability of future generations
can implement
this principle
by managing
to meet their economic
growth in a
on a per capita basis, the life cycle energy that citizens
for transportation.
Precautionary delaying
and prevent”
authorities
and social groups -
that does not diminish
way that minimizes,
activity goods
implications
to meet these needs means that the development
needs. Authorities
that economic
on cars, intercity
energy systems and waste.
be met. Wealth that governments
consume
of sustainable
and global industry.
Emphasis on prevention growth, transportation,
requires
dependency
This has, of course, profound
“react and cure” in guiding
manner
with modification,
its jurisdiction.
by truck and the growing
unsustainable.
(ICLEI), in its guide
Principles for local Authorities
be environmentally movement
Initiatives
Saving the Cities, suggests six principles
toward sustainability.
policies within
Decision-Making
structure
for Local Environmental
Saving the Climate -
entitled
Initiartive$
approach -
an action
Lack of scientific
to prevent
the great risks involved,
enough
consensus
social, health, climate change and economic transportation
to compel
Polluters should pay their transportation their pollution. to implement
certainty
social, environmental
Those who pollute
Authorities
damage.
Given
exists today on the serious negative impacts
action from governments
decisions
should not be a reason for and economic of current
trends in
at all levels.
and degrade the environment
through
should bear the full social and environmental
can turn to economic
measures,
cost of
such as taxes and fees,
this principle.
Source: International the Cities, 19%.
Council
for Local Environmental
Initiatives,
Saving the Climate -
Saving
National
Chafe
Canada’s National
Chunge Action Program Action Program
be used by the Canadian Nations
Framework
government
Convention
in meeting
on Climate
NAPCC’s list of principles
includes
namely, the precautionary
principle.
modifying
on Climate
Change
(1995) sets out principles
its commitments
to
under the United
Change. Readers should note that the
only one in common In addition,
with the ICLEI’s principles,
the principles
do not mention
behaviours.
Decision-Making Precautionary to postpone
Principles
principle mitigative
lack of scientific
certainty
should not be used as a reason
actions which are cost effective or justified
for other
reasons. Shared responsibility -
with all sectors of society.
Effectiveness -
measures
Competitiveness
-
that clearly reduce greenhouse
measures
which do not compromise
gas emissions. Canada’s international
competitiveness. Transparency and accountability
-
establish
Flexibility -
to change with experience
International
co-operation
Strategic directions -
-
who is to be accountable.
and technology.
as part of a global effort.
working
to reduce Canada’s net greenhouse
gas emissions
for
2000 and beyond.
Canaciiarn Urban Insfitufe The Canadian decision-making
Urban principles,
There is significant as interesting comfort,
the principles
proposed
and efficiency
and the Vancouver
of travel principles
principles
correspond
have a stronger have a stronger
and Vanco,uver).
for Toronto
to Vancouver’s
principles
focus on travel focus on equity and
fairness.
National RoundTable on tie Env~ronmenr and :heEconomy
two sets of
by the two teams, as well
For example, the first three principles
#3 and #11. However, the Toronto characteristics
Cities Without Cars study outlines
one from each of its study teams (Toronto
overlap between
differences.
convenience
Institute’s
Susiomable Tranipitation I" Canado - 3ackgrounoer
Decision-Making
Principles
Toronfo
Travel in the GTA without
be at least as comfortable
cars should
as travel in the
GTA today. Travel in the GTA without cars should be at least as convenie&as
travel in the GTA today.
The GTA without cars should [be] at least as eficient as the GTA today. cars should have less impact on the environment
Travel in the GTA without
than travel
with cars. cars should be at least as safe and secure as travel in the
Travel in the GTA without region today.
the GTA must be gradual and fair and be such as to enhance
The process of reconfiguring
the social fabric of the GTA rather than diminish Residents within
of the GTA without
the region and outside,
it. access to green space
cars will have at least as much as residents
of the region today.
Vancouver Lifestyle
Principles
Minimize
impacts
upon
from auto dependency Promote
understanding
that any perceived Ensure
auto users and auto dependent
to an auto-free and knowledge
services
of the benefits
of an auto-free
or real changes to lifestyles are supported
that comfort,
convenience,
when
changing
lifestyle.
and efficiency
city to ensure
by those affected.
of travel is similar
to, or exceeds,
existing levels of user experience. onomic Principles
Fully account auto-free Ensure
the true costs of auto use against the costs associated
with building
an
city. that the full costs for building/operating
an auto-free
city are substantially
less than the costs of an auto city. Environmental
Principles
Re-orient
auto-dependent
Minimize
detrimental
resource impact
Ensure that the auto-free benefits. â&#x20AC;&#x2122; Ensure
that
environmentally
any
industries
in an orderly and equitable
upon auto-dependent
city displays improved
development sustainable.
associated
fashion.
activities.
air quality and other environmental
with
an
auto-free
-option
must
be
Social
Principles
Promote Ensure
an equitable that comfort,
system of moving convenience,
goods and people in the auto-free
and efficiency
are similar
city,
to, or exceed, existing
levels of user experience. Recognize
increased
of an auto-free
Need to address
Need
and public safety as a major real and perceived
will and massive public support all of the issues relating
to move to an auto-free
to converting
to a city without
city. cars at a
level. structural
changes
and
associated
municipal
changes
requirements. Source:
benefit
city.
Need for political
regional
personal
Canadian
Urban
Institute,
Cities Without Curs (Toronto,
1994).
to respond
to all