STUDENTRESEARCH JOURNA
2022
Welcome Reader!
Since our founding in 2002 by co-founder Claes Nobel, the senior member of the Nobel Prize family, our mission has been to support all youth in their pursuit of education to better themselves and the world. Equitable access to scholarships and educational opportunities are the primary ways that NSHSS and the NSHSS Foundation support students of any gender, race, ethnicity, or sexual orientation as they strive for world betterment in their high schools, colleges, careers, and communities. Each year, NSHSS and our partners award more than $2 million in scholarships and educator grants. One of the many scholarship opportunities we offer to students is the “NSHSS Research and Academic Paper Scholarship.” This scholarship, which has over 1,200 submissions each year, recognizes the top fifty students who have written academic papers, such as a research paper, an original essay, or an analytical paper. These young scholars represent the future of research and analysis, conducting investigations into topics that impact humanity and our societies at large. NSHSS, in its first publication of this research, seeks to further recognize and acknowledge the incredible work that our young members are doing. These academics have the potential to be our future Nobel Laureates and are part of a worldwide network of high achieving scholars being equipped to lead impactdriven initiatives for the next generation in their schools, workplaces, and communities. It is our great honor to introduce you to our first edition of the NSHSS Student Research Journal and the extraordinary students who created its contents.
Good Earth and Good Health,
James W Lewis, NSHSS President
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SECTI ON 1
EARTH SCI ENCE
Earth Science 1
A Sting to The Bee Population: How Did it Occur And What Does It Mean? Caleb Ashes Thomas Nelson Community College (TNCC)
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Abstract Alongside other pollinators, birds, bats, and butterflies, bees are essential to the sustenance of human civilization as they naturally transport pollen from the male part of a plant to the female part, thus aiding the plant to flower and bear fruit. However, bees account for about a third of the pollination that occurs worldwide, setting them apart from the rest of their counterparts (Spivak [TED], 2013). Their existence has been put in danger since the beginning of the 1960s because of changes in farming strategies that were sparked by the global demand for more efficient, fruitful harvests. Since then, the bee population has dropped from just under 6 million after World War II to around 2.5 million in 2008 (Jenner, 2009). Due to this rapid downturn, certain localities have resorted to artificial pollination techniques, using rover-like automobiles to spread pollen across rows of crops, only compounding the already disturbing rise in global temperatures. To the concern of many, the species doesn’t seem to be close to a rebound any time soon. The only foreseeable outcome is an eventual increase in the price of groceries and a scarcity of food in the future. This was exactly the opposite scenario the world’s agriculture industry sought when they embarked on the Green Revolution 60 years ago. Yet today, it seems as if the grass isn’t greener on the other side, at least from the bumblebees’ perspective. Keywords: pollinators, bees, pollen, flower, farming, harvests, crops.
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A Sting to the Bee Population: How did it Occur and What does it Mean? Inadvertently, bees form an essential part in the agriculture industry worldwide, transporting pollen from the male part of a flowering plant to the female part. These stinging insects perform this action as a survival tactic; pollen provides them with the protein and the carbohydrates necessary for bees to live. However, though they don’t act in direct service of humans, the presence of bees, both in managed and wild populations, is of grand importance to human civilization. The pollinators spread pollen to about a third of all agriculture worldwide, a testament to their significance (Spivak [TED], 2013). Unfortunately, that population has decreased over the last 70 years or so, particularly since the end of the Second World War. For example, managed honeybee populations have dropped from 5.9 million in 1947 to 2.4 million in 2005 (Jenner, 2009). There are three main reasons to explain the global decline in bee population, each owing to changes in farming practices that have occurred in order to maximize profit from growing crops, which act as stabilizing feedback loops, negatively impacting one of their primary armaments.
What has Caused the Sharp Decline in Bee Population? Many of the root causes of the drop in bee population originate with the Green Revolution of the 1960s, an attempt to address world hunger in a methodical, scientific manner by increasing crop production; the global agriculture industry almost adopted a ‘by any means necessary’ mentality (Robbins, 2022). This, evidently, has had its effects on the health and wellbeing
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of both the environment as well as those that inhabit it, and bees have felt the brunt of the impact.
The Elimination of Cover Crops Firstly, plants utilized in agriculture to fertilize the soil, given the name cover crops, were replaced with the use of artificial fertilizers (Spivak [TED], 2013). The presence of clover and alfalfa, simultaneously nutritious food plants for bees and for the soil, stimulated pollination activity within plantations, whereas fertilizers directly implanted into the ground fail to do the same. The world as a whole has bumped its consumption of synthetic nitrogen fertilizers nearly ten-fold over the last 60 years, an astonishing up-tick that has unquestionably affected the bee population adversely (Institute for Agriculture & Trade Policy, 2021).
A Transition Towards Monocultures On top of the switch from natural to artificial fertilizers, renovated strategies have led farmers to resort to large monocultures ranging miles and miles for efficiency purposes. A very recent article composed by the CEO of Food Revolution Network, Ocean Robbins, explains the reason why: “[you] don’t harvest wheat with the same equipment you use to harvest soybeans... farming had to change from the workshop model to the factory model.” As the prefix suggests, these massive plantations cultivate just one crop, creating a lack of diversity for pollinators (Earth Observing System, 2020). In turn, this
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spawns nutrient and beneficial bacteria deficiencies for bees, constricting their environmental habitat as a whole.
The Mass Use of Pesticides Rounding out the list, pesticides, used to regulate the disturbance of unwanted wildlife, pose the greatest threat to the existence of bees. The most dangerous class of pesticides, neonicotinoids, even in the smallest of doses, can diminish the basic function of bees; often these chemicals lead to casualties. A study conducted by the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) found that from 1960 to 1981, the quantity of active ingredient used increased from 196 million pounds to 632 million pounds; that number has slightly decreased as of 2008 (Fernandez-Cornejo et al, 2014). The spike that occurred in pesticide usage over time corroborates the freefall in bee populations seen globally.
Why is the Drop in Bee Population Concerning? As mentioned previously, even though these insects may be viewed as annoying pests, bees are fundamental in the development of crops, which entails much more than just that singular domain. Obviously, the basic economic principles of supply and demand explain that a decrease in seasonal harvest would result in a rise in the price of groceries. In recent years, mainly down to the coronavirus pandemic, inflation rates have soared in order to keep the global economy afloat, something that will only be accentuated by a decrease in the supply of crops due to the limited availability of bee colonies.
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Additionally, the warming climate is cause for concern regarding the fall in bee population. A two-year field study completed by the Chicago Botanical Garden in conjunction with students from Northwestern University placed bees in a warmer environment, simulating sometime in the future. By the final year of the experiment, 70% of the bees had been killed, a number made even more stark by the 1-2% mortality rate seen in the control group (Morris, 2018). This study signals that the gradual increase in atmospheric temperatures that has occurred since the Industrial Revolution will only worsen the fall in global bee communities. Tying into the last point, one of the causes of the Earth’s rising atmospheric temperature, the corresponding rise in carbon dioxide (CO2) levels, has been found to harm the nutritional value of pollinators primary source of protein, pollen (Palmer, 2016). One of the experts that conducted the experiment, Lewis Ziska of the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), concluded that, “pollen is becoming junk food for bees,” quite an alarming statement when pollen acts as bees’ proverbial ‘bread and butter.’ Each of these components, in the end, affect human lives. The instigator of the decline in bee population, the Green Revolution, was an attempt to help human civilization, by making food easily accessible for the masses worldwide. Unfortunately, decades down the line, it seems to have put at risk the primary pollinator of agriculture, bees. As a result, human sustenance is put on eggshells.
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How does Bee Population Decline Affect Earth’s Spheres? Because of the importance bees hold within the development of agriculture, spreading pollen from plant to plant, it’s understandable that the diminishing population impacts the biosphere as a whole. Professor Rachel Winfree of Rutgers University concluded in her research that, “declining wild bee and other pollinator populations could impact the larger food economy... certain fruit and vegetables might become scarce (Dunphy. 2020).” Not only does the drop in pollinators harm their typically green benefactors, it also has a decaying effect on the survival of their own species. Addressed prior, monocropping has a negative impact on pollinators because it removes all biodiversity from a plantation. This lack of biodiversity, “results in the deficit of some bacteria that are beneficial for [bees’] health (Earth Observing System, 2020).” Besides its effects involving the biosphere, the gradual fall in bee population can impact the atmosphere as well. The fact that bees contribute to the pollination of a third of the world’s agriculture subsequently leads to a decrease in the carbon dioxide (CO2) absorbed by plants; Portuguese scientists from the University of Aveiro led a study that proved that “life span of open-pollenated flowers was variable and negatively correlated with pollinator visitation rates (Castro, 2008).” With a shorter lifespan, obviously, there’s less opportunity to perform the normal photosynthetic process and exchange carbon dioxide for oxygen. On top of that, just like many other natural processes have been replaced with automated alternatives, some places have dabbled in artificial pollination using four-wheeled machinery. In a video for the University of Waikato (New Zealand), Dr. Mark Goodwin of Plant & Food Research explained the formula behind using the automated method; visible was a rover-like
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automobile that pollinated the flowers within the pen (Goodwin, 2012). With nearly all certainty, this automobile burns some sort of fossil fuel in order to motor around, releasing greenhouse gases into the atmosphere and contributing to the warming of the Earth’s climate. These two examples demonstrate the magnitude of this tragedy, following a trend that has bubbled since the Industrial Revolution: bartering the Earth’s fauna and flora for the sustenance of the ever-expanding human civilization.
Conclusion Due to, mainly, newly implemented farming tactics, such as substituting clovers and alfalfa, cover crops, with chemical fertilizers, monocropping in order to streamline harvests, and the increase in pesticide use, the bee population has seen a major decline dating back to the years after the second World War. Many of these practices were introduced in order to combat world hunger by sharply increasing the supply of food, forming part of the Green Revolution. However, looking at the scenario now, it has fostered the emergence of clearly unsuitable conditions for one of the industry’s largest enablers. Though it’s only natural that these organisms eventually die, especially during the winter months when their primary source of nutrition, pollen, is diminished in its supply, in 2013, “many U.S. beekeepers experienced losses of 40 to 50 percent or more [of their managed bee populations],” which is much greater than the 15% that is expected annually (Grossman, 2013). Evidently, the decaying number of bees worldwide has an impact on agriculture and the growing of crops. However, even more worrisome is the
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compounding effect it may end up having on the atmosphere, which has steadily been warming for the last 250 years or so. Should the population of pollinators become unable to meet the demands of farmers worldwide, artificial pollination will be used as a substitute. In New Zealand, this has already become the reality, where four-wheeled automobiles transport pollen across a plantation, as seen in a video narrated by Dr. Mark Goodwin of Plant & Food Research. This only further pollutes the Earth’s atmosphere and contributes to the greenhouse effect that has seen unprecedented year-on-year bumps in near-surface temperatures. Projecting into the future, the apparent harm done to the bee population over the years doesn’t seem to have a solution; in fact, the warming climate only shortens the pollinators’ habitable environment. While a study conducted by the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) within the last decade concluded that rising levels of carbon dioxide (CO2) – for reference, a statistic registering 280 ppm (parts per million) in 1842 has broken the 400-ppm barrier – have been shown to reduce the nutritional value of pollen, other experiments have demonstrated even more alarming outcomes (Palmer, 2016). A two-year field simulation of a warmer climate, orchestrated by scientists at the Chicago Botanical Garden and Northwestern University, ended with 70% of the bees dying, whereas the control group only saw a mortality rate between 1 and 2 percent in today’s current climate (Morris, 2018). Together, these studies precipitate, if not the worsening of population decline in bees, the continuation of the already shocking rate of decline that has occurred over the last several decades.
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The worst part of all of this devastation is that it influences human dayto-day life as well. Before any harvest goes bust and grocery stores are empty, the price of food will skyrocket, per supply and demand, parallel to the current, unprecedented levels of inflation that have been caused, namely, by the coronavirus pandemic. Although no projections have been as to this topic, it only makes sense that sometime in the future, drastic changes will have to be made in order to revert the global complications that may arise, similar to what was attempted all those years ago with the Green Revolution.
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References Castro, Silvia, et al. “Effect of Pollination on Floral Longevity and Costs of Delaying Fertilization in the Out-Crossing Polygala Vayredae Costa (Polygalaceae).” Academic.oup.com, Annals of Botanic, 6 Dec. 2008, https://academic.oup.com/aob/article/102/6/1043/105042?login=false. Dunphy, Siobhán. “Declining Wild Bee Populations Threaten Key Food Crops.” European Scientist, 3 Aug. 2020, https://www.europeanscientist.com/ en/agriculture/declining-wild-bee-populations-threaten-key-foodcrops/#%3A~%3Atext%3DDeclining%20wild%20bee%20populations%20t ranslate%20directly%20into%20decreased%2Cof%20less%20pollination% 20due%20to%20fewer%20wild%20bees. Kogut, Peter. “Monoculture Farming Explained: What Are the Pros and Cons?” EARTH OBSERVING SYSTEM, 19 May 2022, https://eos.com/blog/ monoculture-farming/. Fernandez-Cornejo, Jorge, et al. “Pesticide Use in U.S. Agriculture: 21 Selected Crops, 1960-2008.” USDA ERS - Publications, United States Department of Agriculture, May 2014, https://www.ers.usda.gov/publications. GOODWIN, MARK. “Artificial Pollination.” Science Learning Hub, University of Waikato, 2012, https://www.sciencelearn.org.nz/videos/19-artificialpollination.
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Grossman, Elizabeth, et al. “Declining Bee Populations Pose a Threat to Global Agriculture.” Yale E360, Yale School of the Environment, 2014, https:// e360.yale.edu/features/declining_bee_populations_pose_a_threat_to_gl obal_agriculture. “New Research Shows 50 Year Binge on Chemical Fertilisers Must End to Address the Climate Crisis.” Institute for Agriculture and Trade Policy, 2021, https://www.iatp.org/new-research-chemical-fertilisers. Dunbar, Brian. “Honey Bees Turned Data Collectors Help Scientists Understand Climate Change.” NASA, NASA, 2009, https://www.nasa.gov/topics/earth/features/beekeepers.html. Morris, Amanda. “Climate Change Linked to Potential Population Decline in Bees.” Northwestern Now News, 2018, https://news.northwestern.edu/stories/2018/june/climate-change-linkedto-potential-population-decline-in-bees/. Nickeson, Jaime. “Honey Bees.” NASA, NASA, 2019, https://honeybeenet.gsfc.nasa.gov/Honeybees.htm.
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To What Extent is The Use of Biotechnology A Sustainable Way to Produce Crops in Agriculture? Heidi Alaimo Central High School
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Genetic code pieced together, scientists utilizing recombinant DNA technology, which gives us the ability to create new organisms. The application of biotechnology in agriculture is used worldwide. Whether biotechnology is the best method for maintaining crop yields is up to farmers across the globe to decide. While some countries benefit from the use of biotechnology for sustainable farming, others reject the technology as they are to consider it’s harmful impacts in agriculture. Although farmers who dismiss biotechnology prefer conventional techniques that would allow higher biodiversity than genetically modified (GM) crops would. The debate on using biotechnology in agriculture still remains as biotech techniques are questioned, countries adapt to new technology, and others raise a concern about the overall impacts of biotechnology on people and the environment. Advocates who support the use of biotechnology in agriculture agree that it will help produce greater crop yields, prevent the use of pesticides, and increase the production of highquality crops. On the opposition, some argue that biotechnology could create chemical resistant organisms, reduce the amount of biodiversity in crops, and contaminate naturally grown crops. I have traveled to plantations, working farms, and a biotech lab in the United States which I have seen crops that biotech techniques were applied to and crops that were conventionally grown without modification. Florida applies aquaculture to their crops, and Brazil is one of the largest exporters of GM crops. Still, Kenya is hesitant about the application of such technology. The state I’m from allows biotechnology to be used in agriculture. Is it the most efficient way to produce crops? Yet the question remains, to what extent is the use of biotechnology a sustainable way to produce crops in agriculture? Many who oppose the use of biotechnology in
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agriculture are solicitous that through the application of techniques crops can become resistant to chemicals. The repeated use of a single pesticide or chemical used on a crop can cause the organism to build a resistance towards it. An article written by biochemist Joshua Suico underlines the impact biotechnology has on agriculture. He clearly states his argument that there is “uncertainty of genetically modified crops’ long-term biological viability”. The fact that GM organisms that are resistant to chemicals used in 1 farming can later contaminate other GM crops through transferring its traits to unmodified crops. 2 As a result, farmers have to find new pesticides in order to counteract resistant crops, which can become difficult if the genes spread. This article was found on a science blog that is known to have contributions from credible authors. Although if someone read this article out of context unaware of the author’s credibility as an undergraduate from the Mapúa Institute located in the Philippines then one could view this as biased content. Yet the source was published in 2019, it reflects the current outlooks towards this issue. As Suico addressed the problems with biotechnology he did so with an influenced opinion based on his knowledge of biochemistry. Therefore his information should be considered as a reliable secondary source. Continuing from Suico’s article other disadvantages to biotechnology used in agriculture are brought about from another secondary source. An article written by agronomist Miguel A. Altieri explains issues with Integrated Pest Management in relation to the use of chemicals on crops. When plants become resistant to pesticides this is “locking farmers to broad spectrum herbicides that narrow weed management options”. This can denounce farmers to monoculture which limits 3 crop variety making them prone to plant
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pathogens, therefore lessening the crops’ biodiversity. Disadvantages to biotechnology are linked to decreasing biodiversity in crops as the invasion of GM genes into native varieties are “shrinking the agricultural gene pool” having it difficult to produce uncontaminated crops. Although Altieri’s article is outdated by 16 years, this source 4 should be considered relevant as Suico’s article was based on these same issues and his was written in 2019. Altieri has lectured on agricultural biotechnology as a professor in Agroecology at the University of California and has published many books in the field. Including his book, Agroecology: The Science of Sustainable Agriculture. With his work experience in the Department of Environmental Science and 35 years as a professor his input should be given more influence in the debate. Countries across the globe continue to be cautious before they adapt to agricultural biotechnology. Farmers in Kenya have yet to adopt biotechnology in agriculture as they are still dealing with increasing production costs in conventional farming. Yet the citizens in Kenya are 5 speaking up to government officials by declaring they have “been ready since 2016”. Considering 6 the article was posted in 2019, evidence shows that Kenyans have been hesitant to lift the ban off of GM crops making this issue relevant. Farmers are afraid that without implementing Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) biotechnology a kind of bacteria that lives in soil that is toxic to insects, Kenya will be facing a devastating crop loss of 50-60 percent if they do not intervene reported Professor Hamadi Boga. The article was posted on Cornell University’s website for education which confirms 7 its reliability. Yet this article presents many different opinions on this issue, which shows the author was able to capture a range of material to discuss, therefore reinforces its relevance to the
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debate. In contrast to Kenya’s divided opinions on this issue, Brazil has proven that biotechnology is sustainable as they are the second largest exporter of GM crops in the world. The interview with Adriana Brondani provides a primary source relating to biotechnology and its benefits to crop production. Brazil has had great success in producing quality staple crops such as maize, soy, and cotton for the last 20 years. According to executive director of the Council for Biotechnology Information (CIB) the country’s GM food production depended on the investment in technology and agricultural innovations. Farmers not only have to consider new agricultural technology for a 8 growing population but benefits for the environment should be included. Brazil has been working with “yield-enhanced
eucalyptus,
which
will
help
with
sustainable
forest
management” and allow the country to save resources. In the interview Brondani discusses how her country and the 9 environment has benefitted from incorporating biotechnology in agriculture. Brondani, a native Brazilian has worked with many organizations dealing with sustainable agriculture which makes her experience valuable to the debate. Yet she includes overall local views of the subject in her discussion to verify her own statements. In addition to Brazil’s success with the application of biotechnology in agriculture, others in the state of Florida also find the technology to be beneficial to avoid the use of pesticides on their crops. One local biotech lab has successfully used biological controls to manage pests in their greenhouses to almost eliminate the use of chemicals on their plants. A “Behind the Seeds” tour of Epcot’s biotech lab at Walt Disney World Resort in Florida shows how they use parasitoid wasps to control populations of harmful insects such as leaf miner flies. The lab associate in the video 10 explains that the parasitoid wasps
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lay their eggs in the bodies of the destructive insects to exterminate them instead using pesticides on the GM crops. The footage of the biotech lab tour 11 remains a primary source of what the film crew experienced. Although the tour is ran through the Walt Disney Company, which they advocate for alternative agricultural solutions as part of the Epcot park’s positive message. Even though the tour footage clearly is biased towards the benefits of biotechnology and that their claims do not explore other viewpoints- the company’s credibility overcomes their lack of balance. In an objective fashion, the video demonstrated their views of biotechnology by explaining facts, so the company’s reliability should hold some value in the debate. Following the concept of biotechnology and its sustainability in agriculture, different techniques have been used in Canada to maintain high quality crops such as recombinant DNA and cell fusion. Genetic engineers have the capability to select genes from certain organisms to then transfer those desired traits into their host cells. Recombinant DNA allows for better quality 12 crops that can withstand climatic factors. Canada’s economy is mostly dependent on their agricultural industry so it is a high priority to apply these techniques. With cell fusion hybrid plants 13 can be produced with faster growth rates, a greater ability to fix nitrogen, and to resist environmental factors.
Biotechnology
has
brought
many
opportunities
to
Canada’s
agricultural 14 industry and has allowed them to produce high quality crops. This information was provided by an article on the Canadian Encyclopedia’s website that has given Canadians updated knowledge about their country since 1990. It is found that this information was checked by experts in this field. Although proven to be reliable some credited authors on the site have a
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tendency to hold bias. Authors Andrew J. Moriarity and John Barrington-lee are contributors to the encyclopedia but as Canadians they seemed to hold bias in favor of biotechnology and its benefits rather than keeping a neutral outlook in their article. Yet the article incorporates local viewpoints and facts on the use of this technology to validate their reasoning. Biotechnology plays a significant role in sustainable agriculture according to an article written by Jania Matthews. Matthews considers the long term impacts on the importance of biotechnology as crop production affects people and the environment. The Food and Agriculture Organization found that thousands die every year due to hunger and applying biotechnology is the answer to “feeding the global population”. An article on the Science Blog discusses similar issues 15 that biotechnology will contribute to hunger reduction in countries across the globe. Not only will 16 this technology help maintain high crop yields for growing populations, but biotech has shown to significantly reduce carbon emissions in the atmosphere which benefits the environment. Both of 17 these articles evaluate the benefits of biotechnology and its long term effects on the global population and the environment, yet one is more credible than the other. Matthews’ article strictly argues that biotechnology is beneficial, but her information is extracted from reliable government sources that are proficient in this field. Although the Science Blog article offers relatable information, it’s claims are not backed with credible sources and it is a concern that the article lacks a listed author. Therefore, Matthews’ article should hold more prominence in the debate. Before I began to research, I thought that biotechnology was sufficient for crop production in agriculture. My original opinion has been supported.
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Witnessing conventional farming methods being applied to agriculture had me realize this is not the most sustainable method to produce crops. With my knowledge of biotechnology, I understand its role in countries’ economies and agricultural industries. Back when I visited Epcot’s biotechnology lab in person I was influenced by this experience. I learned about the different techniques applied in agriculture and this increased my empathy and perception of biotechnology’s benefits in producing crops. The interview with Brondani gave me insight into local perspectives that persuaded me that biotechnology can produce results although the methods are controversial. I was opposed by Suico’s article as I came to a realization that without applying updated biotechnological techniques it can hinder a nation agriculturally and economically. I wish that I could have gathered more primary and academic sources from biochemists and farmers. Biotechnology is crucial for a world with growing populations. We depend on sustainable agriculture for food and resources. Setbacks in conventional farming will only prevent us from developing new innovations in agriculture. The impact of biotechnology will affect the future of crop production worldwide. What would’ve happened if we didn’t apply biotechnology on diseased fruit? If we did not have this technology many species of fruit would have become extinct. Issues similar to this are still relevant today. Although some countries such as Kenya are still dubious about applying this technology. Others are moving towards more advanced agricultural techniques. Controversy still continues if biotechnology is the best way to maintain crop production. To picture a world with developed agricultural industries and sustainable crop yields, biotechnology is our future.
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References Altieri, Miguel A. Altieri. “The Case against Agricultural Biotechnology.” CorpWatch, 10 June 2003, https://www.corpwatch.org/article/caseagainst-agricultural-biotechnology. Brondani, Adriana. “How Plant Biotechnology Made Brazil a Major Agriculture Exporter.” CropLife International, https://croplife.org/from-importer-toexporter-how-plant-biotechnology-made-brazil-a-major-agricultureexporter/. “Fact Sheet: Benefits of Food Biotechnology.” Food Insight, 6 Nov. 2020, https://foodinsight.org/fact-sheet-benefits-of-food-biotechnology/. Entine, Jon. “Greenpeace Legal Challenge Fails to Stop Kenya's Food Imports.” Genetic Literacy Project, 9 June 2020, https://geneticliteracyproject.org/2020/06/09/legal-challenge-fails-tostop-kenyas-food-imports/. Moriarity, Andrew J. and John Barrington-lee. "Biotechnology". The Canadian Encyclopedia, 05 April 2014, Historica Canada. www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/biotechnology. Accessed 16 November 2022. Zaidi, S.S, et al. “New Plant Breeding Technologies for Food Security.” ScienceBlog.com, 31 Mar. 2019, https://scienceblog.com/506998/newplant-breeding-technologies-for-food-security/.
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Suico, Joshua. "The Disadvantages of Biotechnology" sciencing.com, https://sciencing.com/disadvantages-biotechnology-8590679.html. 16 November 2022. “Behind the Seeds Full Tour - The Land Pavilion - Epcot - WDW - 2018.” Edited by Club CoasterCrew, YouTube, YouTube, 13 May 2018, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uu1JUTUqfr4&feature=youtu.be .
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Beyond Our Atmosphere Riktavius Scriven Alexander Highschool
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Beyond our atmosphere exists a world of incomprehensible size and complexity. Thousands upon thousands of intriguing cosmic entities lay scattered across the reaches of outer space. Scientists across the globe known as astronomers constantly search the vast void for the next galactic point of interest. Whilst many captivating phenomena exist at insanely great distances beyond our exosphere, one may not be required to search that far to find an absolutely enamouring celestial object. Just in our solar system, there are eight conglomerations of matter, known as planets, orbiting our Sun. Each and every one of these planets is unique in their own way, but the planet Mars, however, definitely reigns as the most interesting planet in our solar system by far. It bears such a title due to its striking characteristics, compelling history, and the outstanding complexity of the many unmanned and planned missions from planet Earth. Mars is positioned as the fourth “terrestrial planet” in our solar system, meaning that “it has a central core, a rocky mantle, and a solid crust” (In Depth). When one looks into the sky to observe Mars they’ll see the vibrant red glow the planet possesses. This glow isn't just magical space phenomena, however. In fact “the reason Mars looks reddish is due to oxidization – or rusting – of iron in the rocks, regolith (Martian “soil”), and dust of Mars. This dust gets kicked up into the atmosphere and from a distance makes the planet appear mostly red” (In depth). The red planet is regarded as “a cold, barren desert with few signs of liquid water” as its surface shows no sign of life whatsoever (Greshko). That isn't too much of a surprise because “according to NASA, the atmosphere of Mars is 95.32% carbon dioxide, 2.7% nitrogen, 1.6% argon, 0.13% oxygen and 0.08% carbon monoxide, with minor amounts of water, nitrogen oxide, neon,
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hydrogen-deuterium-oxygen, krypton and xenon” (Choi). This atmospheric composition ensures the claim that the surface on Mars is void of life even more due to the fact that an atmospheric level of carbon dioxide above 5% is fatal (Friedman). Barren desert is not all the surface has to offer. At the north and south poles of the planet, “in both hemispheres are caps of water ice that remain frozen year-round” (Choi). These ice caps mimic those of Earth, a slight difference being that instead of frozen water, the ice on Mars is mostly ““dry ice," which has condensed from carbon dioxide gas in the atmosphere”(Choi). Mars is only about half the size of Earth being a mere 4,206 miles in diameter. As Nasa puts it, “If Earth were the size of a nickel, Mars would be about as big as a raspberry” (In Depth). With the smaller size of the red planet, also comes less intense gravitational pull and Due to Mars being off by seven on the largest solar system planets list, “Its surface gravity is 37.5 percent of Earth’s” (Greshko). Low gravity, however, doesn't stop the rusty planet from possessing two moons in comparison to Earth’s singular moon, but neither moons are perfect spheres as unlike Earth’s moon as “they have too little mass for gravity to make them spherical” (In Depth). Our home planet, Earth, has a protective shield that guards the atmosphere from harmful solar winds. This shield is known as the magnetosphere, and Mars doesn’t possess such protection. This may have not always been the case, however, because even though “Mars has no global magnetic field today,...areas of the Martian crust in the southern hemisphere are highly magnetized, indicating traces of a magnetic field from 4 billion years ago” (In depth). A Martian day is actually quite similar to Earth’s, albeit the atmospheric differences. Like Earth “As Mars orbits the Sun, it completes one rotation every 24.6 hours, which is very similar to one day on
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Earth (23.9 hours). Martian days are called sols – short for "solar day." A year on Mars lasts 669.6 sols, which is the same as 687 Earth days” (In Depth). The similarities with Earth don't end there. Both planets are tilted on an axis with Mars being “tilted 25 degrees with respect to the plane of its orbit around the Sun [and] Earth [with] an axial tilt of 23.4 degrees” (In Depth). The axial tilt means that “Mars has distinct seasons, but they last longer than seasons here on Earth” with spring lasting 194 sols, summer lasting 178 sols, winter lasting 154 sols, and autumn at a mere 142 sols (In Depth). Mars has been in our solar neighborhood for quite some time as “when the solar system settled into its current layout about 4.5 billion years ago, Mars formed when gravity pulled swirling gas and dust in to become the fourth planet from the Sun” (In Depth). Mars has been studied by ancient astronomers “as early as 400 BC” and has been adorned with many different names over the course of human history (Early Times). One the very first names for the rust planet was given by the ancient Egyptian civilization, the Egyptians called it "Her Desher," meaning "the red one" (In Depth). The name we use today: Mars, comes from the Roman empire as the “Greeks called the planet Ares after their god of war, while the Romans called it Mars” which was their own interpretation of the same god (Early Times). In the year 1578, Tycho Brahe, a historical astronomer of Danish descent “made surprisingly accurate calculations of the position of Mars 20 years before the telescope was invented” later in 1608 (1500s). Further down the timeline of Mars, “Galileo Galilei…observes Mars with a primitive telescope” in 1609 (1600s). In 1877, an American astronomer by the name of Asaph Hall, with much encouragement from his wife Angelina, discovered the two moons orbiting the red planet. “He names them Phobos
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(fear) and Deimos (fright), after the horses of the Greek war god, Ares (counterpart to the Roman war god, Mars)” (1800s). Mars exploration and “the image of Mars changed with the arrival of NASA's Mariner 9 in November 1971”, Mars’ very first orbital successful satellite (Howell). The red planet has not gone this long since its discovery untouched by mankind. The human race unfortunately has yet to step foot on the rusty surface of Mars due to the extreme challenges that present themselves when attempting such a feat. Luckily not all hope is lost because while we ourselves can’t yet explore mars, our artificially intelligent companions can. Mars has been no stranger to robotic beings on its surface since 1975 (Viking 1 & 2). These metallic pioneers pave the way for a road humans may step on in the future. The race to gather information on Mars went strong for years persisting through several failed attempts to even get a proper functioning satellite to orbit the red planet (Howell). The persistence of American astronomers paid off and “NASA's Viking Project found a place in history when it became the first U.S. mission to land a spacecraft safely on the surface of Mars and return images of the surface” (Viking 1 & 2). The NASA Viking project consisted of two twinning spacecraft each with an orbiter and a lander(Viking 1 & 2. The spacecraft donned the names Viking 1 and Viking 2, launching on June 19, 1976 and landing on July 20, 1976 (Viking 1 & 2). “The Viking 1 lander touched down on the western slope of Chryse Planitia (the Plains of Gold), while the Viking 2 lander settled down at Utopia Planitia” with both landers collecting photographs and scientific data on the Martian soil, whilst also attempting to find any signs of life on the barren desert (Viking 1 & 2). Almost all of the successful Mars exploration devices have a really interesting habit of outlasting
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their intended operation life spans. “The Viking mission was planned to continue for 90 days after landing. [but]. Viking Orbiter 1 continued for four years and 1,489 orbits of Mars, concluding its mission August 7, 1980, while Viking Orbiter 2 functioned until July 25, 1978” unfortunately time did run out for the twin spacecraft due to the natural degradation of materials Viking 1 and 2 sent their last messages to Earth on November 11, 1982, and April 11, 1980 respectively (Viking 1 & 2). The Viking 1 and 2 lander had been pivotal breakthroughs in the exploration of planet Mars. However, they had just been that: landers. Both of the spacecraft remained stationary from when they landed to when they were no longer operational. This would change with the launch of the NASA mission “Mars Pathfinder [on] December 4, 1996” (Mars Pathfinder). After hitching a ride on the launchcraft, Delta II, Pathfinder touched down on the Martian surface on July 4, 1997 at Ares Vallis (Mars Pathfinder). Using a never before seen landing technique, the Pathfinder lander slowed its descent to the Martian soil via parachute and then cushioned the final impact with an extremely absurd amount of large airbag-like devices (Mars Pathfinder). The Mars Pathfinder mission consisted of a two part spacecraft similar to the Viking project. However unlike the Viking orbiter and lander, the Mars Pathfinder carried instead, a lander and a rover (Mars Pathfinder). The rover, named Sojourner, in contrast to its lander counterpart, Pathfinder, could use its specifically constructed design to actually traverse across the Martian landscape (Mars Pathfinder). “Both the lander and the 23-pound (10.6 kilogram) rover carried instruments for scientific observations [on] the Martian atmosphere, climate, geology and the composition of its rocks and soil” (Mars Pathfinder). Sojourner
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and Pathfinder made amazing discoveries such as: water ice clouds, dust devils, rounded and weathered rocks and pebbles, and an accurate of the planet’s metallic core; all whilst also being on the long list of Mars spacecraft outliving “their design lives — the lander by nearly three times, and the rover by 12 times” (Mars Pathfinder). After the successful mission of the twin Mars landers, Viking 1 and Viking 2, it was time for a new set of twins to brave the Martian landscape. On June 10, 2003 Mars rover, Spirit hitched a ride on the Delta II 7925 heading towards the red planet (Mars Exploration Rovers). The next month, on July 8, 2003, Spirit’s identical twin, Opportunity hopped on the Delta II 7925H and joined the Mars bound journey (Mars Exploration Rovers). After making the 208 day long voyage, on January 4, 2004, “Spirit landed at Gusev Crater, a possible former lake in a giant impact crater. [21 days later, on the opposite side of the planet] Opportunity landed at Meridiani Planum, a place where mineral deposits suggested that Mars had a wet history” (Mars Exploration Rovers). After another airbag centered landing, the first mission given to the twin “robotic geologists'' was to search the rocky Martian surface “for clues to past water activity on Mars'' which is further backed by their chosen landing locations (Mars Exploration Rovers). Armed with their identical 384 pounds scientific investigation equipment, Spirit and Opportunity set out on their quest, sending back “hundreds of thousands of spectacular, high-resolution, fullcolor images of Martian terrain as well as detailed microscopic images of rocks and soil surfaces to Earth'' (Mars Exploration Rovers). With the scientific data provided by Spirit and Opportunity, astronomers have been able to “[reconstruct] an ancient past” of when the rusty was possibly full of water and microbial life
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(Mars Exploration Rovers). Spirit unfortunately sent its last message to Earth on March 22, 2010 but not before outliving its originally intended lifespan by twenty times (Mars Exploration Rovers). Opportunity on the other hand, though it lost its twin, continues to report back to Earth to this day (Mars Exploration Rovers). The rover missions on Mars only continued to grow and become more complex as time went on, and on November 26, 2011, the Atlas V 541 launched, carrying the technological marvel known as Curiosity (Mars Science Laboratory). “Curiosity is the largest and most capable rover ever sent to Mars” and is the first Martian spacecraft to ever arrive on the surface via descent slowing rockets instead of the usual airbag system (Mars Science Laboratory). Curiosity landed at Gale Crater on August 6, 2012 and immediately got to work. Using its superior engineering advances it can “climb over knee-high obstacles and travels about 100 feet (30 meters) per hour” (Mars Science Laboratory). Being over six feet tall and outfitted with almost twenty different scientific instruments and cameras, Curiosity works to answer questions presented by its creator and pilots back on Earth (Mars Science Laboratory). The most prevalent of these questions is “Did Mars ever have the right environmental conditions to support small life forms called microbes?” (Mars Science Laboratory). Curiosity’s extraordinary efficiency began to answer this question wonderfully as very “Early in its mission, Curiosity's scientific tools found chemical and mineral evidence of past habitable environments on Mars”, and continues to search through soil and rock samples for signs of past microbial life (Mars Science Laboratory). Though our robotic friends are more resistant to the harsh Martian environment, that does not mean that they’re invulnerable. The rover
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Curiosity is definitely an engineering masterpiece, but was thrown for a loop on January 20, 2020 when it discovered an attitude issue (Wall). As hilarious as the thought of a robot having an attitude is, the matter was quite significant. An attitude problem on the rover alludes to “Curiosity's position in space, and the position of its various parts, such as its instrument-laden robotic arm” (Wall). Should the Curiosity rover lose track of this information it could lead to various issues, such as: camera damage from looking at the sun, equipment malfunction from smashing in rocks, or even robotic arm damage from losing track of its position in relativity to the rover (Wall). Curiosity knew what to do in this situation, however, and completely froze its movement until receiving attitude data from scientists back on Earth. Thanks to a statement by Scott Guzewich, a NASA atmospheric scientist, on January 21, 2020, “We learned…Curiosity was ready for science once more!" (Wall). Curiosity went on to follow in the footsteps of its predecessors and remains operational to this day, much longer than its intended lifespan of 687 sols (Mars Science Laboratory). After the many successful rover launches and landings of the previous Mars missions, NASA decided to take things to a higher level. Having every analysis of material on Mars be also conducted on the red planet is convenient, but it limits the equipment available for use. There is a large amount of NASA’s professional scientific equipment that would most likely yield more accurate analytical results, but unfortunately it's just too large to transport to Mars itself (Mars 2020 Perseverance). The way this problem is to be solved is through a long term two-part mission (Mars 2020 Perseverance). The first part is a rover sent to gather samples and store them. The second part is a spacecraft meant
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to gather the stored samples and return them to Earth. Whilst the latter section is still under development, the first part is already going strong. On July 30, 2020 the Mars rover, Perseverance was sent to touch down on the Martian surface on February 18, 2021 at Jezero Crater (Mars 2020 Perseverance). Perseverance definitely has similarities to the rover that have traverse Mars before it, but its biggest uniquity is its a ability to stored the soil and rock sample it procures. “The rover introduces a drill that can collect core samples of the most promising rocks and soils and set them aside in a "cache" on the surface of Mars” (Mars 2020 Perseverance). All of this is of course to advance the long-term mission of discovering ancient life on the red planet, but Perseverance also has another mission, this mission involves paving the way for future astronaut settlements on Mars (Mars 2020 Perseverance). Perseverance hopes to achieve this goal through the demonstration of different technologies “that address the challenges of future human expeditions to Mars. These include testing a method for producing oxygen from the Martian atmosphere, identifying
other
resources
(such
as
subsurface
water),
[and]
improving…environmental conditions that could affect future astronauts living and working on Mars” (Mars 2020 Perseverance). Another one of the technologies to be demonstrated on the Martian surface was the test of “powered, controlled flight on another world for the first time” (Mars Helicopter). This was achieved through a remotely controlled helicopter that hitched a ride on the underside of Perseverance during their Martian bound journey (Mars Helicopter). On April 19, 2021, the Mars helicopter, Ingenuity, took its first flight, reaching about 10 feet above the Martian soil, thus achieving one of the largest milestones in NASA history (Mars Helicopter). The helicopter
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continued to make more and more test flights after the first one and “with its tech demo complete, Ingenuity transitions to a new operations demonstration phase to explore how future rovers and aerial explorers can work together” as the helicopter remains operational to this day (Mars Helicopter). Today Perseverance and Ingenuity continue their experiments at Wright Brothers Field, Mars (Mars Helicopter). One day in the near future, space exploration companies such as NASA and SpaceX, want to be able to establish human settlements on the surface of Mars. This feat comes with a wide array of challenges to overcome, however. One of the largest challenges faced is the problem of cost. Making a spacefaring vehicle is no cheap task. In fact the latest Mars rovers, Perseverance and Ingenuity, cost over 2.7 billion dollars, with the very first landers, Viking 1 and 2, coming in at an incredible 7.1 billion dollars (McCarthy). All hope is not lost, however, as the company SpaceX, owned and operated by billionaire, Elon Musk, presents an extremely viable solution to create cost-effective interstellar transportation. Using a vehicle named the Starship, a Mars landing would take advantage of an Aerodynamic landing using the shape of the rocket itself (Mars & Beyond). Should the landing be achieved correctly, a return trip utilizing the same rocket would be possible, removing the cost of an external retrieval spaceship (Mars & Beyond). Another capital consuming aspect of cosmic traversal is fuel consumption. SpaceX provides another solution to this problem via a technique known as “on orbit refilling” (Mars & Beyond). The way the process works is there are “tanker vehicles [waiting] to refill the Starship spacecraft in low-Earth orbit prior to departing for Mars. Refilling on-orbit enables the transport of up to 100 tons all the way to Mars. And if the tanker
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ship has high reuse capability, the primary cost … of the propellant, and … oxygen … is extremely low” (Mars & Beyond). The universe is a large place, and everyday significant new strides are made in the world of science and technology to further advance mankind’s knowledge and understanding of the cosmos. Confined to the blue orb we call home we remain vigilant, looking for new interstellar phenomena and objects all of the time. Nevertheless as we as species continue to effectively acquire more and more information on our place in the galactic picture, one planet remains forever at the center of our fascination. With an absolutely intriguing history, Unique characteristics, and a mission history that outshines all other planets to date, Mars is the most interesting planet in our solar system.
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References “1500s.” Edited by NASA, NASA, NASA, https://mars.nasa.gov/allaboutmars/mystique/history/1500/. NASA. “1600s.” NASA, NASA, https://mars.nasa.gov/allaboutmars/mystique/history/1600/. NASA. “1800s.” NASA, NASA, https://mars.nasa.gov/allaboutmars/mystique/history/1800/. Choi, Charles Q. “Mars: Everything You Need to Know about the Red Planet.” Space.com, Space, 11 July 2022, https://www.space.com/47-mars-thered-planet-fourth-planet-from-the-sun.html#sectionsize-compositionand-structure. “Early Times.” NASA, NASA, https://mars.nasa.gov/allaboutmars/mystique/history/early/. Friedman, Daniel J. “Carbon Dioxide CO2 GAS Exposure, Toxicity & Poisoning Symptoms.” Effects of Exposure to Carbon Dioxide - Toxicity of Carbon Dioxide CO2 Gas Exposure, Poisoning Symptoms, Exposure Limits, Gas Test CO2 Exposure Limits, Daniel J. Friedman at InspectApedia.com, https://inspectapedia.com/hazmat/Carbon_Dioxide_Hazards.php#:~:text =Toxic%20levels%20%20of%20carbon%20dioxide%3A%20at%20levels% 20above,1%2C200%20ppm%20an%20d%20above%20indicate%20poor% 20fresh-air%20ventilation.
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Greshko, Michael. “Mars, the Red Planet: Facts and Information.” Science, National Geographic, 3 May 2021, https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/article/mars-1. Howell, Elizabeth, and Vicky Stein. “Mars Missions: A Brief History.” Space.com, Space, 1 Mar. 2022, https://www.space.com/13558-historicmars-missions.html. “In Depth.” NASA, NASA, 8 July 2021, https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/planets/mars/in-depth/#otp_introduction. “Mars & Beyond.” Edited by Space X, SpaceX, https://www.spacex.com/human-spaceflight/mars/. “Mars 2020 Perseverance Rover.” NASA, NASA, 18 Feb. 2021, https://mars.nasa.gov/mars-exploration/missions/mars2020/.
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The Climate Change Crisis Lillie Senseney Thunderridge High School
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If everyone in the world lives as Americans do, it would take five Earths to produce enough resources, a sad truth not enough Americans know about (U.S Environmental Footprint Fact Sheet). More than one million animals are at risk of extinction because of the global climate change crisis and we aren’t as worried as we should be. Along with animal extinctions, the sea is predicted to rise a foot, and the temperature is supposed to rise by two degrees celsius within the next decade (Wildfires and Climate Change). The wildfire season has been extended to larger and more severe fires as a consequence to the earth’s temperature warming. Climate change has always happened on Earth but the rapid rate of and intensity has become alarming and led us to believe it's our fault. We’ve faced severe weather changes in the last decade because of this issue which should be proof enough for action to be taken. The problem; a divide in democracy between two parties that makes it impossible to agree on proper action. The world is facing the most severe consequence of society's atmospheric pollution and lawmakers in the United States aren’t doing enough. In the 19th century, the industrial revolution introduced unnatural climate change switching from human labor to machinery that produced more emissions. This sparked an age of innovation where our country created more products and more machinery leading to even higher emission rates. The amount of carbon in the atmosphere has risen by forty percent since the industrial revolution (Climate Change Impacts). This intense increase of carbon in our atmosphere is too much for our earth to sustain which has led to devastating consequences such as the natural temperature rising. The United Nations concluded that there is a ninety five percent
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probability human activities in the last 50 years have warmed our planet (The Causes of Climate Change). Human activity has increased greenhouse gas levels since the industrial revolution occurred sparking a new discovery of rapid climate change. Urban Americans in 2019 created around 68.6 billion tons of carbon dioxide emissions (U.S Environmental Footprint fact Sheet). It’s a tough pill to swallow that we are the reason for the devastations caused by climate change but something we must learn in order to make a change. The main causes of climate change from human activity are cutting down forests, burning fossil fuels and farming livestock which all lead to an increase of greenhouse gasses (Wildfires and Climate Change). The greenhouse effect is when gasses in the atmosphere trap the sun’s heat and stop it from going back into the atmosphere which is the scientific cause of global warming. Human activity creates more of these gasses leading to an even further greenhouse gas effect that speeds global warming up on earth. A more intense greenhouse effect will lead to warming of the seas and melting of the glaciers increasing sea level (The Causes of Climate Change). There’s not a simple solution to the growing greenhouse gas problem but we can cut down on emissions of these gases to slow global warming down. The extreme wildfires our country has seen, caused destruction, and devastation. Even in “the best case scenario” climate change will still drastically increase the size and likelihood of wildfires in the United States (Ludwig). If we take action now and do all we can we will still see an increase in deadly fires and a loss of American lives as a consequence of global warming. Disruption of the earth’s temperature causes heat waves,
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droughts and other factors that create prime conditions for wildfires to grow more severe and rapidly (Ludwig). Rising global temperatures create the perfect storm for intense wildfires to cause havoc. Global temperatures have risen 1.98 degrees fahrenheit from 1901 to 2020 (Climate Change Impacts). This rise in temperature in the last century can be seen through wildfires in the western states along with drought. Climate change enhances the drying of organic matter in forests which creates larger material for fires to catch on and spread creating larger burn areas (Ludwig). As Mike Ludwig, a journalist for Truthout puts it “Climate change has extended the annual fire season in the U.S. by an average of 78 days since 1970, draining firefighting resources at both the state and federal levels.” (Ludwig). As wildfires increase in the United States, firefighters struggle to fight minor fires because of the depletion of resources taken by wildfires. The Center for Climate and Energy Solutions states through research they’ve discovered that “For much of the U.S. West projections show that an average annual 1 degree C temperature increase would increase the median burned area per year by as much as 600 percent in some types of forests.” proving the burning area will likely increase (Wildfires and Climate Change). This devastating discovery shows the intensity of rising temperatures on our earth's environment. In conclusion, global warming has not only increased the likelihood of wildfires but created prime conditions for wildfires to spread. Along with wildfires, we are facing limited water supplies brought on by drought and extreme weather. The hotter temperatures make snow or rainfall to reach reservoirs seemingly impossible because of increased
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evaporation (Sommer). Almost half of the American population is facing drought-like conditions, because of the effects of climate change. The United States’ largest reservoir is the lowest it’s been since it was filled in the 1930’s (Morrison). The western states are struggling the most to attempt to conserve water in order to save our limited water supplies. In much of the country we face dry soil making it almost impossible to have the agriculture we had years before (Sommer). Drought leads to a decrease in food production with reduced agriculture which can harm American lives even farther. As our country is devastated because of rising temperatures, our water supply is decreasing in American communities especially in western states. Not only has climate change impacted the United States environmentally but also economically. As the sea level rises we have to implement coastal protection and land loss. Seawalls alone will cost us an estimated five hundred billion dollars, but hurricane destruction costs ninety one billion dollars a year (Morrison). A writer for Yale found that “In Boston, where many neighborhoods have been built and recently expanded in low-lying areas, an estimated $2.4 billion will be needed over the next several decades to protect the city from flooding” a sad truth that to save our cities will cost billions (Morrison). The more devastation our country faces because of climate change the more billions of dollars taxpayers will pay. There's a lack of federal funding for instances like these, so the pressure is put on state and local governments. This will put cities in debt, as much as one billion dollars, which puts a strain on the government systems and lawmakers. Along with rising seas and the need for sea walls,
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we are also facing a decrease in agriculture. As agriculture becomes harder to produce, our food prices will continue to rise putting an even further strain on our economy. The climate change crisis is harming American lives in the economic world and it’s not something that is highlighted in the news. The United States government is at a complete political split making it seemingly impossible for a plan of action to be made about climate change. Although they have taken minimal action to fight the world’s most difficult task, they have not done enough. The United States pledged to cut emissions by seventeen percent by 2020 however this goal was nowhere near met because we didn’t take enough action (NPR News Staff). The most recent bipartisan bill as of December 2020 included funding and research towards clean energy technologies (Congress Climate History). This bill was a step in the right direction but since then lawmakers can’t come together to find common ground. In 2021, a 3.5 trillion dollar bill was proposed by the democratic party to pay utility companies to switch to clean energy sources, but the bill did not get majority vote and never was put into place (Brady). This bill would have been a huge step towards cleaner energy and the promotion of climate change action. The two political parties have created a great divide across a nation that once worked together. Samanatha Gross talks about a study that found “65% of Americans believe that climate change is an emergency.” an alarming statistic since lawmakers aren't doing enough (Gross). More than half the United States see climate change as an emergency and yet lawmakers can not agree on a climate change operation because the two parties refuse to side with each other. Many republican
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legislators reject the science of climate change while those who believe refuse to cooperate with democrats (Gross). Without the understanding of climate change some lawmakers see no point in spending the money to create a change which leads to even more of a disagreement. President Joe Biden created a climate change action plan which wanted to reduce Americans’ meat consumption but the harsh backlash the plan faced led it to drop as an idea completely (Gross). As lawmakers attempt to take action they receive backlash from the opposite party that just divides our country further. Reducing greenhouse gases would spark new technology and infrastructure, leading to more American jobs. Our future is counting on United States lawmakers to work together to create a positive change on the climate change crisis. The University of Michigan conducted a study and discovered “With less than 5% of the world’s population, the U.S. consumes 16% of the world’s energy and accounts for 15% of world GDP. In comparison, the European Union has 6% of the world’s population, uses 4.2% of the world’s energy, and accounts for 15% of world GDP; China has 18% of the world’s population, consumes 20% of the world’s energy, and accounts for 16% of world GDP.” ( U.S Environmental Footprint Fact Sheet). The United States is one of the largest world emitters compared to other countries which is why we need to cut back on emissions. Australia created a bill for the worst five hundred Australian polluters to pay a tax on every ton of carbon they emit into the atmosphere (NPR News Staff). This aggressive bill highlights the carbon emissions from companies and makes greener energy seem like the better option which is a bill the United States could put in place. In South Africa,
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they plan to make nine percent of the country’s energy clean by 2030 (NPR News Staff). This initiative will help global emissions largely and contribute to a cleaner society. The European Union reduced carbon emissions by eight percent of the 1990 level by granting permits for factories on how much carbon they were allowed to emit (NPR News Staff). The European Union has seen the dangers of climate change and made large changes to do their part and it's time for us to do ours. Even more countries have taken action towards a greener future and the United States needs to follow in their footsteps. The work United States lawmakers have done revolving around climate change, is not enough for the emergencies and devastations our country is facing. Climate change affects have devastated Americans environmentally and economically. Wildfires and severe weather have cost the United States American money and American lives. Investment in a greener future could cause a boom in innovation and infrastructure, which could lead to a job increase. Our country has not taken many actions to stop this devastation because of the political divide that seizes lawmakers from agreeing. If the political divide in the government doesn’t come to a halt soon we could be facing more lives lost and intense effects. Future generations are counting on United States lawmakers to create a climate change crisis plan.
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References “Congress Climate History.” Center for Climate and Energy Solutions, 11 Jan. 2021. https://www.c2es.org/content/ congress-climate-history/. Gross, Samantha. “Republicans in Congress Are out of Step with the American Public on Climate.” Brookings, Brookings, 16 June 2021, https://www.brookings.edu/blog/planetpolicy/2021/05/10/republicansin-congress-are-out-of-step-with-the-american-public-on-climate/ Chun, Myung, et al. “Wildfires Will Keep Getting Worse -- Even in ‘Best Case’ Climate Scenarios.” Truthout, Truthout, 9 Mar. 2021, https://truthout.org/ articles/wildfires-will-keep-getting-worse-even-inbest-case-climate-scenarios/. Morrison, Jim. “Who Will Pay for the Huge Costs of Holding Back Rising Seas?” Edited by Nicola Jones et al., Yale E360, 5 Aug. 2015, https://e360.yale.edu/features/who-will-pay-for-the-huge-costs-ofholding-back-rising-seas NOAA. “Climate Change Impacts.” Climate Change Impacts | National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 1 Feb. 2019, https://www.noaa.gov/ education/resource-collections/climate/climate-change-impacts. Sommer, Lauren. “The Drought in the Western U.S. Is Getting Bad. Climate Change Is Making It Worse.” NPR, NPR, 9 June 2021, https://www.npr.org/2021/06/09/1003424717/the-drought-in-thewestern-u-s-is-getting-bad-climate-change-is-making-it-worse.
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The Fast Fashion Epidemic: Government, Environmental, and Community Solutions Hannah Westlake Portsmouth High School
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Current State of the Problem A college student sits in the back of her math lecture, rolling her eyes at the monotony of note-taking. In an attempt to cure her boredom, she pulls out her computer and opens the H&M website. Perusing the thousands of items, she selects a few of her favorites and hits the checkout button, returning to her math notes. This cycle of mindless online shopping is one all too familiar to the technology-goers of today. Consumers become bored of their current possessions, so they throw them out and buy new ones, failing to realize the impact these simple actions have on global society and the environment. Fast fashion has dominated consumer closets since the beginning of the 21st century. Fast fashion refers to cheap clothing produced in minimal time, often in low-income countries and with synthetic materials. A BBC article mentions how fast fashion drove the fashion industry to become the third-largest industry in terms of manufacturing scale (“Fast Fashion”). Bhattarai, a reporter for The Washington Post, notes how the United States has the highest rate of fashion consumption, and people dispose of millions of tons of clothing per year (Bhattarai). Bick, an expert in public health, says that internationally, 80 billion pieces of new clothing are purchased annually, leading to $1.2 trillion for the fashion industry (Bick). But this sizable amount of consumption leads to negative effects both environmentally and socially. To keep the price of fast fashion goods low, retailers turn to low-wage workers that have little rights protection. Low- and middle-income countries, such as China and Bangladesh, produce 90% of the world’s
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clothing (Bick). Factories are a lead contributor to greenhouse gas emissions and water pollution, producing around 10% of global emissions (“Fast Fashion”). There are currently solutions to combat fast fashion, but the movement is still in the early stages. Forever 21, one of the leading fastfashion brands, filed for bankruptcy in 2019 and closed 350 stores as a result of rising consumer consciousness. Popular clothing brands such as American Eagle and Reformation are focusing their mission on sustainability (Bhattarai). But these movements do not indicate foolproof solutions to the clothing epidemic; while some are becoming cognizant of their environmental consequence, many seem oblivious to the impact their consumption is having. The environmental, cultural, social, and economic problems that occur as a result of fast fashion can be resolved through establishing copyright laws, adopting more corporation regulations, producing more sustainable fibers, and increasing consumer awareness.
Background and History The value of fashion has not always been attributed to its speed of production. Before the Industrial Revolution, fashion was a slow process because people had to source, prepare, and work with materials to create clothing. Rauturier, a digital marketing manager for Good On You, mentions how the Industrial Revolution was the pioneer in making clothing production faster, beginning in the early 1800s (Rauturier). New technology such as sewing machines, textile machines, and factories cut production time and led to cheaper clothing, as discussed by fashion historian Idacavage (Idacavage). Standardized production became popular due to
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the fabric restrictions of WWII, and after growing used to this standardization, middle-class consumers were more likely and willing to pay the price tag of mass-produced clothes as time went on (Idacavage). Additionally, many more clothing stores, such as dressmakers, opened and sold to middle-class consumers (Rauturier). While there was a team of employees in this store, some production elements were sent to “sweaters,” people who stayed at home and worked for little pay (Idacavage). The methods of production that came about during the Industrial Revolution enabled the less wealthy to afford the same clothes as the upper-class citizens. With the Industrial Revolution sweatshops emerged as companies scrambled to keep up with customer demand, bathing in the newfound, rapid income. Rauturier notes that with the focus on mass production, things such as safety protocols were ignored, as demonstrated by the Triangle Shirtwaist Factory fire in 1911 that killed over 100 employees. The people that worked at the Triangle Shirtwaist Factory endured terrible conditions, with low pay and long hours. The bosses were corrupt and left the doors locked to make sure the employees kept working. During the fire, the doors were still locked, and so those who could not escape died (Rauturier). According to Bick, due to the factory health hazards that caused catastrophes such as this, textile labor unions were popular in the United States and the United Kingdom in the 1900s. But as demand increased and restrictions became lacking, these poor working conditions shifted to factories in low- and middle-income countries (Bick). This
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offshoring of garment production is a method that the majority of fashion companies still use today. With an increasingly stimulated fashion economy, existing and potential business owners began looking toward the industry. Many common, modern fast fashion brands started small in Europe and expanded to infiltrate the US market in the 1990s. H&M, formally called Hennes & Mauritz, opened in 1947 in Sweden. H&M moved to London in 1976 and subsequently the U.S. in 2000 (Idacavage). As the fashion industry continued to expand within the United States, companies and the government realized production was occurring in overseas countries and decreasing economic stimulation in the United States. Dr. Ramkumar, a professor of fashion and textiles at SUNY Oneonta, states that in 1974, the Multi-Fibre Arrangement was established in an attempt to reduce the number of clothing exports from developing countries. As part of this agreement, countries received a certain quota for the amount of clothing they could export. However, as a way of taking advantage of production capabilities, these developing countries sometimes routed their exports through other countries that had not yet met their quota (Ramkumar). Despite a seemingly effective quota arrangement, the MFA did not prevent fashion companies from producing garments in cheaper countries. With a booming fashion market and rising sales, fast fashion companies were able to expand their impact. Idacavage mentions how in 1990, when Zara moved to New York, the New York Times said it took Zara only 15 days to get a piece of clothing from creation stages to being sold in
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stores (Idacavage). Additionally, Rauturier notes how with the public introduction of the internet, low-cost fashion took off in the 1990s and 2000s as consumers could now shop online, and companies such as H&M and Zara became the main suppliers for street fashion. These companies took the emergence of “trendy clothes,” many of which came from the high fashion runways. They recreated the clothes at a cheaper cost so more consumers could enjoy the pieces. With the ease of purchasing on-trend clothing, fast fashion was quickly taking over (Rauturier). Since then, fast fashion became the main supplier for consumer closets. Now, in 2021, the reach and destruction of fast fashion seem too vast to reverse. Working conditions are still poor, as shown when the 2013 Rana Plaza factory in Bangladesh collapsed and killed 1,134 workers (Bick). Crinis, a research associate at the University of Wollongong, states that the quota established by the Multi-Fibre Arrangement ended in 2005 under the rule of the World Trade Organization, meaning companies could now openly outsource all production, and consumer demand reached every corner of the globe (Crinis). Currently, 97% of all clothing sold in the United States is made outside of the country. Relying so heavily on overseas production distances consumers from the repercussions of their consumption (Ramkumar). The chain of events caused by the ending of the Multi-Fibre Arrangement led to industry expansion evident in the scale of the fashion industry today.
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Extent of the Problem Due to the massive scale of clothing production, companies rely on masses of underpaid workers in low-income countries, and this leads to worker exploitation. As McCosker—an author for Good On You—states, every one in six workers internationally works in the fashion industry, and the majority of these employees are female due to the social and economic vulnerability of women in developing countries (McCosker). As Crinis mentions, Nike has 591 production locations in 42 countries; these facilities alone employ more than one million people (Crinis). An article from McCosker notes that despite all of the income from the sale of this clothing, a 2019 report from Oxfam found that there are no Bangladeshi workers in the fashion industry who earn a liveable wage. This number increased to only 1% in Vietnam (McCosker). Elrod, a professor at the University of Colorado Boulder, mentions that one expert has noted how less than 10% of clothes are made in facilities with safe conditions and a liveable wage (Elrod). Additionally, workers face unsafe working conditions. In 2013, the Rana Plaza factory in Bangladesh collapsed and killed 1,134 workers and injured many more (Bick). The global range of the fashion industry is evident, and yet the injustices production employees face go ignored. Fashion consumers seem to have an ever-increasing appetite, and the statistics prove this undoubtedly. Niinimäki, a member of faculty in the Department of Design at Aalto University, notes how global consumption of fashion increased by 60% from 2000 to 2014 (Niinimäki). According to Bick, 80 billion pieces of new clothing are purchased each year internationally; this massive amount of consumption results in $1.2 trillion for the fashion industry
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(Bick). And brands have done a good job catering to the needs of their customers. Crinis notes that fast fashion companies, such as Zara and H&M, bring in more profit by changing their content every six weeks as opposed to every season. Consumers visit fast fashion stores with constantly rotating picks, such as Zara, at least four times more than other fashion stores (Crinis). With no sign of slowing down, it is predicted that fashion consumption will increase another 63% by 2030 (Niinimäki). One can see why it will be hard to combat the effects of fast fashion because of the mass of people that consume it. In response to the ever-changing style trends, buyers have developed a dangerous habit of mindlessly disposing of the fashion they no longer want. Bick states that annually, Americans send 3.8 billion pounds of clothing to landfills, occupying 5% of landfill space. But this disposal does not only end at the landfill. From the United States alone, around 500,000 tons of clothing— $700 million in 2015—are sent abroad each year (Bick). These exports are sent to low-income countries, with Africa receiving around 70% of global clothing donations (“Fashion’s Impact”). While this may seem like a positive thing, clothing return affects local economies in these developing countries. Whether because of competition or an overwhelming amount of goods with no means of disposal, the cycle of developed-country consumption affecting developing countries is full circle. Aside from having social and economical implications, fast fashion consumption also affects the environment due to the use of synthetic materials. Approximately 60% of clothing internationally is made with synthetic materials (“Microfiber Pollution”). For example, polyester is made from oil, so its production contributes to air pollution and greenhouse
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gasses (Bick). In addition to gas emissions, water reserves are used for products containing cotton and dye. The article “Fashion’s Impact in Numbers” details how one ton of dyed fabric requires 200 tons of water to be produced (“Fashion’s Impact”). Lastly, synthetic fabrics also contribute to the plastic pollution of waterways. “Microfiber Pollution: Our Clothes Pollute the Oceans” discusses how synthetic fabrics release microfiber plastics in all stages of their production and wear, and approximately 35% of plastic pollution in the oceans are microfibers that come off of clothing during washing (“Microfiber Pollution”). With such a profound environmental impact, microfiber contamination will continue to rise and fast fashion will harm the planet unless something is done.
Repercussions of the Problem Through the production of clothing, namely unsustainable clothing, both the water and air are affected. As Claudio, a professor of environmental medicine at Mount Sinai, states, the Environmental Protection Agency has identified clothing manufacturing facilities as hazardous waste producers. First of all, producing synthetic fibers means large amounts of energy and crude oil which therefore releases greenhouse gasses (Claudio). Secondly, because of the amount of water used to produce cotton and other crops for clothing, it is projected that by 2030, factories will use 40% more water than there are supplies to. Furthermore, dyeing clothing causes almost one-fifth of water pollution (Elrod). According to Bick, many factories do not have the proper means to dispose of toxic water, so untreated wastewater will travel to water systems that humans and animals use; the presence of these heavy
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metals and other toxins poses a health risk to local inhabitants (Bick). Specifically, polyester leads to monomers, solvents, and other by-products to exist in wastewater (Claudio). The effects of clothing production do not remain within the confines of factory walls, but they spread throughout the environment. The synthetic materials used in fast fashion leave their footprints on all corners of the globe. According to “Microfiber Pollution: Our Clothes Pollute the Oceans,” approximately 60% of clothing internationally is made with synthetic materials, and these synthetic materials shed microfibers throughout their wear. Microfibers are plastic fragments less than 5 mm in length and invisible to the naked eye, and primary microfibers that are released directly into the environment. Nine million primary microfibers are discharged into wastewater treatment plants every time one does laundry. Seeing as microfibers come off of textiles, humans, and animals are constantly breathing them in, and the consequences of unnatural inhalation lead to destructive effects. Aside from clothing, microfibers have been found in chicken, fish, plankton, beer, honey, and drinking water (“Microfiber Pollution”). Humans do not have any biological means by which they can eliminate microplastics; asbestos is another particle that has shown severe health effects when inhaled, such as damage to lung tissue and eventually cancer and DNA problems. Microfibers have the potential to induce similar health risks, which is why those working in the garment industry are susceptible to respiratory problems.
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Synthetic materials made from toxic chemicals comprise the majority of fast fashion items due to the cheap cost they can be produced at. Elrod mentions how Earth Pledge estimates that in creating materials for clothing, we use around 8,000 synthetic, unnatural chemicals. These chemicals are mostly “bioaccumulative” and build up in areas such as aquatic habitats, in turn contaminating these habitats and working up the food chain to human consumption (Elrod). Along with the gas emissions caused by synthetic fiber production, there are also organic compounds and acid gasses such as hydrogen chloride that have the potential to cause respiratory issues (Claudio). Additionally, Elrod mentions how many chemicals used in the fashion industry are cancercausing. Greenpeace conducted a report where they tested 141 clothing samples from 20 brands; results found that every single item had traces of hazardous materials, such as nonylphenol ethoxylates, toxic phthalates, and amines from azo dyes. The majority of chemicals Greenpeace discovered are classified as illegal in the United States, and yet in the developing countries where these clothes are developed, regulations have been enacted to allow for the production of these chemicals (Elrod). Corporations knowingly damage the environment with each cotton shirt they produce. Those made to work in fast fashion factories are subjected to both harmful materials and abuse from authority. Reports of health problems from factory work include lung disease, cancer, damage to the endocrine system, negative effects on reproduction and fetuses, and in some cases death (Bick). A film called “The True Cost” highlights a factory in Bangladesh where workers tried to get the owner to meet demands for better conditions and
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wages but were beaten for their efforts to “undermine authority” (Elrod). Furthermore, Hitching-Hales, a writer for Global Citizen, highlights how the fast-fashion model that H&M and Gap use creates unreasonable expectations for production targets, meaning the employees at production facilities work fast and under harsh pressure for little money. In 2018, 540 workers from H&M and Gap alone reported abuse between January and May, and the majority of workers blamed this abuse on the unmeetable production quotas and lack of overhead costs. The abuse reported covers emotional, verbal, and sexual abuse; examples include rape, gendered bullying, slapping, and using power to initiate inappropriate sexual relationships (Hitching-Hales). The hardships garment workers are forced to endure only worsen as consumption rises. There is no sign of the human rights violations caused by the production of fast fashion waning in their impact. As refugee populations continue to rise in the northwest of Asia, many more workers are being inducted into the garment industry. Hitching-Hales details a moment when the BBC staged an investigation that found companies such as Marks and Spencer and Zara stationed in Turkey use Syrian refugees as a majority of their employees there. Needing quick money and quick work, companies found this minority population easier to exploit. Child Syrian refugees also work to support their families, and these children receive less than £1 ($1.32) an hour in these factories. Additionally, for the sake of a fast-moving production line, these factories waived the presence and influence of health and safety regulations on the way they run their factory. As Hitching-Hales states, “[Fast fashion causes] a vicious cycle of modern slavery that can often lead to human trafficking… [and] widespread abuse,” (Hitching-Hales). To
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make the fast fashion industry more sustainable and human-rights-friendly, companies need to stand up for the well-being of their employees.
Solutions to the Problem One of the main reasons fast fashion continues to have such an extensive impact is because of the lack of copyright laws and intellectual property rights for fashion designers. Elrod notes how fashion designers have limited protection for their designs; fast-fashion retailers are free to steal designs off of the runway and send them into stores within weeks. If fashionspecific copyright laws are established, these fast fashion brands could not steal designs and would therefore receive less traffic to their stores and websites. Additionally, if the number of consumers lessens, fast fashion brands will be forced to cut down on their manufacturing and will in turn reduce their environmental impact and human rights violations. The European Union gives more copyright protection to clothing designers than the United States. Seeing as the U.S. is the highest fast fashion consumer, having similar copyright laws here would limit consumption and therefore hinder consequences seen as a result of fast fashion and pirated designs (Elrod). By keeping new, “trendy” clothes as a product of only the fashion designer themselves, fast fashion customers will look elsewhere and these companies will be forced to slow down production. While a challenging task, it is vital that the government establishes international and national standards and regulations for fashion-oriented corporations. These criteria will ensure eco-friendly production which improves health and safety (Bick). Claudio mentions how the EU established
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REACH regulations in 2007 that require clothing companies to identify what and how many chemicals are in the products being imported. Establishing something like this worldwide would not only cut down on the chemicals but make consumers more aware of what is in their clothing (Claudio). Additionally, Crinis states that educating suppliers and enforcing transparent production practices help protect and provide equity for garment workers. In the establishment of industry policies, workers, trade unions, and non-profit organizations should be involved in the process. These regulations need to be clear, strict and enforce practices that increase environmental and worker protections such as a wage increase (Crinis). If consumers and the government band together, they can enforce moral practices that turn money-hungry corporations into ethical, people-focused companies. One way to dramatically reduce the environmental impact of the fashion industry is to produce more sustainable fibers. Bick states that protein and cellulosic fibers are better for the environment. For example, Lyocell, a fabric derived from bamboo cellulose, is made in such a way that 99% of the used chemicals are recycled. Using sustainable materials such as this will help minimize environmental impact (Bick). As Claudio mentions, other examples of sustainable fibers are using cotton, hemp, bamboo, and others that have been grown in an eco-friendly way using no pesticides or irrigation. Claudio states that “Patagonia, a major retailer in casual wear, has been selling fleece clothing made from postconsumer plastic soda bottles since 1993. This recycling process takes clear plastic bottles made of polyethylene terephthalate (PET), melts them, and reconfigures them into fibers that can be woven into fabrics and other applications,” (Claudio). Using synthetic
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fibers less will reduce microfiber pollution, chemical pollution, and greenhouse gas emissions. The easiest, most cost-efficient way to reduce fast fashion consumption is to educate and raise consumer awareness about the negative environmental and human rights impact of the fashion industry. Not only does the separation between producing continents and consuming continents lead to customer oblivion, but Clark, a professor of design and fashion studies at The New School, states that consumers fail to realize that companies are using their speed as a smokescreen to hide all of the negative impacts they have (Clark). As Tung, an assistant professor at California State University Northridge states, the only way to truly decrease fast fashion consumption is to make the issue of sustainability a collaborative issue by limiting consumption on an individual level. Media coverage about the effects of fast fashion needs to increase in order to make more consumers cognizant of the issue (Tung). Often, the public does not see media coverage of the catastrophes that occur as a result of fast fashion companies, using the Rana Plaza factory collapse as an example. With more coverage, consumers will begin to buy more secondhand clothing and reduce their individual consumption. In making the subjective value of the object more substantial than a low-cost transitory item, consumption will decline as consumers take advantage of what they already have (Clark). If each person limits their fashion consumption, consumers take the power and market control away from corporations.
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Conclusion Without the implementation of such solutions, the fashion industry in 100 years will claim domination over both the environment and commercial scene. If consumption continues to rise at the rates it has in the last ten years, the fashion industry has the capability to become the lead contributor to air, water, and plastic pollution. Worker rights will continue to be exploited on an even larger scale, and the small percentage of upper-class consumers will dictate the well-being of the hundreds of millions of garment workers. However, the future does not have to look this way. By implementing solutions such as the ones mentioned above, fashion can become a sustainable, ethical cycle in which the main focus is not speed, but art. Designers can present their work on catwalks without the fear of their creations being stolen and sold for much less. Fashion companies can bring in profit knowing they are not negatively impacting the environment or their employees. And the individual consumer can stand in front of their closet proud of the sustainable steps they took to advance the future of fashion.
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References Bhattarai, Abha. “'a Tipping Point in Fast Fashion': Forever 21's Bankruptcy Signals the Shifting Priorities of Young Shoppers.” The Washington Post, WP Company, 3 Oct. 2019, https://www.washingtonpost.com/ business/2019/10/03/tipping-point-fast-fashion-forever-s-bankruptcysignals-shifting-priorities-young-shoppers/. Bick, Rachel, et al. “The Global Environmental Injustice of Fast Fashion Environmental Health.” BioMed Central, BioMed Central, 27 Dec. 2018, https://ehjournal.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12940-018-0433-7. Clark, Hazel. “Slow + Fashion-an Oxymoron-or a Promise for the Future ...?” Taylor & Francis, 2015, https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/ 10.2752/175174108X346922. Claudio, Luz. “Waste Couture: Environmental Impact of the Clothing Industry.” National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, https://ehp.niehs.nih.gov/doi/ full/10.1289/ehp.115-a449. Crinis, Vicki. “Corporate Social Responsibility, Human Rights and Clothing Workers in Bangladesh and Malaysia.” Taylor & Francis, Apr. 2019, https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/10357823.2019.1588850. Elrod, Cassandra. “The Domino Effect: How Inadequate Intellectual Property Rights in the Fashion Industry Affect Global Sustainability.” Digital Repository @ Maurer Law, 30 Sept. 2017, https://www.repository. law.indiana.edu/ijgls/vol24/iss2/10/.
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“Fashion's Impact in Numbers.” CNN, Cable News Network <https://www.cnn.com/interactive/2020/09/style/fashion-innumbers-sept/>.
STUDENTRESEARCH JOURNA
SECTI ON 2
PSYCHOLOGY
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Nature vs. Nurture Mecca Andrews Manchester Township High School
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In the world of psychology, the debate surrounding whether serial killers are either born or created, or known as the nature vs. nurture theory, is a debate that has caused controversy for years. Nature vs. Nurture debate originated in 1869 from an English Polymath, Francis Galton. Nature is the opinion on a child being predestined or having genes/ genetic disorders that are the cause of them growing up to become serial killers. Nurture is commonly taken as the impact of other components after birth, the result of presentation, educational encounters and learning on a person. Nature vs. Nurture is one the greatest debates in psychology because of the many people who argue that inheritance is the cause of children growing up to become serial killers and not environmental factors. In order to understand Nature vs. Nurture theory, one has to define what a serial killer is. A serial killer can be defined as “someone who commits at least three murders over more than a month with an emotional cooling off period in between”(Brogaard, par.1). The National Institute of Justice defines a serial killer with more context. They define a serial killer as executing two or more people with a mental thought process and cruel sexual suggestions (Brogaard, par. 3). This definition gives the understanding that a serial killer has a thought process and picked when and how they were going to kill. One of the most typical traits in serial killers is that they look for a definitive rush (Brogaard, par. 13). The sexual gratification that they feel when killing their victim is what motivates and inspires them, but this is not the case for all of these killers. That sexual gratification in serial killers is mostly prone in male serial killers, not females. Female serial killers regularly are not inspired by sexual delight, yet rather by a corrupt sense of adoration, pity, or benevolence
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(Brogaard, par. 4). For example, the zodiac killer was not driven by sexual desires, but was driven by the power of fear and terror he could put into people's hearts. The key to what makes a serial killer a killer is their motives and their signatures that are unique to each kill. The question of whether man is pre planned at birth or not to become a serial killer is a question that many debate to this day. Many believe that it is in a child's nature or that they are predestined to one day commit such horrendous acts. The nature side includes the hereditary and biological aspects. For example, antisocial personality disorder, also known as psychopathy or sociopathy, is one of the most common inherited diagnoses in serial killers (Brogaard, 4). APD is characterized as a negligence for ethics, misuse of others hurtfully, control or double dealing of others utilizing shallow appeal, an absence of compassion for other people and an absence of regret, express or shrouded aggression, an absence of concern for hazardous circumstances, inability to procure from the results of their fortunate or unfortunate activities, history of temperamental connections, inability to satisfy work, and repetitive aftermaths with power figures “(Brogaard, par. 4). Another Biological aspect would be high testosterone levels found in serial killers. Studies have shown that a greater percentage of male serial killers have extremely high levels of testosterone in their bodies compared to the average male (Brogaard, par. 10). It is also believed that irregular levels of the mind substance dopamine which is responsible for delight and inspiration - or the receptors for dopamine, may likewise be a contributing variable (Brogaard, par. 12). This would mean that their levels are low, and they would need more excitement to be stimulated. The abnormal level of dopamine
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plays into the typical attribute of serial killers which is that they look for a definitive rush. “Some are motivated by the adrenaline rush of the hunt, the stalking and catching of their victims, and the perfection of their skills; Killing for them is a sport” (Brogaard, par. 13). These traits are what are believed to be programmed from birth and will eventually show as the child develops. Nurture refers to the environmental factors that could possibly affect who we are that also includes the way parents raise their children, childhood experiences, society, etc. “The nurture side is where what we have experienced in our lives, the lessons and influences on us as we were growing up which includes the environment we were brought up in, and how our parents treated and provided for us, that shaped us as individuals” (Guy,par. 2). Profoundly awful encounters, specifically during adolescence, can have a much more profound effect on grown-up life. They can fundamentally shape a person's character and life decisions, beginning examination into the association between childhood abuse and criminal conduct (Davies, par. 1). Parents can determine and influence their child’s life in either a good or bad way. It is believed that we are all born with a clean slate so the only way we learn these behaviors and perspectives is by what we are surrounded by. Parental perspectives, childhood style, social relations, and social practical issues are the main signs of the making of a serial killer. Many serial killers were physically, psychologically, verbally, and sexually abused growing up which impacted them for the rest of their lives. These traumatic experiences could potentially be one of the causes of why they kill. For example, Richard Ramirez also known as “The Night Stalker” from El Paso, Texas, who was convicted for killing 13 individuals in San Francisco and Los Angeles, had an
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upset youth, and suffered merciless beatings by his dad (Davies,par. 4). Numerous studies that have taken place show how childhood abuse can influence a child’s development which may lead to antisocial behavior, increased violence, etc (Higgs, 11). Sexual maltreatment was conceivably associated with the assault/desire and outrage typologies. It was additionally connected with an inclination for overkill, postmortem sex, and moving the body to an alternate area from where the homicide took place (Davies, par. 8). A crucial role in the nurture aspect is the type of relationships that a child has during its development. For example, in a normal situation a child will bond with its mother and the mother will form a bond with the child to give that child the physical and emotional support that it needs that they will reciprocate as they grow older to others. On the other hand, where that healthy bond is not formed, the child may withdraw themselves from the parents. In other instances, children who grow up in any type of abusive household will often become withdrawn and antisocial and may even grow up to be in that same situation, but I think it's normal. In the examination for the public foundation of equity, Dr. Herrenkohl and his partners found that youth misuse increased the danger for criminal conduct during adolescence (Davies, par. 13). The imitation of the behavior that they experience as a child is a way of enacting what they learned from the people they were surrounded by. Two of the most infamous serial killers, Ted Bundy and Jeffrey Dahmer, both experienced childhood trauma and grew up to commit horrendous acts. Throughout nature vs nurture theory, their names are mentioned and used as examples because of their popularity of being two of the most prolific serial killers. Bundy was a cunning and charming psychopath who kidnapped, raped,
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and murdered more than 30 women in seven states between 1974 and 1978 (Bonn, par. 2). Bundy was apathetic and unable to express remorse or guilt. Life itself was valueless to him and he went about life as if there was no effect in cause and effect (Bonn, par. 3). Bundy was classified as a power/control serial killer because of the gratification he felt while dominating his victims. As a kid, Bundy did not have the decent behaviors he would later use to engage individuals into accepting that he couldn't in any way, shape or form be a serial killer (Kettler,par. 11). Growing up Bundy resented his mother. “...He expressed a feeling of being unloved, though he voiced appreciation that Louise had “paid all the bills. And Bundy’s illegitimacy was another sore spot in their relationship” (Kettler, par. 8). He also went through rejection in schools where he didn’t fit in and often left to fend for himself. “… He was teased for having a speech impairment and that he couldn’t keep up with his fellow boy scouts” (Kettler, par. 11). The rejection he faced growing up was portrayed through his crimes where he would kill his victims then sexually assaulted them to avoid rejection from other human beings. Jeffrey Dahmer also grew up often being neglected by his own family. “...His father spent large amounts of time working on his PhD at Iowa State University, rather than at home in order to avoid family turmoil, may have compounded Dahmer’s feelings of isolation and abandonment” (Higgs, 9-10). Instead of Dahmer seeking help, he chose to stay silent which only fueled his feeling of abandonment. It was also rumored that Dahmer may have experienced sexual abuse in his childhood from a peer in his neighborhood (Higgs, 10). This may very well be the reason why he chose to torture, rape, and kill his victims. “Jeffrey Dahmer's choice of victims could also be nothing more than the
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actions of a sexually confused young man who was terrified of being left alone or abandoned” (Higgs, 10). Dahmer not only had abandonment issues, but he was also exposed to various heated arguments and physical altercations between his parents as a child. This furthered his feelings of abandonment and neglect, especially after his parents got divorced and left him in the house by himself. Nature vs Nurture is a controversial discussion where both sides have valid points to justify their beliefs. Inheritance, environmental factors, and personality traits all play a huge factor in what makes a serial killer. Overall, Nature and nurture are intertwined, and both play a part in the making of serial killers.
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References Ali. “Nature Versus Nurture: The Role of Genetic Influence on the Serial Killer.” Soapboxie, A Maven Channel, 27 November 2020, http://experimentalorigins.weebly.com/. Accessed 2 December 2020. Bonn, Scott A. “Examining Serial Killer Ted Bundy.” Psychology Today, Sussex Publishers, 30 December 2019, https://www.psychologytoday.com/. Accessed 2 December 2020. Brogaard, Berit, Ph.D. “Do All Serial Killers Have a Genetic Predisposition to Kill?” Psychology Today, Sussex Publishers, 26 March 2018. https:// www.psychologytoday.com. Accessed 22 November 2020. Brogaard, Berit PhD. “What Defines a Serial Killer?” Psychology Today, Sussex Publishers, 31 May 2017, https://www.psychologytoday.com. Accessed 3 December 2020. Davies, Nicola. “From Abused Child to Serial Killer: Investigating Nature vs. Nurture in Methods of Murder.” Psychiatric Advisor, Haymarket Media, 26 June 2018, https://www.psychiatryadvisor.com. Accessed 19 November 2020. Guy, Fiona. “Nature and Nurture: The Origins of Violence.” Crime Traveler, 16 May 2016, https://www.crimetraveller.org. Accessed 21 November 2020. Harris, Judith R. “Nurture Assumption: Why Children Turn Out the Way They Do.” Journal of Social Work Education, vol. . 35, no. 1998, 1998, pp. 15656 EBSCOhost, http://web.a.ebscohost.com. Accessed 18 November 2020.
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Higgs, Tamara. “Jeffrey Dahmer's Childhood.” Jeffrey Dahmer: Psychopathy and Neglect, All Regis University Thesis, 2012, pp. 9-14. epublications, epublications.regis.edu. Accessed 2 December 2020. Kettler, Sara. “Inside Ted Bundy's Troubled and Disturbing Childhood.” biography,
A&E Television Networks, 30 July 2019,
https://www.biography.com/. Accessed 2 December 2019. Lerner, Frey K., and Brenda W. Lerner, editors. “Criminal Profiling.” World of Forensic Science, vol. 1, Gale, 2005, pp. 181-82. Gale eBooks, https://go.gale.com. Accessed 17 November 2020.
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The Detrimental Effects of Homeschooling Summer Burress Enterprise High School
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Homeschooling has become an increasingly common form of education over the last twenty-seven years of being legalized in all fifty states (Bales) Therefore, it is pertinent to ask an important question: is homeschooling actually beneficial to children’s development? While at-home education has been around for many years, the modern homeschool movement began in the 1970s with John Holt’s support of school reform. Holt and his friend Raymond Moore advocated for homeschooling until it became legal throughout the U.S. in the 1990s with little opposition (“Brief History”). Today, there is much debate on whether or not the effects of homeschooling can be harmful to a child, socially and intellectually. Some parents glorify homeschooling, making it seem like the perfect solution to solve all families’ problems. While homeschooling might seem beneficial in the present, it is important to look ahead and consider the outcome of children’s overall development and future success. Although the flexibility of homeschooling may appear to be convenient, in actuality it is an inadequate option due to its contribution to a child’s lack of social interaction inside and outside of extracurriculars, its monetary and emotional costs, and its involvement with a child’s struggles to adjust to life after homeschooling. Homeschooling impacts the amount of exposure, costs, and adjustments a family must endure, suggesting that the effects of homeschooling are detrimental to a child’s development.
Lack of Exposure Homeschoolers’ lack of exposure to the typical amount of social interaction necessary is extremely damaging to their development because they miss the prime time for socialization. Humans rely on this time to learn the social
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skills needed to excel in everyday interactions and understand the different ways to communicate. What exactly does socialization mean? According to writers at Coalition for Responsible Home Education, the word alludes to the time when a child learns the social skills needed to be successful in society (“What the Research”). “As children develop, they use verbal and nonverbal communication for a range of purposes, which would include simple actions like, sharing and questioning” (“Conversation”). Therefore, validating that teaching children at home is only depriving them of the variety of socialization they need to be exposed to because they are not involved in a public setting most of the day, much like traditional students. At traditional schools, children are given the opportunity to integrate themselves into the variety of socialization they require. Of these varieties, homeschoolers lack the most exposure to differences in people and extracurricular activities.
1.1 Personalities. One of the main aspects of socialization is interacting with the multiple number of personalities that differentiate every individual in society. The exposure is crucial because it allows children to experience how they should react to effectively communicate with everyone or to reflect on their experiences to handle a future interaction with someone similar. Writers at Coalition for Responsible Home Education say, “Children who are homeschooled children (like all other children) need to build the ‘social fluency’ that will enable them to negotiate a variety of different social situations” (“What the Research”). It can be quite difficult to build that
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“social fluency” because, unlike traditional school students, homeschoolers are hardly ever exposed to a sufficient variety of personalities. Occasionally, homeschooled children do get a decent amount of social interaction from friends; however, their friends are primarily other homeschooled children (“What the Research”). At public institutions, this is alleviated because of the mass number of students that attend each school. Therefore, children are bound to interact with different people, whether it is in the classroom or in the halls.
1.2 Sports and School Clubs. Students at traditional schools often have the option to participate in a multitude of sports, especially in high school. When people think of sports, their minds naturally go to the physicality of them. However, sports are not only good for a child’s body but good for their minds, too. According to Healthdirect, an Australian online health resource, research has displayed that sports have psychological benefits for children and help them learn essential life skills. Researchers believe this is due to the skills that children gain from the socialization of being on a team. The writers include some of the developmental benefits from playing sports, like how children learn to deal with the ups and downs of life. For example, learning to lose enables them to develop skills such as maturity and resilience. Healthdirect also mentions that being on a team teaches children many social skills, like cooperation, unselfishness, and teamwork (“Developing”). Some of which can also be learned by participating in school clubs. Much like sports, writers from The Princeton Review explain how participating in clubs can help a
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child develop social skills such as creative thinking and cooperation. Not to mention, extracurricular involvement assists in the future by allowing colleges and employers to gain insight into a person (“How Important”). When pondering these benefits of school clubs, it is obvious to see how homeschooling can extremely limit the exposure a child can be granted. The Princeton Review also adds that along with missing out on the social elements of clubs, homeschoolers miss the leadership opportunities available. Taking on the role of club president or secretary teaches children responsibility and discipline (“How Important”). Hence, exposure to a variety of people and extracurricular activities is essential to building life skills. Consequently, homeschoolers are at a disadvantage because the lack of exposure decreases children’s development of these skills.
Costs While the child struggles with the lack of socialization they are exposed to, the parents struggle with paying the monetary price of homeschooling and maintaining all their other parental duties. According to Time4Learning, a well-known blog and resource for parents looking to homeschool, the average cost of teaching one child at home per year can range between $700 and $1800; however, each family is different and must consider the additional costs of other materials they might need. The resource’s team places the costs of teaching at home in three categories: “curriculum, general books and educational supplies, and extracurricular activities” (The Time4Learning Team). Essentially, homeschool parents are paying for everything that would already be provided at a public school. As mentioned before, homeschoolers
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are not easily given the option to participate in extracurricular activities, like sports and clubs. Therefore, if the child wants to get their needed socialization and exposure, then the parents now have to pay and devote time to these activities. “Sure, traditional schooling has plenty of fees associated with it, but you are usually warned at least somewhat in advance when those are involved. Homeschooling, on the other hand, can add to your monthly expenses in ways you might not have considered yet” (The Time4Learning Team). These expenses could include additional gas money for the extracurriculars and field trips, increases in grocery shopping, and extra supply costs. When making the decision to homeschool, parents must consider the additional monetary costs that are often missed.
2.1 Effects on Parent Relationship and Independence. It is important to reveal the emotional cost of homeschooling for the child as well. Homeschooled children endure a considerable amount of emotional costs from learning at home, which severely affect the relationship with their parents and their lack of independence. Arguably, the most difficult part of having a parent as the teacher is maintaining a positive parent-child relationship. Andrea Schmidt at ResearchGate describes “data from a 21-day diary study conducted between March and April of 2020 in Germany that examined whether homeschooling was associated with negative parentchild interactions and affective well-being of both parents and children, over and above the effect of daily stressors.” The study’s results display that days when parents are more involved in learning, lead to more negative parent-
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child interactions (Schmidt). Therefore, they are putting a strain on their relationship and affecting their daily interactions, whether during school time or family time. Additionally, Dr. Sarah Bayless from Psychreg mentions, “Research has shown that stressed parents are more likely to be harsher in their parenting, which in turn can affect a child’s self-esteem, well-being, and longer-term outcomes.” Since homeschooling comes with plenty of stress, it would cause children to develop long term problems with selfimage and even anxiety. Homeschooling also has a huge impact on children’s independence. “Homeschooled children with highly involved parents or tutors, likely get much more one on one time and individual instruction than traditional students” (Wise). Thus, when homeschooled children grow up, they tend to be dependent on those around them because they were never forced to do activities independently. Unlike traditional students, homeschoolers do not have to compete with their peers to get their questions answered or their ideas heard. Consequently, the Un competitiveness causes them to be dependent on the fact that they have unlimited time with their teacher at home, who will likely be there whenever the child needs them. Furthermore, homeschooled children are able to set their own schedules because they do not have to abide by a school’s established schedule (Baird). Due to this advantage, some homeschooled children appear to be dependent on following their own agenda and making them less willing to adapt to someone else’s timeline. The costs of homeschooling affect both the parents and child and can lead to the development of future problems for the child.
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Times of Adjustment The amount of adjustment a child encounters with homeschooling can be very harmful to their development because they are forced to adapt to society upon entering the real world. Children learn how social interaction works through the opportunities they have to watch and participate in socialization. The skills they learn allow them to socialize easier. Hence, the development of a child’s social skills is contingent on the different interactions they make with their peers and adults as a child (“Conversation”). Homeschoolers often go through a period of adjustment, having to learn the social norms much later when they start interacting in college and the workforce (“What the Research”). Since college and the workplace differ in numerous ways, it is important to note what adjustments a child would have to undergo in each environment.
3.1 Adjusting to College. Homeschoolers looking to further their education will more than likely have a difficult time adjusting to life as a college student. They are faced with new challenges and expectations, like building new relationships and learning new teaching methods. “Before college, homeschooled students enjoyed a level of parental support and affirmation that traditional students do not often experience. So, when homeschoolers leave the house and head to the university, building a new support network is critical” (“Five Things”). However, building a new support system can be difficult when the child has not had the optimal exposure needed to build their social skills in order to be successful. Of course, everyone is capable of making new
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friends, but it is much harder for homeschoolers due to their decreased exposure to a variety of social interactions as a child. Another adjustment they face, and arguably, “one of the greatest challenges for the homeschooled graduate entering college is adjusting from the expectation of the parent or primary teacher to the expectation of professors” (“Five Things”). This is due to the fact that homeschoolers are not introduced to the multitude of teachers that a traditional student would experience in school. These students deal with differing teachers with differing teaching methods, grading, and rules. Accordingly, this explains why it is one of the greatest challenges for homeschoolers, and further signifies the effects that these adjustments have on a child’s development.
3.2 Adjusting to the Workforce. Similar to college life, previously homeschooled children entering the workforce will also undergo a rough time of adjustment. Many homeschoolers will struggle with the social aspects of having a job and the feeling of being inexperienced in certain life skills. Writers from Coalition for Responsible Home Education say, “When home educators socialize their children with different children in a variety of contexts, they can help ensure that their children will have the skills they need to succeed as adults.” However, the results from the 3,702, homeschooled graduates surveyed by Homeschool Alumni Reaching Out (HARO) show that almost “25 percent of respondents reported poor or very poor socialization” (“What the Research”). The importance of giving homeschoolers the opportunity to socialize is very important, but according to data it is still being looked over.
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Parents need to set their child up for success in the workforce so they will have the skills to be able to thrive in interacting with their coworkers and bosses effectively. Without the social interaction they are bound to learn the hard way and will endure a stressful time adjusting to the unforgiving workforce. According to another survey, the Cardus Education Survey, “which compared and contrasted the educational experiences of adults aged 24 to 39 who grew up in religious homes, found that graduates of homeschools were more likely to report ‘lack of clarity of goals and sense of direction’ and ‘feelings of helplessness in dealing with life’s problems’ than conventionally schooled graduates" (“What the Research”). The Cardus Education Survey further illuminates the damaging effects of homeschooling by proving that homeschool students feel misguided in terms of learning important life skills as a child. After examining the adjustments that occur for homeschoolers in college and the workforce, the destructive effects on a child’s development are very clear.
Conclusion It is important to consider all of the consequences of homeschooling because it can often lead children to suffer developmentally. Homeschooling impacts the amount of exposure, costs, and adjustments a family must endure, suggesting that the effects of homeschooling are detrimental to a child’s development. Although homeschooling seems like a great option, it is important to look past the convenience and remember its contribution to a child’s lack of social interaction, its monetary and emotional costs, and its involvement in a child’s struggle with adjustment. Without this consideration
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children are put in damaging situations where they feel unprepared for life in the future. Which is why it is crucial to determine whether or not homeschooling is truly the best option for children, and if it is, is there a plausible option to replace the pieces missed in child development?
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References “A Brief History of Homeschooling.” Coalition for Responsible Home Education, 21 Oct. 2020, responsiblehomeschooling.org/research/ summaries/a-brief-history-of-homeschooling/. Accessed 30 Nov. 2020. Baird, Chris, and Ellen Baird. “Our Experience with Homeschooling.” Science Questions with Surprising Answers, Dec. 2019, wtamu.edu/ ~cbaird/sq/faqs/homeschooling/. Accessed 27 Nov. 2020. Bales, Kris. “State Homeschool Laws - The Most Restrictive and the Most Lenient.” ThoughtCo, www.thoughtco.com/homeschool-laws-4154907. Accessed 30 Nov. 2020. Bayless, Sarah, and Ana Aznar. “How Are Parents Coping with Homeschooling During Lockdown?” Psychreg, 21 May 2020, www.psychreg.org/ homeschooling-during-lockdown/. Accessed 27 Nov. 2020. “Conversation and Social Skills.” Department of Education and Training Victoria, 26 Aug. 2020, www.education.vic.gov.au/childhood/ professionals/learning/ecliteracy/interactingwithothers/Pages/convers ationandsocialskills.aspx. Accessed 24 Nov. 2020. “Developing Life Skills through Sports.” Healthdirect, Healthdirect Australia, Feb. 2020, www.healthdirect.gov.au/developing-life-skills-throughsports. Accessed 24 Nov. 2020. “Five Things to Know About the Transition from Homeschool to University.” Regent University, www.regent.edu/acad/undergrad/featured/ transition-homeschool-to-university.cfm. Accessed 27 Nov. 2020.
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“How Important Are High School Clubs?” The Princeton Review, www.princetonreview.com/college-advice/joining-high-school-clubs. Accessed 27 Nov. 2020. Schmidt, Andrea, et al. “Homeschooling and Affective Well-Being of Parents and Children During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Daily Diary Study.” ResearchGate, Oct. 2020, www.researchgate.net/publication/ 344688969_Homeschooling_and_Affective_Well-Being_ of_Parents_and_Children_During_the_COVID19_Pandemic_A_Daily_Dia ry_Study Accessed 27 Nov. 2020. The Time4Learning Team, et al. “How Much Does Homeschooling Cost?” Time4Learning, 11 Jan. 2018, www.time4learning.com/blog/newhomeschooler/how-much-does-homeschooling-cost/. Accessed 24 Nov. 2020. “What the Research Says on Socialization.” Coalition for Responsible Home Education, 30 Oct. 2020, responsiblehomeschooling.org/ research/summaries/homeschooling- socialization/. Accessed 18 Nov. 2020. Wise, Rachel. “What Does the Research Say About the Impact of Homeschooling on Academics and Social Skills?” Education and Behavior, 22 Oct. 2020, educationandbehavior.com/what-doesresearch-say-about-homeschooling/. Accessed 27 Nov. 2020.
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How Does Personality Develop? Aidan Campbell University of Valley Forge
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Humans have always been distinctly different from one another. No two humans are alike completely. To develop more as a world and as individual societies, humans must understand each other more fully. One of the most common ways to define individuals is by identifying them as one of two contrasting groups. A set of groups that all humans are a part of are introverts and extroverts. The differences between introverts and extroverts are based mostly on genes and some environmental developments. Recently, research about personality differences has become increasingly popular. This has always been an intriguing subject to many psychologists, yet it never seemed to be on the forefront of their minds. Personality is something frequently overlooked and assumed to be static and unchangeable, yet more research should be done on what creates personality. Guilford says this, “Little attention has been given to the internal nature of this dimension of personality itself and to possible physiological variables with which it may be correlated” (1). These differences in personality are assumed to be normal when more research should be conducted on why personality varies from person to person. Calling oneself an introvert is a way to identify with those with more secluded and personal tendencies. The Merriam Webster dictionary defines introversion in psychology this way: “the state of or tendency toward being predominantly concerned with and obtaining gratification from one's own mental life: a personality trait or style characterized by a preference for or orientation to one's own thoughts and feelings.” By this definition it can be understood that those who are introverted typically feel more at home and satisfied when they are alone and focused on their own mental states.
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Introverts usually focus more on themselves and how they think or feel rather than being worried about what others may feel. Introverts know themselves well and can more frequently understand and comprehend how others may feel, even if it is not exactly what they themselves feel. Self-controlled and stable are staples of introverts’ personalities, although they are less adaptive to new situations and less creative than extroverts (Guilford 1). Many introverts tend to feel most comfortable creating their own path. They do not want to get in the way of others, and do not want others to get in their way. “Thompson (93) regards the I as an ' individualist ' who wants to direct himself,” (qtd. in Guilford 1). Since introverts are deeply concerned with their own thoughts and activities, people who are introverted have an easier time focusing on the activity or work at hand. Although they are only slightly more focused, it is still enough extra focus to make a difference between an introvert and an extrovert. Guilford says, “I is very slightly better at resisting distractions during mental work than E” (3). Extroverts are the opposite of introverts. These extroverts are outgoing, adventurous, and social people. Merriam Webster defines extroversion in psychology this way, “the state of or tendency toward being predominantly concerned with and obtaining gratification from what is outside the self: a personality trait or style characterized by a preference for or orientation to engaging socially with others.” By this definition, extroverts are those who are more concerned about other people and objectives or activities to keep themselves happy and entertained. Those who are extroverted generally tend to spend more time socially. When extroverts spend time with others, it is like charging a battery for a phone. Extroverts may feel more recharged or
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refreshed after spending time with friends or even people they do not know. In contrast, introverts feel recharged and refreshed after spending time alone, while they are deep in their own thoughts and without others around who might drain their energy. Extroverts frequently are more open while others are around. They are expressive in their actions and speech. Guilford says this about extroverts, “E is productive but emotional and expressive” (1). While in a social group or at a party they will often be the ones yearning for attention. Frequently they will embarrass themselves on purpose to receive the desired attention. Since those who are introverted direct themselves as individuals, those who are extroverts are guided by outside sources which dictate their happiness. Extroverts want to be directed from without and are regarded as ‘externalists’ according to Thompson (93) (qtd. in Guilford 1). Those who are extroverted rely on external events to support their happiness and to remain content. Although everyone is introverted or extroverted to some degree, it is more of a spectrum, rather than either-or. Most people range from varying degrees on either side of this spectrum, but those who lie in the middle are called ambiverts. Those who are ambiverts can feel either recharged or drained by being alone or by social interaction; it just depends on the situation and how they feel at the time. Since this personality type is more like a spectrum than a definitive grouping, some who are closer to the middle may change their opinions based on how they feel at the time. For example, someone who is introverted but lies more towards the middle of the spectrum may feel excited to spend time in a large group; usually this is less common than an extrovert who would feel the same way. Most research has been
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dedicated to either far side of the spectrum, with little research being conducted about those who lie in the middle of the spectrum (Cohen & Schmidt 514). Those who are ambiverts usually are easy-going and can do whatever they need to succeed or enjoy their time. When taking a personality test, if the person falls in the middle of the spectrum, there can be three different reasons why they are considered an ambivert. These reasons can be split into types: indifferent type, mixed type, and ambivert type (Cohen & Schmidt 514). The indifferent type does not tend to care about the test or place strong emphasis on their feelings throughout the personality test. The mixed type has very strong mixed feelings for both sides of the spectrum. For example, they would love to go to a party, but they would also love to stay home alone. The ambivert type have opinions somewhere in the middle of the indifferent and mixed types. They enjoy both sides of the spectrum but tend to have mid-range answers, not too little commitment, but also not too much. The mixed type can also be called ambivalent. Ambivalence is defined as “simultaneous and contradictory attitudes or feelings (such as attraction and repulsion) toward an object, person, or action” (Merriam Webster). A mild ambivert may continue to do an activity, even if they are no longer enjoying it, until they receive a chance to switch activities. A decisive ambivalent has more vigorous emotions, and if they suddenly decide they no longer want to participate in what they are doing, they may stop the activity or leave altogether (Cohen & Schmidt 515). Those who are ambivalent may display discontentment or anger in their daily lives. This correlates well with how these people may feel discontent in their current situation due to their personality. Cohen and Schmidt say this about ambivalence, “Specifically, it is
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hypothesized that the MT group, because of its ambivalence and conflictual attitudes, would score higher on the neuroticism scale than the other groups” (515). Since these personality differences range from person to person, it leads to the question, what causes these differences? Is it genetic? Is it environment? Take for example, a baby who tends to be docile as an infant. These children usually tend to be more docile later in life as well. They may be calm, rational, or simply quiet. The opposite is true as well. Infants and children who are more rambunctious or loud tend to carry these traits on to later in life. Since this is often the case, it can be assumed that genes may affect personality or temperament. Because of this, much research has been done on the topic of whether personality types and personality traits are nature or nurture. When researching genetic impact on personality traits, Eysenck says this, “Perhaps only slightly less important is the finding that genetic factors make a highly significant contribution to personality differences on all the traits and dimensions that have been analyzed hitherto” (252). Although this research was conducted in 1990, it still stands true today. It seems that the majority of personality traits and differences rely on genetics, but not quite all of them. Eysenck used a wider range of personality traits and separated them rather than classifying each trait as an introvert trait or an extrovert trait. He concluded there were more traits than just these and included them in his studies. After understanding that there can be personality differences in these genetic traits, there can be emotional instability or anger issues due to poor genetic combinations. Most of Eysenck’s studies were based around three
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types of traits, Neuroticism vs. Emotional Stability, Extraversion vs. Introversion, and Psychoticism vs. Super-Ego Control (Eysenck 246). It seems that those who receive a poor outcome from the genetic lottery may have a harder time with self-control and anger management issues. Although this is no excuse to treat others poorly, those who have these issues should be understood. Eysenck had similar questions and conducted research on them. Through this way of thinking, he found a relationship between abnormal behavior and criminality. Eysenck explains his research by saying this, “The finding that antisocial behavior and criminality are associated with P, E, and N, each of which is highly determined by genetic factors, would lead to the assumption that criminality too would show a high determination by heredity, and two lines of studies have supported this view” (252). Since genes are hereditary, this may mean that those whose parents have a criminal background may also be in danger of continuing such behavior. These children may not know how to control themselves and may have a genetic disposition towards criminality. Since genetics plays a huge part in creating personality from person to person, environment is likely to build up or affect personality as well. According to the debate of nature vs. nurture, nature lays the framework of every human and nurture develops or changes the individual based on the framework through learning or by influences. This term is often used when discussing developing children. If a child has a bad temperament, is it due to their genetics or the way they are raised? While genetics lays the framework for personality, it leaves the question, can personality be developed, suppressed, or altered by environmental situations? It appears traditional
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theories from Freud about the family and associated influences (school, socioeconomic status) having a strong impact on personality are being disproven and appear to be incorrect (Eysenck 251). Due to studies on genetic twins in separated homes, we can see that their personalities are frequently similar. These twins may use their personality in different ways, such as when being driven to get ahead, one may lie while the other is truthful, but this is based on environment and upbringing rather than genetics. After conducting studies on identical twins, Eysenck says this, “Note that identical twins who grow up in separation are very slightly more alike than identical twins brought up together, this suggests a very weak influence of between-family environmental factors, if any influence can be postulated at all” (247). This may also suggest that, to separate themselves from each other, identical twins may alter their personality or attitude just slightly in homes where they are with their twin. When they are separated and do not need to be distinguished from their other twins, they may let their personality shine through more than if they were together. This has also been said about sibling environment, “Additionally, the current study indicates that for most traits, shared environment does not contribute significantly to the similarity between siblings” (Matteson 501). Although environment itself may not shape personality, parenting styles may influence personality to be shown externally. Some research says this, “Negative, inappropriate, uninvolved, or unskilled parenting variables appear to play a particularly important role in the development of externalizing behaviors, while warm and supportive parenting behaviors seem to act as protective factors” (Krueger 1494).
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Since it has been shown that genes have a far more significant impact on personality than the environment, how do these genetics affect individuals? Are these differences in personality due to differences in the body or only in the brain? It is logical that the brain would control personality since it controls the whole body, especially thinking and feeling. Researchers have investigated this question and have done experiments to try to figure it out. Four brain regions correlate to four out of the big five personality traits (Extraversion, Neuroticism, Agreeableness, and Conscientiousness). They are associated with the medical orbitofrontal cortex (decision-making), basal ganglia (motor control), superior temporal sulcus (social cognition), and the middle frontal gyrus (literacy or working memory) respectively (Karimizadeh 107). These brain structures line up well with the personality traits they are said to affect; for example, the superior temporal sulcus affecting social cognition would have a great effect on agreeableness. Later when researching, perfectionism was decided to be a personality trait and it correlates to the left temporal thalamus (language and relay motor) (Karimizadeh 109). It is quite interesting that human brains can understand why others may believe or feel something, yet not feel the same way. Since the brain has effects on personality, it leads to the question, can personality affect emotions or preferences? Some areas of the brain which correlate to personality, such as the superior temporal sulcus, also seem like they would affect emotion. Research suggests that there is a positive correlation between personality and subjective well-being (happiness). Levels of subjective well-being can be highly influenced by dispositions, especially personality dispositions such as extraversion, neuroticism, and self-esteem
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(Diener 403). These findings show that subjective well-being correlates to personality, which also correlates to different regions of the brain. Diener continues and says this, “These findings have led some to conclude that SWB is primarily determined by our inborn predispositions” (408). Some studies have also shown that culture may affect subjective well-being. Culture had a variance rate of about 18% for subjective well-being, and former communist nations in Europe and Asia had significantly lower levels of happiness than did other countries (Diener 419). Personality is not an ability which can be trained or controlled. It is a feature of every person which is written into their DNA. This is shown by the enhancement of certain brain regions which correspond to both the big five personality traits, and to subjective well-being. The environment has very little effect on personality, if at all. Despite this, it can display or suppress how someone would act when they are truly comfortable with themselves and their surroundings. These findings explain why there may be substantial differences among children who were born to the same parents and raised in the same environment. Parenting can have a larger effect than a simple environment, yet it does not have as great an effect on personality as genetics. This can be seen both when entering a new environment, and by observing the way a child is parented. Introvert and extrovert personality types are the most common and are displayed in everyone by the way they act. Because personality types cannot be trained or controlled, the spectrum of personality types can range from person to person, which helps make every individual unique.
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References Cohen, D., & Schmidt, J. P. (2010, June 10). Ambiversion: Characteristics of midrange responders on the introversion-extraversion continuum. Taylor & Francis. Retrieved October 20, 2021, from https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1207/s15327752jpa4305_14 Diener, E., Oishi, S., & Lucas, R. E. (n.d.). Personality, culture, and subjective well-being: Emotional and cognitive evaluations of life. Annual Reviews. Retrieved October 20, 2021, from https://www.annualreviews.org/ doi/pdf/10.1146/annurev.psych.54.101601.145056 Eysenck, H. J. (1990). Genetic and environmental contributions to individual differences: The three major dimensions of personality. Journal of Personality, 58(1), 245–261. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.14676494.1990.tb00915.x Gilliland, A. R. (1934). What do introversion-extroversion tests measure? The Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 28(4), 407–412. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0074803 Guilford, J. P. (1934). Introversion-extroversion. Psychological Bulletin, 31(5), 331–354. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0072741 Karimizadeh, A., Mahnam, A., Yazdchi, M. R., & Besharat, M. A. (2015). Individual differences in personality traits: Perfectionism and the brain structure. Journal of Psychophysiology, 29(3), 107–111. https://doi.org/ 10.1027/0269-8803/a000141
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Krueger, R. F., South, S., Johnson, W., & Iacono, W. (2008). The heritability of personality is not always 50%: Gene-environment interactions and correlations between personality and parenting. Journal of Personality, 76(6), 1485–1522. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.2008.00529.x Matteson, L. K., McGue, M., & Iacono, W. G. (2013). Shared environmental influences on personality: A combined twin and adoption approach. Behavior Genetics, 43(6), 491–504. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10519-0139616-8 Zane Pub. (1995). The Merriam webster dictionary.
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Repercussions Caused By The COVID-19 Pandemic Has Worsened Depression in Teenagers Meghan Clancy Ardrey Kell High School
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“An important part of teenage development is the realization that peers, not just parents, can be a source of emotional support. The twin crises of the pandemic and the economic downturn have imposed new personal hardships on students” (Goldberg). Unfortunately, the COVID-19 pandemic has forced peers to be separated from their friends and social groups, which has led to an increase in depression. In a broad sense, depression is a common mental health disorder that can deter people from their daily tasks, leading to them functioning poorly from mood fluctuations. The COVID-19 pandemic has struck a chord in many peoples’ mental state, trying to figure out how to fight through hardships, such as unemployment or losing their home. Despite the circumstances, the public does not seem to realize that depression, even situational depression, in adolescents is more than “just a phase,” often making children feel powerless and stuck inside their own bodies. Similar to adults psychologically affected by the damages caused by the COVID-19 pandemic, adolescents have felt like they have been overburdened from educational pressure that barely gives them enough time to breathe. The ongoing COVID-19 pandemic has caused a heavier weight of emotional, psychological, and physical stress on the average person; however, teenagers experiencing Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD) have been hit the hardest. Similar to other types of depression and mental health issues, teenagers affected by SAD should reach out to mental health providers for treatment, particularly if symptoms have worsened because of the pandemic. Depression is one of the most common mental health issues in today’s society. However, the symptoms and effects of depression can be detrimental to one’s health and lifestyle. Depression affects hundreds of millions of people
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globally, making short and long-lived emotional turmoil, which merges with a larger, serious health issue. Despite a person’s demographics, many people who are often diagnosed with depression are misdiagnosed and mistreated. “Mental health is still highly stigmatised in . . . impoverished [communities in particular]” (Pemberton). Unfortunately, misdiagnosis is common with people who are suffering from Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD), which is also acknowledged as winter depression or seasonal depression ("What”). Seasonal Affective Disorder “can sometimes be hard to tell the difference as SAD and other types of depression have many of the same symptoms'' ("What"). Unlike most situations, the COVID-19 pandemic has been carried out for months as many peoples’ mental state has worsened. Higher rates of experiencing symptoms of mental illness, such as depression, can lead to misdiagnoses as “a significant proportion of these people won't actually have depression” (Pemberton), yet will mimic general depression “with patients complaining of feeling empty and hopeless” (Pemberton). Even though misdiagnosing mental issues is a serious topic, it should go without saying that people need to pay attention to peoples’ mental wellbeing, including their own, particularly during rough times such as the COVID-19 pandemic. The COVID-19 pandemic swarmed countries worldwide, suddenly shutting down businesses, schools, and even family reunions since March of 2020. Due to the abrupt change in lifestyle, people’s mental health worsened as the months dragged on. “Since the start of the pandemic, the National Alliance on Mental Illness has heard from many young adults experiencing anxiety and depression, which the organization attributes partly to social
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isolation” (Goldberg). Social isolation amongst all age groups has been a constant and distressing effect of mandates, such as social distancing, face mask wearing, and stay-at-home orders. With these restrictions bring a resurface symptoms of mental health worries of depression and anxiety. However, people showing signs of depression since mid-April of 2020 have seen a worsening burden in said symptoms. These rates are a concerning factor, in that the prevalence of moderate and severe depressive symptoms in 2020 have been steadily higher than the national averages of 2017 and 2018, with people expressing moderate indicators being 2.6 times higher and people expressing “severe” indicators being 7.5 times higher (Kaplan). The opportunity to incorporate social interaction in one’s daily life suddenly diminished. For example, people could no longer go to hair or nail appointments, interact with friends and extended family members, or pursue new job opportunities. Washington State’s Department of Health reported that “[i]n Washington, the highest risk of suicide is most likely to occur between October and December 2020. SAD exacerbates mental health challenges at that time of year due to increased hours of darkness and inclement weather” (Dreher). Lately, these statistics have become particularly concerning because “severe depression is linked with suicide risk and requires intensive treatment to overcome” (Kaplan). In March of 2020, schools in the United States closed instantaneously by reason of the ever-growing fear of spreading COVID-19 in public spaces; school boards nationwide acted on this decision without the consideration of the health of their own students. The day-to-day structure that current American K-12 students experienced pre-pandemic has broken down, as
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children have to pack additional items than just their average school supplies. “Kids and teenagers are incredibly disrupted right now...When you take away the structure of the school day, they feel really lost and may feel a tremendous amount of anxiety and depression” (Ao). On a grand scale, education is essential for children and adolescents as they are experiencing social development through the means of classwork and recess. Education has been an important and controversial talkpoint since the beginning of the COVID-19 pandemic, as parents nationwide attempted to virtually argue through the black and white and never met in the grey. Catherine Khella, a health teacher in Brooklyn, New York, had her students keep journals to document for potential mental distress. “One [of her] student[s] wrote about feeling unmotivated to do schoolwork, getting frustrated with family members and experiencing emotions “like no other I have ever felt” (Goldberg). The main misconception society has been focusing on is how K-12 students have been feeling mentally. The switch from physical, in-person school to a virtual classroom stuck in one’s bedroom has brought hopelessness and endless burnout, especially towards high school students. Ayden Hufford, a high school sophomore in Rye, a suburban area outside of New York City, shared his distress when dealing with synchronous learning: “I laid down with my camera off and waited for it to be over...It’s sad and somewhat lonely” (Goldberg). The United States student population is going to be dealing with a new sense of introvertedness that is caused by the lost connection between student to student, teacher, or counselor. Hufford added that forming new connections with classmates is nearly impossible in a virtual setting: “Unless you try extremely hard, there’s no chance to make new
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friends this year” (Goldberg). As a consequence of committing to virtual classrooms for the 2020-2021 school year, caused by no other than the COVID-19 pandemic, adolescents may not have learned or have forgotten some aspects of socialization that they can use “to build rapport with people. That is of real concern” (Ahlstrom). Eventually, the pandemic’s ramifications are exposed to every community, including one’s own. The effects of the COVID-19 pandemic have been exhibited on a local scale. A recent survey was conducted on a small portion of Charlotte-Mecklenburg Schools’ students, researching on how their performance in school is and how it has been impacted by the COVID-19 pandemic. When asked about their performance before the pandemic, most fell in the range of “performing alright” to “performing well''; however, that statistic dropped amongst all surveyed. There was a clear indicator that virtual learning had a negative impact on the way they were learning and inheriting the lessons. One participant, who remains anonymous, spoke about their experience with the ongoing school year: “I am doing awful and my grades are lower than they’ve ever been in my life. I’m normally a very consistent student but this year shows anything but that because of how school is going this year.” Another participant, currently a sophomore at Ardrey Kell High School, expressed their concerns with the contemplation of Charlotte Mecklenburg Schools’ decisions towards virtual learning, noting that they “have struggled to meet their student’s needs in order to be online [and that] the biggest problem is lack of communication between teachers and students as well as the lack of socialization between students themselves” (Anonymous). There is a common theme amongst the responses received in
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the survey: While synchronous learning has been a tolerable and temporary solution, it certainly does not benefit the student when wanting to learn the material. To lessen symptoms of mental illnesses, teenagers should seek out different forms of treatment, ranging from antidepressants under a physician’s care to stimulation therapy, particularly in the age of the COVID-19 pandemic. The contingency of underdiagnosing depression goes hand in hand with how much depression is actually undertreated as well; searching for an available medical provider who practices within a reasonable radius and one who is able to cover the teenager’s health insurance is easier said than done (Adams). On that note, many people who are diagnosed with depression or other mental health issues look forward to finding other forms of medication to lessen the severity of their symptoms. A supplement that people can take are current FDA-approved antidepressants that are “taken daily and typically require weeks to take effect” (Byock), which is not taking into consideration the idea that antidepressants are not always effective from person to person. To act as an alternative, there have been promises of psychotherapy and psychedelics as forms of treatment for ones diagnosed with major depression. "Psychedelics are administered in medically supervised settings, usually during one or two six-hour sessions, and their therapeutic effects are immediate” (Byock). Psychedelics as a form of possible antidepressants have shown remarkably efficient results. There are other forms of treatment that do not necessarily require medication but more of socialization to attack isolation. “The clinical response is...to encourage people to engage with society and their peers. They need to
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be more proactive, join groups, become volunteers…[and] need to remain enthusiastic and passionate about issues” (Ahlstrom). Social interaction is essential to improving health, as it is able to promote a sense of belonging in a community and it aids in people being able to confide in others. On the account of the worsening conditions caused by the COVID-19 pandemic, high school students across the United States dealing with certain mental health issues, including SAD, have not been able to get the efficient support that schools would typically provide. Others claim to blame the school performance on the students who are currently enrolled in virtual learning for various weaknesses (such as laziness, procrastination, and carelessness) because of the disconnection that occurs on a daily basis through the computer screen at home. As presented, teenagers should search out for treatment and stick to what works best, continuing through the COVID-19 pandemic and beyond that time period. Luckily, with the introduction of vaccines and ease of restrictions amongst states, the pandemic is beginning to come to a close and, hopefully, adolescents will be able to return to a sense of normalcy. The necessity for socialisation amongst teenagers is going to be stronger than ever.
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References Adams, Jill U. "Finding Treatment for Depressed Teens Isn't Easy." Washington Post, 03 Apr 2018. SIRS Issues Researcher, http://nclive.org/cgi-bin/nclsm?url=http://search.proquest. comhttps://explore.proquest.com/sirsissuesresearcher/document/2263 481045?accountid=13217. Ahlstrom, Dick. "'The Treatment for Loneliness is First being Aware of it': Isolation Affects People of all Ages. If it is Not Dealt with, it can Lead to Serious Physical and Mental Health Problems." Irish Times, 10 Sep 2015, pp. 12. ProQuest, http://nclive.org/cgibin/nclsm?url=http://search.proquest.com/ newspapers/treatmentloneliness-is-first-being-aware/docview/ 1710551704/se2?accountid=13217. Anonymous. Personal interview. 08 Mar 2021. Ao, Bethany. "Study: Kids Affected by Pandemic Depression." Palm Beach Post, 05 May 2020, pp. 1. ProQuest, http://nclive.org/cgi-bin/nclsm?url= http://search.proquest.com/newspapers/study-kids-affectedpandemic-depression/docview/2405548015/se-2?accountid=13217. Byock, Ira. "Suicide is on the Rise. Depression Therapy is Limited. Let's Try..." Washington Post - Blogs, 03 Jul 2018. SIRS Issues Researcher, http://nclive.org/cgi-bin/nclsm?url=http://search.proquest.com https://explore.proquest.com/sirsissuesresearcher/document/22659147 51?accountid=13217
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Dreher, Arielle. "Mental Health During A Pandemic: Mental Health Care Providers Brace for What Could Be A Pretty Difficult Fall." Spokesman Review, 17 Sep 2020. ProQuest, http://nclive.org/cgibin/nclsm?url=http://search. proquest.com/newspapers/mental-healthduring-pandemic-care-providers/docview/2451438456/se2?accountid=13217. Goldberg, Emma. "Teens in COVID Isolation: 'I Felt Like I was Suffocating'." New York Times, 12 Nov 2020. ProQuest, http://nclive.org/cgibin/nclsm?url=http://search.proquest.com/newspapers/teens-covidisolation-i-felt-like-was-suffocating/docview/2460863500/se2?accountid=13217. Kaplan, Karen. "Study: Pandemic Driving Increase in Depression Study: Pandemic Driving Increase in Depression." Los Angeles Times, 29 Sep 2020, pp. 5. ProQuest, http://nclive.org/cgibin/nclsm?url=http://search.proquest.com /newspapers/studypandemic-driving-increase-depression/docview/ 2447011883/se2?accountid=13217. Pemberton, Max. "The Hidden Depression Injustice: It's a Cruel Irony: More and More People are Being Diagnosed with Depression When They Don’t Have It, While Those who Do Go Untreated." Daily Mail, 06 Nov 2018, pp. 43. ProQuest, http://nclive.org/cgibin/nclsm?url=http://search.proquest.com/ newspapers/hiddendepression-injustice/docview/2129908850/se-2?accountid=13217.
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"What is Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD)?" The Bassano Times, 07 Dec 2020. ProQuest, http://nclive.org/cgibin/nclsm?url=http://search.proquest.com/ newspapers/what-isseasonal-affective-disorder-sad/docview/ 2468484907/se2?accountid=13217.
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Happiness Over Money Carter Daly Green High School
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Do you know what you want to be when you grow up? This is a hard question for many people to think of an answer to. If asked, many children will answer with an astronaut or firefighter and yet it is a very serious decision, possibly the most important in your life. It factors into where you go to college, your first big job, where you live, how much you make, and the people you will work with. I have talked to many people across different fields, and they have all relayed one common message; Do what will make you happy not what will make you rich. The first person that I interviewed was my mother who was a firstgrade teacher at Greenwood Elementary school for a multitude of years before resigning when she had my younger brother. In my interview with her, she talked about how she had always liked helping younger kids learn new things and even went on to say, “Both of my parents were teachers, so I got to be around kids in the classroom a lot growing up. Especially my mother who taught kindergarten. On days that I didn’t have swim practice, I would go to help her out in the classroom after school.” She talked about how happy it made her when she felt like she was the one who got them to understand a new concept. According to her, “The feeling that you get as a teacher when you feel like you’re really helping a student is better than the increased pay at any other career that I considered.” In the interview, she discussed how before going into college she was torn on what she wanted to do. While talking about this topic she said, “Even though I had always wanted to be a teacher and help students since I was young, I wasn’t sure if I would make enough money. So, I started considering other options in high school. I thought about being a chemistry major and making medicine as a
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pharmacist or trying to get a major and job in the medical field. Looking back, I am very happy that I chose the route that I did even with the decrease in pay.” This just goes to show happiness should be valued over money. In another interview with Goodyear employee Robert Daly, we discussed what made him choose to work for Goodyear and how he got to the position he did today. He said that “As a kid, I always enjoyed working with my hands and building stuff. I always worked on my own cars and would always help my dad fix stuff in his workshop in the basement. I also enjoyed math and shop class the most in school.” He said that because he enjoyed building things so much as a kid he always knew that he wanted to be some kind of engineer. He said that while taking shop class he enjoyed the electrical stuff the most because it came easiest to him and was fun to do. Due to this, he decided to go into electrical engineering at Virginia Tech. After graduating college he describes his time at his first job by saying, “Straight out of college I was hired to work at Goodyear as an electrical engineer. I enjoyed my job there working on the machines that created the tires inside of a manufacturing center.” When questioned on how enjoying his job helped him he responded, “I think because of how much I enjoyed what I did it helped me move up faster. I enjoyed learning about the machines and how they worked. It was like a complex math problem and there was something about once it clicked on how to do something that I liked. This helped me get ahead of my co-workers and move up into a higher position faster.” This can be said for many aspects of
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life. People who enjoy what they are doing tend to put more work into it which they are rewarded for in the future. He did describe one downside to the promotions saying, “The one thing I really hated about these promotions was as I grew in rank my job went from head of the local engineering to more globally. The first few years I did this I had to leave to go overseas to China, India, and Luxembourg for weeks at a time and it was hard for me.” After describing his experiences in this place he stated his reasoning for taking the promotion, “I knew if I put up with this for long enough I would be able to be promoted again to cover North American branches.” Robert says that even though he was able to get the promotion he’s not quite sure if it was worth it because he was unhappy having to leave his family for extended periods of time. When asked if he would ever do it again for a pay raise he responded, “No I would not. I have been offered higher-paying jobs to move and run a plant for 2 years multiple times in places like Luxembourg and Brazil but have turned them down. It is just not worth it to me to sacrifice some of my happiness again for the higher pay and I still have regret about doing it before.” This perfectly shows how higher pay is not always worth it if it’s not going to make you happy. One of the most interesting interviews is someone who is going to remain anonymous due to military ties. Much like Robert, he decided to be an engineer because he found happiness in building things. On top of that, he always loved our country and wanted to help make a difference. He and his brother were big into motorsports and cars and would always be building and fixing cars, four-wheelers, and his favorite snowmobiles. He says that “I found a passion first in fixing snowmobiles with my brother. We
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were always riding and breaking them so we had to do a lot of repairs which I enjoyed.” It was this fondness for repairing automobiles that led him to become a mechanical engineer in college. When he finished college he wanted to do something that also helped our country so he joined a company that built unmanned aircraft for the U.S military. However, there were some surprises, “When I joined the company I knew we would be building unmanned aircraft for and helping out the armed forces but I didn’t know to what extent. As I progressed my way up positionally I had more and more direct contact with hem. Eventually, I was recruited to a special force of the military and was taken overseas. There I would fly these unmanned aircraft in hidden locations… It was the perfect thing for me because I was able to do both things that I had wanted in my career. I got to build things and help out my country.” He proceeds to talk about how he has been offered higher-paying jobs at other companies but like Robert has turned them down because he wouldn’t be as happy because according to him, “I turned these jobs down because it is more important to me to help out my country than to get a few extra dollars.” Without him knowing that he had actively been helping our country he wouldn’t have been as happy in his work. So he chose to stay where he was and be happier with what he did on a lower salary. He also said that “I don’t think that I would go overseas again to help fight for our country because I have a family now and that is more important to me than anything else. Even though I would be proud to serve the country anytime I would miss my family too much to do that. I have two daughters, a son, and a wife that means the world to me and I don’t think I could bear leaving them. The first time was hard enough just
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leaving my wife who I was engaged to at the time... Even though I was given a large bonus.” Again showing how it is important to value the stuff that makes you happy like family over getting paid. Richard Bowman the CEO of the company ShiftGig also helps reaffirm the statement that choosing money over happiness is a bad decision. As a kid, Richard was always in love with playing video games. It was his hobby and his favorite thing to do with his friends. He would even build his own computers. So when Microsoft released a new software called visual basic he jumped on the chance to learn it. At the age of eighteen, he created his own webpage to help others learn how to use the coding software. “When I made the website at first it was kind of just for fun but I began to get thousands of visits a day as it took off; because of this I was able to start selling ad space on the website and get a minimal amount of income from it,” he said. That summer he decided to go to Virginia Tech to study computer science and coding. The summer after his first year of college he was presented with a huge opportunity for him, “A company reached out to me and asked me to write a book on Visual Basic for them. I’m pretty sure they thought I was some middle-aged man running the site but I Jumped on the opportunity. My mother bought blackout blinds for my room and I spent my whole summer cooped up in there. Once I finished the book and got it published I enjoyed finding it in bookstores. I even found it one time in a bookstore in London.” Him talking about how much he enjoyed seeing his book places and not talking about how much money it made him once in the interview proves that it isn’t as important as it may seem. After college, he got a job that he said he didn't enjoy very much
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running cyber-security, “In a dusty attic of the senate.” As soon as he got an opportunity he left his job working at the senate and joined the company Morning Star, “Morning Star seemed like a very promising option for me with better pay and a better job as the Chief Software officer. There were hidden flaws though as I didn’t like the people that I worked with. They were all a lot older than me and just weren’t a good fit. I stayed though because after only working there for a little over a year I was promoted to Chief Technology Officer. This role came with a salary that I couldn’t pass up at the time so I stayed for a few more years.” This choice to stay longer caused Richard to be unhappy in his job so he quit for a newer company called HelloWallet. He said that this was a much better fit for him as he liked the people he worked with and after three years was promoted to the Senior Vice President of Engineering of HelloWallet. “ This new job came with a lot of new responsibilities for me though and caused me lots of stress. I couldn’t get enough sleep and eventually struggled to fall asleep at all at night because of the position and the amount of work on my plate. Because of all he stress I soon left HelloWallet moved from Washington DC to Chicago Illinois and Joined Shiftgig as their new Chief Technology Officer for about a fifty percent pay cut of what I was making.” This big move for Richard makes it obvious how his happiness was worth more than fifty percent of the money that he was making. Within a few years of working for this new company, he was a lot happier and promoted to CEO of the company. Due to the fact of him taking the pay cut for the new job he has seen vast improvements to the amount of sleep that he is getting and reduced amounts of stress from work.
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One final shorter interview comes from Aaron Pecoraro, a graphic designer that works for the company Built In as their Vice President Creative Director. He said that “Even though I have a well-paying job I would still like to be able to quit in order to be able to create and sell candles. COVID-19 has recently put a stop to these plans because it is hard to start a new business and if it fails jobs are scarce.” He also talked about how he is miserable at his current job and wishes that he could quit. Once he is able to leave the company and chase his dream he believes he will be much happier. Throughout these interviews the obvious trend is how much money you make does not equal how happy you are. Bob and the anonymous source both demonstrate how taking increased pay to do something that causes you to not be able to see loved ones for money is never the right choice. Tammys’ and Aarons’ interviews show how picking a job that makes more money instead of what you really want to do is the wrong decision. Tammy chased her dream and ignored the pay and is extremely happy. Unlike Aaron who decided to stay with the higher paying job for the time and is unsatisfied. Richard showcases some of the worst effects that taking the higher-paying job can have on a person. Mental health is a huge importance and taking the highest possible paying job with the largest workload often leads to an increase in stress, sleep deprivation, and more. These are big reasons why you should always consider your happiness over your paycheck.
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Grant Daly The purpose of my paper was to try and show how getting a job that you enjoy is better than one that you don’t enjoy and will take you further in life. I wanted to convey to the audience how the people that I interviewed all made it in life by doing what they have always enjoyed even as a kid. I thought what was interesting during this paper was how much It helped me out, I wasn’t sure what I wanted to do later in life and it helped me narrow it down. I have always wanted to hear more about people's work experiences. Along with this I am most likely going into computer science and some sort of cyber security for college. This made hearing about how the people that I interviewed especially the one that was a computer coding and now a CEO interesting to me . I thought that one of the more difficult parts of this paper was trying to figure out which parts of the interviews to include and which not to. After the first one I had figured out what direction I wanted to take my paper so I knew what questions to ask. However, there was still so much to the interviews that I didn’t include that could have been helpful. I would say that the strength of my paper is how by using specific questions I was able to get quotes that greatly supported the thesis statement. The weakness would probably be my grammar. I have always had this as a weakness but believe that it has been greatly improving. I think that using a little bit less quotes could have benefited the paper but I also feel like they were essential for the most part. I think the fact that I enjoy talking to people and getting the interviews was something that I enjoyed helped me write this paper.. I think looking at my peer responses helped me break down my quotes better so that they were easier for the reader to understand along
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with supporting the thesis more. My writing process was to sit down, get rid of distraction, and do it all at once for this paper because I find this is the best way for me to write. I hope to give my audience a better perspective on how they should get a job that they enjoy instead of finding the one that will give them the biggest salary.
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Why So Frightened? Casson Evans Bell Creek Academy
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“Horror films can be so scary because they’re able to bypass our knowledge that we’re watching something and trigger a real fear reaction.” Horror comes in different varieties such as literature, television, and the most well known, movies. Horror movies take up roughly 5 percent of the entire film industry. To put it into perspective, there are approximately 500,000 movies in existence as of 2021, and horror movies make up 25,000 of those. It is defined as a form of media which intends to elicit fear, disgust, or in many cases, pain in viewers. But what stimulates those senses? What causes those feelings? Movie studios use different sound techniques and visual cues to increase anticipation, trigger your “fight or flight” response, or cause you to “feel” silence. Some of the most well known films of this decade actually have science behind them…the ‘science’ of making you afraid.
Origin of Horror The earliest representation of horror dates back to 1896 with a film titled “Manoir du Diable”, despite literature representation dating back all the way to the times of the Romans. This film was the first of its kind and it established a lot of the common motifs in horror movies that we see today such as ghosts, haunted houses, and minuscule illusions that catch the eye of the viewer. According to a source by “Screen Rant”, the director of ‘Manoir du Diable’ did not intend on instilling fear within the viewer; instead, the goal of the film was to portray a more comical aspect rather than a horror aspect. That’s what makes this representation of horror different from modern day horror movies where instilling fear is their prime objective.
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“We stopped checking for monsters under our bed when we realized they were inside of us”, a quote by Charles Darwin, perfectly summarizes that idea that there is darkness within us at all times… it’s just a matter of what can bring that darkness out. The 1940s were a declining time in horror movie history. A lot of tropes and characters were getting recycled and became more stale to the viewers, in turn causing disinterest in the audiences of these horror movies. The introduction of the “Psychological Horror” genre brought more viewers back to the horror genre as a whole. According to a source by WordPress, psychological horror is defined as a subgenre of horror movies that focuses on the emotions and mental state of the characters, using them to relate to the viewer and also scare them in the process. An early example of this is the well known movie “Frankenstein” released in 1931. This film was one of the first to introduce the “mad scientist” trope and explore the subconscious mind of a person with an extreme god complex. We follow the character, Dr. Frankenstein, as he loses his mind in the process of creating this monster. After the monster is created, his overloading sense of pride ultimately leads to his demise. This relates to people in the real world because when a human is overcome with a sense of ambition and drive, they can lose themselves in the process thus leading to an untimely end. Having a close relation to a character in a horror movie and having their decisions be similar to yours, and seeing what those decisions lead to can scare you a lot more than if you couldn’t relate at all.
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Music Within Horror Movies Music is a key component within films but especially in horror movies. The type of music and the way that it’s executed is the difference between remembrance and forgetfulness. The “Jaws” soundtrack and the iconic “du du… du du… du du” builds suspense and evokes an instinctive response within our brain that makes us ‘on edge.’ There are different aspects of sound that are incorporated into horror films. One example of this is ‘Nonlinear Noise’, which is defined as a sound wave that contains high frequency jumps, high volume, and an abrupt change of acoustic sounds according to an article by Widex. Daniel Blumstein, a professor of Evolutionary Biology at UCLA looked more into nonlinear noise and made some interesting discoveries. While doing some studies with marmots, he noticed that their distress cries incorporated nonlinear noise patterns and the same goes for other animals as well. He studied and analyzed music from a multitude of different horror films and discovered that many of the soundtracks used nonlinear noise patterns as well as quick frequency shifts, high pitched screams and disorienting noises that make the viewer feel uneasy. He used the example “radio static” to better describe the sounds that are occasionally used. After many more months of extensive research he came to the conclusion that, similar to the ‘Jaws’ theme, these irregular noises and quick changes in the chord progressions causes the same feeling that’s instilled into a marmot mother whenever her babies are in danger…anxious and afraid. High pitched sounds aren’t the only sounds capable of instilling fear. The same can be done with low tones and minor chords for example, ‘The Devil’s Interval’. William Gaddis sums up this anomaly when he said, “…and
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saw his thumbs and last finger come down time after time with three black keys between them, wringing out fourths, the work he had copied coming over on the Conte di Brescia, wringing that chord of the devil’s interval. The walls quivered, everything moved, but he didn’t stop”. The Devil’s Interval is described as an chord interval that is so disturbing, it was forbidden from being played back in the Middle Ages, where it originated. What makes this interval so unpleasant and disturbing to listen to is explained in the compatibility of the different wavelengths. Normally, notes in a common twonote chord emit a wavelength unique to that specific note and it sounds quite nice because the wavelengths play off each other and have compatibility; however, the same cannot be said for The Devil’s Interval. This interval is made of three notes instead of two and two out of the three notes aren’t compatible by any means. Instead of playing off each other and making a nice sounding chord progression, the two notes knock off of each other in a chaotic fashion creating a dissonant sound, or a discomforting noise that sounds rough in the ears. There is a movie based upon this haunted sound by the same name and is centered around the chord. A priest picks up a hitchhiker and after dropping the hitchhiker off, the person disappears and leaves the priest there with a scroll with music written inside. Overcome with curiosity, the man decides to play the chord and it opens up a portal to another dimension that’s dark, desolate, and on fire, which you can guess is Hell. Another well known use of the devil's interval is in the theme song of ‘The Addams Family’ making it recognizable by just the first note. The note lost its effect and has since
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found its way into more modern horror movies such as ‘The Shining’ and the classic Disney movie ‘Hocus Pocus’, according to an article by NPR Music.
Visuals Within Horror Movies What we see in horror movies or even what we don’t see, can deliver different levels of fear. One common visual that still stuns viewers to this day is blood. Blood is a simple way to trigger the flight or fight response within a person. According to an article by Declan McKenna titled “What Makes a Horror Movie Scary”, our reactions to bloodshed boil all the way down to our evolutionary science. We have evolved to see blood as life-threatening or a sign of danger which is why we tend to cringe or even gag at the sight of it. According to the same source, a study was done in a Dutch medical school where 24 people, ages 30 and under, were tasked with watching ‘Insidious”, one of, if not, the scariest movies of all time as of 2020. And then they were tasked with watching an educational documentary titled “A Year in Champagne”. Blood samples were taken after the trials and the scientists noticed that the blood of the people who watched ‘Insidious’ showed higher levels of ‘Factor VIII’, the blood clotting protein, compared to the blood of the other volunteers who watched the documentary. These tests proved that, quite literally, horror movies can be “blood-curdling”. Ghosts are another visual cue that keeps its same effect while dating back all the way to the 1800s. Ghosts instill a sense of uneasiness that makes us constantly look behind us as if there are ghosts in our own home. ‘Paranormal activity is a great example of a horror movie's use of apparitions.
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That film has not a single note of music yet the camera footage of the bedroom, the main setting, and the open bedroom door paired with silence drowns the viewer in a sense of panic and anxiety. Through this movie, and others like it, the audience feels a sense of terror because of the unseen. The idea that something can terrorize you while not being seen can cause a person to cry, vomit, or even go mad according to an article by ‘Psycologicalscience.com’. Visuals play a lot into the fears of a person. Many people that suffer from Hemophobia, the fear of blood, struggle to watch films with a lot of bloodshed such as ‘The Green Inferno’, ‘Midsomar’, and ‘Children of the Corn’. The movie ‘Holes’ isn’t even a horror movie yet people that suffer from Trypophobia (the fear of holes) still get freaked out by it as though they were watching a real horror movie. Phasmophobia is a quite confusing fear because the people who suffer from it actually enjoy being scared. It’s more of a thrill when it comes to this fear.
The Scariest Movie Ever One thing that makes horror movies incredibly scary is the “real world” application that the viewers use. The plausibility of the movie's events actually occurring in real life can unsettle a person and cause nightmares for days. One horror movie called ‘Insidious’ does a great job of this, making it the “scariest movie ever,” according to studies done by a company by the name of Buzz Bingo.
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Buzz Bingo ran studies on viewers watching various different horror movies and monitored their heartbeats during the movie's runtime. When a person is scared, their body quickly releases a burst of adrenaline which increases heart rate. The purpose of these studies were to document spikes in their heartbeats and how much of a spike occurred. Other movies other than Insidious were watched such as: Annabelle, The Conjuring: 2, and Sinister. The movies were “graded” on three different scores which were tension, most scares, and biggest scare. Insidious lost in the biggest scare category but stood at the top of the tension category. According to an article by Tyla, “viewers had an average BMP increase of 23.1 throughout the entire movie”. So instead of having a sudden spike in heart rate, their heart rates constantly increased as the scare came more near. The movie itself has many aspects that prove that it’s the scariest movie ever. One of the main reasons goes back to the whole “plausibility” thing. The movie demonstrates ‘astral projection’ quite often. The main story focuses on the son of the family being haunted. During one of the climax scenes, the son slips into a coma and leaves his body only to be taken by the demon that’s been haunting their house all these months. Many of the viewers found this to be quite terrifying because it can actually happen. During astral projection, a person is not one with their body; they are outside looking in as if in another dimension. Insidious takes the idea of astral projection and magnifies it and brings forth the question of, “What if instead of leaving your body at will, you are taken from it?” Insidious is very good at creating visual jump scares only using sound. The score includes sudden jumps in volume which create visual jump scares
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with there being no visuals to accompany it. There are multiple shots where a character is walking down a corridor, accompanied by low humming background noise, and then when they turn the corner you expect a jump scare but instead, you’re met with a sudden spike in volume and nothing is there. Although there’s nothing scary there, you’re still a little unsettled and your ‘fight or flight’ reaction kicks in. The overall film itself is quite silent but the loud jumps contrast well against it, causing a large amount of tension that’s carried by the viewer throughout the rest of the movie. The movie does a great job with luring the viewer into a false sense of security. The jump scares are so perfectly timed that they scare you even more than if they occurred at the time that you expected them. A character can do a simple task, such as going to lock the door and there be nothing behind them, although we think there might be. Then we switch to another character and there’s a split second where we see a dark shadowy figure behind them. These jump scares are almost always accompanied by a quick spike in volume, making us jolt leaving popcorn all over the floor. The cinematography used in Insidious is a key component that sets it apart from other horror movies. The movie is always filmed from an outside perspective and the camera work makes it seem as though the different family members are being watched. One example of this is when one of the main characters, Renai, is playing the piano. The camera pans around the room instead of being directly on her, as though she’s being watched by someone or something in the room with her. The type of camera work used is called “single-point perspective.” It’s when the camera remains in one spot, stationary, and moves left and right capturing everything in the surrounding
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area. This form of recording creates heavy tension while also bringing forth some dramatic irony. The viewers are seeing the character from another point of view and we can’t help but think that something is going to happen to them. There’s a multitude of different studies and sciences behind horror movies. Directors and screenwriters intentionally place different components and sounds within the movie that target the subconscious mind of the person watching. Through extensive studies and research, we can understand what it really is within horror movies that make you afraid. So…why so frightened?
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References McKenna, Declan. “What Makes a Great Horror Movie so Scary?” RTE.ie, RTÉ, 27 Oct. 2021. Eva Amsen. “What Makes Scary Music Scary?” Medium, Medium, 28 Oct. 2017. The Aesthetics and Psychology ... - Digital Commons @ Liu. https://digitalcommons.liu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1030&amp; context=post_honors_theses. “Horror Movies Manipulate Brain Activity Expertly to Enhance Excitement.” ScienceDaily, ScienceDaily, 24 Jan. 2020, https://www.sciencedaily.com/ releases/2020/01/200124104518.htm. Freedman, Joanna. “'Insidious' Is the Scariest Horror Movie, New Study Finds.” Tyla, Tyla, 28 Sept. 2020, https://www.tyla.com/entertaining/tv-andfilm-insidious-horror-movie-scary-experiment-heart-rates-buzz-bingo20200928. “Horror Movies: Our Shared Nightmares.” Horror Film History, 7 Jan. 2020, https://horrorfilmhistory.com/wp/amp/. Lanzagorta, Marco, and Marco Lanzagorta. “Horror Cinema by the Numbers, PopMatters.” PopMatters, 25 Nov. 2007, https://www.popmatters.com/ horror-cinema-by-the-numbers-2496198962.html. “A Quote from the Recognitions.” Goodreads, Goodreads, https://www. goodreads.com/quotes/366150-when-he-was-left-alone-when-he-hadpulled-out.
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Brajer, Jessica. “Here's What Makes Insidious One of the Scariest Movies Ever Made&nbsp;.” MovieWeb, MovieWeb, 1 Feb. 2022, https://movieweb.com/insidious-scariest-movie-why/. Freedman, Joanna. “'Insidious' Is the Scariest Horror Movie, New Study Finds.” Tyla, Tyla, 28 Sept. 2020, https://www.tyla.com/entertaining/tv-andfilm-insidious-horror-movie-scary-experiment-heart-rates-buzz-bingo20200928.
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Life’s Adagio: Synthesizing Music Therapy Himanshu Gandhi Millard West High School
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Inside of each and every Homo Sapien sits a three-pound lump of fat and tissue, marinating in a mixture of blood, chemicals, and hormones. Yet that mass is responsible for quite literally everything that goes on in the body. The brain is home to trillions of nerve cells, each one going under a plethora of electro-synapsis series and reactions, and it is these reactions that cause a heart to push and pull blood throughout the body, a hand to hurt when it’s closed in a doorway, and the mind to undergo intense personalized stress. This stress has been proven to affect people of all ages yet today’s youth is especially under fire by several notions, including physical and mental changes from puberty, heavy amounts of schoolwork, and a lack of mental health support offered by outside institutions. However, a potential treatment for such stress is becoming more and more common: music. Music therapy is a seemingly simple solution yet the fruits it can bear are critical to saving the generations of tomorrow. The science behind music therapy can be broken up into two schools: physical and emotional. The physical effects of music therapy can be described as creating a higher standard of homeostasis, defined by the independent systems of the human body working together to keep the body functioning. In a study published in the US National Library of Medicine, or PubMed, and conducted by the Beth Israel Medical Center's Louis Armstrong Center for Music and Medicine, researcher Joanne Loewy took 272 premature babies with underdeveloped respiratory and cardiac systems and played three different clips of audio which included a lullaby sung by their parents, a gato box (a wooden box with a slit in it that when hit with the provided rubber mallets, produces a warm and soothing pitch),
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and an ocean disc (a frisbee shaped object with specialized beads and padding that mimic the sounds of the womb to provide comfort for newborn babies). The patients received 6 interventions a week by a certified music therapist (Loewy). Over the 6 different sessions, the babies’ heart and breathing rates began to slow and stabilize, especially with the vocal recordings, indicating a positive reaction by the body from the musical stimuli, more so than other sounds. Alongside the physical effects of music therapy, the emotional side of the scale should not be ignored. “The emotions we feel each day can compel us to take action and influence the decisions we make about our lives, both large and small” states Kendra Cherry, psychologist for over 10 years and author of Everything Psychology. The emotions people experience drive their actions and can either bring them up to a new level of selfappreciation or all the way down to suicidal. Music therapy has the potential to stabilize the polarization of such extreme sensations. “How often has a song came on the radio that makes you smile, no matter the mood you were in before you heard it? What about a song that reminds you of a person no longer in your life that reminds you of them?” questions Erika Montgomery, a vital member of the music therapy branch of the Peterson Family Foundation. “The ability to affect your emotions is one reason why music therapy was first used in a medical setting.” The reason this happens is engraved in the chemistry of the human brain. “From our heartbeats to our brain waves, our bodies are naturally hardwired with rhythm.” As music plays, the body releases two natural hormones in response: dopamine and endorphins. Both of these chemicals create a euphoric feeling in the mind
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and body as well and both block and numb the body’s pain receptors, allowing faster recovery times physically. These two chemicals have also been linked to resolving depression and lessening the pressure of anxiety on the mind and body. The emotion and physical aspects work hand in hand when it comes to musical therapy. Music therapy can be incorporated in a plethora of ways in the modern education system. For example, students with learning and mental disabilities can benefit greatly from music on a social and physical level. “Music therapy is becoming more and more important to the special needs community. It can help with memorization, speech, motor coordination, and with transitions from activity to activity,” according to the informational website “CerebralPaslsy.org.” The site and its accredited founders also point out the importance of incorporating this therapy method into the IEP (Individualized Educational Programs) of students with mental disabilities, including one of the most common mental issues that students face today: ADHD. Another study published in PubMed further confirms such claims, depicting a meta-analysis of music therapy from a psychopathological standpoint. In the study, 188 individuals of varying backgrounds and ages in 11 different programs were analyzed psychologically under musical therapy applications in order to test the efficiency of the programs (Gold, Voracek, Wigram). The experiment depicted a p-value, or probability of the suggested hypothesis of being flawed, of less than 0.001, indicating a homogenous array of results and therefore, an accepted hypothesis solidifying a moderate-to-high efficiency rate of the therapy in adolescents with psychological ailments. With regards to such, it is also important to
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understand that music therapy can be incorporated in schools for more students than just those with IEPs. For example, some types of music can stimulate the brain to maintain a proper level for maximum information retention. Jennifer Buchanan, owner of JB Music Therapy, explains how music affects the different brain waves in the brain that correspond with different levels of consciousness. There are four types of waves – delta, theta, alpha and beta – each relate to various levels of consciousness. Delta is a deep sleep state and eventually will translate into the theta state, which is a shallow sleep state. Slow, minor keys produce alpha waves, which calm the brain but not enough to enter a sleep state. Beta waves are the patterns of the fully awake mind, when the left hemisphere kicks into action. The left side is the multitasking mode, used for working at optimum speed. Fast, uptempo, major key music can help people maintain attention in the beta state instead of driving into a meditative theta state. The effects of music are seen quite obvious here and can aid scholars in their academic career by using an inexpensive way to improve mental capacity. Music can help the brain relax, which can be useful when needing to absorb content. By playing up-beat major melodic lines, the brain will produce more beta waves, creating an attentive state and thus a stronger and more capable learner. The same can be used to calm students with attention disorders. For example, playing slow and minor harmonies synthesize alpha waves, which tranquilizes the body and begins to put it into a sleeping state. Students in all grade levels and academic readiness can reap the benefits of music therapy.
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There are many different ways that such a system could be introduced into the school setting. One of the best methods is implementing music therapy rooms under the guidance of the counseling department. According to “Music Therapy Rooms and Their Great Impact on Developing Students,” published by the magazine Parenting Special Needs, there are two main types of music therapy rooms that could serve the purpose of administering such a method. The first one involves the patient actually playing music and the second involves only listening. Both have been proven to be beneficial to the body so both could be potential gateways of mental stability in education establishments. The first option would require more supervision, as well as a higher budget, to maintain and introduce while the latter one would be much cheaper and easier to administer. Either way, the benefits would be undoubtable and replacement. It goes without saying that this generation of students suffers from tremendous amounts of stress and pressure, and it is the job of the older generations to support them through their endeavors and the need for support is needed now more than ever. Music therapy is just one way of helping the students of both today and tomorrow and for those reasons, it's being fought to find itself implemented in schools for its many benefits such as improved focus and establishing a controlled and uniform environment of academic success. Music therapy has the potential to change the community and the students that compose it.
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References “Adding Music Therapy to Your Child's IEP.” Cerebralpalsy.org, 15 Dec. 2015, www.cerebralpalsy.org/blog/adding-music-therapy-to-your-childsiep#:~:text=Music%20therapy%20is%20becoming%20more,improve% 20and%20enhance%20their%20education. Buchanan, Jennifer. “Why Teachers Should Use More Music in the Classroom.” JB Music Therapy, JB Music Therapy, 24 Sept. 2013, www.jbmusictherapy.com/why-teachers-should-use-more-music-inthe-classroom/. Gold, C., Voracek, M. and Wigram, T. (2004), Effects of music therapy for children and adolescents with psychopathology: a meta‐analysis. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 45: 1054-1063. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2004.t01-1-00298.x Howland, Kathleen M. “Music as Medicine.” Encyclopædia Britannica, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., 2013, www.britannica.com/ topic/music-therapy. Loewy, Joanne, et al. “The Effects of Music Therapy on Vital Signs, Feeding, and Sleep in Premature Infants.” Pediatrics, U.S. National Library of Medicine, May 2013, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23589814 ?dopt=Abstract.
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Why Culture is America’s Top COVID-19 Transmitter Zachary Graaf Haverford High School
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“If you tangle with culture, culture will always win”, announced Dr. William Foegle, an American physician and epidemiologist, to a crowd of students at Pacific Lutheran University in 2013 (Clements). In the past year, Dr. Foegle’s words have never been more true. The far-reaching effects of the COVID-19 pandemic have contributed to dramatic changes within the United States, and paired with a highly contested presidential election and ongoing social justice movement, political polarization has appeared to reach recordhigh levels, pitting communities against one another. Unfortunately, the explanation to America’s fragmented state is poorly understood, often quickly and falsely blamed on politics or “incorrect” perspectives. The true answer lies in the United States’ history and lack of a cleanly defined “American” culture, instead being composed of various, diverse regional subcultures, whose influence has dictated the social, political, and economic environment of their respective communities and the nation as a whole. To evaluate cultural differences between communities during major epidemics and endemics, researchers developed the PEN-3 Model in 1989, a cultural conceptualization diagram is comprised of three primary components: cultural identity, characterized by the nature of neighborhood and extended family; cultural empowerment, whether it is positive, existential, or negative; and relationships and social expectations, the perceptions of outsiders and the role of enablers and nurturers within the culture. The utilization of this model has allowed sociologists and public health professionals to identify both positive and negative behaviors in relation to the pandemic, and additionally create strategies to combat those
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considered negative. However, adaptees of the PEN-3 Model have warned others about the implications of cultural evaluation during the pandemic, stating “the focus on cultural logic of decision making about a pandemic is less about who is right or wrong than about what societal reasoning and rationale are at the foundation of the message” and instead focus on stressing “the positive aspects of a community and people, their collective resilience, and their cultural logic” (Airhihenbuwa). Cultural values are not prone to revolutionary change, deeply ingrained within communities and regions, resulting in the polarization of attitudes towards necessary COVID19 mitigation efforts. Arguably, the differing subcultures within the United States are the primary and preeminent contributor to the variety of differing responses and reactions to the pandemic over the past fifteen months - and nobody is talking about it. The United States has long been regarded as a cultural melting pot with “extreme individualist orientations” (Culture, COVID-19, and Collectivism: A Paradox of American Exceptionalism?), with the nation's individualistic and libertarian ideals contributing to the global headlines detailing the United States’ pandemic response, from the premature lifting of mask mandates, mass public demonstrations in opposition to lockdowns, and staunch anti-vaccination sentiments. While those unsympathetic to these actions may quickly point their finger at the broader culture of the country as a whole, lax COVID-19 policies are a direct result of the country’s largely rural and libertarian cultural composition. The American fascination with the untamed frontier dates to the colonial era, with European settlers constantly migrating west in search of freedom from religious persecution,
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social intolerance, and big government. Through studies of county data in the Midwest and rural South from 1790-1890 as “a creative measure of individualism...U.S. counties...that remained more rural for longer times were considered more individualistic” (Culture, COVID-19, and Collectivism: A Paradox of American Exceptionalism?). Distanced from the reach of the federal government, rural communities took governance into their own hands, establishing renegade local assemblies; treated animal skins and whiskey as legal tender, opposed to hard cash; developed boastful oral folklore; and lived on isolated tracts of land, often miles away from the nearest town. The result was a culture which opposed and distrusted elitist federal power and rather opted for private enterprise, unfettered civil liberties, and traditionalism, leading to skeptical attitudes towards mask mandates, vaccination programs, and lockdowns. Additionally, rural communities throughout much of the Far West, Midwest, and South are dominated by “Private Protestants” (Southern Baptists, Methodists, Pentecostals), with many individuals remaining deeply devout followers of evangelical Christianity, garnering much of the Southeastern United States to be colloquially known as the “Bible Belt”. The Private Protestants of rural America have little shame of reflecting their individualist streak in their theology, commonly believing that “the world [is] inherently corrupt and sinful”, having “no interest in changing society but rather emphasis the need to maintain order and obedience" (Woodard). Cultural analysts have deemed the combination of evangelical religious fervor and individualism as “Christian nationalism”, an “explanation for
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polarization on vaccine attitudes...trust in tribal authority, and Anti science skepticism” (Whitehead and Perry 2). In fact, the conservative-libertarian culture of rural America offers the explanation for the response and reaction to the pandemic throughout much of the Far West, Midwest, and South. When former president Donald Trump urged state governors to issue mask mandates as a mitigation effort in the pandemic, “many Republican-led states...never imposed one in the first place” or dropped them by the early summer of 2020 (Durkee). In Boise, dozens of children and their families gathered outside the Idaho state capitol building in a mask-burning rally, where young children tossed surgical masks in a barrel fire, with a “boy...heard shouting, ‘Destroy them!’” (Bellware). Members of Congress from Georgia, in the heartland of the Bible Belt and Deep South, have referred to the suggestion of vaccination passports federally sanctioned documents allotting vaccination records - as symbols of totalitarian control and a direct attack on individual liberties (America's next Covid-19 culture war is here). Nearly every state across the Midwest and South has below fifty-percent vaccination rates, with merely a third of Mississippi’s population receiving at least one dose of the three available vaccines (Mayo Clinic); many residents of these states refuse to receive vaccinations over concerns of experimentation and development of the vaccine using aborted fetal cells, fearing the religious implications, as well as a general fear of a government-sanctioned vaccine (Musgrave and Persaud). For cultures and communities that directly oppose overarching federal power, COVID-19 measures “directly challenge key dimensions of
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conservatism, including a strong preference for the status quo over social change, prioritization of individual freedom over collective egalitarian goals, and a desire for minimal government intervention” (Kerr et al.). A lack of communitarian ideals and a push for individualism throughout much of rural America has led to its clearly defined pandemic response, rolling back the power of big government and opposing public safety measures. On the other hand, a nearly opposite response to the pandemic can be seen in the “blue states” of the Northeast and West Coast, where mask mandates have persisted and over half of state populations have been vaccinated. Highly urbanized, “U.S. counties that...became more urban and population dense, were considered more collectivistic...” (Culture, COVID-19, and Collectivism: A Paradox of American Exceptionalism?). And additionally, the collectivist-minded towns and cities of New England and the West Coast were founded and chartered by English Calvinists, better known as Puritans, who practiced a form of “Public Protestantism”, which throughout history, “tried to harness government to improve society and the quality of life” (Woodard). These regions of the United States have championed for the overall improvement of society, through expansive federal power, and additionally, a moral crusade of collective vigilantism. The notions of social shaming and “canceling”, which has surfaced on social media in relation to mask wearing and receiving vaccinations throughout communities in the Northeast and West Coast, can also be linked to historically-rooted, cultural characteristics of colonial New England, where non-Puritans were forced into unusual physical punishments or public humiliation, including being held in town stocks; a diversity of
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conscious was actively discouraged and suppressed, with dissidents shunned, branded, or executed; and communities engaging in the medieval concept of witch hunting, seeking out idiosyncratic members of society in a display of communal power, trialing and burning nonconformists at the stake, creating mass public hysteria and fear. These actions of “collective shame or shaming...may also be pivotal to understanding why some groups (e.g., East Asians, U.S. Democrats) appear to be more compliant with maskwearing requests than others” (Culture, COVID-19, and Collectivism: A Paradox of American Exceptionalism?). Through psychological studies, American liberals, who are largely concentrated in the Northeast and West Coast, have been reported to “express greater concern over risks which pose a threat not just to the individual but to society as whole”, campaigning for environmental protection, gun control, and government-sanctioned COVID-19 safety measures, holding a “greater endorsement of moral foundations pertaining to the harm and care of others” (Kerr et al.). State governors across the Northeast and West Coast spearheaded strict pandemic policies, extending lockdowns and mask mandates well past the due dates proposed by those from the Far West, Midwest and South. In Vermont, long regarded as a bastion of liberal politics, state health officials “explicitly gave Black adults and people from other minority communities priority status for vaccinations...because they are at higher risk of complications from COVID19” (Galewitz). Vermont, similar to other New England states, has a two percent African American population and is considered the “Whitest State in America”. (Comparatively, states such as Georgia and Mississippi, which
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both have nearly fifty-percent minority populations, have made no attempts at such programs.) Much like their Puritan forefathers, the moral and ideological goals of improving society for the greater good is highlighted in Vermont’s vaccination program, along with similar ones in neighboring states, where individualism is placed secondary to public interest. Overall vaccination rates in New England are astonishingly high, with over twothirds of the population in four states (Connecticut, Maine, Massachusetts, and Vermont) receiving one dose of the three available vaccines, and nearly half of the populations of Oregon and Washington have been fully vaccinated (Mayo Clinic). The collectivist nature of these communities has contributed to efficient and punctual COVID-19 safety measures, linked communitarian cultural orientations dating back centuries. Positioned between the pandemic reactions and responses of liberals and conservatives is those of minority communities, who are commonly at the greatest risk of contracting illness from COVID-19, but the most skeptical of receiving vaccinations and public health authorities, with only thirty percent of total African Americans and Latinos receiving at least one dose of the three available vaccines (Musgrave and Persaud). Both African American and Latino communities in the United States, “continue to distrust research participation...develop[ing] not only different behavioral patterns, values, and beliefs but also different definitions, standards, and differences in value systems and perspectives” (Kennedy et al.). Government-sanctioned medical experimentation on African Americans, such as the Tuskegee Syphilis Study of 1932-72, in which six hundred
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African-American men were treated as research subjects in a forty year biomedical experiment; Latinos, such as the fumigation of Mexican immigrants with gasoline, kerosene, and Zyklon B in border crossings throughout the first half of the twentieth century; and Jews, such as Nazi Germany’s concentration camps and disturbing, unethical human experimentations, have led many minority communities to a general distrust of federal authority, preferring local community organization for pandemic policy that remains within their own cultural realm. One example of this phenomenon can be found in indigenous communities in the United States “hav[ing] sought their own solutions to this pandemic by using traditional knowledge and language to promote voluntary isolation at the individual level and sealing off their territories at the community level while still being able to continue aspects of their spiritual well-being” (Airhihenbuwa). Additionally, many minority communities remain socially conservative in nature, with many African Americans practicing a form of “Private Protestantism” discussed earlier; the majority of Latinos are devout Roman Catholics, standing firmly against abortions and same-sex marriage. These cultural characteristics, paired with the pandemic, allowed Republicans to gain a substantial uptick in support amongst African American and Latino voters in the 2020 presidential election, with Cuban Americans endorsing former President Donald Trump after having “fled [a] corrupt foreign regime” (Musgrave and Persaud). The reactions and responses to COVID-19 within minority communities are directly linked to
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their cultural composition and long histories of enslavement, oppression, and systemic racism. Understanding this, it seems unlikely that a unified, national pandemic response would ever be a plausible situation in the case of COVID-19 or future pandemic. The attitudes and characteristics of various communities and regions that have shaped America’s various pandemic responses and reactions are passed on and bolstered through generations, creating the festering culture wars which “require permanent and profound changes in human behavior on a massive scale” (America's next Covid-19 culture war is here). Unfortunately, such a solution is unattainable; instead, individuals and communities need to improve their appreciation and understanding of the cultural implications of differing pandemic responses, as well for each other’s differing perspectives and opinions. Cultural analysts have noted this understanding as “ideological affirmation”, the process of “acknowledging the importance and value of an individual's ideological position before proposing a solution” (Kerr et al.). Through a better appreciation of our cultural attitudes, communities can work together in the creation of comprehensive pandemic response policies, which equally harness a combination of individual and community desires (Airhihenbuwa). And outside direct policy, through ideological affirmation and an increased awareness of our nation’s history and diversity, the United States can come together with a more unified approach in the future, and even as the pandemic begins to come to a close, the reminders of COVID-19’s cultural implications continue to surround us and will continue to for the better or worse.
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References Airhihenbuwa, Collins O. “Culture Matters in Communicating the Global Response to COVID-19.” Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Center for Disease Control and Prevention, 9 July 2020, www.cdc.gov/pcd/issues/2020/20_0245.htm. “America's next Covid-19 culture war is here.” CNN Wire, 1 Apr. 2021, p. NA. Gale In Context: Middle School, link.gale.com/apps/doc/A656936407/ MSIC?u=have49147&sid=MSIC&xid=e0737fdb. Accessed 23 May 2021. Bellware, Kim. “Anti-maskers encouraged kids to burn their face coverings on the Capitol steps in Idaho.” The Washington Post, 7 March 2021, https://www.washingtonpost.com/nation/2021/03/07/idaho-maskburning/. Accessed 23 May 2021. Clements, Barbara. “Dr. William Foege tells students to find their passion and pursue it.” Pacific Lutheran University, 11 December 2012, https://www.plu.edu/news/archive/2013/12/11/dr-william-foege-57/. Accessed 23 May 2021. “Culture, COVID-19, and Collectivism: A Paradox of American Exceptionalism?” (Updated November 29, 2020)." Medical Letter on the CDC & FDA, 20 Dec. 2020, p. 129. Gale Health and Wellness, link.gale.com/apps/doc/A644875553/ HWRC?u=have49147&sid=HWRC&xid=49c36bb9.Accessed 13 May 2021. Durkee, Allison. “‘No Thank You, Mr. President’: GOP States Still End Mask Mandates Despite Covid-19 Rise And Warnings From Biden, CDC.” Forbes, 2 April 2021, https://www.forbes.com/sites/alisondurkee/ 2021/04/02/gop-states-still-end-mask-mandates-d espite-covid-19-
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rise-and-warnings-from-biden-cdc/?sh=1181389a40b6. Accessed 23 May 2021. Galewitz, Phil. “Vermont to Give Minority Residents Priority for COVID Vaccines.” Scientific American, 6 April 2021, https:// www.scientificamerican.com/article/vermont-to-give-minorityresidents-priority-for-covi d-vaccines/. Accessed 23 May 2021. Kennedy, Bernice Roberts, et al. “African Americans and Their Distrust of the Health Care System: Healthcare for Diverse Populations.” Journal of Cultural Diversity, vol. 14, no. 2, Summer 2007, pp. 56–60. EBSCOhost, search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aqh&AN=25892612&s ite=eds-live. Kerr, John, et al. “Political Polarization on COVID-19 Pandemic Response in the United States.” Personality and Individual Differences, vol. 179, Sept. 2021, doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2021.110892. Mayo Clinic. “U.S. COVID-19 vaccine tracker.” https://www.mayoclinic.org/ coronavirus-covid-19/vaccine-tracker. Accessed 23 May 2021. Musgrave, Jane, and Chris Persaud. "What's keeping county's minorities from vaccine? J&J pause and myths fuel COVID-19 vaccine hesitancy." Palm Beach Post [West Palm Beach, FL], 30 Apr. 2021, p. 2A. Gale In Context: Environmental Studies, link.gale.com/apps/doc/A660178377/ GRNR?u=have49147&sid=GRNR&xid=7d976e19. Accessed 6 May 2021.
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Whitehead, Andrew L., and Samuel L. Perry. “How Culture Wars Delay Herd Immunity: Christian Nationalism and Anti-Vaccine Attitudes.” Socius, Jan. 2020, doi:10.1177/2378023120977727. Woodard, Colin. American Nations. Penguin Books, 2012.
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The Reality of Social Media: Its Negative Effects on Ignorant Users Meagan Hernandez Hill Country Christian School
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Over the past decade, social media platforms have completely transformed how people socialize and communicate with one another (“Social Media Fact”). However, underneath the surface, this tremendous advancement causes more negative than positive effects. This is because while most think they know how to use and navigate social media, this is not actually true. If used the wrong way, even unintentionally, this incredible social resource causes many unforeseen and detrimental effects. Unfortunately, most are using social media in this way, and it has become an unhealthy addiction and the very antithesis of itself and of its intended purpose. For this reason, the United States public school educational system should mandate social media education in middle schools to raise awareness, mitigate, and prevent the negative effects on mental health and face-to-face communication skills among students using these platforms. Before the creation of the internet, losing touch with someone meant it was unlikely to ever hear from them unless time was put into calling their landline or even writing a letter. While this was commonly done, conscience time and effort had to be put into specifically calling or staying in contact with that one person. This often led to the strong maintenance of few meaningful relationships rather than trying to keep up with everyone (Keys). Times have changed a lot since then. With social media, people now have the ability to flip through hundreds of their friends’ stories and posts with barely any thought at all. This is not something that is inherently bad but can easily turn so with oblivious misuse. Sometimes it’s easy to forget that it was not until 1993 that the world came online (“History”). Soon after, social media platforms like YouTube, MySpace, and Facebook started to appear in
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the midst of the World Wide Web and have only continued to accumulate since then (“NSF and the Birth”). Social media, as will be referred to later on, pertains to the applications (apps) of Instagram, Snapchat, Twitter, Facebook, and TikTok. By design, social media is Internet-based and gives users quick electronic communication of content like photos, videos, and information (Hudson). It was originally created and used as a way to interact with friends and family, but it was later utilized by businesses that wanted to take advantage of the popular new communication method to reach out to new and current customers (Culnan). Now 64% of large US companies use social media platforms amongst employees, 56% use them to communicate with customers, and 40% use them to work with the company’s partners or suppliers (Culnan). Globally, there are more than 3.8 billion social media users (“Number of Social Network”). Social media is an ever-changing and ever-evolving field, with new apps such as TikTok from 2016 or extensions like Instagram Reels in 2020 coming out seemingly every year (Bump). Right now, there are about 3.6 million people using social media platforms. However, if the current trends continue, by 2023, the number of social media users in the United States is forecast to increase to approximately 257 million (“Social Media Usage”). Because of this, people are now connected in new, incredible ways, and on a level that was previously unimaginable. In just a few minutes you can learn all about a person’s life – where they work, who they hang out with, what they do with their free time, what they believe – all without even needing to pass them on the street. So why then, in a time
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where connectivity and the social medium is only a few clicks away, is depression, anxiety, and loneliness the highest it has ever been in recorded history, especially in younger generations (Goodwin)? There are positive aspects to social media, such as its incredible ability to connect people all across the globe, and, at this point, taking it out of our lives is beyond the realm of possibility. It is a modern Pandora’s box that is now a permanent part of our lives. Learning how to navigate it and properly implement it into our lives is the first logical step in dealing with the effects. For this reason, awareness should be raised of the potential effects of social media, particularly among middle school students. Using social media without knowledge of its dangers to mental health increases the fear of missing out (FOMO), feelings of inadequacy, self-absorption, dissatisfaction, cyberbullying, and isolation (Robinson). Over time, feelings like this start to take more permanent roots in your overall psyche and cause or worsen symptoms of depression, anxiety, or stress (Robinson). For some, social media will not have as detrimental an effect. They can post photos to share their lives with family and friends and log on to have conversations with old friends without too much drawback. This is not the group of students who are the intended audience. In fact, people who are left completely unaffected by social media are an extreme minority with statistics showing it to be less than 10% (Pantic). Some question why a program to educate middle schoolers on the effects of social media is needed when the adverse ramifications on mental health are not going to be seen by every student. First, a topic of concern
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should not be ignored simply because it does not affect everyone or only affects a small percentage of the population. The United States has already ratified a bill that caters to and benefits only a minuscule portion of the population. In 1983, the US Legislature passed the Orphan Drug Act which provided incentives for pharmaceutical companies and research centers to synthesize treatments for rare diseases (Lemesh). In order for a disease to be classified as rare, it has to affect less than 200,000 people in the United States (Lemesh). According to the United States Census Bureau, there are 332,766,615 people living in the country as of September 21, 2021 (Lemesh). That means that in order for a drug to qualify for the Orphan Drug program it has to affect less than 0.06% of the population. This is much smaller proportionally than the percentage of students who remain unaffected. Additionally, in a study administered by the University of Belgrade, 35% of adolescents experienced mild or greater depression because of their engagement in social media, creating a clinically proven link between social media activity and mental disorders (Pantic). In this context, mental disorders refer to any condition that affects your thinking, mood, or behavior. This could manifest in either occasional or long-lasting episodes. If the United States government is willing to make an entire program with financial and marketing incentives for such an infinitesimal percent of affected citizens, why should there not also be an educational program in middle schools that will help a much larger percentage? It is not exactly clear, as of now, why social media affects some and not others. It is a relatively new topic of concern, especially when pertaining specifically to the negative mental health effects. However, it is
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hypothesized among the neuroscience community that it has something to do with the mindset a student has going into it and withholds throughout their usage of the social networking platform (Brunskill). This is something that could easily be taught and promoted if there was a specific curriculum that could address this exact topic. Without early education, students engaging in social media are surfing blind. If students were to go in with at least some knowledge of potential throwbacks, the effects will not be as strong and long-lasting. To begin with, the earlier teens start using social media the greater impact the platforms have on mental health (Robinson). This is because the adolescent mind is not yet fully developed. In fact, the mind of an adolescent thinks and processes input in a completely different manner than a large majority of adults. A fully mature human brain processes situations then makes decisions with the prefrontal cortex, the rational part of the brain (Campellone). This manner of thought processing allows adults to “respond to situations with good judgment and an awareness of long-term consequences” (Campellone). Adolescents, on the other hand, make almost the entirety of their decisions with another part of the brain: the amygdala (Campellone). This is the portion that processes emotions (Campellone). Pair this with the distortion that social media introduces in the middle school social life, and the mental health potentials are clear. There is a plethora of apps that provide people with all sorts of filters, ones that make your skin look clear and smooth, your nose smaller, your eyes bigger, and your face thinner and more defined. Now, it is not only celebrities who look flawless — it is everyone – and, if we are not careful,
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this aspect of social media can put a distorted lens on reality (Shaikh). Keeping this in mind, what effect would it have on a child’s mind when they are constantly bombarded with nothing but unrealistic, filtered photos of other people’s perfect lives while they are struggling to keep up the front that everything is fine? When there is filter upon filter applied to the entirety of the digital world, the line between it and the real world can become blurred, especially as it becomes a bigger part of our lives with each passing day (Shaikh). This blur can cause extensive damage to a growing child’s psyche. Their mind, constantly changing and forming new neural pathways, is vulnerable to the influence of all outside factors – especially those pertaining to their relationships and social life ("The Adolescent Brain”). There are people who are extremely skeptical of the idea that a picture-sharing site could cause such a spiral. However, the long-lasting effect of the blur is not just something that could happen or will most likely happen, it is already happening. Plastic surgeons are receiving more and more requests from patients who want numerous procedures, just so they can look like their filtered selfies posted on Snapchat or Instagram (Chiu). There is even a name for the emerging phenomenon: Snapchat Dysmorphia (Chiu). The latter part of this name – dysmorphia – refers to an obsession with the perceived flaws in one's face or body (“Body Dysmorphic Disorder”). In conjunction with the word ‘Snapchat,’ in this case, which broadly represents other social media platforms, the term appropriately describes the situation at hand as well as the emerging effects of the blur. The severity of these mental effects, of course, varies
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from case to case, but, nonetheless, many experts are concerned about “its negative effect on people's self-esteem and its potential to trigger body dysmorphic disorder, a mental illness classified on the obsessivecompulsive spectrum” (Chiu). If such a tremendous effect is being seen in adults, what are the potential ramifications on an unprepared and unguarded adolescent mind as social media is now one of the major influences in the midst of development? Throughout all this, there is one main question: Why is this happening? The truth of the matter is social media has a reinforcing and addictive nature; the platforms are designed to be that way to increase traffic and usage (Schwär). Due to the effect that it has on the brain, social media is addictive both physically and psychologically. According to a new study by Harvard University, posting and interacting on social networking sites lights up the same part of the brain that also ignites when taking drugs or other addictive substances (Haynes). Using it activates the brain’s reward center, releasing dopamine, the “feel-good chemical” of the human body which also affects decisions and sensations through positive reinforcement (Haynes). For example, when someone uses an addictive substance, neurons located in major areas of the brain that produce dopamine are activated. This causes dopamine levels to rise, giving the brain a “reward” and associates the drug, or any other rewarding activity, with positive reinforcement (Haynes). The same thing happens when using social media (Haynes). When someone receives a notification or ‘like,’ the brain receives a rush of dopamine and sends it along reward pathways in the brain, the activation
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of this part of the brain’s neural network causes that person to feel a rush of what we call pleasure or happiness (Haynes). In having this effect on the brain, social media provides an endless amount of immediate rewards, instant happiness in the form of attention from others for relatively minimal effort. The brain rewires itself through this positive reinforcement, making people crave likes, retweets, and comments. However, the human brain is not a vending machine. It is a complex mass of interwoven neurons and pathways, 86 billion neurons to be precise – all in use and all firing at up to 270 miles per hour (“Your Complex Brain”). It is the body’s most complex organ and mental states emerge from interactions between multiple pathways as well as each individual person’s physical and functional levels. So while we train our brains to make us feel happy at receiving a ‘like’ on posts, there are still multitudes of things that could go awry, especially when there is already a chemical imbalance in a person’s brain, predisposing them to certain mental disorders, or when social media becomes a predominant coping mechanism to relieve stress, loneliness, or depression (Murti). As a coping mechanism, it is used to provide continuous rewards that they may not be receiving in real life, so they end up engaging in the activity more and more (Robinson). This continuous use eventually leads to multiple interpersonal problems, such as ignoring real-life relationships, work or school responsibilities, and even their physical health (Robinson). This disconnect from relationships and face-to-face connection will only escalate their depressive and obsessive state, further reinforcing the blur and deepening their spiral (Robinson). All this is happening while to the rest
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of the digital world – everyone else who is ‘friends’ with them online – it is nothing more than posting more happy, smiling pictures and liking/commenting just like any other user on the platform. People who find themselves in this perilous position are searching for validation, connection, and support in a digital world where almost everything is superficial and filtered. They want it to replace meaningful social connections while still being able to maintain their ‘media facade’. While the dangers of mental health are at risk through the uneducated use of social media, it is not the only thing that is affected. As stated previously, middle schoolers are at a stage in development that causes their social lives to have an incredible impact on their psyches. One critical aspect of this is the socialization, communication, and emotional skills that form during this period of selfdiscovery (Dawidowicz). The emotional skills of an adolescent are measured by their ability to recognize and react appropriately to emotional input. These ‘appropriate’ responses are determined by their relationships and social life (Rymanowicz). A two-year-old, for example, learns from the parent’s reaction and repeated scolding that it is not nice to bite another person, even if they are the source of anger or frustration. In other words, biting people as an emotional outlet does not fall within the range of accepted or appropriate human interaction behavior. The same concept is true for more complex emotional processes like ones of middle schoolers who are learning how to be their own person. This process is not something that happens overnight. It is a process of trial and error that every adolescent will go through as the influences in their life change (Dawidowicz). Students will subconsciously test out their
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behaviors and reactions in various situations with people’s expectations and predicted responses as a guideline (Dawidowicz). As other people around them respond to the behavior, they will then use that feedback to redefine how they act and respond in future situations, often without conscience knowledge (Rymanowicz). This process will repeat and eventually stabilize enough to form repeating behavioral patterns, which we refer to as a person’s personality (Dawidowicz). This personality is formed over years of interpersonal interactions between friends, parents, and authority figures, who all provide examples of how to respond to and act in life (Rymanowicz). As social media has become a social and societal norm, especially in middle school, it has also become one of these major influences as a part of their social life. Notwithstanding outside influence, this course of social development provides a unique opportunity for middle schoolers, who are all in this stage, to cultivate the deeper roots of their personality like identity, character, and humanity – three things that social media will never be able to cultivate when put in the position of replacing human interaction (Bryant). When adolescents rely on social media for the majority of their social connections and relationships, they no longer receive this crucial social, emotional, communicative development (Bryant). The complexities of human interaction are reduced to nothing more than pictures and their subsequent likes and comments – this is what value looks like in the world of social media. It does not come close to comparing with the value found in the human condition which consists of all of the characteristics and key
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components that make up the essentials of human existence, including growth, emotion, aspirations, connection, love, conflict, and mortality (“Human Nature”). All these potentialities of humanity are left unreceived when a person relies solely on social media for meaningful relationships. What they receive is not the reality of life’s ups and downs, not how to healthily deal with difficult situations when they arise, and most definitely not the full breadth of the human condition. It’s not that social media doesn’t have the ability to portray these things, only that reliance on social media for these aspects of development is something that should be avoided at all costs. If not educated on the startling effects of the lack of actual, in-person communication students risk falling prey to this dependence on unfulfilling connection. Many may not see a reason for this disparity in communication. For most of a person’s life, they are taught that writing is a communication method equivalent to speaking, but recent studies are finding that this is not the case. Verbal communication accounts for less than 7% of complete interpersonal communication (“The Importance”). Consequently, close to 50% of things that are exclusively written, like posts, comments, and direct messages (DMs), are misunderstood because they lack the nonverbal cues that would have been given if the information had been spoken (Jenkins). This is because the lack of body signals and other nonverbal cues, like expressions, tone, and inflection, make writing an inferior way to communicate and express ideas to other people (Jenkins). If this is true for something as simple as conveying information, why would social media be an appropriate substitute for developing complex, personal relationships?
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Your smartphone should not be a substitute for real-life interaction. It should be a way to find real-life interaction. Just like how you don’t use your GPS to imagine going from A to B, but to actually get from A to B. It should only be a starting point for building meaningful relationships and gaining real-life experience. (Tso) Instead of being thought of as an equivalent or even a replacement, social media should be used as a tool to complement and strengthen relationships – a GPS to create a larger and stronger socialization network. It is when building this network becomes an obsession that problems arise. A study done by Yazzino, an online casino, found that when it comes to the choice between meeting up with friends on the weekend and interacting on social media, 11% of adults would prefer to stay inside and browse their social media feed, messaging people online (“One in”). If social media is actually doing what it is thought to accomplish, promoting a more communicative and social society, then why does it cause people to choose isolation over socialization? Why are there so many downward trends in communication seen throughout the nation? In order for social media to be a sufficient means of social interaction in and of itself, a person’s social, emotional, and communicative skills will have to be equal to what is gained in face-to-face socialization. This is not supported by this study nor are the effects seen in the mental health of avid users. In fact, it shows a trend in the exact opposite direction with 11% of users choosing to interact through screens while avoiding the purest form of socialization and communication (Pease). When people are educated early about this topic, they have the ability to act on this knowledge and
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form better habits. Middle school is a prime time to accomplish this as the average age for getting a social media account is twelve years old (Howard). Emphasizing the impact of social media and the importance of careful usage will help to curb these effects and build towards a future with social media causing a limited negative impact. However, how do we know that implementing a program into middle schools will actually foster these better habits and mitigate the effects? There have been many studies that have proven over and over that sexual education in schools is effective in preventing sexual risk, most commonly teen pregnancy and HIV. The results of thirty-three of these studies were combined and analyzed as a whole. The result of this meta-analysis was that students who received sexual education had a “significantly” more comprehensive knowledge of HIV and other infections, took fewer risks, and were less sexually active (Fonner). In these studies, this was achieved solely through education about the risks in addition to the publicized rewards. The same could be done with educating students about social media. The benefits of creating an account and interacting online would be explained, but the negative effects of social networking would also be openly discussed and considered. These effects are often left unsaid when social media is discussed among friends or family, causing the student’s first knowledge or encounter with these effects to be when they are already facing it in their own lives. In a perfect world, kids would get all of their education on the rights and wrongs of social media at home from parents or other role models in their life, but this is not a perfect world. The average parent is just as
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clueless about the potential harms brought by social media as their kids. This is especially true since parents did not grow up with social media in their life and so do not have experience with which to speak from. Because the technology is so new, parents would not know the full breadth or seemingly insignificant intricacies of social media that would be covered easily in a classroom with a set curriculum. They would not be properly equipped to give a universal and reliable education unless they themselves were educated by an all-encompassing course. Education is not only the best defense, but the only defense we have against the ill effects social media brings into people’s lives. Having a raincoat on hand does not automatically mean it is going to rain, but if it does, anyone who thought ahead and came prepared will not get wet. Social media, when used properly, acts as a valuable supplement to a preexisting foundation of social, emotional, and communicational skills, but it will never be able to completely replace the benefits of learned and developed qualities accomplished only through human interaction. This learned human interaction helps middle schoolers establish a sense of self and learn what others expect from them. Unbridled and ignorant use of social media will hinder this intended goal and prevent the social growth required for middle schoolers to successfully transition to adulthood, without any of the lasting negative effects caused by uneducated use of the platforms. Not only is this argument defensible through science, but also through biblical sources. Even though the use of social media is never directly stated
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anywhere in the Bible, there is plenty of wisdom given in Matthew and Proverbs that is still relevant in this modern world. Do not lay up for yourselves treasures on earth, where moth and rust destroy and where thieves break in and steal, but lay up for yourselves treasures in heaven, where neither moth nor rust destroys and where thieves do not break in and steal. For where your treasure is, there your heart will be also. (Matthew 6:19-21) This verse does not say that having things of value in your life is intrinsically immoral. Instead, we see that the Lord is communicating, through Matthew addressing the Jewish people, that there is nothing in this world that could possibly fulfill our lives without Him. In the end, the only things going to heaven are our souls. Whatever we store up in our earthly lives will become worthless. This includes social media, which if gone unchecked, can consume us and become our source of identity in our dayto-day lives. Again, social media in itself is an extremely effective method to connect and relate to each other and in line with what the Lord intended for this world. Even when man was first created, The Lord said, in direct relation to creation, that “It is not good that man should be alone, “ (Genesis 2:18). Man was made as a creature of companionship. To act in any other way is to deny the wholeness that comes with living as God created his sons and daughters to be. The problem is not the existence of social media, but rather, the effects caused by our own sinful nature in conceding to the Devil. Knowledge of these possible effects, especially when given in middle school when the human psyche is most vulnerable, will help to stop
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the dramatic mental health decline we are seeing in recent years. “For the protection of wisdom is like the protection of money, and the advantage of knowledge is that wisdom preserves the life of him who has it,” (Ecclesiastes 7:12). In becoming a powerful avenue of communication and connection, social media has also created an avenue for the Devil to exploit against us. How are we supposed to arm ourselves against him if we do not have the knowledge to do so? Social media has completely transformed our modern world. Communication has never been easier and connections with other people can flourish whether it is across the city or even across the world. With that, there comes a whole new wave of challenges that we have to learn to navigate and overcome. The most prominent of these challenges are the ones posed by the negative effects on mental health and face-to-face communication skills among students using these platforms. The first step in accomplishing this goal is educating the people who will grow up right in the midst of it and know no other way of life. For this reason, the United States public school educational system should mandate social media education in middle schools to raise awareness of these negative effects.
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Religious Trauma in Christianity and Treatments Adhvika Mahadevan Wp Davidson High School
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Introduction Religious abuse can be defined as “power taken over an individual or group,” and it is justified through theological structures and dominance of power, which can lead to substance abuse, guilt, and shame (Vernon 3 and Sapp 18). Religious abusers often use fear to get the victim to comply with all of their requests (5). This type of abuse can lead to trauma that is associated with the individual’s religion. Religious trauma syndrome was officially coined in 2011 by Marlene Winell. It is defined as a group of symptoms that come about in response to stressful or difficult religious experiences. Typically, it arises whenever individuals are a part of an authoritarian religion, and it can also come about when these individuals try to leave these controlling religions (Gary). According to Marlene Winell, leaving a religion is “an analogous event,” which is a legal term. Leaving a religion is referred to in this manner because the individual loses something that once brought familiarity to their life. At the same time, leaving their religion can be incredibly freeing since the individual no longer has to alter their thinking in order to submit to the extremely demanding principles of their religion (Winell). For certain groups of people, religion can be a positive addition to their life. In general, studies show that religious groups have better physical and mental health, while also living longer lives (Ariely, Mochon, and Norton 1). Religion provides something common that allows different groups of people to connect. Other studies suggest that individuals with a strong belief in their respective religion experience reduced levels of alcoholism and drug usage, along with lower suicide rates (Holt).
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As previously mentioned, although religion can be beneficial to someone’s life, Marlene Winell argues that leaving religion can bring an overall positive impact to those who show signs of religious trauma syndrome. Additionally, not all people experience religious trauma the same way. Some people experience feelings of guilt, or they might develop symptoms of other mental illnesses such as anxiety or depression (Gary). Some individuals may also experience paranoia, and they may experience negative feelings in regard to their self-worth (Parker 3). Religious trauma can result from several things including high expectations from parental figures in regard to church, mental abuse due to the beliefs that the church forced onto them, and sexual abuse from religious authority figures. Some therapists and support groups suggest using religion as a coping mechanism for various traumas and mental illnesses. However, if religion is the root cause of someone’s trauma, if someone suggests to them to use religion as a coping mechanism, they might be pushed further away from religion in general. Religious trauma can be different from other traumas in the sense that it was only recently discovered, and because of this, they can go undiagnosed most of the time (Parker 4). In some cases, religious trauma can cause the affected individual to try to deconvert (Panchuk 505). Religious trauma syndrome is similar to a combination of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and complex post traumatic disorder (C-PTSD) (Gary). Additionally, religious trauma symptoms can include depression, intrusive thoughts, and anxiety. In order to fully understand what religious trauma entails, one must have a thorough understanding of PTSD,
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C-PTSD, anxiety, and depression. PTSD is a psychiatric disorder that comes about after an individual experiences something extremely traumatic, such as rape or a war. Although PTSD is most commonly associated with war, it can occur in anyone, and women and people of color are more prone to having PTSD. In order to be diagnosed with PTSD, the patient must exhibit symptoms of the disorder for at least one month (“Post Traumatic Stress Disorder”). PTSD is often misdiagnosed or missed completely, even though it can significantly impact one’s quality of life (Ouimette 337). C-PTSD is extremely similar to PTSD, also resulting from extreme traumatic experiences. However, unlike PTSD, the trauma that causes this disorder is mainly from childhood (Franco). Some of the symptoms of CPTSD include aggression, self-destructive behavior, loss of sense-of-self, and somatization, which refers to recurring medical symptoms without a physical cause (Ouimette 340). Depression is characterized by a lack of interest in activities that were previously enjoyable to the individual, rapid weight loss or weight gain, inability to sleep, and extreme negative feelings, such as unwantedness. It also causes extreme feelings of sadness and can impair your ability to perform day-to-day tasks, such as getting dressed or eating. There are several different specifiers of depression, and some of the different specifiers of depression may include anxious distress, mixed features, melancholic features, atypical features, psychotic features, catatonia, peripartum onset, and seasonal pattern. Typically, depression stems from a lack of serotonin in the brain. In order to be diagnosed with depression, individuals must exhibit
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these symptoms for at least two weeks, and the symptoms must significantly alter the quality of their life (“Depression”). In some amounts, anxiety can be normal, as it is a response to stressful situations. However, anxiety disorders are characterized by excessive amounts of fear and stress on a day-to-day basis. Almost all anxiety disorders involve an element of fear and anticipation in regards to the future. Some symptoms of anxiety disorders are the inability to function normally on a daily basis, muscle tension, and avoiding certain activities or items. In order to be diagnosed with an anxiety disorder, the individual must exhibit a level of fear that is excessive for the situation (Craske 369).
Types of Religious Abuse and Examples Spiritual abuse can be classified based on several different factors. In Christianity, religious abuse is defined as using the Bible to harm someone. One example of this is child molestation. Another type of spiritual abuse is coercive spirituality, and an example of this would be totalitarian cults in religion (Oakley 8). Religious abuse can also occur in workplaces involving the church. The employees in higher positions commonly use fear tactics in order to get the employees in lower positions to submit to their every request. If any of the employees were to question the authority figures, they would retaliate by not giving their employees their paychecks, or they might verbally abuse them (Vernon 2).
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Religious Trauma in the LGBTQ+ Community In the United States and other places around the world, such as Africa, the Christian population typically does not support the LGBTQ+ community since one of the main principles of the religion is that marriage can only be between a man and a woman (Klinken 229). Specifically in the United States, right-wing Christian leaders have funded anti-LGBTQ+ movements and organizations (Burack 3). Those who are part of the LGBTQ+ community might struggle to find acceptance in religious settings (Klinken 229). Staunch Christians may be supportive of conversion therapy, but among other groups of people, this idea is heavily debated. The aim of conversion therapy is to coerce those individuals who are part of the LGBTQ+ community to “change” their sexuality or gender, even though this is not possible because these things are dependent upon biological factors (Burack 4). In “Mormon Clients’ Experiences of Conversion Therapy: The Need for a New Treatment Approach,” Beckstead and Morrow conduct a case study about conversion therapy (Beckstead and Morrow 615). Among the participants in this case study, several varied results emerged. Some of the participants reported that after conversion therapy, they experienced feelings of depression and loneliness. Other participants reported that they found success in conversion therapy. Additionally, one woman in particular reported that she was able to move away from samesex desires to opposite-sex desires for almost five years after going through conversion therapy (652). However, harmful conversion therapy treatments are extremely common. (Haldeman 261). Some conversion therapy methods include hypnosis, paralysis, and administration of electrical shocks. In other
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cases, hormonal methods of therapy might be used (Higbee 2). Even though the case study mentioned above has shown that some individuals have found conversion therapy to be a positive experience, the majority of the individuals who undergo this form of “therapy” often experience severe psychological distress.
Religious Trauma in Youth-An Overview and Physical Abuse In many cases, religious trauma can stem from one’s childhood. According to Donald Capps, president of the Society for the Scientific Study of Religion, religion and child abuse typically go hand-in-hand (Bottoms, Goodman, Shaver, and Qin 3). Michelle Panchuk in her publication titled The Shattered Spiritual Self: A Philosophical Exploration of Religious Trauma outlines two case studies that help explain religious trauma. One of them focuses on a young child that is brutally beaten by her Christian parents. Her parents repeatedly justified their behavior in the name of God, which could cause the young child to experience feelings of anxiety, depression, and an overall shattered sense-of-self. The young girl could also end up having a complicated relationship with God, as she might not understand how someone in a highly respected position of power could enable her suffering (514). In a religious context, child abuse can be rather complicated. Parents might be abusive towards their children by “withholding medical care for religious reasons” and “attempting to rid [their] child of evil” (Bottoms, Goodman, Shaver, and Qin 3). Some Christians believe that all children are born with “a distorted or wayward will,” and parents believe it is their job to change this into a purer will, which could cause an abusive dynamic between
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the parent and child (Capps 3). Additionally, in Christianity, the ultimate goal is to reach heaven, and a lot of physical child abuse that comes about based on religion is tied to this belief. Many parents believe that “it is better that [their] children experience a temporary hell inflicted by loving parents rather than [burning] in an eternal hell” (Bottoms, Goodman, Shaver, and Qin 5). One’s connection with God is constantly evolving. Viewing God as personal or impersonal changes based on the level of abuse faced. Those who are constantly abused would view God as being personal, while those are not typically abused would view God as being impersonal. The reason that abuses cause children to view God as being personal is because God is blamed for any of the suffering that the child experiences. In these instances, the parent will physically or verbally abuse their children and state that it is God’s punishment instead of taking the blame themselves (Capps 5).
Medical Neglect and Religion Medical neglect is defined as withholding any care or treatment necessary for survival (National Library of Medicine). In general, all parents hope to get the best possible care for their children, but oftentimes, for Christian parents, this care consists of nothing but prayer (Bottoms, Goodman, Shaver, and Qin 3). Prayer can only engage with someone in a psychological aspect, so chronic illnesses such as cancer cannot be cured with prayer alone, as these illnesses arise from physical issues within the body. Additionally, within Christianity, there are groups of people who believe that any form of treatment is an interference of God’s plan. These individuals use the First Amendment as justification for their refusal of their
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children to receive medical treatment (7). Although there is some scientific evidence that asserts that sometimes prayer can be beneficial for recuperation of an illness, just prayer alone can lead to a number of negative consequences, the most common one being death. As stated above, in cases where chronic illness is concerned, treatment can almost always prolong the life of a child. Asser and Swan discuss several examples of this throughout their publication titled “Child fatalities from religion-motivated medical neglect” (Asser and Swan). In one case, they reference a young girl with osteosarcoma (bone cancer), and her parents pulled her out of school while relying on prayer alone as a form of treatment. She did not survive osteosarcoma, but survival would have been possible if her parents had sought traditional medical treatment (626).
Religious Trauma in Youth as a Result of Those in Positions of Authority Religious abuse perpetrated by those in positions of power, specifically clergy or priests, is extremely common. The most common type of abuse by these individuals is sexual abuse, which can be seen in the Catholic Church. For a child, this can be extremely confusing, as this type of abuse is done by people, they believed they could trust. Instead, these children grow up to fear the priests and clergymen, which can be damaging to their mental health (Bottoms, Goodman, Shaver, and Qin 3).
Religious Ideals Causing Significant Distress in Youth In his publication, Donald Capps also outlines specific religious beliefs that children are exposed to that can cause psychological distress. Usually,
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children are told about specific sins, and are warned not to commit them. However, they might not fully understand what the sin entails, leaving them confused as to whether or not they have committed that sin or not, which can leave the child feeling extremely stressed (7). Capps believes that “religious ideas might be as abusive as physical punishment for children.” Traumatizing children with complicated and scary religious ideals can lead to dissociation, such as amnesia. (9).
Sexual Abuse and Religion in Children and Adults Research shows that sexual abuse has a direct correlation with the level of religiousness of the affected individual. In one particular investigation, it has been shown that the more religious the person is when they get sexually abused, the less likely they are to experience severe levels of depression after being sexually abused (Redmond 70). In general, Christianity regards things such as rape as being immoral and unethical, but this does not mean that sexual abuse does not occur in religious settings. However, the question of sexual abuse becomes rather complicated in Christian homes (71). Many individuals who are sexually assaulted, especially children, do not tell anyone about the incident until several years later. In Christianity, there are five important virtues that all young children can be taught. These include the value of suffering, the virtue of forgiveness, the necessity of remaining sexually pure, little girls is in need of redemption, and the value placed on one’s obedience to other authority figures (73-4). The idea of the value of suffering can be quite problematic because suffering can be seen as a sin in Christianity. The individual experiencing sexual abuse may feel as
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though the things they underwent were their fault entirely, which is not the case. Additionally, children can be taught that God loves everyone equally. However, victims of sexual abuse might not agree with this belief. The affected individual might begin to wonder why they had to experience such a thing. They might also wonder why God allowed them to suffer. This can lead to feelings of self-hatred, as the affected individual might believe that the reason, they suffered sexual abuse was because he or she did not say his or her prayers correctly or because they were disobedient (74). Feelings of anger and resentment are normal within children who are victims of sexual abuse. These feelings might be invalidated due to the religion since Christianity emphasizes forgiveness (75-6). Another one of the principles of Christianity is the idea of redemption and respecting one's elders. Children often look up to adults and assume that they are always correct. Consequently, victims of sexual abuse would not be inclined to support this belief. One of the ways for children to recover from an event this traumatic is for them to learn that they also have a voice. Children should be taught that they can say no to authority figures if they do not want to do something (78).
Presentation of Sexual Abuse Sexual abuse, similar to other forms of trauma, can present itself in different ways in different individuals. Immediately after the event takes place, the victim can feel shocked or disbelief. After the event has taken place, the victim might feel anxiety, or they might develop post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) (Prins 1).
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The Catholic Church Scandal in Germany and Sexual Abuse Recently, sexual assault allegations have come out against the Catholic Church. There were different types of sexual acts that took place between the victims and clergymen. These include genetial penetration, manual penetration, and a masturbation act of some kind, and the consequences of these acts varied (Dreßing 389). Several of the victims ended up leaving the church. Others found themselves seeking intensive psychotherapy because their trauma was interfering negatively in their day to day lives (391).
Treatments for Mental Disorders that Arise due to Religious Trauma Different mental illnesses and disorders have different treatments that can be used to make the symptoms more manageable. One of the mental conditions that can arise as a direct result of religious trauma is depression. Some of the common treatments for depression include medication, psychotherapy, hospital and residential treatment, and electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) (“Depression”). The most common type of anxiety disorder is generalized anxiety disorder. This is commonly an effect of religious trauma. Like depression, some treatments available for anxiety disorders include medication and psychotherapy, more specifically cognitive behavior therapy. Lifestyle changes are commonly recommended to those who suffer from anxiety. Some examples of these lifestyle changes are keeping physically active, avoiding alcohol and recreational drugs, quitting smoking and cutting out caffeine, using stress management and relaxation techniques, making sleep
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a priority, and eating healthy. Other coping mechanisms for generalized anxiety disorder are keeping a journal, sticking to the treatment plan provided by a healthcare professional, and learning time management techniques (Craske 369-75). Out of the disorders discussed in this paper so far, post-traumatic stress disorder is by far the most common disorder that comes about as a response to religious trauma. Psychotherapy is a common treatment used for this mental disorder. In the context of PTSD, psychotherapy usually refers to cognitive therapy, exposure therapy, or eye movement desensitization and reprocessing. In cognitive therapy, the individual will learn how to recognize how certain thoughts they are having might be holding them back from recovery, and they will learn how to take these thoughts and alter them in order to avoid relapsing into their mental illness. In exposure therapy, the patient will be directly exposed to the things that trigger their PTSD. During exposure, they are taught healthy ways in which to cope with the things that trigger their PTSD. Antidepressants, anti-anxiety medicine, and prazosin are prescribed to those who struggle with PTSD (“Post Traumatic Stress Disorder”). For victims of sexual assault, there are many options available. There are several hotlines online for victims of sexual assault. These hotlines are available for 24 hours a day, 7 days a week, and 365 days a year. In some cases, the individual might not feel comfortable talking on the phone, so there are options for text hotlines. There are also several programs where the victim is able to join a program and speak with a therapist one-on-one (Welch and Mason 1155).
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Cognitive behavior therapy is also a useful treatment for many mental disorders. It usually combines clinical research and practice. There are three different core principles of cognitive behavior therapy, and they all work together to change someone’s way of thinking. This is usually achieved by gaining the ability to have more confidence in general about certain scenarios. The patient will also be able to recognize the ways in their thinking which could potentially work to trigger their mental illness. The ultimate goal of cognitive behavior therapy is to teach the patient “to be their own therapist.”Another key detail about cognitive behavior therapy is the idea of focusing on the current moment (Hoffman). Another form of treatment for mental illnesses in general is alternative medicine. Alternative medicine consists of acupuncture, aromatherapy, herbal medicine, homeopathy, massages, meditation, and yoga (Russinova). Recently, music therapy as a form of treatment for mental illnesses has gained a significant amount of popularity. There are studies that show that music therapy has been effective in helping with depression, schizophrenia, and trauma overall. Music therapy consists of four main parts, which include lyric analysis, improvisation while playing music, and active listening. Lyric analysis allows for the individual to express exactly how they are feeling through song lyrics which parallel their current situation. Improvisation while playing music allows for the patients to recreate sounds that reflect how they are feeling in an emotional sense. Active listening is similar to lyric analysis, but the therapist will slowly start to play songs with various moods to help the patient become calmer (Warren).
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Conclusion Religious trauma is a fairly new concept. However, in recent years, it has gained a lot of attention. Religious trauma can be caused in several different ways. One of the ways in which this can come about is being forced into a religion in which one does not believe in. This can make the person feel pressured to do things that are against their will in order to conform to the standards of the religion. Religious trauma can also present itself in other forms. In the context of a family, an adult can abuse their children, and justify it in the name of God. Religious trauma can also come in the form of sexual abuse, especially for children. In Christianity, individuals are often taught that God will love them no matter what. However, as they grow older, they will realize that everything they were initially taught about God might not necessarily be true, which could prove to be traumatic in-and-of itself.
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All Bark, No Bite? The Causes, Effects, and Potential Solutions to the Attitude-Behavior Gap in Ethical Consumption Tinaye Ngorima St. Andrew's College
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Introduction In recent years, consumers have expressed an increasing desire to consume ethically and for ethical products to become more available. Consumers have become more conscious of the effect their choices have on broader society. The rationale surrounding this increased ethical consumerism is that by purchasing ethical products, defined as products that are environmentally friendly, ethically sourced, or manufactured with fair labor practices, in other words, a product that “does not cause any harm, neither to its users nor the planet,” (Pichler, 2019), consumers can force businesses to become more socially responsible by only supporting businesses that carry out ethical operations. A study from the Beijing Institute of Technology reports that 90 percent of American consumers are concerned about the environmental repercussions of their purchases, and 75 percent would consider the environmental impact of products when they purchase (Wang et. al, 2019). As a result, businesses have increased corporate social responsibility, where corporations integrate social, environmental, and ethical consciousness into their business operations while highlighting it in their marketing. While consumers’ outward attitudes demonstrate a commitment to ethical consumption, their actions do not match their expressed level of commitment, leading to a distinct attitudebehavior gap. In actuality, consumers purchase ethical products at a much lower rate compared to their expressed demand. A study of European Consumers found that “while approximately 30 percent of consumers reported caring about ethical consumption, only 3 percent of purchases reflected this
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ideal,” (Govind et al., 2017). Ethical consumption makes up a small percentage of purchases, as the market share of total sales for ethical products remains fairly low at less than 2 percent. It is evident that consumers’ actions do not match their expressed demands. The causes of this discrepancy may be explained by dual attitude theory from the field of psychology. It is also possible that the price of an ethical product can also affect ethical consumption. However, exploring the role of psychological ‘nudging’ along with economics may reveal potential solutions. As seen in the pieces on ultra-fast fashion and ritualistic synchrony from the stimulus materials, humans have an innate desire for social approval. By connecting this idea to the issue of ethical consumption, behavior can be swayed to align consumers expressed demands with their behavior.
Dual Attitude Theory The dual attitude theory is an idea that originated in the field of psychology but has also proven useful in analyzing consumers’ behavior and habits. The theory refers to the idea that individuals can have two separate attitudes regarding the same thing: an explicit and implicit. Explicit attitudes reflect conscious values, beliefs, and morals. They are reflected in an individual’s desired response to a scenario, as is often the case in surveys and reports. Explicit attitudes are temporary and easily influenced by external factors, and are thus, always changing. In contrast, implicit attitudes reflect experiences and influence our behavior at the unconscious level and manifest as actions. Implicit attitudes elicit a quick and automatic response and are much less susceptible to external influences, and thus remain relatively
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stagnant. While it is the explicit attitudes that are measured in surveys and self-reports, it is implicit attitudes that have a greater impact on behavior. A 2019 study led by Rahul Govind from the University of New South Wales Business School sought to better understand the role of explicit and implicit attitudes in ethical consumption. The study exposed individuals to positive or negative influences on a company’s ethics. Measures of explicit attitudes (through self-reported surveys), implicit attitudes (through use of an implicit association test), and brand preferences were taken in three periods: before exposure to influences, 5 minutes after exposure, and two weeks after exposure.
Figure 1 - Variation in (a) explicit attitudes, (b) implicit attitudes, and (c) brand preference
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The results of the study proved the hypothesized impacts of information on explicit and implicit attitudes. The study showed that after a single incidence of exposure to positive or negative information about a brand’s ethics can significantly increase or decrease explicit attitudes in the short term, but the change in attitude dissipates over time, as explicit attitudes return to near baseline levels. On the contrary, no significant shift in implicit attitudes was seen after exposure to information, proving implicit attitudes are typically stable. The patterns for brand preference mimicked that of explicit attitudes. When consumer choice was introduced into the experiment, it was confirmed that implicit attitudes were significant in predicting consumer choice. The significance of these results is that “with a single exposure, positive explicit attitudes toward the target brand do not translate into greater brand choice and importantly, negative attitudes toward the target brand do not imply lower brand choice,” (Govind et al., 2017). In the context of ethical consumption, this means when consumers are exposed to positive or negative influences surrounding business ethics (e.g., news stories or marketing), their explicit attitudes towards a brand change, but their implicit attitudes, and thus choices, remain constant, leading to a discrepancy in their reported attitudes and their behavior. A commonly held implicit attitude is the assumption that ethical products are inherently of lower quality; “Although they may value sustainability for its own sake, the seemingly positive product attribute of sustainability carries a liability because consumers associate it with lower product strength,” (Mai, 2017). Therefore, when consumers purchase ethical products, they perceive a tradeoff, where an investment in sustainable
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features means less investment in product quality. Even if the quality of ethical products improves, past experiences with lower quality products will continue to influence consumption. A flaw of previous research has been that surveys and self-reports measure explicit attitudes, which, as this study has proven, are an inaccurate predictor of behavior. External factors have a large influence on explicit attitudes, notably social desirability, where a respondent attempts to align their view with what is believed to be the optimal response. As Govind’s paper noted, “the attitude-behavior gap might just be the effect of what one says based on what one is expected to say versus what one feels irrespective of what one is expected to,”.Instead, to encourage ethical consumption, there must be a greater emphasis on shaping implicit attitudes. The means by which marketing is delivered must be reevaluated, both in terms of the message and frequency.
Price’s Effect on Ethical Consumption Another possible cause of the attitude-behavior gap is the effect the price has on consumption habits. Generally, ethical products have a higher production cost than conventional products, and thus, consumers must pay a premium to consume ethically. Consumers often justify a lack of ethical consumption from an economic perspective, looking purely at costs and benefits: “consumers think that SRC [socially responsible consumption] is costly; they claim that price and quality are more important factors than ethical attributes,” (D’astous & Legendre, 2009). Research conducted by Kearney, a global consulting firm, found that sustainable products are 75 to
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85 percent more expensive than conventional products. The highest markups for ethical products are in the beauty, fashion, and health industries, with markups between 150 percent and over 200 percent. However, of the 80 percent of consumers who expressed willingness to pay more for ethical products, only 15 percent were willing tolerate a markup of 30 percent or more. So, while consumers may want to consume ethically, they cannot afford or are unwilling to spend the necessary additional costs (Gerhardt, n.d). It is also important to note the relative nature of pricing. When consumers make purchasing decisions, it is not absolute pricing but relative pricing that influences choice. Consumers have a reference price in mind and consider the price of a product relative to the reference price. When an ethical product, which likely has a higher price, is placed near a conventional product, consumers will use the conventional product as a reference price, further exacerbating the effect the higher price has on ethical consumption. By considering the psychological processes, both in relation to dual attitudes and the effect of pricing, the influences that create the attitude-behavior gap can be mitigated and greater ethical consumption may be achieved.
Potential Solutions After identifying the dual nature of human thought processes, it is concluded that future green marketing must also target consumers’ implicit attitudes, in addition to explicit attitudes. A proposed solution to the attitude-behavior gap is to increase education about ethical products to boost consumers’ knowledge of ethical products, which may lead to
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increased ethical consumption. However, a flaw of this proposition is that when consumers are exposed to an abundance of information, messages may not be perceived as reliable and overlaps with other attributes (e.g., quality, health, etc.), further complicating consumer choices. The additional education on ethical consumption is limited by humans’ analytical capabilities. When overloaded with information, especially at the point of purchase, consumers will fall back on implicit attitudes, which are not in favor of ethical products. Instead of complicating decision-making, a potential solution must work in tandem with analytical limitations and the unconscious processes of human decision-making. To align consumers’ expressed interests with their attitudes, the behavioral economics tool known as “nudging” can be utilized. Nudging is an intervention that predictably influences consumer behavior, often by changing the environment in which the decision is made. Nudges can influence behavior in a more cost-effective method than legislation, and without limiting choice or being coercive. Two types of nudges, as outlined by Belinda Vigors (2018), include social nudges, and choice architecture. A consumer’s self-image can be involved when considering the use of social nudges. Social norms automatically guide much of an individual’s behavior as individuals look to others to determine acceptable behaviors to avoid social disapproval. As seen in the piece on Ritualistic Synchrony from the stimulus materials, when in a group of others, consumers are “more likely to copy majority opinions when selecting product, rather than following their personal preferences” (Gelfand et al., 2020). Consumers feel an immense pressure to fit a certain social image, as seen in Rachel Monroe’s piece on
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fast fashion from the stimulus materials: “The more we began documenting our own lives for public consumption, meanwhile, the more we became aware of ourselves (and our clothing) being seen … 41 percent of women ages 18 to 25 felt pressure to wear a different outfit every time they went out,” (Monroe, 2021). This is the basis for social nudges as a solution. Social nudges utilize a consumer’s desire for a positive self-image to influence ethical purchases, through which either descriptive (explicitly explaining what others do) or injunctive social norms (explaining what others approve of in a situation). “When the online shop included a statement that ‘90% of previous participants purchased some ecological products’, participants spent 10% more of their money to place at least one ecological product in their basket.” (Vigors, 2018). Choice architecture addresses the relative nature of pricing specifically. Choice architecture alters the way in which information and options are presented to better guide consumers to purchase ethical products. One way to achieve this would be to create a section of a store dedicated to ethical products. A dedicated ethical section would have less variance in pricing compared when all products are in the same section (e.g., a $5 ethically sourced product seems like a better deal when compared to a $7 ethical product than a $3 conventional product), thus minimizing the effects of relative pricing on ethical consumption. Partitioning also simplifies the decision-making process by reducing effortful analysis of options, thus supporting increased ethical consumption. Potential drawbacks to the use of nudges may be possible inverse effects on those who already consume ethically. If a consumer is told they
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consume more ethically than others, they may actually decrease ethical consumption to better align with others. For example, when told they consume less energy than other households, a consumer may increase energy consumption. In addition, ethical concerns surrounding nudges may arise. Some will argue that it is unethical to unknowingly manipulate consumer behavior. It is thus important to design nudges effectively and ethically. An ethical nudge must avoid coercion and allow consumers to reject the nudge. Integrating ethical concerns into nudges likely makes them more effective. Nudges must also be relatively transparent and in the public’s interest. When done correctly, nudges can effectively influence behaviour in a more costeffective and less coercive manner than traditional legislation and policy.
Conclusion While consumers express a desire to purchase ethically produced products, their consumption habits do not match their expressed commitment, creating a distinct attitude- behavior gap. Part of the cause for this discrepancy can be attributed to the dual nature of our thought processes, whereby our implicit attitudes, which are much harder to influence, predict behavior to a much greater extent than our explicit attitudes. Another cause may be the price of ethical products relative to surrounding conventional products, which disadvantages ethical products which are often more expensive. To better align consumers expressed desires with their behaviors, social nudges and choice architecture may be employed. When designed correctly, nudging strategies prove to be less expensive than other
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methods, while still being effective at increasing ethical purchases. By using these strategies, ethical consumption can be increased, and businesses will then be rewarded for producing ethically.
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References D'astous, A., & Legendre, A. (2009, June). Understanding Consumers' Ethical Justifications: A Scale for Appraising Consumers' Reasons for Not Behaving Ethically. Springer. Retrieved from http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1007/s10551-008-9883-0 Gelfand, M. J., Caluori, N., Jackson, J. C., & Taylor, M. K. (2020, June 29). The cultural evolutionary trade-off of ritualistic synchrony. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. Retrieved April 24, 2022, from https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2019.0432 Gerhardt, C. (n.d.). Why today's pricing is sabotaging sustainability - article netherlands - kearney. Kearney. Retrieved April 24, 2022, from https://www.nl.kearney.com/consumer- retail/article/?%2Fa%2Fwhytodays-pricing-is-sabotaging-sustainability#:~:text=An%20eye%20 on%20production&text=Our%20research%20shows%20that%20sustain able,category%20(see%20figure%201). Govind, R., Singh, J. J., Garg, N., & D'Silva, S. (2017, April 28). Not Walking the Walk: How Dual Attitudes Influence Behavioral Outcomes in Ethical Consumption. Journal of Business Ethics. Retrieved from http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10551-017-3545-z Hilton, D., Treich, N., Lazzara, G., & Tendil, P. (2018). Designing effective nudges that satisfy ethical constraints: the case of environmentally responsible behaviour. Mind & Society, 17(1-2), 27-38. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11299-019-00201-8
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Implicit attitudes (social psychology) - iresearchnet. Psychology. (2016, January 21). Retrieved April 23, 2022, from http://psychology.iresearchnet.com/social-psychology/ attitudes/implicit-attitudes/ Mai, R., Hoffmann, S., Lasarov, W., & Buhs, A. (2017, August 23). Ethical Products = Less Strong: How Explicit and Implicit Reliance on the Lay Theory Affects Consumption Behaviors. Springer. Retrieved from http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10551-017-3669-1 Monroe, R. (2021, February 6). Ultra-fast fashion is eating the world. The Atlantic. Retrieved April 24, 2022, from https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2021/03/ultra-fastfashion-is-eating-the-world/617794/ Pichler, R. (2019, May 1). Product ethics. Roman Pichler. Retrieved April 21, 2022, from https://www.romanpichler.com/blog/productethics/#_ftnref1 Popovich, I., Bossink, B., van der Sijde, P., & Fong, C. (2020, April 2). Why Are Consumers Willing to Pay More for Liquid Foods in Environmentally Friendly Packaging? A Dual Attitudes Perspective. MDPI. Retrieved April 23, 2022, from https://www.mdpi.com/2071- 1050/12/7/2812 Vigors, B. (2018). Reducing the Consumer Attitude–Behaviour Gap in Animal Welfare: The Potential Role of ‘Nudges’. Animals, 8(12), 232. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ani8120232
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Wang, H., Ma, B., & Bai, R. (2019, February 24). How Does Green Product Knowledge Effectively Promote Green Purchase Intention? Sustainability. Retrieved from http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/su11041193
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Snakes in Scrubs? An Evaluation of the Psychopathy of Surgeons Neo Phuchane Reseda High School
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There are few careers that are as dignified yet alluring as a surgeon’s. Their ability to dive into the biological marvels of the human body and dictate between life and death brings a certain mystique to their character that has been largely misunderstood. Although certain psychopathic traits such as controllable empathy are promoted in surgery, the common myth of psychopathic and cold-blooded surgeons is inaccurate because their emotional detachment is merely a trained skill necessary for a successful operation. The seniority-based hierarchy of the hospital also discourages malicious psychopathic traits such as manipulation and deceit, contrary to the cutthroat environments of other careers with an abundance of psychopaths, such as CEOs. For the purposes of this paper, the operational definition of psychopathy will be that of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5), which describes it as an antisocial personality disorder causing the desire to break societal rules, such as engaging in criminal activity, along with having an innate ability to manipulate others by having superficial charm and rapid analytical skills (Porter). Various studies suggest that the disorder stems from genetic and environmental factors early in childhood. Children with callous and antisocial behavior are more prone to psychopathy in adulthood, as indicated by an inactivated ventromedial prefrontal cortex, insula, amygdala, and other parts of the brain controlling emotional responses (Sturgess). Other traits of psychopathy can include a parasitic lifestyle, an inflated sense of self-worth, and impulsivity (Amy). Psychopaths also have the ability to control their empathy, and this is where the topics of surgery and psychopathy typically begin to overlap. The
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primary concern with the myth of the surgeon is the dehumanization that occurs by elevating them to a god-like status, placing expectations of absolute stoicism and perfection that entirely neglect their natural vulnerability to emotions. For instance, as stated by Mallon’s 2018 study regarding the emotional effects of post-surgery complications on surgeons, “Surgeons across all specialties are largely unprepared for the intense emotional responses that adverse events can elicit, which may not only affect clinical judgment but also impact on surgeons’ personal and professional identity”. The study interviewed 11 surgeons and observed a common “profound emotional impact” caused by the complication, which was a prosthetic joint infection. One surgeon admitted, “[an infection is] one of the worst things that can happen… Beyond dying”, describing it as “devastating”, and an “absolute disaster” (qtd. in Mallon). Another reported feeling personally horrible despite not directly harming the patient. Similarly, a 2015 research paper exploring surgeons’ emotional experiences throughout their daily practices interviewed 27 surgeons of varying experience and found that they all had common occurrences of uncertainty and anxiety caused by multiple forms of pressure, including the need to solidify their reputation, unpredictable and constricting time schedules, and an immense workload (Orri). A part of their anxiety also comes from the genuine emotional bonds that they make with their patients, serving as a stark contrast to their “isolated” and “psychopathic” (Bourke) depictions. According to one of the interviewed surgeons, “the fact of being authorized to open, for us in particular, someone else's gut, creates a closeness, a contact, a physical experience, and so a very particular responsibility” (qtd.
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in Orri). Other states that there are even times when they prioritize decisions made between them and the patient over those made with their team. As a result, emotions can become a hindrance to a surgeon’s performance, and because the delicacy of our organs requires surgeons to be extremely calculated and precise, it is reasonably crucial for them to regulate their stress levels. Surgeons primarily do this by maintaining “an attitude detached from any relationship with the patient” (Orri), which may include perceiving the patient as more of a technical activity rather than an individual. In fact, one surgeon from the 2015 study described their mindset by saying, “We're artisans, we like our work, we are handymen, carpenters, masons... We work on a material that's amusing, let's say, human material.” (qtd. in Orri). Another stated, “if you get too involved emotionally and you decide you’re operating on Mrs. X who has children, who loves flowers … on the actual day, you operate on a gall bladder” (qtd. in Orri). This largely plays into the common myth of the surgeon, erroneously depicting them as “nonintrospective, isolated, and cold” (Orri), which has influenced recent studies to associate surgeons with psychopaths. For example, a 2015 article by the Bulletin of the Royal College of Surgeons of England detailed a study that assessed 172 doctors using the PPI-SF (Psychopathic Personality Inventory Short Form), which measures the degree of psychopathy of an individual, and determined that doctors typically scored higher than the general population (Bourke). The study, which was conducted by Pegrum and O Pearce, found that surgeons scored an average of 138 points, compared to the general population’s average of 119. However, this method of measurement grossly misinterprets the nature of surgeons. Because the PPI-SF measures
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psychopathy on a scale ranging from 56 to 224 points by factoring in individual traits, overexpression of one trait may cause that person to score higher on the scale, despite them not being a psychopath at all. Unsurprisingly, the study concluded that there was a common prevalence of “stress immunity” (Pegrum) when the results were analyzed. Furthermore, the paper concedes, “whether these traits are selected out in trainees as they climb the career ladder or acquired as a defense mechanism is debatable.” (Pegrum). Evidently, the prevalence of stress immunity in surgeons is due to their trained emotional detachment, not psychopathy. As Pegrum and O Pearce suggest, their detachment is indeed a defense mechanism, and one that benefits both the surgeon and the patient. Their methods such as the objectification of patients may seem abhorrent without context, but the testimonies clearly demonstrate that surgeons are simply trying to provide proper care and fulfill their strenuous responsibilities. We can further assess the supposed psychopathy of surgeons by comparing them to other professions with high psychopathy rates, namely, CEOs (Clay). In doing so, it becomes apparent that the vast majority of psychopathic traits are not rewarded for surgeons as they are for CEOs, and this is evident in the differences in their hierarchical nature. The path to becoming a surgeon is entirely linear and periodic, as their rise through the ranks is determined solely by their experience and education. For instance, a junior resident can only take the position of a chief resident after they have completed at least three years of residency. On the other hand, psychopathic CEOs rapidly rise to power by manipulating their colleagues or superficially charming their superiors (Boddy). Additionally, as the various studies mentioned in this
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paper have affirmed, the only discernible psychopathic trait in surgeons is a lack of empathy in the form of stress immunity, which has previously been established to be a skill rather than a trait. This is simply because any of the other psychopathic traits (such as manipulation, deceit, a parasitic lifestyle, poor behavioral control, or failure to accept responsibility for actions) seen in psychopathic CEOs (Boddy) would make for a horrifying and dangerous surgeon unfit for the operating room. The specialization of surgery also means that surgeons are already at the top of their respective ladders, suggesting that these traits are purely detrimental. While CEOs are also among the highest powers in corporations, their responsibilities primarily hinge on the pursuit of capital either for themselves or the company, which entails constant competition with other companies run by CEOs with similar motives, further encouraging them to use these traits to their advantage. For centuries, surgeons have been hailed as one of the most integral units of our society. Cardiovascular and neurosurgeons, for example, operate on the two most critical organs in the human body, the heart, and the brain. In addition to being biologically complex, they are historically intertwined with philosophy, spirituality, and emotions. The heart has long been associated with love and even intelligence during the Middle Period, while the brain, despite only weighing a mere three pounds, is the source of our entire conscience and has captivated philosophers on the mystery of individuality (Bourke). However, the skills required for surgeons to effectively treat their patients have long been misrepresented as signs of psychopathy and this is evident when compared to other professions projected with high numbers of psychopaths, such as CEOs. Elements such as the experience and education-
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based ranks of the hospital starkly contrast the corporate ladder, which promotes undesirable traits such as manipulation, and deceit. In all, prior depictions of surgeons must be reevaluated, as the myth of the surgeon is clearly outdated.
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References Amy Morin, LCSW. “Could Someone I Know Be a Psychopath?” Verywell Mind, Verywell Mind, 6 Nov. 2020, https://www.verywellmind.com/what-is-apsychopath-5025217. Boddy. C. R. “'The Implications for Business Performance and Corporate Social Responsibility of Corporate Psychopaths” in 2nd International Conference on Business Performance and Corporate Social Responsibility, ed. M. Hopkins, Middlesex University Business School,London,2005, https://www.researchgate.net/publication/ 229005647_The_implications_of_corporate_psychopaths_for_business _and_society_An_initial_examination_and_a_call_to_arms Bourke, Joanna. “Some Surgeons May Be Psychopaths—but ... - Prospect Magazine.” Prospect Magazine,
21 June
2017,
https://www.prospectmagazine.co.uk/magazine/two-new-booksexplore-how-surgeons-must-be-resolute-and-merciless. Mallon, Charlotte, et al. “Surgeons Are Deeply Affected When Patients Are Diagnosed with Prosthetic Joint Infection.” PLOS ONE, vol. 13, no. 11, 2018, https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0207260. Orri, Massimiliano, et al. “Surgeons’ Emotional Experience of Their Everyday Practice - a Qualitative Study.” PLOS ONE, vol. 10, no. 11, 2015, https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0143763. Pegrum, J, and O Pearce. “A Stressful Job: Are Surgeons Psychopaths?” The Bulletin of the Royal College of Surgeons of England, vol. 97, no. 8, 2015, pp. 331–334., https://doi.org/10.1308/rcsbull.2015.331.
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Porter, David. “Antisocial Personality Disorder DSM-5 301.7 (F60.2).” Theravive Counseling, https://www.theravive.com/therapedia/ antisocial-personality-disorder-dsm--5-301.7-(f60. 2). Sturgess, Annabel. “Why Do Some People Become Psychopaths?: Royal Society.” Why Do Some People Become Psychopaths? | Royal Society, 9 Oct. 2017, https://royalsociety.org/blog/2017/10/why-do-somepeople-become-psychopaths/.
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Investigating the Impact of Internal Monologue on Cognitive Functioning Among Demographics Present in Western Massachusetts Emily Plasse Frontier Regional School
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Abstract An internal monologue can be thought of as the voice in your head, the inner speech that allows you to talk to yourself. Understanding who this affects to a greater degree and how it affects them is a crucial part of comprehending how individuals think. In recent years, the amount of research done on internal monologue has increased considerably. While some studies identify trends among specific groups, such as certain ethnic minorities, it is clear that overall trends have not been investigated. This is especially true for areas such as Western Massachusetts, which has led me to try to find trends of how internal monologue impacts cognitive functioning, and how these trends may vary across the different demographics present. In order to accomplish this and determine if there is variability in the trends, I have conducted a survey of 56 people across a constant age group. The primary purpose of this survey is to provide data for a correlational analysis. There were two types of information collected; three questions relating to demographics and nine questions to measure the presence of internal monologue in three main cognitive functions. The assumption made before conducting the research was that the different ethnic groups would demonstrate some variability, while the different gender identities may not. By exploring this potential variability in how different groups of people think, we can recognize the potential implications of these factors in our general cognitive functioning.
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Introduction In order to think, every individual has a number of cognitive processes. These cognitive processes are the basis of human behavior and thought processing. The American Psychological Association Dictionary of Psychology defines a cognitive process as “any of the mental functions assumed to be involved in the acquisition, storage, interpretation, manipulation, transformation, and use of knowledge.” (American Psychological Association, 2020). This influences every aspect of how the mind works. Functions of the mind, such as self-regulation, decision making, and working memory, are all impacted by individual variations in cognitive processes. This is both a fascinating and vital field to understand, as regardless of individual differences or different types of cognitive processes, each and every person is somehow affected. Despite the importance of this, there is a problem with our general lack of understanding of individual variations of cognitive processes, and who experiences these variations. There are general categories based on variations in how an individual carries out each of the aforementioned mental functions. Existing research on cognitive functions has shown that one of these potential variants of cognitive functioning is an internal monologue, which is also commonly referred to as inner speech or verbal thinking. There are several identifiable themes in existing research that can be taken into account when creating context for what internal monologue is, and how it impacts cognitive functioning. Each of these themes contributes to a wider understanding of internal monologue and creates a basis for further exploration into what creates these variations. My specific
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inquiry question to be answered by this research was: How does the use of internal monologue impact cognitive functioning in various demographics?
Literature Review The majority of existing research on cognitive functioning and how it is impacted by variables such as age and gender do not take internal monologue into consideration as a potential factor, even though other research has shown that internal monologue does have some impact on cognitive functioning. Other research that does regard internal monologue does not take demographic variation into account. In order to address our lack of understanding of how internal monologue impacts the cognitive functioning of various demographics in different ways, there are several areas that must first be thoroughly explored. Additionally, to understand how this research identifies correlational trends in internal monologue and how it impacts cognitive functioning, it is important to identify and analyze existing work in this field.
Theme A: Cognitive Functioning and Executive Functions In order to gain a better understanding of what cognitive functioning is, three main executive functions will be evaluated: inhibition, working memory, and cognitive flexibility. In one study, it is explained that executive functions are the basis of human behavior and thought processing. There is a theme of several of these functions being emphasized as most prevalent or important in terms of overall cognitive functioning. “Executive functions are vital for goal-directed behavior (Best
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& Miller, 2010; Barkley, 2012), and encompasses a wide range of cognitive functions, such as planning, cognitive flexibility, problem solving, decision making, self-control and inhibition [...]” (Atkin, 2018). As mentioned, inhibition / self-regulation and cognitive flexibility, along with working memory will be explored. Another article by Adele Diamond, a Tier 1 Canada Research Chair in developmental cognitive neuroscience, discusses these same functions as the three core executive functions. This is generally agreed upon amongst those in the cognitive science field, as these functions are necessary for basic functions such as reasoning, problem-solving, and planning. “Inhibitory control (one of the core EFs) involves being able to control one's attention, behavior, thoughts, and/or emotions to override a strong internal predisposition or external lure, and instead do what's more appropriate or needed.” (Diamond, 2013). As suggested, inhibition is a defining characteristic of self-control and self-regulation. The ability to control yourself rather than acting on primal impulses is a major part of human behavior and contributes heavily to how we think. As such a vital part of our overall cognitive functioning, this has been repeatedly studied Another evaluation of working memory’s role as an executive function by Nelson Cowan, a professor of psychological sciences, explains that “Working memory is the retention of a small amount of information in a readily accessible form, which facilitates planning, comprehension, reasoning, and problem-solving.” (Cowan, 2013). This is the generally accepted definition of working memory, and is agreed upon by others in the field, which is demonstrated as Diamond similarly defines working
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memory as, “Another core EF is working memory (WM), which involves holding information in mind and mentally working with it (or said differently, working with information no longer perceptually present [..])” (Diamond 2013). Working memory is critical in situations where a person needs to recall specific information that was gained in a different context. This ability to apply knowledge to new experiences is once again crucial in determining how we respond to the world around us, and how we process information. Thus, it is agreed that this is a core function that should be examined in order to explore overall cognitive functioning. The final core executive function is once again explored in the aforementioned article by Diamond. “Cognitive flexibility also involves being flexible enough to adjust to changed demands or priorities, to admit you were wrong, and to take advantage of sudden, unexpected opportunities.” (Diamond, 2013). Adaptability and flexibility in new situations have been measured in a wide range of studies on cognitive functioning.
Theme B: Cognitive Functioning and Ethnic Demographics Individual variations in cognitive functioning can be the result of a number of differing factors. One of these factors is ethnicity, as different ethnic groups have demonstrated variations in cognitive functioning. In the study done on racial and ethnic differences, the results showed clear differences in the cognitive functioning of two primary ethnic groups. “Our results highlight the role of education in race/ethnic differences in cognitive function during old age.
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Education seems beneficial for cognition in old age for all race/ethnic groups, but Hispanics appear to receive a lower benefit compared to other race/ethnic groups.” (Diaz-Venegas, Downer, Langa, and Wong, 2016). While the main focus of this study is on aging populations and levels of education, there is still a clear correlation between ethnicity and cognitive flexibility over time. A similar study done on ethnicity and its impact on executive functioning, with a focus on youth rather than the elderly, demonstrated agreement in these variations. This dissertation had several clearly defined cognitive functions, including working memory, inhibition, and cognitive flexibility. As discussed in the abstract, very little existing research has been done on this particular area. “Although inhibitory differences were not found, results of the study suggest that African American and Hispanic children demonstrate higher flexibility than Caucasians by being able to respond to stimuli on the go/no go task faster and more accurately when more than one demand was present.” (Henriquez Gerken, 2015). As demonstrated by both this study and the former, oftentimes it is found that Hispanic people are the focus of age-based studies done on cognitive functioning. Yet another investigation agrees that ethnic groups demonstrate variability in cognitive functioning. This study in particular, however, took an additional step further and found that although these variations do exist, they do not account for an overall decline in functioning over time. “Results indicated that, after controlling for demographic, social, and health-related variables, ethnicity was associated with cognitive function
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scores across waves (P < 0.01) but did not greatly impact rates of decline.” (Masel and Peek, 2009). Unlike the study done on the elderly, this found that education did not seem to have a significant impact on cognitive functioning over time.
Theme C: Cognitive Functioning and Internal Monologue Internal monologue is a cognitive process that plays an arguably major role in how we process our thoughts. Ben Alderson-Day and Charles Fernyhough have done multiple studies on this topic, in which the implications of inner speech in areas such as theories of cognitive development are explored. In “Inner Speech: Development, Cognitive Functions, Phenomenology, and Neurobiology” it is found that internal monologue is a subjective experience of language as a part of cognitive functioning (Alderson-Day and Fernyhough, 2015a). The purpose of this article is to explore existing research on inner speech and create an integration of well-established and more recent findings. It describes several theories and methodologies that have been applied in the past in this general area. A significant finding is that inner speech is difficult to measure or study empirically. Despite the impact that it has on psychological, neurological, and philosophical functions of the brain, little research had been done on what exactly inner speech is, at the time of this study. Another study led by Alderson-Day and Fernyhough, along with contributions from several others, further investigates what cognitive functions are involved in dialogic inner speech. The study involved 21
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individuals and had three tasks that they did while being scanned. For example, they were given dialogic scenarios with familiar people to think about, were shown three different cartoons, and were told to visualize a particular object while switching perspectives of looking at it. The findings of this study showed that there were some potential overlaps in cognitive functions and the use of internal monologue. The conclusions that they came to suggested that inner speech can be distinguished both phenomenologically and neurologically. (Alderson-Day and Fernyhough, 2015b). “Although inner speech figures in a variety of psychological, neuroscientific, and philosophical discourses (Fernyhough, 2013), its nature, development, phenomenology, and functional significance have received little theoretical or empirical attention.” (Alderson-Day and Fernyhough, 2015a). As demonstrated by this excerpt, even experts in the field acknowledge the lack of continuing investigation into certain areas. Despite this limitation, the existing research does still point to a few key conclusions that can be made, one of the most pertinent being that internal monologue can be distinguished from other cognitive functions and may go as far as impacting cognitive functioning. This is the foundation for the identification of the gap in existing research that my hypothesis is based on.
Hypothesis After reviewing the existing research, two primary concepts can be identified and applied to this research. The first being the proven correlation between overall cognitive functioning and internal monologue, and the second being the proven correlation between internal monologue
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variations and demographic differences such as ethnicity, gender, and age. Furthermore, a clear gap can be identified. While there is research done on ethnicity and cognitive functioning, these existing studies are looking at additional factors that otherwise already affect cognitive functioning, specifically age; and the cognitive functioning that is investigated also does not take internal monologue into consideration. Therefore, in order to determine if internal monologue and ethnicity impact each other to create the variations that have been found by existing research, I will be looking at a group of people that is consistent in age to avoid cognitive development or decline, with a wide range of ethnicities rather than focusing on one or two in particular. I originally hypothesized that there would be slight variations in how each ethnic group surveyed would use internal monologue during the three key cognitive functions. In order to test this, the focus of this research will be exploring this overlap between concepts based on responses from people of different ethnic backgrounds, with a constant age range in order to prevent age-based variations from impacting the responses.
Methodology In order to answer my research inquiry within the limitations of time constraints, resource availability, and the circumstances of the COVID-19 pandemic, the chosen method of exploration was a survey. Through correlational analysis, the data from the survey will be translated into statistics as this is the best way to balance both the qualitative and quantitative information. The point of this survey is to determine both the
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presence and usage of internal monologue in participants in a variety of hypothetical situations that align with three primary cognitive functions. Additionally, the data collected through a survey will allow for it to be analyzed from a variety of potential perspectives so that general trends of correlation can be observed. Given the number of variables and potential individual variations in answers from participants, the first section of the survey is aimed at collecting demographic information about the participants. The targeted population that this survey is aimed at is college students, ages 18-24. This is because the participants need a high enough level of education to understand the questions. This will also keep a mostly consistent age group so that when the information is collected, gender and ethnicity will be the two main factors that will need to have more variation to create a wider range of responses. Additionally, it ensures that factors such as aging and cognitive decline do not impact the results. However, no responses will be omitted from the data if they are outside of the target age range. The cognitive functions that the survey measured are the functions that are most commonly referenced in existing research. These are all categorized as executive functions. Executive functioning, in terms of overall cognitive functioning, is a variety of abilities that we as people use consistently. Examples of this are self-control, decision making, selective attention, and mentality shifting and flexibility. The three core functions are known as inhibition, working memory, and cognitive flexibility (Diamond, 2012). For the purposes of this survey, the questions will be aimed at
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determining the use of internal monologue for each of the three core executive functions. The content of the questions used in the survey are adapted from similar studies, however, they have been modified and are not directly taken from any one study, so that the information collected is geared towards this research inquiry specifically. Figure 1.1, which can be found in the appendix below, lists the questions in the first section of the survey. As explained before, these are all for collecting demographic information about the participant. Figure 1.2 lists the questions in the second section of the survey. Each hypothetical situation that the question poses is related to one of the three core executive functions. Questions 4, 7, and 10 correspond to inhibition and self-regulation. Questions 5, 8, and 11 correspond to working memory. Finally, questions 6, 9, and 12 correspond to cognitive flexibility. I chose to give three situations for each of the core executive functions in order to aptly represent the many sub-functions of the core functions. An equal representation of each of the functions in the survey will lead to more accurate results, as they will not be skewed to one type of cognitive function over another in the case that internal monologue is used in one type more than another. The questions presented in Figure 1.1 each had multiple options for the participants to choose from. The age ranges for Question 1 included ‘under 18’, ‘18-24’, ‘25-34’, ‘35-44’, ‘45-54’, ‘55-64’, and ‘65+’. The target range for the age group was 18-24, as explained earlier. The options for Question 2 included ‘Native American’, ‘Asian / Pacific Islander’, ‘Black / African American’, ‘Hispanic / Latino’, ‘White / Caucasian’, as well as an
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option to add an unlisted option, and participants were able to select as many as applied. The last multiple-choice question regarded gender identity, and the options included were ‘Male’, ‘Female', 'Gender-Neutral’, ‘Non-Binary’, ‘Prefer not to answer’, as well as another space to specify an unlisted answer. These responses were used to group individual responses, but the information collected won’t be otherwise quantified. The questions listed in Figure 1.2, also to be found in the appendix, each had the same options for the participants to choose from. The potential responses ranged from ‘Always’, ‘Usually’, ‘Sometimes’, ‘Rarely’, to ‘Never’. Only one of those could be chosen for each question in this section. In terms of data analysis, each of these options was assigned a number from 1 to 5, in order to quantify the responses. Always was assigned 5, Usually was assigned 4, Sometimes was assigned 3, Rarely was assigned 2, and never was assigned 1. Any score above 3 was considered positive, indicating the presence and impact of internal monologue. Anything below a 3 was considered a negative, indicating that there is little presence or impact on internal monologue. An exact 3 would be considered a neutral response. For each question regarding internal monologue, as indicated in Figure 1.2, the responses were first grouped by ethnicity. The numerical value of each response for the question was then averaged. Once each question had an average value, the values for the three questions regarding each of the three primary cognitive functions were also averaged. This was done to determine the presence of internal monologue for each cognitive function in general. This process was done for the general data that included all
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participants and was then repeated for each of the identified ethnic groups. Prior to the distribution of the survey, this research inquiry was first passed by an Institutional Review Board that determined that the use of human participants was ethical. The focus area of the distribution was at Amherst College, where the research was passed through a second Institutional Review Board that also determined that the research was ethical and could be conducted by an outside investigator. A brief course on the ethics of human participants was done in order to meet the requirement of the second IRB application. In terms of formatting the survey, the participants had to first read through and agree to an informed consent document that thoroughly explained that all data being collected was anonymous, none of the questions were mandatory, and no information that could identify any one person would be collected or used. If they did not consent to this, they were unable to respond to the survey. Those who did consent were then able to complete the main survey.
Findings Figure 2.1, as shown in the appendix, demonstrates the raw scores of the general data, and each of the ethnic groups with more than one response. There were three responses that were not given individual an analysis as each of these responses represented ethnic groups that no other participant identified with. However, these responses were still used in the averages of the general data. The following is an explanation of the statistics and numerical values, and the significance of the variations that were found.
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All Participants Given the answers from all 56 participants, the average scores for each of the three primary executive functions are as follows: Inhibition scored an average of 3.8096 out of 5, indicating a positive result. Working memory scored an average of 3.119 out of 5, also indicating a positive result. Cognitive flexibility scored an average of 3.625 out of 5, once again indicating a positive result. The overall results of the survey, without taking demographic variations into consideration, do demonstrate that internal monologue does have a presence and impact on the three major cognitive functions.
Asian / Pacific Islander Participants Inhibition scored an average of 3.416 out of 5, indicating a positive result. Working memory scored an average of 2.583 out of 5, indicating a negative result. Cognitive flexibility scored an average of 3.116 out of 5, indicating a positive result. The most noticeable deviation from the general findings is that internal monologue is not shown to have a major impact on working memory in those that identify as Asian and/or Pacific Islander.
Asian / Pacific Islander and White / Caucasian Participants Inhibition scored an average of 3.777 out of 5, indicating a positive result. Working memory scored an average of 3.222 out of 5, indicating a positive result. Cognitive flexibility scored an average of 4.111 out of 5, also indicating a positive result. In this case, the results align with the general data findings demonstrating that internal monologue has an impact on all
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three functions, with cognitive flexibility having a noticeably higher score in those that identify as both Asian and/or Pacific Islander and White and /or Caucasian than the general average.
Black / African American Participants Inhibition scored an average of 4.2381 out of 5, indicating a positive result. Working memory scored an average of 3.0952 out of 5, indicating a positive result. Cognitive Flexibility scored an average of 4.0952 out of 5, indicating a positive result. Both inhibition and cognitive flexibility demonstrated that internal monologue had a greater impact than the general results.
Hispanic / Latino Participants Inhibition scored an average of 4.2777 out of 5, indicating a positive result. Working memory scored an average of 3.6666 out of 5, indicating a positive result. Cognitive flexibility scored an average of 3.3888 out of 5, indicating a positive result. The largest difference from the general results was inhibition while working memory and cognitive flexibility were in the same general range.
Hispanic / Latino and White / Caucasian Participants Inhibition scored an average of 2.4666 out of 5, indicating a negative result. Working memory scored an average of 2.8 out of 5, also indicating a negative result. Cognitive flexibility scored an average of 3.5333 out of 5, indicating a positive result. These findings have the largest deviation from
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the general result, with both inhibition and working memory not being consistently impacted by an internal monologue in those who identify as both Hispanic / Latino and White / Caucasian.
White / Caucasian Participants Inhibition scored an average of 3.6428 out of 5, indicating a positive result. Working memory scored an average of 3.1547 out of 5, indicating a positive result. Cognitive flexibility scored an average of 3.6193 out of 5, indicating a positive result. These results most closely resemble the general findings, though this is likely because this was the most prominent ethnic group that participated.
Remaining Participants Three participants did not identify in that same category as any of the other participants, in terms of ethnicity. The first participant, who identifies as Asian / Pacific Islander and Hispanic/ Latino scored as follows: Inhibition scored a 5 out of 5, working memory scored a 3.3333 out of 5, and cognitive flexibility scored a 4 out of 5. These all indicated positive results. The second participant, who identifies as Black / African American and White / Caucasian scored as follows: Inhibition scored a 3.3333 out of 5, working memory scored a 3.6666 out of 5, and cognitive flexibility scored a 3 out of 5. Inhibition and working memory indicated positive results, while cognitive flexibility indicated a neutral result, unlike any other score thus far. The third participant, who identifies as Middle Eastern / North African, scored as follows: Inhibition scored a 2.3333 out of 5,
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working memory scored a 2 out of 5, and cognitive flexibility scored a 3.3333 out of 5. Both inhibition and working memory indicated negative results, and therefore are not majorly impacted by internal monologue, while cognitive flexibility indicated a positive result.
Limitations Before continuing on to the discussion and analysis of the findings from the survey, the limitations of the research must first be acknowledged and addressed. This range of this research was limited to western Massachusetts and was specifically focused on Amherst College. This was due to time restrictions and general feasibility. While the demographics present in Amherst College do reflect those present in western Massachusetts, the students that participated in the survey were not chosen in order to reflect certain demographics. Thus, the random distribution of the survey did not end up representing every possible demographic. No participants that responded identified as Native American, and there were three instances of participants being the only ones to identify as a specific ethnicity. Therefore, these results may not be representative of all larger populations in western Massachusetts. Additionally, those that provided the results may not have answered the questions in a manner that accurately reflected their own usage of internal monologue. These results are meant to highlight the general trends from the survey responses, and if a larger group of participants was used with more people of each ethnic group, the finding would potentially vary.
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Discussion The initial hypothesis of this research was that there would be slight variations in how each ethnic group surveyed would use internal monologue during the three key cognitive functions. This proved itself to be true, as none of the ethnic groups scored the exact same way as another. Each ethnic group demonstrated slight variations from each other and the overall averages. While it was originally a possibility, the genderbased variations were not explored because of the uneven numerical distribution of the responses. It was determined that if these responses were evaluated, the results likely would not be accurate for the less represented gender identities. This limitation does lend itself to being a potential future research topic, as further research done with the same methodology and a larger participant pool could provide more accurate results for those that are not equally represented. From the findings, there were a few things that stood out. In those that identify as Asian / Pacific Islander, the average response for working memory was 2.583 out of 5, compared to the general average of 3.119 out of 5. This is statistically lower, and actually does indicate a negative response, meaning that for this ethnic group, working memory is likely not majorly impacted by internal monologue. Similarly, those that identify as both Hispanic / Latino and White / Caucasian also indicated a negative correlation for working memory, with an average of 2.8 out of 5. This group also indicated a negative result for inhibition, the only group to do so and have two of the three executive functions. On the opposite side of the spectrum, the only group to show substantially higher scores for two categories were
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those who identify as Black / African American, as they scored 4.2381 out of 5 for inhibition and 4.0952 out of 5 for cognitive flexibility, indicating that internal monologue has a greater impact on cognitive functioning in this group. Those who identify as both Asian / Pacific Islander and White / Caucasian scored a 4.111 out of 5 for cognitive flexibility, which is higher than the general findings and is also higher than those who identify just as Asian / Pacific Islander or just as White / Caucasian. Those who identify just as Hispanic / Latino scored a 4.277 out of 5 for inhibition, which is higher than the general data and is a substantially higher score than in those who identify as both Hispanic / Latino and White / Caucasian. This is indicative of a high impact of an internal monologue on inhibition, as it is the highest average score out of all other categories.
Implications This study has a few remarkable implications. As discussed previously, it was determined that the ethnicities surveyed did demonstrate variability in how internal monologue impacted their cognitive functioning among three primary executive functions. Some ethnic groups showed a higher impact than the general data, while some showed a lower impact. There are several directions future research can go. First, this same survey could be distributed to a larger and more diverse population, on a state or national level. While the methodology would likely have to be adapted to fit this larger response pool, the same use of numerical values being applied to the responses would result in even more accurate findings of variability. Furthermore, additional research
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could be done to look into the background and upbringing of participants such as education and economic status in order to determine what other factors cause variations among ethnic groups. This research provides the groundwork for all this to be done and provides a better understanding of how ethnicity and internal monologue correlate in impacting cognitive functioning.
Appendix Figure 1.1 Question
Demographic Info
1. What age range do you fall under?
Age range (Target range 18-24)
2. What is your ethnicity?
Participants will select all that apply.
3. What gender do you identify
Range of answers (Focused on
with?
gender identity rather than biological sex)
Figure 1.2 Question
Cognitive Function
4. Do you talk to yourself, whether
Inhibition / Self-regulation
out loud or internally, when you are planning your day or thinking of a to-do list?
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5. Do you talk to yourself, whether
Working memory
out loud or internally, when recalling an event or specific instance? 6. Do you talk to yourself, whether
Cognitive flexibility
out loud or internally, when working through a complex task? 7. When reading, do you internally
Inhibition / Self-regulation
verbalize the words that you see? When reading this question, for example. Working memory
8. When recalling past conversations, do you internally verbalize the dialogue that occurred?
Cognitive flexibility
9. When approaching a new or unfamiliar situation, do you talk to yourself to determine how to approach it? 10.
When
creative,
doing
such
as
something drawing
or
designing something new, do you
Inhibition / Self-regulation
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consider what to do by talking to yourself? 11. When accomplishing a familiar
Working memory
task or practicing a skill that you can do with ease, do you talk to yourself when recalling how to do said task? 12. When you are faced with any
Cognitive flexibility
sort of conflict, do you internally verbalize your thoughts or feelings about the situation?
Figure 1.3 Ethnic Group
Inhibition
Working
Cognitive
Memory
Flexibility
All Participants
3.8096 out of 5
3.119 out of 5
3.625 out of 5
Asian / Pacific
3.416 out of 5
2.583 out of 5
3.116 out of 5
Deviation of
Deviation of
Deviation of
0.39
0.54
0.51
3.777 out of 5
3.222 out of 5
4.111 out of 5
Islander
Asian / Pacific Islander and White / Caucasian
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Black / African
Deviation of
Deviation of
Deviation of
0.03
0.10
0.48
4.2381 out of 5
3.0952 out of 5
4.0952 out of
American
5 Deviation of
Deviation of
0.42
0.02
Deviation of 0.47
4.2777 out of 5
3.6666 out of 5
3.3888 out of 5
Deviation of
Deviation of
Deviation of
0.46
0.54
0.23
Hispanic / Latino
2.4666 out of
2.8 out of 5
3.5333 out of 5
and White /
5 Deviation of
Deviation of
0.319
0.09
3.6428 out of 5
3.1547 out of 5
3.6193 out of 5
Deviation of
Deviation of
Deviation of
0.16
0.03
0.01
Hispanic / Latino
Caucasian Deviation of 1.34 White / Caucasian
* Values in bold represent statistically significant deviations of above 0.4, or a switch from positive to negative indication.
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Figure 3.1
Figure 3.2
Figure 3.3
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References Albarracín, D., Alderson-Day, B., & Fernyhough, C. (2015). Inner Speech: Development, Cognitive Functions, Phenomenology, and Neurobiology. US National Library of Medicine National Institutes of Health. https://doi.org/10.1037/bul0000021 Alderson-Day, B., Weis, S., Fernyhough, C., McCarthy-Jones, S., Moseley, P., & Smailes, D. (2015). The brain's conversation with itself: neural substrates of dialogic inner speech. US National Library of Medicine National Institutes of Health. https://doi.org/10.1093/ scan/nsv094 Atkin, C. (2018). The phenomenological influence of inner speech on executive functions. Journal of Undergraduate Research at NTU, 1(1), 223-251. Journal of Undergraduate Research at NTU.file:///home/chronos/u-d1dce168903d087e64cf0bf 898e680e6d2d4e30a/MyFiles/Downloads/AtkinC.BadhamS.2018. pdf Borghi, A. M., Barka, L., Binkofski, F., & Tummolini, L. (2018). Varieties of abstract concepts: development, use and representation in the brain. US National Library of Medicine National Institutes of Health. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2017.0121 Cognitive Process. APA Dictionary of Psychology. 2020. Retrieved December 29, 2020, from https://dictionary.apa.org/ cognitive-process
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Cowan, N. (2013). Working Memory Underpins Cognitive Development, Learning, and Education. US National Library of Medicine National Institutes of Health. https://www.ncbi .nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4207727/ de Sousa, P., Fernyhough, C., Sellwood, W., Spray, A., & Bentall, R. P. (2016, December). Inner Speech and Clarity of Self-Concept in Thought Disorder and Auditory-Verbal Hallucinations. The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease. Retrieved December 29, 2020, from https://journals.lww.com/jonmd/Fulltext/2016/12000/Inner_Speech _and_Clarity_of_Self_Concept_in.3.aspx Diamond, A. (2012). Executive Functions. US National Library of Medicine National Institutes of Health. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych113011-143750 Diaz-Venegas, C., Downer, B., Langa, K. M., & Wong, R. (2016). Racial and ethnic differences in cognitive function among older adults in the USA. US National Library of Medicine National Institutes of Health. https://doi.org/10.1002/gps.4410 Drypnz, J. (Presenter). (2014, June). Interpreting abstract thought. Lecture presented at TEDxVUW, . Fernyhough, C., & Fradley, E. (2009, February 26). Private Speech on an Executive Task: Relations with Task Difficulty and Task Performance. Durham Research Online. Retrieved December 29, 2020, from https://dro.dur.ac.uk/2600/1/2600.pdf
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Glisky, E. L., & Kong, L. L. (2009). Do Young and Older Adults Rely on Different Processes in Source Memory Tasks? A Neuropsychological Study. US National Library of Medicine National Institutes of Health. https://doi.org/10.1037/0278-7393.34.4.809 Henriquez Gerken, S. M. (2015). The Impact of Ethnicity on Executive Functioning in Youth [Doctoral dissertation, DePaul University]. Depaul University. https://via.library.depaul.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi? article=1118&context=csh_etd Longden, E. (Presenter). (2013, February). The voices in my head. Lecture presented at Ted Conference, . Masel, M. C., & Peek, M. K. (2009). Ethnic differences in cognitive function over time. US National Library of Medicine National Institutes of Health. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.annepidem.2009.06.008 McCarthy-Jones, S., & Fernyhough, C. (2014). The varieties of inner speech: Links between quality of inner speech and psychopathological variables in a sample of young adults. ScienceDirect, 23. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.concog.2011.08.005 Morin, A., Uttl, B., & Hamper, B. (2011). Self-Reported Frequency, Content, and Functions of Inner Speech. ScienceDirect. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2011.10.331 Niu, Y.-N., Zhu, X., & Li, J. (2017). The Age Effects on the Cognitive Processes of Intention-Based and Stimulus-Based Actions: An ERP Study. Frontiers in Psychology. https://doi.org/10.3389/ fpsyg.2017.00803
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Ren, X., Wang, T., & Jarrold, C. (2016). Individual Differences in Frequency of Inner Speech: Differential Relations with Cognitive and Non-cognitive Factors. US National Library of Medicine National Institutes of Health. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01675 Samuelson, L. K. (2013). Abstract Thinking in Space and Time: Using The Environment to Learn Words. US National Library of Medicine National Institutes of Health. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/ pmc/articles/PMC3583386/ Scott, M. (2013, July 16). Inner Speech Speaks Volumes About the Brain. Association for Psychological Science. Retrieved October 23, 2020, from https://www.psychologicalscience.org/news/releases/internalspeech-is-driven-by-predictive-brain-signal.html
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The Power of the Mind to Heal Itself Alondra Servin Duluth High School
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A common theme and issue that has been introduced recently in medical discussions around the world has been the topic of mental illnesses and how humans can improve living with them. For many centuries, humans have not viewed mental health as a topic of great importance until, in more recent years, there have been cases where people show signs of changed behavior. According to Jean M. Twenge, from San Diego State University, in the World Happiness Report, she states that since the year of 2010, the overall happiness and well-being of Americans has decreased. The overall happiness of someone’s state of mind can have a major impact on the psychological factors of their health. Today, many young adults suffer from mental health issues such as, Bipolar Disorder, Dissociation Disorder, and obsessive-compulsive disorder, which are likely to be caused by past or current trauma, pressure, or abuse that leads to the overall creation of anxiety (Spruyt, Tracey). According to James Murrough from the Department of Psychiatry, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, anxiety disorders are among the most frequent founding and disabling psychiatric disorders in the United States; “approximately, one in four adults will suffer from an anxiety disorder at some point in their lives” (Bulaj, Grzegorz). As awareness on this issue has spread, research from medical institutions, societal, and workforce perspectives have shown alternative treatments such as meditative practices, used in religions or for spiritual purposes, to be successful methods in achieving a state of positive mind that helps control anxiety and stress. Life for many millennial generation adults, aged 23 to 40 years old, has been filled with daily activities that cause them stress. Stress filled and energy-draining activities have been shown to be causes of mental
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illnesses, more specifically anxiety. In light of more awareness brought upon this issue, there has been an increased need to find treatments that will sufficiently help overcome the struggle of having anxiety. After many studies, researchers and scientists have found that a positive alternative to orthodox medication in order to treat anxiety is the incorporation of meditative practices into daily life. In the world of medicine, anxiety can be considered or classified in many different forms. Anxiety can include “Generalized Anxiety Disorders (GAD), Panic attacks, Post Traumatic Stress Disorder… and Social phobias”, the generalization of anxiety has made it one of the most common illnesses in the world (Spruyt, Tracey). The real division in examining anxiety is being able to distinguish adaptive anxiety from maladaptive anxiety. Adaptive anxiety, which can be experienced by the majority of humans, is a logical and protective response to one’s environment, along with being a universal and a reactive factor that comes from a threat: maladaptive anxiety is anxiety that is non-proportional with the level of threat presented in a situation (House, Allan, and Dan Stark). Maladaptive anxiety is a prominent concern in society as it can lead to further psychological damage in the brain including stress disorders that can ultimately cause comorbid anxiety, which is a combination of two or more psychological conditions in a patient. When the process of comorbid anxiety occurs, it becomes harder to treat a patient as the cause of anxiety is not known by doctors but can be the conclusion to “genetic and environmental” factors that cannot be controlled for a patient (Bergstrom, Carl T., and Frazer Meacham). Although the idea of comorbid anxiety may seem unpleasant, on the other side of the spectrum
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for psychiatric evaluation of mental disorders, some psychologists have shared the idea of mental illnesses as positive and useful. From this perspective, doctors believe that mental illnesses can be a way for humans to find peace and happiness with their current life situation (Bergstrom, Carl T., and Frazer Meacham). The idea of mental illnesses then becomes positive reinforcement for one’s own behavior. In the end, when evaluating and examining those with symptoms relating to mental illnesses like anxiety, humans will always respond with their “fight or flight” instinct (Shear, M. Katherine). Anxiety is not a simple concept to understand as humans have not yet been able to establish a clear cause but have been able to find ways to treat it by understanding the psychological factors that have to deal with a patient's environment and genetic material. The issue of anxiety goes beyond the level of psychological evaluation but also meets at the level of social stigmas and society’s perspective on mental illness. For those who are considered a part of the millennial generation, society seems to carry an obtainable idealistic lifestyle that is filled with positive body images, money, fame, and health, including one’s state of mind (Leigh, Eleanor). The key to understanding anxiety and society is to focus on what doctors have established as a potential cause which is environmental factors (this means the impact of human activity on a condition). As many millennial adults in the United States are reaching the level on the population pyramid where they become the providers for the older generations as well as the younger generations, society begins to mount pressure. Pressure on the generation consists of this idea that this generation should be those who are healthy, ready to learn, work and obtain
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what those who are older than them could not. In a recent study associated with social stigmas and illnesses, it was shown that when employers at a company were given hypothetical job applicants who all had the same requirement applications except for mental health diagnosis, employers would much rather hire the applicants that had a body health problem, such as diabetes rather than any person with a mental health problem (Lindrooth, Richard C). The pressure by society onto this generation then becomes maladaptive habits that will continuously affect an individual because as these problems build-up, so do the mental health issues. In the process, anxiety begins to take over as the individual's ability to obtain society's ideals is not achieved which exposes their anxiety as it is their inability to control their emotional response to the threat of not achieving what society wants them to achieve (Zeidan, Fadel). The growing attention in the mainstream media of mental health disorders is not because of the concern towards this problem but rather the criticism brought upon the issue caused by social stigmas and societal norms. While satisfaction, accomplishment, and happiness may come from satisfying others societal needs, according to the Dalai Lama in Have you renounced pleasure?, “Trying to seek happiness through sensory gratification is like trying to quench your thirst by drinking saltwater”, the gratification will last temporarily while long term emotional and psychological effects, such as anxiety, will not (Bstan-ʼdzin-rgya-mtsho, and Desmond Tutu). Although society does have a preference or an idealistic form of life, individuals are the ones who choose how to live life, individuals are not “forced” to follow any social stigmas or social norms. To emphasize the
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connection between anxiety and society, establishing the cause of society’s ideals through an individual's environment will better help show the outcome of anxiety and its effects on an individual's life (Meacham, Frazer, and Carl T. Bergstrom). Along with societal pressures comes the discussion of money, work, and financial stability. Through the lens of the United States workforce, many millennial-aged adults that are stressed can link the stress to their work. Stress leads to mental health disorders representing one of the most common problems facing adults in the workforce. “It is estimated that within a 12-month-period nearly 30 percent of the U.S. population experiences some diagnosable mental health or addictive disorder” (Lindrooth, Richard C). Pressures in the workplace to perform at a certain level or do the same job at a certain standard can easily trigger anxiety. Some studies have found that psychiatric disorders can substantially negatively interfere with an employee’s ability to work by increasing the likelihood of absence and reducing job productivity. Therefore, the idea of completing work on a set timeline or even the intimidation and adrenaline caused by fear of not achieving a goal in the workplace can also trigger not only anxiety but also burnout. Burnout is a psychological syndrome, that is a negative consequence caused by occupational stress and the deletion of personal coping mechanisms that result in emotional exhaustion because of stress, linking a connection to anxiety (Golonka, Krystyna). Emotional exhaustion causes a lack of motivation, stress, depression, sadness, and an impactful change in the individual's mood. Overall, because of the anxiety found upon the millennial generation caused by stress, burnout is seen as a negative
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side effect (Hwang, Wu Jeong). In the book, Have you renounced pleasure? the Dalai Lama states, “I have discussed with scientists this distinction between the sensory level of pleasure and pain and the deeper level of mental happiness and suffering” (Bstan-ʼdzin-rgya-mtsho, and Desmond Tutu). The Dalai Lama refers to how there is more than just pleasure and pain on the outside but also happiness and suffering occurring on the inside of an individual. An individual who is suffering can seem to enjoy their job and complete it, but in reality, the individual can be suffering inside because of stress caused anxiety or other psychological factors from work. One can suggest merely switching jobs to one that will not cause psychological damage, but the larger sense is the need for more awareness towards mental health issues. Anxiety consists of being in an emotional state such as nervousness, tension or worry (Sivaramappa, B). Bringing awareness and knowledge upon the topic of anxiety is very crucial to overall understanding but finding a way to help those who suffer from anxiety is also important for understanding the depth and complexity surrounding this issue. Around the world, it is common to treat anxiety by using a medication, like prescription drugs, in order to alleviate some of the tension in an individual’s brain. In addition, religions around the world, for example, Buddhism have been known to use the practice of meditation for thousands of years as a way of life in order to find a place of “inner peace and wisdom” (History.com Editors). Meditation practices have existed for many years, but more recently meditative practices have been used in the Western Hemisphere for experimental and spiritual reasons. Practices such as mindfulness which is
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"focusing one's attention in a nonjudgmental or accepting way of the experience occurring in the present moment" during Transcendental Meditation can reduce the amount of thinking and concentration an individual's mind puts on topics, concepts or items (Aldahadha, Basim). Another type of meditative practice is called Sufi Meditation when an individual focuses on their heart and the creator, whether that is God or another spiritual figure. In the book Have you renounced pleasure? the Dalai Lama refers to the process of meditation as being able to develop deeper levels of joy, which then brings inner strength and inner peace; he continues by saying that “we must develop this deeper level of Joy through training the mind” (Bstan-ʼdzin-rgya-mtsho, and Desmond Tutu). By using meditation, he and others are able to reach a point in the mind that can potentially help those suffering from mental illnesses. In a study aimed to figure out the best type of meditative practice to treat neurotic anxiety among a small female population, Sufi Meditation worked better at relieving the anxiety because of how the majority of the participant’s beliefs aligned with this type of meditation (Gul, Lubna and Syeda Farhana Jahangir). Lastly, these presented techniques help to make patients more aware of their surroundings and also create a sense of acceptance. In other words, meditation provides a new spiritual orientation and unifying identity that allows humans to concentrate on themselves rather than on their surroundings. The current impacts of anxiety on the millennial generation in the United States has caused complex damage to society as a whole and not just too individuals who suffer from it. Many can say that anxiety is just a
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state of destructive mind that is all in one’s brain and that individuals have the power to change it, but by the fact that doctors themselves do not understand this type of psychological condition, means that one should not jump to such conclusions. Meditative practices seem to be a positive form of treatment for anxiety as it is a set of self-regulatory or psychosomatic practices that focus on training the attention and awareness that such concentration will be developed diverging from the cause of the anxiety. To conclude, although meditation has shown positive results in improving psychological disorders, meditation is not successful for everyone. The help that can be provided by using meditative practices in daily life is limited by the effort put in by a patient and by what level of anxiety a patient suffers from. Even if a patient includes meditative practices daily, if they suffer from severe anxiety, using only meditative practices will only make such a difference. Depending on the patient, some can help stabilize their anxiety by only doing the simple task of incorporating meditation practices while others will have to use a combination of both meditative practices and orthodox medication.
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References Aldahadha, Basim. "The effects of Muslim praying meditation and transcendental meditation programs on mindfulness among the University of Nizwa students." College Student Journal, vol. 47, no. 4, 2013, p. 668+. Gale In Context: High School, https://link.gale.com/ apps/doc/A356906582/GPS?u=lawr16325&sid=GPS&xid=b457838 8. Accessed 9 Mar. 2020. Bergstrom, Carl T., and Frazer Meacham. "Depression and anxiety: maladaptive byproducts of adaptive mechanisms." Evolution, Medicine, and Public Health, 2016, p. 214+. Gale In Context: Opposing Viewpoints, https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/A484096587/GPS?u= lawr16325&sid=GPS&xid=58785f4 Bstan-ʼdzin-rgya-mtsho, and Desmond Tutu. The Book of Joy: Lasting Happiness in a Changing World. New York: Avery, an imprint of Penguin Random House, 2016. Print. Bulaj, Grzegorz et al. “Incorporating Natural Products, Pharmaceutical Drugs, Self-Care, and Digital/Mobile Health Technologies into Molecular-Behavioral Combination Therapies for Chronic Diseases.” Current clinical pharmacology vol. 11,2 (2016): 128-45. doi:10.2174/1574884711666160603012237 Golonka, Krystyna, et al. "Psychophysiological Characteristics of Burnout Syndrome: Resting-State EEG Analysis." BioMed Research International, 2019. Gale In Context: Science, https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/A601028628/GPS?u=lawr16325&sid= GPS&xid=60aada4b.
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Gul, Lubna, and Syeda Farhana Jahangir. “The Effectiveness of MindfulnessBased Stress Reduction Programme (MBSRP) and Sufi Meditation(SM) in the Treatment of Neurotic Anxiety among Females.” FWU Journal of Social Sciences, vol. 13, no. 1, Summer 2019, pp. 120–130. EBSCOhost, search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=137041506 &sit History.com Editors. “Buddhism.” History.com, A&E Television Networks, 12 Oct. 2017, www.history.com/topics/religion/buddhism. House, Allan, and Dan Stark. "Anxiety in medical patients: ABC of psychological medicine. (Clinical review)." British Medical Journal, vol. 325, no. 7357, 27 July 2002, p. 207+. Gale In Context: High School, https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/A90301510/GPS?u=lawr16325&sid=G PS&xid=c98088d9 Hwang, Wu Jeong, et al. “The Effects of Four Days of Intensive Mindfulness Meditation Training (Templestay Program) on Resilience to Stress: A Randomized Controlled Trial.” Psychology, Health & Medicine, vol. 23, no. 5, June 2018, pp. 497–504. EBSCOhost, doi:10.1080/13548506.2017.1363400. Leigh, Eleanor, et al. "The effects of modifying mental imagery in adolescent social anxiety." PLoS ONE, vol. 15, no. 4, 2020, p. e0230826. Gale In Context: Opposing Viewpoints, https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/A619584441/GPS?u=lawr16325&sid=G PS&xid=450636e
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Lindrooth, Richard C., et al. "The effect of expanded mental health benefits on treatment initiation and specialist utilization." Health Services Research, vol. 40, no. 4, Aug. 2005, p. 1092+. Gale In Context: High School, https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/A134921611/GPS?u= lawr16325&sid=GPS&xid=67632094. Accessed 10 Mar. 2020. Meacham, Frazer, and Carl T. Bergstrom. "Adaptive behavior can produce maladaptive anxiety due to individual differences in experience." Evolution, Medicine, and Public Health, 2016, p. 270+. Gale In Context: Opposing Viewpoints, https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/A484096592/ GPS?u=lawr16325&sid=GPS&xid=5c3354 Murrough, James W et al. “Emerging drugs for the treatment of anxiety.” Expert opinion on emerging drugs vol. 20,3 (2015): 393-406. doi:10.1517/14728214.2015.1049996 Shear, M. Katherine. "Optimal treatment of anxiety disorders." Patient Care, vol. 37, no. 5, May 2003, p. 18+. Gale In Context: High School, https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/A102681119/GPS?u=lawr16325&sid=GP S&xid=6120fc1 Sivaramappa, B., et al. “Effect of Anapanasati Meditation on Anxiety: A Randomized Control Trial.” Annals of Neurosciences, vol. 26, no. 1, Jan. 2019, pp. 32–36. EBSCOhost, doi:10.5214/ans.0972.7531.260107. Spruyt, Tracey. "Comorbid depression and anxiety disorders: a key public health issue." Journal of the Australian Traditional-Medicine Society, vol. 22, no. 4, 2016, p. 224+. Gale In Context: High School, https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/A479548763/GPS?u=lawr16325&sid= GPS&xid=86b6123
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Twenge, Jean M. “The Sad State of Happiness in the United States and the Role of Digital Media.” The Sad State of Happiness in the United States and the Role of Digital Media, 20 Mar. 2019, worldhappiness.report/ed/2019/the-sad-state-of-happiness-in-theunited-states-and-the-ro le-of-digitalmedia/.oc/A484096592/GPS?u=lawr16325&sid=GPS&xid=5c33541d. Zeidan, Fadel et al. “Neural correlates of mindfulness meditation-related anxiety relief.” Social cognitive and affective neuroscience vol. 9,6 (2014): 751-9. doi:10.1093/scan/nst04
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The Psychological Process of Cult Recruitment and Maintenance Sara X. Yang Turlock Christian High School
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The congregation for belief and social gathering has been present activities throughout history, dating back to the beginnings of communal living (Gelfand et al., 2020). Likewise, cult activity has been a present force, but instead of congregating for religious beliefs on their own, indoctrination, exploitation, and mind manipulation are put into play in order for the cult to have full control over its followers (Walsh, 2014, p.121). While many come to believe that members of a cult are “brainwashed” by cult leaders, this term does not fully emulate the psychological damage victims of cult membership face, as it is a rather blanket statement (Walsh, 2014, p.126). The joining of a cult does not have to do with how an individual “allows'' themselves to become brainwashed, are mentally insane, or are unable to stand firm in their beliefs, but has to do with the cult’s damaging manipulation tactics targeting the mental standpoint of an individual. By figuring out what manipulation methods cults use to recruit and maintain members and how they work, we can have a better understanding of what kind of psychological help medical professionals should provide to those who have left or escaped a cult. It can be difficult to define cults, as many religions and social groups can fall into similar categories. Cults are not strictly limited to religious or spiritual beliefs, as they can be focused on politics, social justice, selfimprovement, and a variety of other topics (Salande & Perkins, 2011, p.382). It can also be difficult to identify and take down cults since they have the 1st Amendment of the Constitution as a protectorate and will commonly identify themselves as new religions to be protected under religious freedom, but once a cult participates in harmful or illegal activity, the U.S. law can intervene (Olgolf & Pfeifer, 1992, p.117). Key aspects of what makes
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a group a cult, and not just any religious following or social group, include a charismatic leader, indoctrination, the exploitation of followers, and total control over the lives of members. While some methods of control may be present in some non-cultish social groups, these practices are the rule to cults. Cults also maintain 100% retention from their followers, while noncultish social groups have the psychological freedom to withdraw from the group at any time without fear of any harmful consequences (Salande & Perkins, 2011, p.382-383). Understanding the difference between a cult and a non-cultish group may aid in identifying and locating what groups should have an eye kept on so that law enforcement can know when to intervene and to indicate victims of cults so they can be assisted by psychiatrists or deprogrammers at an earlier time. While not all cults may physically harm or threaten death to their members, the social qualities of a cult and the amount of physiological damage being a part of one does to an individual is detrimental. The overall reasoning behind the use of manipulation tactics is to gain full psychological, mental, and/or physical control over their members due to the narcissistic quality of their leader (Olsson, 2013, p.42). These tactics can range from physical to psychological and can be put into effect from the beginning of an individual’s introduction to the cult to sustaining long-term members. Methods are also not harshly loaded onto members of the cult unless the members are previously fully devoted, but it is a curated process of manipulation that slowly gains the trust and control of new members over time, therefore leading to sometimes devastating events, such as mass suicide or physical and sexual abuse (Salande & Perkins, 2011, p.388). A cult
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may not use every manipulative technique identified to gain control of their members, but nevertheless, the use of these techniques leads to the same result of thought reform and total control. The recruitment of individuals into a cult is not a spontaneous process but is curated so that the chances of someone gaining interest in the cult are at their highest by aiming specifically at those who are most susceptible. It should be noted that those who are targeted for recruitment are not any more psychologically damaged than the average population (Salande & Perkins, 2011, p.383), meaning that any person could be targeted for a certain cult group regardless of psychological health. Cults will reach out to those who have similar ideals or needs to what that specific cult focuses on in the same way any non-cultish social group will try to reach out to potential members (Salande & Perkins, 2011, p.383). In doing this, targets go into the situation believing the group has good intentions about a legitimate cause they care deeply about, and therefore they will want to participate. Statistical analyses of cult recruitment from Wright & Piper (1986) show that the majority of those who became involved with religious cults were previously religiously searching at the time of their recruitment (p.19). Victims of cult recruitment are never aware that what they are going into is a cult, not because they are socially unintelligent, but because cults do a frighteningly successful job of creating the illusion, they are groups made for “the greater good” and that they will be the answer to the specific needs of targets. Another tactic cults use to have a higher likelihood of successful recruitment is to aim at those who are facing a time of change or
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development such younger generations or those facing difficulty. Cults have shown to have the most success in recruiting those between the ages of 18 and 23, as they are in a vulnerable, transition period of their lives (Wright & Piper, 1986, p.17). This sense of vulnerability not only applies to young people, but also to those facing a time of situational vulnerability such as someone facing familial, social, or financial struggle, which are things that can happen to any person (Salande & Perkins, 2011, p.383). A time of change and development means being more accepting of new ideas and searching for a place in the world or answers they seek to find. While adolescents are more open to new concepts, they are not as susceptible to conforming to influences that negatively conflict with their pre-existing beliefs (Do et al., 2020). Cults understand this, so they paint their group as something that positively views the individual’s pre-existing beliefs. Cults will act as a safe place of refuge and similar belief for these individuals, claiming to hold the solution to whatever problem they have, and once the participant has accepted the idea of being a part of this group, leaving becomes much more difficult. Methods of control cults use once an individual has been integrated into the group will introduce how the group must separate themselves from the world in a variety of ways. Usually, the first method of segregation from society is the belief that the cult is sacred and that members of the cult have been especially “chosen” (Walsh, 2014, p.123). It is indoctrinated that knowledge the group contains is something only “true believers” can understand, which is why skepticism from outsiders is something to be expected and not to be listened to. This sacred knowledge is usually only
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derived from the leader of the cult, whose charismatic personality will convince the members that they are trustworthy enough to be the beholders or messengers of this sacred knowledge (Olsson, 2013, p.42). This leads to cult members blindly following the cult leader without any questions because they are the all-powerful holders of such sacred knowledge (Salande & Perkins, 2011, p.388). It is at this point that the leader has the power to convince members of the cult to have whatever beliefs they lay out for them and to participate in certain rituals out of sacred obedience and to please their leader. A cult will then implement their demands for purity, in which the level of purity is defined by the cult and not average societal standards (Walsh, 2014, p.122). Purity, in terms of internal doctrine, will mean that the cult pushes the ideal that there is only one correct belief, or way of life and that is in the cult, and any other concepts outside the cult that are considered evil and incorrect (Olsson, 2013, p.40). If a member is to commit impure actions, cults will have the member publicly confess in front of the cult following, therefore bringing shame and guilt. Public confession is used as a manipulation tactic to force individuals to “self-surrender” to the cult as well as to expose all aspects of themselves to the members of the cult (Walsh, 2014, p.123). Members find consolation in other members who have been sharing these same experiences of guilt, thereby emitting a feeling of unity and relief once confession and punishment for their actions is fulfilled. This sensation can create a heavy reliance on the cult group, and identity can be found only in the group; their old identity being viewed as something that is unattractive (Walsh, 2014, p.125). Studies from Philosophical Transactions B
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show that groups that have heavy levels of ritualistic synchrony, such as cults, may lead to loss of autonomy and individuality (2020). Cults will require members to dress the same, perform the same activities, have the same beliefs, and soon enough individuality is nowhere to be seen and the idea to ever leave the cult is absent. By using ritualistic synchrony negatively, creativity and the desire to express individuality is decreased, and conformity increased. Members are psychologically subject to follow what the group is doing due to subconscious peer pressure. Thoughts outside the cult and the cult’s ideology are no longer present, as it consumes all aspects of an individual, and people are now only identical parts making up the larger body. The cult then will separate themselves even further from the world by emphasizing how the world is “evil” and how the group is the only thing that is good (Salande & Perkins, 2011, p.386). Cults will heavily refrain from contact with the outside world, as they do not want any other ideologies infiltrating their members and will physically separate themselves from society by living together as a community (Walsh, 2014, p.125). This can be especially difficult when family members or close friends of cult members want their loved ones to leave but cannot contact them easily due to cults not allowing outside visitors. The further away a cult is from society, whether that be socially or physically, the more difficult it is for members to leave, as the consequences of leaving on a logistical level would include not having the skills to be independent and live without the cult (Coates, 2010, p.304). It can be said that the absolute furthest people from society are those who have been born into or brought up in a cult. An individual is
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entirely dependent on the cult if they have been born into it since they have no connections with the outside world, therefore they have no access to escape or ideas of what escape may entail, as all they know about the outside world is that it is evil. The process of leaving a cult will usually either begin with the member themself realizing that the cult structure is faulty, and they no longer trust their leader, or a family member, loved one, or cult deprogrammer reaches out to take the person out of the cult. In the latter situation, the concept of departing from the cult is not voluntary, therefore members might defend their placement in the cult and refuse departure. If the belief is strong, members can face extreme denial in the validity of the cult and its leader, as denial can cause members to maintain their commitment even after their leader has been exposed (Salande & Perkins, 2011, p.389). According to Wright & Piper (1986), the effectiveness of removal from a cult by parents who had close relationships with their children before they joined a cult and if they felt against their child joining a cult was higher than if parents had distant relationships with their children (p.21). Although, if a parent attempts to deprogram their child from the cult unsuccessfully, cult commitment may increase out of resentment from the child. While ex-members will lead an ultimately better life away from the cult, the effects of leaving can cause traumatic and painful after-effects, as potential outcomes can be facing the loss of a family member, loss of community, being unable to adjust to modern society, and heavy feelings of guilt (Coates, 2010, p.308). The process of leaving a cult is extremely difficult, especially if the cult is aware of your potential departure, but the
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most crucial and helpful aspect of what can aid in the departure of a cult is healthy relationships outside the cult that can provide as a safe space. An outsider exposed to a cult member that what is going on in the cult is not normal yet providing a safe and reliable environment for that person, is what can open their eyes and feel more prepared to leave. It can be seen that the tactics cults use in order to obtain the control and dependency of members are nothing more than mere methods of psychological manipulation, but the effects of these tactics are majorly detrimental. These extreme forms of manipulation are used in such a manner that members can only feel both love and fear while being in the cult, this push and pull being the reason they might not be able to find themselves leaving (Coates, 2010, p.305). Cults are masters of understanding the average individual’s thought process in order to become the center of that thought process and therefore destroy it. We can observe that the main objective of a cult is to gain full control of an individual in order to exploit them, their methods including inducing guilt and humiliation, separating members from society, inhibiting individuality, and forcing dependance on the cult (Walsh, 2014, p.126), which are not methods any non-cult related social group would use. After identifying these manipulation methods cults use and understanding how they work, it is clear that members of cults do not simply “fall” for their trap, but it is that members are targets of cult’s extreme acts of psychological warfare. The emotional and psychological damage a cult does to a member will leave long-lasting scars, but by providing what cults threaten to control, such as individuality, community,
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and relationships, victims of cults can adjust to life outside that bubble a little easier.
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References Coates, D. (2010). Post-Involvement Difficulties Experienced by Former Members of Charismatic Groups. Journal of Religion & Health, 49(3), 296-310.10.1007/s10943-009-9251-0 Do, K. T., McCormick, E. M., & Telzer, E. H. (2020). Neural sensitivity to conflicting attitudes supports greater conformity toward positive over negative influence in early adolescence. Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience. 10.1016/j.dcn.2020.100837 Gelfand, M. J., Caluori, N., Jackson, J. C., & Taylor, M. K. (2020). The cultural evolutionary trade-off of ritualistic synchrony. Philosophical Transactions B. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2019 .0432 Olgolf, J., & Pfeifer, J. (1992). Cults and the law: A discussion of the legality of alleged cult activities. Behavioral Sciences & the Law, 10(1), 117-140. https://doi.org/10.1002/bsl.2370100111 Olsson, P. A. (2013). "Normal" Compared to Abnormal Leaders and Groups. Authors:. Journal of Psychohistory, 41(1), 39-43. Academic Search Ultimate. Rousselet, M., Duretete, O., Hardouin, J.B., & Grall-Bronnec, M. (2017). Cult membership: What factors contribute to joining or leaving? Psychiatry Research, 257, 27-33.10.1016/j.psychres.2017.07.018 Salande, J. D., & Perkins, D. R. (2011). An Object Relations Approach to Cult Membership. American Journal of Psychotherapy (Association for the Advancement of Psychotherapy), 65(4), 381-391.10.1176/appi. psychotherapy.2011.65.4.381
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Walsh, Y. (2014). Deconstructing 'brainwashing' within cults as an aid to counselling psychologists. Counselling Psychology Quarterly, 14(2), 119-128.10.1080/09515070110058558 Wright, S. A., & Piper, E. S. (1986). Families and Cults: Familial Factors Related to Youth Leaving or Remaining in Deviant Religious Groups. Journal of Marriage & Family, 48(1), 15-25. 10.2307/352224
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The Lasting Health Traumas of Professional Sports Jeopardize the Lives of Former Professional Athletes Angela Bracco East Meadow High School
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Introduction
Throughout history, athletics have been a way for communities to interact and thrive. Sports have provided people a sense of unity and pride, which help foster growth. But over time, athletics have become much more competitive, developing multiple lucrative international organizations such as the National Football League (NFL) and Major League Baseball (MLB). Unfortunately, the promotion of athletic success has led to dangerous actions. For example, head trauma as a result of participation in the NFL has caused an influx in victims of Chronic Traumatic Encephalopathy (CTE), a devastating mental disorder. Stress from professional athletics encourages players to turn to performance enhancing drugs (PEDs) to improve their skills and abilities, yet they are unaware of the lasting impacts the drugs have on their bodies. Athletes are not aware of the dangers of their actions, which will only harm them further in the future. Leading sports organizations must educate employed athletes of the dangerous aftermath of professional athletics, since the futures of professional athletes are threatened by destructive health traumas that result from the physicality and intensity of their profession.
Chronic Traumatic Encephalopathy Repetitive, consistent head collisions have high potential to result in the development of CTE, which can have lasting negative health issues throughout the lives of professional athletes. CTE is a “progressive degenerative disease” that targets individuals who have a history of brain
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trauma (Brain Injury Research Institute). The lasting disease causes protein malfunctions, essentially killing brain cells (Concussion Legacy Foundation). The leading cause of CTE is head trauma, which is a common result of participating in professional football. Victims of CTE have behavioral and cognitive damage. Behavioral changes such as aggression, depression, anxiety, and mood swings are common results of CTE. Cognitive issues include confusion, impaired judgment, and memory loss (Concussion Legacy Foundation). CTE can even lead to acts of murder or suicide (Pew and Shapiro). Lasting impacts of CTE can tear one’s mind from reality. Unfortunately, athletes’ reactions to CTE outshine their success. Aaron Hernandez was a former New England Patriot who had “hanged himself with a bedsheet ... in a Massachusetts prison while serving a life sentence for the murder of Odin Llyod” (Kilgore). After the tragic occurrence, doctors performed brain scans, discovering that 27-year-old Hernandez had a “severe case of CTE- the worst case ever reported on such a young man.” It is said that Hernandez had Stage 3 CTE, completely altering his personality through “memory loss, damaged thinking… changes in behavior and impaired judgment” (Pew and Shapiro). After further study, doctors noticed that parts of his brain had shrunk and that there was damage to the frontal lobe, the area of the brain which controls decision-making and behavior (Kilgore). The science behind CTE is remarkable and complex. When an individual has CTE, there is loss in brain mass, other areas of the brain expand, and there is an accumulation of tau protein, which is “a substance which serves to stabilize the cellular structure in the neurons but which may become defective and subsequently may cause major interference with the
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function of the neurons” (Brain Injury Research Institute). When Hernandez became a victim of CTE, his brain shrunk due to the loss of brain tissue, and there were “abnormal, large holes in parts of [his] brain”. CTE damages the hippocampus and fornix, which are responsible for memory; the frontal lobe, which is in charge of decision-making; the amygdala which controls one’s emotions; and the temporal lobes which are involved in one’s ability to process sight and sound (Kilgore). CTE causes scientific brain damage which is traumatizing and can endanger those who are exposed to the dangerous disease. Studies prove that football players are prone to developing CTE. According to the Journal of American Medical Association, a study in 2017 showed that out of 202 brains of former football players, 177, about 88% had CTE. That study involved 111 former NFL athletes’ brains, and 110 of those were diagnosed with CTE (Pew and Shapiro). One commonality between many brains with CTE is a “history of repetitive hits to the head”, making football a leading cause of the disease (Concussion Legacy Foundation). Since CTE is very common within the NFL, many football fans wonder if the risk is worth the fame and glory. The correlation between football and CTE strengthen as years of play increases. According to the Annals of Neurology and Research of the Boston University CTE Center, there is a 30% increase in developing CTE after each year playing football. Also, every 2.6 years of playing football doubles an athlete´s risk of CTE (Orsini et al.). Rapidly growing statistics have instilled fear within many NFL fans and families. Former President Theodore Roosevelt accurately described the views of the recent athletic community. In a letter to his son, Roosevelt speaks of the
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dangers of sports by stating, “I believe in rough, manly sports. But I do not believe in them if they degenerate into the sole end of any one’s existence”. Through this statement he shows his concern for the life of his son, just as many sports loving members of society feel. The recent alarming studies of Chronic Traumatic Encephalopathy and its strong link to professional sports have caused the entire world to fear the futures of professional athletes. Dominating sports organizations are obligated to announce recent alarming studies of CTE and its strong link to professional sports to their employed athletes in order to keep society’s heroes safe.
Anabolic Steroids Many professional athletes use performance-enhancing drugs as a way to combat the stress and intensity of their lives while boosting performance. But what athletes are unaware of is that the effects of these drugs contribute to lethal long term health issues. One drug in particular that many athletes use is anabolic steroids. Anabolic steroids are “synthetic… variations of the male sex hormone testosterone (National Institute on Drug Abuse). Anabolic steroids are typically used for treatment purposes like treating hormonal issues such as delayed puberty, or muscle loss from illnesses such as cancer or AIDS. Meanwhile, athletes use performance-enhancing drugs as a way to boost their performance or enhance their physical appearance (National Institute on Drug Abuse). Although their intentions are positive, PEDs like anabolic steroids can cause long term damage to one’s life.
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Performance enhancing drugs are unfortunately very common in professional athletics, since athletes have consistent, intense “pressure to perform better, get faster, and become stronger”. Therefore, drugs are used as a coping mechanism in order for athletes to become their best (Gateway Foundation). Nowadays, competition is common. The main idea of any activity is that “[y]ou play to win, and the game has little meaning unless you do your utmost to win” (Orwell). In recent times, it seems impossible to enjoy friendly competition. Stakes are higher, and the value of winning has skyrocketed to unhealthy levels. Fear of letting down and the need to succeed has led to PED use, causing long term harm to the lives of professional athletes. PED use can lead to misuse and even addiction. In fact, athletes use as much as “10 to 100 times more [steroids] than doses prescribed to treat medical conditions” (National Institute on Drug Abuse). Although athletes’ intentions are to enhance their abilities, athletes must face the lethal addictive components and traumatizing health effects that appear due to performance enhancing drugs. Anabolic steroids alone may cause high blood pressure, high cholesterol, and a loss of sex drive. In addition, the hormonal imbalance that results from anabolic steroids can cause heart disease, diabetes, or carpel tunnel and joint pain (Trevino). Potential long term threats include kidney malfunctions, liver problems, and blood clots. This may increase risk of stroke or even heart attack (National Institute on Drug Abuse). Anabolic steroids can stimulate ‘roid rage’, which is a mental state including increased aggression and violence. Anabolic steroids may also cause testosterone induced polycythemia, a disease where the blood
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thickens forming clots, which can become life threatening (Gateway Foundation). Health traumas that likely result from PED use can cripple athletic stars in the future. The addictive component of anabolic steroids can lead to an athlete’s downfall. The use of addictive steroids can lead to substance use disorder, where a “person continues to misuse steroids, even though there are serious consequences for doing so.” Even after an individual stops their use of anabolic steroids, they go through withdrawl, including steroid cravings, fatigue, and depression which could lead to suicide (National Institute on Drug Abuse). Jenrry Mejia is a perfect example of how addictive PEDs can be. Mejia was a professional baseball player for the New York Mets. But during his career, he turned to performance enhancing drugs, contributing to three failed drug tests. After, he got an 80 game suspension followed by a 162 game suspension. Eventually, he was permanently banned from the MLB community. This shows the “evident inability to stop using the steroid” even though it cost him his career and his livelihood (Gateway Foundation). Professional athletes’ need to perform well has led to the use of performance enhancing drugs, leading to PED addictions. Although they are appealing to athletes, anabolic steroids permanently change one’s personality, becoming a hazard to its target market, professional athletes.
Heart Disease It is clear that there are severe, negative health risks of contact sports, yet it has been scientifically proven that physical activity has many health benefits such as lowering one´s risk of heart disease. Professional athletes
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are undeniably physically fit during the peak of their career. To participate in professional athletics, athletes must be in top physical shape. They are strong, healthy, and fast. Even “240-poung running back Leonard Fournette… clocked in at over 22 miles per hour during a game” (BoylanPett). Since NFL practices are intense and excruciatingly long, it is inevitable that professional athletes are in shape. In a standard NFL week, a player participates in weight lifting, conditioning, and in-depth team practice, all in preparation for a game each Sunday (Nunez). The intense lifestyle of professional football players further enhances their fitness. Scientists and researchers have proven that physical activity reduces one’s risk for heart disease. Heart disease is the leading cause of death in the United States. One in every four deaths in the United States is from heart disease. Those with high blood pressure or high cholesterol are automatically at a higher risk of developing this lethal disease. Physical activity reduces the chance of developing heart disease (Center for Disease Control and Prevention). There is no doubt that professional athletes are in top physical condition, but one does not need to go to the lengths of professional athletics to benefit from exercise and lower their risk of heart disease. Moderate-intensity aerobic activity such as brisk walking will benefit one’s overall health. The Center for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) states that 150 minutes of moderate-intensity aerobic activity per week will lower one’s risk of cardiovascular problems. That means that if an individual briskly walks for about 21 minutes per day, their cardiovascular health will
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rise. Exercise has been proven to lower one’s risk of cardiovascular diseases like heart disease. Therefore, one does not need to exert themselves to the levels that professional athletes do in order to partake in the benefits of physical activity. Roosevelt had described the views that many share today by saying, “A man must develop his physical prowess up to a certain point; but after he has reached that point there are other things that count more”. Roosevelt describes the idea that physical strength is an important part of life, but after a certain level it is important to focus on other aspects of life. Even though one may think that the intensity and physicality of professional athletics would only help one´s health, athletes’ bodies may be compromised from CTE or the use of anabolic steroids. CTE and anabolic steroids have the power to change an individual's personality completely, changing them forever. CTE results in cognitive and behavioral decline, including memory loss, impulsivity, loss of self control, aggression, depression, and dementia. These common symptoms of CTE are life changing, threatening one’s quality of life (Brain Injury Research Institute). Also, professional athletes' need to perform well leads to steroid use and PED addictions. Anabolic steroids can result in depression, aggression, cardiovascular issues, liver tumors, and ‘roid rage’ which is where an individual becomes more aggressive and violent (Gateway Foundation). As displayed, professional athletics can hurt one’s health much more than it could ever possibly help.
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Conclusion As shown, brain trauma and the astronomical intensity of professional athletics can truly damage professional athletes’ lives. Brain trauma can lead to CTE, causing cognitive impairment and mental struggles, potentially leading to suicide. Hyperintensity of professional athletics encourages athletes to turn to performance enhancing drugs. Their addictive component can foster terrible life threatening side effects. In order to maintain a healthy competitive environment for professional athletes, it is absolutely necessary for leading sports organizations to educate and inform their employed stars of the traumatizing impacts of their fame and glory. If athletic organizations do not make this change, the once loved stars of society will be damaged forever.
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References Boylan-Pett, Liam. “Football Players May Be Huge and Padded, but They're Fast, and Runners Can Learn from Them.” Runner's World, Runner's World, 17 Sept. 2020, www.runnersworld.com/training/a20865494/ super- bowl-running-tips/. Brain Injury Research Institute. “What Is CTE?” What Is CTE? | Brain Injury Research Institute, www.protectthebrain.org/Brain-InjuryResearch/What-is-CTE-.aspx. Center for Disease Control and Prevention. “Benefits of Physical Activity.” Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 5 Apr. 2021. www.cdc.gov/physicalactivity /basics/pa-health/index.htm. Center for Disease Control and Prevention. “Heart Disease Facts.” Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 8 Sept. 2020, www.cdc.gov/heartdisease/facts.htm. Concussion Legacy Foundation. “RESOURCE CENTER: WHAT IS CTE?” What Is CTE? | Concussion Legacy Foundation, concussionfoundation.org/CTE-resources/what-is-CTE. Gateway Foundation. “Drug Use & Substance Abuse in Sports: Gateway Foundation.” Gateway, 25 Sept. 2020, www.gatewayfoundation.org/addiction-blog/athletes-drug-abuse/. Kilgore, Adam. “Aaron Hernandez Suffered from Most Severe CTE Ever Found in a Person His Age.” The Washington Post, WP Company, 9 Nov. 2017, www.washingtonpost.com/sports/aaron-hernandez
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suffered-from-most-severe-cte-ever-found-in-a-person-hisage/2017/11/09/fa7cd204-c57b-11e7-afe9-4f60b5a6c4a0_story.html. National Institute on Drug Abuse. “Anabolic Steroids DrugFacts.” National Institute on Drug Abuse, 24 July 2020, www.Drugabuse.gov/ publications/drugfacts/anabolic-steroids. Nunez, Irwin. “An Inside Look at the Grueling Schedules of NFL Players After Game Day - Sportscasting: Pure Sports.” Sportscasting, 17 Mar. 2020, www. sportscasting.com/an-inside-look-at-the-grueling-schedules-ofnfl-players-after-game-day/. Orsini, John P., et al. “CTE Risk More Than Doubles after Just Three Years of Playing Football.” Boston University, 7 Oct. 2019, www.bu.edu/articles/2019/cte-football/. Orwell, George. “‘The Sporting Spirit,’ from THE COLLECTED ESSAYS, JOURNALISM AND LETTERS OF GEORGE ORWELL, VOLUME IV: In Front of Your Nose.” Sonia Brownell Orwell, 1968. Pew, Alex, and Danielle Shapiro. “Football and Brain Injuries: What You Need to Know.” National Center for Health Research, 23 Jan. 2018, www.center4research.org/football-brain-injuries-need-know/. Roosevelt, Theodore. “Proper Place for Sports: Theodore Roosevelt’s Letters to His Children.” Trevino, Steve. “Athletes and Drug Abuse: A Disturbing Trend in Modern Sports: MTR Blog.” More Than Rehab, 25 Mar. 2020, morethanrehab.com/2019/06/15/athletes-drug-abusesports/.
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The Importance of the HPV Vaccine in Adolescents and Adults Alexa Brandmeyer Ankeny High School
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The Science Behind HPV Over 14 million Americans are infected with HPV, or Genital Human Papillomomavirus each year (CDC, 2021). This contagious virus is transmitted from skin-to-skin contact; specifically, contact of a sexual nature as well as oral and anal sexual relations. HPV is abundantly prevalent within the United States, to the extent that nearly all men and women will contract it at some point in their lives. Upon reviewing medical research and data, it is apparent that teens should receive the HPV vaccine in order to prevent future complications that arise from the virus.
Background Information Vaccines are designed to protect the human body from contracting dangerous pathogens by introducing antibodies that simulate those that would be produced by the illness (Human Papillomamovirus Vaccine, 2021). While the idea of propelling antibodies into a perfectly healthy body seems counteractive to some people, it is extremely effective in protecting the human body. By simulating the harmful antibodies with an exact dose of the vaccine, the body produces an effective barrier to prevent infecting cells in the future. The HPV vaccine is extremely safe, using VLPs (Virus-Like Particles) to resemble the natural virus. Since the vaccine does not contain the virus´s DNA, the vaccine is not harmfully infectious to the human body (Human Papillomamovirus Vaccine, 2021). This means that there is no need to worry about the safety of the vaccine, as it is protecting The HPV vaccine has specifically been found to be extremely effective as a result of high immunogenicity. An excellent example of this can be seen in Appendix A,
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where 15,400 people did not recover from HPV compared to those who were vaccinated. This data shows that people who are not vaccinated are more likely to get HPV, and not recover than those who have the HPV vaccine. While the vaccine is important on a personal level, it is equally as beneficial to increase the number of people vaccinated to stop the spread of HPV. There are over 100 types of the Human Papillomavirus that cause complications unique to their variations. Unfortunately, those who are infected with the virus do not always show symptoms but are still contagious to those they have sexual relations with. As a result of a lack of symptoms shown with HPV, it is vital for sexually active teens to get the vaccine to protect themselves. While there are methods to protect from STDs such as condoms and abstinence, HPV has not been proven to be stopped by condoms (Berger, 2021). Since protected sex does not diminish the odds of contracting HPV, the only other option to protect those who are sexually active is receiving the vaccine. If HPV is contracted at some point in a person's life, the side effects can be grotesque, and even deadly.
Symptoms This viral infection commonly causes skin or mucous membrane growths, (commonly called warts), on the body of who is infected. The type of warts that appear are indicators of the string of HPV that is contracted. The most commonly identified outbreaks seen in HPV patients are common, plantar, flat, and genital warts. While the warts are uncomfortable and may cause embarrassment, they typically go away on their own within two years
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for 90% of people (CDC, 2021). Most HPV outbreaks do not lead to cancer, but those that do can be life-threatening for both men and women. The virus most frequently has been linked to cases of cervical cancer, but on occasion has led to cancers of the anus, penis, and throat. Each year in the US, HPV causes over 36,000 cases of cancer in men and women. In fact, nearly all cases of cervical cancer are caused by HPV infections, specifically in cases where the virus does not cause noticeable symptoms (CDC, 2021). As a result of the virus not always showing symptoms, it is important to receive the HPV vaccine to reduce the risk of not only warts but also cancer. Without the vaccine, it is shown that people are put at risk to contract numerous diseases and illnesses that can lead to a lower standard of living and even death.
The HPV Vaccine The HPV vaccine was initially introduced within the United States in 2006 and has since then grown more popular. The only HPV vaccine used within the U.S. is named Gardisil 9, but other vaccines are becoming increasingly available in various countries. The vaccine was approved by the U.S Food and Drug Administration to be used to prevent nine high-risk HPV types (Berger, 2021). These specific strands of HPV have proved to be not only the most prevalent, but also lead to the highest risk of cancer. The vaccine can provide important resistance against a disease that targets those from every demographic. People typically think strictly of women when they hear about the HPV virus, but contrary to popular belief about
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4/10 cases of HPV are men (Egendorf, 2007). It's equally important for men to get the vaccine as they are equally susceptible to contracting the virus.
Herd Immunity When a person thinks of a herd they typically think of groups of animals such as zebras or deer. In its entirety, a herd means a group of beings, such as the animals in this instance, that group together for protection. This precisely captures the phrase of herd immunity that is often used when talking about vaccines. The more teens who get vaccinated before they commit to abstinence or become sexually active, the less that HPV will spread. Safety in numbers greatly applies in this sense, where those who are unvaccinated pose a threat to the general community. Vaccination reduces the prevalence of the infection caused by the HPV virus within the population of adolescents (Human Papillomavirus Vaccines, 2021). This idea in turn reduces infection in those who are not vaccinated, which is where the idea of safety in numbers comes into play. An excellent example of this occurred in Australia where a very high percentage of sexually active girls were vaccinated with Gardasil. The occurrence of genital warts went down during the first four years on males who were not vaccinated while being sexually active with vaccinated girls. (Human Papillomavirus Vaccines, 2021). This data displays the importance of personally getting vaccinated, and how it can help others even if they are not vaccinated themselves. Teens should get vaccinated not only to protect their own bodies but to protect others who may be more vulnerable.
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Qualifications for Receiving the Vaccine The primary target of HPV is those who participate in sexual activity, although a child in America can get vaccinated starting at nine years old. While receiving the vaccine at such a young age may seem pointless to some people, it is vital to get in front of exposure to HPV. If children in the US receive the vaccine before the age of 15, they only require two doses of the vaccine to be fully protected. If a parent opts to have their child wait until they are past the age of 15, they will need three doses to be considered fully vaccinated (Human Papillomavirus Vaccines, 2021). The sound reasoning behind the age difference is that individuals often possess conditions that weaken the immune system after the age of 15, compared to their prior youth. Gardasil is recommended for men and women up to age 26 to protect against HPV, but after the age of 26, a person has more than likely been exposed to HPV (Egendorf, 2007). While it is a personal decision on whether or not to vaccinate a person's children, 11-12 are the recommended ages for vaccination. Children of all ages and genders can and should be vaccinated, but the politics behind vaccination are stronger than ever around HPV.
Risk Factors of the HPV Vaccine Many parents have concerns about the potential side effects and risks that come along with the HPV vaccine. One of the main concerns is that the duration of the vaccine is unknown (Haack, 2016). If a child receives the vaccine at the ripe age of 9 years old, there is not yet sufficient evidence that the vaccine will be effective later in their life when they may be sexually
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active. This concerns many parents as they are concerned that their children will inevitably end up getting HPV regardless of whether or not they get the vaccine. Evidence has shown that it is a possibility that the vaccine could wear off by the time a person turns 30, which unfortunately is the time that females are highly susceptible to the oncogenic effects of the virus (Haack, 2011). As a result of this knowledge, some believe that the vaccine protects teenagers who do not need it but doesn't protect those who do (women over the age of 30). While the true length of the vaccine's life span is unknown, it has been proven time and time again that the vaccine is saving people's lives of every age. Sufficient evidence from a medical journal found that the HPV vaccine cut cervical cancer rates by 87% (CDC, 2021). This means that out of a group of 1,000 teenage girls, over 870 of them will live free of cervical cancer because of the HPV vaccine. The thought process that adolescents are not sexually active is arguably severely outdated and is part of what leads to the spread of STDs in teens.
Financial Precautions An additional concern that surrounds Gardisal within the United States is that the vaccine only covers 4 of the 40 viruses that infect the genital tract. The genital tract is specifically important because that is where cervical cancer grows in women and various other organs in men. This controversy stems from the newest bivalent vaccine which only protects from two low-risk viruses that resolve themselves within a year (Haack, 2011). The thought process follows the idea that because of the low risk of
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these two viruses, it would be a waste of time and money to get vaccinated against them. The HPV vaccine is among the most expensive of vaccines, at a cost of around $500 for the recommended three injections to reach full efficacy. The reasoning behind this financial concern is the relative newness of the vaccine, as well as increasing healthcare costs in America. The cost of the vaccine has become a limiting factor for many families in recent years. Unfortunately, there is not much to be done to reduce the cost of the vaccine but to think about the cost relative to that of viral or cancer treatment. The monetary burden of the HPV virus within the US is astonishing, with an average cost of $3.4 billion dollars per year (Haack, 2011). This number combines the cost of screening, testing, and treating HPV viruses as well as their numerous complications. The cost of treating genital warts alone amounted to $167 million in recent years (CDC, 2021). When thinking about the financial implications of treating HPV, the $500 dollar cost of preventing HPV seems minuscule.
Conclusion After doing a plethora of research, it is my opinion that vaccination is vitally important for people of all ages but should especially be considered for teens as they are considered high risk for contracting STDs. Since FDA approval of Gardasil in 2006, thousands of lives have been saved. This vaccine has the potential to keep making a positive impact not only nationally, but around the world. More than 270 million doses have been given out around the world, and this number will only continue to grow exponentially. Not only does the HPV vaccine prevent the formation of
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cervical cancer, but it also protects men and women alike from dangerous and grotesque side effects that come with HPV. If the adolescents of the 21st century continue to protect themselves from STDs like HPV with vaccines, then there is hope for a brighter and safer future for future generations.
Appendix A The table below provides information on the difference in HPV cases between individuals who are vaccinated and unvaccinated.
Model predictions of cumulative cervical cancer cases and deaths over the period 2020–69 [Table]. (2020, February 10). The Lancet Public Health. https://www. thelancet.com/journals/lanpub/article/PIIS24682667(20)30010-4/fulltext
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References Berger, Miriam. "HPV vaccine drastically reduces risk of cervical cancer, U.K. study finds." Washington Post, 4 Nov. 2021, p. NA. Gale In Context: Science, link.gale.com/apps/doc/A681276290/SCIC?u=ankeny&sid =bookmark-SCIC&xid=75b2627f. Haack, Susan M. "HPV Vaccinations Should Not Be Mandatory." Should Vaccinations be Mandatory?, edited by Roman Espejo, Greenhaven Press, 2014. At Issue. Gale In Context: Opposing Viewpoints, link.gale.com/apps/doc/EJ3010616228/OVIC?u=ankeny& sid=bookmark-OVIC&xid=2bb7febd. Originally published as "HPV Vaccine: Panacea or Pandora's Box? The Costs and Deceptiveness of the New Technology," www.cbhd.org, 4 Feb. 2011. HPV infection. (2021, July 23). CDC. Retrieved February 16, 2022, from https://www. cdc.gov/hpv/parents/about-hpv-sp.html L. Egendorf. “The HPV vaccine is safe and effective.” (2007). At Issue. Sexually Transmitted Diseases. Greenhaven Press. (Reprinted from HPV Vaccine Questions & Answers, www.cdc.gov/netinfo.htm, 2006) https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/EJ3010468213/OVIC?u=ankeny&sid=b ookmark-OVIC&xid=43d89920 Human Papillomavirus (HPV) Vaccines. (2021, May 25). National Cancer Institute. https://www.cancer.gov/about-cancer/causesprevention/risk/infectious-agents/hpv-vaccinefactsheet#:~:text=lasts%20(20).,How%20do%20HPV%20vaccines%20 work%3F,prevent%20it%20from%20infecting%20cells.
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Oncology In Relation to Stem Cell Research Grace Cannon New Century Technology High School
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Purpose of This Study For several years, scientists have agonized over the many complications of stem cell therapy research. There are many issues which come into play, most of which focus on ethical, financial, moral, concerns, as well as those of time and effort. However, as the formation of treatment options progresses, the use of stem cells from an oncology standpoint becomes an increasing possibility. The extent to which the use of these cells will become a plausible treatment option has yet to be determined, however, research studies and current statistics suggest that they will definitely be useful, regardless of whether they’re used as a form of primary care or replenishment of cells. Stem cell research, though currently limited, will prove to be beneficial in cancer treatment as it continues to progress in the medical world. However, the potential risks and ethics of using such treatment could outweigh the positive effects, depending on how the research is pursued.
Stem Cells: Basic Information Stem cells are a vital element to human development, and the majority of cells are derived from them. During early development, an embryo is initially developed using stem cells, and these cells undergo mitosis - cell division and multiplication - to replicate. Stem cells have the genetic coding necessary for every cell type in the human body, and use a process known as selective gene expression to differentiate. Differentiation occurs when only specific genes are expressed in a stem cell, allowing for the cell’s genetic coding to be aimed to perform specific functions (Shelanski, Stem
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Cell Biology). Many cells, such as muscle cells, have the ability to replicate on their own using this same process of mitosis, but each type of cell is initially formed from stem cells themselves. There are two main types of stem cells, embryonic and somatic. The main difference between these two types of cells is the fact that embryonic stem cells can become every type of cell, whereas somatic stem cells are more limited in their options. However, embryonic stem cells are more commonly used in medical research, as they have a much larger variety of possibilities. Because stem cells have the ability to express certain (and any) genes, they have the ability to rebuild damaged and missing tissues (Golde, vol. 265). The degeneration of certain cells can prove to be very dangerous to the human body as it becomes unable to perform tasks that are necessary for survival. Not only do stem cells rebuild degenerated tissue, but they can also replace ones that are missing altogether. For these reasons, stem cells have become very valuable for the treatment of Alzheimer's disease, Stargardt's disease, and Type I diabetes. All of these illnesses are caused by either a deterioration or a complete lack of functioning cells in a specific area of the body. Stem cells can be controlled by manual differentiation under human manipulation, which allows for the treatments to be developed. Unfortunately, the issue behind this is determining which illnesses to research, as in, which have the most priority (Prockop, One Strategy for Cell and Gene Therapy). Despite this, it is evident that stem cell therapy could prove to be a very beneficial tool for treatment of many different types of disease and illness.
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Stem Cell Research: Background Knowledge When examining and pursuing stem cell research, there are various aspects to consider, as well as the extent to which these potential ethical concerns are worth the experimentation itself. As reported by Statista, by 2029 the cost of stem cell research itself will increase to 11 billion USD based on a total global market scale (Mikulic, Stem Cell Therapy Market). This is a large amount of money which could - debatably - be better spent elsewhere. Therefore, it is important to consider the real necessity of stem cell research as a treatment method for cancer. Also seen within the cost aspect is the fact that many cannot afford an individual treatment, which can reach up to 50 to 100 thousand USD, depending on the severity of the disease and aggressiveness required to treat it (The Cost of Stem Cell Therapy in 2021, RSS). This is the case for just one treatment, and there could potentially be many required for the illness. Seeing as the process of using stem cells is still very experimental, many people will choose not to take the risk of paying quite a large sum of money for a treatment that will very possibly be ineffective. Aside from the expense aspect, there is a lot of time and effort that has to go into the development of this treatment. Several years of work, which is currently ongoing, has gone into this type of study, and is still not really close to being ready for full treatment. The amount of energy and focus that this is shifting away from other advancements in medicine is questionable (Monroe, Fundamentals of the Stem Cell Debate). It might not be worth the focus it requires, especially during the current global situation with the pandemic and searching for a way to end it. There is, however, research which suggests that stem cells may be significantly useful in
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helping the human body combat the Coronavirus, such as the work done by the Vitro Biopharma laboratory in California (Blau, Stem Cells in the Treatment of Disease). The question then becomes whether the time and effort required to build and perfect this procedure is worth the financial stress it could put on much of the medical world. Furthermore, the source of the stem cells has the potential to become a tremendous ethical issue. The way that stem cells are commonly derived in allogeneic treatment, where the patient receives stem cells from a donor, is from embryos during the very early stages in development. There are a lot of ethics behind this because many people think that scientists are killing embryos and using their cells and tissues for other people (Stem Cells: Therapy, Controversy, and Research, Medical News Today). There is evidence that shows that embryos have not begun their development as humans until 28 days (and develop a heartbeat within approximately 6 weeks), and scientists cannot ethically or legally continue testing on them past this period of time (Unethical Human Embryos Experiments, Harbingers Daily). However, according to the National Institute of Health, there is still an issue of whether the treatment is worth risking human life, more specifically, how it can be determined which life is more important than the other. Aside from the obvious moral concerns, many people will refuse stem cell research from embryos for religious reasons. Most religions, such as Catholiscsm, Islam, and Judiaism, are not opposed to the use of embryos during a specific time period in their development, which can range anywhere from 40 to 120 days (Powell, Stem Cells, through a Religious Lens). However, once this allotted time has passed, many issues come into play which could result in difficulty
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conducting any sort of real research. Therefore, it is evident that there are various ethical issues within stem cell research, some of which could prove to be very limiting to the study of this form of treatment.
Cancer: The Disease When discussing potential treatment options, however, it is important to understand the disease itself, and the current treatment options in place. According to the National Cancer Institute, cancer is defined as: “[Cancer is] the name given to a collection of related diseases. In all types of cancer, some of the body’s cells begin to divide without stopping and spread into surrounding tissues,” (Types of Cancer Treatment, National Cancer Institute). Similarly, but more simply put, Professor Fiona Watt with the University of Cambridge defines cancer as: “It's a disease in which cells in a part of your body start to grow in an uncontrolled way. Sometimes that will result in formation of a lump, for example if it's in your breast. But if you've got cancer in your blood, the cancer cells will be flowing around your body and then of course the danger is that the cells start to spread to other parts of the body,” (Watt, Cancer and Stem Cells). There are many types, forms, stages, and aggression levels of cancer, meaning seemingly endless possibilities. Because of this, the disease itself is individual to every patient, and it is impossible to use only one form of treatment. However, there are certainly methods which have proven to be beneficial in the past. Some of these include chemotherapy, radiation, surgical removal of cancerous areas and tissues, specific targeting, hormone therapies, and other treatments. Each treatment is useful in different areas. For example, chemotherapy and
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radiation acts to kill infected cells and delay the rapid growth of these cells, which can help to limit or stop the mutated cells from dividing. Surgical removal, or biopsies, can help with both the diagnostic aspect of cancer treatment, as well as the immediate removal of infected areas. Specific targeting and hormone therapies are similar, and work to kill the cancerous tissue in various areas of the body (Types of Cancer Treatment, National Cancer Institute). However, there are complications associated with these forms of treatment. The majority of them kill or remove existing cells. This treatment can be dangerous because it not only kills the bad cells, but all of the good cells in the way, according to the National Cancer Institute. Consequently, the individual is left with a significantly lesser amount of cells than before. The lack of these vital cells will, overtime, prove to be detrimental to the individual’s health.
Stem Cell Treatment: The Concept It is clear based on this that the treatment can prove to be more dangerous than the illness itself. It’s quite possible that the absence of these cells could be dangerous for and even kill the individual, as it is not uncommon for the treatment to be the cause of death as well. Therefore, the possibility of using stem cells as a method to repair this damage is an incredible idea (Shats, Using a Stem Cell–Based Signature to Guide Therapeutic Selection in Cancer). Stem cells could prove to be useful for cancer treatment for reasons far different than any other current treatment. They do not work to kill the existing cells, rather to rebuild and repair the ones that were lost in the process of the other treatments. So often it is the
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treatment that kills the patient, as well as the damage it does, rather than the disease itself (Stem Cell Transplants in Cancer Treatment, National Cancer Institute). With an understanding of this concept, stem cells could be useful in combating some of the effects of other treatments. Therefore, it is necessary to take a step in expanding on this concept.
Interviews with Dr. Tillekeratne, Professor Watt and Mr. Hou This process of research has already begun. In an interview in 2019, Dr. Viranga Tillekeratne, PhD oncologist, discussed observations that have been made based on stem cell research data. When posed the question, “Please briefly describe your study and its findings. Were any of the outcomes particularly surprising” Tillekeratne replied: “...What was surprising was that they still killed a number of cancer cells in cell culture studies and the observed activity was traced to a smaller fragment of the open-chain analogue. Cell death was very rapid, but not all cancer cell types were killed. The fact that some cancer cell types were resistant suggested that we did not simply create a toxin, but must have stumbled on a compound that in some way interacted with specific cell pathways to induce killing... … by killing cancer stem cells, these compounds may interfere with the ability of tumors to repopulate after chemotherapy, or to spread to distant organs,” (Tillekeratne, Researchers Find Potential to Destroy Cancer Stem Cells).
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This concept could completely change the realm of oncology and all kinds of treatment worldwide. Additionally, Professor Fiona Watt with the University of Cambridge discussed her stem cell research process within her lab. When asked the question, “These discoveries have quite important implications for how we're treating cancer, what can we do with this knowledge now to take it forward?” Ms. Watt stated: “You're right that it's very important, what we need to do is now design treatments which will target stem cells rather than the bulk of the tumour. For example, many current treatments for cancer are based on the idea that these are the cells that are growing very fast, however it might be that the stem cells are actually quite sluggish and so you're not doing any good just getting rid of the fast growing cells. Our idea is that we might be able to develop treatments which are more specific and are probably gentler for the rest of your body, they're not going to wipe out all of the normal cells which happen to be growing fast. That's the hope, and that's why people are really excited about stem cells now.” (Watt, Cancer and Stem Cells). This concept dives into a whole new issue, discussing the cancer stem cells themselves, not just the embryonic stem cells which could be used for cancer treatment. Cancer cells have a tendency to grow back as a result of stem cells being formed as the illness spreads. The issue behind the disease itself is complicated but could actually be beneficial for treatment purposes. In this last interview, the following two questions are given to scientist Steven Hou, with the CCR. He is asked: “What is exciting about your new findings?”
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To which he replies: “Cancer stem cells, or CSCs, are usually localized to a storage niche surrounded by a dense cellular environment, which may make them less accessible to the sugar and amino acid nutrition from the body’s circulatory system. Most normal cells rely on sugar and amino acids for their energy supply with lipolysis (fat) playing only a minor role in their survival. Our results show that CSCs are metabolically unique. Like hibernating animals, they mainly rely on lipid reserves for their energy supply, and blocking a process called COPI/Arf1-mediated lipolysis can starve them to death. We also discovered that CSC-like stem cells were more sensitive than normal stem cells to Arf1 inhibition. So we think that by selectively blocking lipolysis, we may be able to kill CSCs without severe side effects. Further, targeting the COPI/Arf1 complex or the lipolysis pathway appear to be novel approaches for eliminating CSCs. “What are your next steps?” To which he replies: “Findings from our study open new avenues in both stem cell research and in identifying novel molecular markers for cancer treatments. We are following this new direction by investigating the molecular mechanism of the COPI/Arf1-regulated lipolysis in stem cells in different models. We are studying the function of Arf1 in regulating normal stem cells and CSCs in mice. We are also testing Arf1 and other lipolysis inhibitors to eliminate CSCs and see the effects on tumors in mouse tumor models. Finally, we are screening new anti-CSC drugs in whole fly stem cell tumor models and will test promising agents in
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mouse tumor models.” (Eliminating Cancer Stem Cells, Center for Cancer Research).
Hou, along with the rest of the specialists within his lab, plan on continuing their study with fruit flies to observe stem cell patterns and habits. This data so far has helped them to determine how cancers seem to develop stem cells, which help them to reproduce rapidly and ultimately form tumors. These cancer stem cells, as seen in data below, cause a greater rate of increase of cancer cells, and endanger all healthy tissues. Within these three interviews, it is suggested that the use of stem cells will be very important for future treatment, which is a very exciting prospect to the medical industry.
Data Studies and Analysis There are numerous studies which can be found focusing on stem cell research, treatment, and other cancer therapies. The National Cancer Institute as well as the governmental cancer research database contains much of this information. Very common cancers that are investigated regarding stem cells include leukemia (cancer of the blood) and breast cancer. Below are results from the research study, “Using a Stem Cell–Based Signature to Guide Therapeutic Selection in Cancer”, as well as an evaluation of this information (Shats, Using a Stem Cell–Based Signature to Guide Therapeutic Selection in Cancer).
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This research was conducted with the assumption that, given the significant heterogeneity of most human cancers, most cancer therapeutics are likely to be effective in just a limited percentage of any patient population (Shats, Using a Stem Cell–Based Signature to Guide Therapeutic Selection in Cancer). Therefore, it is likely that even the most effective treatment will not be beneficial to a certain group of individuals. However, the research which was conducted by the scientists Igor Shats et al. This figure depicts the development of a CSR signature, in which 1,143 breast
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cancer samples were used to measure the extent to which tumors mimic characteristics of stem cells. Within this diagram, the blue represents low rankings, while the red, high rankings. In this case, low rankings refer to high relation to stem cell characteristics, and vice versa. In chart D, each of the dots represents the means of three different experiments, showing the overall levels of components which are similar to stem cells. (Shats, Using a Stem Cell–Based Signature to Guide Therapeutic Selection in Cancer). This type of information is the foundation for any sort of discovery towards treatment. Without the knowledge obtained from studies like these, a great deal of information would never be discovered regarding cancer research. It is patient information that gives the best insight on how a doctor can help. The separations of all of these patients gave valuable information to the researchers, as a lot was learned about the CSR phenotype and its significance. This knowledge was carried into figure two.
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This study focused primarily on CSR phenotype levels. Generally speaking, high levels of CSR is associated with poor survival of cancer types. The specific test used within this was binary regression, which estimates the relationship between variables. This test was conducted by splitting the samples into two cohorts and calculating their P values; the red represents high CSR content, and the green, low. The different A, B, C, and D charts represent the survival analytics of the following (Shats, Using a Stem Cell– Based Signature to Guide Therapeutic Selection in Cancer): A: Estrogen receptor positive breast tumors. B: Estrogen receptor positive (grade one) breast tumors. C: Lung carcinomas (cancers beginning in epithelial cells). D: Medulloblastomas (within the brain).
Overall, this data is specifically referring to CSR phenotype contents as well as significance within cancer genetics. Based on this data, it is evident that a higher CSR probability left a patient more at risk for complications with cancer severity levels and treatment. This basically means that people with more cancer stem cells in their system had an increased rate of cancer development and struggled more to fight the disease off. Logically this lines up because a stem cell has the ability to form many new cells. The next two figures support this same idea because they are studying specifically how to treat patients with a higher CSR concentration. This is evident in both descriptions below.
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The chart above shows the results from the use of specific drugs in treating high-CSR cancers. In this diagram, the dark grey represents high CSR concentration, and the light grey, low. The boxes themselves represent the 25th to 75th percentile, and there is a line drawn in the middle to represent the middle. It is evident which treatments were the most effective; resveratrol clearly had the most impact on the cells (Shats, Using a Stem Cell–Based Signature to Guide Therapeutic Selection in Cancer).
The diagram above shows the clinical significance of levels of CSR. Ultimately, as written directly in the photo caption, “patients that achieved a
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pCR to TFAC had a significantly higher CSR signature score than patients that did not respond to TFAC (P < 0.0001 by 2-tailed Mann–Whitney test).” (Shats, Using a Stem Cell–Based Signature to Guide Therapeutic Selection in Cancer). With this knowledge that cancer stem cells cause a rapid spread of diseased cells within the human body, one can infer that healthy stem cells would have a similar effect in repairing damaged tissues. This is a concept which has been investigated for the last several years. In fact, many scientific studies have been conducted to support and investigate this concept. The graph below was composed by scientists Darwin J. Prockop et al. during their experimental study “One strategy for cell and gene therapy: Harnessing the power of adult stem cells to repair tissues.” (Prockop, One Strategy for Cell and Gene Therapy). In this research, they were studying heart tissue and the effect that stem cells will have on its ability to repair itself. The results are shown below.
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This graph was described as representing “Lag period and rapid expansion of early-passage human MSCs plated at low densities.” (Prockop, One Strategy for Cell and Gene Therapy). This is a separate experiment but the results show this same concept that having a higher level of stem cells will increase the growth rate of this specific type of cell. Stem cells rapidly increase the production of other cells, which is why having a high level of CSR cells (as was discussed in the other study) can become very dangerous for a cancer patient (Prockop, One Strategy for Cell and Gene Therapy). The graph above shows this concept and works to explain the fact that not only did the number of cells grow rapidly, but the cell thickness also increased a great deal. This research is the foundation for many projects following it.
Where This Information Leaves Scientists All of this information was fascinating to numerous oncologists, and many of them have used it greatly to their advantage and that of numerous patients. Both scientific research studies presented above are key concepts that are necessary to understand when examining the initial research idea focusing around the extent to which the use of stem cell therapy will be a viable option for oncology research and treatment in years to come. The understanding that cancer stem cells cause significantly more damage to tissue, while healthy stem cells greatly aid in repairing tissues, is vital. It shows that stem cells just might be the key in all future cancer treatment development. This is because of the following reason; if stem cells can heal
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sick tissue, why shouldn’t they be able to repair the damage which cancer has inflicted on other healthy cells? Based on this, it is evident that stem cell research proves to be a very beneficial potential cancer treatment as it progresses within medicine. There are notable concerns involved, however it may be worth the sacrifice involved to take these risks to reach an ultimate treatment method aiding in the development of a strong cancer repair tool. As science develops, we are starting to look outside of the nature of this terrible disease, and focus more on the repercussions of the treatments for these diseases. Unfortunately, this is much easier said than done, because of the previously discussed expense involved when conducting this sort of research. There are numerous causes that need these funds to support their studies, so it’s definitely up to the officials to decide which takes priority. With the knowledge and understanding of the importance of this, it is evident that the use of stem cells in cancer recovery and treatment may just be the holy grail of oncology itself.
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References Abeloff, Martin D., et al. Abeloff's Clinical Oncology. Elsevier, 2020. Blau, Helen M., et al. “Stem Cells in the Treatment of DISEASE: NEJM.” New England Journal of Medicine, 29 Aug. 2019,www.nejm.org/ doi/full/10.1056/NEJMra1716145. “Cancer and Stem Cells.” Interviews | Naked Scientists, www.thenakedscientists.com/articles/interviews/cancer-and-stem-cells. “The Cost of Stem Cell Therapy in 2021.” RSS, www.dvcstem.com/post/stemcell-therapy-cost-2020. “Eliminating Cancer Stem Cells: An Interview with CCR's Steven Hou.” Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, ccr.cancer.gov/. Golde, David W. “The Stem Cell.” Scientific American, vol. 265, no. 6, 1991, pp. 86–93. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/24938834. Accessed 11 Jan. 2021. “Introduction to Stem Cells.” National Institutes of Health, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, stemcells.nih.gov/info/basics/. Mikulic, Matej. “Stem Cell THERAPY Market by Treatment WORLDWIDE 2029 Forecast.” Statista, 22 Oct. 2020, www.statista.com/statistics/ 1095690/stem-cell-therapy-market-worldwide-by-treatmenttype/#:~:text=The%20total%20global%20stem%20cell%20therapy%20 mar
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The Consumer Benefits of Developing and Investing in Fully Autonomous Surgical Robots Micah Chen Foster High School
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Artificial intelligence revolutionized the way surgery had been performed for centuries. By incorporating artificial intelligence and computer robotic systems into surgical equipment, surgeons are now able to perform minimal invasive operations (surgery performed with small incisions), minimize unwanted motion, and improve the dexterity in the operation (Loftus et. al, 2020). According to a peer reviewed article published in the Journal of the American Medical Association, approximately 15% of all surgical procedures as of 2018 have relied on some sort of robot assisted surgery (Sheetz et. al, 2020). However, in order to further leverage the potential of surgical robots in the future, the development and investment into fully autonomous surgical equipment must increase as this contribution would allow for autonomous surgical equipment to improve efficiency in the operating room as well as stimulating a new and more innovative way to perform surgery. The most used robot assisted surgery (RAS) in the U.S., like DaVinci and Intuitive Surgical Inc. were robot assisted tissue surgery pioneers in the 1980’s greatly improving tissue surgery in providing surgeons with better tissue access and scope (Catchpole et. al, 2019). However, even with these RAS systems, 30% of the worlds 232 million soft tissue surgery still result in complications (Smooth Operator: Robot Could Transform Soft-Tissue Surgery, 2017). Researchers from the Children’s National Hospital argues that the reason for RAS complications is because current RAS is “Limited to direct control master-slave use, which is highly dependent on the surgeon and does not take advantage of the precision, repeatability, and speed of robotic technology (Smart Tissue Anastomosis
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Robot | Children’s National Hospital, 2020).” Leading researchers on autonomous tissue surgery from John Hopkins University and the Children’s National Hospital are now developing the Smart Tissue Autonomous Robot or STAR, which is an autonomous robot that can perform soft tissue surgery and tissue suturing solely on artificial intelligence (Saeidi et. al, 2018). STAR is currently a highly successful proof-of-concept autonomous robot which runs on image-based commands and algorithms specialized for laparoscopic suturing (abdomen stitching) (Leonard et. al, 2014). The STAR’s suturing skills were tested in 2016 on a live, anesthetized pig and then compared with human surgeons with different surgical tools and the DaVinci system, a robot assisted surgical tool (Saeidi et. al, 2018). They were tested on the quality of stitches, spacing, and their ability to fabricate a leakproof intestinal tubing. Overall, the STAR’s ability to evenly space stitches and fabricating a high pressure resistant intestinal tubing surpassed the human surgeon and DaVinci surgeon. However, the most exceptional aspect of the experiment was the speed in which STAR completed the suturing. STAR completed the suturing almost 5 times faster than the human surgeon and 2 times faster compared to the robot assisted surgeon using DaVinci (Saeidi et. al, 2018). While mastering precision, accuracy, strength, and quality in suturing and intestinal tubing, the autonomous STAR system provides an all-round system for tissue surgery and utilizes the advantage of speed in which robots and artificial intelligence possesses. Without ever needing a human surgeon, autonomous surgical robots have the potential to perform quality and precise invasive operations at a more efficient speed which in return can treat more patients faster.
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Furthermore, investing in fully autonomous surgical robots could also usher a new and more innovative way to perform surgery. In 1994, CyberKnife, invented at the Stanford’s Health Center, revolutionized cancer treatment by allowing lesions that are difficult to access surgically to be removed through radiosurgery (Song et. al, 2015). It was developed as an autonomous robot because the doctors were not allowed in the room due to the radiation in the treatment. CyberKnife is able to locate the tumor by itself using x-ray image tracking and can irradiate tumors using precise radiation beams without the surgeon ever needing to control the robot (Tovar et. al, 2012). Radiosurgery has now been proven to be an effective alternative to traditional invasive tumor removal as its success rate are generally higher mainly because it can minimize healthy tissue damage with its pinpoint accuracy (Song et. al, 2015). CyberKnife was developed in a time when nearly all cancer treatment was conducted through invasive surgeries. Nevertheless, CyberKnife broke new surgical grounds by incorporating radiation in autonomous surgery which allowed multiple types of cancer to be treated through a more effective way. In 2019, KUKA, a German industrial robotics company announced the first clinical success of CARLO or Cold Ablation, Robot-guided Laser Osteotome (osteotome is bone surgery) (Baek et. al, 2020). For decades, bone surgery operations were always carried out using saws and drills. But CARLO, an autonomous robotic system now introduces “cold” laser technology for osteotome operations. CARLO uses the latest “laser-scalpel” technology to deliver osteotome surgery with upmost precision and in a defined patient specific cut. Before the CARLO method was invented, no
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conventional methods were able to keep the bone tissue in the area of the surgery alive and intact. Traditional osteotome usually resulted in a long recovery time (Baek et. al, 2020). CARLO like CyberKnife utilizes leading edge technologies and transforms it into being operative in osteotome surgeries improving the way bone surgery has been conducted ever since. Developing fully autonomous surgical systems not only maximizes the benefit of artificial intelligence, it also allows for new and innovative techniques to be discovered and utilized in a surgical setting which could never be discovered if surgeries continued to only use RAS. Despite the benefits of investing and developing autonomous surgical systems, the main controversy that goes against autonomous systems is the fear that autonomous surgical will become flummoxed at a scenario it has not encountered. Since autonomous surgical systems are generally programmed to achieve a specific task, critics argue that autonomous surgical systems don’t have decision making and reasoning to account for the factors and circumstances that are distinctively different in every operation (Alluri et. al, 2016). As explained in a peer reviewed article published in the National Library of Medicine, the true potential of autonomous surgical systems lies in its machine learning which is capable of adapting and generating the statistically best decision, not the algorithms (Hashimoto, 2018). Hashimoto, an associate director of research for Surgical Artificial Intelligence and Innovation at the Massachusetts General Hospital, envisioned a synergy across the autonomous systems which will combine all operations performed with autonomous robots into a shared database (Hashimoto, 2018). Allowing the autonomous surgical systems to have a shared database of clinical results
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will permit the autonomous surgical systems to constantly innovate and generate decision support when necessary. The idea of utilizing a shared database will then make the autonomous surgical system nearly impossible to become flummoxed. By combining the knowledge of the best surgeons as well as years of machine learning into a shared database of autonomous robots, this will allow autonomous robots to deliver universal access to the best surgical operations at a more efficient pace. Developing and investing in autonomous robots will also allow for innovations and leading edge technology to be incorporated in autonomous surgical robots which will improve the surgical techniques being delivered. Although researchers don’t expect autonomous surgical robots to replace human surgeons or robot assisted surgical systems anytime soon, as Yonjae Kim, a researcher from STAR says, “If it saves lives, it’s worth exploring (Vincent, 2016).”
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References Alluri, R. K., Leland, H., & Heckmann, N. (2016). Surgical research using national databases. Annals of translational medicine, 4(20), 393. https://doi.org/ 10.21037/atm.2016.10.49 Baek, K., Dard, M., Zeilhofer, H., Cattin, P. C., & Juergens, P. (2020). Comparing the Bone Healing After Cold Ablation Robot‐Guided Er:YAG Laser Osteotomy and Piezoelectric Osteotomy—A Pilot Study in a Minipig Mandible. Lasers in Surgery and Medicine. https://doi:10.1002/lsm.23281 Catchpole, K., Bisantz, A., Hallbeck, M. S., Weigl, M., Randell, R., Kossack, M., & Anger, J. T. (2019). Human factors in robotic assisted surgery: Lessons from studies 'in the Wild'. Applied ergonomics, 78, 270–276. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apergo.2018.02.011 Gkegkes, I. D., Mamais, I. A., & Iavazzo, C. (2017). Robotics in general surgery: A systematic cost assessment. Journal of minimal access surgery, 13(4), 243–255. https://doi.org/10.4103/0972-9941.195565 Hashimoto, D. A., Rosman, G., Rus, D., & Meireles, O. R. (2018). Artificial Intelligence in Surgery: Promises and Perils. Annals of surgery, 268(1), 70–76. https://doi.org/10.1097/SLA.0000000000002693 Kim, Y., Leonard, S., Shademan, A., Krieger, A., & Kim, P. C. W. (2014). Kinect technology for hand tracking control of surgical robots: technical and surgical skill comparison to current robotic masters. Surgical Endoscopy, 28(6), 1993–2000. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00464-0133383-8
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Kurup G. (2010). CyberKnife: A new paradigm in radiotherapy. Journal of medical physics, 35(2), 63–64. https://doi.org/10.4103/0971-6203.62194 Leonard, S., Wu, K. L., Kim, Y., Krieger, A., & Kim, P. C. (2014). Smart tissue anastomosis robot (STAR): a vision-guided robotics system for laparoscopic suturing. IEEE transactions on bio-medical engineering, 61(4), 1305–1317. https://doi.org/10.1109/TBME.2014.2302385 Saeidi, H., Opfermann, J. D., Kam, M., Raghunathan, S., Leonard, S., & Krieger, A. (2018). A Confidence- Based Shared Control Strategy for the Smart Tissue Autonomous Robot (STAR). Proceedings of the ... IEEE/RSJ International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems. IEEE/RSJ International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems, 2018, 1268– 1275. https://doi.org/10.1109/IROS.2018.8594290 Sheetz K., Claflin J., Dimick B. (2020). Trends in the Adoption of Robotic Surgery for Common Surgical Procedures. JAMA Network Open, 3(1):e1918911. https://doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2019.18911 Smart Tissue Anastomosis Robot (STAR) | Children’s National Hospital. (2020). Childrensnational.org. https://childrensnational.org/research-andeducation/sheikh- zayed/projects/bioengineering/smart-tissueanastomosis-robot-star
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Smooth Operator: Robot Could Transform Soft-Tissue Surgery. (2017). The Alliance of Advanced BioMedical Engineering. https://aabme.asme.org/posts/smooth-operator-robot-couldtransform-soft-tissue-surgery Song, Y., Yuan, Z., Li, F., Dong, Y., Zhuang, H., Wang, J., Chen, H., & Wang, P. (2015). Analysis of clinical efficacy of CyberKnife(®) treatment for locally advanced pancreatic cancer. OncoTargets and therapy, 8, 1427– 1431. https://doi.org/10.2147/OTT.S81939 Tovar-Arriaga, S., Vargas, J. E., Ramos, J. M., Aceves, M. A., Gorrostieta, E., & Kalender, W. A. (2012). A fully sensorized cooperative robotic system for surgical interventions. Sensors (Basel, Switzerland), 12(7), 9423– 9447. https://doi.org/10.3390/s120709423 Vincent, J. (2016). A robot surgeon has passed a major milestone — sewing up pig guts. The Verge. https://www.theverge.com/2016/5/ 4/11591024/robot-surgery-autonomous-smart- tissue-star-system
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An Arbitrary Line Separates Designer Babies from Genetic Cures Ahnna Faust Divine Savior-Holy Angels High School
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Having a twin or even a triplet to share DNA could be fun; it automatically ensures some other human shares at least a degree of understanding of a few of your outward struggles. Yet, having tens or even hundreds of twins that look and sound the same as you would decrease any sense of uniqueness or individual identity. Catastrophized images of genetic engineering conjure such images; those with access to the technology could eliminate any characteristics they deem undesirable and intensify certain abilities or physical attributes. The term “designer babies” describes humans with unnecessary genetic enhancements or preemptively chosen characteristics: from eye color and skin tone to personality and cognitive ability. For the past few decades, the fear of these genetically modified humans was a fear for the future, an issue humans thought about and perhaps found intriguing because it could not affect them at the moment. However, with the development of Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats (CRISPR), the weariness of such genetically modified humans might be more realistic and looming than originally thought. CRISPR allows scientists to make “precise modifications to DNA” by deleting and inserting different sequences to the human genome (Stein). Already within the first decade of its existence, scientists have treated and cured genetically derived medical conditions using CRISPR, such as sickle cell anemia and Leber congenital amaurosis type 10 (Current Clinical Research). Their discoveries and ongoing human trials with CRISPR give the scientific community and affected patients hope about the potentially wide array of diseases CRISPR could address, including certain cancers.
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Despite the many positive advances scientists have recently made surrounding CRISPR and its potential to save or improve lives, scientists have not forgotten its ultimate power in altering the rest of the human genome to create humans with desired characteristics, especially after Chinese scientists He Jainkui performed his risky and unapproved experiment. In November 2018, against the rules and regulations of the Chinese government, He Jainkui used CRISPR to modify the CCR5 gene of two twin girls and try to make them immune to HIV (Raposo). Concerns for twins' safety subsequently intensified the debate in the scientific community about the regulations and dangerous potential of CRISPR without prior evidence on using CRISPR on the CCR5 gene and their low risk of actually contracting HIV from their father. The public outcry after He Jainkui’s experiment questioned scientists where they should draw a firm line to determine cosmetic and optional use of CRISPR versus medical treatment. Because of the many advances in safety detection and application of CRISPR in the recent year, scientists should begin to implement it into regular medical treatment and broaden the scope of its application to new trials and diseases. With the accuracy and potential powerfulness of CRISPR, however, governments must regulate its use closely by outlawing it on non-life threatening or altering diseases to ensure it remains a medical treatment as opposed to a tool to predetermine human characteristics.
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Igniting the Fire The majority of fears surrounding genetic modification lie within the unknowns--the unanswered questions derived from such a new technology and concept--surrounding CRISPR. In order to address a few burning questions after the invention of CRISPR and more urgent potential side effects, The Danish Council on Ethics in 2016 released a statement outlining their initial perspective against the introduction of CRISPR to human trials. Multiple scientists on the council deemed the leap from performing animal and stem-cell research to human trials “far too risky and costly” (Danish Council on Ethics). Their statement implies the research, supplies, and procedure for applying CRISPR to a patient would limit possible recipients to more affluent individuals instead of those most in need. Further limitations according to the Council’s argument include a lack of human trials or research that would allow smoother implementation of CRISPR into modern medicine, creating a cycle of uncertainty for fear of catastrophic genetic mutations. In agreement with the Danish Council on Ethics, professor at the University of Macao, China and master of Law in Medical Ethics Vera Lucia Raposo concluded such uncertainties make it “too early” for use of CRISPR as a “regular therapeutic procedure” (Raposo). The unpredicted results from recent trials led to an influx of even more questions and concerns which pin more people against the idea of ever integrating genetic engineering into modern medical treatment. They fear experiments similar to He Jainkaui, unnecessary to save the girls’ lives and cosmetically altering, and the mutations that would risk their safety, citing those risks as reasons not to allow any genetic modifications in human patients.
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Aside from questions regarding safety of treating diseases with CRISPR, its potential to alter genomes--the control panel for daily functions and biological capabilities--plagues scientists with questions of boundaries and where they should stop editing. Because CRISPR and gene editing alter the very foundation for living organisms, many scientists oppose the idea of gene editing at all, viewing it as a threat to nature. Further into its analysis of gene editing, the Danish Council on Ethics cited concerns of applying CRISPR to diseases unnecessarily, which would affect the natural order of life, “too complex or incomprehensible for” human involvement (Danish Council on Ethics). Especially considering the importance of genomes in determining the very development of life, humans inserting themselves into the intricate balance of life could lead to detrimental consequences. For example, the group concluded tampering with life’s natural order could diminish biological diversity and lead to “standardization ultimately bordering on totalitarianism” within a community (Danish Council on Ethics). They argue that if utilized with immoral intentions, genetic modification could allow individuals to create dystopian societies, in which all citizens possess similar DNA and advanced capabilities. Again, the council fears the unknown future uses of CRISPR and its potential to harm and disrupt society. While many of the concerns about destructing natural order and biological diversity are valid, close government regulation to outlaw cosmetic applications of CRISPR provides a boundary to allow safer application to treat those suffering from genetic diseases. The unknown side effects surrounding CRISPR caused most of the public outcry following He Jainkui’s experiment attempting to make two twin girls immune to HIV using CRISPR, despite their low risk of contracting it.
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During the experiment, Jainkui edited the CCR5 gene in the two girls to prevent them from inheriting HIV from their father, though the Chinese Ministry of Health banned such research on “human in vitro embryos after the 14th day of existence” (Raposo). The trial caused such an uproar because it blatantly broke the codes designed to maintain level of safety and order surrounding genetic modification. Scientists deliberate over the twins’ future safety, who may face a higher risk of contracting “the West Nile virus and severe flu” from the edits performed on their CCR5 gene (Raposo). Without the structure and support of a larger, more established body, the trial applied unresearched procedures for non-life threatening conditions, especially because scientists suspect He Jainkui edited the gene CCR5 gene to enhance the twins’ cognitive abilities. Contrasting the illegal environment of the experiment performed in China, human trials in the United States, Canada, and Europe aim to “test CRISPR’s efficacy in treating various diseases” and have already seen success in curing sickle cell anemia (Stein). Though the two experiments performed trials on different sections of the human genome, the newer studies and the experiment in China contrasted in their environments and revealed the need for a stable, regulated environment to optimize trial results and diminish the number of CRISPR’s unknown concerns to optimize its realistic potential in regular medical practice.
The Key to an Improved Quality of Life Most critics of the idea of genetic engineering write off its benefits as hypothetical to the future, something that could benefit millions in the future,
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yet new human trials with CRISPR reveal its ability to benefit peoples’ lives right now. According to Robin Lovell-Badge, scientists have “adequately vetted” CRISPR in a laboratory setting and deem now a “reasonable time to test the tool in adults” (Weintraub). As a British geneticist, stem cell researcher, and leader of the Francis Crick Institute in England, Lovell-Badge’s professional opinion refutes arguments suggesting scientists need more research and concrete information to leap from animal and stem cell trials to human ones. For example, thousands suffer from the genetic condition sickle cell anemia, which requires a “lifetime of treatment” and can cause those suffering “to die earlier than expected” (CRISPR Therapeutics). Because of its potential complications, sickle cell anemia would fall into the category of lifealtering diseases to which scientists should apply CRISPR. To improve the lives of those suffering from the disease, the company CRISPR therapeutics developed a technique to cure sickle cell anemia by editing the BCL11A gene to “restart production of fetal hemoglobin” and then reinsert the new genetically improved cells into the patient’s bone marrow (Weintraub). The technique already produced successful outcomes because it prevented “sickle cell” from recurring and allowing their bodies “to make healthy blood cells'' (Weintraub). With their success in controlled trials on adults, CRISPR Therapeutics now offers the technology to a small portion of the general public suffering from the disease, exemplifying the ability to move from laboratory setting to human trials in a controlled environment. With the success of human trials, scientists can begin to implement the technology into medical procedures without as much hesitancy because CRISPR would
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improve the patients’ lives as opposed to merely making cosmetic changes for them. In addition to treating patients with sickle cell anemia using CRISPR, scientists’ recent success in curing Leber congenital amaurosis type 10 further proves their ability to safely implement the technology in controlled environments. Leber congenital amaurosis affects children from birth and often causes them to develop severe vision loss or blindness due to “a severe cone-rod dystrophy” (Maedar). Affecting children from birth, CRISPR would improve the lives of those affected by Leber congenital amaurosis, and the disease’s potential to cause blindness deems it a life-altering medical condition too which medical professionals should apply CRISPR. Specifically, the application of CRISPR works to remove the severe irregular shape by editing the cells inside the body. Because all of the gene alterations occur in the eye and won’t spread to other parts of the body if an undesired mutation were to occur, scientists deemed it a “relatively safe place to test” (Weintraub). Researchers, while still taking the large leap between studying CRISPR in laboratory settings to applying it to human cells, managed to limit potential safety malfunctions by focusing their trials on certain areas. Though the experiments still contained some major risks, their ultimate success in discovering the only current cure to Leber congenital amaurosis reveals CRISPR’s ability to fix a genetic disorder and broadens the scope of its potential to cure other life-threatening conditions. Recent studies on treating genetic derived cancers with CRISPR further expand the horizon of genetic engineering to save and elongate millions of lives. CRISPR technologies, a company dedicated to researching CRISPR and
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its capabilities, started trials in 2019 to study application to “blood cancers such as B- and T- cell lymphomas and multiple myeloma” (CRISPR Therapeutics). Though only applicable to a limited subset of patients with certain conditions, the trials provide hope that further research could expand CRISPR’s capabilities to cure other forms of cancer born out of genetic mutation. The technique analyzed by CRISPR therapeutics in these preliminary trials modifies T cells, part of the human immune system, and reintroduces them into the patient’s body, so they can “find and kill cancer cells” (CRISPR Therapeutics). Because the two types of cancers in the preliminary trials involve the same type of T-cells researchers edited with CRISPR, they are the most likely to respond to the treatment, yet scientists could extend the same process to other forms of cancer once they obtain successful results. While the studies performed by CRISPR technologies have not yet been published or completed, their success so far provides the public with hope of one day using CRISPR to cure cancer along with other medical conditions. Cancers clearly fall into the category of life-threatening medical conditions, so the research towards the right diseases reduces focus on more cosmetic genetic procedures.
Two Steps Forwards, One Step Back With each new trial and success surrounding CRISPR, the results discover new side effects which slow down its full introduction as a medical treatment, such as unintended gene mutations on another portion of the human genome after use of CRISPR. In preliminary studies, scientists focused
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their analysis of CRISPR on targeted, limited genome sequences, yet when broadening their research, they discovered large deletions and rearrangements of DNA in other areas of the genome after exposure to CRISPR (Kosicki). A lack of precision in CRISPR could be detrimental to the process of introducing it to society by posing new safety objections about such off target mutations overpowering humans’ daily functions. Though the University of Cambridge and Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Michael Kosicki and two of his colleagues organized a 2018 study on mice genomes and a human cell line to conclude the unintended mutations could “have pathological consequences.” (Kosicki). Such pathological consequences could cause “severe side effects,” including additional genetically derived diseases, which make scientists hesitate in introducing CRISPR to clinical applications (Warneck). The potential that irrelevant DNA changes could affect the genome without detections frightens scientists, again reminding them of the unknown factors that would slow or limit the integration of CRISPR into routine medical practice. In order to alleviate those concerns and regenerate trust and hope in CRISPR’s abilities, companies already developed processes and equipment to address the safety concerns and allow scientists to continue researching techniques to address genetic diseases. Though undesired mutations to DNA with potential severe side effects seems threatening, the invention of new technologies addresses and alleviates those safety concerns. The company COBO Technologies developed a technology platform called PIPPR® to very precisely identify proteins and then compare the images of before and after the trials to “identify changes that may have occurred during genome editing” (Warneck). While the
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PIPPR® platform doesn't prevent undesired mutations, it offers patients an additional level of screening to ensure their safety and recognize the mutations before they develop further and result in severe side effects. COBO Technologies and similar companies’ devotion to developing and researching safety technology alleviates most concern regarding undesired mutations in the genome because it establishes their commitment to finding solutions to such issues. Further diminishing safety concerns, according to Dr. Kevin Smith, a bioethicist at Abertay University, even if CRISPR does cause undesired mutations, the human genomes involve such complex and lengthy DNA sequences that only a microscopic number of them affect the day to day functions of humans. Thus, the probability of the offstrand mutations causing visible side effects and pathological consequences is very low (Smith). The low probability that mutations would cause severe side effects and with modern companies focused on detecting and addressing safety concerns revolving around CRISPR, scientists should begin to feel comfortable introducing the technology into the public to allow it to expand its capabilities and help those suffering from debilitating genetic diseases.
But What if I’m Not a Millionaire? A common misconception about genetic engineering maintains that it is reserved for the rich in society and very expensive, so only those with sufficient funds will benefit from CRISPR’s ability to improve the quality of lives. The Danish Council on Ethics cited such expensiveness as a reason not to implement CRISPR into regular medical procedures because it would
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disturb the natural order and give those with the most money the power to control biological functions (Danish Council on Ethics). Limiting CRISPR access to only the most prosperous undermines its purpose to improve and save the lives of its patients, a concern the most recent CRISPR trials addressed. The preliminary trials facilitated by the company CRISPR Therapeutics filtered participants based on medical need and preexisting conditions, not who could pay for them (CRISPR Therapeutics). The successful trials of applying CRISPR to sickle cell anemia and Leber congenital amaurosis provided medical treatment to an array of patients with various backgrounds and financial states. Compared to other current forms of genetic engineering, CRISPR is cheaper and more accurate, making it the ideal choice for treating currently incurable diseases like Leber congenital amaurosis type 10 (Smith). With its cheaper techniques, CRISPR gives a wider group of people access to advanced modern technologies to allow those most in need treatment instead of becoming a tool for the wealthiest to perform cosmetic or unnecessary procedures.
What’s Next? Successful clinical applications of CRISPR, especially with sickle cell anemia and Leber congenital amaurosis, support the argument that scientists should begin to implement it into regular medical treatments. New inventions further support the integration of CRISPR into modern medicine by eliminating main concerns about undesirted deletions and insertions in the genome. Others hesitate allowing genetic engineering for ethical reasons and
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fears of disturbing a natural order, yet limiting the use of CRISPR to controlled, medical environments and only life-altering or threatening diseases would prevent it from evolving into a tool for the powerful to select their childrens’ every characteristic. As long as regulators take a strong hold on limiting use of CRPSIR to only medical procedures that would improve or save the quality of life, the future and current cures from CRISPR outweigh the minimal risks from implementing it into regular medical treatments. While CRISPR is often portrayed as the gateway to dystopian societies with biologically uniform humans, it truly is the gateway to curing cancer and many other genetically derived diseases.
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References “Current Clinical Research.” CRISPR Therapeutics, 2021, http://www.crisprtx.com/patients/current-clinical-research. Accessed 5 May 2021. Kosicki, Michael, et al. “Repair of double-strand breaks introduced by CRISPRCas9 leads to large deletions and complex rearrangements.” Nature Biotechnology, 16 July 2018, Research Gate, https://www.researchgate.net/publication/326429946_Repair_of_doub le-strand_breaks_i nduced_by_CRISPR-Cas9_leads_to_large_ deletions_and_complex_rearrangements. Accessed 29 April 2021. Maeder, Morgan, et al. “Development of a gene-editing approach to restore vision loss in Leber congenital amaurosis type 10.” Nature Medicine, 21 January 2019, https://go.nature.com/2OVRaXI. Accessed 28 April 2021. Raposo, Vera Lucia. “The First Chinese Edited Babies: A Leap of Faith in Science.” JBRA assisted reproduction vol. 23,3 pp. 197-199, 22 Aug. 2019, https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6724388/. Accessed 7 May 2021. Smith, Kevin. “Time to start intervening in the human germline? A utilitarian perspective.” Bioethics, 15 November 2019, https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1111/bioe.12691. Accessed 29 March 2021.
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“Statement from the Danish Council on Ethics on genetic modification of future humans.” Danish Council on Ethics, 2016, https://www.etiskraad.dk/~/media/EtiskRaad/en/Publications/Stateme nt-on-genetic-modi fication-of-future-humans-2016.pdf. Accessed 7 May 2021. Stein, Rob. “First US Patients Treated with CRISPR as Human Gene-Editing Trials Get Underway.” NPR, 26 April 2019, https://www.npr.org/ sections/health-shots/2019/04/16/712402435/first-u-s-patientstreated-with-crispr-as-gene-editing-human-trials-get-underway. Accessed 30 April 2021. Warneck, Larissa. “Taking CRISPR Safety to the Next Level.” Labiotech.eu. 12 Nov. 2019. https://www.labiotech.eu/partner/crispr-safety-proteome/. Accessed 29 April 2021. Weintraub, Karen. “Despite Controversy, Human Studies of CRISPR Move Forward in the U.S.” Scientific American, 27 August 2019, https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/despite-controversyhuman-studies-of-crispr- move-forward-in-the-u-s/. Accessed 27 April 2021.
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Deep Brain Stimulation Discovery: A Multifaceted Approach to Deep Brain Stimulation with New Advances in Neurosurgical Testing Equipment and Synchronization of Alpha and Beta-Bands of Postural Instability in a Parkinson’s Disease Patient Aayush Goud Wayzata High School
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Acknowledgements This work was supported by the Udall Center for Excellence in Parkinson's Disease, National Institutes of Health - National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke: P50-NS098573; and in part by MnDRIVE (Minnesota's Discovery, Research, and Innovation Economy) Brain Conditions Program; Engdahl Family Foundation; The Kurt B. Seydow Dystonia Foundation. We would like to acknowledge the entire University of Minnesota Udall team for their support and contributions to the data collection and manuscript writing. We gratefully acknowledge our mentors, Dr. Joshua E. Aman, Dr. Stephanie L. Alberico, Dr. Kevin O’Neill III, and Dr. Robert McGovern, for giving us this once-in-a-lifetime chance to explore our future aspirations in a laboratory/research setting. Their technical help was important to us, as we understood the rules of the Research Center and were onboarded with immediate laboratory training. We would additionally like to thank Mr. Wyatt Doepke, who allowed us to get involved with a different side of research through nonhuman primates (NHP). With our experience at the NHP lab of the Neuromodulation Research Center (NMRC), we were able to identify an observable issue and bring it to the clinical and patient analysis side with our mentor team. We appreciate both the NMRC and Udall teams’ help in acquainting us with the lab feel and introducing us to new fields of research. We appreciate their continued support for the Twin Cities Regional Science Fair and beyond.
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Finally, we would like to extend our gratitude to our advisor, Ms. Princesa Hansen, for supporting us through our highs and lows and always being there with the correct guidance and ideas. Her continued optimism and futuristic aspirations for us have kept us motivated and eager to keep moving forward.
Abstract A common sign of Parkinson’s Disease (PD) is postural instability. However, little is known about what leads to this phenotype. PD has been associated with a loss of dopamine-producing neurons within the substantia nigra, which corresponds to excessive synchronization of action potential firing in the alpha (8-12 Hz) and beta (13-30 Hz) bands. Increased beta-band activity in the subthalamic nucleus (STN) has been associated with severe postural instability (PI). This study aimed to define the correlation between postural perturbation and modulation of neural synchronization in the alpha and beta-bands in the STN of a PD patient and additionally assess synchronization as it pertains to recovery from instability. Data on Local Field Potential activity of deep brain stimulation (DBS) PD patient with a lead in the right STN was used to perform analysis. A series of clinical “pull tests” were performed on the patient while they were offmedication and off-stimulation. Results showed an increase in power of both alpha and beta-band synchronization following each pull and there was a determined correlation between acceleration of pull and alpha and beta-band power.
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Additionally, the length of steps taken to recover from the pulls also showed a correlation with alpha and beta synchronization. These results may provide evidence for the role of the dynamics of synchronized alpha and beta-band neural activity within the STN of PD patients and may also serve as a baseline for future DBS treatments of not only PD but also other movement disorders affecting postural control.
Introduction Deep Brain Stimulation (DBS) is a neurosurgical procedure that is commonly used to treat movement disorders, such as Parkinson’s Disease (PD), essential tremors, and dystonia, when patients are unresponsive or intolerable to medications. This treatment involves the insertion of electrodes into areas of the brain to send electrical impulses to target certain nuclei. The areas of interest for PD, the focus of this study, are the Subthalamic Nucleus (STN) and Globus Pallidus internus (GPi). The amount of stimulation input chosen varies between patients and the extent of a patient's symptoms. The electrical pulses are controlled by a device similar to that of a pacemaker - an implantable and internal pulse generator (IPG) - that is placed in a pocket created under the skin (at the chest) and connected to the electrodes in the brain (Gardner, 2013). One of the hypothesized mechanisms of DBS is to disturb pathological/abnormal activity within the brain through electrical impulses; although this mechanism holds in clinical tests, the neurophysiological mechanisms by which DBS works to alleviate signs of PD are not well understood. Our project introduces an engineering obstacle faced
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in the electrode testing phase and then shifts to the determination of alpha and beta-band correlation with pull acceleration and step length correlation with respect to recovery.
The CRW precision arc tool is crucial in the OR for stimulation surgery In the pre-surgical testing of the DBS leads used in the operating room, the electrodes are analyzed for stability and accuracy. However, given the structure of the precision arc, the current method to elevate the object is to use other equipment to hold it, which is unstable and impractical given spatial constraints and efficiency. The precision arc system (anterior view) is laid upon two identical hardware objects to hold the arc tool (figure 1). There are two problems faced: (1) The objects used take up space on the testing workspace; (2) the current method is immobile. It is important to develop a transportable object that can be used to hold the frame for trial purposes both inside and outside operating environments. Figure 1. Current schematic of the arc-stand system. The arc is placed upon the objects objects 1 and 2 - and the electrode is lowered into the sterile water to test for noise.
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Stereotactic surgery for DBS placement and externalization of DBS lead There was a surgery that the team performed that produced the data we used to perform analysis. Although we student researchers were not involved with the surgery or patient testing, it is important to introduce the surgical procedure that led to the basis of our project. Standard of care stereotactic surgery for DBS lead placement consists of two phases. Phase 1 involves placement of the DBS lead during which magnetic resonance (MR) imaging and microelectrode brain mapping are used to confirm the location at which the lead is placed. Following one week of rest, the patient returns to the operating room for phase 2, which consists of the IPG (battery) being implanted in a pocket created under the skin in the chest region and an extension tunneled under the skin, connecting the end of the lead at the head to the IPG in the chest. For this data collection, at the end of phase 1 surgery, an extension cable was connected to the lead at the head and tunneled to the chest. A second extension was connected at the chest and tunneled under the skin to the abdomen and “externalized” through an incision on the skin. The externalized wire was dressed and covered. Four days later, the patient came into the clinical research unit (CRU) having withdrawn from dopaminergic medications overnight. The externalized wire was exposed and then connected to recording equipment via customized adapters.
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Roles of alpha and beta-bands in parkinsonian movement PD is characterized by the degeneration of dopaminergic neurons of the substantia nigra pars compacta (SNc) located in the basal ganglia. This loss of dopamine leads to the cardinal motor signs of PD such as tremor, rigidity, and bradykinesia. Heterogeneity exists across patients in how those cardinal symptoms manifest, and those symptoms can have varying severities. These differences depend on a variety of factors, such as genetic makeup, epigenetics, age, and rate of disease progression. Consequently, PD is a heterogeneous disorder or disease. Although the pathogenesis of PD is unknown, multiple factors appear to show an association with the manifestation of signs and symptoms, including both genetic and environmental influences (Warner and Schapira, 2003). Additionally, the accumulation of alpha-synuclein, which leads to Lewy bodies within cells, has been shown to be a factor in the development of signs of PD. Alpha-synuclein is a protein that relays signals between neurons and is crucial for normal brain function. However, it has been linked that the aggregation of alpha-synuclein and the formation of Lewy bodies are toxic to certain neurons, such as dopaminergic neuronal cells (Stefanis, 2012). This aggregation disrupts the neurological pathway and results in abnormal nerve firing, which causes excessive strong or weak synchronization of neurons. The STN and the GPi are the two most frequently targeted areas of the brain for DBS because their main functions are to control and regulate movements. Additionally, they are part of the basal ganglia, which processes the signals flowing to the cortex allowing for voluntary movements to be performed correctly (Wong et al, 2018). There are two important pathways
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within the basal ganglia: The direct pathway, which links the striatum to the GPi; and the indirect pathway, which links the striatum to the STN (DeLong, 2007). However, in PD, the degeneration of dopaminergic neurons “triggers a cascade of functional changes affecting the whole basal ganglia network” (Blandini et al, 2000). This loss of dopamine results in “hypoactivity of the direct pathway and hyperactivity of the indirect pathway that leads to excessive GPi output” (McGregor et al, 2019). Excessive GPi output leads to the inhibition of voluntary movement or control of any involuntary movements. To combat this problem of abnormalities within the circuits of the basal ganglia, high frequencies of DBS appear to replace abnormal outputs from the basal ganglia which leads to improvement in motor function (DeLong, 2017). In addition to the cardinal symptoms of PD mentioned above, many patients with PD struggle with postural instability (PI) and can play an important role in the diagnosis of the severity of PD (Doná et al, 2015). Postural control is often defined as the way the central nervous system controls and regulates information to achieve a state of balance during activity. PI is a debilitating phenotype of PD because it can lead to unprecedented and spontaneous falls, leading to hospitalizations. PI is difficult to treat because it may not respond to common treatments such as dopamine replacement therapy or DBS. A well-known clinical exam for PI is the retropulsion test or “pull test”. Briefly, the retropulsion test is a medical standard to assess PI in PD patients (Nonnekes, J et al, 2015). “An examiner tugs the pre-warned standing patient backward at the shoulders and grades the response” by the number of backward steps required to regain their
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balance or their general (lack of) response to the retropulsion (Tan et al, 2018). Identifying neural activity within the basal ganglia-thalamocortical loop associated with signs of PD has received significant attention in the past 2030 years by recording action potential firing patterns from both single-unit (single neuron), and populations of neurons (Teleńczuk et al, 2017). Local Field Potentials (LFPs) are a measure of summed synaptic activity in the small region near the recording area and are often used to describe firing patterns of localized populations of neurons. More specifically, LFP measures neuronal activity through extracellular currents. They are especially important in calculating synchronization given the removal of neuronal networks that may be coupled or oscillating coherently (Teleńczuk et al, 2017). Synchronization is the operation of two or more things at the same time. Neural synchronization is crucial for the brain to process and send information, and disrupted synchrony has been associated with various diseases. Specifically, excessive beta-frequency synchronized oscillations in the STN have been linked to PD (Brown, 2003). Further, PD patients have been shown to have an increase in beta bursts of both higher amplitude and longer duration (Ying et al, 2021). It is believed that irregularity in beta-band activity interferes with the processing of neural information, which impairs the motor function of individuals. Although progress has been made as to the neural activity associated with the cardinal signs of PD, neurophysiological brain activity associated with PI in PD is not well defined, due to the complexity of recording neural activity
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while standing or walking. Generally, the frequency at which neurons send action potentials is divided into predefined ranges or “bands'': theta, delta, alpha, beta, gamma, and high frequency. Here, we focus specifically on two bands that have demonstrated particular importance in voluntary movement and PI in PD, the alpha and beta-bands - recognized by intervals 8-12 Hz and 13-30 Hz, respectively. Alpha-bands have an acute relationship with PI: desynchronization of alpha activity in the parietal and occipital cortex has been associated with loss of balance (Slobounov, Semyon et al.). In PD, alphaband oscillations have been described in the STN and in the prefrontal, premotor, and primary motor cortices (Kühn et al. 2005, Horn et al. 2017). However, their association to signs of PD or, specifically, to postural control, is not well understood. Horn et al (2017) demonstrated strong alphasynchronization in the ventromedial region of STN in addition to anatomical connectivity to the prefrontal and premotor regions. These findings led to speculation regarding the role of excessive alpha-band synchronization in PI. Activity in the beta-band has been demonstrated as being necessary for voluntary movement (Engel and Fries, 2010). However, excessive synchronization of action potentials in the beta-band has been associated with bradykinesia and rigidity in PD (Ahn et al; Kühn et al 2006). Therefore, the primary objective of this pilot study was to determine whether there is modulation in synchronized activity that is related to postural control; more specifically, we assessed the relationship between powers of the alpha and beta-bands in the STN when there is a varying amount of retropulsive force that affects the stability of a PD patient. To assess this relationship, the Neuromodulation Research Center (NMRC) performed
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multiple series of pull tests. We hypothesized that with a larger acceleration of pull there would be a larger amount of synchronization in both the alpha and beta-bands and that with greater synchronization in both frequency bands, there would be greater step lengths that the patient takes. To test this hypothesis, we leveraged the rare opportunity to record LFPs from the STN of a PD patient whose DBS lead had been “externalized” to record subcortical brain activity, in conjunction with sensors quantifying the patient’s movements while performing the pull test on the patient (see more on pull test specifics in the methods section, phase 2). In addition to the larger acceleration of pull, another direct measure we decided to consider was the relationship between alpha and beta-band synchronization and the length of steps taken to stabilize the patient. This gives a direct measure of the level of postural instability the patient is facing, in accordance with alpha and betasynchronization.
Motivation on this multifaceted approach From the start of our induction to the research team we were working with, we began working on small projects. The stand and patient analysis projects ended up being the most influential in our learning of the field of Deep Brain Stimulation. So, given that we were a cohort of two students, we decided to repurpose our paper and efforts to focus on not just one aspect of our work, but two. Although the two phases are not necessarily connected directly, there is an indirect relationship with the stand project to the data collection process performed by our research team (not by us): the
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production of a stand that supports the CRW Precision Arc was used in testing purposes for the DBS surgery performed that provided us with the data we analyzed. The purpose of this study was to determine whether changes in postural instability (i.e. larger levels of retropulsive pull force) elicit higher levels of alpha and beta-band synchronization. It is hypothesized that a larger pull acceleration or a measure of larger step lengths of the patient will elicit an increase in alpha and beta-band synchronization in the STN.
Materials and methods The methodology is split up into two phases: the first phase is the designing and development of the CRW Precision Arc stand complement, and the second phase is the data analysis associated with the determination of significant correlations between synchronization of alpha and beta-bands and levels of postural instability. Since the focus of phase 1 is a scientific design, the methods follow the general flow of designing a product rather than analysis. On the other hand, phase 2 follows the general flow of how to implement clinical data taken by our mentors into analysis and coding environment.
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Phase 1, engineering objective: Development of a stand The five steps taken to develop a new standard for neurosurgical testing procedures are highlighted below. •
Assess the existing stand and its limitations
The CRW Precision Arc is a tool that is essential to neurosurgeons when implanting electrodes in the brain. Currently, there is no usable stand in a testing/debugging environment. From a testing perspective, this configuration is limited as there is no standardized support tool for vertical movement from the tools that go in tandem to the precision arc in a surgical setting, as explained by figure 2. In the testing phase, the DBS electrodes or microelectrodes are hooked onto the Arc tool, lowered into sterile water to test for noise and clarity of current recordings.
Figure 2. Precision arc in a surgical vs. testing setting. While in the surgical setting, the arc system is oriented horizontally, the testing setting requires a “vertical orientation. The circles on the left image highlight spheres on the bottom of the tool is what makes this build especially difficult, in terms of 3-D designing (“ Radionics® CRW™ Stereotactic System. Radionics® CRW™ Stereotactic System").
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“Quick-fix” systems that were utilized before the design of this product took up a considerable amount of space and were not stable as it was composed of various lab equipment being stacked (shown in figure 1). Given that this is a pre-surgical testing procedure, time and utility must be maximized. •
Characterize optimal design. parameters and application needs
This design should not only stably hold the Arc but also minimize the space the system would take up. Additional optimization parameters were cost and weight, to make the system mobile. We decided on a 3D-Designed, plastic “Bench” to complement the arc tool. It would have four legs and a simple frame. However, the geometry of the Arc tool, shown in figure 2, makes the changes needing to be made more complicated. On each of the four sides of the tool, there are spheres and other tool-changing mechanisms protruding in height, which make the frame difficult to be created. However, through three phases of prototyping, we finalized an optimal prototype, mentioned in the Results section. •
Use CAD to design multi-part stands
CAD software such as SolidWorks and Shapr3D were used to build and edit the proposed bench.
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Although this project was initially designed as a one-part design, another limitation we faced: was the 3D printer’s bed size. This step is where the prototypes required additional support or failed in efficiency. Figure 3 outlines the flow procedure of creating and re-designing proposed stands. Figure 3. Flowchart of design creation and prototypes. This chart shows that the current design went through three iterations before being completed. The bottom left shows the author in the lab with design on the computer and physical build in hand.
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Print a prototype using a 3D printer
3 prototypes were printed before reaching a consensus on the optimal stand. The design and schematics of the final product are offered in the Results section, as Figure 4. The Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM) printer was used for this product for efficiency. •
Test prototype
Each prototype was tested for precisely scaling the base of the Precision Arc. The instability of the prototype on the base of the arc may lead to a potential issue if the arc were to fall off its stand.
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Adapt results and redesign, if needed
Given new and adapting constraints, new designs were created and implemented.
Phase 2: Analysis of pull acceleration and step length with alpha and betasynchronization For the second phase of this project, we used analysis methods collected from surgery and trials that the team we worked with performed with one patient. The patient (specifics undisclosed) has a segmented “1-3-31” DBS lead implanted. As shown in Figure 4, the most distal contact (level 1) and level 4, are omnidirectional rings. Levels 2 and 3 are segmented into 3 separate contacts and can send stimulation and record LFPs in different directions within the STN. This is important as in the analysis portion, only recordings collected directly from regions solely within the STN are required.
Science and Medicine 351 Figure 4. Patient-specific location of the DBS lead within the subthalamic nucleus. a) Schematic diagram of the Abbott segmented DBS lead with colors depicting the direction of segmented contacts: green - ‘a’ segments, blue - ‘b’ segments, pink - ‘c’ segments. b) DBS lead and contact locations relative to the motor (blue) and associative (green) regions of STN. Differential recordings from contact pairs 3b-4 showed the highest amplitude of synchronized oscillations and thus were chosen for further data analysis.
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Postural stability through a retropulsive test
The following explains the process that the testing team took to perform a successful retropulsive test. The pull test is an examination that is effective in analyzing the postural instability of a patient. The patient was instructed to stand with feet shoulder-width apart to give a stable base for the stationary position. The patient was instructed that he would be pulled from the shoulders and the patient should try to catch themselves as best as possible by taking as many steps as needed. The singular pull would conclude when the patient was back to physical (standing) rest at the starting point. The entire testing period consisted of four blocks of five individual pulls, producing data from 20 cumulative pulls. Periods of time where significant artifacts were present such that data was unrecoverable with post-processing were removed from further analysis. Here, artifacts were consistently present in the data for ~1.5 s immediately following the pull and where was most likely due to movement of wires when the patient was pulled. This movement leads to both a disturbance in the raw voltage and, consequently, the spectrogram, rendering that portion of data uninterpretable (see Figure 5).
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Figure 5. Artifacts on raw recording and resulting spectrogram. The black and red vertical lines that stretch across the spectrogram show a relation to fluctuations in the raw readings. This is shown by unprecedented and unrelated peaks.
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Analysis: MATLAB interface and “chronux” library A Neuralynx data acquisition system was used to record the
electrophysiological data (sampling rate: 46 kHz; Neuralynx, Bozeman, MT). Movement kinematics (e.g. acceleration, step length) were recorded using wireless inertial measurement units (IMUs) (sampling rate: 120 Hz; Xsens Technologies B.V., Enschede, Netherlands). Offline analyses were completed using customized scripts written in MATLAB (The MathWorks, Inc., Natick, MA). Each DBS channel was first low-pass filtered with a 4th order Butterworth filter and then downsampled to 1000 Hz. The bipolar signal
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3b-4 (that is, the signal from contact 4 was subtracted from contact 3b) was chosen for further analysis due to its location within the motor region of STN. Changes in oscillatory power over time were visualized using a spectrogram computed with the multitaper mtspecgramc function (Chronux Toolbox (Bokil, Hemant et al, 2010)) using two tapers with a time-bandwidth product of 1.5, a window size of 0.5 seconds with 95% overlap (Figure 4 bottom). From the spectrogram, we could determine that the initial ~1.5-1.75 s of data after the pull contained movement artifacts and were thus removed from further analysis. The selected times for further analysis ranged from 1.75 seconds to 4 seconds after pull initiation and are termed the “recovery period”, and the 2.5 seconds before the pull to measure step length with prepull synchronization. Power spectral densities (PSDs) were generated for each pull trial (Bokil, Hemant et al, 2010) using 5 tapers and a time-bandwidth window of 3 for a total of 20 trials. From these PSDs, the average band power was calculated for the alpha-band (8-12 Hz) and the beta-band (13-30 Hz). The PSD for standing postural rest was calculated using the same parameters. The amplitude of retropulsion (i.e., how hard the patient was pulled backward) was determined by calculating the peak acceleration from the IMU placed on the sternum of the patient, and step length was measured through IMUs on the legs. To correlate acceleration with alpha/beta-band coherence (i.e. which frequencies are present with what amounts of force) two regression analyses were performed: one that correlated the presence of alpha-frequencies to magnitudes of acceleration and another that correlated beta-frequencies to
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magnitudes of acceleration (Figure 7). A similar process was performed to correlate the step length of the patient with the prepull acceleration.
Results This section includes the results generated for both Phase 1 and Phase 2. The result of Phase 1 is the final optimal design achieved and the pertinent engineering measurements. The results of Phase 2 include a statistical analysis and review of the steps taken using MATLAB to achieve those results.
Phase 1: Stand schematic After multiple trials of designing, printing, and testing, a final design was reached and ready to be used in the future. Figure 4 shows the final diagram of the proposed stand. The dimensions of the base of the arc, which were taken by us when we started the project, are also added to show the dimensions we needed to adapt and CAD accordingly. Figure 6. Base schematic of the created stand. Left: A simulation diagram of the final product of the CRW Precision Arc Testing Stand. Right: Dimensions of the base build.
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Phase 2: The case study analysis led to an affirmation of the hypothesis To correlate acceleration with alpha/beta-band coherence (i.e. which frequencies are present with what amounts of force) two regression analyses were performed: one that correlated the presence of alpha-frequencies to magnitudes of acceleration and another that correlated beta-frequencies to magnitudes of acceleration (Figure 7).
Figure 7. Comparing pull acceleration to frequency band powers: (a) alpha-band and (b) beta-band. A line of best fit was graphed, and the Coefficient of Determination was calculated. The dashed line is a baseline measurement of alpha/beta power for when the patient is at rest.
Science and Medicine 356 Figure 8. Comparing step length to frequency band powers: (a) alpha-band and (b) betaband. A line of best fit was graphed, and the Coefficient of Determination was calculated. The dashed line is a baseline measurement of alpha/beta power for when the patient is at rest.
Notably, this patient demonstrates a diffuse associative subregion within the STN by which segmented contact 3b is immediately adjacent partially within (Figure 2). Following retropulsion, the alpha and beta-bands both increased in power in all trials relative to baseline standing rest (Figure 7a,b). Alpha-band power and acceleration showed an R2 correlation of 0.361, while beta-band power and acceleration showed an R2 correlation of 0.337. These correlations indicate a trend toward a higher acceleration of retropulsion eliciting a larger increase in the amplitude of synchronization in both the alpha and beta-bands. A similar correlation was shown for prepull synchronization and step length: a general trend of larger step lengths corresponding to more activity was observed (figure 8).
Discussion and conclusions Here we present pilot data from a PD patient with an externalized DBS lead from which we recorded LFPs from the STN. We leveraged this rare opportunity to record neural activity from the STN in conjunction with recording kinematic data during a postural control test to associate changes in neural activity with differing strength postural perturbations. The STN has well-documented connections that have been associated with contributions to postural control. Yet, very little data of this nature exists due to the technological complexity and rare opportunities of collecting these data. Most
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neurophysiological subcortical recordings, particularly within the basal ganglia, occur in an intra-operative setting. An opportunity to record from the STN during a standing, postural-control task is unique. In this study, we varied the magnitude of acceleration present when pulling a PD patient to measure the changes in synchronization in the alpha and beta-band within the STN. Our results indicate a relationship between the amplitude of modulation in the alpha and beta-bands to pull acceleration. Although determination coefficients of 0.3524 and 0.3583 are relatively low, we are confident this relationship would reach statistical significance with more patients. We face a similar situation with that of the step lengths, but that is simply a secondary measure of levels of postural instability. Our results also demonstrate an increase in power of synchronization in the alpha and beta-band following a pull, which demonstrates increases in the power of synchronization in the beta-band during PI (Ghosn et al, 2020). However, this synchronization occurred in the motor cortex and our data suggest a similar phenomenon in the STN and potentially increased coherence between STN and motor cortex. It has been shown that bradykinesia is associated with excessive beta synchronization (Kühn et al, 2006). The increase in beta synchronization with increasingly larger pull accelerations demonstrated in our data may lend support for the theory that excessive beta synchronization is a key contributor to hypokinetic movements. We also demonstrated an increase in alpha-band synchronization, which has been hypothesized to be associated with changes in functional connectivity in prefrontal cortex regions (Kühn et al, 2005). Horn and colleagues (2017) showed alpha synchronization to be the strongest in
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subregions within the STN, commonly thought to be predominantly associative-related regions (Horn et al, 2017). However, in that study, standard brain atlases were used to identify these subregions of STN. Here we used a high-resolution MR image to perform patient-specific reconstructions of their DBS lead within the STN in addition to identifying subregions of the STN (Plantinga et al, 2018, Duchin et al, 2018). We show that the lead was not only within the motor subregion but also the patient has a relatively diffuse associative subregion and the lead was partially within this subregion as well. Although we cannot elucidate the role of alpha-band synchronization in postural control with our current findings, this could explain the identified alpha-band synchronizations in similar regions as beta synchronizations. An increase in alpha-band synchronization with increasing postural perturbations may provide support for the notion that modulation of alpha-band synchronization may contribute to postural instability in PD patients.
Possible sources of error An expected variable in the testing process was the artifact created by movement. Although there is no physical way to overcome this barrier in our current “externalization” recordings, we will continue to explore additional routes to clean the data in the post-processing steps. For example, part of the analysis included downsampling the data to generalize the source. The problem with this is that there would be no distinction between real and artifice. Another route that was taken was to individually analyze data points and throw out intervals labeled as “artificial”. Although this was done, there
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were still significant differences among the data that show unidentifiable variations in the raw recordings. Additionally, newly FDA-approved IPGs with the capability to record LFPs, albeit in a limited manner, from DBS leads can be used to gather additional data that may be less artifactual. This reduction in movement artifacts would effectively reduce the variability that is present in the determination coefficient and raise the predicted R2 values and would make the outcomes of this study more reliable (Hamilton, DF et al, 2015). Importantly, these results are from a pilot case study (one patient). To draw generalized conclusions, the study must be extended to more patients (increasing the sample size). The value of R2 could be used to accurately measure the relationship between pull acceleration and power of alpha and beta-bands. Although this study gives new insight into the neurophysiology behind postural instability and determines a baseline understanding of the correlation between alpha and beta power and acceleration of the stimulus, the conclusions of this project alone are deficient to reach a conclusion supporting a relation present in all PD patients.
Future research A project such as this one mainly prompts future questions and research. The engineering objective established a base model that is efficient for one parameter, while this could be extended to be optimized for other factors. Phase 2, in which we explored the alpha and beta-bands’ relationship
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to amounts of pull acceleration, provides us with a future question and research initiative to look forward to.
A more utilizable stand In the testing environment, another useful ability of this tool would be to have the ability to maneuver up and down. This addition would provide more utility to the tool and minimize human interaction in the testing process. A proposed first step would be to determine the optimal design that incorporates the maneuverability aforementioned. We could implement the use of hydraulics to control the height of the stand. If the legs of the stand can be spliced horizontally, the conjunction between the two could be controlled by an air hydraulic press. This multi-use stand perks new interests in the extent to which the debugging and testing activities of surgery can be mechanized and maximized for good results.
Future PD research and connections to psychological illnesses For this specific pilot study, we looked at electrophysiological data of the PD patient when they were off medications (levodopa) and their DBS was turned off (OFF medication/OFF DBS). In further analyses, we will expand this project to analyze the results of the other combinations of treatments, as well as examine other periods of postural perturbation pull (prepull, immediate post-pull). Primary conditions of interest would be ON/OFF and OFF/ON, which tests for specific efficacy - or change - in synchronization based on
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treatment type. These results could help determine the most effective treatment for a specific PD patient. Additionally, we have, so far, simply determined a relationship between two variables: alpha/beta power and pull acceleration. Now, new questions that could be asked are: How does a certain level of activation of frequency bands correlate to different levels of postural stability? What is the difference between the powers shown in a patient considered to have relatively good postural stability, versus one that does not? These questions arise based on the relationship we have determined and give researchers a goal to achieve certain synchronization in PD patients. More studies could be done to assess the synchronization of higher frequency bands, such as gamma bands. Gamma bands exist in the 31-100 Hz range and High-Frequency Oscillations (HFOs) exist in the 200-400 Hz interval, in addition to the 8-10 or 10-30 Hz range in alpha and beta bands. Although an increase in gamma-band synchronization is believed to be associated with voluntary movement, it has also been associated with dyskinesias (excessive involuntary movements) and thus there is no conclusive evidence in pathology, indicating further studies must be done. In addition to the impact on neurodegenerative disorders, the results of this project could have significant implications on neuropsychiatric disorders. Similar to PD, Obsessive Compulsive Disorder has connections to the basal ganglia - thalamocortical loop (Ranjan, M. et al, 2020). Stimulation ventral to the Nucleus accumbens, anterior limb of the internal capsule (ALIC), has
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widely become a target for DBS as a treatment of OCD. Notably, the ALIC is adjacent to the STN, the main focus of this project on postural instability. Although the boundaries of psychiatric illness testing and diagnosing are a gray area, these new steps beg new questions for not only a possible correlation between degenerative and psychiatric illnesses, but also future directions of DBS to combat trauma-induced illnesses. If the signs of PD can be fully understood in terms of the synchronization that is associated with them, the findings would lead to an enormous breakthrough in the overall progression of cures for a variety of movement disorders. The relationship between the synchronization of alpha and beta-bands and the magnitude of pull stimulation will shed light on the important frequencies to focus on when stimulating the brain using DBS. Once this relationship is established, the possibilities of cures for movement disorders and the future of neurodegenerative treatments will be launched into a new direction.
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References Ahn, S., Zauber, S. E., Worth, R. M., & Rubchinsky, L. L. (2016). Synchronized Beta-Band Oscillations in a Model of the Globus Pallidus-Subthalamic Nucleus Network under External Input. Frontiers in computational neuroscience, 10, 134. https:// doi.org/10.3389/fncom.2016.00134 Brown P. (2003). Oscillatory nature of human basal ganglia activity: relationship to the pathophysiology of Parkinson's disease. Movement disorders : official journal of the Movement Disorder Society, 18(4), 357– 363. https://doi.org/10.1002/mds.10358 Bokil, H., Andrews, P., Kulkarni, J. E., Mehta, S., & Mitra, P. P. (2010). Chronux: a platform for analyzing neural signals. Journal of neuroscience methods, 192(1), 146–151. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jneumeth. 2010.06.020 DeLong, M. R., & Wichmann, T. (2007). Circuits and circuit disorders of the basal ganglia. Archives of neurology, 64(1), 20–24. https:// doi.org/10.1001/ archneur.64.1.20 “Directional Leads for St. Jude Medical Infinity™ DBS System: Abbott Neuromodulation.” Directional Leads for St. Jude Medical Infinity™ DBS System | Abbott Neuromodulation, https://www.neuro modulation.abbott/us/en/hcp/products/dbs-movementdisorders/directi onal-leads-for-st-jude-medical-infinity-dbssystem.html.
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Doná, F., Aquino, C. C., Gazzola, J. M., Borges, V., Silva, S. M., Ganança, F. F., Caovilla, H. H., & Ferraz, H. B. (2016). Changes in postural control in patients with Parkinson's disease: a posturographic study. Physiotherapy, 102(3), 272–279. https://doi.org/10.1016 /j.physio.2015.08.009 Duchin, Y., Shamir, R. R., Patriat, R., Kim, J., Vitek, J. L., Sapiro, G., & Harel, N. (2018). Patient-specific anatomical model for deep brain stimulation based on 7 Tesla MRI. PloS one, 13(8), e0201469. https://doi.org /10.1371/journal.pone.0201469 Engel, A. K., & Fries, P. (2010). Beta-band oscillations--signalling the status quo?. Current opinion in neurobiology, 20(2), 156–165. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conb.2010.02.015 Gardner J. (2013). A history of deep brain stimulation: Technological innovation and the role of clinical assessment tools. Social Studies of Science, 43(5), 707–728. https://doi.org/10.1177/0306312713483678 Ghosn, N. J., Palmer, J. A., Borich, M. R., Ting, L. H., & Payne, A. M. (2020). Cortical Beta Oscillatory Activity Evoked during Reactive Balance Recovery Scales with Perturbation Difficulty and Individual Balance Ability. Brain sciences, 10(11), 860. https://doi.org/10.3390 /brainsci10110860 Hamilton, D. F., Ghert, M., & Simpson, A. H. (2015). Interpreting regression models in
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Heida, T., Wentink, E. C., & Marani, E. (2013). Power spectral density analysis of physiological, rest and action tremor in Parkinson's disease patients treated with deep brain stimulation. Journal of neuroengineering and rehabilitation, 10, 70. https://doi.org/10.1186/1743-0003-10-70 Horn, A., Neumann, W. J., Degen, K., Schneider, G. H., & Kühn, A. A. (2017). Toward an electrophysiological "sweet spot" for deep brain stimulation in the subthalamic nucleus. Human brain mapping, 38(7), 3377–3390. https://doi.org/10.1002/hbm.23594 Kühn, A. A., Kupsch, A., Schneider, G. H., & Brown, P. (2006). Reduction in subthalamic
8-35 Hz oscillatory activity correlates with clinical
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Kühn, A. A., Trottenberg, T., Kivi, A., Kupsch, A., Schneider, G. H., & Brown, P. (2005). The relationship between local field potential and neuronal discharge in the subthalamic nucleus of patients with Parkinson's disease. Experimental neurology, 194(1), 212–220. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.expneurol.2005.02.010 Moffett, S.X., O’Malley, S.M., Man, S. et al. Dynamics of high frequency brain activity. Sci Rep 7, 15758 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-017-15966-6 Nonnekes, J., Goselink, R., Weerdesteyn, V., & Bloem, B. R. (2015). The retropulsion test: a good evaluation of postural instability in Parkinson's disease?. Journal of Parkinson's disease, 5(1), 43–47. https://doi.org/10.3233/JPD-140514 Palakurthi, B., & Burugupally, S. P. (2019). Postural Instability in Parkinson's Disease: A Review. Brain sciences, 9(9), 239. https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci 9090239
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Plantinga, B. R., Temel, Y., Duchin, Y., Uludağ, K., Patriat, R., Roebroeck, A., Kuijf, M., Jahanshahi, A., Ter Haar Romenij, B., Vitek, J., & Harel, N. (2018). Individualized parcellation of the subthalamic nucleus in patients with Parkinson's disease with 7T MRI. NeuroImage, 168, 403–411. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage. 2016.09.023 Ranjan, M., Ranjan, N., Deogaonkar, M., & Rezai, A. (2020). Deep Brain Stimulation for Refractory Depression, Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder and Addiction. Neurology India, 68(Supplement), S282–S287. https://doi.org/10.4103/00283886.302459 “ Radionics® CRW™ Stereotactic System. Radionics® CRW™ Stereotactic System" Integra lifesciences: Europe, Middle East and Africa. (n.d.). Retrieved March 2, 2022, from https://integralife.eu/products/neuro/stereotaxy/radionics-crwstereotactic-system-2/ Slobounov, S., Cao, C., Jaiswal, N., & Newell, K. M. (2009). Neural basis of postural instability identified by VTC and EEG. Experimental brain research, 199(1), 1– 16. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00221-009-1956-5 Sironi V. A. (2011). Origin and evolution of deep brain stimulation. Frontiers in integrative neuroscience, 5, 42. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnint.2011.00042 Stefanis L. (2012). α-Synuclein in Parkinson's disease. Cold Spring Harbor perspectives in medicine, 2(2), a009399. https://doi.org/10.1101 /cshperspect.a009399 Tan, J. L., Perera, T., McGinley, J. L., Yohanandan, S., Brown, P., & Thevathasan, W. (2018). Neurophysiological analysis of the clinical pull test. Journal of neurophysiology, 120(5), 2325–2333. https://doi.org/10.1152/jn.00789.2017
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Teleńczuk, B., Dehghani, N., Le Van Quyen, M., Cash, S. S., Halgren, E., Hatsopoulos, N. G., & Destexhe, A. (2017). Local field potentials primarily reflect inhibitory neuron activity in human and monkey cortex. Scientific reports, 7, 40211. https://doi.org/10.1038/srep40211 Warner, T. T., & Schapira, A. H. (2003). Genetic and environmental factors in the cause of Parkinson's disease. Annals of neurology, 53 Suppl 3, S16–S25. https://doi.org/10.1002/ana.10487 Wong, J. K., Cauraugh, J. H., Ho, K., Broderick, M., Ramirez-Zamora, A., Almeida, L., Wagle Shukla, A., Wilson, C. A., de Bie, R. M., Weaver, F. M., Kang, N., & Okun, M. S. (2019). STN vs. GPi deep brain stimulation for tremor suppression in Parkinson disease: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Parkinsonism & related disorders, 58, 56–62. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.parkreldis.2018.08.017 Wu, J., Yang, H., Peng, Y., Fang, L., Zheng, W., & Song, Z. (2013). The role of local field potential coupling in epileptic synchronization. Neural regeneration research,
8(8), 745–753. https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1673-
5374.2013.08.009 Yu, Y., Escobar Sanabria, D., Wang, J., Hendrix, C. M., Zhang, J., Nebeck, S. D., Amundson, A. M., Busby, Z. B., Bauer, D. L., Johnson, M. D., Johnson, L. A., & Vitek, J. L. (2021). Parkinsonism Alters Beta Burst Dynamics across the Basal Ganglia-Motor Cortical Network. The Journal of neuroscience : the official journal of the Society for Neuroscience, 41(10), 2274–2286. https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.1591-20.202
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Viral Vector Gene Therapy for Neurofibromatosis Type 2 Victoria Karaluz Florida Atlantic University High School
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Neurofibromatosis type 2 is a genetic disorder caused by a mutation on the NF2 gene on chromosome 22 (Cleveland Clinic). The NF2 gene is responsible for producing merlin, a protein that regulates cell growth, shape and attachment. In particular, merlin works to prevent the development of tumors. In individuals with Neurofibromatosis type 2, the NF2 gene no longer functions, causing the development of benign tumors in the nervous system. These tumors are called schwannomas, but there is also a risk for developing other brain tumors, such as meningiomas. The mutation that creates a loss of function in the NF2 gene is just as likely to be inherited as it is to be a new mutation in individuals with neurofibromatosis type 2 (Cancer.Net). Thus, though rare, neurofibromatosis type 2 can appear in anyone and can have lasting impacts on an individual’s hearing, balance and overall nervous system. Currently available treatment of NF2 focuses on minimizing the effects of the various symptoms of NF2. Recent advancements in gene editing technology have led to a wide array of new possibilities for treating genetic disorders. Neurofibromatosis type 2 does not have complex origins – it is caused by a loss of function in one particular gene, which can potentially be remedied by inserting a functioning, wild type copy of the NF2 gene. Viral vector gene therapy can be used to treat NF2 by inserting a functioning NF2 gene, with two main possible delivery systems: Adeno associated viral vectors and retroviral vectors, both with benefits and limitations. Viral vectors can be introduced in vivo to transport wild type copies of the NF2 gene into patients. This method works well for Neurofibromatosis type 2 because it is caused by a mutation in a single gene, which can be reversed by introducing a functioning copy of the gene into the genome. NF2
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patients suffer from an array of symptoms, from hearing loss to balance problems, that result from tumor growth. Rather than treating each symptom separately, as current treatments often do, this method of gene therapy would treat the root cause of these issues by preventing tumor growth. Furthermore, this method is preferred over attempting to restore the mutated gene’s function because NF2 is known to be caused by a wide variety of mutations. Thus, any treatment attempting to alter the mutated gene in one way would likely not be applicable to all patients. One research study performed a genetic screening of 111 NF2 cases and found that over half had 36 different mutations (Ruttledge et al 331-342). The study also found that mutations that caused truncated protein had more severe phenotypes, further supporting the importance of inserting genes that express fully formed protein in order to treat NF2. In vivo gene delivery involves inserting the gene directly into affected tissues, in this case, neurons in the brain and spinal cord where tumors develop (Hartwell et al 635). Ex vivo gene therapy - in which affected cells are removed, treated, and put back into the patient - would not work well with NF2 because the affected area is solid tissue. The viral vectors would contain defective viral genes – to prevent active viruses from forming and the therapeutic copy of NF2. This therapeutic copy of NF2, when taken up by cells, would allow them to create merlin. A recent experiment tested the effect of treating NF2-deficient cells from various patients with merlin in culture (Bashour et al 1150-1157). Introduction of merlin successfully reversed the cytoskeletal deformities associated with tumor cells lacking functioning NF2 gene. This shows that the main symptom of NF2, nervous system tumors, can be successfully treated with the missing protein merlin. Thus, transduction
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with viral vectors of functioning NF2 genes that produce merlin in the necessary tissues should work similarly to treat these tumors. One method of delivering functioning NF2 gene into cells is the use of adeno associated viral vectors. AAV vectors start with single stranded DNA but become double stranded after being inserted into a cell (Hartwell et al 636). In general, AAV vectors do not integrate into target genomes, leading to their eventual degradation over time. This means repeated injections are required to maintain expression, which may not be ideal depending on how often they are needed. However, several studies have achieved long term expression using AAV vectors, even up to 12 years in a canine eye (Berns and Muzyczka 308-313). AAV vectors have already been used in research to treat a common symptom of NF2 and other related disorders, called schwannoma. Schwannoma is a type of cancer that grows from cells that protect neurons, called Schwann cells (National Cancer Institute). One study successfully used AAV vectors to insert a transgene that caused overexpression of GasderminD in schwannoma tumor cells (Ahmed et al 259-267). Gasdermin-D is a protein involved in cell death, and its overexpression in specifically schwannoma tumor cells led to decreased tumor growth. While this approach is slightly different from inserting a functioning copy of the NF2 gene, it shows that AAV vectors can be used to target tissues affected by NF2 and increase levels of a protein within those cells. While this paper’s approach specifically aims to treat one symptom of NF2 by targeting and killing tumor cells, restoring function of the NF2 gene can potentially treat all symptoms of NF2. Another aspect to consider when using AAV viral vectors to treat NF2 related tumors is the level of vector integration in cells. To prevent a tumor
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from growing back, the tumor generally must be removed completely, usually by surgery. Complete removal is not always possible due to location of an NF2 tumor, which is why viral injection methods that target the specific cells could be useful. However, while AAV viral vectors may be able to suppress tumor growth in the short term, it is unclear whether the tumors would return as expression levels lower over time. Another research study investigated the use of AAV vectors in gene replacement in Neurofibromatosis type 1 - a disease caused by a mutation in the NF1 gene - which produces neurofibromin, a protein involved in cell growth (Bai et al pp.277-286). They found that transgene expression did restore normal cell growth and found several AAV serotypes that effectively transduced the target cells. This study discussed the potential use of AAV vectors to prevent the growth of tumors in NF1 patients. However, they also bring up the limitations in current AAV vector technology, mainly the ability of AAV vectors in transducing most of the affected cells, in this case NF1-haploid Schwann cells and malignant peripheral nerve sheath tumor cells, for the most effective treatment. While AAV vectors show promise in being utilized for NF2 gene replacement therapy, there are many areas in which the technology can be improved further. Alternatively, retroviral vectors are another common method for therapeutic gene delivery that could be applied to NF2. A retrovirus uses RNA to transmit its genetic information, which becomes DNA when inserted into a host cell. Retroviral vectors insert randomly into the genome, which allows for long term expression and consistent expression after cell division (Hartwell et al 636). However, there is a risk of causing mutations because of this
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integration. Retroviral vectors have been shown to successfully induce expression of a gene within target cells. A study researching CN1, which occurs when the gene UDP-glucuronosyl transferase is missing, used mice as a model for CN1 (Bellodi-Privato et al 431-438). The mice were injected with oncoretroviral vectors containing the missing gene, in comparison with two controls: mice injected with β-galactosidase and mice that were not injected
at all. Mice injected with the UGT1 retroviruses showed a complete return to a normal phenotype for over 34 weeks. While this paper shows promise for doing similar experiments with the injected NF2 gene using retroviral vectors, there are a few key differences. This study injected retroviruses in newborns, which may not be possible in applications with humans. Furthermore, the paper suggests that treatment of CN1 only requires “partial transduction,” while NF2 would need a majority of cells to express the transgene in order to be effective (Bellodi-Privato et al 436). The safety of gene therapy techniques is also very important to consider when attempting to treat human patients. Permanently correcting NF2 disease through stable integration of the functioning NF2 gene would be ideal, but there is a risk of mutagenesis and even oncogenesis. However, there are several ways to reduce the risk, including improved vector design and not using oncogene derived retroviruses (Anson 1-13). Thus, retroviruses are another possible delivery method for permanent NF2 gene expression in those with the loss of function mutation. However, further research is required to investigate and reduce the side effects of retrovirus vector injections in NF2 models. Viral vector gene replacement therapy is one of the most promising method for treating NF2 patients, with two different promising delivery
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approaches. NF2 gene transduction can restore merlin expression in those without a functioning copy of the NF2 gene. This would be able to prevent and treat the various brain tumors associated with NF2, which cause auditory and balance issues, among other symptoms. There are still various factors that need to be considered when using either AAV or retroviruses, such as the body’s immune response to injection and accuracy of transduction of targeted cells. Another factor to consider is the efficiency of each vector in transducing cells, as it is important that most nerve cells affected by NF2 should be treated to prevent tumor growth. Due to its lower risk of mutations, success in similar disorders, and improvements that have allowed for long term expression, AAV retroviruses may be a more suitable delivery method for viral delivery of the NF2 gene. However, further research should utilize both vectors to test NF2 transduction in order to determine which is more efficient, while also being safe. Successful long-term expression of the NF2 gene in patients with NF2 could provide permanent prevention of tumor growth. Furthermore, successful gene replacement therapy of NF2 could be applied to treat other similar monogenic disorders, such as NF1.
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References Ahmed, Sherif G et al. “Schwannoma Gene Therapy by Adeno-Associated Virus Delivery of the Pore-Forming Protein Gasdermin-D.” Cancer gene therapy 26.9-10 (2019): 259–267. doi:10.1038/s41417-018-0077-3 Anson, Donald S. “The use of retroviral vectors for gene therapy-what are the risks? A review of retroviral pathogenesis and its relevance to retroviral vector-mediated gene delivery.” Genetic vaccines and therapy vol. 2,1 9. 13 (2004) doi:10.1186/1479-0556-2-9 Bai, Ren-Yuan et al. “Feasibility of Using NF1-GRD and AAV for Gene Replacement Therapy in NF1-Associated Tumors.” Gene therapy 26.6 (2019): 277–286. doi:10.1038/s41434-019-0080-9 Bashour, Anne-Marie et al. “The Neurofibromatosis Type 2 Gene Product, Merlin, Reverses the F-Actin Cytoskeletal Defects in Primary Human Schwannoma Cells.” Molecular and Cellular Biology 22.4 (2020): 1150– 1157.doi:10.1128/MCB.22.4.1150-1157.2002 Bellodi-Privato, Marta et al. “Successful Gene Therapy of the Gunn Rat by in Vivo Neonatal Hepatic Gene Transfer Using Murine Oncoretroviral Vectors.” Hepatology (Baltimore, Md.) 42.2 (2005): 431–438. doi:10.1002/hep.20794 Berns, Kenneth I, and Nicholas Muzyczka. “AAV: An Overview of Unanswered Questions.” Human gene therapy vol. 28,4 (2017): 308-313. doi:10.1089/hum.2017.048
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“Choosing a Recombinant Virus for Gene Delivery.” Cell Biolabs, Cell BioLabs, Inc, https://www.cellbiolabs.com/news/choosing-recombinant-virusgene-delivery. Hartwell, Leland, et al. Genetics: From Genes to Genomes. 6th ed., McGrawHill Education, 2018. “Neurofibromatosis Type 2.” Cancer.Net, American Society of Cancer Oncology, 2 Aug. 2021, https://www.cancer.net/cancertypes/neurofibromatosis-type-2. “Neurofibromatosis Type 2: What It Is, Symptoms, Causes & Treatment.” Cleveland
Clinic, https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/16196-
neurofibromatosis-type-2-nf2. Ruttledge, M H et al. “Type of mutation in the neurofibromatosis type 2 gene (NF2) frequently determines severity of disease.” American journal of human genetics vol. 59.2 (1996): 331-342. “Schwannoma.” National Cancer Institute, National Institute of Health, https://www.cancer.gov/pediatric-adult-rare-tumor/rare-tumors/raresoft-tissue-tumors/schwannoma.
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The Use of Over-the-Counter Medications and Potential Side Effects Brianna Strauss Montfort Academy
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Over-the-Counter Medications When one has a minor pain or illness, over-the-counter medications are usually their first choice of treatment. Over-the-counter medications are drugs that can be bought without a prescription. They can be bought in most pharmacies, grocery stores, and even gas stations. These medications are widely available throughout the world, allowing people to treat their own symptoms and, in a sense, become their own doctors. The proper functioning of over-the-counter medications treats a wide range of common minor symptoms, while negative reactions and misuse of these nonprescription class of drugs can produce adverse side effects. Advil, Tylenol, Benadryl, Claritin, Robitussin, and Pepto Bismol are common brand names of over-the-counter medications used to treat a variety of symptoms. Advil and Tylenol are over-the-counter pain relievers; Benadryl and Claritin are over-the-counter antihistamines; Robitussin is an over-thecounter antitussive; Pepto Bismol is an over-the-counter digestive issue treater. All of these medications can be characterized by their mechanism of action, the biochemical process that produces a therapeutic and medicinal effect. While some of these mechanisms are not fully understood, they nonetheless are important in understanding the proper use and misuse of over-the-medications medications.
Ibuprofen Ibuprofen is the official and generic name for Advil. Ibuprofen is a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) that is taken to treat pain, fever,
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inflammation, and menstrual pain. Ibuprofen is taken for mild to moderate pain and is typically administered through an oral capsule or chewable tablet; It is recommended to take the drug with food or milk (Ngo & Bajaj 2021). The mechanism of action for ibuprofen is the non-selective, reversible inhibition of the cyclooxygenase enzymes COX-1 and COX-2 (Mazaleuskaya et al. 2015). These enzymes catalyze the conversion of arachidonic acid to prostaglandins, which are involved in generating pain, fever, and inflammation (Barbagallo & Sacerdote 2019). Both COX-1 and COX-2 use arachidonic acid that generates prostaglandin H. This product is modified to generate bioactive prostanoids, which influence many systems, including the immune system (Barbagallo & Sacerdote 2019). COX-1 is located in most cells and is responsible for the production of prostanoids which control many functions such as blood flow (Barbagallo & Sacerdote 2019). COX-2 is induced by cytokines, shear stress, and cancer promoters and is the most important source of prostanoids in inflammation and pain (Barbagallo & Sacerdote 2019). A greater than eighty percent inhibition of COX-1 and COX-2 is created by ibuprofen (Barbagallo & Sacerdote 2019). Therefore, through inhibition of cyclooxygenase enzymes, ibuprofen treats pain by hindering the generation of it. Since the inhibition of the cyclooxygenase is competitive and reversible, the recovery of enzyme activity after it is processed reduces potential side effects, which makes ibuprofen a relatively safe drug (Barbagallo & Sacerdote 2019; Mazaleuskaya et al. 2015). Despite this, adverse side effects may still arise. Some well-known side effects of ibuprofen include gastrointestinal bleeding, rashes, and hypertension. Prostaglandins, which are reduced when
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ibuprofen inhibits cyclooxygenase enzymes, play a role in the secretion of gastroprotective mucus (Ngo & Bajaj 2021). This can result in gastrointestinal bleeding leading to problems such as a sore in the stomach called ulceration or a hole in an organ called a perforation (Ngo & Bajaj 2021). Rashes are usually due to drug hypersensitivity or skin irritation from topical or oral administration of ibuprofen (Ngo & Bajaj 2021). Stevens-Johnson syndrome and toxic epidermal necrolysis are serious diseases that cause blistering and peeling of the skin. These diseases have been reported in patients with ibuprofen use, but it is extremely rare — a rate of less than one in a million (Mazaleuskaya et al. 2015). In some cases, hypertension, or high blood pressure, may have a connection to ibuprofen. A study was done showing a slight increase in systolic blood pressure with NSAIDs, particularly ibuprofen (Ngo & Bajaj 2021; Aljadhey et al. 2012). In this study, patients with hypertension were given an NSAID for a year, and measurements of their systolic blood pressure were measured one year before and one year after (Aljadhey et al. 2012). The results showed a three to five millimeter of mercury (mmHg) pressure increase in patients who took ibuprofen compared to other NSAIDs (Aljadhey et al. 2012). The cardiovascular risk may increase more with prolonged exposure and high dosages of ibuprofen (Mazaleuskaya et al. 2015). The nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug, Ibuprofen has several adverse effects to be aware of.
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Paracetamol Paracetamol, also known as acetaminophen, is the official and generic name for Tylenol. Paracetamol is the international name used in Europe, and acetaminophen is the international name used in the United States (JóźwiakBębenista & Nowak 2014). Both names come from its chemical name is Nacetyl-para-aminophenol (Jóźwiak-Bębenista & Nowak 2014). Paracetamol is used for pain treatment, especially in patients who cannot be treated with non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAID), such as ibuprofen. Paracetamol can be used for all three steps of pain treatment intensity from mild pain to severe pain (Jóźwiak-Bębenista & Nowak 2014). For paracetamol’s mechanism of action, there are several possible primary sites of action, including inhibition of prostaglandin synthesis, central serotonergic mechanism, or an active metabolite influencing cannabinoid receptors (Anderson 2008). The inhibition of prostaglandin synthesis, which causes pain-relieving, would happen with paracetamol acting as a reducing cosubstrate (Anderson 2008). This is the mechanism of action of ibuprofen but, unlike ibuprofen, paracetamol does not have an anti-inflammatory effect. Descending serotoninergic pathways are involved in the inhibition of pain sensations (Jóźwiak-Bębenista & Nowak 2014). A study on rats showed that paracetamol stimulates serotonergic descending pathways; this theory has been confirmed on both animals and humans (Anderson 2008; Ishitsuka et al. 2020). In this study, the serotonergic pathways of rats were added with intrathecal 5,6-dihydroxytryptamine (5,6-DHT) and, once they were given paracetamol, 5,6-DHT was reduced (Tjølsen et al. 1991). These results show
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that activation of spinal serotonergic systems is involved in the pain-blocking effect of paracetamol (Tjølsen et al. 1991). An active metabolite of paracetamol shares the ability of cannabinoid receptors to display painrelieving activity and to lower body temperature (Anderson 2008). Cannabinoid receptors sense pain, so paracetamol through the active metabolite p-aminophenol would distort these receptors so that pain can not be sensed or felt (Anderson 2008). While these three possible mechanisms of action differ, all, through paracetamol, hinder pain and promote relief. While paracetamol is a very popular over-the-counter medication and is considered to be safer than non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), it can still cause adverse side effects. There is possible toxic action of paracetamol on asthma, the ductus arteriosus, and the liver. Asthma is an airway and lung condition that makes it difficult for one to breathe. A study reported that the increased use of paracetamol as an over-the-counter medication for children correlated with an increase in asthma and related disorders in children (Ishitsuka et al. 2020). Also, a prenatal paracetamol exposure experiment was conducted on animals that demonstrated paracetamol-induced placental damage, fetal development impairment, decrease in hematopoietic stem cells in the fetal liver, and a toxic metabolite of paracetamol in the lungs (Ishitsuka et al. 2020). The ductus arteriosus is a blood vessel that connects the pulmonary artery to the proximal descending aorta in a fetus, and it is essential for bypassing blood flow throughout the fetal period (Ishitsuka et al. 2020). Normally, when respiration commences after birth, the ductus arteriosus is immediately closed (Ishitsuka et al. 2020). At least one case of ductal closure after paracetamol exposure while inside
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the uterus has been reported (Ishitsuka et al. 2020). Also, based on several cynical studies, paracetamol has the potential to treat a newborn whose ductus arteriosus did not close after birth (Ishitsuka et al. 2020). This shows paracetamol has an adverse effect on the prenatal ductus arteriosus, but this side effect may be used to treat the unclosed postnatal ductus arteriosus. From this, it can be inferred that there is a possibility that the usage of paracetamol by children may lead to asthma and by pregnant mothers may lead to their offspring having respiratory disease, among other harmful effects. Hepatotoxicity, or liver damage, is the most well-known severe adverse effect of paracetamol (Ishitsuka et al. 2020). Dysfunction of the mitochondria and endoplasmic reticulum stress due to paracetamol can lead to its hepatotoxicity (Ishitsuka et al. 2020). Both intentional and unintentional paracetamol overdose is one of the most frequent causes of acute liver failure in the United States of America (Ishitsuka et al. 2020). Paracetamol, or acetaminophen, a well-liked over-the-counter medication, has several adverse effects.
Diphenhydramine Diphenhydramine is the official and generic name for Benadryl. Diphenhydramine is a first-generation antihistamine, or allergy treater, used to treat and prevent itching (pruritis), an allergic reaction triggered skin rashes (urticaria), involuntary muscle contractions (dystonias), difficulty to sleep (insomnia), spinning sensations (vertigo), and motion sickness (Sicari & Zabbo
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2021). Diphenhydramine is typically orally administered by tablet or capsule but can also be an injection or topical. Diphenhydramine acts as an inverse agonist at the histamine one receptors causing a reversal effect of histamine on capillaries to reduce allergic reaction symptoms (Sicari & Zabbo 2021). The primary mechanism of action for diphenhydramine is through antagonizing the histamine one (H1) receptors, which are located on respiratory smooth muscles, the cellular lining of the vascular system, the gastrointestinal tract (GIT), cardiac tissue, immune cells, the uterus, and the central nervous system (CNS) neurons (Sicari & Zabbo 2021). When the histamine one receptor is stimulated in these tissues, a wide variety of actions is produced, including the movement of the immune system’s white blood cells, also known as eosinophilic chemotaxis, to promote an allergic immune response (Sicari & Zabbo 2021). Diphenhydramine has a half-life of three and four-tenths to nine and two-tenths hours which is why it should be taken every four to six hours as needed, and its peak time is two hours (Sicari & Zabbo 2021). While diphenhydramine may be used to treat other symptoms, its primary use is to treat allergies and their symptoms, and when this antihistamine is taken, drowsiness is usually its most potent side effect. There are histamine-one receptors in the central nervous system that, when diphenhydramine crosses the blood-brain barrier, are inversely agonized, resulting in drowsiness (Sicari & Zabbo 2021). Diphenhydramine can occupy, even at regular therapeutic doses, the histamine one receptors in the frontal cortex, temporal cortex, hippocampus, and pons of the central nervous system, which can lead to significant sedation (Huynh et al. 2021).
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Diphenhydramine overdoses make up about three percent of drug overdose deaths in the United States, is ranked among the top fifteen drugs most frequently involved in drug overdose deaths, and is one of four drugs most frequently used in suicides, states a report based on a study from 2011 to 2016 (Hedegaard et al. 2018; Huynh et al. 2021). Misuse and intoxications of diphenhydramine can occur through oral, topical, or injection administration but are most likely to result from oral ingestion because of its accessibility as an over-the-counter medication (Huynh et al. 2021). Overdose or intoxication of this drug can be either accidental or intentional and can have severe and potentially fatal consequences (Huynh et al. 2021). Intentional overdose can be done by those who want to self-harm, commit suicide, or produce a pleasant, euphoric, and high effect. (Huynh et al. 2021) Most diphenhydramine overdose cases occur in children ages six years or younger, which are most likely unintentional (Huynh et al. 2021). Patients with mild to moderate toxicity can exhibit dry mucous membranes, disorientation, fast heart rate called tachycardia, dilated pupils called mydriasis, urinary retention, an overheated body called hyperthermia, and decreased bowel sounds (Huynh et al. 2021). Patients with more severe toxicity may have additional effects such as severe delirium, seizures, psychosis, hallucinations, and low blood pressure called hypotension (Huynh et al. 2021).
Loratadine Loratadine is the official and generic name for Claritin. Loratadine is a second-generation antihistamine class used for the relief, management, and
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treatment of skin rashes called hives and allergies with conditions such as itching called pruritus, watery eyes, runny nose, and sneezing (Sidhu & Akhondi 2021). Loratadine is administered orally with or without meals by tablet capsule or syrup (Sidhu & Akhondi 2021). Loratadine is a long-acting, non-sedating antihistamine whose mechanism of action is selectively inhibiting histamine-one receptors primarily located on respiratory smooth muscle cells, the cellular lining of the vascular system, the gastrointestinal tract, and the immune system cells (Sidhu & Akhondi 2021). Loratadine is a competitive histamine antagonist that does not cross the blood-brain barrier, so it does not affect the neurons of the central nervous system (Sidhu & Akhondi 2021). Unlike the first-generation antihistamines such as diphenhydramine, this prevents daytime somnolence or sedation (Sidhu & Akhondi 2021). Loratadine binds to histamine-one receptors in different cells, causing a decrease in vascular permeability, dilation in respiratory airways called bronchodilation, and decreased pain, swelling, and itching (Sidhu & Akhondi 2021). Loratadine works quickly, within one to three hours, and its effects peak within eight to twelve hours (Sidhu & Akhondi 2021). Loratadine is a relatively safe and effective medication for treating allergies, but adverse effects may still occur, including headaches, dizziness, diarrhea, abdominal pain, nausea, blurred vision, and vomiting (Sidhu & Akhondi 2021; Loratadine 2017). Some rare side effects of loratadine are sedation, pupil dilation called mydriasis, and dry mouth called xerostomia (Sidhu & Akhondi 2021). Also, if more than the recommended ten-milligram dosage is taken in twenty-four hours, there is the possibility of loratadine-
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induced cardiotoxicity, or heart muscle damage, which can lead to an irregular heartbeat (Sidhu & Akhondi 2021). Loratadine and its metabolic derivative desloratadine, which is in a similar over-the-counter medication called Clarinex, have been linked to rare instances of acute liver injury within two to four weeks of starting medication (Loratadine 2017). While the cause of this liver injury due to loratadine and desloratadine is unknown, it is essential to recognize that the drug is metabolized in the liver, and medication should be promptly stopped if an injury is apparent (Loratadine 2017).
Dextromethorphan Dextromethorphan is the official and generic name for Robitussin. Its chemical name is 3-methoxy-N-methylmorphinan (Martinak et al. 2017). Dextromethorphan is an antitussive, or cough suppressant, meaning it helps to minimize and relieve coughing. Dextromethorphan is well tolerated, has a wide therapeutic window, and can be administered through liquid cough syrups and liquid-filled capsules (Oh et al. 2021). Dextromethorphan is an analog of codeine, so it is an opioid derivative but is not addictive when proper dosage is consumed (Oh et al. 2021). The proposed primary mechanism of action of dextromethorphan is that it works on the nucleus tractus solitarius and its leading site of action is at N-methyl-Daspartate (NMDA) receptors as a non-competitive antagonist (Oh et al. 2021). This is the estimated site where the pulmonary vagal afferent fibers synapse in the central nervous system function as a gate for cough reflex (Oh et al.
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2021). Dextromethorphan, upon initial absorption, undergoes rapid metabolism through cytochrome P450 2D6 (CYP2D6) into major metabolite dextrorphan (DX), which, through different mechanisms, causes a variety of physiological effects (Oh et al. 2021; Journey et al. 2021). Dextromethorphan works by affecting brain signals that cause cough reflex and has a half-life of three to thirty hours, giving it a large time window to work in (Oh et al. 2021; Journey et al. 2021). Adverse effects from cough suppressants are rare, but the most common are nausea, gastrointestinal discomfort, drowsiness, and dizziness (Oh et al. 2021). The most significant cause of adverse effects is dextromethorphan abuse known as “going pharming,” “robotripping,” and “dexing,” and there are several street names for the drug such as “Triple C,” “Dex,” “Orange Crush,” “Red Devils,” and “Poor Man’s PCP” (Martinak et al. 2017; Oh et al. 2021; Journey et al. 2021). Depending on the amount ingested, dextromethorphan toxicity can have cardiovascular, neurological, metabolic, and musculoskeletal effects and is commonly abused because of its euphoric, hallucinogenic, and dissociative properties (Journey et al. 2021). A study was done on the case of a forty-year-old woman, Ms. J, with a history of substance abuse who was admitted to a psychiatric unit after using dextromethorphan for several years (Martinak et al. 2017). Dextromethorphan abuse was appealing to Ms. J because of its accessibility and low cost as it is an overthe-counter medication and it is not detectable on urine drug screen tests, so she would fluctuate between periods of sobriety, high weekly dosage of dextromethorphan, and high daily dosage of dextromethorphan (Martinak et al. 2017). Even after ridding her body of the substance while at the psychiatric
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unit, she displayed inappropriate, hostile, illogical, and delusional behavior (Martinak et al. 2017). Dextrorphan, the active metabolite in dextromethorphan, works similar to other mind-altering drugs such as ketamine (Martinak et al. 2017); this relates Ms. J’s psychotic behavior to dextromethorphan. Dextromethorphan’s psychiatric symptoms have been grouped into four dose-dependent categories: perceptual alterations, motorcognitive function impairment, intense hallucination, and complete psychophysical dissociation (Martinak et al. 2017). The variance in symptoms of dextromethorphan abuse and lack of detection in urine tests make it difficult to diagnose dextromethorphan-induced psychosis properly and needs to be acknowledged by health providers (Martinak et al. 2017; Journey et al. 2021).
Bismuth Subsalicylate Bismuth subsalicylate is the official and generic name for Pepto Bismol. Bismuth subsalicylate is used to treat gastrointestinal conditions such as diarrhea, indigestions, nausea, stomach upset, and the consumption of contaminated food or water called traveler’s diarrhea (Budisak & Abbas 2021). Bismuth subsalicylate provides relief of mild, moderate, and severe symptoms of flatulence and diarrhea and is the preferred self-treatment option for gastrointestinal discomfort (Budisak & Abbas 2021). Bismuth subsalicylate is administered orally through liquid or tablet form and typically has a positive therapeutic response within four hours of consumption (Budisak & Abbas 2021).
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Bismuth subsalicylate hydrolyzes into two compounds — bismuth and salicylic acid — in the stomach (Budisak & Abbas 2021). The mechanism of action through which bismuth subsalicylate works is complex because it is an insoluble salt of salicylic acid and trivalent bismuth (Budisak & Abbas 2021). The salicylate acid compound is almost completely absorbed into the bloodstream; however, bismuth salt is minimally absorbed (Budisak & Abbas 2021). The bismuth that remains in the gastrointestinal tract forms other bismuth salts, which contain bactericidal and antimicrobial activity that prevent bacteria from binding and growing on the mucosal cells of the stomach (Budisak & Abbas 2021). This prevents intestinal secretion, promotes fluid absorption, reduces inflammation, and promotes the healing of any present ulcer, or sore, in the stomach (Budisak & Abbas 2021). The antidiarrheal effect of bismuth subsalicylate is most likely due to the inhibition of intestinal secretions, the reduction in prostaglandin formation, which induces inflammation and increased digestive tract movement called hypermotility, or the stimulation of reabsorption of fluids, sodium, and chloride, which helps decrease fluid loss (Budisak & Abbas 2021). The common adverse effects associated with the administration of bismuth subsalicylate are nausea, bitter taste, diarrhea, and dark or black stools (Budisak & Abbas 2021). Bismuth subsalicylate toxicity can result from the frequent use of bismuth subsalicylate over an extended period of time, called bismuth encephalopathy, resulting in the blackening of the tongue and teeth, fatigue, mood changes, and deterioration of mental status (Budisak & Abbas 2021; Borbinha et al. 2019). An example of this is the case of a fortyfour-year-old woman who treated her irritable bowel syndrome with bismuth
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subsalicylate for about twenty years (Borbinha et al. 2019). The woman was brought to the hospital after two weeks of abnormal behavior, and her examination showed greyish teeth discoloration, confusion, and involuntary muscle movements called myoclonic jerks (Borbinha et al. 2019). The patient’s parents reported that the woman was relatively healthy and was not taking any other medications (Borbinha et al. 2019). Many laboratory tests were done, such as complete blood count levels but all test levels were within the normal limits (Borbinha et al. 2019). While the doctors were considering a diagnosis, they proposed bismuth encephalopathy as a possibility leading to further questioning the patient’s parents (Borbinha et al. 2019). They revealed the patient’s long-standing use of bismuth subsalicylate, which they had not initially reported because they did not find the over-the-counter medication to be relevant (Borbinha et al. 2019). After doing an advanced urine test, the results showed extremely high levels of bismuth toxicity leading to treatment that improved her mental and functional status (Borbinha et al. 2019). Cases of bismuth subsalicylate neurotoxicity reported have been marked by chronic overexposure, high-dose, or both, and by removing bismuth-containing products from the patient, bismuth encephalopathy generally improves gradually within weeks to months (Borbinha et al. 2019).
Mixing Over-the-Counter Medications Mixing over-the-counter medications with other over-the-counter medications can have adverse effects. Some over-the-counter medications are different brand names than the ones mentioned but have the same active
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ingredient or pathways in them; therefore, consuming them both can cause potential overuse or high dosage. As previously stated, Advil is a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) that can cause gastrointestinal bleeding because ibuprofen inhibits cyclooxygenase enzymes which affect the gastroprotective mucus. Taking more than one nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID), which has the same underlying pathways, boosts the risk of adverse effects ranging from mild nausea to severe gastrointestinal bleeding (Kuzma 2015). As mentioned, Tylenol has a well-known severe side effect called hepatotoxicity, or liver damage. The use of Tylenol and another overthe-counter medication that has paracetamol intentionally or unintentionally can result in more than four grams — the daily dosage — putting one at higher risk for hepatoxicity (Kuzma 2015). As discussed, Benadryl is an allergy reliever that causes drowsiness because it affects the histamine-one receptors in the central nervous system. Combing antihistamines like Benadryl with motion sickness medications like Dramamine will create excessive drowsiness because they have similar active ingredients (Kuzma 2015). The aforementioned cough suppressant Robitussin can cause euphoric and hallucinogenic states if overused. Dextromethorphan can not be combined with an antidepressant herbal supplement called St. John’s wort because together they may trigger a dangerous condition called serotonin syndrome (Kuzma 2015). This causes the neurotransmitter serotonin to build up, causing sweating, confusion, discomfort, motor control loss, and even death (Kuzma 2015). It is important to read medicine labels to understand if one may be taking the same active ingredient more than once because it puts the patient at higher risk of adverse effects.
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Mixing over-the-counter medications with alcohol can also have adverse effects. Alcohol can make one sleepy, drowsy, or lightheaded, so drinking alcohol while taking medications can intensify these effects, which is a significant risk (NIAAA 2020). When alcohol is consumed, women typically have a higher level of alcohol in their bloodstream than men, and older individuals have a higher risk for harmful alcohol-medication interactions since aging slows the ability of the body to break down alcohol (NIAAA 2020). If over-the-counter medication for pain, fever, and inflammation, such as Advil and Tylenol, interacts with alcohol, stomach upset, bleeding, ulcers, liver damage, and rapid heartbeat may occur (NIAAA 2020). If over-the-counter medication for allergies such as Benadryl and Claritin interacts with alcohol, drowsiness, dizziness, and increased risk for an overdose is possible (NIAAA 2020). If over-the-counter cough suppressants such as Robitussin interact with alcohol, drowsiness, dizziness, and increased risk for an overdose can happen (NIAAA 2020). One can protect themselves from these alcoholmedication interactions by avoiding alcohol while taking medicine. Interestingly, Pepto Bismol does not perfectly fit within these descriptions. As mentioned, Pepto Bismol treats gastrointestinal conditions such as diarrhea and upset stomach. Anti-diarrheal medicine and calcium supplements, which firms stool, should not be taken together because they can stop one’s excretory system (Kuzma 2015). Surprisingly, Pepto Bismol and calcium are not known to have any interactions, and some versions of Pepto Bismol have calcium in them, such as Pepto Bismol Children’s chewable tablet. This is not to say that Pepto Bismol does not have any drug-drug interactions; in fact, it can interact with fellow over-the-counter drug Advil
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causing risk of overdose (NHS 2019). Unexpectedly, alcohol does not interfere with Pepto-Bismol’s mechanism of action but drinking alcohol makes your stomach produce more acid than usual (NHS 2019). This can make the symptoms Pepto-Bismol is trying to treat worse, so it is better to avoid alcohol while taking this medicine (NHS 2019).
Analysis, Thoughts, and Conclusion Over-the-counter medications are a good source for the treatment of common illnesses. They are easy to obtain because they do not need a prescription, are not very expensive, and are available in many grocery stores and gas stations. Side effects of over-the-counter medications are, on average, nonlife-threatening, and serious adverse effects are typically rare. These medications give a simple solution and treatment to typical symptoms and are well known for doing so. Unfortunately, what is excellent and valuable about this class of drugs also can make them bad and, in some cases, dangerous. Since over-thecounter medications are nonprescription, cheap, widely available, are usually not tested for in started urine tests, it gives individuals the opportunity to substance abuse these drugs. This can be seen with Ms. J's case, who substance abused dextromethorphan for years ending up in a psychiatric unit. Over-the-counter medications are known to have minimal side effects. However, Advil, Tylenol, Benadryl, Claritin, Robitussin, and Pepto Bismol can create a list of effects such as gastrointestinal bleeding, rashes, hypertension, asthma, headaches, dizziness, drowsiness, diarrhea, abdominal pain, nausea,
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blurred vision, and vomiting. Because severe adverse effects of over-thecounter medications are rare, it is harder to diagnose when there is over-thecounter drug toxicity. This can be seen with the case of the woman who had bismuth encephalopathy after decades-long standard use of Pepto Bismol. While over-the-counter medications are well known, they are not well understood. Lack of proper knowledge of these drugs can lead to adverse effects and toxicity. At least ten of the peer-reviewed articles' authors allude to over-the-counter medications being acknowledged by users, patients, and doctors as drugs that have the potential to cause harm and toxicity if proper dosage is not administered. It is difficult to say whether or not over-thecounter medications really should be available without a prescription because of their potential harm, but they do continue to help individuals relieve themselves of common illnesses and symptoms.
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References Aljadhey, H., Tu, W., Hansen, R. A., Blalock, S. J., Brater, D. C., & Murray, M. D. (2012). Comparative effects of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) on blood pressure in patients with hypertension. BMC cardiovascular disorders, 12, 93. Anderson, B. J. (2008). Paracetamol (Acetaminophen): mechanisms of action. Pediatric Anesthesia, 18(10), 915-921. Barbagallo, M., & Sacerdote, P. (2019). Ibuprofen in the treatment of children's inflammatory pain: a clinical and pharmacological overview. Minerva pediatrica, 71(1), 82–99. Borbinha, C., Serrazina, F., Salavisa, M., & Viana-Baptista, M. (2019). Bismuth encephalopathy- a rare complication of long-standing use of bismuth subsalicylate. BMC neurology, 19(1), 212. Budisak, P., & Abbas, M. (2021). Bismuth Subsalicylate. In StatPearls. StatPearls Publishing. Hedegaard, H., Bastian, B. A., Trinidad, J. P., Spencer, M., & Warner, M. (2018). Drugs Most Frequently Involved in Drug Overdose Deaths: United States, 2011-2016. National vital statistics reports: from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Health Statistics, National Vital Statistics System, 67(9), 1–14. Huynh, D. A., Abbas, M., & Dabaja, A. (2021). Diphenhydramine Toxicity. In StatPearls. StatPearls Publishing.
STUDENTRESEARCH JOURNA
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The Effect of the COVID-19 Pandemic on the High School Curriculum Brent Edington Fredrick Douglass High School
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Abstract In 2020, the Coronavirus pandemic wreaked havoc on our daily lives. Businesses shut down, mask mandates were passed, and quarantines were put in place. Most notably for families however was the instigation of at-home learning, which had the capacity to change forever. Previous research has found that the socioeconomic class of the student affects how virtual learning impacts their quality of education. Once students were back in person, similar divides were observed which sparked the objective of this research study: to determine if the mandated changes to education because of COVID19 stayed with high school educators in Fayette County. To determine if the standards stayed after virtual learning, a survey was conducted among the high school teachers asking about the types of assignments and examinations that were assigned before, during, and after the lockdowns. This survey included quantitative multiple-choice questions whilst giving qualitative data with the option to elaborate on why the assignments changed. It was concluded that the methods of education in the postlockdown era were almost the same as they were before the COVID19 virus. It was also concluded that depending on the subject, some assignments were dropped by a majority of the teachers.
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Literature Review The COVID-19 pandemic was a major lifestyle shift for everyone in the world, regardless of where they were located. It affected families, incomes, and the normality of our daily lives. For young adults and children, the quality and style of education took a massive hit and affected students disproportionately based on their economic background. Now, with the lockdowns lifted, online learning is being phased out to make way for the return to in-person instruction. However, the lockdown revealed a massive discrepancy in the quality of education between classes; causing many teachers to challenge the old method and find new ways to revamp the education system to ensure that every child receives a satisfactory education. As a country, we have given little resources to meet the needs of children that were exposed to traumatic events, and the pandemic was a breaking point for many, causing mental health issues in students (Berry, 2020). While the impact of COVID-19 on students is heavily researched, it is unclear to what extent teachers were impacted by the lockdown. Teachers shape the ideas of generations, as they can have twenty years' worth of students before they retire, and the curriculum they teach can shape how the next generation views the world. The pandemic affected education by growing the educational class divide, the shifting assessment standards, and flipping the standard curriculum; however, there were diverse views among educators about if we should return. COVID
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forced schools into online learning, disproportionately affecting students based on their financial status and interrupting their social lives. Because of the lockdown, after-school activities were canceled, requiring them to have virtual meetings if they wanted to continue. At first, this change in participation seemed temporary, but after the lockdowns were over, the number of students involved in activities decreased and was significant for those that only wanted a high school education and had no plans for post-secondary education.
Figure 1 Note. The graph shows how students maintained after-school activities before and after the COVID-19 lockdowns. From The impact of lockdown on the learning gap: family and school divisions in times of crisis, by Bonal, X., & González, S., 2020 (https://doi.org/10.1007/s11159-020-09860-z)
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As seen in figure 1, students that planned to only complete compulsory education were the ones that dropped out significantly. This can be tied to lower-income families, as most can’t afford to provide their children with a post-secondary education (Bonal, 2020). As you go further into the level of degree, the trend of students not enrolling in their after-school activities decreases, with most maintaining their after-school activities when pursuing a university degree. As students’ after-school involvement decreases, the gap between socially advantaged students and non-socially advanced students increases, leaving a greater discrepancy in education (Bonal, 2020). With students wanting to go to post-secondary institutions, in-person learning is critical for their success, according to the University of Florida president (Pettit, 2020). Many college officials see the necessity of in-person instruction for every student, and with many students being less involved, colleges are trying to find ways to get professors to prepare students for college during the pandemic. Since many were not shifting to online platforms before, this rapid transition was cumbersome for many as they didn’t have access to the internet. One teacher from China took two stools -one for his laptop and teaching materials- and climbed up a hill to get a signal (Chen, 2020). Many teachers were teaching in a difficult situation, and many had to change how they would assess students during the lockdowns. With students having to learn from their homes, the traditional model of assessments was not feasible; there would have to be a change to how tests worked for classes and colleges. The standard way of assessments was greatly affected by the pandemic, allowing teachers to
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see how testing affected their students’ mental health (Middleton, 2020). When teachers switched to having no exams, they noticed a decrease of stress and anxiety among students. With this realization, many are pushing for the method of assessing will change and how much of a weight they carry in education. For example, decisions for colleges. Standardized testing has been one of the main ways colleges decide who gets admitted. Since the start of tests like the SAT and ACT, that has been the primary way colleges have admitted students, and with many knowing how it affects minority students, it is only another reason why the current admissions process is flawed. College applicants hope with this lockdown, that colleges would start looking more at community involvement rather than test performance (Hewitt, 2020). The effect of COVID-19 can already be seen now with state testing programs like STAR -STAR benchmarks areas like Mathematics and English throughout grades 1 thru 12-, which can be a major precursor to how testing will go during and post-covid.
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Figure 2 Note. Graph showcases the standards of meeting benchmark to needing urgent intervention for those who stopped learning and those who continued for an extra one to two months after quarantine (March 2020). From The Potential Impact of COVID‐19 on Student Learning and How Schools Can Respond. Educational Measurement: Issues & Practice, by Wyse, A. E., Stickney, E. M., Butz, D., Beckler, A., & Close, C. N., 2020 (https://doi.org/10.1111/emip.12357)
In figure 2, the light line represents the 40th percentile, the darker line is the 25th percentile, and the black line is the 10th percentile, representing at or above benchmark, intervention or on watch, and urgent intervention and intervention, respectively (Wyse, 2020). This graph showcases that the number of students that fell into these lower categories grew and the y-axis represents the percentage of students who fell into that category. Students that declined a month were more affected than those who could stay the normal time or even those who could have instruction for one more month. The effects of learning as shown on assessments, like this math assessment shown, gives question to the effectiveness of these examinations showing how capable students are. With this shift, many teachers do not know the next steps for education. Before the lockdown, classes would incorporate a “basic” use of technologies: whether it be for typing a paper or creating a PowerPoint presentation (Valverde-Berrocoso, 2021). This practice was never improved upon because teachers did not need to include more technology in their lessons; there was no push to get students to be more technologically involved. Because of the pandemic, this flipped on its
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head. Without students receiving in-person teaching, they began to depend on technology to learn. This made us realize how important faceto-face learning is and how it can reflect the technological struggles that were shown throughout remote learning (Tarc, 2020). Another realization was that the traditional lesson plans don't give a transition to a career. This leaves many students exiting high school or college without a clear path forward. Educational partnerships with companies such as Apple or Microsoft could benefit both parties. Corporations would be able to shape students into potential job candidates and students will get real-world experience of what their career field would look like (Smith, 2020). This can also allow high schools with partnerships to give low-income students access to technology that would otherwise not be financially available. The change to remote learning leaves many wondering if teachers did not like the situation, why did they continue teaching? The short answer is they could not, because of regulations that the state places on teachers stating when they can leave. In Texas, there is a law that prohibits teachers from quitting 45 days before instruction starts or they risk losing their teaching license (Will, 2021). Teachers learned different strategies throughout this period and allowed companies to take the limelight in education.
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Figure 3 Note. The question this elementary school gifted and talented teacher was responding to was what one thing would you keep from online learning when we return to in-person instruction. From Twitter by Sgraff@palmyra, 2020 (https://twitter.com/sgraffpalmyrak1/status/ 1257731351647850496?s=20&t=-w5PQMcvIh_Z7e8F7jZiyA)
Teachers have enjoyed the new utilities that were sprung from the lockdown like Flipgrid-a software to allow students to film themselves for projects and assignments and submit them securely to their teacher. These new assignment mediums encouraged many teachers that this would be the new standard of education, fixing the multitude of problems that are with the traditional model (Moran, 2020). In recent months, the question of these practices is becoming more prominent with many governors such as DeSantis of Florida forcing schools to open up without any mask mandates allowed (Landeros, 2021). With the future of education moving forward with varying restrictions, the way teachers have changed their education practices is unknown, which is the goal presented in this paper.
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Method The impact made on each teacher differs by subject, teaching style, and how long they have been teaching, so the strongest evidence will be the stories told by these high school educators. As stated earlier, subjects like math will suffer more from virtual learning than reading, and there should be an expected correlation among the teachers in those respected fields. To collect this qualitative data, a survey was created and distributed to Fayette County high school teachers with questions regarding their background, subject area(s), and style of teaching they used during the pandemic (Appendix A). To make the data as accurate as possible, teachers were able to explain each multiple-choice question in an optional text box and were restricted via their email to keep the survey from being compromised. Since this study is reliant on self-judgment, the sample size is critical to eliminate outliers in the survey. Another is to create a picture of their instruction by asking a variety of questions in regard to assignments, assessments, and lesson planning. Because we are asking questions relating to non-sensitive subjects, there isn't an ethical issue, but an email was left for those who want to address a concern in regard to privacy and other ethical concerns. Pre-Covid
During Lockdown
Post Lockdown
What type of work did
What type of work did
What type of work did
you assign?
you assign?
you assign?
How did you plan
How did you plan
How did you plan
lessons?
lessons?
lessons?
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Did your assessments
Did your assessments
Did your assessments
include the following?
include the following?
include the following?
Figure 4 Note. The table above shows the questions that were asked to teachers in regard to their teaching style during the three “stages” of education during the COVID-19 pandemic.
The form was divided into multiple sections, with multiple-choice questions and an optional short answer box to explain the circumstance of their response. The sections were split up into the following: consent, background, pre-covid, teaching during COVID-19 (lockdown), teaching post lockdown, and review and submit responses (See Figure 4 & Appendix A). To classify the responses, they were divided into subjects to see how the responses differ among the subject areas. This survey was sent via email and three weeks were given to collect responses to give time for teachers in quarantine or absent for other reasons to submit their responses (Appendix B). To guarantee that the participants are indeed high school teachers, the email was sent to FCPS emails only and the form only accepted responses from those district email addresses. Since the responses were automatically filed into a Google worksheet, the data was grouped into the different subject areas as the responses came in, allowing for an easy visual review of the responses given. Participants were given the option to remain anonymous with their responses.
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Once the survey concluded, content analysis was conducted, and outliers removed such as not using the 2019-2020 school year as their pre-covid year. Afterward, the multiple-choice responses were charted to compare the three-time periods being examined in the research. This graph shows the effect COVID-19 had and along with testimony from those who wanted to share and showcases how exactly COVID-19 affected the future of education.
Findings After having the survey active for one month, it collected ninetythree responses and varied among the high schools that are currently in Fayette County. Most of the teachers carried a master's degree with an average of twelve years of teaching and a median of ten years.
Figure 5 Note. The pie chart showcases the response distribution from the high schools in Fayette County (Paul Laurence Dunbar, Lafayette, Tates Creek, Henry Clay, Bryan Station, Frederick Douglass)
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The school with the most responses was Frederick Douglass. The results showcased a clear jump to how things were before the lockdown, as compared to innovating upon the new ways of learning from the lockdowns.
Figure 6 Note. The respondents were given a “click all that apply” question and the AP Exam’s percentage is only based on the number of AP teachers that responded (37 Teachers).
Most standardized methods of learning such as projects and presentations were back to pre-covid levels after the lockdown, with some surpassing the amount prior to the lockdowns. Most methods that require individual work were the ones that arose during the lockdowns and after the return to in-person instruction. Teachers during the lockdowns chose assignments that students could not plagiarize easily from the internet or peers.
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Figure 7. Note. Participants were given a click all that applied for this question as well.
The principle mentioned above was also shown here with the decline of projects during COVID-19 and the bounce-back that happened afterward. Assignments that could not be copied weren’t used, but for exams that wasn’t the case as students were unable to be monitored during exams. Although multiple-choice exams are the easiest to cheat on, they were the most common method of assessment during the year of online learning.
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Figure 8. Note. The graph shown is only from responses of English teachers (16 Responses)
For most English courses, essays are an essential tool for students to demonstrate their learning. COVID-19 has reduced the number of essays assigned, going from 91% to 66% because of the pandemic. Almost all English teachers had essays as a method of learning, but half assigned them as work rather than tests. The rest of the core subjects were the same as in Figure 6 with the U shape forming for almost every assignment method. Out of all the subjects, English was the subject that changed the most, but was it for the better?
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Discussion The results from this study were “as expected” if you asked teachers their opinion on what this study would show. However, many themes arose on what exactly declined after the return to in-person instruction.
Virtual Learning Flaws During virtual learning, teachers had little way to monitor students during exams or projects to make sure they were not plagiarizing or cheating on the assessment, causing many to scrap exams altogether during this time. A Social Studies teacher from Frederick Douglass “realized basically all of them were cheating on any multiple-choice” exam and moved “to short answers to limit the success of this” (Edington, 2022). Some teachers took preemptive measures on cheating by using monitoring software or reinventing tests to adapt to COVID-19 conditions. A Paul Laurence Dunbar teacher dropped multiple choice exams and went for 5 open response questions for each standard with varying versions to stop cheating (Edington, 2022). With technology, students can cheat by simply searching for the question to find the answers or getting on a call with peers to discuss the answers. As shown with the types of assignments that were assigned, teachers were aware of this issue. However, teachers have been able to combat this with tools that allow them to monitor student screens, regardless of their location.
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At Frederick Douglass, there is a software called GoGuardian that allows teachers to view the screens of students’ Chromebooks to make sure they are not cheating. However, the school cannot force them to download this software on personal computers. College classes implemented remote proctoring where students were forced to share a screen and webcam to prevent cheating, but this was easily circumvented by looking up answers on a different screen and blocking your webcam with black construction paper. The concern with this software is the privacy of students. What stops them from turning it on at any point in the day? Many teachers tried this software and quickly reverted to the honor code due to ethical concerns. That is why a majority of teachers cut examinations in fear of cheating, and most schools canceled final examinations for that year. A Tates Creek educator “used more projects than tests because [they] had no control over whether students used their notes, etc. anyway and during projects, they could use them more than a traditional test” (Edington, 2022). Projects were also easier to catch students sharing resources since there are multiple ways to do a project, resulting in any projects looking very similar to be suspect of sharing resources.
Sharing of Resources During the pandemic, many students struggled with excess stress and mental health issues. Grades are a big contributor to this, and cheating helped remedy this stress as they didn't need to worry about failing a major assessment. Teachers reported a decline in retainment of
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the education given during virtual learning and the assessments could be a big contributing factor to why the quality declined. Teachers were forced to leave students behind because students valued the preservation of their grades above their retention of knowledge learned; an issue that has affected student performance in the years following. Teachers are expected to keep a vigorous standard of learning, as the information learned is to be built upon in future classes. Higher-level classes like Calculus AB are built upon Pre-Calculus and with being online, these teachers were having to reteach topics from the previous year whilst maintaining a fast-paced curriculum. Many also had to learn how these topics were taught to students since most lessons were not made for online instruction, especially in subjects like Math. Teachers felt the effect along with students, with the assignments being more lenient, students were unable to return to the previous strict requirements of a high school course. With virtual learning’s gaps in rigor, having assessments that test in the same manner did not help the quality of education progress forward.
Catch-Up Learning when In-Person After the lockdowns concluded and the district allowed a return to in-person instruction in March 2021, teachers across the county realized exactly how much students did not learn during the virtual learning era. As stated before, teachers knew that students were not being academically honest when it came to exams and were able to get away without knowing the content. Teachers then had to go at an even faster
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pace to catch up with students and get ready for the final or AP Exam. A social studies teacher from Frederick Douglass stated that the return to in-person “is not where it was pre [-] covid but not as low as during virtual teaching” (Edington, 2022). With some students remaining virtual, educators needed to host zoom rooms along with in-person classes, causing a constraint on what assignments they could do. Some would have them all online, and some would differ the assignments, causing the workload on the teacher to be twice as much. Assessments suffered the same consequences as the return to inperson classes. Tests before were multiple-choice just to be of ease to the teacher while still showcasing the student’s academic knowledge. With the zoom and in-person hybrid, you still had people who could cheat and those that were in-person could call this situation unfair if, for example, a test is curved based on the highest score by a student. The students nor the teacher would know if that score was legitimate or a result of cheating. One solution, as a Dunbar math teacher described was moving “towards…short answer quizzes that make them practice their skills and show they understood the content” (Edington, 2022). This forced remote students to come up with unique ideas, permitting the teacher didn’t search for a question online and placed it on the quiz. You could prevent collaborating since if answers looked similar, you knew that those students were most likely communicating during the exam, essentially giving students an equal chance to get a good score on the exam. Most implemented this strategy since at Douglass for example, finals exams
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were required so you did need to make sure that students would know the content by the end of the short semester.
Fulfillment of Gaps in Research Current research on this topic has addressed the mental and educational effects on students and teachers from the COVID-19 lockdowns. Before this research, all that was known was the discrepancy between the high, middle, and lower classes. This caused many teachers to try and reform the education system to see if this could change, and that is what this research shows. What were the changes, and did they stick as many hoped they would? We know that this country had given little resources to meet the needs of children, and the pandemic pushed this small allocation to the max (Berry, 2020). This study showcased the reality that the curriculum was not changing, and that many teachers just reverted to the original way, a clear reversal of what many educational reformers wanted to happen from this major event.
Implications The real-world implications that could be brought from this gap year of education for adolescents during COVID-19 is how schools still lack the technology to prepare students for the 21st century of artificial intelligence. Before COVID, educators knew that schools needed to advance the way of learning for students to have the basic technical skills to make it in the real world. Although many can learn it from home, many students either have a lack of internet access or do not have a computer,
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so school is the only place for these abilities to be taught. This can lead to students not being career-ready and struggling to find a job since many will move to online portals for job applications and doing work on the internet. Many thought this forced move to online learning would allow education to reinvent itself and become ready for the 21st century, but with the resurgence of traditional methods, this was not the case. Education needs to be prepared for this technological takeover, so it can't leave its students behind in the past.
Limitations The results of this survey were based on a teacher population from an urban, well-developed area within Kentucky which does not give the big picture for every scenario that could be occurring in your school district. When it comes to the curriculum of schools, rural counties are not able to give as much money as counties that are in the city because of the small population that lives there. If this survey was conducted in such an area, it is believed there would be a difference in numbers, but the trends would be the same. Teachers regardless of their location have to meet certain criteria given by the state they reside in to retain their teaching license. Another limiting factor would have been the amount in each subject. Although there were almost 100 responses, the survey did not give many avenues to dig deeper into each subject to see where it differed from the overall results. This research could vary from each subject as it requires different skills, some that can’t be tested on a computer like mathematics. Finally, this was a survey among high school
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teachers, one where its students could easily get accustomed to a different style of learning. Elementary, Intermediate, Middle School, etc. students would have a hard time transitioning to online learning because of their dependence on 1-on-1 instruction, which is nearly impossible on Zoom or other meeting platforms. This could have shown a different result in the lockdown year because of this factor, causing the research to not have a trend or change between years.
Areas for Future Research With the limitations mentioned above, some areas can complement this research in regard to the curriculum with COVID-19. The participants can be expanded to include more than just high schools in the results. We know that there is a harder impact on students in primary schools because of the decline of extracurricular involvement during the virtual years of school (Bonal, 2020). It can also expand to include rural areas, nationally, or globally, giving a better picture of what everyone was facing in the education sector during the lockdown.
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References Berry, B. (2020). Teaching, Learning, and Caring in the Post-COVID Era. Phi Delta Kappan, 102(1), 14–17. Bonal, X., & González, S. (2020). The impact of lockdown on the learning gap: family and school divisions in times of crisis. International Review of Education/Internationale Zeitschrift Für Erziehungswissenschaft, 66(5/6), 635–655. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11159-020-09860-z Chen, S. (2020). The COVID-19 Pandemic, Massive Online Education, and Teacher Learning. Journal of Interdisciplinary Studies in Education, 9(2), xix+.https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/A662496402/OVIC?u=lex6166&sid =bookmark-OVIC&xid=1156ee66 Hewitt, K. K., Carlone, H., Faircloth, B. S., Gonzalez, L. M., He, Y., & Vetter, A. (2020). What We Choose to Remember: Imagined Shared Narratives of Education During COVID-19. Journal of Interdisciplinary Studies in Education, 9(2), v+. https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/A662496399/OVIC?u=lex6166&sid=bo okmark-OVIC&xid=21967426 Landeros, P., &amp; Sandoval, E. (2021, July 28). Trust index: Fact-checking desantis' statement on children wearing masks in school. WKMG. Retrieved October 6, 2021, from https://www.clickorlando.com/news/local/2021/07/28/what-doexperts-say-about-statemnts-from-gov-desantis-about-studentswearing-masks-at-school/.
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Middleton, K. V. (2020). The Longer‐Term Impact of COVID‐19 on K–12 Student Learning and Assessment. Educational Measurement: Issues & Practice, 39(3), 41–44. https://doi.org/10.1111/emip.12368 PETTIT, E. (2020, November 27). A Reckless Return? Chronicle of Higher Education, 67(7), 6. Sgraff@palmyra. (2020, May 5). Distance learning has been mixed bag-in my opinion, but I'll continue using flipgrid and I like the idea of virtual meetings and lessons. but, I would use new technology to continue to promote projects that push students to use traditional "technologies" like magnifying glasses. Twitter. Retrieved October 6, 2021, from https://twitter.com/sgraffpalmyrak1/status/1257731351647850496?s=2 0&t=-w5PQMcvIh_Z7e8F7jZiyA. Smith, P. A. (2020). Lessons from yalta: Considerations for post-COVID 19 higher education. International Journal of Multidisciplinary Perspectives in Higher Education. Retrieved October 6, 2021, from https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ1273084. Moran, Susannah ? myON by Renaissance. (2020, July 31). With all the changes 2020 has brought into our education system, normal will look a bit different this year. instead of going back to school, let's move forward to school. how will you approach Remote Learning for your students? #BackToSchool2020 #remotelearning #edchat https://t.co/vn7ohrrjcq. Twitter. Retrieved October 6, 2021, from https://twitter.com/ NYCmyON/status/1289220449671368707.
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Tarc, P. (2020). Education post-'covid-19': Re-visioning the face-to-face classroom. Current Issues in Comparative Education. Retrieved October 6, 2021, from https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ1274311. Valverde-Berrocoso, J., Fernández-Sánchez, M. R., Revuelta Dominguez, F. I., & Sosa-Díaz, M.J. (2021). The educational integration of digital technologies preCovid-19: Lessons for teacher education. PLoS ONE, 16(8), e0256283. https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/A672601037/OVIC?u =lex6166&sid=bookmark-OVIC&xid=cf5ca09b Will, M., Gewertz, C., &amp; Schwartz, S. (2021, April 30). Did covid-19 really drive teachers to quit? Education Week. Retrieved October 6, 2021, from https://www.edweek.org/teaching-learning/did-covid-19-reallydrive-teachers-to-quit/202 0/11. Wyse, A. E., Stickney, E. M., Butz, D., Beckler, A., & Close, C. N. (2020). The Potential Impact of COVID‐19 on Student Learning and How Schools Can Respond. Educational Measurement: Issues & Practice, 39(3), 60– 64. https://doi.org/10.1111/emip.12357
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Appendix Appendix A: The complete survey given to teachers including the consent form and survey questions.
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The Decline and Resurgence of the Community Education System Garrett Fish Western Christian Academy
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Education is a staple of American history yet has remained one of the most turbulent subjects of our time. The general education system in the United States has shifted from a community base to a federal system, and back again, resulting in a change of perspective on schooling. As parents approach collective education with an open mind, the systems of the public education system and the historical roots of local education become present. The move from the historical creation of the American school system to the modernized, federal system, coupled with the politicization of education, has caused a decrease in student knowledge and an increased revival to the localized, community-based education system. The historical roots of education date back to home education. No formal schools were present in Plymouth during the 1600s, meaning children were primarily taught at home by their mothers. The first schools, known as “dame schools,” featured women teaching children in their home kitchens (Norris et al. 76). Young children learned how to read from the Bible, and were taught simple mathematics using hornbooks, simple wooden paddles with pieces of paper tacked to them. These pieces of paper had alphabetical letters, vowel and consonant combinations, and the Lord’s Prayer written on them, which kids traced over with a stick (Norris et al. 76). Once a boy officially finished dame school, he was allowed to attend higher education, but girls were expected to stay home and learn domestic skills instead of further pursuing a formal education. The first pilgrim schools, established in 1647, came from laws in the Massachusetts Bay Colony and Plymouth Colony, stating that any town with fifty or more families must have a grade
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school (Norris et al. 76). Thus, began official pilgrim schools, one-room buildings in which differently aged students had the same teacher and most teachers were men, who were called schoolmasters. Boys learned what were called the three R’s: “reading, ‘riting, and ‘rithmetic,” using the schoolroom’s chalkboard as a reference, and primarily read from a book published in 1690 called The New England Primer (Norris et al. 76). This book contained the letters of the alphabet, but more importantly illustrated prayers and moral lessons from the Old Testament, along with questions and answers about God. Boys usually stopped formal schooling at age thirteen and would proceed to pick up a trade from their fathers or mentors (Norris et al. 76). However, that did not stop sons of richer families from attending colleges in colonial America such as Harvard University, founded by the puritans in 1636 (Norris et al. 76). Pioneer school was a further extension of the pilgrim community school rooms established in colonial America during the 1600s. Initial prairie schools were built with sod and continued the same teaching style as pilgrim schools. A single, dirt-floored classroom held students of all ages, who were taught subjects such as arithmetic, agriculture, history, geography, reading, and grammar by a single teacher (Sandler 76). The number of subjects taught was a considerable step-up from pilgrim schools, which primarily focused on reading and writing. However, the base intent of teaching children how to read and write, for them to read the Bible, was still ingrained in the pioneer lifestyle as many churches doubled as schoolhouses (americanhistoryforkids.com). Some farm communities had larger schools that taught more children and were built
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with separate classrooms, distinctly separating students of different ages. Most of the teachers for these schools were women, who were not allowed to be married while teaching (Sandler 77). Parents of pioneer families would allow schoolmasters to board with them, due to the low pay teachers received (Sandler 77). Oftentimes, mothers still acted as the individual teachers of their children, especially in rural settings or communities. In pioneer communities, parents served on school boards and contributed to the teachers’ salaries and expenses, maintaining an integral part of every child’s education (americanhistoryforkids.com). Despite the success of community education, leaders of the United States wanted to change the old idea of education. Thomas Jefferson, in particular, believed in a country where everyone can vote, the people have the right to an education. During the 19th century, there was a push for tax money to allow for a common school system, in which all children should be provided an elementary school system ("The New Book of Knowledge" 70). Massachusetts began the trend of using tax money to pay for public schooling, but sometimes that was not enough for the schools to continue education (“The New Book of Knowledge” 70). Eventually, by 1827, Massachusetts passed a law saying that these schools must be paid for entirely by tax dollars, and many other New England states followed. The federal government helped Midwestern states start public school systems with free, unsettled land that could be sold for funding (“The New Book of Knowledge” 71). As America grew, more academies and high schools were constructed, allowing for more students to be taught. By 1850, about 6,000 academies existed in the United States (“The New Book of Knowledge” 72).
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With an increase in the number of high schools and colleges built, university attendance increased, as well as enrollment in schools targeting specific skills. The establishment of McGuffey readers established standards for education and allowed conduct to become forefront in education (apioneerlife.blogspot.com). Children were taught about moralistic concepts such as lying and stealing, and schools prioritized a well-rounded education (apioneerlife.blogspot.com). Along with these textbooks, children competed in spelling-bees with Noah Webster’s Blue-Backed Speller and learned mathematics from Ray’s Arithmetics or Colburn’s First Lessons in Arithmetic on the Plan of Pestalozzi (“The New Book of Knowledge” 71). Further expanding on the idea of education for all, black people were involved in community schooling. Richard Allen, after founding the African Methodist Episcopal Church, opened a school for black children in Philadelphia (Hakim 138). Benjamin Banneker, a freed black and farmer, attended a Quaker school in Maryland and continued studying alone after his formal schooling ended (Hakim 30). This was the first step towards equal, unsegregated education of the races. As the federal and state governments began to control more of the education system, a number of educational associations were formed. Among these was the Department of Education, established in 1867 in response to pressure from the National Teachers’ Association (downsizinggovernment.org). Although it did not have a separate department until 1979, the Office of Education implemented regulations, subsidies, the federal funding of schools, and the passing of bills. The Office of Education created new councils, institutes, and bureaus, and allowed for
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the micromanaging of schools and curriculum under the guise of national goals. The American Federation of Teachers, abbreviated AFT, was established in 1916 and grew to be the second-largest teacher’s union in the United States (aft.org). The AFT was and continues to be instrumental in lobbying for and protecting the Department of Education. They ensured tenure laws were created, as well as “academic freedom” for their teachers (aft.org). This meant that teachers with alleged socialist or communist leanings during the “Red scare” could retain their positions (aft.org). Furthermore, the AFT implemented more progressive ideas in regard to their female teachers, removing modest dressing, proper personal behavior, and Biblical instruction as requirements (aft.org). By the late 1940s and 1950s, the AFT became more socially motivated, pushing for reforms through war bonds, air raid programs, and the Civil Rights Movement. The AFT pushed for reform of the education system and demanded subsidies for these reforms (aft.org). An extension of the American Federation of Teachers, the Association of American Universities was formed in 1900 to ensure a unified approach to higher education was used. Similar to the AFT, the effects from World War II allowed the AAU to become more federalized (education.stateuniverisity.com). The AAU joined other organizations in lobbying for federal aid of the humanities, top policies, and federal financial aid. Thus, the AAU solicited directly from “influential members of Congress” as to “earmark” money for the programs they wanted funding for (education.stateuniverisity.com). Then, the Progressive Education Association, also known as the PEA, officially began in 1919 under a group of
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wealthy women who desired a “child-centered” education system (britannica.com). They outlined seven points for more progressive education, including the freedom for children to develop naturally and the cooperation of school and home to meet the child’s natural interests (njdigitalhistory.org). This education system caused more division across schools. Wealthier schools in the North were able to easily implement these programs, leaving the Southern, poorer schools further behind (njdigitalhistory.org). As the PEA strived to correct these gaps, they received pushback and disbanded in 1955 (njdigitalhistory.org). The Montessori school method adopted its principles to promote the idea that children are victims of “adult suppression,” and teachers need to remove their “superiority” and allow a child to live a life on their own (njdigitalhistory.org). The Department of Education, coupled with unions and education associations, became increasingly directed to socially aware programs, liberally minded academia, and greedy endeavors. Following the establishment of government education associations was Brown v. Board of Education, a monumental legal case that allowed for the end of segregation in public settings (uscourts.gov). This was a remarkable outcome for the black community. The result of the case allowed the black community to obtain higher education and subsequently increased their earning potential (nber.org). The American Federation of Teachers, the Office of Education, and the Civil Rights Movement were strong lobbying forces in the case of Brown v. Board of Education (aft.org). Although the outcome achieved was extraordinarily positive, the federal government, along with teachers' unions working alongside a variety of
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social groups, gave these organizations more power over the school systems than individual parents and states. The modern-day education system and the introduction of technology in classrooms have allowed for more children to be taught in each class. The implementation of computers, tablets, and other devices throughout schools has led to a readily available wealth of information (edweek.org). Many schools allow devices to be brought home for continuous learning (edweek.org). However, this continued bombardment of technological devices has aided in the vast increase of screen time for children and a resulting decrease in parental involvement (cdc.gov). Common Core Standards used within the United States educational system began in 2010 (understood.org). This uniform set of expectations for K-12 students in English and Maths subjects are supported by assessment testing (understood.org). Common Core Standards do not accommodate children at different developmental levels, supporting a “one size fits all” mentality (freedomworks.org). These standards promote the idea that teachers “teach the test,” which relies heavily on student memorization as opposed to learning the material. The unified approach has left parents shut out from recommending changes to their children’s curriculum or sending their children to a different school with better standards (freedomworks.org). Sandra Stotsky, a University of Arkansas professor, argues “The standards dumb American education down by about two grades worth” (freedomworks.org). As education associations become more involved with social and civic organizations, so does the educational system. An increase in LGBTQ-
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friendly colleges and BLM activist campus organizations have pushed already left-leaning universities further away from Conservative viewpoints (forbes.com). Conservative speakers are regularly banned from campuses, along with pro-life and Christian groups. Social groups lobby the federal government, as well as members of Congress, to directly fund like-minded institutions (chronicle.com). These universities promote a particular agenda and hence produce graduates that share these ideologies (chronicle.com). These graduates have the potential to become part of the education associations in the lower-level education system or participate within organizations as teachers. Thus, the lower-level education system has already begun to experience ideological beliefs implemented at the university level (chronicle.com) A decrease in parental involvement, especially in middle and high school years, contributes to a student’s acceptance of ideological or secular groups. An article from Psychology Today says that only one-fifth of parents attend school programs (psychologytoday.com). Additionally, a third of school children suggest that their parents do not care how they do in school (psychologytoday.com). As parents disengage from their children and their education, students become ill-equipped for higher education and the pressures of an increasingly divisive world. The increase of federal and state funding, coupled with an increasingly disengaged parental community, has led schools to behave similarly to businesses rather than educational institutions. In 2017, schools received an average of $12,201 per pupil with New York schools receiving $23,091 per student, and yet sixty percent of students scored below grade level in
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grades 3-8 on assessment tests (census.gov). The high school graduation rate in New York during 2017 was eighty-two percent, despite the state having the highest amount spent per student (nces.ed.gov). The disparity in assessment test scores and the graduation rate is explained by the encouragement of a “no child left behind” policy (freedomworks.org). This policy is interwoven into the Common Core Standard education initiative implemented in all 50 states (freedomworks.org). As schools continue to receive funding for each pupil, despite a lack of learning necessary subjects, along with additional aid for athletics, humanities, and social and environmental programs, they operate more like corporations than schools. Children, then, are commodities of the school system, used to maintain a steady income and increase the budget for the next fiscal year. Without direct parental and communal involvement, the school system has run rampant and unchecked in its curriculum while being backed by federal, state, and special interest groups (chronicle.com). The United States spends more money on education per student than any other country. This money does not translate into better academic results, however. In 2014, the National Center on Education and the Economy reported that the average Singapore student was 3-5 years ahead of the U.S. student in math, 1.5 years ahead in reading, and 2.5 years ahead in science (theguardian.com). Canada, China, Germany, and New Zealand outrank the U.S. in education as well. In 2013, U.S. high school graduates ranked ninth out of thirteen industrialized countries in literacy, eighth in problem-solving and eleventh in math (theguardian.com). “Young people are moving into adulthood, and they
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do not have the necessary skills,” said Mary Alice McCarthy, a senior policy analyst at the New American Foundation (cnn.com). With U.S. schools receiving higher funding per pupil than any other country in the world, the middling standardized test scores and grade reports do not match up. Findings such as these coincide with standardized tests, showing a below grade level understanding in basic subjects, even with more money allocated to education. In response to the shortcomings of the public school system and the increased politicization of academia, there has been a resurgence in alternative schooling. In 2019, homeschool enrollment rose by 2-8%, and this has increased in the subsequent years, along with community enrichment, also known as co-op, classes (admissionsly.com). In 2020 alone, Opus Cooperative saw an enrollment increase of 200% (nbc12.com). The revival and demand of parent and community-led education have given birth to a variety of options available for homeschoolers. An increase in fine arts, drama, social clubs, and all types of classes is indicative of the rise in homeschooling. What was once seen as a fringe group of parents is now quickly becoming its own school division. Not to be left out of this ever-growing group of students, colleges are directing their focus on the homeschool community (admissionsly.com). Colleges and universities offer dual enrollments, counselors specific to homeschoolers, and lectures at co-operatives while hosting college fairs at local homeschool buildings. Although the reasons for homeschooling vary, the results are clear. Homeschoolers, on average, test in the 87th percentile, compared to their colleagues in public school
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who test in the 50th percentile (admissionsly.com). The Home School Legal Defense Association states that homeschool children tend to score 34-39 percentile points higher in all subjects compared to public school students (admissionsly.com). According to the University of Saint Thomas, homeschoolers graduated college at a rate of 66.7%, ten percent higher than kids who attended public school (admissionsly.com). The reversion to a parentally involved education system, which allows for a tailored curriculum, Biblically based teachings, and well-rounded, critically thinking students has significant momentum and is effectively validated by its academic results. Even though education itself has shifted dramatically through different time periods, community goals remain largely unchanged. Pilgrim schools established the first schooling system in the United States, featuring classrooms where all age groups were taught the same material, soon followed by Pioneer schools. Post-Revolutionary War schools changed the standards for schooling itself, and organizations for general education came after. The court case Brown v. Board of Education significantly changed the lives and salaries of black people for the better. Modern educational advancements come with the downside of decreased learning, lower test scores, and ideologues pushing agendas within schools. This decrease in learning and test scores inadvertently has led to a push for communityminded education, the likes of which colleges and universities support today.
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References “Are Liberal Viewpoints Over-Represented On College Campuses?” Forbes, Forbes Magazine, 19 Sept. 2019, www.forbes.com/sites/quora/ 2019/09/19/are-liberal-viewpoints-over-represented-on-colleg ecampuses/?sh=2df1118f3ed5. “Association of American Universities History.” StateUniversity.com, education.stateuniversity.com/pages/1775/Association-AmericanUniversities.html. Biebrich, Caitlin. “Progressive Education Association Founded.” Discovering 1919, njdigitalhistory.org/1919/progressive-education-associationfounded/. “Brown v. Board of Education Re-Enactment.” United States Courts, www.uscourts.gov/educational-resources/educationalactivities/history-brown-v-board-edu cation-re-enactment. Edwards, Chris. “Department of Education Timeline.” Downsizing the Federal Government, Downsizing the Federal Government, 25 Apr. 2021, www.downsizinggovernment.org/education/timeline-growth. “The Effect of Brown v. Board of Education on Blacks' Earnings.” NBER, Dec. 2005, www.nber.org/digest/dec05/effect-brown-v-board-educationblacks-earnings. Gentry, J. Richard. “A Lack of Parent Engagement Helps Create Failing Schools.” Psychology Today, Sussex Publishers, 13 July 2011,
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Assessing High Schoolers' Engagement During Remote Learning From Single and Two Parent Households in Queens, NY: A Mixed Method Sharmeen Joseph Frank Sinatra School of the Arts
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Introduction Starting in March of 2020, the Coronavirus (Covid-19) has changed education drastically for the majority of students in the United States. Shifting away from in-person learning to online or remote learning has become a vital part of education for students of all ages. Remote learning is an experience that is much different from learning in the school building since it is autonomous and less structured. This form of teaching is carried out using applications, like Zoom, Google Meet and Google Classroom, to create an environment that utilizes the same learning techniques, practices, and effects from physical interactions but with digital meetings (Gills and Krull, 2020, pp1-2). Although this kind of learning is often used and very convenient during the pandemic, it has some faults. In remote learning, students feel a lack of a sense of identity and interactions are more affected by students' personality traits. Meaning that only when teachers and learners are happy with experiences, can students master, use and fully engage in the functionalities of online networks and spend time in communication. Additionally, a sense of group work during team projects focus is decreased and the engagement level is low. The implementation of virtual classrooms no longer prohibits the quality for synchronous interaction among the instructor and student. This is due to how humans naturally prefer in-person contact to communicate with one another (Eun et al., 2020). Arguably due to the independence virtual learning permits, it can be harder for students to gain the willpower to engage in their education since there is an absence of a physical presence or influence like a teacher
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(Garcia-Vedrenne et al., 2020). However, a parent’s participation in the education of their child could also boost achievement and/or engagement no matter which learning method is utilized (Marti et al., 2018). This led to the research question: “How does engagement during remote learning compare for high schoolers living in single or two parent households in Queens, NY?” This study’s purpose is to explore how parent involvement and family structure affects engagement of students in remote learning.
Literature Review Context of Single Parents In comparison to two parents, single parents face continually changing stresses (Stack and Meredith, 2018). For instance, single parent households are more likely to experience impaired wellbeing. This is due to lower socioeconomics which makes single parents face more difficulties in maintaining a good social, physical, economic and social well-being for themselves and their children (Nieuwenhuis, 2018). Dr Irfana Shah, an MD from the American Board of Internal Medicine and hospitalist along with other researchers, sampled single parent motherheaded families on whether adolescents in that family structure a substantial low production of the big five traits characteristics have: conscientiousness, neuroticism, openness, agreeableness, and extraversion compared to the two parent families. In their findings, adolescents living in a single parent headed family were low in attributes of openness to try new things, extraversion, and agreeableness. Whereas adolescents in two parent families have characteristics that exceed extraversion, agreeableness, and
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openness. Research conductors concluded that those traits are necessary for stable, adaptive functioning (Shah et al., 2017). Furthermore, single parent headed families are typically related to anti-social habits; poor academic performance; lower college expectancy; and have detrimental effects on cognitive behavior. Children to single parents are marginally more likely to drop out of school and become teenage parents compared to children born to married parents. Parental separation limits the access of children to substantial educational, parental, and neighborhood services (McLanahan, 2015). Given that, the role and operation of family is the first and irreversible factor influencing children's cognitive and emotional behavior. It is evidently undisputed that children are particularly influenced by the lack of a father or mother (Cabrera et al., 2011).
Single Parents Households Effect on Education Children with one parent are more drawn back relative to children living with two parents. Students from single-mother households have far poorer educational success in those schools than children from two-parent families (de Lange et al., 2014). Data on children living arrangements between 1990–2011 from the American Community Survey has concluded that children have a lower quality of life in a one-parent household than two-parent households (Amato et al., 2015). Additionally, parents are major providers of "social capital" and provide children with wealth support, such as emotional support, encouragement, and assistance. In reality, household income is an
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adequate foreteller of children's school grades and test scores. This is due to how children from single parent families are likely to have a lack of resources for their education (Stack and Meredith, 2018). The rise in single parenthood has exerted “downward pressure” on school achievement and academic performance of children (Bloome, 2017; Gaydosh and Harris, 2018). Since single parents face continuously shifting pressures, they are more likely to experience impaired well-being economically, socially, etc. (Amato et al., 2015; de Lange et al., 2014; Nieuwenhuis, 2018; Shah et al., 2017). Thus, in comparison with the children raised with two parents, children from separated parents are also less advantageous than many of their fellow classmates.
Gap in Literature Previous studies have continuously compared single parent (SP) households to two parent (TP) households in terms of children's performance in-person learning. Studies addressed that students from single parent households achieve less in school than students in two parent households. However, little research has examined how engagement, which is defined as a student’s level of motivation, interest, passion, planning, and willingness to succeed throughout remote learning, is affected by family structure. There is a gap in the literature by there being a lack of utilizing remote learning as a new context in education. Additionally, to make new connections between engagement in school and parent involvement for students living in Queens, New York.
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It is important to note that the definition of performance is still relevant to this study. For this particular research, performance is defined as a student’s engagement towards remote learning which is conditioned by the social support, mental stimulation, encouragement, and discipline they receive at home. Based on previous studies in the literature review, it was assumed that children are influenced by the dynamics of their families. However, it was hypothesized that students in a single parent household will engage similarly in remote learning to students in two parent households due to how remote learning is structured to be very independent. Thus, a student’s conduct towards school is affected by their own decisions and/or how they want to engage in school instead of a parental figure. Method Overview Previous research, such as “Personality Traits Among Adolescents of Single Parent Family and Two Parents Family,” discussed in the literature review (Shah et al., 2017), used the survey method and a descriptive analysis on the different characteristics of students in contrasting households. This study design will emulate Shah's study design in their method design. Similar to Shah’s research study, the method used was a survey and data was also collected through a voluntary sampling. Additionally, this research also featured the same participant age range, which are high schoolers and kept participants anonymous. However, this specific study focused on student engagement and parent involvement during remote
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learning instead of characteristic traits. Moreover, a thematic analysis was also added to this research to answer the sub question of this research: Why does the family structure and/or parent involvement have an effect on student engagement in remote learning? A survey questionnaire is a method that can feature both quantitative and qualitative components for collecting data from a group(s) of people using questions that may contain multiple choice responses, attitude scales, or may be open-ended or closed-ended (Budescu et al., 2018). Due to its flexibility, using a survey allowed room to ask a diverse set of questions to the participants about their demographic, engagement, and parent involvement in remote learning. Moreover, using a survey also gave a sense of privacy due to participants not being obligated to directly apprise personal information such as an interview. In order to translate the data collected, a descriptive analysis was used. This method is a quantitative form of research that defines the population or the phenomena under a study. The approach of descriptive analysis focuses mostly on explaining the essence of a demographic segment and does not concentrate on the cause or reason of an event (Loeb, et al., 2017). Visuals such as statistical graphs were used to organize and group the quantitative data that was collected. For this research specifically, it was greatly utilized to display more of the responses that could be measured in the survey method like household type; factors of engagement; and parent involvement. Lastly, the thematic analysis method was used to group the qualitative information gathered from the survey method that could not be statistically measured. The method was used to examine the data carefully
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to identify similar themes, ideas, and meanings that appeared repeatedly (Caulfield, 2020). Towards the end of the survey, open-ended questions were asked about why the participants engage in remote learning the way they do currently and how their family structure may affect that. The thematic analysis for this particular research permitted the answers from the open-ended questions to be categorized in a simplified way. Thus, a triangulation of qualitative and quantitative methods was used to enforce validity and credibility.
Participants The subjects of this study were teenagers ages 14-17, who participated in remote learning and lived in Queens, New York. Teens of any race or ethnicity were eligible to participate. The participants answered questions that compared the level of engagement between single and two parent households. A voluntary response and non-probability sampling were used because it was the most efficient for confidentiality. Unlike convenience sampling, non-probability voluntary sampling helped decrease research biases in the survey. Background knowledge of possible participants was not relied on due to how there could be a great shift in the outcome of the study. Informed consent was also utilized by having participants read what their rights were; the objective of the study; protocols to be followed; potential participation costs and benefits; planned research duration; the level of patient identity secrecy and demographic information (Nijhawan, et
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al, 2013). In both parental and student consent forms (Appendix B), it was clearly stated that participants would remain completely anonymous and that the research is voluntary. This indicated that it was the decision of the guardian and student to participate in the research. To add on, consent forms were embedded before the actual survey on Google Forms.
Survey Design An online survey was created to target the desired demographic. This type of survey was chosen due to its convenience during the pandemic. The survey created was in English only and featured 16 questions that connected to the research question (Appendix A). The method was used to determine how engagement in remote learning was affected by parental involvement. The survey asked questions that included the person’s demographic, a diverse range of school engagement questions specifically for remote learning; and a parent’s involvement in a student’s education. The questions were both closed-ended and open-ended to receive quantitative and qualitative data. Questions were organized in a way that did not make participants uncomfortable. The quantitative and more digestible questions were asked more towards the beginning of the questionnaire so that participants were able to get used to the feel of the survey. The more personal and qualitative questions were asked towards the end because the researcher wanted to avoid startling or offending any of the surveyors due to the sensitivity of the questions. Having a consistent format and a gradual flow of questions
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was more beneficial than an inconsistent format since the digestible survey allowed there to be a less risk of incompletion and overall survey rejection. The survey questionnaire included demographic questions: Likert scale, drop-down, and close and open-ended questions. Demographic questions authorized the ability to group the participants into categories such as household type. Race, gender, neighborhood and grade were no longer key for answering the research question of this study (Appendix C). The Likert scales were utilized to gain the opinions of the participants from specified scenarios discussing engagement and parent involvement. Additionally, the drop-down questions were included to answer closed questions such as grade point average. Lastly, open-ended questions were used to fully understand the opinions and thoughts of the participants on their engagement in school and family expectations. Google Forms was used as the web survey platform because it was the most user friendly and simple to work with. Additionally, Google Form’s own data collection organizer was used to easily arrange and inspect the results of the research in a Google Spreadsheet. The Google spreadsheet gave a variety of charts to organize results.
Procedure After the creation of the online survey on Google Forms and the finalization of the parent and student consent forms, eight pilot studies were conducted to make out how the questions could be reworded more efficiently. Additionally, it ensured that the survey was understood by respondents as intended by the researcher and helped answer the research
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question. High Schools in Queens were sent emails asking to broadcast the online survey to their students to bring awareness to the existence of the questionnaire. After gathering interested participants, they were emailed a link to the questionnaire on Google Forms and were asked to complete it on their own time on their most reliable electronic device. Before they could answer the first question on the questionnaire, both the parental and student consent forms needed to be signed. The consent forms were displayed to outline and ensure confidentiality; and they informed participants that the survey was completely anonymous and voluntary. Directions were given on the consent form for participants to show the form to their parent(s) or guardian(s). Parents or guardians, and students had to check the box “I Agree” to indicate that they accepted and understood each of the terms and conditions. Once that was done, participants were able to move on and complete the survey. After obtaining all the survey responses possible, an analysis was done through Google Sheets. Notetaking and calculations were also carried out to further organize the data received. Responses like agree, disagree, and neither agree nor disagree became numerical data to help simplify the quantitative data in order to convert them into a data table. When analyzing the quantitative data, the demographic background of each participant was compared to their engagement in school. Participants were also grouped solely based on their household type since there were not enough responses towards race, ethnicity, and household income of surveyors.
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During the analysis of the qualitative data, a google doc was used for the thematic analysis method of the open-ended questions part of the survey. The researcher hand coding the possible themes found in the study. Additionally, three rounds of coding were done to better group and simplify the number of themes gathered for the results (Appendix D). Significant surveyor responses were also quoted during the analysis to further provide reasoning for the themes chosen that answered the research question. Themes were also defined in the coding table to help the viewer understand the researcher's point of view. Findings and Discussion Survey The quantitative and qualitative survey showed significant comparisons of students’ engagement in single parent (SP) and two parent (TP) households. The survey reached 9 different high schools across the Queens borough. 40% of the survey respondents were from SP households, while the other 60% were from TP households. Due to the utilization of a non-probability voluntary sampling, all statistical information has not been tested thus making it non-representative which may have affected the conclusion of the research paper. Additionally, means and percentages were necessary representations of results throughout Table 1 and Figures 1 and 2 to uphold the unequal attained independent variables. The independent variables in the case were both students from single parent households and two parent households of voluntary research.
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Descriptive Analysis In Figure 1, it was necessary to measure the percentages of students’ Grade Point Average (GPA) in single and two parent households since engagement falls under the umbrella term performance. It was hypothesized that students from two parent households will have a higher GPA than students in single parent households (Hypothesis 1). This figure suggests that 50% of students living in SP households have a GPA between 2.7 and 3.3 while 50% of students living in TP households have a GPA between 3.7 and 4.0. Additionally, less than 1% of students in TP households fell into the GPA grouping of 1.7-2.3 and 1.0-2.0. However, 9% of students in SP households have a GPA of 1.0-2.0 and 2% have a GPA of 1.7-2.3. Due to the fact that students from SP households were more likely to obtain a lower GPA than students from TP households. The results of Figure 1 support both hypothesis 1 and previous research McLanahan has conducted on comparing the academic performance of students in single and two parent households.
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Figure 1
In Figure 2, Guardian Availability for Remote Learning Assistance between single and two parent households was measured. It was hypothesized that Students in single parents were less likely to not have guardians available to help them with remote learning (Hypothesis 2). 43% of SP students almost never had a guardian available for assistance while 27% of TP students almost never had a guardian available. Both groups had the highest percentages in the Almost Never category, whereas TP households' students are a more evenly distributed percentage among the other categories featuring parent availability. For instance, 25% of TP students fell under the Almost All the Time and Once in A While category. However, Figure 2 generally shows that remote learning is more of an independent experience for students in both households.
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Figure 2
In Table 1, multiple aspects were analyzed when it came to engagement in remote learning. The table was broken up into two categories: Student Engagement and Parent Involvement. The mean, mode, min, and max of total responses were compared in each household. The mean was used to show the average and the mode was used to show which survey choice was most frequently selected of total responses. Additionally, the minimum showed the least valued number on the scale that was selected while the maximum showed the greatest valued number. A Likert scale was heavily used throughout this table. It is important to note that the value of 1 was the lowest or poorest; the value of 5 was the highest or greatest; and the value of 4 indicated all in terms of completion of daily assignments. The initial hypothesis was that Students in a single parent household will engage similarly in remote learning to students in two parent
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households due to how remote learning is structured to be very independent—thus, making parent involvement not needed compared to in-person learning (Hypothesis 3). The category Student Engagement measured aspects of engagement in remote learning: In Attitudes Towards Remote Learning, students were asked to rate how they felt overall about remote learning. Single and two parent households felt similarly as seen in Table 1, as SP households and TP households had means of 2.80 and 2.79 respectively, and both households produced a mode of 3. This indicated that both groups felt indifferent about remote learning. In Passion for Success, students were asked to rate their motivation and passion for performative success in remote learning. Compared to SP households, TP students had a higher mean of 3.56 and a greater mode of 4, which suggested that this group was more willing to do well in remote learning. In Completion of Daily Assignments, there was a significant difference in mode between variables since students with two parents had 4 while single parent students had a 2. This suggests that students from TP households were more likely to complete all of their daily assignments. Despite both groups having a feeling of indifference towards remote learning, students in TP households engaged much more in remote learning which upholds hypothesis 3. The category Parent Involvement measured how much a parent was involved in their child’s education. Students were asked to measure how much they agreed or disagreed with the statements made in the survey. It
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was hypothesized that Students from two parent households would have parents who are more likely involved in remote learning than students with single parents (Hypothesis 4).: In Guardian to Student Relationship, students were asked to rate how much they agreed with the statement to being close with their guardian. Students with two parents were more likely to have a close relationship with their guardian when means are compared. Students in SP households had a mean of 3.83 while students in TP households had a mean of 4.56. However, both groups had a mode of 4, suggesting that participants in both households agreed that they were close to their parents. Checking Student Grades measured how much a student felt about the act of their parents viewing their grades. Overall, both groups neither agree nor disagree with the statement of “My guardian(s) check up on my grades.” However, there was a significant difference between the modes. Students from SP households had a mode of 4, which suggested that they were more likely to agree with that statement, while TP households had a mode of 5, which proposed that they were more likely to strongly agree with the statement. Lastly, for Student Expectations, students from TP households had a mean of 4.50 while students in SP households had a mean of 3.91. Additionally, there was a difference between the modes since students in TP households had a 5 while SP households had a mode of 4. Generally, both groups agreed that parents had high expectations from them, but TP households exceeded that.
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Table 1. Family Dynamic on Student Engagement (Above)
Thematic Analysis After the coding process there was one overarching theme, “parental expectations' from surveyor responses. This global theme is significant for understanding the relationship of parent involvement and student engagement. To add on, the subthemes: pressure, motivation, and validation as seen in Table 2 were more descriptive when demonstrating how a parent’s expectations influence their schooling.
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Pressure The theme pressure from parental expectation has frequently transpired throughout both students in single and two parent households. Academic pressure is characterized formally as an experience in which a student is afflicted with time and resources to meet such academic objectives. This burden can come from many possible causes and has many mental and academic impacts on students (Lal, 2014). In this case, the stress is directly coming from parents' outlook on their child's academic performance. These expectations from parents overwhelm students in both groups which can either make a student do well or poor in remote learning due to students wanting to avoid upsetting their parents (“I wouldn't want to make my parents disappointed.”). For instance, one participant stated, “Too much pressure equals me over doing it then not being able to do anything the next marking period.” Though a parent’s expectation can motivate a student to do better in remote learning, this effect can last short term in a negative way.
Motivation Motivation is a learner-environment mechanism that is characterized by the choice, introduction, increase or continuation of target-driven conduct. Diversely, it was also regionally considered a value of a person, the circumstance or the task in which the person engages in (Svinicki and Vogler, 2012). Expectations put onto students in both households boosted their level of willingness towards succeeding (engagement) in remote learning (“Their expectations make me try harder to achieve them.”). As discussed in Table 1 category Student Engagement, there was a high presence of passion for
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success in remote learning in both groups. However, most students from SP households were less passionate about succeeding in remote learning compared to students in TP households. It is important to note that students in SP households commonly answered that their parent’s expectations did not affect their engagement in remote learning (Appendix D). This suggests that students perceive that there is no relationship between parent involvement and academic engagement in schooling, refuting hypothesis 4.
Validation Validation is described as appreciation and acknowledgement of another person’s affirmation. Children are always in search of validation from parents. This is due to how when children mature, they learn what their parents approve of and do not. When a parent expresses disapproval of a certain action, the individual suppresses the behavior. Children tend to avoid acting in negative ways that could erode parental affection and acceptance, posing a neglect to their life (Schapiro-Halberstam, 2016). This subtheme was present for students only in two parent households. Due to the expectation of their parents, students felt the need to satisfy and make their parents proud of them in order to feel recognition or affirmation (“I want to please my parents and fulfill their expectations.”). To achieve that, students wanted to do their best in remote learning (“I get good grades to keep my parents satisfied with my work and to make them proud.”). Additionally, a parent's expectation caused them to have a change of emotion, motivation to progress in remote learning. As
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concluded in Table 1 of category “Parent Expectations,” students in TP households face much higher expectations from their parents than students in single SP households. This could also relate to Figure 1 since TP households' students also had a much higher GPA than students in SP households. This suggests that due to the high expectations TP household students receive, their engagement in remote learning is greatly impacted in a beneficial way.
Table 2. Coding Table
Global
Subthemes
Description
Supporting Quotes
Theme
Pressure
There are
“Too much pressure equals me over
expectations
doing it then not being able to do
from parents
anything the next marking period.”
that overwhelm students in both
“I wouldn't want to make my parents disappointed.”
households which can either Parental
make students
Expectations
do good or bad in remote learning.
Motivation
Expectations put
“Their expectations make me try
onto students in
harder to achieve them.”
both households boost their level of willingness
“It makes me want to succeed more.”
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Validation
Students in two
“I get good grades to keep my
parent
parents satisfied with my work and
households want
to make them proud.”
to make their parents proud of
“I want to please my parents and fulfill their expectations.”
them. In order to do that, students feel the need to do well in schooling.
Conclusion Comprehensive Understanding This study demonstrated a strong correlation between parent involvement and student engagement in remote learning. Students from two parent households had a closer relationship with their parents than students with single parents. Furthermore, two parent students had higher expectations placed onto them from their parents in schooling. Despite that, both households were less likely to have a guardian available to assist with work from remote learning, students from two parents were much more likely to obtain a GPA of 3.7-4.0 and above than single parent students. This may be due to the key
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themes of validation and motivation found in the responses to the open-ended questions asked. Two parent households' students felt that because of their parents’ immensely high expectations, there was a boost in motivation and passion towards succeeding in remote learning. In Table 1 category Student Engagement, students with two parents were more likely to complete their assignments and were more passionate about remote learning. The quantitative data found synthesized with the qualitative themes shown in Table 2. Overall, the initial hypothesis is rejected: students in a single parent household will engage similarly in remote learning to students in two parent households due to how remote learning is structured to be very independent — thus, making parent involvement not needed compared to in-person learning. However, the findings of this study align with the current literature review. De Lange and Shah et al. both explored in their studies that in comparison to children raised with two parental parents, children from single parent families are measurably more deprived towards their education performance Although this study focused particularly on engagement, performance in school is conditioned by the engagement of a student.
Limitations The experience reported in this paper was helpful for understanding the differences in engagement between single and
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two parent households. However, the chosen method was unable to obtain a larger sample size since voluntary sampling was used. Though all high schools in Queens were contacted, only some chose to participate in the study. Additionally, since a non-probability sampling was used, all statistical information was not tested thus being non-representative. Due to that, the confidence interval of research results is unknown. Self-reported data is another method limitation since qualitative studies using a thematic analysis is uncommon for this field of topic. There could be possible self-made errors while coding responses.
Further Research and Implications While this study was able to identify the importance of parent involvement and the differences of engagement level, future research could use the limitations of this study to replicate this study using a larger non-voluntary sample using probability with an equal number of students in single and two parent households to ensure the study has a higher chance of accuracy. New studies can explore more on why students engage or perform differently using qualitative methods only. However, from the success of this research, new studies can explore the differences in engagement in both groups by continuing off of a qualitative path to look for more of why there is a difference in engagement through cultural backgrounds and lifestyles of groups of people, like race instead of solely parent involvement in education.
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From the conclusions of this study, solutions need to be made for students in a single parent household to enhance their academic performance. This study suggests that the importance of parent involvement should be met for single household student success. In truth, a student's household type should not matter when it comes to their success in education. Though students in single parent households are more at a disadvantage in their performance, teachers and other staff members occupied at schools should stimulate parent involvement for all students —no matter their demographic background. This can benefit students in a positive way because it will allow them to be monitored; and something that is monitored becomes something that is improved.
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Appendix Survey Questionnaire
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Consent Forms
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Unused Figures
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Extended Coding Tables **Not all survey responses Students in Single Parent Households How do you know when you are feeling engaged in class? Code Name
Description
Examples
Excitement
Student’s feel the emotion of excitement during a class which causes them to want to succeed in schooling.
“I get excited about the work we are doing.” “When I'm excited to do the work.” “When I'm excited to go to the class.”
Concentration
When students pay attention in classes they feel engaged.
“I am paying a lot of attention.” “When I don't daydream as much.” “When I don’t go on my phone.”
How does your guardian’s expectation affect your engagement in remote learning?
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No Affect on Engagement
Motivation
Students believe that their family dynamic does not correlate to their performance in remote learning.
“One has nothing to do with another.” “It does not affect my learning much, it's the same expectation as before the quarantine.” “My parents expectation doesn't affect my engagement in remote learning.” “It motivates me to do better.”
Parent’s expectations boosts the level of motivation students have in remote learning. “It makes me want to succeed more.”
“Makes me want to pass all my classes.” Why do you think you perform the way you do in school in relation to your family dynamic? Family Dynamic has No Some students believe “I don't think my family Effect on Engagement that their performance has anything to do with isn’t affected by their my performance.” family dynamic.” “I don’t believe the way I perform in school has anything to do with my family dynamic.” Overwhelmed from There are expectations “Too much pressure Parent Expectations from parents that equals me over doing it overwhelms students then not being able to which can either make do anything the next students do good or marking period.” bad in remote learning. Students in Two Parent Households How do you know when you are feeling engaged in class? Code Name Description Examples
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Concentration
When students pay attention in classes they feel engaged.
“I am not zoning out and looking at the clock.” “When I participated in the class.”
Participation
Interests
“When I am paying attention and have a good understanding of what I am learning.”
When students feel interested in the class they feel that they’re engaged.
“When I look forward to completing assignments.” “When I’m very interested in the topic”
“I know when it’s a topic I’m interested in or passionate about, I'm very engaged in class.” How does your guardian’s expectation affect your engagement in remote learning? Has Little Effect on Students believe that “Doesn’t affect me too Overall their family dynamic much, I know what’s Engagement does not correlate to expected of me and always their performance in try my best.” remote learning. “Not much, just makes me want to do good.”
Motivation
Parent’s expectations boost the level of motivation students have towards succeeding in remote learning.
“Not much. They expect the best so I do the best I can.” “They expect me to get high grades but also don't pressure me so much and so it motivates me to keep going and makes me want to get high grades and high averages.” “It motivates me to try harder” “Their expectations make me try harder to achieve them”
Why do you think you perform the way you do in school in relation to your family dynamic?
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Pressure of Parental Expectations
Validation from Parents
There are expectations from parents that overwhelms students which can either make students do good or bad in remote learning.
“I wouldn't want to make my parents disappointed.” “Because they want a doctor or lawyer and I don’t want to let them down or be a “failure” so I try to aim for the best.”
“I get anxious when my family is disappointed in me.” Students want to make “I want to make my parents their parents proud of proud and do justice to all them. In order to do that, the work they put in to students feel the need to bring my family to where we are.” do well in schooling. “I get good grades to keep my parents satisfied in my work and to make them proud.”
Parental Support
A supportive parent causes students to want to perform better in remote learning.
“I want to please my parents and fulfill their expectations.” “My family encourages me to do my utmost best in school, and I keep up to not disappoint them.”
Students in Single Parent Households Code Name
Description
Examples
How does your guardian’s expectation affect your engagement in remote learning? Little to No Effect Students believe that “One has nothing to do with their family dynamic does another.” not correlate to their performance in remote “It does not affect my learning. learning much, it's the same expectation as before the quarantine.” “My parents expectation doesn't affect my
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engagement learning.”
Motivation
in
remote
Parent’s expectations “It motivates me to do boosts the level of better.” motivation students have “It makes me want to in remote learning. succeed more.”
“Makes me want to pass all my classes.” Why do you think you perform the way you do in school in relation to your family dynamic? Family Dynamic has Some students believe “I don't think my family has No Effect that their performance anything to do with my isn’t affected by their performance.” family dynamic.” “I don’t believe the way I perform in school has anything to do with my family dynamic.” Overwhelmness There are expectations “Too much pressure equals from parents that me over doing it then not overwhelms students being able to do anything which can either make the next marking period.” students do good or bad in remote learning. Students in Two Parent Households How does your guardian’s expectation affect your engagement in remote learning? Code Name Description Examples Little to No Effect
Motivation
Students believe that their family dynamic does not correlate to their performance in remote learning.
“Doesn’t affect me too much, I know what’s expected of me and always try my best.”
“Not much, just makes me want to do good.” Parent’s expectations “They expect me to get high boosts the level of grades but also don't pressure motivation students have me so much and so it motivates
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towards succeeding in remote learning.
me to keep going and makes me want to get high grades and high averages.”
“Their expectations make me try harder to achieve them” Why do you think you perform the way you do in school in relation to your family dynamic? Overwhelmness There are expectations “I wouldn't want to make my from parents that parents disappointed.” overwhelms students which can either make “Because they want a doctor or students do good or lawyer and I don’t want to let bad in remote learning. them down or be a “failure” so I try to aim for the best.”
Validation
Students want to make their parents proud of them. In order to do that, students feel the need to do well in schooling.
“I get anxious when my family is disappointed in me.” “I want to make my parents proud and do justice to all the work they put in to bring my family to where we are.” “I get good grades to keep my parents satisfied in my work and to make them proud.” “I want to please my parents and fulfill their expectations.”
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References Amato, P. R., Patterson, S., & Beattie, B. (2015). Single-parent households and children’s educational achievement: A state-level analysis. Social Science Research, 53, 191–202. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssresearch.2015.05.012 Bloome D. (2017). Childhood Family Structure and Intergenerational Income Mobility in the United States. Demography, 54(2), 541–569. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13524-017-0564-4 Budescu, M., Sisselman-Borgia, A. & Taylor, R.D. (2018). Perceptions of Adequate Personal Time and Wellbeing among African American Families with Adolescents. J Child Fam Stud 27, 1763–1773. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-018-1014-7 Cabrera, N. J., Fagan, J., Wight, V., & Schadler, C. (2011). Influence of mother, father, and child risk on parenting and children's cognitive and social behaviors. Child development, 82(6), 1985–2005. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2011.01667.x Caulfield, J. (2020, August 14). How to do thematic analysis. Scribbr. https://www.scribbr.com/methodology/thematic-analysis/ de Lange, M., Dronkers, J., & Wolbers, M. H. J. (2014). Single-parent family forms and children’s educational performance in a comparative perspective: effects of school’s share of single-parent families. School Effectiveness & School Improvement, 25(3), 329–350. https://doi.org/10.1080/09243453.2013.809773
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Eun Shim, T., & Yi Lee, S. (2020). College Students’ Experience of Emergency Remote Teaching due to COVID-19. Children and Youth Services Review, 105578. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2020.105578 Garcia-Vedrenne, A. E., Orland, C., Ballare, K. M., Shapiro, B., & Wayne, R. K. (2020). Ten strategies for a successful transition to remote learning: Lessons learned with a flipped course. Ecology and evolution, 10(22), 12620–12634. https://doi.org/10.1002/ece3.6760 Gaydosh, L., & Harris, K. M. (2018). Childhood Family Instability and Young Adult Health. Journal of health and social behavior, 59(3), 371–390. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022146518785174 Gillis, A., & Krull, L. M. (2020). COVID-19 Remote Learning Transition in Spring 2020: Class Structures, Student Perceptions, and Inequality in College Courses. Teaching Sociology, 48(4), 283–299. https://doi.org/10.1177/0092055X20954263 Lal, K. (2014). Academic Stress among Adolescent in Relation to Intelligence and Demographic Factors. http://iasir.net/AIJRHASSpapers/AIJRHASS14-150.pdf Marti, M., Merz, E. C., Repka, K. R., Landers, C., Noble, K. G., & Duch, H. (2018). Parent Involvement in the Getting Ready for School Intervention Is Associated With Changes in School Readiness Skills. Frontiers in psychology, 9, 759. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00759
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McLanahan, S. (2015). The Consequences of Single Motherhood. https://prospect.org/api/amp/health/consequences-singlemotherhood/ Nieuwenhuis, R., & Maldonado, L. C. (2018). The triple bind of single-parent families: Resources, employment and policies. The triple bind of singleparent families: Resources, employment and policies to improve wellbeing, 1-30. Nijhawan, L. P., Janodia, M. D., Muddukrishna, B. S., Bhat, K. M., Bairy, K. L., Udupa, N., & Musmade, P. B. (2013). Informed consent: Issues and challenges. Journal of advanced pharmaceutical technology & research, 4(3), 134–140. https://doi.org/10.4103/2231-4040.116779 Schapiro-Halberstam, S. (2016). Parental Approval and the Adult Child. NEFESH The International Network of Orthodox Mental Health Professionals. https://nefesh.org/MindBodyandSoul/parental-approvaland-the-adult-child/read Shah, D., Haider, D., &amp; Halipoto, D. (2017). Personality Traits Among Adolescents Of Single Parent Family And Two Parents Family. https://sujoold.usindh.edu.pk/index.php/Grassroots/article/view/3258/2364 Stack, R. J., & Meredith, A. (2018). The Impact of Financial Hardship on Single Parents: An Exploration of the Journey From Social Distress to Seeking Help. Journal of family and economic issues, 39(2), 233–242. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10834-017-9551-6
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Svinicki M.D., Vogler J.S. (2012) Motivation and Learning: Modern Theories. In: Seel N.M. (eds) Encyclopedia of the Sciences of Learning. Springer, Boston, MA. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4419-1428-6_392
STUDENTRESEARCH JOURNA
SECTI ON 5
ETHI CS
Ethics 489
Should Artificial Intelligence be Enabled to End a Human Life on the Battlefield? Grayson Bertaina Seabreeze High School
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Should Artificial Intelligence be Enabled to End a Human Life on the Battlefield? Future generations will look back on the actions of scientists and ethicists today with either appreciation or regret. The decisions that are made today on the ethics of artificial intelligence will direct the future progress of technological development and civilization. AI is becoming increasingly advanced and closer to achieving human levels of morality with every day that passes. Militaries across the world have begun to use AI and machine learning to identify targets for remote strikes, but many ethical, technological, and scientific concerns arise. Perspectives on this ethical debate range from predicting a future technological utopia to forecasting the demise of humanity in a Terminator-style showdown with robots; however, the technology is only in its infancy. The ethicality of enabling AI to make the kill decision is yet undetermined; is it moral for an unseen, nonhuman machine to take the life of a human being? Advancements in recognition algorithms and AI will eventually weigh more in favor of future “ethical” machine- directed killing, but many doubts, ethical and technological, stack up in opposition. One major topic in the ethical AI debate is the usage of military AI controlled drones for target recognition, reconnaissance, and eventually, elimination. Dr. Peter Lee, Ph.D. in War Studies and a lecturer at the University of Portsmouth in Military Ethics, which establishes his credibility, writes in The Conversation, “Ultimately, the crew has the final ethical, legal and operational responsibility for killing designated human targets.” Dr. Lee believes that removing the human aspect of war then becomes extermination and no longer moral warfare (Lee). Given this perspective, it
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makes sense that the only moral decision to kill should be made by a moral entity, a human being. In opposition, some experts believe that using AI to make the kill decision can potentially save human lives and minimize error, especially with drone strikes. Amitai Etzioni, a professor at the George Washington University and Ph.D. in International Affairs discusses the ethics of militarized AI in the Military Review journal, which qualifies him to discuss AI on the battlefield. In his report, he explains that the roboticist Ronald C Arkin feels AI on the battlefield will be more humane than human combatants because it lacks the organic instinct of self-preservation. This emotionally motivated instinct has led to the adoption of a “Shoot-first, ask questions later attitude” in high-stress combat situations; emotions such as hysteria and fear will not disrupt or hinder the decisions or judgment of autonomous systems. Lastly, robots can understand and read much more sensory information than a human and analyze without stress or pressure (Etzioni and Etzioni). Both sides make strong ethical points using logical analysis, leading the future into further debate. Research and development of AI and autonomous weapons systems are carried out by companies that develop software, such as Google. Many speculate on the issue of AI ever being ethical in combat situations. AI is still a technology in development, and its possible uses are not understood to a full extent in the present time; individuals working for software companies are sometimes not even aware that they are coding behaviors for war machines. Cade Metz, a career writer for Wired and the New York Times specializing in AI and technology, writes that many various AI systems “can improve transportation, health care, and scientific research.” He goes on to
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say that in the negative, AI “can feed mass surveillance, online phishing attacks and the spread of false news” (Metz). Artificial Intelligence technology is a modern double-edged sword that has limitless boundaries but huge risks. In these companies, there are many that are in dissent and even have quit their jobs to oppose AI used to kill. Discussed by Scott Shane, a national security writer for the New York Times and a Pulitzer Awardwinning author, thousands of Google software engineers signed a petition in 2018 to the company’s executive to oppose “Project Maven,” a Department of Defense program researching militarized AI. They said in the letter, “We believe that Google should not be in the business of war” and that Google should not “ever build warfare technology” (Shane and Wakabayashi). This bold move has even caused some to quit their jobs at Google and other technology or AI-focused companies. Given this stance held by many in the technology industry, the world is not ready for weaponized AI on the battlefield. In the military environment, AI must remain within specific humanitarian parameters. Jai Galliot, a faculty member of West Point, the University of Oxford, and Ph.D. in Philosophy at Macquarie University studies the ethics of autonomous weapon systems. According to Galliot, a technology referred to as MinAI (Minimally-Just Autonomy), has the potential to provide an ethical solution to the usage of AI in combat. MinAI “will not take active lethal or nonlethal action against protected persons or infrastructure.” This neural AI system can actively abort a launched attack or attack-in-progress with new information if it identifies a friendly asset, civilians, or humanitarian aid efforts. MinAI avoids, “lawfully protected
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symbols and locations, signs of surrender (including beacons), and sites that are hors de combat” (Galliot and Shultz). There are some benefits to MinAI, but there are deeper ethical and moral conflicts that come along with the use of weaponized autonomous systems. A large group of experts: scientists, leaders, businessmen, and notables including Elon Musk and Stephen Hawking, have signed a letter to humanity warning of the “danger of a fatal outcome for humanity” posed by AI-based combat systems (Sychev). According to Vasily Sychev, a Russian journalist and expert in arms, Lethal Autonomous Weapons Systems (LAWS) cannot be affected by observing suffering as human soldiers can. He predicts that the art of combat with technology becomes “nothing more than a game” and desensitizes participants by displaying once graphic visual experiences as merely “military casualties reduced to numbers on a screen” (Sychev). After removing the human aspect of emotion, empathy, and compassion, war loses any sense of moral justification or morality. It is noteworthy that neither the Geneva Conventions nor the Laws and Customs of War on Land have any clause regarding AI systems in combat (Sychev). The director of media and outreach for the Future of Life Institute, Ariel Conn, cites a handful of statistics in the Metro magazine. “Nearly 4,000 AI and robotics researchers called for a ban on LAWS in 2015; in 2017, 116 CEOs of AI companies asked the UN to ban LAWS; and in 2018, more than 150 AI-related organizations and nearly 3,100 individuals took that call a step further and pledged not to be involved in LAWS development” (Conn). It should be noted that the Future of Life Institute may be biased against AI technology in principle. This new immense opposition among experts and high-ranking is a clear indicator
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of widespread unpreparedness and distrust of AI to make the final call-in combat. AI use in combat has strategic advantages and disadvantages. There are some logical advantages in processing power and response speed, as outlined by the International Committee of the Red Cross in a multiperspective debate report. The ICRC says, “their potential precision and reliability might enable better respect for both international law and human ethical values, resulting in fewer adverse humanitarian consequences” (ICRC). Another benefit proposed by the ICRC is that using AI combat technology can “help fulfill the duty of militaries to protect their soldiers” (ICRC). From this technological perspective, AI has significant value and justified ethical purpose in combat as a vehicle for saving more lives in the long run. Granted, these may matter less than ethical and moral consequences. In the removal of the human element from the“kill” decision loop, humans create a “responsibility gap” of morals and undermine the dignity of humans that are injured or killed by autonomous technology (ICRC). Another point against the morality of autonomous technology is the increased emotional distance from soldiers initiating the AI systems to their victims (ICRC). This debate is logical and well-reasoned on both sides and becomes a duel between morality and efficiency. Physical aspects of AI warfare have dangerous ramifications for the humans involved since a computer system can process thousands of times more data in a given second than a human soldier. The Congressional Research Service, an organization that advises the U.S. Congress on AI and national security, presented a briefing in early 2019. The pace of AI combat
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causes a situation for human combatants to become overwhelmed; where “weapons are too fast, small, numerous, and complex for humans to digest” and that these autonomous warfare systems could “surpass the rate of human decision making, potentially resulting in a loss of human control in warfare” (“Artificial Intelligence…”). This dangerous situation is indicative of future complications on the battlefield and perilous combat situations for civilians, soldiers, and robotic participants in war. Comparable to a doomsday prediction, AI in this capacity has the potential to completely overwhelm the abilities of humans in combat to regulate as the machines automatically and unemotionally slug back in forth at a pace that we cannot currently comprehend. The last point of contention in the ethical artificial intelligence technology argument lies in political and legal regulation. An international agreement only works if all parties mutually hold each other responsible. Mark Wolverton, a science journalist, author, and a fellow of MIT, wrote in the scientific magazine Undark on AI in war. Wolverton suggests the approach of internationally agreed upon terms of AI use following international laws but acknowledges the potential weakness of this approach through rogue takeovers and deployment of prohibited technology (Wolverton). Political regulation of weaponized AI will be necessary for the future, regardless of the morality or ethicality of its use in combat. This approach has been attempted in the past to regulate dangerous weapons of mass destruction and is generally observed by leading countries. The outcome of an agreement in these parameters depends on the parties involved, the international situation, and quality objective observation across international
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borders. However, wars can start because of broken international promises and trust. Technology and science go hand in hand, especially in the study and development of computer systems. In this ethical debate on artificial intelligence and its use in combat, an overwhelming number of scientists and software developers have come out against its use for violent purposes. Dire warnings from experts in these fields contrast with optimistic conceptualizations of minimizing the loss of life by using more precise systems in the future. When considering a variety of logical and reasonable arguments, it is possible to argue for either side. Objectivity is crucial in the determination of future policy and mindsets regarding the adoption and deployment of AI systems and their ability to make the kill decision. The importance of ethics vs. progress is a never-ending debate in human consciousness, and the side with the most significant logic must be isolated and extended. Given the evidence and logical reasoning that has been discussed, artificial intelligence should not yet be enabled to decide the fate of a human based on moral imperatives and a dire ethical trap; it becomes a logical steppingstone for further violations of human morality and evolutionary purpose. It is not correct to say that there will never be AI on the battlefield, but society is not ready in 2019. As scientists continue to develop and increase the capabilities of artificial intelligence systems, the scope of their usage will adapt. Partially human-controlled systems have already been implemented in militaries around the world, and autonomous systems in the civilian world should become widespread before military use should occur.
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The differences in society from now to as soon as two decades in the future will be so substantial that the current moral standards and standards of objectivity will be shifted entirely to allow for new norms and an evolved attitude towards computers. Only time will tell if the utopian prediction or dire end-of-the-world scenario proves to be true.
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References “Artificial Intelligence and National Security.” Congressional Research Service, 30 Jan. 2019, fas.org/sgp/crs/natsec/R45178.pdf. Conn, Ariel. “Killer Robots Are Fast Becoming Reality - and We Must Stop This from Happening.” Metro, Metro.co.uk, 2 Sept. 2018, metro.co.uk/2018/09/02/killer-robots-are-fast-becoming-a- realitywe-must-stop-this-from-happening-if-we-want-to-stop-a-global-aiarms-race-7903717/. Etzioni, Amitai. “Pros and Cons of Autonomous Weapons Systems.” Army University Press, www.armyupress.army.mil/Journals/ Military-Review/English-Edition-Archives/May-June-2017/Prosand-Cons-of-Autonomous-Weapons-Systems/. Galliott, Jai, and Jason Scholz. “Artificial Intelligence in Weapons The Moral Imperative for Minimally- Just Autonomy.” Journal of Indo-Pacific Affairs, 2018, pp. 57–57., www.airuniversity.af.edu/ Portals/10/JIPA/journals/Volume-01_Issue-2/04-Galliott-Scholz.pdf. ICRC. “Ethics and Autonomous Weapon Systems: An Ethical Basis for Human Control?” International Committee of the Red Cross, 16 Apr. 2018, www.icrc.org/en/document/ethics-and-autonomous-weaponsystems-ethical-basis-human-control. Lee, Peter. “Drones Will Soon Decide Who to Kill.” The Conversation, 8 Mar. 2019, theconversation.com/drones-will-soon-decide-who-to-kill94548 Shane, Scott, and Daisuke Wakabayashi. “'The Business of War': Google Employees Protest Work for the Pentagon.” The New York Times,
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The New York Times, 4 Apr. 2018, www.nytimes.com/2018/ 04/04/technology/google-letter-ceo-pentagon-project.html. Sychev, Vasily. “The Threat of Killer Robots.” UNESCO, 28 Aug. 2018, en.unesco.org/courier/2018- 3/threat-killer-robots. Wolverton, Mark. “The General Is a Robot: Artificial Intelligence Goes to War.” Undark, 10 Aug. 2018, undark.org/article/book-review-scharrearmy-of-none/.
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Unsung Heroes: What are The Stresses of Teaching and Why They Deserve Better as a Profession? Connor Deah Bermudian Springs High School
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Abstract A teacher’s work day is longer than it appears, as there is not enough time for them to get important work done in school, so it spills over into their home life. Beyond teaching though, teachers are sources of advice and support to students and they assist students in their lives throughout high school and beyond, which is a lot of stress. This should give them at least a higher salary, but people will cite that teachers have the whole summer off and that their job is mostly fun, with little work. These are half truths, and the best thing we can do for our teachers is to give them more time. I am not the only person who thinks this. Numerous academic articles have been written on the subject of teacher burnout, as well as a TED talk speaking about what communities can do to support our teachers and why they deserve that support. Teacher interviews were conducted to gain more information on teacher burnout and why they deserve higher salaries. I have always had respect for my teachers. They were figures of authority in my life, but they were also kind and helpful to me. They were important figures in my life as they molded me to the person I am today. In sixth grade, I wrote a small essay on the salary of teachers, and what I found shifted my mindset even more. Back in 2016 when I wrote the paper, I found that many teachers had shockingly low salaries. The highest I found was an experienced private school teacher in New York City. But this was all back in 2016. I have had many great teachers since then, maybe even some of my favorite teachers, and they’ve left quite an impact on me, and not just as a student. They have left such a large impact on me as a person and I have considered becoming a teacher myself to hopefully fulfill the role that
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teachers have played in my life. I have looked into the career more recently and have taken a deep dive into the world of teaching. Through numerous articles, a TED talk, and two interviews with teachers, they have shown that a teacher’s work day is longer than it appears, as there is not enough time for them to get important work done in school, so it spills over into their home life. Beyond teaching, they are sources of advice and support to students and they assist students in their lives throughout high school and beyond, which is a lot of responsibility and stress. This should give them at least a higher salary, but people will cite that teachers have the whole summer off, that their job is mostly fun with little work, and that anyone can teach. These are merely half truths, and the best thing we can do for teachers is to give them more time, allowing them to prepare better and, as a result, teach students better. A teacher’s day is far longer than it appears. For a baseline of what the average hours are, I asked Rachel Detsch(Deah, 2022). She is an English teacher at Bermudian Springs, where she has been teaching for four years. When I interviewed her, she said that she’s supposed to work for seven hours a day, 5 days a week, for one hundred and eighty days. She has 6 periods to teach, a period for lunch, and one period to get work done in school, called a prep period. During those six periods where she’s teaching, she’s busy walking around the classroom, helping students, and answering questions(Deah, 2022). When she’s not doing that, she is either discussing something with her students as a class or slowly working away at her desk. Now, this may seem like enough time to get all the planning and grading that teaching requires done, but in reality, that available time is a lot shorter than it commonly appears. Any time to work during class is taken up by teaching or discussing
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with students the content the class is currently learning. The thirty minute lunch break can often be cut down to a mere fifteen or twenty minutes, simply because a student needs clarification on a question. The forty five minute prep period, if one is even given, can often be cut into by students or administrators having a meeting with the teacher during that time. What should be seventy five minutes of time to work can be cut down by twenty minutes simply because of other commitments out of a teacher’s control. A great example of this was the interview itself. The interview was being conducted during a study hall period where Rachel Detsch could get work done. This interview took up her entire study hall period, which is 45 minutes she could have been working on planning or grading assignments. Because there is a lot less time in a teacher’s day to get work done, some resort to working at home as well as in school to keep up with their work. This can lead to work weeks of over 40 hours, commonly seen by society as a full week, but with no overtime pay(Hanson, 2013). Still, even this work might not be enough and many might still feel behind. This is just the teaching side of teaching, and it is already taking up a large portion of the day, but there is a lot more to being a teacher than just teaching students. Teachers are expected to teach a curriculum, if not numerous curricula, laid out by the school to dozens of students, for 75 percent of the year. This can involve lectures, class discussions, homework, essays, books to read, tests, and so much more. This curriculum can change and shift with each passing year, so teachers have to be flexible in their methods as well. But being a teacher is a lot more than just teaching a subject or lecturing on a topic. I interviewed Ryan Updike(Deah, 2022) for his thoughts on the matter. He has
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been teaching for eleven years as a US History teacher at Bermudian Springs High School, instructing the normal course, the honors course, and the CHS course, otherwise known as the college in the high school course(2022). He recently started instructing a computer science class at the same high school as well(2022). When I asked him what teaching is like, he responded “I have felt like our jobs have become closer to a 24/7, closer to a multi faceted role in a kid's life”(Deah, 2022). Teachers are expected to not just teach, but to be positive role models and supportive people in students' lives, in and outside of the classroom(2022). After all, students spend about six or seven hours a day with teachers or other adults. This adds up fast, as by the end of a singular school year, that total is one thousand, four hundred and forty hours. If the student stays with that school for twelve years, going from first to twelfth grade, that is a grand total of seventeen thousand, two hundred and eighty hours with teachers, or about seven hundred and twenty days. That is a long time that a teacher gets to interact with students, be a positive role model, and be a supportive individual in a student's life. During that time, teachers are not just teaching students, they are supporting them as an individual. Updike comments that besides parents, teachers are one of the first ways a kid can get support in their life(2022). He cannot count the number of times he has seen a teacher give a kid something to eat when that kid had had nothing to eat. He has helped kids through some truly horrific times in their lives, and he knows of the kids he has helped. He knows that he has made an impact on some of his students' lives. Teachers are not just teachers. They are advisors and providers, whether that is a life lesson, helping supply a hungry student with food, or simply writing a letter of recommendation for a student
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to get into college. Updike is not alone with the support idea either. Research suggests that “Teacher-student relationships matter greatly, not only to students’ performance in school, but also to their overall health and wellbeing.”(Conner, J. O, et al, 2014). Another study comparing a student’s subjective well being and teacher’s support found that emotional support from teachers was beneficial to a students mental health(Conner, 2014). Teachers do a lot for students; that is undeniable. However, some people hold views that stand in opposition to this viewpoint. Now, many will claim that a teacher’s day is all fun and play. They get to be in a classroom with students all day and enjoy teaching their subject of choice. While this is true, as most teachers enjoy the subject they teach, their work is not all fun and games. Disruptive students, who are unmotivated to learn, are extremely stressful for teachers, with many studies showing them as a leading cause of stress for teachers(Hanson, 2022). Teachers still need to hand out assignments and grade those assignments. They need to meet with administrators and update their curriculum. They need to plan lessons, and all of this is during a school day, with few breaks. All of this over time can lead to burnout in teachers. Burnout is the result of prolonged stress, usually accompanied by physical and mental exhaustion(Pickering, 2008), and because of all the work they have to do, it can be especially common in teachers. Detsch states this during the interview, saying “‘I do think that is an unspoken rule of teaching,’ Rachel Detsch commented ‘that you need to be super strong, super on your A-Game every single day, no matter what, and that is not easy. It is exhausting.’”(2022). Ryan Updike had similar ideas, mentioning that it is a strenuous job. The needs of the students and what his
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courses need to teach are always shifting, so he needs to keep up with it and it’s exhausting after a while(2022). “‘Even when you go home,’ Detsch says, ‘it is hard to relax. You have all this work that needs grading, there is a student you are really worried about, or you’re worried about students stressing over the work that you assigned’”(2022). Teaching can be an exhausting career, and it can be difficult to separate from it’s stresses. One point that might be perceived by some is that anyone can teach. Anyone can just walk into a classroom and begin teaching for a teacher. This idea was pushed forward by Jesse Walters, a co-host on fox news, during the CoronaVirus pandemic. He spoke, saying “I don't think these teachers are even smart enough to be in the classroom”(Staff, W., n. d). People have started losing their trust in a teacher’s ability to teach. This is not the first time this ability has been questioned though. Back in 1983, A Nation In Crisis: The Imperative for Educational Reform was published, stating that education in America was in Crisis(Bruno, 2018). The article goes on to state: Task forces and commissions claimed to have evidence of failing students, obstructionist teacher unions, and poorly performing teachers. The constant saturation of negative school headlines took its toll: The public’s approval rating of public schools fell from 58% in 1973 to 29% in 2012.(2018). This led to teaching becoming more automated or rigid. Teachers were expected to follow a mandated curriculum, guided by the school, and stick solely to their lesson plans, with little room for flexibility and creativity. People have lost their trust in the school system, which has led to a loss in what
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teachers can do during their job. Teachers are not given what they are due because people are unsure about if a teacher can do their job and teach. Some people have forgotten that teachers are trained professionals, each with a college degree in their subject of choice, knowledge of learning as a theory, and the knowledge to apply those theories practically(Association, N. E., 2022). They know how to teach and were specifically trained and certified to do so. All teachers are required to get a teaching certification. Another point people might propose is teachers can catch a break during the summer break, but this is only half true. Teachers can find some relief during the summer break, as it is a time where the stresses of teaching can’t reach them. While the job’s course load, paperwork, and extracurricular involvement increases attrition rates amongst teachers(Hanson 2013), these issues, at first, don’t directly appear during the summer, so it reduces a teacher’s stress. They also have time for their own hobbies, which can reduce that attrition rate even further(2013). Reflection can be a strong tool in a teacher’s arsenal as well. A teacher simply reviews the strengths and weaknesses of the past year’s work, and addresses the weakness in preparation for the next year. However, it does not mean that the summer break is a break for teachers. They still have to prepare for the next year of teaching, which might mean revising whole lessons, units or even their entire curriculum. Also, teachers are often working a second job to make up for losing the income through school, teaching summer classes, or working on certification renewal and advancing their careers(Association, N. E., 2022). All of this renewal and career advancement has to be done on their own time(Association, N. E., 2022), as they do not have or aren’t provided enough
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time during the school year to do so. All of these classes to improve their careers also cost money for teachers, which can be a struggle for teachers as well. The teacher’s salary has varied over the years, but it’s never been particularly great. Back in 2019, Jude Kadi hosted a TED talk explaining why teachers deserve better, and one point he made was discussing the teacher salary. He brings up the fact that “The average American Teacher makes a starting salary of about forty one thousand dollars a year and sixty seven thousand dollars for a veteran teacher…That won’t even qualify you for a one bedroom apartment in many places”(Kadi, 2019). But that was 2019. Has it gotten better? Not much. According to the NEA or National Education Association, the average salary has gone up from 2019, as it’s now sitting at $63,645 which is an increase of 14.1%(Association, N. E, 2022). The catch, however, is that inflation has also increased, so the actual result is a decrease in salary by $1,222 or a 1.7% decrease(2022). This has actually turned many first year teachers away from the profession, as they simply cannot afford a place to live under that salary, let alone somewhere close to work. It is also harder for first year teachers to pay off their student loans because they just do not earn much money. The other thing is, many professions that require a similar amount of education and skill earn almost a whole fifth more than a teacher’s salary. Currently, that difference in salaries is up to 19%(2022). Because this salary is not high enough, teachers may have to work a second job, which adds to their stress. This can be another reason that they leave the profession, as they are simply burnout from all the stress and balancing they have to do. This can be especially common with new teachers, as they don’t
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have the experience that a more experienced teacher may have. What teachers may need to combat all this is a pay raise and more time. As mentioned earlier, teaching can take up a lot of time, whether it is the actual teaching or the grading and planning side of things. They do not have a lot of time to do these tasks though, which brings in a lot of stress and begins taking time out of their personal lives. If no time in the school day can be found, then give them a few scheduled breaks outside of school. They need the time to grade and plan. More importantly, they need more personal time for themselves or their families, as they’re so busy professionally. These breaks would reduce teacher stress levels, as they have more time for work, but more importantly, more time to destress, recharge from the stresses of work, and maybe even reflect on their work. Reflecting on one’s strengths and weaknesses can help iron out some of the stressors the teacher is experiencing while working and allow them to be healthier(Hanson, 2013). A stressed out teacher isn’t great for anyone. It can decrease their effectiveness as a teacher, their productivity, and increase their absenteeism(2013). This is why teachers need less stress. A teacher with less stress is better equipped to teach within the classroom and this benefits students greatly. When a teacher is on their A game, the students are able to learn the material better, and they perform better as a result. Ryan Updike brings this up briefly during the interview, mentioning that when he is focused and he has a good lesson planned, it’s surprising what he can get out of students(2022). He knows what a good day as a teacher can accomplish for students(2022). Throughout researching this topic, whether it’s the pay, what the job entails, or the strain it can cause, I have learned quite a bit about teaching as a
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career. It has brought into focus many parts of being a teacher that I’ve thought about and seen, but never known a lot about. I have learned first hand how important a teacher’s support can be in a student’s life, and why all this can be exhausting. This is important to me because teachers are the ones who will instruct the next generation. They are the ones who make it possible for many people to go to college, to get degrees, and to acquire jobs, yet they seem to be stuck with a low paying job, making it hard for them to even stay in the profession in the first place. As a profession, teachers deserve more than the stress of their job and their small salary. To quote Jude Kadi during his TED talk on supporting teachers, he said “Teaching should be the most respected and supported profession of our time”(Kadi, 2019). I wholeheartedly agree with this quote. A teacher’s work day is a lot more difficult than it first appears, and it is lengthened by the work that has to be done at home. Teachers are not paid enough for their work in school and they are not paid at all for their work outside of the classroom, meaning they may need a second source of income. All of this can pile on to the stress of teaching and create burnout amongst teachers. Some teachers will even leave the profession because of it and find other professions to work in. Because of all that teachers have to deal with, teachers should get the respect and support they need, so that they can support the future generations in our country.
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References Allegretto, S., Mishel, L., & Economic Policy Institute. (2020). Teacher Pay Penalty Dips but Persists in 2019: Public School Teachers Earn about 20% Less in Weekly Wages than Nonteacher College Graduates. In Economic Policy Institute. Economic Policy Institute. Association, N. E. (n.d.). Teacher compensation: Fact vs. fiction. NEA. Retrieved February 21, 2022, from https://www.nea.org/resourcelibrary/teacher-compensation-fact-vs-fiction Bruno, R. (2018, June 20). When did the U.S. stop seeing teachers as professionals? Harvard Business Review. Retrieved February 26, 2022, from https://hbr.org/2018/06/when-did-the-u-s-stop-seeing-teachersas-professionals Clement, M. (2017). Why Combatting Teachers’ Stress is Everyone’s Job. Clearing House, 90(4), 135–138. https://doi.org/10.1080/ 00098655.2017.1323519 Conner, J. O., Miles, S. B., & Pope, D. C. (2014). How Many Teachers Does It Take to Support a Student? Examining the Relationship between Teacher Support and Adverse Health Outcomes in High-Performing, Pressure-Cooker High Schools. High School Journal, 98(1), 22–42. https://doi.org/10.1353/hsj.2014.0012 Deah, C., & Updike, R. (2022, February 15). Interview with Ryan Updike. personal.
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Deah, C., & Detsch, R. (2022, February 11). Interview with Rachel Detsch. personal. Hanson, K. (2013). Turnover in Teachers: Stress, Burnout, and Fixing the Problem. BU Journal of Graduate Studies in Education, 5(2), 50–54. Kadi, J. (2019). Our teachers deserve better | Jude Kadi - YouTube. Youtube. Retrieved February 10, 2022, from https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=Ljo7x9KrgjU Pickering, C. (2008, Winter). The stress of work or the work of stress? Health and Learning Magazine. Retrieved October 6, 2013, from http://www.ctf-fce.ca/Publication-Library/HealthandLearningIssue4.pdf Staff, W. by M. M. (n.d.). Fox hosts launch vicious attack on teachers, calling them stupid, "selfish and lazy". Media Matters for America. Retrieved February 26, 2022, from https://www.mediamatters.org/fox-news/foxhosts-launch-vicious-attack-teachers-calling-them-stupid-selfish-andlazy
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The Reality of the Biased Recommendations Jessica Deal Lemont Township High School
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One thing that we collectively have in common is that we all have to eat. No matter who you are or how you live it still remains the same. Most would assume that in America with the growing use of social media and technology in recent years the amount of people misinformed about food would decline, however in America, people have been fed misinformation by the government and leading health organizations too many years prior. The truth is that widely trusted American associations and governments have been biased, as they profit off citizens being sick, misinformed, and confused. People in the United States are sick. The country compared to other developed countries is leading in chronic illnesses, has one the highest rates in obesity, and still Americans spend so much money on medical expenses. The CDC presented the facts that “six in ten adults have a chronic disease and four in ten have two or more” (CDC). The numbers are astonishing, especially when looking at other countries that have nowhere near the amount of illness that America has. Specifically, when looking at the overall health of the population “More than one-quarter of U.S. adults report they have been diagnosed with two or more chronic conditions such as asthma, diabetes, heart disease, or hypertension during their lifetime compared to 22 percent or less in all other countries” (Tikkanen, Abrams). A number “twice as high as in the Netherlands and the U.K” should not be acceptable to Americans but the fact of the matter is that most don't even know the reality of this. America, painted as one of the best to and by its citizens with the most expensive health care systems, most don't even question the
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numbers. With that noted, America can get better if it starts to be honest to its citizens about what they are being fed and what they should be eating. What are countries that are significantly healthier doing that America is not? They are actively researching and promoting diets and recommendations that can actually help their citizens and prevent diseases from happening. The US knows what research can be done to prevent the most common deadliest diseases in the country, however it has not for decades. The large, well known, health organizations such as the American Diabetes Association, American Cancer Society, and the American Heart Association all provide questionable recommendations when it comes to nutrition. In 2015 the world health organization announced findings by the “IARC Monographs Programme classified the consumption of red meat as probably carcinogenic to humans” and announced that “Processed meat was classified as carcinogenic to humans” (World Health Organization). Despite the proven facts by studies about cancer causing foods announced by World Health Organizations it can still be seen that trusted organizations such as the “American Cancer society” were “promoting processed meats'' such as turkey and ham, the American Heart Association was found “promoting beef” and the American Diabetes Association showed bacon wrapped shrimp as a recommended recipe on their page about what a healthy diet should consist of (What the health documentary). These widely trusted associations are all guilty of spreading misinformation to possibly millions of people in this country and the food that they promote has led to sick people continuing to eat foods that are only making matters worse.
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In the “what the health” documentary, Kip Andersen had the same question many might ask when hearing this information that is everything different from the biased information most people go through their lives hearing. Why are these associations spreading this information even if it is only slightly untrue? When looking into the question and looking at the American cancer society's sponsors, it can be seen that they were taking money from “Tyson, one of the world's largest meat producers and Yum brand, owners of pizza hut, KFC, and Taco bell” and the American Diabetes association was taking money from “Dannon one of the largest dairy product producers and Kraft, makers of Velveeta processed cheese” (What the health documentary). Health organizations getting money from some of the biggest brands and corporations leads to much skewed information to make everyone happy, however it is a win-lose situation as the direct result of the failure of organizations to be honest is many left sick. With Americans looking to their health organizations that are encouraging all of the wrong foods for prevention no wonder why the country is leading in both chronic illnesses as well as meat and dairy consumption. While there is much new information regarding this issue with information being spread more accurately and efficiently this is definitely not a new issue. In fact, it is an issue that can be seen all throughout history in America. “MyPlate” and “Got Milk” ads ring a bell to almost all Americans, as there are systemized ideas taught in the country at very young ages. Those "Got Milk?" Ads are one example of how, for decades, and even still today, the federal government has helped the dairy industry by convincing
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people to drink more milk. Today, the US Department of Agriculture's dietary guidelines recommend three servings of dairy a day, despite the fact that one in four Americans can't digest milk” (Vox). The relationship is confusing and never talked about as the motives behind the government and dairy industry are questionable but apparent: get people to buy more milk. While one of the most successful marketing campaigns got milk ads are majorly successful in the country however do not show much transparency towards consumers “Thus, proponents of the Dairy Program argue, clever “got milk” ads are necessary to make private citizens buy up all that excess milk, so the government won’t have to” (Kramer). Despite the claims of got milk ads that dairy (specifically cow's milk) is a necessity for healthy and strong bones studies have shown that “dairy products contribute to the overall saturated fat, calorie, and cholesterol content of the diet, they also contribute to increased risk of obesity, heart disease, and type 2 diabetes” and there is nothing strong about any of the chronic diseases excessive intake of dairy can contribute to. (Sencer). So much of the misinformation and confusion surrounding dairy today is a result of a biased industry and the biased partnership of the dairy industries and federal government. America's biases in food industries can be seen when looking at the historical legislation, in the mid 1900s there was an abundance of milk produced and wasted and there was a call to action by the federal government and the dairy industry, “In 1949, Congress passed a law that required the federal government to purchase dairy products if the price of milk fell too low. The idea of the program was to prop up the price of milk
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by establishing the government as the buyer of last resort”, how quickly the federal government got involved and sustained it is even evident today as they still are financially tied to the dairy industry. Moving forward the What is taken from this issue is that marketing, misinformation, and manipulation equals money in this country and there is much to be done. While many have perceived that the government and various disease associations have the citizens of Americas best interest at heart the reality is that it is not working, and work needs to be done to educate the misinformed and work towards a healthier and happier country overall.
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References Andersen, Kip. “Facts.” WHAT THE HEALTH, 17 Mar. 2017, www.whatthehealthfilm.com/facts. Anderson, Laura. “Florida School Goes to Court to Fight Milk Mandate.” Physicians Committee for Responsible Medicine, 29 Oct. 2020, www.pcrm.org/news/news-releases/florida-school-goes-court-fightmilk-mandate. Barnard, Neal. “Meat and Dairy Subsidies Make America Sick.” Pcrm.org. Physicians Committee , 22 July 2016, www.pcrm.org/news/blog/ meatand-dairy-subsidies-make-america-sick. Buchheit, Paul. “Opinion: How the Food and Drug Companies Ensure That We Get Sick and They Make Money.” Common Dreams, Common Dreams, 24 July 2017, www.commondreams.org/views/2017/07/24/how-foodand-drug-companies-ensure-we-get-sick- and-they-make-money. Harvard. “Healthy Eating Plate vs. USDA's MyPlate.” Harvard T.H. Chan School Of Public Health , 24 Sept. 2019, www.hsph.harvard.edu/nutritionsource/healthy-eating-plate-vs-usdamyplate/. “Health Concerns About Dairy.” Physicians Committee for Responsible Medicine, Physicians Committee for Responsible Medicine, www.pcrm.org/good-nutrition/nutrition-information/health-concernsabout-dairy.
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Kramer, John. “Lawsuit Takes on ‘Got Milk?" Ads.” Lawsuit Takes On "Got Milk "Ads, Institute for Justice, 8 Dec. 2015, ij.org/press-release/qgot-milkqad-campaign-launch-release/. Kroenke, Candyce H, et al. “High- and Low-Fat Dairy Intake, Recurrence, and Mortality After Breast Cancer Diagnosis .” Oxford Academic, Journal of the National Cancer Institute, 14 Mar. 2013, academic.oup.com/jnci/article/105/9/616/986948?login=true. McCarthy, Niall. “This Study Shows Which Countries Eat the Most Meat.” World Economic Forum, Statista, 11 May 2020, www.weforum.org/agenda/2020/05/the-countries-that-eat-the-mostmeat/#:~:text=America%20r anked%20as%20the%20number,for%20steak%20ranked%20in%20third. National Research Council (US); Institute of Medicine (US); Woolf SH, Aron L, editors. U.S. Health in International Perspective: Shorter Lives, Poorer Health. Washington (DC): National Academies Press (US); 2013. Summary. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK154469/ Scheltens, Liz, et al. “How Big Government Helps Big Dairy Sell Milk.” Vox, Vox, 2 May 2016, www.vox.com/2016/5/2/11565698/big-governmenthelps-big-dairy-sell-milk. Sencer. “Is Milk Good or Bad for You?: KQED Education.” KQED, 9 Mar. 2016, www.kqed.org/education/130193/is-milk-good-or-bad-for-you.
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Tikkanen, Roosa, and Melinda K Abrams. “U.S. Health Care from a Global Perspective, 2019: Higher Spending, Worse Outcomes?” The Commonwealth Fund, 30 Jan. 2020, www.commonwealthfund.org/publications/issue-briefs/2020/jan/ushealth-care-global-perspectiv e2019#:~:text=More%20than%20one%2Dquarter%20of,the%20Netherlan ds%20and%20the%2 0U.K.
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Should Routine Use of Vaccinations be Encouraged? Alexander Tislow Pace High School
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With many controversial debates about vaccinations encircling us, it is imperative that we review both sides of the debate. The pro-vaccination side argues that vaccines have little to no genetic effect and vaccines should be given to children. While the anti-vaccination side argues that vaccines, possibly due to adjuvants such as aluminum, can cause autism and can affect a child’s cognitive development. To complicate matters, it is not easy to discern legitimate information from misleading information. With many false studies circulating, we must review the facts and the falsehoods. Ultimately, the facts support the routine use of vaccinations. People should get vaccines because they improve public health without significantly increasing risk and they decrease the chance of contracting diseases with the additional benefit of halting the spread of many fatal diseases such as polio and cancer-causing HPV strands. Opponents of routine vaccination use argue that vaccinations impact the cognitive development of children. If this argument were true, then the diagnosed cases of autism would be on the rise with the concurrent rise in available vaccines and the increased frequency of vaccine administration. However, we cannot definitively say autism is on the rise. A recent study found that the MMR (Measles, Mumps, and Rubella) vaccine showed no increase in autism in children born in Demark of Danish-born mothers. As Anders Hviid, PhD, et al states, “We found no support for the hypothesis of increased risk for autism after MMR vaccination in a nationwide unselected population of Danish children…” (518). This study examined a susceptible group of children believed to have an increased risk of autism. Following the conclusion of the study, the authors discovered that the children given the
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vaccine and the children not given the vaccine were diagnosed with roughly the same percentage of autism cases. This observational study proves that the MMR vaccine is not the cause for autism in this population. While those who oppose vaccines point to higher numbers of children being diagnosed with autism, in fact this is a result of the more comprehensive diagnosis information that has been developed in recent years. As Claire Decoteau, PhD, and Kelly Underman state, “Autism is increasing due to diagnostic substitution and better detection; it is impossible to tell whether the prevalence of autism has risen because diagnostic categories have changed over time” (488[table 2]). Consequently, changes in diagnostic criteria and increased awareness are important contributing factors in the rising numbers of autism cases. Ergo, we cannot definitively say that autism is on the rise which implies that vaccine caused autism is unable to be proven. One important argument from the anti-vaccination side is that adjuvants such as aluminum contained in vaccines directly contributes to cognitive impairment. However, aluminum levels in vaccines are so little they can be considered negligible. Gretchen LaSalle, MD, states that, “The amount of aluminum in vaccines is far below the MRL (Manufacturing Readiness Level - a measure of safety concentrations) for aluminum, which is 1mg/kg/d” (350). This means that the levels of aluminum in vaccines are so little they are well below the law mandated acceptable aluminum level. Consequently, aluminum in vaccines likely has no effect on a person any more than aluminum levels in food do. In fact, we experience higher levels of aluminum in our food as infants. LaSalle goes on to state,
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“Infants are exposed to about 4.4 mg of aluminum in the vaccines typically administered in the first 6 months of life. However, infants typically ingest more than that during the first 6 months of life. Breast milk contains about 7 mg over 6 months; milk-based formulas contain about 38 mg over 6 months; and soy-based formulas contain about 117mg over 6 months” (359). This implies that we experience roughly 63% of the amount of aluminum in our first six months in vaccines as we do in breastmilk. Therefore, if we determine the levels of aluminum in vaccines as dangerous, we must also consider even the milk the baby drinks as dangerous. Having an adverse reaction to a vaccine is very rare. Many critics may argue that a vaccine can have severe risks. However, the occurrence of those risks is very unlikely. As LaSalle argues, “The risk of developing severe complications from an illness is much greater than that of developing complications from the vaccine meant to protect a person against that illness” (360). In other words, it is much more likely to experience complications from illnesses the vaccine protects you against than the actual vaccine. LaSalle also mentions that the chance of getting GBS (Guillain-Barré syndrome), which causes paralysis and is considered one of the more severe adverse outcomes from vaccinations, to be 1 to 2 cases per 1 million people (360). This means out of all the people that have gotten vaccines only a small number have developed GBS. Another common fear for patients is that the vaccine will cause anaphylaxis. However, LaSalle states “. . . in a 2016 study in the Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology, the rate of anaphylaxis for all vaccines combined was
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only 1.31 per 1 million vaccines” (360). A 0.00000131% chance of having an anaphylactic reaction emphasizes the infrequency of common events of concern. Adverse effects from vaccines are some of the most monitored events in the medical community. Vaccines are thoroughly tested before reaching market to ensure safety and efficacy. LaSalle states “… vaccines are some of the most thoroughly studied products brought to market. They undergo rigorous testing and oversight from both public and private organizations, for 10 to 15 years before being released for distribution” (359). This means that outside of emergent situations such as Ebola, vaccines are consistently reviewed for a decade before ever reaching the market. This ensures a high efficacy from vaccines. However, sometimes a vaccine can cause an adverse effect to a person. LaSalle mentions that the CDC and FDA decided to make a Vaccine Adverse Events Reporting System (VAERS). Once a serious adverse event is detected it is thoroughly reviewed and can sometimes result in the vaccine being removed from the market. For example, a vaccine for rotavirus caused intestinal problems. Once these problems were reported to VAERS the vaccine was ultimately removed from market (359). This proves that if a problem is detected with a vaccine the FDA and CDC work efficiently and effectively to resolve the issue and ensure safety. Vaccines are understood to be one of the single biggest medical advances for individual health. The simple fact about vaccines is they work. Gretchen LaSalle states “(At its best, the flu vaccine is about 60% effective.) However, it makes the chance of getting the flu less likely and
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significantly decreases the odds of severe complications/death” (360). This means an individual would be less likely to get the flu, and its subsequent complications, if they get the flu shot. If the individual does get the flu it will be much less severe. Having a much less severe encounter with the flu inevitably reduces their chances of dying due to the flu. Additionally, the flu vaccine forces your body to make antibodies which may be useful in future illnesses. LaSalle also states, “the HPV vaccine is highly effective with greater than 90% efficacy against high-risk cancer-causing strains” (361). This shows that getting the HPV vaccine can greatly reduce the chances of getting cancer from HPV. These benefits far outweigh the miniscule chances of having a bad experience with a vaccine. We need to get vaccinated because it protects the public health. For example, individuals with compromised immune systems need to be exposed to as few pathogens as possible. As Wim Hooste, MD, and Micheline Bekaert, MD, state “Policies of mandatory vaccination of influenza . . . benefits many, including some who have to rely on health professionals to protect them” (3). This goes to show that some people depend on others to not spread pathogens. Due to this dependence many public health workers are required to get vaccines. However, we come into contact with thousands of people and some of them could be vulnerable. Hooste and Bekaert also state, “It is not controversial that it is mandatory to wash hands … It must be uncontroversial that the simple, safe precaution of flu vaccination is also appropriate” (pp. 2-3). People do not debate whether or not to wash their hands or cover their mouth when they cough.
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Therefore, we should not debate taking any precaution, including vaccines, to protect ourselves and others. Those against routine vaccination argue that overall vaccines do more harm than good, chiefly impacting cognitive development. However, looking at all the evidence, the many benefits of vaccines cannot be minimized or discounted. Vaccines have saved us from many fatal diseases and have done a tremendous job at protecting the public. Consequently, people should get vaccinated because of the infrequent harmful effects due to vaccination and because of the overall benefits to the individual and to the public. If we take vaccines away from children, we lose the immunity vaccines provide. This may lead to diseases such as measles and polio resurfacing. Before vaccines were widely available, high numbers of people died due to preventable disease. Let us not return to our ancient methods but let us vaccinate and ensure prosperity for our future generations.
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References Decoteau, Claire Laurier, and Kelly Underman. “Adjudicating Non-Knowledge in the Omnibus Autism Proceedings.” Social Studies of Science, vol. 45, no. 4, 2015, pp. 471–500. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/43829039. Accessed 26 Jan. 2020. Gidengil, Courtney, et al. “Beliefs around Childhood Vaccines in the United States: A Systematic Review.” Vaccine, vol. 37, no. 45, Oct. 2019, pp. 6793–6802. EBSCOhost, doi:10.1016/j.vaccine.2019.08.068. Hviid, Anders, et al. “Measles, Mumps, Rubella Vaccination and Autism: A Nationwide Cohort Study.” Annals of Internal Medicine, vol. 170, no. 8, Apr. 2019, pp. 513–520. EBSCOhost, doi:10.7326/M18-2101. LaSalle, Gretchen. “When the Answer to Vaccines Is ‘No.’” Journal of Family Practice, vol. 67, no. 6, June 2018, p. 348. EBSCOhost, search. ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=129940420&site=e host-live. Scott, Jennifer Bracken. “Boundary Work and the Construction of Scientific Authority in the Vaccines-Autism Controversy.” Journal of Technical Writing & Communication, vol. 46, no. 1, Jan. 2016, pp. 59–82. EBSCOhost, doi:10.1177/0047281615600638. Van Hooste, Wim Leo Celina, and Micheline Bekaert. “To Be or Not to Be Vaccinated? The Ethical Aspects of Influenza Vaccination among Healthcare Workers.” International journal of environmental research
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and public health vol. 16,20 3981. 18 Oct. 2019, doi:10.3390/ijerph16203981.
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Unethical Japanese Experiments During WWII Ariadna Torras Coral Gables Senior High School
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Identification and Evaluation of Sources This investigation will attempt to answer the question: “Did the United States hide Unit 731 Japanese biomedical experimentations after World War II?” To keep the scope of this study manageable, this investigation will focus on the United States’ actions after the discoveries made in China when the war ended and to what extent the U.S. ‘pardoned’ Japanese war crimes for their own benefit in the war efforts. It will look at the atrocities committed at Unit 731 and determine why Japan was pardoned from war crime punishments. This paper will argue that the United States did hide the discovery of the occurrences at Unit 731. For the purpose of this paper, the U.S. hiding Unit 371 will be identified as the American government’s cover-up from the rest of the world, of the inhumane experiments that occurred at the detachment from 1936 until the end of the second world war. The purpose of the source is to open readers’ eyes to the war atrocities committed by Japan during the second World War, by explaining the development of the Unit under Shiro Ishii’s control, as well as giving vivid descriptions from first-hand experiences. Those who spoke up explained the horrors of what they had to do to their subjects at the detachment and the impact it left on them. Hudson wrote this newspaper to shed importance on the discovery of the Unit to the rest of the world after it was covered up by the United States for almost sixty years. This source is relevant to my particular investigation because it gives a clear explanation of what Unit 731 was, including the experiments done on subjects while it emphasizes the actions of Ishii in creating his ‘successful’ experimentation Unit. A limitation of this source is that Mr. Makino, the person being interviewed on his actions in
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the detachment might not be giving the full details of what he did in the experiments and to make it seem like was forced to do the dissections to make himself look better. The origin of this source comes from Katrien Devolder, a “senior research fellow” at the center for “practical ethics” and for “ethics and humanities” at Oxford University. She participated in a project to investigate the “possible complicity of doctors” in “discriminatory practices”. (Dr Katrien Devolder) Devolder is very knowledgeable in her extensive research career related to ethics in humanities apart from those stated prior, having a PhD in philosophy and moral sciences. Devolder’s involvement in investigative research on inhumane medical actions shows her level of expertise in the area of ethical studies. The document covers the topic of this paper, along with the complicity in the United States cover up. This source is valuable because if provides information of Unit 731 as well as an in-depth analysis of whether or not the U.S. was complicit in the cover-up. A limitation is that because this subject was kept hidden for so long, there might be a lack of sources to fully understand the occurrences at the detachment.
Investigation To determine whether or not the United States hid Unit 731 Japanese biomedical experimentations after WWII, it is important to understand the severity of the Japanese Imperial Army’s questionable actions in China during the war and to what extent the United States was complicit in the cover up. This paper will argue that the United States did hide the occurrences of the
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human medical and biological testing that took place from 1936 until the end of WWII. Japanese run Unit 731, located in Harbin China, was a “biological warfare unit” directed by the Japanese army medical general and microbiologist Shiro Ishii, backed by emperor Hirohito, to achieve his goal to create bioweapons that would help Japan’s invasion of Southeast China during WWII (Hudson, 2). The Japanese signed the Geneva Protocol in 1929 but did not go on to ratify it. When the Protocol banned biological weapons internationally, Ishii established how powerful the use of those weapons could be, to benefit Japan in the war (Hudson, 2). The experiments conducted on human subjects consisted of “biological, bacteriological and chemical weapons tests” like frostbite testing, forced pregnancies, live vivisections and many more unimaginably inhumane trials (Unit 731 experiments to haunt Japan). From what was discovered from the experiments performed at the detachment, the Japanese executed field tests for “disease-spreading weapons” on their enemies as well as civilian inhabitants. Biological weapons were so dangerous, and the Japanese’s discoveries from the experiments resulted in more deaths outside of the unit itself because of the “plagueinfected fleas and cholera bacilli” carried out in China (Brody et al, 3). The Japanese negotiated to avoid being charged with war crimes when the United States started looking into the occurrences at Unit 731, which resulted in a plan where the US paid “250,000 yen and immunity for prosecution of war crimes” (Devolder, 41). The U.S. biological warfare unit sent a total of three investigators to Japan, to conduct an inquiry of what had
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happened behind closed doors during the war. The first researcher, Lt. Col. Murray Sanders went from September to October of 1945, where the Japanese denied any accusations of human testing, as they had “engaged solely in defensive research”. This left the US without any conclusions, and they later sent Lt. Col. Arvo T. Thompson, in the spring of 1947, who ended up with the same outcome as Sanders “convinced that the truth was being withheld.” Only Dr. Norbert H. Fellwere, the last of the investigators to go, was able to obtain the information the Japanese were withholding. Ishii along with his group requested the investigation was from an explicit “scientific standpoint” where they would only reveal their information for scientific use. In return Japan’s actions would not be considered a war crime (Brody et al, 45). The commander for Allied Powers, General Douglas MacArthur, took part in approving the deal when the United States granted complete immunity for Dr. Shiro Ishii in exchange for their biological experiments results (The butchers of unit 731). Ishii even advised the United States, on the use of biological warfare. This emphasizes the worth of the results from the detachment that led to experiments the efforts the U.S. undertook to obtain those results, as well as those that Japan made to escape any accusations (Raymond, 182). The United States accepted the terms, with promised immunity for Japan and a money settlement for the results acquired from tests, which reveals their involvement in the cover up of Unit 731. Not only did they grant Japan’s wishes in exchange for results, but the U.S. also helped Japan in other ways. The Tokyo War Crimes Tribunal, from 1946-1948, was shaped after the Nuremburg trials that touched upon different “conventional war crimes”
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(Futamura, 472). At the trials, the United States held back information when it was determined that “Japanese medical doctors had conducted cruel medical experiments” the United States publicly disregarded the findings as “communist propaganda” (Devolder, 42). To tie in with Japan’s plan set to keep their experimentations quiet, the U.S. had ongoing testing at Fort Detrick located in Maryland, where the mentioned investigators were sent from. If the United States condemned the Japanese’s actions as war crimes, the government could expose themselves which would risk “compromising its own [biological warfare] research” (Devolder, 42). The U.S. acceptance of the plan proposed by Japan to avoid being charged with war crimes allowed for those directly involved in the unit to continue on to their normal everyday lives. The researchers at the facility were granted complete immunity, were never charged with any form of war violations. After performing gruesome medical trials, some went on to receive high positions at prestigious establishments, while some went to the private sector to make large profits. This further establishes how the United States did hide the Unit 731 experiments as the Japanese received no public backlash where those involved with Ishii continued in normal life in their high standing societal status (Devolder, 41). At the time of the ongoing investigations after the end of the war in 1947, the Soviet Union was allied with the United States, but tensions began emerging with the Cold War nearing. The soviets asked to partake in Japanese interrogations on the experimentations, as they were also
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researching biological warfare. This created a small rivalry between the two powers to acquire the data results (Guo, 109). This gave the United States more reason to hide the results to use such knowledge to their advantage. The Soviet Union held the Khabarovsk Trial in 1949 where they tried twelve workers from Unit 731 with war crimes. The United States dissolved the accusations by saying it was communist propaganda to cover-up the Japanese’s actions in Unit 731 during WWII (Brody et al, 8). Some historians like Howard Brody and Karen Freeman might argue that the United States’ decision to accept Japan’s plan for immunity could have been slightly racially motivated. The victims used for testing at the detachment were “primarily Chinese prisoners of war and civilians” which explains why the United States would not care to hide the atrocities (Brody et al, 2). Although there were some detained Soviets, “displaced Russians, many of whom were Jewish…Mongolians, Koreans and Europeans” as well as people with disabilities, none if not very few Allied prisoners of war were captured and experimented on. The United States might have treated the situation differently had any of their own people, or their allied powers had been more affected. The fact that the US did not pursue justice for those lost in the medical atrocities shows how they did not care about those who experienced them, as long as it did not affect the US directly (Freeman, 64). It could also be argued that the United States did not hide the occurrences at Unit 731 as the Tokyo Tribunal was held in 1946, regarding the atrocities committed during the war. In the tribunal, “the judgment was rendered to 25 defendants” that participated in different war crimes during
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WWII. All of them were convicted where seven were condemned to their deaths “16 to life… one to 20 years’… and one to seven year’s imprisonment” (Futamura, 473). This establishes that the Japanese were confronted with consequences for their actions in the war, but US still accepted Japan’s immunity plan either way, as well as the aforementioned disregard to the findings against the Japanese during the trials calling it “communist propaganda” to protect Japan (Devolder, 42). With the evidence presented one can determine the United States was complicit in hiding the Unit 731 Japanese biomedical experiments. The U.S. used the results to their benefit without considering the ethical values being compromised. Those involved directly with the detachment received little or no punishment even after the cruelty subjects were treated with. When the United States was proposed with the exchange plan by the Japanese, they decided to accept the proposal. Along with other factors, this made the United States completely complicit in the participation of covering up the occurrences from the rest of the world allowing them to gain important medical advancements leaving the Japanese without consequences.
Reflection After the investigation of the United States cover-up of the Unit 731 experiments, it can be determined that history is subjective. Japan's atrocities committed during the war were kept hidden for so long that they are now a recent topic of interest. Historical knowledge can be acquired through how
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oneself interprets an area of research where two arguments can be supported, unlike the studies of mathematics and sciences. Much of this paper touches upon the complicated topic of ethics. Many questions can be asked to consider the extent of what is considered morally correct or wrong. It is difficult for ethical boundaries to be clarified seeing as how the government system in a position of power the ability has to cover up such wrongdoings deeming their actions ethical. For this investigation, the atrocities at Unit 731 can be considered unethical by most opinions, but those involved with the unit recognized only a slight extent of cruelty as they believed it was necessary for the Japanese war effort. The U.S. like Japan, although they did not commit the war crimes, could also be questioned in the scope of ethics. Without these experiments, many valuable medical and biological discoveries would not exist. Even though many lives were lost, many scientific advancements were made. This creates a moral conflict because these developments only came about as a result of such atrocities. This is the difficulty that comes when determining the common understanding of what is and is not ethical, as well as the problems that arise when investigating a moment in history that questions morality. A challenge a researcher may encounter when investigating this topic is finding enough firsthand detailed results since the Japanese got rid of much data results from experiments. It may also be difficult because when the United States covered up the situation with Japan it became a top secret only certain government officials knew about, which might make it difficult to access. If historians researching this topic decide to conduct interviews, it can
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be difficult for those involved to give explicit information on the occurrences or admit any of the atrocities they committed. It is impossible to get any firsthand explanations from the victims of Unit 731, as there are no survivors. Subjects died as a result of experiments or killed when they weren’t valuable to Ishii’s investigation. When the United States found out about the Unit, Ishii ordered for the remaining subjects to be killed. Along with the lack of firsthand sources, because it is such a sensitive topic, it can be challenging for a historian to find unbiased opinions to research.
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References Brody, Howard, et al. “U.S. Responses to Japanese Wartime Inhuman Experimentation after World War II.” Cambridge Quarterly of Healthcare Ethics : CQ : the International Journal of Healthcare Ethics Committees, U.S. National Library of Medicine, Apr. 2014, https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4487829/. Devolder, Katrien. “U.S. Complicity and Japan’s Wartime Medical Atrocoties: Time for a Response.” American Journal of Bioethics, vol. 15, no.6, June 2015, pp. 40-49. EBSCOhost, doi:10.1080/15265161.2015.1028659. “Dr Katrien Devolder.” The Oxford Uehiro Centre for Practical Ethics, https://www.practicalethics.ox.ac.uk/people/dr-katrien-devolder#/. Freeman, Karen. "Bioweapons Horrors -- Factories of Death: Japanese Biological Warfare 1932-45 and the American Cover Up by Sheldon H. Harris." Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, vol. 51, no. 1, 1995, pp. 63. ProQuest, http://libproxy.lib.unc.edu/login?url=https:// www.proquest.com/scholarly-journals/bioweapons-horrors-factoriesdeath-japanese/docview/197819675/se-2?accountid=14244. FUTAMURA, MADOKA. "Individual and Collective Guilt: Post-War Japan and the Tokyo War Crimes Tribunal." European Review, vol. 14, no. 4, 2006, pp. 471-483. ProQuest, http://libproxy.lib.unc.edu/login?url=https:// www.proquest.com/scholarly-journals/individual-collective-guilt-postwar-japan-tokyo/docview/217334191/se-2?accountid=14244, doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S1062798706000494
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Hudson, Christopher. “DOCTORS OF DEPRAVITY ; Even by Japan's Standards of Wartime Cruelty, Unit 731 Plumbed Horrifying Depths - Turning Their Prisoners into Human Guinea Pigs for Unspeakable Medical Experiments. Only Now, after a Cynical American Cover-up, Is the Truth Emerging...” Daily Mail, 3 Mar. 2007, pp. 1–54. ProQuest Lamont-Brown, Raymond. "JAPAN'S DOCTORS OF DEATH." Contemporary Review, vol. 285, no. 1664, 09, 2004, pp. 182-183. ProQuest, http://libproxy.lib.unc.edu/login?url=https://www.proquest.com/magazi nes/japans-doctors-death/docview/204951165/se-2?accountid=14244. Nie, Jing-Bao, Nanyan Guo and Till Bärnighausen. “Part II Guilt and Responsibility .” Japan's Wartime Medical Atrocities Comparative Inquiries in Science, History, and Ethics, Routledge, London, 2011. "The Butchers of Unit 731: Peter McGill Reports Oh Japanese Prison Camp Experiments and Siow the US Government Arranged a Cover-Up." The Times of India (1861-2010), Aug 25, 1985, pp. 1. ProQuest, "Unit 731 Experiments to Haunt Japan." The New Indian Express, Feb 17, 2010. ProQuest, http://libproxy.lib.unc.edu/login?url=https:// www.proquest.com/newspapers/unit-731-experiments-hauntjapan/docview/237611976/se-2?accountid=14244. "Veteran Defends Work of Infamous Unit 731." Japan Times, Jun, 1999, pp. 5. ProQuest, http://libproxy.lib.unc.edu/login?url=https:// www.proquest.com/newspapers/veteran-defends-work-infamous-unit731/docview/218967192/se-2?accountid=14244.
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Zhu, Lia. "Film Explores Unit 731 and its Dark Wartime Past." China Daily, Dec 17, 2018, pp. 2. ProQuest, http://libproxy.lib.unc.edu/login?url=https:// www.proquest.com/newspapers/film-explores-unit-731-dark-wartimepast/docview/2157634839/se-2?accountid=14244. "The Butchers of Unit 731: Peter McGill Reports Oh Japanese Prison Camp Experiments and Siow the US Government Arranged a Cover-Up." The Times of India (1861-2010), Aug 25, 1985, pp. 1. ProQuest, http://libproxy.lib.unc.edu/login?url=https://www.proquest.com/historical -newspapers/butchers-unit-731/docview/751278955/se2?accountid=14244.
STUDENTRESEARCH JOURNA
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The Impact of Racial Discrimination on the Medical Care of Economically Disadvantaged Black Americans Aanyah Abdullah Westwood High School
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Introduction Throughout American history, Black individuals have borne the primary brunt of racial injustice at the hands of bias––both conscious and subconscious––causing individuals to alter how they interact with others. Racial bias impacts how an individual may be regarded, interacted with, or treated, posing challenges for people of color in healthcare settings. In particular, Black Americans are more likely to suffer from preventable diseases, negative physician interactions, and substandard health practices than individuals of other races. Despite the explicit outlaw of discrimination based on race as expressed in Title VI of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, racial injustices continue to prevail, though not necessarily through “traditional” forms such as the denial of healthcare on a racial basis, but through devious and less obvious manners such as presumptive diagnoses, differences in treatment, and ignorance of symptoms (modified actions stemming from racial biases). This paper seeks to study the following question: How does racial discrimination contribute to the inferior quality of medical care received by economically disadvantaged Black Americans?
History & Background Discriminatory practices have existed in medicine since its inception but haven’t gained as much attention and recognition until recently. It is well known that in many parts of the country, individuals live in racially segregated neighborhoods (whether intentionally or not) as a result of past and present injustices that were authorized by laws. Early signs of
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discrimination within healthcare have long existed, as evidenced by the “Tuskegee Study of Untreated Syphilis in the Negro Male,” conducted between 1932 and 1972, confirming the deception perpetrated upon 600 unsuspecting African American male participants from Macon County, Alabama. The United States Public Health Service consciously decided not to treat these men, who were afflicted with syphilis so that they could study the natural effects of untreated latent illness. The men were kept in the dark and did not receive any therapy even when penicillin was discovered in the early 1950s as a safe and accepted course of treatment for syphilis. The study used several methods such as spinal taps, x-rays, blood tests, and autopsies to research the progression of syphilis in those subjects. By the time the Department of Health, Education and Welfare halted the heinous study in 1972, at least 28––and by some accounts––more than 100 African American men had died directly as a result of advanced syphilitic lesions (McVean, 2019). The case of Fisk University Dean of Women Juliette Derricotte, 34, is another example of the discrimination within medicine that has adversely impacted Black Americans. In Atlanta, in 1931 while driving three students, her vehicle overturned and fell into a ditch after being struck by a truck. The offending driver, who was White, yelled at Derricotte for the damages caused to his car and fled the scene. Critically injured, Derricotte and her passengers were left to the devices of the bystanders at the scene. When they attempted to secure aid for the injured at the nearby Hamilton Memorial Hospital in Dalton, the four were denied care as it was a segregated
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facility. Instead, they were given quick and immediate care and then left at a dirty and unkempt facility for injured Black people to recuperate. The two passengers, including Derricotte, required more intensive care, and eventually, arrangements were made to transport them to a medical facility 35 miles away. However, this delay proved lethal and Derricotte died on her way to the hospital while the other passenger died the next day. Despite their life-threatening injuries, no exceptions were made to attend to their well-being, exhibiting the dehumanization with which Black individuals were treated (Equal Justice Initiative, 1931). A strikingly grave health difference can be thought to concur with discrepancies such as lower subspecialty referrals, less aggressive therapy, stereotyping bias, and uncertainty on the part of healthcare providers that stem from the effects of racial bias and inequalities. Failure to address the disproportionate level of health disparities in people of color as a result of limited access to adequate healthcare resources limits preventative care measures, resulting in consequences such as contracting preventable diseases and premature death.
Susceptibility Factors Many elements exist that put African Americans in a position of increased disadvantage in terms of the quality of their health and the standard of medical care they receive. There are significant challenges in the struggle of groups of individuals to attain a “complete state of health” and these are said to be attributed to social and economic determinants as
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opposed to biological ones. Racism synthesizes an environment in which disease-promoting conditions and health barriers are of increased prominence in communities of color like those of racially segregated neighborhoods. It has been found that adverse environmental, social, and economic conditions experienced prematurely in life can impact one’s social, psychological, and biological conditions later in life (Jackson 1989). Thus, one’s home environment possesses a significant impact on one's quality of health. Of all ethnic minorities, Black Americans remain the most residentially segregated. To be residentially distributed in the same way as White individuals, 65 percent of Black Americans would need to relocate to other neighborhoods (U.S. Census Bureau 2008). Residential segregation as a result of socioeconomic status disproportionately impacts ethnic minorities and increases their susceptibility to exposure to negative health factors. For example, when compared with White individuals, it has been found that Black individuals are 52 percent more likely to live in census block groups with heat riskrelated land cover conditions and little green space, placing residents at greater risk for heat-related deaths and illnesses. This outcome results from racist origins like neighborhood redlining, where urban planners drew lines around Black neighborhoods on maps, and consequently, many of these areas lack vital infrastructure like parks and tree covers to encourage cooling. In three metropolitan areas with the highest heat disparities, it was found that redlined neighborhoods were 12 degrees warmer than the rest of the city (Sullivan, 2020).
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Additionally, the profound socioeconomic gap that exists between White and Black Americans only serves to bolster the issues that predispose ethnic minorities to medical discrimination. Little has changed since 1968 when the Fair Housing Act was passed with other civil rights legislation and now. In 1968, a typical middle-class Black household had $6,674 in wealth while the typical middle-class White household had $70,786 (adjusted for inflation). In 2016, the typical middle-class Black household had $13,024 in wealth as compared to $149,703 in a typical middle-class White household, an even greater disparity in terms of percentage. From this, it is evident that little has been done to reduce the barriers that result in such stark inequalities, and consequently, Black Americans are left to endure conditions that leave them more vulnerable to substandard health outcomes (Long & van Dam, 2020). Historically, discriminatory legislation has impacted the quality and availability of community resources such as healthcare facilities and access to qualified medical personnel for Black communities. Those who live in upper-class homes in more developed areas within well- maintained neighborhoods are more likely to have greater access to quality healthcare and medical facilities and are less likely to be subject to environmental factors that could further impact one’s health. Comparatively, those in areas of concentrated poverty may lack sufficient medical facilities and likely struggle to cover the hefty costs of healthcare and are presumably at an increased risk of exposure to harmful environments, resulting in those residing in such areas suffering greater health consequences.
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An additional factor that is crucial in allowing access to healthcare is medical insurance coverage. Medical and health-related costs are not covered by the American government and typically yield hefty fees for minimal procedures, often leaving families indebted. People of color have historically been at an increased risk of being uninsured compared with their White counterparts. When increased healthcare disparities correlate with individuals of color in addition to their uninsured population rate, this becomes a cause for concern as those who are at greater risk for negative health outcomes lack the level of financial security needed to finance their medical expenses. Many individuals remain uninsured due to eligibility restrictions, unemployment (resulting in lack of insurance provider), and an overall lack of outreach which prevents deserving individuals from possessing the knowledge of programs that could serve to benefit them (Artiga et al., 2021). Uninsured individuals are thus less likely to pursue medical care when needed and suffer from health issues at a greater magnitude. In many cases, Black patients may feel more uneasy around a White doctor and the White doctor may feel under-equipped to serve a minority patient. Evidence suggests that when the physician and patient are of a shared racial background, “this improves time spent together, medication adherence, shared decision-making, wait times for treatment, cholesterol screening, patient understanding of cancer risk, and patient perceptions of treatment decisions.” (Huerto, 2020). A study conducted by Stanford University found that Black men seen by Black physicians were more inclined to engage with them and take part
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in preventive services, and additionally discovered that Black physicians were more likely to take detailed notes about their patients. It was determined that employing this approach could potentially reduce the Black- White mortality gap resulting from preventable heart disease by as much as 19 percent. Even the mortality rate of Black newborns is cut in half when treated by Black pediatricians, neonatologists, and family practitioners (Russell, 2021). As a result, when measures like ethnic concordance can be achieved, they can assist in increasing the comfort of ethnic minorities within the healthcare system and help to improve medical outcomes and treatment initiatives. Furthermore, combating the effects of racism is never identified as a preventative strategy even in circumstances where preventative care and health promotion are emphasized publically, making it increasingly difficult to address negative health outcomes as a result of prejudiced beliefs and actions.
Community Barriers Evidence from research suggests that in medical settings, economically disadvantaged Black Americans are more likely to be subjected to racial discrimination than their counterparts of higher socioeconomic status. Individuals of lower socioeconomic status don’t enjoy the plentiful and modernized community resources available at the level they are to higher-class neighborhoods. Flawed systemic structures contribute to deepening health disparities among ethnic minorities. The
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elements that influence the levels of discrimination within a community and reflect social inequality can be categorized into macro and micro-level factors of impact. Health disparities as a result of these factors have a casual relationship with a socially defined race including education, culture, beliefs, community-level poverty, socioeconomic gradient, and discrimination. Macro-level factors consist largely of community and societal factors such as residing in areas of concentrated poverty resulting from racially segregated neighborhoods that can limit the supply of healthcare providers and thus affect the access of quality healthcare among minority populations. Minor-level factors comprise the individual elements contributing to disparities, including education, culture, beliefs, diet, tobacco and alcohol use, medical mistrust, and genetic pathways (Warnecke et al. 2008). For example, an individual's development of their diet can be impacted by the norms of their community. In areas where constraints such as compromised neighborhood safety (such as those with highly pronounced crime rates) and poor physical environments (insufficient access to parks, trails, exercise facilities) exist, one may find it difficult to take the necessary measures to ensure their good health, and thus, fall victim to unhealthy habits. These issues more significantly affect neighborhoods of ethnic minorities where such factors are often a reality. Black individuals are historically more likely to reside in areas of concentrated poverty, Dolores Acevedo-Garci (2008) found that while the neighborhood poverty rate for impoverished White children in 2000 was 13.6 percent, the rate was 29.2 for
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impoverished Black children, a nearly doubled rate. In predominantly Black neighborhoods, access and supply of medical facilities and healthcare providers are more restricted. This limited availability to sufficient care inconveniently coincides with poor housing quality, community resources, and public funding. As such, it is difficult to achieve a high standard of health, consequently resulting in greater medical issues among raciallysegregated neighborhoods. Health disparities only multiply when adequate healthcare is lacking, further contributing to the increased health-related issues in ethnic minorities. Negative health outcomes in Black American communities were only exacerbated by the impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic. Black Americans suffered disproportionate death rates that many attributed to the numerous other comorbidities they suffer from as a result of structural inequalities. Data from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention as of April 15, 2020, reported that in race-specified COVID-19 cases, Black Americans who comprised 13 percent of the total United States population made up 30 percent of COVID-19 cases. Failure to address the disproportionate level of health disparities in people of color as a result of limited access to adequate healthcare resources limits preventative care measures, resulting in premature deaths. Such inequalities can be demonstrated through numerous studies which exemplify the increased deaths suffered by minorities for preventable diseases as compared to White individuals due to the discrepancy in the level of care provided.
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Biased Patient-Physician Interactions Medical racism is thought to have originated in the prejudiced beliefs held about a group that is consistently passed down through generations. For as early as colonial times, race has been viewed as a biological category ethnically according to health outcomes. Though no distinct genetic differences actually exist that separate individuals of varying races from one another, socially-constructed racial superiority remains blatantly present and prominent in the field of medicine and impacts treatment and research surrounding ethnic minorities. People of color are frequently viewed at an inferior level in comparison to their White counterparts while Caucasian Americans are conversely held to the prime standard when discussing matters of health. This viewpoint subsequently impacts how healthcare is administered. One of the most notable examples of such practices includes the discovery that Black individuals are less likely to receive pain medications, and if they are even administered, the dosages are significantly smaller than appropriate. (Anderson, Green, & Payne, 2009; Bonham, 2001; Hampton, Cavalier, & Langford, 2015). Such outcomes can be, in part, attributed to racial bias. Research indicates that medical personnel view Black individuals as having a greater likelihood to abuse pain medications and possessing a greater pain tolerance as opposed to Caucasian individuals. Ignorant perceptions like these are what likely make physicians reluctant to prescribe pain medications to Black individuals at the expense of their well-being.
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A study conducted amongst sports medicine staff investigated their actions when evaluating the perceived level of pain, likelihood to overreport pain, and likelihood to abuse substances of “patients” who had torn their anterior cruciate ligaments and were given stereotypically common race names. A relationship was established between the sports medical staff stating that the patient with the Black sounding name experienced a lesser level of pain, compared with those with White sounding names, on a scale of 1-4 for the same injury, implying the racial bias that Black individuals experienced a lesser level of pain. Participants in the study were also asked to evaluate the socioeconomic status of the “patient” based on the situational details provided to them from which it was determined that Black individuals were thought to experience lower pain levels if they were also thought to be from a lower socioeconomic background. The notion that Black individuals are more likely to abuse substances or experience pain at a decreased level reinforces the false racial perceptions that their background is such that would make them more likely to engage in harmful behaviors like a drug overdose. Another notable example includes a study conducted by van Ryn and Burke (2000), demonstrating physicians’ beliefs that Black individuals are less likely to comply with treatments and are at a greater susceptibility for engaging in behaviors destructive to their health. In holding such beliefs, it was determined that they may be less likely to recommend treatments to Black patients or take the time to distinguish the nature of their health complications. As long as these stereotypical notions are maintained, the
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nature of the interactions between a physician and a Black patient will be compromised and even lead to the patient responding in a stereotypeconforming manner (Sibicky and Dovidio 1986). Infant and mother mortality rates are one of the most alarming health disparities that Black women and children experience. The World Health Organization estimates that expectant and new Black American mothers die at approximately the same rate as women in countries like Mexico and Uzbekistan, and further, the maternal mortality rate for African American women is 37.1 percent per 100,000 live births, a shocking difference when compared with other ethnic minorities and White individuals.
After a difficult pregnancy journey that was coupled with many health complications, it was indicated that 36-year-old Dr. Shalon Irving––an epidemiologist at the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention––required follow-up care to ensure her symptoms remained under control. Following a
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postpartum preeclampsia screening that came back negative, Dr. Irving was sent home without treatment. A few days later, she was back in her physician’s office, feeling unwell and exhibiting dramatic swelling in her right leg. She was prescribed medication for hypertension and again sent on her way. That night, Dr. Irving suffered cardiac arrest in her home and was taken off life support a week later. An independent autopsy revealed she had died due to complications related to high blood pressure (Cruickshank, 2019). If Dr. Irving’s complaints had been considered more seriously, her death may have been prevented. She was educated, financially well-off, had sound medical insurance, and was securely employed. Despite that she fell victim to medical discrimination. A fundamental difference in the way Black and White Americans are treated is what is thought to have accounted for Irving’s death along with many other Black mothers (Martin & Montagne, 2017). A striking disparity in healthcare can also be exemplified by the higher infant mortality rates seen in Black babies (10.8 percent in 2018). The leading causes of death in these demographics are attributed to low birthweight and congenital malformations (Infant Mortality and African Americans - The Office of Minority Health).
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Black Americans additionally suffer from breast and other forms of cancers at heightened rates. The mortality rate for Black American women is 50 percent higher than it is for White women. This striking divide can be attributed in part to discrepancies in screening and treatment options. Where cancer screenings are more widely available and economically priced, individuals are more likely to take advantage of the service, and consequently benefit from preventative care measures when necessary. Low-income women are 20 percent less likely to be screened for breast cancer compared with high-income women, a further indicator of the disparities that can arise from unequal primary care procedures.
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Continuing to operate with these impressions in mind serves to bolster negative and/or untrue attitudes towards Black Americans and thereby influences the quality of healthcare they receive as the actions of the caretaker become modified in efforts to conform to these stereotypes. In this way, Black patients become subject to scrutiny and prejudice at the hands of those employed to provide medical attention to them. Altering medical practices to conform to racial-based beliefs violates the primary tenet of HIPAA laws, “do no harm” which physicians are expected to adhere to. Their administration of healthcare is additionally compromised through manners such as improper diagnosis, drug dosages, administration of procedures, or failure to follow medical protocol. Altered patient interactions as a result of racial bias aren’t
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formally categorized as “racism” nor are clearly manifested, making it increasingly difficult to catch and address, and thus reinforces the racial hierarchy, presenting White individuals as superior to others. When one racial class is regarded as “inferior” in regards to others, the differences in the administration of medicine along with interactions between the patient and physician become jeopardized and negatively impact health outcomes. As a result of this implicit mental bias, Black and Brown individuals have been found to receive a lower quality of care than non-Latinx Whites on an estimated 40 percent of quality measures. It was noted in The Oxford Handbook of Race and Law in the United States that “[B]lack patients with heart disease received older, cheaper, and more conservative treatments than their White counterparts. Black patients were less likely to receive coronary bypass operations and angiography. After surgery, they are discharged earlier from the hospital than White patients—at a stage when discharge is inappropriate.” (Paul-Emile, 2020). Some researchers attempt to explain the healthcare disparities suffered by ethnic minorities through patient refusal, suspecting that Black Americans may be more likely to refuse invasive treatments. Schecter et al. (1996) found that compared to White patients, Black patients were more likely to reject physician recommendations to undergo cardiac catheterization due to factors that could not be explained by racial discordance (NCBI - Assessing Potential Sources of Racial and Ethnic Disparities in Care: Patient- and System-Level Factors, 2003). Discrimination in this form is not easily recognized, especially when it is
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justified under medical necessity and failure. Thus, medical racism continues to exist in indistinct forms while its consequences persistently amass.
The Path Forward In recent years with COVID-19’s disproportionate toll on Black Americans, the murder of George Floyd, and the popularity of the Black Lives Matter movement, there has been a greater momentum toward addressing structural and interpersonal racism at all levels. Diversity, equity, and inclusion initiatives have become part of many major institutions’ workforce strategies, including healthcare. Organizations such as the American Heart Association have pledged to look internally at their own procedures and protocols to curb inequities in providing quality cardiovascular care based on race (Churchwell et al., 2020). For the first time, racism was declared a public health crisis by three states and 20 cities and counties in 2020, and legal steps are being taken both near and far, in city councils and state legislatures, to finally lay the issue out in the open (Krieger, 2020). Whether this talk and outcry will ultimately translate into meaningful changes and passage of stricter laws addressing racism in healthcare for Black Americans remains to be seen. As the voices get louder, we need to consider that the momentum also will depend on the sustained attention span of the social movements and mainstream media promoting the cause. Until viable and meaningful solutions can be realized, history and data tell us that Black Americans have a right to worry that they
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may receive mediocre or substandard treatment––especially if they are economically disadvantaged––when accessing healthcare at all levels.
Conclusion Racial discrimination manifests itself in medicine through biased perceptions held by medical personnel that impacts how care is administered, community and structural barriers that impede the availability and quantity of quality healthcare services, and stereotyping of patients of color. The perpetual reinforcement of racial discrimination in the medical field over time has limited the implementation of measures to reduce inequalities and health disparities observed in Black American populations. Evidence surrounding racial biases held by medical professionals as presented in this paper confirms the poorer treatment of Black patients and their subsequent negative health outcomes. The permeance of implicit mental bias into the interactions and care delivered to Black patients via their physicians reinforces the importance of recognizing such stereotypes and eliminating them. Change will require understanding the issue from the context of both history and the present situation, the reevaluation of federal, state, local, and institutional policies governing equitable care, and laws and training to combat the issue of racism in medicine. While we have reached the point of somewhat understanding the prevalence of the issue, it will be some time before we see any substantial changes rectifying the poor quality of medical care received by Black Americans. For now, this is where we stand.
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References Artiga, S., Hill, L., & Orgera, K. (2021, July 16). Health Coverage by Race and Ethnicity, 2010–2019. KFF. https://www.kff.org/racial-equity-andhealth-policy/issue-brief/health- coverage-by-race-and-ethnicity/ Braddock, C. (2020, December 8). Racism and Bioethics: The Myth of Color Blindness. Taylor & Francis. https://www.tandfonline.com/ doi/abs/10.1080/ 15265161.2020.1851812 scroll=top&need Access=true&journalCode=uajb20 Infant Mortality | Maternal and Infant Health | Reproductive Health | CDC. Center for Disease Control and Prevention. https:// www.cdc.gov/reproductivehealth/maternalinfanthealth/ infantmortality.htm Cerdeña, J. P. (2021). Race-Conscious Bioethics: The Call to Reject Contemporary Scientific Racism. The American Journal of Bioethics, 21(2), 48–53. https://doi.org/10.1080/15265161.2020.1861383 Churchwell, K., Elkind, M. S., Benjamin, R. M., Carson, A. P., Chang, E. K., Lawrence, W., Mills, A., Odom, T. M., Rodriguez, C. J., Rodriguez, F.Sanchez E., Sharrief, A. Z., Sims, M., & Williams, O. (2020). Call to Action: Structural Racism as a Fundamental Driver of Health Disparities: A Presidential Advisory From the American Heart Association. Circulation, 142(24). https://doi.org/10.1161/ cir.0000000000000936
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Cruickshank, S. (2019, February 26). The death of a young black mother brings attention to the issue of racial health disparities. The Hub. https://hub.jhu.edu/2019/02/26/shalon-irving-marternal-mortalitysymposium/ Huerto, R. (2020, March 31). Minority Patients Benefit From Having Minority Doctors, But That’s a Hard Match to Make. University of Michigan. https://labblog.uofmhealth.org/rounds/minority-patientsbenefit-from-having-minority-doctors-but-thats-a-hard-match-tomake-0 Infant Mortality and African Americans - The Office of Minority Health. (n.d.). US Department of Health and Human Services Office of Minority Health. https://minorityhealth.hhs.gov/omh/browse.aspx? lvl=4&lvlid=23 Krieger, N. (2020, October 7). ENOUGH: COVID-19, Structural Racism, Police Brutality, Plutocracy, Climate Change—and Time for Health Justice, Democratic Governance, and an Equitable, Sustainable Future. American Journal of Public Health. https:// ajph.aphapublications.org/action/cookieAbsent Long, H., & van Dam, A. (2020, June 4). The black-white economic divide is as wide as it was in 1968. Washington Post. https:// www.washingtonpost.com/business/2020/06/04/economic-divideblack-households/
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(1931, November 7). Nov. 7, 1931 | Two Black Women Die After Segregated Georgia Hospital Refuses Care. Equal Justice Initiative. https://calendar.eji.org/racial-injustice/nov/7 Martin, N., & Montagne, R. (2017, December 7). NPR Cookie Consent and Choices. NPR. https://choice.npr.org/index.htmloigin=https:// www.npr.org/2017/12/07/568948782/ blackmothers-keep-dyingafter-giving-birth-shalon-irvings-story-explains-why McVean, A. (2019, January 25). 40 Years of Human Experimentation in America: The Tuskegee Study. Office for Science and Society. https:// www.mcgill.ca/oss/article/history/40-years-human-experimentationamerica- tuskegee-study NCBI - Assessing Potential Sources of Racial and Ethnic Disparities in Care: Patient- and System-Level Factors. (2003). National Center for Biotechnology Information. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/ books/NBK220359/ Paul-Emile, K. (2020, November 11). Race and Health Law. Fordham Law. https://digital.law.fordham.edu/facultyspotlight-2020/race-and-health-law/ Russell, T. (2021, January 13). Mortality rate for Black babies is cut dramatically when Black doctors care for them after birth, researchers say. Washington Post. https://www.Washington post.com/health/black-baby-death-rate-cut-by-black-
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doctors/2021/01/08/e9f0f850-238a-11eb-952e0c475972cfc0_story.html Sullivan, K. (2020, October 8). Black, Latino, and Indigenous Communities Hit Hardest by Heat Waves. EverydayHealth.Com. https://www .everydayhealth.com/healthy-living/black-latinx-and-indigenouscommunities-hit-hardest-by-heat-waves/
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An Analysis of Gender Roles and Expectations in the United States Mercy Austin Pikes Peak Community College
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Abstract Historically and culturally, the forces of masculinity and femininity have played a significant role in the development of relationships, social life, and personal identity in the United States. My research demonstrates that Americans tend to view gender as an important part of who a person is, and that it is often used to determine perceptions of individuals in professional, domestic, and social life. People are expected to conform to certain norms regarding their gender, and individuals who fall too far outside of this can feel isolated and stigmatized. This paper will summarize discussions with forty survey participants and six interviewees and provide a comprehensive analysis of these gender expectations and the associated consequences to mental and social health. Key Words: Masculinity, Femininity, Gender roles, Discrimination, Stereotypes
Review of Literature This section will address previous findings on gender and describe prior works that lay the backdrop for my own research. While masculinity and femininity take on different meanings across every political and social environment, these terms will be utilized according to the Hoffman Gender Scale, with masculinity representing “traditional characteristics of or pertaining to men and boys, such as assertion, competence and ambition”, and femininity as “traditional characteristics of or pertaining to women and girls, such as nurture, tenderness, and motherhood” (Hoffman et al. 67).
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For simplicity’s sake, I’ve used terms like ‘male/female’, ‘men/women’, etc. in reference to the way people are perceived and treated by the public. It’s worth noting that not everyone who experiences ‘male’ gender roles or ‘female’ gender roles necessarily identifies within those categories.
Masculine Gender Roles From childhood, research shows that boys are fed a narrative of dominance and power, demonstrated by the toys they play with (Murnen et al. 78), the television they consume (Buckingham 6), and the video games they engage in (Zibane et al. 15571). Media geared at young boys has been found to be primarily action-based and violent, dominated by weaponized action sequences, scary Halloween costumes, and video games set in the context of a war or conquest. Popular men’s rights activist Warren Farrell concluded in his book The Boy Crisis, “[A boy]’s masks, capes, and weapons send the subliminal message that being a man is associated with power. He learns to be ashamed of his feelings, and therefore of his nature” (Farrell 238). As early as two years old, children are able to label their gender and identify common gender distinctions (Bussey et al. 678). Because children tend to model their behavior after their environment, external surroundings that promote certain gender expectations are formational to the development of masculinity in young boys and men. Pop culture typically depicts strong and ‘badass’ characters of either gender as more masculine than those around them (Murnen et al.79, Krahé et al. 101). Portrayal of these characters emphasizes stamina, dominance, aggressiveness, and a rejection of work or activities they label ‘feminine’
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(Glick et al. 55; Rippon 14). While certainly progress from prior works that depicted men as the only heroes and women as helpless side characters, modern depictions fail to break free of the idea that masculinity equivocates to strength and femininity equivocates to weakness. By removing femininity from depictions of heroism, it sends the message that in order to be a strong person, a child must reject the traits which make them ‘weak’ in order to fit the mold of a traditional hero. Moreover, studies show that many movies and shows aimed at children depict villains as being effeminate or homoerotic (Towbin et al. 28, Patterson et al. 72, Putnam 148). According to Amanda Putnam in a study on gender representation in Disney movies, “in contrast to the heterosexist leads, male villains are given overt and even garish feminine traits, some bordering on implicit homosexual characterization. The Lion King’s Scar, Aladdin’s Jafar, and Pocahontas’ Ratcliff are all examples of transgendered villains” (148). Coupled with the exaggerated machinations villains in children’s movies are known for, the correspondence between femininity and evil sets the dangerous precedent that masculinity is desirable while femininity is shameful and degrading. This culminates in a society which glorifies strength and stigmatizes vulnerability, creating shame-based systems that are especially harmful towards men (McBee 25; Pease et al. 52; Pizarro-Sirera et al. 163; Yates 247). Many scholars have labeled this phenomenon as ‘toxic masculinity’ and attribute the suppression of emotion to the rise in male violence and domestic abuse. While the term itself is often misunderstood, and has received backlash from primarily conservative opponents, defenders of the
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phrase argue that the term ‘toxic masculinity’ does not paint masculinity itself as toxic, but simply the weaponization of it. In a study on antifemininity norms in men, psychologist Juan Falomir-Pichastor observed, quote, People tend to consider femininity as resulting from a natural, biological, and permanent developmental transition, whereas masculinity is seen as a precarious social status which must be earned and is easy to lose. As a consequence, masculinity requires continual social proof and validation so that men need to constantly affirm their gender identity (Herek 1986; Kimmel 2012; Vandello and Bosson 2013). Men can prove their manhood to themselves and to others by endorsing various traditionally masculine norms such as toughness and self-reliance (Branon 1976; Levant et al. 2007; Mahalik et al. 2003). (Falomir-Pichastor 210)
In this sense, masculinity ceases to be a natural part of male experience and expression, and begins to revolve around competitiveness and fragility, with even small displays of weakness or vulnerability perceived as detracting from an individual’s ability to be a ‘real man’. This in turn causes many men to report being scared of expressing themselves or doing anything which might contribute to being labeled as ‘weak’, and to disassociate from other men who do these things (Pizarro-Sirera et al. 163). Subjected to messages such as ‘boys don’t cry’ and ‘women need a strong protector’, boys begin to fear vulnerability and self-expression, instead
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projecting a mask of machismo and stamina that ultimately internalizes pain and normalizes violence and sexual virility. This becomes particularly prevalent when they grow up and enter the workforce. Studies show that male-dominated fields such as technology and science often breed excessively competitive work environments which create distrust between employees and associate strength and the ability to work long hours with status in the company (Matos et al. 501). As Kenneth Matos puts it, “survival in these hypercompetitive and abusive environments requires constant displays of strength and stamina and reinforces the commitment to suppressing signs of vulnerability” (521). These climates reinforce standards of toxic masculinity and discourage individuals who fit outside the stereotypical mold. This makes it harder for women to succeed in STEM (science, technology, engineering, and mathematics) fields, as they are often pushed into more passive roles and not accustomed to the aggressive and hypercompetitive nature of these workplaces. In these circumstances, toxic masculinity is an ideal placed not only on men, but on them as well. Because hyper-masculinity is idealized as the be-all-end-all, women in these roles feel they have to act more masculine in order to conform to maleoriented institutions. This culminates in serious mental health challenges for boys and men, many of which go unrecognized by mainstream American society. Statistically, men constitute 75 percent of those who commit suicide, but only 25 percent of those who seek help to prevent it (Farrell 274). According to the National Academy of Sciences, the increase in suicide among white males has led to as many white males’ lives lost to suicide as
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has been lost to AIDS (Case 15078). This is primarily attributed to emotional repression and the inability to feel loved, needed, or understood, which is especially frequent among boys and men (Farrell 278). Despite this, depression is primarily seen as a woman’s problem, with the vast majority of studies on suicide and mental health focusing on girls and women (Skovlund 378). Other areas in which men are victimized go equally unacknowledged. Almost one in every four men is likely to be sexually or physically abused by an intimate partner (Alangea 4), and one in every six is sexually assaulted before the age of sixteen (12). Moreover, studies have demonstrated that men are the victims in more than 70% of non-reciprocal domestic violence cases (Whitaker 941). But though there were over 2,000 domestic violence shelters in the United States for women and girls as of 2018, there were only two for boys and men (Jaye “The Red Pill”). Domestic violence, sexual assault, and suicide in men is often pushed to the side, and men are frequently left scared to speak up for fear of being labeled as weak or broken.
Feminine Gender Roles If the American male is raised on action figures and violent media, the American girl is subjected to an onslaught of sexualized messages about what it means to be beautiful and what it means to be loved. In one study on the concept of princesses and the messages they convey about girlhood, Miriam Forman-Brunell observed that both older and more modern princesses all tend to present shapely figures and an emphasis on athleticism, beauty, and male attachments (Forman-Brunell 353). With their
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lives saturated by merchandise depicting norms of feminine decorum, it’s not surprising that so many girls grow up struggling to isolate individual identity from the girlhood of their childhood. Femininity often fluctuates between being glorified and being degraded, sending complex messages for girls as they grow up and enter the workforce (Murnen 79). For men who identify with more feminine gender expression, it’s often difficult to feel recognized and validated. While women dressing and acting more masculine is gradually becoming more acceptable, men who dress and act more feminine are subjected to degrading messages about femininity (Knights 430; Leaper 359). This reinforces the idea that femininity and womanhood equivocate to weakness, and as a result, many men push away from associating with feminine people and behavior, leading to isolation and shame of both girls and feminine men (McBee 25; Yates 247). Even in feminist circles, there is a repeated emphasis on women in male-coded jobs such as science or engineering, but not a lot of emphasis on men in female- coded jobs like nursing or counselling. In doing so, this signifies that female-coded roles are less significant and negates the experiences of men who are stigmatized as more feminine because of these careers and roles. Femininity becomes synonymous with rigid mandating of individual self-expression, perpetuating a cycle of shame that surrounds its context and practice. In this same vein, while the media devotes significant time and attention the dangers and pitfalls of masculine identity, potential toxicity in femininity often goes unacknowledged. This has been labeled by some scholars as ‘toxic femininity’. Psychology Today defines it this way:
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[Toxic femininity is] women expressing stereotypically “feminine” traits such as passivity, empathy, sensuality, patience, tenderness, and receptivity… [which] results in individuals ignoring their mental or physical needs to sustain those around them. It is when one works to the benefit of others but to the detriment of themselves. It can appear as forms of depression, exhaustion, or wildly illogical solutions to complex problems. …Women then feel locked into a performance of their gender which is bereft of normal impulses towards independence, sexual agency, anger, volume, messiness, ugliness, and being a tough bird to swallow (para. 2).
To summarize, femininity can revert to toxicity when women sacrifice their own mental, physical, and emotional health in favor of what they believe a ‘good woman’ should do. Desiring to be sacrificial and compassionate, many women place themselves in a position of self- degradation, refusing to let themselves feel legitimate emotions such as anger or personal agency. Emotional suppression, then, is not merely a masculine concept but one that both men and women experience in distinct and individualized ways. Forced passivity and self-sacrifice hurt women who want to show confidence, authority, and ambitiousness, making it hard for women to succeed in traditionally masculine roles in American society (Brescoll 274). Women in political or corporal leadership positions often report feeling as if they have to constantly balance between being viewed as too timid and
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being viewed as too aggressive. This stereotype is particularly harmful to women of color, who are stereotyped as angry, sassy, and crass (Jones 2021), making many afraid to openly express anger. A study by Victoria Brescoll evaluated the role of gendered emotion on success in the workplace and concluded that while men who displayed drive and competitiveness experienced an increase in status and success, women experienced the opposite. She concluded, “women are expected to be kinder and more modest than men, and they evoke negative responses from other people if they fail to conform to this prescriptive stereotype” (Brescoll 268). Given the inherent competitive nature of most higher level workplaces and the necessity for demonstrations of aggressiveness, it’s not surprising that the demographics of certain fields are so skewed towards men. When it comes to damaging messages towards women, it’s important to address the cultural conflation of femininity with sexuality. From a very young age, girls are subjected to hypersexualized media and dolls (Carboni et al. 371; Ihnatenko 21; Murnen et al. 78). As they enter their teenage years, the messaging gets repeatedly more intense, with magazines and the media conveying serious subliminal messages about beauty and sexuality, leading almost 30 million American girls to develop eating disorders every year (Grossman 827). In a study on the relationship between femininity and sexuality, Carolina Leonidas concluded that, “stereotypical feminine traits were linked with high levels of eating disorder symptoms […] thinness is a symptom of social, economic, and cultural success, whereas fat is a source of guilt and shame.
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Food is seen as sinful and an enemy to be defeated” (Leonidas 107). Essentially, the media frequently implies that in order to be feminine, girls have to look pleasing sexually, and many starve themselves to do so. As a result of this fixation on their bodies, objectification and degradation towards women are common, causing skyrocketing rates of sexual assault and harassment. A study conducted by the San Diego Center on Gender Equity and Health concluded that 99 percent of women will experience street harassment in their lifetime, and 60 percent will experience it more than 25 times (Clark et al. 11). Nearly one and five women report having been raped (Black et al. 1). Sexual assault is stigmatized, leading the majority of cases to go unreported (Black et al. 19), and what some scholars call a ‘rape culture’ leads to women being blamed for the allegations against them (Armstrong 112; Phipps 7). This perpetuates a cycle of objectification and violence, equating a woman’s worth to her body, and by extension, her ability to please a man. Even in religious circles, where girls are discouraged from expressing their sexuality, this mindset still lingers, particularly in the fetishization of virginity and excessive focus on what girls can give their future husbands by remaining abstinent (Klement et al. 219). By making sexuality about men’s pleasure rather than that of a woman, this furthers the cultural idea that a woman’s worth is dictated by how she is perceived by the men in her life.
Conclusion Both men and women receive distinctly different sets of messages, which are expressed through the toys they play with, media they consume,
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and the opinions of others around them. Boys are expected to be confident, aggressive, and strong, whereas girls are expected to be beautiful, dependent, and easy to get along with. My survey took these broad concepts and applied them to students at PPCC, collecting interviews and reports on how they viewed their own gender roles and whether they found them confining or freeing. I don’t intend for my research to produce significantly new information from what those before me have already studied, but I do hope to address some of the gaps in previous research and synthesize the work that so many have already started.
Methods On January 22nd 2021, I created and posted a survey containing ten questions on a free platform for surveys called SurveyMonkey. Students taking classes under Professor Lachelle Schilling at Pikes Peak Community College (PPCC) obtained the survey link soon after it was posted and comprised most of the respondents for this survey. The remaining responses were attributed to other PPCC students whom I asked to complete the questions. All of my respondents used the SurveyMonkey platform to complete and submit their survey. On March 3rd 2021, I reached forty participants, the maximum allowed on SurveyMonkey’s free plan, and I closed the survey to further respondents. Data was analyzed by contentanalysis coding in order to give due presence to themes arising from the data. Responses were integrated into my project in ways that reflected the most prevalent of themes and perspectives and more unique responses were also included when possible.
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Given the personal nature of questions in this survey, participant privacy was extremely important to me. While SurveyMonkey is automatically anonymous, I did have a question asking for optional contact information so that I could follow up with those that I wished to interview or learn more about. This information was stored on SurveyMonkey’s password encrypted website, and I was careful to never copy this information into other documents where it might be more easily accessible. During interviews, I assured my interviewees that their private information would not be shared as a result of my project, and I used alternative pseudonyms for every story or quote I included in my paper.
Demographics Only two demographic questions were included in the survey— gender and religious affiliation. The former was chosen because it specifically relates to my topic, while the latter was important because religion has historically played a huge role in American gender roles and felt important to discuss in my essay. I recognize that other information such as age, race, and political party may have helped provide context for the way that people view gender, but these demographics were not prioritized as SurveyMonkey only allows for ten questions on its free program. Gender. This question was given as a multiple choice with four possible options: ‘Male’, ‘Female’, ‘Nonbinary/Genderqueer’, and ‘Other: Please Specify’. I did not include a separate option for transgender individuals, assuming that unless specified, they would fall under the first two options. However, there was space in interviews and later in the essay
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where some participants chose to disclose their transgender identity. Overall, I had 14 male respondents (35.9%) and 23 female respondents (61.5%). Unfortunately, I did not receive any responses from individuals who marked themselves in the ‘Nonbinary/Genderqueer’ or ‘Other’ categories. This is probably due to the rarity of these identifications, composing only 0.2% of the United States population (Marshall 68). There was also a notable distortion in my results due to having significantly more female respondents than male ones (a 21.7% increase). I’m not sure why this is, but it may be in part because my English class is made up of significantly more girls than boys, and it’s possible that this was the case for other classes who received the survey as well. Religious Affiliation. Next, participants were asked about their religious affiliation, with eleven answer choices available: Christian, Muslim, Jewish, Buddhist, Hindu, Ancient/Traditional religion, Atheist, Agnostic, Spiritual, Unsure/Prefer not to say, and Other: Please Specify. Three participants answered this latter category, with one saying they didn’t know (coded as unsure/prefer not to say), another referencing a blend of spirituality and beliefs about the universe (coded as spiritual) and a third as a part of the Church of Jesus Christ and Latter Day Saints. Regarding those who checked traditional boxes, 24 participants identified as Christian (60%), one as Muslim (2.5%), two as Atheists (5%), four as agnostic (10%), three as spiritual (7.5%), and three under ‘Unsure/Prefer not to say’ (7.5%). Overall, this means that Christians made up the majority of religious respondents, with only two identifying as a religion other than Christianity (Islam and the LDS Church respectively). About one out of three participants did not
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associate themselves with a specific religion, though several referenced having grown up in religious homes later in the essay.
Quantitative/Qualitative Questions Perceptions of gender. Question 3 asked participants to rank the statement “My gender is an important part of who I am” on a multiple choice scale ranging from ‘strongly disagree’ to ‘strongly agree’. (The other options included disagree, somewhat disagree, neutral, somewhat agree, and agree.) This question gave me a sense of the significance of gender to the way people view the world, themselves, and society, and was a helpful measure of the different ways people approach gendered identity. Question 6 was an open-ended question regarding what words respondents associated with masculinity and femininity, which I then coded based on the most common answers as well as ones that I thought were unique or insightful. Stereotypes and Discrimination. Question 5 was another agree/disagree scale, this time for the statement “I have personally experienced discrimination as a result of my gender”. I had originally intended for this to be a qualitative question, but decided that due to its personal nature, I would save stories for personal conversations and interviews. Instead, I asked for simple data in this context and included more specific answers from interviews when relevant to the subject. Question 7 did touch on this issue, however, asking participants what stereotypes they felt were associated with their gender and whether they felt like they had less freedom as a result.
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Activism and Change. The final quantitative question was Question 4, another agree/disagree scale, which asked participants to respond to the statement “I consider myself a feminist”. Because this is a significant political and cultural talking point, I felt that this question gave me helpful context into the way they view woman’s rights and progressive gender interpretations, and questions elaborating on this in interviews helped clarify the attributes and pitfalls of the feminist movement as a whole. Question 8 elaborated on this with another free response question, this time asking broadly about what kind of change they believed was necessary and how to achieve it. The question asked, “In your view, what would a society with a healthy view of gender look like? What specific kinds of changes need to be made to achieve this kind of society?” Due to a mistake with the creation of the survey, this question received less responses than the other questions, but I still received enough results to produce interesting observations and code with the other survey questions. Religion. Due to space, I was only able to ask one question involving religious mindsets towards gender, but I tried to make it broad to allow for lots of different answers from those with various backgrounds. Question 9 asked, “Do you have any experience with religion, and if so, how does it shape the way you view gender in society?” In retrospect, I believe my attempt to keep this open-ended left this question too vague for participants who were religious or had grown up being so. I wish I’d asked a more specific question that had provoked more response.
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Cross-Coding Additionally, answers from several questions were cross coded in order to acquire more data and information. Both demographic questions (gender and religion) were coded with each of the quantitative questions, including the significance of their gender to identity, personal experiences with discrimination, and propensity towards feminism. This was done in the effort to predict whether certain demographic groups were more likely to have certain experiences or identify with certain ideologies. For instance, when cross-coding question 4 (feminism) with question 1 (gender), I was able to identify that women are far more inclined towards feminism then men are, and in interviews I was able to identify some of the key reasons for that. I also cross-coded gender demographics with question 7, which asked about stereotypes. This was because the question specifically related to different perspectives towards people of different genders, so knowing who was answering the question was critical to analyzing the answers. Cross-coding provided useful context and allowed me to make discoveries I would not have otherwise noticed.
Results and Discussion At the beginning of this project, I hypothesized that American cultural and religious influences set rigid expectations around men, women, and nonbinary people which lead to isolation and anger towards those who fall outside the system. Over the course of surveys, interviews, and case studies, I believe I have found research that supports this conclusion.
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However, it’s important to note that while I originally intended the hypothesis to reflect the danger of conventional gender roles, I’ve found that these mindsets transcend simply social conservativism and spill out in various aspects of both progressive and traditional society.
Expectations towards Men Survey respondents indicated a connection between masculinity and physical and emotional strength. Over half of the men who answered my survey used variations of the words ‘strong’ and ‘tough’ to describe public perceptions of them. Many felt forced to associate strength with being a leader, hiding vulnerability, and avoiding effeminate or female-coded activities and behaviors. Power dynamics in relationships and the workplace also came up frequently, with words like ‘leader’ and ‘protector’ topping the list of words associated with masculinity. One participant, who I’ll call Jack, commented on these expectations. “I grew up hearing that strong men don’t cry, men don’t show emotion, and being open and vulnerable equals weakness. These ideas crippled my social development for a long time and I constantly felt like I had to act a certain way out of self-preservation.” Jack’s fears were echoed by many other men who took my survey and reported hearing negative messages like this from teachers, parents, and coworkers. Participants were asked to share whether they felt they had less freedom as a result of these messages, and the answer was an overwhelming yes. Examples of answers included feeling frustrated at being viewed with suspicion around women, inability to be successful without it being attributed to being a man, and being constantly
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assumed guilty when put against women. All of these equate back to masculinity being perceived as something threatening, thereby continuing the cycle of boys suppressing their emotions in the process of attributing worth to physical stamina and invulnerability. Notably, men were often described in the context of professional and corporate roles. Words like ‘worker,’ ‘money-maker,’ and ‘provider,’ were also among the top descriptors of men by participants of both genders. Only 1 out of 40 respondents (2.5%) used the words ‘husband’ and ‘father’ to describe masculinity, compared to 14 people (35%) who equated femininity with the words ‘wife’ and ‘mother’. This indicates that manhood is much more likely to be designated as a professional role than a domestic one. Instead, men reported their value as being determined by success in the workplace, physical and emotional invulnerability, and sexual prowess. Regarding the latter, one person commented that “men are seen as better if they overtly sexualize females, which I think is disgusting and I don’t conform to this at all.” He was one of several who called out the pressure on men to be sexual, and the contradictory expectations between sexuality and confidence. One female respondent, Anna, commented that “When I have heard men talk about women, they often only focus on women's looks. There just seems to be an air of privilege to men because they usually do not have to think about the differences between genders as carefully as many women do.” These learned behaviors reinforce a separation between men and women and stop men from being able to effectively express themselves around the opposite gender. Men feel like they have to be
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aggressive, while leads to women feeling threatened, and men feeling like their masculinity is under attack, which then leads to more aggressiveness. This furthers an endless cycle that makes it hard for individuals on all sides to express healthy masculinity. As a result, many men feel isolated and confused in a society that often neglects to discuss their needs.
Expectations towards Women Femininity is often measured as relating to standards of beauty. Many participants cited fashion and appearance as something they related to femininity, and words like ‘makeup’ and ‘dresses’ were among the top words used to describe them. For some women who responded, this excessive focus on appearance resulted in objectification, leading them to feel unsafe and afraid of men. According to Maddie, “I have to be careful how I dress. If I dress too scandalously, a guy might try to pick me up.” She was one of six women (almost one third of all female respondents) who cited fear of men and being physically targeted as a way their womanhood was categorized by American culture. Many referred to their own experiences with physical harm and feeling like their body was constantly being painted as an object. This correlates with the sexual expectations for men described in the previous section and creates an idea that a woman’s worth is measured by her ability to please the opposite gender. Unlike men, femininity was often described in terms of domesticity, with words like ‘wife’ and ‘mother’ comprising 35% of total replies. Many stressed the importance of a woman’s role in supporting her husband, while
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others mentioned feeling constrained by the expectations and pressure surrounding subjects like marriage, childbirth, and parenting. According to Jemma, “Women are stereotyped as being naturally inclined to have children. If a woman says she doesn’t want to have kids, no one believes her, and they tell her she will change her mind.” In this sense, a woman is seen as intrinsically tied to motherhood, and girls are given this expectation from a young age. This is in direct contrast to perceptions of fatherhood mentioned in the previous section, and it’s clear that regardless of whether or not she has a career, a woman is often judged based on her domestic role (or lack thereof). The barrier between men and women widens, making it harder for women to succeed in the workplace. For women struggling to grasp and communicate their own femininity, there are several pitfalls that reflect restrictive standards placed on them. Many survey participants discussed feeling unable to speak their opinions to men and feeling like they are constantly being judged for being too ‘troublesome’ or ‘angry.’ Several associated womanhood with a tightrope act of trying to express beliefs, needs, and desires without coming off as strong-willed or threatening, resulting in many not expressing them at all. Amelia states that “women tend to let men mansplain even if they know more or have their education in the issue at hand. When I notice myself falling into this behavior, I often feel frustrated because I’m selfcensoring my ideas/thoughts and hindering the ability to introduce a new perspective into discussions.” She also mentioned that they noticed tendencies to doubt themselves and want to agree with other people,
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specifically men, which was associated as a common trait that women struggle with. Further research is necessary to understand exactly why this is, and whether it’s prevalent in many men as well, but my survey points to this overwhelmingly being a problem among women.
Discrimination Survey participants were asked to rate their agreement to the sentence “I have personally experienced discrimination as a result of my gender”, and the results of this question were surprising. Both men and women had an average answer of ‘somewhat agree’, with only nine total disagree answers across 40 respondents. As this was a quantitative question, I am limited in my ability to draw conclusions based on this but tried to piece together mindsets from both genders based on interviews I conducted and answers to other questions in the survey. From this, I found that the most common attributions of this from women included being perceived as less intelligent, fear of violence, and hyper-sexualization. Men, on the other hand, cited inability to express themselves emotionally, being assumed guilty when put against women, and feeling like they couldn’t succeed without it being attributed to their gender.
Feminism and Activism Participants were then asked a similarly formatted question regarding the statement that “I consider myself a feminist”. Like the previous section, this was quantitative and multiple choice, so the inferences I can draw from
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this are minimal. Nonetheless, I’ll describe the statistical results and call attention to correlations I noticed when cross-coding. I’ll also use examples from two interviews I conducted (the first from a participant who responded, ‘strongly agree’, and the other from one who responded ‘strongly disagree’) to explore their reasoning when approaching this issue. While these are in no way meant to be representative of every perspective on feminism, I think these two sides draw attention to the various complexities of the issue and the reasons many people take for the position they hold. The question primarily yielded agreement, with the average answer across all total respondents being ‘somewhat agree’. However, there was a broad gender divide with the answers to this problem. When assigning a point value to agreement levels, with strongly agree as +3 and neutral as 0, women’s answers added to a total of 38, while men composed only three. This adds to an average score of ‘agree’ among women and ‘neutral’ among men— by far the broadest demographic gap out of all questions on the survey. This indicates that men are much less likely to be feminists than women are and in some cases are strongly opposed to it. There was also a notable demographic gap among participants of different religions. Across those who affiliated as Christians, there were significantly more disagree answers, bringing the average to ‘neutral’. Among nonreligious participants, ‘agree’ was the most common answer, and only one out of twelve individuals within this demographic offered a ‘disagree’ response. Because of lack of representation, I decided not to calculate my two respondents with other religions, but the Muslim that did respond answered ‘disagree’
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while the LDS member answered, ‘somewhat agree’, demonstrating general alignment with their Christian counterparts. I was interested in the reason for this disparity, so I interviewed a survey respondent named Grace, a 17 year old Christian who is currently studying nursing at PPCC. She believes that gender discrimination towards women exists to some degree but feels frustrated by the way the feminist movement has addressed this. “They’re very aggressive in how they approach things,” she notes. “I believe there’s a way to get what you want without attacking people of the opposite gender and that’s a lot of what I’ve seen of them these days.” When asked whether this stemmed from her views as a Christian, she commented on the conflation between femininity and transgender identity, which she believes undermines what God created for gender. While I’ll explore her answers further in the section on transgender individuals below, it’s important to note that she considered her religion to be integrated with her views on the feminist movement as a whole. The next person I interviewed was Matthew, a 19-year-old transgender male who identifies as agnostic. Having lived as both a man and a woman, he had several interesting insights on different treatment in both gender roles and the necessity for feminism. “Living as a woman is way harder,” he says emphatically. “It’s stuff like workplace violence and sexual harassment. I saw it more as a woman than as a man, because people expect men not to follow that.” Matthew challenges these ideas through his work as an ambassador for a small brand, working to donate clothing to specific organizations that help people in need, which
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specifically includes people of color and those in the LGBT+ community. As a result of this, he considers himself a passionate feminist, and does everything he can to empower women in his own life.
Religion As the church in America has played such a large role on perceptions of gender and activism, I felt this project would be lacking if I didn’t discuss in detail the effect of religion on cultural gender expression. To reflect this, I asked survey participants to identify their religious affiliation out of a series of multiple choice options, and also included a question on how they believe their perspectives on this issue have been impacted by their religious beliefs and background. From this, I was able to cross-code religious affiliation with other survey questions such as views on feminism and significance of gender in their personal life. I was also able to assess the general beliefs of the church as a whole when it comes to a voice in gender issues. As Christians were the main religious demographic who responded to my survey, I want to clarify that this is not intended to represent all religions and primarily will discuss Christianity as the primary religious influence in US culture. As described in the previous section, Christians were far less likely to consider themselves feminists. They also were more likely to consider their gender important to them, with an average answer of ‘agree’ compared to an average of ‘somewhat agree/neutral’ among nonreligiously affiliated participants. Individual applications of religion varied from more progressive approaches (e.g. treating people the way Jesus
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would treat them) to more conservative ones (e.g. complementarianism or acknowledgement of only two genders). Most common, however, was the emphasis on differences between men and women as essential components of relationships and societies as a whole. “I am a Christian and it has shaped me to see that males and females both have specific qualities that make them different,” says Maddie. “I think God made us that way for a reason. Females may be more emotional and males less physically emotional but the two personalities mesh together to form a relationship.” This idea was reinforced across various religious respondents, and several others commented on the same differences they saw between men and women. When applying this specifically, others were quick to point to confusion about gender in society, which were attributed to various components of sin and unclear definitions as to how someone with a certain gender is supposed to act. There seemed to be an overall consensus that gender determined a person’s domestic and societal role, with one respondent commenting that because of their religion, they believed that ‘men should generally act like men and women should generally act like women’. Non-religious participants tended to view Christianity negatively when it came to gender roles. Words like ‘toxic’ and ‘narrow minded’ were prevalent in this section, primarily among those who did not affiliate with a particular religion but previously had. According to one such respondent, “religion is something I left behind, and I think it made me a better person. Going to a protestant church every Sunday definitely shaped the way I saw gender roles in society, and it was only after I left and was confronted with
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a bigger world of people that I started to rethink that.” In the context of this participant, the church enforced gender roles that made it hard for them to rethink traditional expectations and beliefs but leaving their protestant church gave them a heightened sense of freedom from this. His experience is far from universal, but is frequent, and several other participants also commented on having left the church as a result of their sexuality, views on gender, and other topics. Others reflected on having grown up in more progressive Christian churches and feeling appalled to find out that some pastors took alternative views. There was a sense of frustration, anger, and in some cases even betrayal when discussing religion. Even religious respondents seemed to be aware of this. Jemma, an 18-year-old Christian female, commented that “religious people tend to project stricter roles onto gender— including limiting the roles either gender should be able to have, limiting who they should be able to have romantic relationships with, and limiting how they are allowed to express their gender.” She went on to describe the way that her religion, though still something she cares about, has stopped her from breaking out of a lot of preconceived notions about gender that she grew up hearing about.
Transgender and Nonbinary Experiences Unfortunately, my research was limited when it came to addressing the specific stereotypes and needs of gender-nonconforming individuals. Being limited to only forty participants, I only had one who identified as transgender, and none who identified outside of binary gender expression. As a result, this section won’t attempt to address all the main issues
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transgender and non-binary people face, but only to briefly summarize observations from the respondents I was able to talk to. It’s clear from my cisgender respondents that there is often a lot of stigma associated with expressing oneself in a different manner than a person of that gender is ‘supposed’ to act, and I believe this is demonstrably true of transgender people. Often viewed as less of their gender or viewed as the gender they were assigned at birth, trans people face high amounts of stigmatization from the community. Many of them are afraid to come out for fear of violence or judgement from their communities. Jaime comments that “I have began to question my own gender identity and have thought about changing my pronouns to be she/they. I do feel that this would open the door for discrimination, unfair treatment, and unwanted commentary. Because of this, I feel like I have less freedom to be authentic in my own gender.” For people like Jaime who are questioning their gender identity, straying too far from the mold created by your biological gender generates societal stigma that restricts authenticity and individual self- expression. To explore this further, I interviewed Matthew, a transgender man who I talked about previously in the section on feminism. He came out to his family at fourteen years old but didn’t begin medically transitioning until seventeen. “All of my friends were supportive,” he said. “But my family, not so much. I haven’t seen my Dad since I came out because of that-- because of his reaction.” Matthew’s passion for LGBT+ rights has pushed him past these harmful messages, and he’s adamant that his experiences with transphobia have only prompted him to advocate for his community even stronger. His stories affirm the toxicity that Jaime described, demonstrating
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that gender roles can often bind people more than free them. He attributes them to the assumption that being trans is simply something he does to get attention, or that he is somehow less of a man as a result of his birth and outward appearance. Even within the LGBT+ community, these stereotypes can exist. Matthew describes the idea in both traditional and progressive society that if a trans person is any less than the ideal masculine man, it’s perceived that they never should have transitioned, and they are actually a member of their biological gender. “I’m not the most masculine. I usually get picked on for being shorter as a man. Smaller hands, small feet, some feminine features like wider hips.” Matthew is not alone in this. For many transgender people, it can be easy to be hyper-cognizant of the parts of their appearance that resemble biological gender, resulting in subconscious shame within the idea of what a ‘man’ or a ‘woman’ should look like. This is true for activities and habits as well. He continues, “sometimes I do things like painting my nails, and people are like ‘that’s more of a woman thing to do’. I don’t really see what the problem is. Just like little boys who want to do make-up. They automatically assume he wants to be a girl, but that’s just not the case for most people.” In this sense, there’s a clear distinction between being a man and being masculine— just like a boy who wears make-up or paints his nails isn’t automatically a woman, the same is true for a transgender person. Self-expression demands letting go of traditional gender labels and accepting that gender identification can’t always be put into a box.
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Taking Action The final question participants were asked was what they believed a healthy view of gender should look like, and what practical changes needed to happen for this vision of society to occur. This gave me a sense not only of the differences in the way individuals view societal problems and of the limitations of current views on gender, but also of the next steps forward. Most of this essay has been dedicated to explaining where perspectives on gender have fallen short, but I also want to address what individuals can do to remedy these shortcomings and create a society where people of every gender feel welcome and safe as themselves. First, I think it’s clear upon interviews and research that gender should not be treated as the key determinant of a person’s social and psychological characteristics, nor should it be used to create excessive boundaries across these guidelines. This is not to suggest that men and women do not have differences, nor that there isn’t a gendered component to psychological expression, but simply that if any exist, they should not be used to mandate behavior. When barriers are created between what a person can and cannot create, achieve, and take part in based on gendered norms, this risks alienating those who fall outside traditional systems, resulting in isolation and restricted self-expression. I see this in the stories of individuals like Matthew and Jaime, who had difficulty communicating their needs and personal identifications in a world that they felt like was constantly against them. Stemming from this, I specifically see an urgent necessity to normalize and talk about male vulnerability, both in the media and pop culture as a whole.
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For people like Jack, who grew up feeling constantly afraid to express himself for fear of being mocked by friends and family, role models who are unafraid to show their emotions and express vulnerability are crucial for social and psychological development. Cultural messages often imply that masculinity equivocates to physical stamina and invulnerability, which sends harmful messages to men in particular. Better education that reflects this and conversations in society are crucial to challenging this assumption and creating a healthier society for men. I also recognize that while society has come far in discussing the individual struggles that women face, men’s challenges are often not addressed, or even silenced by the progressive movement. Systems that often discriminate against men, such as the criminal justice system, lead to disillusionment and anger, and many men felt like their voices were not being heard. Just as women face discrimination in many areas of society, men are often victims of this as well, and many of them don’t have communities where they can go to make their voices heard. Similarly, there needs to be space for women to step up and express themselves, especially in a world where so many feel afraid to be too opinionated or troublesome. Emotions like anger are often discouraged, leading several of my female respondents to doubt themselves constantly and fear disagreement with men and authority figures. I also think there’s a need for a broader definition of womanhood that draws from both domestic and professional life. Many women find fulfillment and self-worth through identities as mothers and wives, while others do so from a career or another facet of their life, and neither is inherently superior to the other.
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Boiling a woman’s identity down only to being a mother or only having a career (particularly when the latter is the only one that is usually applied to men) is contradictory and restrictive to girls trying to gain a sense of their own identity. Finally, I think we need to facilitate healthy conversations across gender boundaries. It was clear when listening to participants that many of them held stereotypes and confusion towards the opposite gender, and I didn’t get the sense that many were aware of the unique challenges that people of different genders face. I wish there was more solidarity across activism lines and a way to engage in healthy conversations to address disparities towards men, women, and transgender/nonbinary individuals, and to listen with empathy over judgement or political affiliation.
Conclusion Based on my survey and research, I’ve concluded that as a whole, gender roles in the US are often skewed and unhealthy, leading to both men and women to feel restricted and unseen. Gender can be a polarizing topic, and it can be difficult to engage in thoughtful and nuanced conversation regarding the subject. However, I believe discussions like these are crucial to understanding those who are different from us, and that much of prior worldview concerning gender has been toxic and unhealthy. Through addressing these issues head on, we can work to make a safer world for people of every gender and form of self-expression. I hope that through this essay, I’ve been able to challenge misconceptions and provide careful
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analysis of cultural perspectives people may never have thought about before.
Limitations Unfortunately, I feel that my topic was far too broad, and I was not able to fully address all significant issues in the level of depth that I had originally hoped. My analysis wasn’t so much a niche exploration with a specific focus as much as a compilation of the work of many different researchers, which detracted from my main message. As a result, my questions were broad and responses to my survey ranged from dozens of different political and social issues, making it hard to narrow down one precise point and message. This was incredibly limiting as I was attempting to draw correlations across a variety of different topics rather than focusing on only one, such as transgender rights or the patriarchy. Another significantly limiting factor, as detailed in my methods section, was the lack of important demographic data. I suspect that age or political affiliation, for instance, may play a role in individual perceptions of gender roles, but due to the ten questions I was allotted on SurveyMonkey’s free plan, I did not have space to explore these topics. This also prevented me from looking at intersections— for instance, the correlation between anti-femininity and homophobia, or race and emotional stereotypes for women (briefly discussed in my review of literature). Had I been able to explore the demographics of my participants, I might have
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been able to deduce more about gender roles as they specifically relate to those categories. On this same note, I was severely limited in my ability to tackle transgender and nonbinary issues based on the lack of responses from people in this demographic. While they represent a small subset of the American population, I believe these voices still play a crucial role in shaping the political and social atmosphere around gender roles in general, and the lack of nonbinary representation in my survey is very disappointing. I feel I was not able to accurately represent the specific needs surrounding the rights and experiences of trans and nonbinary people.
Further Research There are many aspects of this topic that have not received a lot of attention or study and would perhaps have produced a better and more specific essay. These include masculinity and violence, male mental health, toxic femininity, the fetishization of female sexuality, and more. These were issues I touched on in my writing but did not receive the attention or thoughtfulness they deserve. Further research on this topic is essential, as these topics among others help shape much of the cultural dynamic around gender. Subjects such as toxic femininity, for instance, have received very little public attention, despite most psychologists agreeing that it is a real and prevalent problem. Were I to repeat this essay, I would probably focus on one of those topics instead of the broader one that I picked. While much effort and time has been devoted to unpacking the complexities of gender roles in society, I believe we still have a long way to
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go. Men’s needs specifically are often left out of public discourse, and as a result do not receive the level of intellectual scrutiny that so many women’s rights papers have been dedicated to. As a result, research on domestic violence, sexual assault, mental health, etc. in men has gone largely unreported, and the numbers on this topic are often outdated. There is still plenty more work that needs to be done.
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McBee, Thomas Page. Amateur: A True Story about What Makes a Man. Simon and Schuster, 2018. Murnen, Sarah K., et al. “Boys Act and Girls Appear: A Content Analysis of Gender Stereotypes Associated with Characters in Children’s Popular Culture.” Sex Roles, vol. 74, no. 1-2, 2015, pp. 78–91., doi:10.1007/s11199015-0558-x. Patterson, Gina, et al. 2017. “What’s so funny about a snowman in a tiara? Exploring gender identity and gender nonconformity in children’s animated films.” Queer Studies in Media & Popular Culture, vol. 2, 2017, pp. 73–93. Pease, Bob. “Critical Social Work With Men: Challenging Men’s Complicity in the Reproduction of Patriarchy and Male Privilege.” Social Alternatives, vol. 35, no. 4, Oct. 2016, pp. 49-53. EBSCOhost,search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ssf&AN=1 24343723&site=eds-live. Phipps, Alison, et al. “Rape Culture, Lad Culture and Everyday Sexism: Researching, Conceptualizing and Politicizing New Mediations of Gender and Sexual Violence.” Journal of Gender Studies, vol. 27, no. 1, Jan. 2018, pp. 1–8. EBSCOhost, doi:10.1080/09589236.2016.1266792. Pizarro-Sirera, Juan Margalida. “Toxic Masculinity in American Politics: Donald Trump’s Tweeting Activity in the US Presidential Election (2016).” European Journal of American Culture, vol. 39, no. 2, June 2020, pp. 163–181. EBSCOhost, doi:10.1386/ejac_00021_1.
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Putnam, Amanda. “Mean ladies: Transgendered villains in Disney films.” Diversity in Disney Films: Critical Essays on Race, Ethnicity, Gender, Sexuality and Disability, 2013, pp. 147–62. Edited by Johnson Cheu. Jefferson: McFarland & Company Inc. Savin-Williams, Rich. “Toxic Femininity: Is Acting Fragile and Frivolous Internalized Misogyny?” Psychology Today, August 28, 2019. https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/sex-sexuality-andromance/201908/toxic-femininity Skovlund, Charlotte Wessel, et al. “Increase in Depression Diagnoses and Prescribed Antidepressants among Young Girls. A National Cohort Study.” Nordic Journal of Psychiatry, vol. 71, no. 5, July 2017, pp. 378– 385. EBSCOhost, doi:10.1080/08039488.2017.1305445. Towbin, Mia Adessa. “ Images of Gender, Race, Age, and Sexual Orientation in Disney Feature- Length Animated Films.” Journal of Feminist Family Therapy vol. 15, 2004, pp. 19–44. EBSCOhost, doi: 10.1300/ J086v15n04_02 Whitaker, Daniel, et al. “Differences in Frequency of Violence and Reported Injury Between Relationships with Reciprocal and Nonreciprocal Intimate Partner Violence.” American Journal of Public Health, vol. 97, no. 5, May 2007, pp. 941–947. EBSCOhost, doi:10.2105/AJPH.2005.079020. Zibane, Sibonsile. “Games Gone Wrong: Boys, Video Gaming, and the Construction of Violent Masculinities.” Gender & Behaviour, vol. 18, no. 2,
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Patriotism Hailee Cunningham Ashland District School
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America is often looked at as an extremely patriotic country, but in reality, is this true? What do the stars and stripes of Old Glory truly symbolize? Each year, about one hundred and fifty million American flags are sold, but how many of these flags are intentionally destroyed (NBC Southern California 1)? When families invite loved ones to their homes to celebrate the Fourth of July, about 1.3 million active-duty military members are fighting for families to share these cherished moments (Military Active-Duty Personal 1). Yet, do citizens acknowledge this? Do people consider what these 1.3 million soldiers endure just so they can share these moments? Have citizens thought about what the soldiers’ families face each day? These families endure an emotional landslide, not knowing if they will ever see their husband, dad, brother, uncle, wife, mom, sister, or aunt again. It is time for America to start considering these factors of freedom. Abraham Lincoln once said, “America will never be destroyed from the outside. If we falter and lose our freedom, it will be because we destroyed ourselves” (A Quote by Abraham Lincoln 1). It is the duty of American Citizens to be informed, patriotic people in order to protect the unification of the nation and the freedoms within it. What do the stars and stripes symbolize to American citizens? On June 14, 1777, Congress passed an act establishing the creation of an official flag for the United States of America. The first flag, named Old Glory, consisted of thirteen red and white stripes with thirteen white stars among a blue field. The first time America flew this symbol of pride was in the Revolutionary War. From there, the original flag survived the Mexican War and the Civil War (Ryan 1). Throughout history, the same flag has flown over multiple battles, endured blood, sweat, and tears, and taken many brave soldiers home to their
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heartbroken families. The American flag has sustained incredible triumphs and defeats; it has adapted through several formats and designs to reflect the nation, and through it all, it has remained true to America: “The flag represents a living country and is itself considered a living thing” (4 U.S. Code 2). The American flag is a true symbol of what it means to be a patriot. Therefore, it is imperative that American citizens respect the flag. Despite all the flag has helped the nation establish, American citizens are negligent as to the importance behind the flag. On July 4, 2020, “protesters burned an American flag near the White House on Saturday and chanted, ‘America was never great’ moments after President Trump finished delivering a speech at the ‘Salute to America’ Independence Day celebration” (Seipel 1). This flag is much more than just red, white, and blue fabric stitched together; it is purity, innocence, valor, hardness, vigilance, perseverance and justice (Colors of the Flag Mean 1). It embodies the qualities this nation has fought for. It resembles pride, dedication, integrity, and patriotism. It is a reminder to most American citizens that they should be portraying these same qualities in their own lives. Citizens are certainly not embodying these qualities by burning the flag. Burning the flag is uncivil and disrespectful. Millions of soldiers made it their duty to give citizens the opportunities they have today, and it is the duty of Americans to respect these brave men and women, along with the history of America. Behind the symbolic, waving flag of America are the brave men and women who gave up everything so we could gain it all. There are about 1.3 million active serving military members in the United States, today. That's about 1.3 million families who are constantly wondering if their loved ones will
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be returning home safely. Daughters cannot call their daddies and say goodnight before bed. Sons cannot FaceTime their mommies and tell them about their baseball team winning the championship game, and husbands cannot tell their wives they love them at night. Not just soldiers fight for America’s freedom; military families bear great burdens and ask little in return. What do they get in return? The complaints and disrespect that too often follow them. Desecration of the American fag is a direct hit to those who risk it all for the freedoms American’s take for granted and a wound to the hearts of military families and soldiers who sacrifice their lives. There are so many factors that are unconsidered when it comes to the price of freedom. When a parent makes the sacrifice to be a veteran, their child has to make additional unseen sacrifices that contribute to the freedom of citizens today. Every day, men and women are missing out on their families growing up. Children are only children once in their lives; they never go back to being little. Think about all the “firsts” that mommies and daddies miss when they are deployed. They miss their baby’s first words, first steps, first haircut, first loose tooth, and maybe even their first birthday. These children are making the unseen sacrifice of not being able to share their childhood with their parents. Not to mention, many families are constantly moving because their parents are being stationed somewhere new. These transitions are not only hard for the parents, they are hard for the children. Think about the kids who are constantly trying to make new friends. They just settle in at a new school and make some good friends, and they have to move again. A second grader, Kyron shares, “I think everyone should know that being a military kid is hard because we are always moving and missing our family like
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grandma, grandpa, aunties, uncles and cousins” (Stories From Military Kids 13). Kyron’s hard sacrifice of family is another unseen event that most people do not consider. Even children in second grade are acknowledging the hardship of military sacrifices; it is time for citizens of America to do the same. Moreover, eighth grader, Madilyne wrote a poem sharing her emotions about her first move overseas. In her poem, she writes about how she remembers the smells of the airport and the feeling of leaving her old friends behind. She remembers the new schools and the unfamiliar faces, feeling like she was “piecing life together with cheap glue” (Stories From Military Kids 14). Through it all, she questioned the sacrifices she was making: “Should I stay or should I go?/Do I even have a choice?/How do you feel about moving here?/Do I even have a voice?” (Stories From Military Kids 14). Children of all ages could experience the same thoughts Madilyne is, and how heartthrobbing is that? These children probably want more than anything to just grow up next to their childhood best friend, go to one school, visit their loved ones, and share these moments with their military-serving family members. Ultimately, they are making some of the greatest sacrifices any child could, to allow for the unification of freedoms and the nation. It is crucial that citizens of America start acknowledging these unseen sacrifices and return an act of kindness and patriotism to ensure the nation does not become divided. In addition to the waving of patriotic stars and stripes and the brave men and women and their families is the importance of the national anthem. The national anthem was written in 1814, after the War of 1812, by Francis Scott Key (History.com Editors 1). He was inspired by the American flag—the same inspiring flag that people are disrespectfully burning—to write the
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national anthem. The Star Spangled Banner pays respect to those who have risked their lives to defend this country. Most recently, controversies about kneeling during the national anthem have taken place across America. These controversies first began in the NFL when Colin Kaepernick of the 49ers knelt during the anthem as an attempt to protest racial injustice for African Americans. Many Americans instantly saw the disrespect and lack of honor towards the brave men and women in uniform displayed through this act of protesting. Athletes supported their moral decision to kneel by saying, “The message is I’m against social injustice… I’m not against the military or police or America at all” (Do You Believe Kneeling 1). Whether the athlete is or is not against the military, police, or America, actions speak louder than words; choosing to protest while a song created solely to honor the men and women defending the country is playing is contradictory. Silently, it is an action of disrespect towards the duties of the armed forces, whether intended or not. Taking a knee is protesting the country, not protesting racism within the country. Michael Rodriguez, Green Beret Veteran, shares, “I feel sorry for them because they don’t realize the luxuries and safety and freedoms they’re blessed with. That’s what the flag represents: everything they’re blessed with, the millions of dollars these guys have, all the luxuries they have” (Do You Believe Kneeling 4). Soldiers fought until there was no fight left in them to give. They gave these athletes the opportunity to become professional athletes, yet it is not acknowledged, and if it is, there are seldom acts of patriotism or thankfulness towards these veterans. There are various alternative ways to respectfully protest racism in America, and it is the protester's responsibility to seek and partake in these. Once again, it is time
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for American citizens to emerge from their circle of habits and take action to respectfully and honorably promote a more unified nation. Despite many disrespectful and unpatriotic actions towards America, there are still many patriotic acts of kindness throughout this national that rarely are headlined. To remain united as a nation and maintain the hard fought freedoms this nation has defended, citizens must continue spreading honorable acts of patriotism. Many people think of the tragedy of 9/11when they think of acts of patriotism in America. That day America suffered a loss felt by almost every citizen of America. Knowing the chances of surviving, hundreds of firefighters and first responders rushed to the scene to help rescue and recover as many civilians as they could. Nearly 400 firefighters, first responders, and volunteers lost their lives trying to save others. New York City Fire Department Division Chief for Lower Manhattan Peter Hayden said, "We had a very strong sense we would lose firefighters and that we were in deep trouble. But we had estimates of 25,000 to 50,000 civilians, and we had to try to rescue them” (Kiger 2). These courageous volunteers made the selfless sacrifice to put their country first, and they lost their lives in the process; this is the epitome of patriotism. A perfect example of why citizens of America should refrain from the disrespectful actions and protests towards the nation. 400 rescuers rushed into engulfed, collapsing buildings to rescue whomever they may have come across and died. No matter their skin color, political views, race, religion, or morals, these patriotic, heartfelt volunteers made it their mission to save anyone’s life they could. The same mentality is shared with the men and women in uniform. They fight for ALL citizens of America. One’s freedom is not based on their skin
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color, political views, race, religion, or morals. Military soldiers fight for the uniform freedom of all citizens, and some people cannot even pay their respects by standing up for the national anthem, obeying the moral codes of the flag, or even simply thanking a veteran. No matter what the mission is, these veterans share the sense of duty that sustains them. If sacrificing one’s life is not enough to make a citizen want to become a better patriot, consider the journey families of 9/11 rescuers endured: “After being crushed under a mountain of rubble—250,000 tons of steel, concrete and furnishings—some of their bodies weren’t recovered until months later” (Kiger 3). Families did not even have closure until several months after they were told the horrible news, and some were forced to say goodbye moments before their lives were taken from them. Ten year old Thea Trinidad “overheard her father calling her mother to say goodbye from the trade center's north tower” (Press 2). Imagine hearing this as a ten year old girl, as the walls were caving in and the floor was collapsing. These are the types of things citizens must consider next time they think about what their country has given them. Patriotism is inspiring and it can bring this nation together. No matter how big or small, patriotic acts strengthen the nation as a whole. Individuals must start believing in the promise of America. Many selfless men and women have given their lives protecting this promise; the least an individual could do is begin taking pride in these people, this promise, and their county. Remember Abraham Lincoln’s words, “America will never be destroyed from the outside. If we falter and lose our freedom, it will be because we destroyed ourselves” (A Quote by Abraham Lincoln 1). Ultimately, it is the duty of the American people to remember the hard sacrifices and the ultimate prices
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soldiers and their families have paid to gain freedom within the country. Do not be the one to disrespect the moral conduct of the flag. Do not be negligent to the history of America. Do not be the one to dishonor the millions of soldiers by kneeling during the national anthem, and do not be the one to start the downward spiral of a disunited nation. Instead, extend a hand of gratitude and a heart of thankfulness to the brave men and women who allow American people to wake up without fear. Citizens must educate themselves of the historic past this nation carries to stimulate more historic, intellectual practices that will support the unification of the nation. How many hearts beat true for the red, white and blue? Patriotism will keep this nation united, but citizens must be willing to make a change; encourage each other now, before it's too late.
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References “Do You Believe Kneeling to Protest during the National Anthem Disrespects the Troops?”VA.org, 31 Oct. 2020, va.org/do-you-believe-kneeling-toprotest-during-the-national-anthem-disrespects-the-troops/. “4 U.S. Code § 8 - Respect for Flag.” Legal Information Institute, Legal Information Institute,www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/4/8. History.com editors. “Francis Scott Key Pens ‘The Star-Spangled Banner.’” Television Networks, 24 Nov. 2009, www.history.com/this-day-inhistory/key-pens-star-spangled-banner. Kiger, Patrick J. “How 9/11 Became the Deadliest Day in History for U.S. Firefighters.” History.com, A&E Television Networks, 20 May 2019, www.history.com/news/9-11-world-trade-center-firefighters. Military Active-Duty Personnel, Civilians by State, www.governing.com/govdata/public-workforce-salaries/military-civilian-active-duty-employeeworkforce-numbers-by-state.html. NBC Southern California. “Many U.S. Flags Made in China.” NBC Los Angeles, NBC Southern California, 15 June 2011, www.nbclosangeles.com/news/ local/many-us-flags-made-in-china/1884277/. Press, Associated. “Children of 9/11 Victims Recall Their Final Memories of Their Parents.” Daily Mail Online, Associated Newspapers, 9 Sept. 2016, www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-3779156/Now-adults-children-9-11draw-inspiration-tragedy.html.
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“A Quote by Abraham Lincoln.” Goodreads, Goodreads, www.goodreads.com/quotes/2310-america-will-never-be-destroyedfrom-the-outside-if-we. Ryan, Beth-Ann. “Where Was the American Flag First Flown in Battle? Was It Cooch's Bridge?” Division of Libraries' Blog - State of Delaware, 14 June 2011, libraries.blogs.delaware.gov/2011/06/14/american-flag-first-flownin-battle/. Seipel, Brooke. “Protesters Burn American Flag Outside White House after Trump's July Fourth Address.” TheHill, The Hill, 5 July 2020, thehill.com/homenews/news/505891-protesters-burn-american-flagoutside-white-house-after-trump-july-fourth. “Stories from Military Kids.” Military Child Education Coalition - MCEC, 2020, www.militarychild.org/get-involved/their-story. “What Do the Colors of the Flag Mean?” The American Legion, 2020, www.legion.org/flag/questions-answers/91471/what-do-colors-flagmean.
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Student Loans: An Analysis of the Effects of Student Loan Debt in America Woodmael Edouard Sewanhaka High School
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Today, student loan debt has become one of the top prevailing issues in the world. Notably, student loan debt has had a huge impact on American society and its economy. Catherine P. Montalto, an Associate Professor of Consumer Sciences at Ohio State University states, as of 2017, the total student debt has reached $1.31 trillion (6). Correspondingly, Marie ChisholmBurns from the University of Tennessee Health Science Center College of Pharmacy states student loans represent the second largest cause of personal debt in America, following home mortgages (6). Due to the high rate of student loan debt, many college students and graduates feel burdened by their overwhelming debt which takes years to pay off, leading to financial instability in the future. According to “Genes, Economics, and Happiness”, a person’s financial status can have a great impact on their mental well-being and life satisfaction (De Neve 35). Basically, students who face financial implications due to student debt risk not only their mental health, but also their well-being. Which leads to the question: To what extent should the U.S. combat the ever-growing issue of student loan debt? Given the fact that student loans have caused thousands of American students to be both economically and psychologically burdened by their overwhelming debt, which leads to decreased life satisfaction in the future. Decreasing the cost of college tuition and enforcing programs that educate students on student loans, will result in a decrease in student debt and an increase in student wellbeing. A key factor to the high rate of student loan debt in America is the increase in college tuition due to the decline of state funding over the past few years. According to Diane U. Jette, an Adjunct Professor of Physical
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Therapy at MGH Institute of Health Professions, state support for public institutions have significantly declined over the past 2 decades (1685). Similarly, Carrie L. Johnson, an Assistant Professor at North Dakota State University states, “Specifically, state funding decreased by 12% overall whereas median tuition rose 55% across all public colleges” (184). As you can see, state funding and college tuition go hand in hand, when state funding decreases college tuition dramatically increases. In addition, Joel Best and Erik Best, professors from the University of Delaware, explain that many for profit colleges derive most of their income from the federal government in the form of student loans (52). Since many colleges already use student loans as a form of income, when state funding decreased colleges had no choice but to raise the cost of tuition, which ultimately led to more borrowing of student loans than in the past, which benefits the college but economically hurts the student. Due to the drastic increase of student loan debt in America, financial issues faced among college students have increased and student well-being has decreased. An additional cause to the rise of student loan debt, which many Americans fail to acknowledge, is that the majority of high school students in America are not educated on the topic of student loans. According to Johnson, borrowers are currently not provided with the necessary information to make an informed decision, and lack the accurate knowledge about student loans and the repayment process (186). As a result, students who lack the knowledge on student loans tend to take out more money than they need to. Also, studies have shown that the lack of knowledge on a specific subject tends to lead to unnecessary fear and stress towards that subject. Chisholm-
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Burns reports, “Increased fear of debt was related to greater perceived stress and higher student loan amounts borrowed, while increased contemplation and knowledge about loans was associated with lower amounts borrowed” (1). Today, many students have a poor understanding of personal finance, and it shows in their decisions on student loans and the amount of money they take out. As the use of student loans increases, it becomes vitally important that students attain the accurate knowledge on student loans and their repayment processes. Currently, there are many programs in place to help better educate students on student loans and their repayment obligations. According to a peer reviewed study, the American Student Assistance (ASA), is a private nonprofit organization dedicated to helping students make better decisions about financing higher education and repaying student loans (American Student Assistance). Similarly, the APTA (American Physical Therapy Association) website provides information to students and graduates on how to manage student loan debt and find scholarships (Jette 1686). Despite this, the majority of American students are currently unaware of these websites and programs, which is why the rate of student loan debt continues to rise and hurt American students. Proposed solutions such as the Student Loan Disclosure Transparency Act, have failed as an aid to students regarding student loan repayments. Joseph DePaulo, CEO and co-founder of College Ave Student Loans, explains the purpose of the Student Loan Disclosure Transparency Act was to notify and inform students before they take out a federal loan, the total amount of debt they’ll owe and the corresponding repayment options. In spite of this, the law wouldn’t have prevented students
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from not receiving the total information regarding their loans and repayment obligations until much later, and in some instances, even after the students have left school. Overall, it is fundamentally important that students are educated on student loans and personal finance, so when a student makes the decision to take out a loan, they won’t accidentally burden themselves with an enormous amount of debt. The financial issues that college students face due to student loan debt have also had a great impact on students’ adult life and well-being after college. Kelley Holland, a financial communications expert and journalist states, 57% of first-time home buyers say that the reason they’ve had difficulty saving up for a down payment was because of their student debt. People who have student loan debt are less likely to buy a house because student loans not only prevent people from saving up money, but student loans also count as debt obligations, which realtors look into when a person wants to buy a house. In addition to delaying homeownership, student loans can also impact a person’s love life. According to Christopher Avery, Professor of Public Policy and Management at Harvard University, and Sarah Turner, Professor of Economics and Education at the University of Virginia, students with student loan debt of $10,000 or more decrease the long-term probability of marriage by 7% (166). Not only does debt significantly affect people’s social life, studies have also shown how it could lead detrimental effects to people’s health. According to Jinhee Kim, Professor of Family Science at the University of Maryland, and Swarn Chatterjee, Professor of Financial Planning at the University of Georgia, severe debts are associated with worse health outcomes, such as anxiety, depression, suicide, alcoholism,
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substance abuse and other psychotic disorders (37). Basically, people who are financially burdened by their debts are more likely to experience negative affects to their mental health. The social and mental effects of student debt can directly influence student’s well being. Kahneman and Deaton explain how issues within a person’s financial status, social life, and health can directly worsen their “life satisfaction and experience” (18). In other words, debt can have a major impact on a student’s happiness. All in all, the financial, social, and mental implications caused by student loan debt can significantly degrade students’ overall well-being and life after college. Despite the growing issues resulting from student loan debt in America, many scholars believe that student loans are actually beneficial to students and the economy; specifically the U.S. job industry. According to Avery, student loans can potentially improve the “efficiency of the economy by raising the supply and demand of college-educated workers in the labor market” (167). Student loans allow more students a chance at higher education, which increases their likelihood of attaining a job; ultimately benefiting the U.S. economy. Along the same line, Monatalto argues student loans have actually been beneficial to racial minority students, claiming that African American students were more likely to complete degrees within 6 years compared to their counterparts with no federal loans (9). Although student loans have allowed people of low socioeconomic background a chance at higher education, student loans have led to more negative than positive effects in the U.S. According to Stephanie G. Ward from St. Mary’s University, in 2013, about 7% of college graduates under the age of 25 were unemployed (163). In fact, ever since then the percentage of unemployed
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graduates has continued to increase. Despite the argument that student loans have been beneficial to people of color, studies have proven that student loans have actually been a negative factor in the lives of African American students. Kim argues the negative effects of student loans experienced by African American young adults were more “prominent than the negative effects experienced by their White counterparts” (38). Thus, student loans have actually acted more of a financial burden among people of color than any other racial group. Overall, student loan debt has brought more issues than solutions among college students and graduates in the U.S. The cost of college tuition has been a major factor concerning the high rate of student loan debt in America. In the past, the U.S. government has proposed many solutions to combat this issue, including former President Barack Obama’s proposal for free community college tuition. According to Laura Olson, a political journalist, Obama’s proposal would significantly help students who don’t qualify for government aid. However, Obama’s proposal comes with many limitations. One, the proposal would have cost $60 billion over a span of 10 years, and not only would the government pay, but also would taxpayers, as they would see a significant increase in property taxes (Olson). From this we can deduce that Senator Bernie Sanders proposal for free public college tuition. Andrew P. Kelley, director of the Center on Higher Education Reform at the American Enterprise Institute, states free tuition would cause a disproportionate number of college students in America, as upper and middle income students would be expected to “gobble up” many of the free public college slots, ultimately hurting the students who need it
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most. In short, free college tuition would impose many implications to both students and the U.S. economy. Considering the many issues resulting from student loan debt and the failure of many proposals to lower the growing rate of student loan debt in America, solutions including, decreasing the cost of college tuition and enforcing schools to educate students on personal finance and federal student loans should be implemented. Decreasing the cost of college tuition would not only decrease the need for students to take out federal loans, but it would be a less expensive option compared to past proposals offering free tuition for public colleges (Holland). Also, classes such as personal finance, that inform students on student loans and how to manage their money would cause the rate of student loan debt to decrease as more students would be informed on student loans and their repayment obligations. In fact, Michelle A. Chui from the University of Wisconsin explains students who’ve attended classes on personal finance find it easier to pay off their debt in a shorter amount of time (4). This shows how teaching personal finance can be beneficial to students dealing with student debt. Thus, the U.S. should decrease the cost of college tuition and enforce classes such as personal finance in schools as it will help decrease the rate of student loan debt in America. However, there are limitations and implications that should be considered. Decreasing the cost of college tuition would still be a significant cost to the federal government (Holland). It would also negatively affect the income of many colleges, considering the current financial issues colleges face due to the decrease in state funding. It should be acknowledged that
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some schools don’t have a personal finance course as part of their curriculum, and according to Joshua J. Beck, a Salesforce Certified Business Analyst, implementing personal finance classes would serve as a serious financial implication to those schools. These schools would have to pay to implement this new course in their curriculum and pay teachers to teach that course. Lastly, implementing these solutions will not guarantee that no students will be burdened by a large sum of student debt. Despite the limitations and implications, the U.S. should decrease the cost of college tuition and enforce personal finance classes in schools to educate students on student loans, as it will lower the rate of student loan debt in America. If colleges are cheaper and students are informed on student loans, the number of students who would have to take out a loan would decrease and so will the amount of money borrowed from federal loans. Equally important, students who have a reduced amount or have no student loans will most likely experience a decrease in stress and anxiety levels, both in college and after they graduate. As stated earlier, the total amount of student loan debt in the U.S. is about $1.31 trillion dollars. If nothing is done to combat the ever growing rate of student loan debt in America, then by 2025, the total debt is predicted to reach $2 trillion dollars (Johnson et al. 185). More students will be subjugated to larger sums of student debt, which will not only negatively affect students both economically, socially, and mentally, but also the U.S. as a whole.
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References "American Student Assistance; Life Delayed: New Study shows Student Debt Impacts Financial Security of Borrowers Across all Institution Types, Credentials." Education Letter, Dec 30, 2015, pp. 498. ProQuest, https://search.proquest.com/docview/1751256093?accountid=34827. Avery, Christopher, and Sarah Turner. "Student Loans: Do College Students Borrow Too Much--Or Not enough?" The Journal of Economic Perspectives, vol. 26, no. 1, 2012, pp. 165-192. ProQuest, https://search.proquest.com/docview/921645670?accountid=34827, doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1257/jep.26.1.165. Beck, Joshua J., and Garris, Richard O., I.,II. "Managing Personal Finance Literacy in the United States: A Case Study." Education Sciences, vol. 9, no. 2, 2019. ProQuest, https://search.proquest.com/docview/ 2313727542?accountid=34827,doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/educsci90 20129. Best, Joel, and Eric Best. "The Shifting Landscape for Student Loans." Society, vol. 53, no. 1, 2016, pp. 51-55. ProQuest, https://search.proquest.com/ docview/1761656410?accountid=34827, doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s12115-015-9972-5. Catherine P., et al. "College Student Financial Wellness: Student Loans and Beyond." Journal of Family and Economic Issues, vol. 40, no. 1, 2019, pp. 3-21. ProQuest, https://search.proquest.com/docview/
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2111380473?accountid= 34827, doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10834018-9593-4. Chisholm-Burns, Marie, et al. "Associations between Pharmacy Students’ Attitudes Toward Debt, Stress, and Student Loans." American Journal of Pharmaceutical Education, vol. 81, no. 7, 2017, pp. 1-11. ProQuest, https://search.proquest.com/docview/1961750367?accountid=34827. Chui, Michelle A, PharmD., PhD. "An Elective Course in Personal Finance for Health Care Professionals." American Journal of Pharmaceutical Education, vol. 73, no. 1, 2009, pp. 1-6. ProQuest, https://search.proquest.com/docview/211227751?accountid=34827. DePaulo, Joseph. “How about Educating the Student before the Loan?” American Banker, American Banker, 26 Nov. 2019, www.americanbankeer.com/how-about-educating-the-student-beforethe-loa De Neve, Jan-Emmanuel, Nicholas A. Christakis, James H. Fowler, Bruno S. Frey. “Genes, Economics, and Happiness” AP Seminar Performance Task 2: Individual Research-Based Essay and Presentation - Directions and Stimulus Materials, The College Board, Jan. 2020, pp.22-40. Holland, Kelley. “The High Economic and Social Costs of Student Loan Debt.” CNBC, CNBC, 15 June 2015, www.cnbc.com/2015/06/15/the-higheconomic-and-social-costs-of-student-loan-debt.html.
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Jette, Diane U. "Physical Therapist Student Loan Debt." Physical Therapy, vol. 96, no. 11, 2016, pp. 1685-1688. ProQuest, https://search.proquest.com/docview/1837185394?accountid=34827, doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.2522/ptj.20160307. Johnson, Carrie L., et al. "What are Student Loan Borrowers Thinking? Insights from Focus Groups on College Selection and Student Loan Decision Making." Journal of Financial Counseling and Planning, vol. 27, no. 2, 2016, pp. 184-198. ProQuest, https://search.proquest.com/ docview/1868519753?accountid=34827,doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1891/10 52-3073.27.2.184. Kahneman, Daniel, and Angus Deaton. “High income improves evaluation of life but not emotional well-being.” AP Seminar Performance Task 2: Individual Research-Based Essay and Presentation - Directions and Stimulus Materials, The College Board, Jan. 2020, pp.16-20. Kelly, Andrew P. “Should College Be Free?” The New York Times, The New York Times, 2016, www.nytimes.com/roomfordebate/2016/01/20/ should-college-be-free/the-problem-is-that-free-college-isnt-free. Kim, Jinhee, and Swarn Chatterjee. "Student Loans, Health, and Life Satisfaction of US Households: Evidence from a Panel Study." Journal of Family and Economic Issues, vol. 40, no. 1, 2019, pp. 36-50. ProQuest, https://search.proquest.com/docview/2117032804?accountid=34827, doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10834-018-9594-3.
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Montalto, Catherine P., et al. "College Student Financial Wellness: Student Loans and Beyond." Journal of Family and Economic Issues, vol. 40, no. 1, 2019, pp. 3-21. ProQuest, https://search.proquest.com/docview/2111380473?accountid=34827, doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10834-018-9593-4. Olson, Laura. "Free College Tuition? Great Idea, Lehigh Valley Educators Say ** Under Obama's Plan, Community College Students would Get Two Years of Education at no Cost." Morning Call, Jan 10, 2015. ProQuest, https://search.proquest.com/docview/1644603737?accountid=34827. Ward, Stephanie G., and Matthew White. "THE GREEHEY SCHOLARS PROGRAM AS AN INNOVATIVE SOLUTION TO THE STUDENT DEBT AND EMPLOYMENT CRISIS OF RECENT GRADUATES." Academy of Educational Leadership Journal, vol. 19, no. 2, 2015, pp. 159-172. ProQuest, https://search.proquest.com/docview/1750973136? accountid=34827.
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Political Discourse in America Linnea Hagman Seaside High School
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“In proportion to the magnitude of the subject ought to be the freedom of the debate. It is only in this way that we can hope to arrive at the truth, and fulfill the great responsibility which we hold to God and our country” - Patrick Henry. This quote summarizes the necessity of debate in any society. In his speech, Patrick Henry draws attention to the importance of debating and how public discourse is the way to arrive at the truth, but many Americans today do not see the value of truth, especially through discourse. Why has there been a decline in voicing disagreement, specifically in regard to politics? The main factors that hinder political discourse in America today are the media’s monopoly, opposing worldviews, and public education.The first factor that hinders political discourse in America is the monopoly of the media. In 1983, 90% of U.S. media was owned by 50 companies, yet as of 2011, that same 90% is controlled by six companies (Ehmke). This means that these six companies have the ability to generate and shape the news without other competitors challenging their reports. Americans today have the illusion of having access to a variety of media and news options when 90% of what they watch, read or listen to is controlled by six media giants (Ehmke). These six giants “are the news makers, and when an item appears in them it becomes the news” (Schaeffer). In addition, journalists who work for these six corporations answer to their owners who have their own agendas. Thus, serving the boss’s agenda becomes first priority and unbiased reporting comes second. The media monitor what Americans see and effect what they believe, so when people disagree with one another, they may often argue based on misinformation they’ve seen on the news.
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Social media platforms are another means of how the media influences the minds of the younger generation in particular. An example of this is constant indirect communication through phones. Communicating indirectly with other people through texting and social media makes it easier to be cruel in disagreements and makes clear communication difficult (Ehmke). This continuous form of artificial communication creates a generation that does not have a great amount of practice relating to people in real life, so as this generation grows older, many will be anxious to talk and disagree with another person face to face (Ehmke). The use of social media also makes it easier to be cruel in the midst of disagreements (Ehmke). A clinical and developmental psychologist, Dr. Donna Wick, says, “You hope to teach [children] that they can disagree without jeopardizing the relationship, but what social media is teaching them to do is disagree in ways that are more extreme and do jeopardize the relationship” (Ehmke). Social media creates individuals who are uncomfortable with in-person disagreement and who do not know how to disagree in a constructive manner. The second factor that hinders political discourse in America is opposing worldviews. A worldview can be defined as “the [mental] window by which we view the world, and decide, often subconsciously, what is real and important, or unreal and unimportant” (Allen). Political arguments in America are often rooted in disagreement that lies deeper than the political issue itself. They are birthed out of opposing worldviews. Once American citizens disagree upon the most basic truths and values, often those found in the Bible, discourse is rendered fruitless.
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Worldviews consist of general, basic assumptions that are formed from every person’s surrounding culture (Allen). They determine behavior and the society created with others. Dallas Willard, an American philosopher, says, “There is nothing more practical than our worldview, for it determines the orientation of everything else we think and do…what we assume to be real and what we assume to be valuable will govern our attitudes and actions” (Allen). The biblical worldview says that this is a fallen world filled with lies and deceptions. It takes discipline to seek truth since it is not readily available. The truth can be found only through God and reflected in proper use of human logic, so in an increasingly godless world, those with a distorted worldview are common (Allen). Worldview is the unseen lens through which people see the world and take action from that perception, whether it is false or true. Its importance cannot be overstated. The absence of healthy discourse in America is a symptom of a large number of those with a flawed worldview; people act based on the lies that they believe are the truth. The last factor that hinders political discourse in America is the disaster of the public education system. Public schools have overstepped their role. Once designed primarily to impart skills and knowledge, schools recently have morphed into a political and social system. Throughout the twentieth century, individuals have expanded the role of public education to include all aspects of what was once the duty of the parents to impart to their children, such as teaching moral values. Today, schools intervene in virtually every aspect of a student’s life (Hood). Schools have overstepped in politics as well. What’s clearly been on the rise in recent
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decades is the use of public schools for engineering some social outcome deemed desirable by political leaders (Hood). Politicians look to place their own bias in public education to achieve what they deem to be for the public good (Hood). In regard to education policy, beginning in the 1950s and 1960s, the question of excellence became less important than questions of equity and access (Hood). There is little focus on academic achievement and learning compared to the focus on diversity and equality. The education system is not teaching students to be free thinkers or encouraging them to challenge one another with ideas. Rather, it is destroying the beauty in knowledge while creating a hopeless generation who only know how to listen and follow and do not know how to express their ideas or think for themselves. In conclusion, the main factors that hinder political discourse in America today are the media’s monopoly, opposing worldviews, and public education. Since its founding, America has valued free, political discourse as Patrick Henry demonstrated in his Liberty or Death speech. Americans hold a responsibility to God and to the country to find the truth through discourse. It is the right of the people to speak up and disagree with fellow citizens when need be. In fact, this is the only way to preserve this great country. Most significantly, the decline of constructive political discourse is a symptom of citizens abandoning the values upon which America was founded
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References Ehmke, Rachel. How Using Social Media Affects Teenagers. https://childmind.org/article/how-using-social-media-affectsteenagers/. New York, Retrieved June 7, 2021. Lutz, Ashley. These Six Corporations Control 90% of the Media in America. https:// www.businessinsider.com/these-6-corporations-control-90-ofthe-media-in-America. NYC, Retrieved June 7, 2021. Schaeffer, Francis A. How Should We Then Live? Illinois 1979. Louise, Nickie. The Illusion of Choice and Objectivity. https://techstartups.com/ 2020/09/8/6-corporations-control-90media-america-illusion-choice-objectivity/2020/. Retrieved June 7, 2021. Hood, John. The Failure of American Public Education. https://fee.org/articles/the- failure-of-american-public-education/. Retrieved June 7, 2021. Allen, Scott David. Why Social Justice is not Biblical Justice. Michigan 2020.
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Unaffordable Housing: Costing More Than Just Money Mason Hamar Detroit Lakes Senior High School
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“America is the richest country, with the worst poverty. That's who we are.” This is what Matthew Desmond, a sociologist and author, stated in a CBS news interview. Desmond personally chose to live in poverty to gain a greater understanding of it and to see what it’s like. He stayed with poor families living in Milwaukee homes they couldn't sustainably afford, following, logging and experiencing the daily lives of those people, from sleeping on their floors to watching their kids. He saw families make deplorable decisions and choices, such as choosing between food for their children or rent, only because they have to spend so much money to keep their homes. For all the United States’ massive wealth and economy, millions of Americans still live in poverty, and for some, only because they cannot afford a home. They can’t afford them not because they’re jobless or irresponsible, but rather from factors they cannot control. Unaffordable housing is a continually growing issue affecting millions across the nation forcing people to live in poor conditions or in homes they can’t afford, which causes not only economic but social issues as well, though there are possible solutions to this problem. The lack of affordable housing is a national issue and the main problem is that buying, renting, or owning a home is too expensive and the prices are continuing to grow. The expenses of owning or renting a home are growing faster than the ability for people to pay for them. Diana Lind, an urban policy specialist, states that “nearly one third of U.S. households - 38.1 million owners and rents paid more than 30% of their income for housing in 2016” (1). Due to the high and expanding expenses, people have to pay significant portions of their income to their home, taking away funds for
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other necessities. Something else Lind found was that “Median home prices rose 41% faster than overall inflation between 1990 and 2016” (1). In recent years, home prices in the U.S. have been growing faster than what people can pay. But why is this the case, and why are homes, especially for lower income and class people so expensive or hard to afford? One part of it is that there is no priority to lower level houses or rental homes in certain areas, typically large cities. In those areas, more expensive and luxury homes are given the priority. According to Bryce Covert, a writer for the New York Times, between 1995 and 2016, “Los Angeles lost more than 5,400 federally subsidized housing units, and the production of affordable housing stagnated too. Meanwhile, market-rate development boomed” (5). When the prices of lower class homes are increased, the rents or mortgages for them naturally go up too, making the living situations for many people unsustainable, meaning that eviction is all but inevitable. Covert also mentions that there is a “deficit of more than 7.2 million rental homes inexpensive enough for the lowest income people to afford, and nearly 554,000 Americans are homeless on any given night” (1). It shouldn't be a surprise that some people may enter in or out of homelessness in a year, so while half a million may experience it on one night alone, many more Americans could go through it as well within any year. Because of this, millions of people need homes that they can’t afford. Net Impact, a nonprofit membership organization, finds that the U.S. needs over 7 million affordable homes to meet it’s ever growing demand (Wright par 4)..Due to the overwhelming need for homes, the prices of them are often too much for people to pay and if the demand continues to grow quicker
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than the supply of homes, then prices will inflate more, making it even harder for people to buy homes and thus perpetuating the problem. The American Psychological Association finds that the “U.S. Census Bureau data shows that the U.S. poverty rate rose to 15.1 percent in 2010, an increase from 14.3 percent in 2009 and the highest level since 1993. In 2008, 13.2 percent of Americans lived in relative poverty” (par 4). At this point it’s very clear that poverty levels have been growing, so why haven’t homes become more available so that their prices decrease? In an attempt to combat the problem, back in the 20th century, the government set up programs like the Community Development Block Grant (CDBG) which funds local housing development, among other organizations, to get more homes built. The problem, however, is that some of these organizations have been neglected and that “Federal investment in affordable housing… development grants have been declining” (Lind 2). She also mentions that “Created in 1974, the CDBG program’s budget has remained approximately $3 billion per year and thus has lost 80% of its value due to inflation” (2). With this stagnation within government budgets, production of more houses hasn’t grown enough to match the demand. This causes the prices of homes to increase over time, and Kami Watson explains that “For the thirty years prior to 2000, the ratio of U.S. home prices to income averaged only 4 to 1… from 2000 to 2005, that ratio doubled to 8-1” (24). The reasons for the housing prices vary: The location of the home can affect prices, and typically homes will cost more in larger cities with more people due to higher demand. New construction costs and even growing federal or state legislation or regulation can make housing and its construction more expensive over time.
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Although it may just seem like an economical problem, the lack of affordable housing has many social impacts and consequences, and just like the problem itself, its consequences are on the rise. One major effect from unaffordable housing in America is segregation. Discrimination against certain groups of people, typically Blacks, makes it even harder to live in and afford housing. Because of this, these groups have to live in poorer neighborhoods and areas segregated from better and safer areas, even if they have the same amount of wealth. On The American Prospect, Richard Kahlenberg and Kimberly Quick explain that African Americans in the middle class are still far more likely to live in lower quality neighborhoods and homes with the same disadvantages as whites who earn far less, showing the racial disparity in housing (par 3). The Fair Housing Act, enacted in 1968 and amended in 1988, legally doesn’t allow discrimination when someone is renting or buying a home, getting a mortgage, seeking housing assistance, or engaging in other housing-related activities. However, like many other anti-discriminatory laws, the discrimination will still happen: “One study by the Chicago Lawyers' Committee for Civil Rights tested for the frequency of income and racial discrimination in 70 properties in six Chicago neighborhoods. Of the 70, a full 30 revealed one or both forms of discrimination” (Kahlenberg and Quick par 29). Because these groups cannot get into or afford homes, and unless something is done about, the poverty rates of these minority groups will continue to grow, expanding socioeconomic gaps in a never ending cycle so that their children will have to deal with them. The children themselves agruebly suffer the most from unaffordable housing. Even the discrimination
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and segregation within the housing market reflects this: “Racial and ethnic disparities in poverty rates persist among children. The poverty rate for Black children was 38.2 percent; 32.3 percent for Hispanic children; 17 percent for non-Hispanic White children; and 13 percent for Asian children” (American Psychological Association par 12). Again, this only makes the problem worse in the future, as kids that live in poverty or without a home suffer from a multitude of problems, from health to education. The APA explains that poorer kids or teens are at a larger risk for many negative outcomes, like academic failure or dropout, abuse, neglect, behavioral and psychological issues, physical health issues, and developmental problems (par 18). With all these restrictions placed on kids, they have a lower chance of finding ways out of poverty, which would come mainly through education, but because of the conditions they live in, they simply can't and thus the cycle continues. As home prices continue to increase, more people and their kids are pushed into poverty. In fact, “The National Association for Education of Homeless Children and Youth reports that during the 20092010 school year, 939,903 homeless children and youth were enrolled in public schools, a 38% increase from the 2006-2007 school year (American Psychological Association par 62). Without a stable and quality home, many students simply can’t succeed academically as well as others. Many deal with stress and even the stigma from not having a physical or decent home. They may just drop out of highschool to attempt to earn some sort of income, and possibly deal with health issues as having an unaffordable home or lower quality living conditions can adversely affect the mental and physical health of anyone (Lind 2). These people are very likely exposed to
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dangerous and toxic chemicals from their home, leading to health conditions like asthma or cancer. Paying for these treatments make it even harder for families to get by, as they either are forced to ignore them or risk eviction, all of which causes stress. The APA also finds that poverty can cause mental health issues. For example, it explains that “Homeless single mothers often have histories of violent victimization with over one third having post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and over half experiencing major depression while homeless. An estimated 41 percent develop dependency on alcohol and drugs and are often in poor physical health” (par 65). When single mothers face these conditions, their ability to raise a child by themselves is hampered to the point where the child has no chance of escaping poverty, and these children are often hit the hardest, especially mentally, from poverty. Desmond explains that due to their developing mind, children can easily get overwhelmed by the effects of homelessness, from constantly moving around to split ups with family members to often worse homes (3:17). This then causes issues with children, and as the APA reports, “Half of school age homeless children experience problems with depression and anxiety and one in five homeless preschoolers have emotional problems that require professional care” (par 83). Depression and violent behaviors can also stem from unaffordable housing, as stress from the risk of eviction, not making ends meet, foreclosure, or just overworking to pay for an unaffordable home can cause all of that. Many renters or homeowners who are of lower income could pay significant portions of their incomes to pay for their home, leaving out funds for other basic needs. Matthew Desmond expresses that “Most Americans suffering from the
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housing crisis don’t get any kind of help from the government and are forced to give most of their money not to their kids, but to their landlord or utility company” (5:36). Many people have to forgo needs ranging from health care to transportation for themselves and for their kids or family, and with so much money going to their homes, they cannot afford to fix the issues stemming from unaffordable housing and poverty. All of the poverty effects discussed make it harder to get a home and will create or exacerbate most of the other issues. For example, because a family cannot afford their home, they are unable to spend much money on food, leading to malnutrition, which causes children to do worse in school, making it near impossible to earn enough money to get out of the hole and then the process continues to the next generation with no end in sight. Despite the overwhelming problem and consequences, there are actually a few potential ways to achieve affordable housing, but have yet to be tried on a large scale or garnered enough support to be implemented. To solve unaffordable housing, the supply of homes needs to be increased so that their prices decrease, and one way to do that is through 3D printing. Using 3D printers, small but relatively inexpensive homes can be quickly constructed across the nation, and some areas are beginning to see this. Lind reports that in 2018, Cities such as New York began employing the use of 3D printing for housing, and she explains that “Its main application will be in disaster zones, but one can imagine the eventual use in U.S. communities” (3). Though currently in it’s baby steps, 3D printing could become the new form of building homes. There are other groups and companies using 3D printing too, such as New Story. Tech Insider claimed on Youtube that some
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of their shelters can be “built in less than 24 hours at a cost of only $4,000… help families living in poverty and unsafe conditions” (:6) And with this amount of efficiency, homes that cost hundreds of thousands of dollars to build and take months to build can be built at fractions of the costs. The process itself is a lot simpler than manual or traditional construction methods and Amy Eskind, a writer for “People.com”, writes that “By automating the construction of the wall system, the homes can go from groundbreaking to move-in-ready in three to four months” (par 15). Through 3D printing, any kind of home or shelter can be built both quickly and cheaply, offering many people a chance at an affordable home. While 3D printing is on a small scale now, it could be the new way to build homes in the future, though that leaves the problem unsolved until then. Another way to reduce prices is for the construction of tiny homes or ADUs either from 3D printing in the future, or manually now. The problem however, is that in many areas these alternative homes are illegal to build or don’t meet regulations. A simple way to solve this is to have state or local governments legalize currently outlawed housing alternatives, such as ADUs or Tiny homes (Lind 5). These smaller houses will be easier to build, and thus cost less and construct quicker, meaning people will be able to afford these houses and can focus on other needs. Other ideas include federal tax rebates to those who pay large chunks of their income on housing (Lind 4), and other state or federal solutions could be putting more money into housing via bonds or taxes. All of that could increase the available funds for housing programs that could get more houses built and thus decrease the supply and lower prices so that it’s more affordable for more people. They
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could also be used to help families pay for their current home too. To end the segregation issue, enforcement against discrimination needs to be increased too. The first step of doing this is increasing efforts to gather information for discrimination in housing, and Kahlenberg and Quick suggest that to spot and combat discrimination in housing, people would pose as buyers, with no real intention to buy a home, go around and gather info on possible cases of discrimination (par 29). This could give metrics and statistics on the issue and where it’s at its worst. A form of this was actually used during the Obama administration, as laws and organizations were created such as the Financial Fraud Enforcement Task Force, and it “...brought together a broad coalition of law enforcement, regulatory, and investigatory agencies to combat financial fraud. increase the use of fair housing testers'' (Kahlenberg and Quick par 30). Though repealed by the Trump Administration, if it were brought back, along with more enforcement and investigation, discrimination can be combated in housing, making it more affordable for more people. Though affordable housing is a national issue that affects all groups in society, there are possible solutions to it. For every effort towards a solution, there needs to be a significant number of people pushing for these housing plans, or they may never happen on their own. Until something is done to solve affordable housing, millions of Americans and their families will experience poverty and or homelessness along with its social, economic, and health consequences. Not only that, but that cycle won’t stop, meaning that generations of Americans will live in similar conditions as their parents, and their parent’s parents unless housing becomes more affordable. Until
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then, America will remain polarized as one of the wealthiest countries in the world that still has millions of its own citizens trapped in perpetual poverty.
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References “3D-Printed Home Can Be Constructed For Under $4,000.” YouTube, uploaded by Tech Insider, 24 Mar. 2018,www.youtube.com/watch?v= wCzS2FZoB-I.Accessed 6 Jan. 2020. Covert, Bryace. “Red-State Rumblings.” Nation, vol. 307, no. 3, July 2018, pp. 20–24. EBSCOhost,search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct= true&db=aph&AN=130492767&site=ehost-live Accessed 20 Dec. 2019. Lind, Diana. “Living in the U.S.: At What Cost? Rising Housing Prices Are Outpacing Wage Increases Nationwide, Threatening a Living Standard That Once Seemed an Inalienable Right.” Architectural Record, vol. 206, no. 10, Oct. 2018, pp. 80–83. EBSCOhost, search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=1320932 66&site=ehost-live Accessed 20 Dec. 2019. Kahlenberg, Richard, Quick, Kimberly. “The Government Created Housing Segregation. Here’s How the Government Can End It.” THE AMERICAN PROSPECT [Washington, D.C.,], 2 July 2019, prospect.org/civilrights/ governmentcreatedhousingsegregation.government-can-end-it. Accessed 20 Dec. 2019. “Pardon Our Interruption.” Https://Www.Apa.Org/.www.apa.org/pi/ families/poverty.Accessed 6 Jan. 2020. PEOPLE.com. “Https://People.Com.” PEOPLE.Com [CA], 13 Dec. 2019, people.com/human-interest/3d-printed-homes-for-homelesscommunity-first-village-austin Accessed 22 Dec. 2019. “Researcher Proposes How to Solve the U.S. Affordable Housing Crisis.” YouTube, uploaded by CBS News, 24 Feb. 2019,
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www.youtube.com/watch?v=NBsqSmLnc8M&app=desktop. Accessed 22 Dec. 2019. Watson, Kami “A Solution to the Affordable Housing Crisis.” Journal of Housing & Community Development, vol. 59, no. 3, May 2002, p. 22. EBSCOhost,search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph& AN=6692758&site=ehost-live. Accessed 20 Dec. 2019. Wright, Connie. “America Can’t Afford Unaffordable Housing.” Net Impact [Okland, CA], 3 Oct. 2019. www.netimpact.org/ blog/america-cant-afford-unaffordable-housing. Accessed 20 Dec. 2019.
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Profits Over People: The Disproportionate Power of Corporations Over American Politics Artem Khaiet Prospect High School
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The 2007-2008 financial crisis was one of the worst recessions in American and global history. Many causes were proposed, but one major problem that led to the crisis – corporate influence on American politics – was consistently overlooked. On December 31, 2007, the Wall Street Journal reported that Ameriquest Mortgage and Countrywide Financial, two of the largest mortgage lenders in the United States, together spent nearly 30 million dollars in political donations, campaign contributions, and lobbying activities between 2002 and 2006. This activity was aimed at defeating legislation that could have limited reckless lending practices and the consequent creation of the housing bubble. Later economic papers confirmed that banks and other financial institutions who engaged in intensive lobbying and campaign financing tended to make riskier loans, were more likely to default, and were much more likely to receive bailout cash from the government. It is apparent that greed-driven corporate meddling in our nation’s politics played a significant role in causing, or at least exacerbating, one of the most catastrophic financial crises in decades, which left millions unemployed and sent the economy in turmoil for months (Igan et al.). But the 2007-2008 recession is far from the only instance of problems arising from excessive mingling of businesses in the US government. It is an indication of the deep-rooted issue of undue corporate influence on the American political processes. Of course, this influence is not inherently dangerous. America had it as long as it had politics, and even James Madison wrote that special interest groups, which he called “factions,” are an inevitable and at times even a healthy part of a democratic society (Madison). But today, corporations wield widely disproportionate political power, which often
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hurts regular Americans. Business interests spend substantially more than the type of organized interests that might be expected to provide a counterbalancing force to them, such as labor unions or groups representing diffuse public like consumers or taxpayers. For every dollar these groups spend on lobbying, businesses spend $34. Of the 100 top spenders on lobbying, 95 represent corporate interests (Drutman, “What we get wrong”). The result of all this spending is that it is extremely challenging to pass any legislation that may benefit the American public at the expense of businesses, since the priority of corporate lobbyists is preserving the status quo. In one survey, the top reason for why corporations tried to influence Washington politicians was “to protect the company against changes in government policy,” which was ranked at 6.2 out of 7 in importance (Drutman, “What we get wrong”). Therefore, any progressive proposals and reforms, including single-payer healthcare, gun control, lower defense spending, justice reform, and many more, face an uphill battle from pharmaceutical companies, the arms industry, private prisons, and other special interests. For instance, back in 2020, polls showed that 76% of Americans supported a second round of stimulus checks of $1,000 or more. But after months of stalemate – a delay that further aggravated the economic downturn – Congress passed a much smaller relief bill which most Americans believed to be insufficient. Similarly, despite 60% of the public being in favor of increasing the federal minimum wage to $15 per hour, the Senate opposed the measure by significant margins (Ruiz). Besides preventing the passage of popular programs, all this lobbying costs American taxpayers money, as firms that lobby are more likely to pay lower income taxes (de Figueiredo and Richter) and more likely to receive
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money from the government in the form of corporate welfare and bailouts (Lessig). Instead of passing popular and beneficial legislation, therefore, Congress is more worried about how to advance corporate interests at the expense of the public. Essentially, there are two main reasons for why the corporate grip on American politics is so great. First, the campaign costs are very high and most regular people are unwilling to contribute to their preferred candidates. As a result, politicians turn to corporations to help them fundraise, and then owe them votes in Congress in exchange. Lawmakers spend between 30 and 70 percent of their time raising money to stay in Congress, or to get their party back in power. That is understandable, considering the average costs of running victorious campaigns in the most recent elections in the House, Senate, and Presidential races were $2 million, $15.7 million, and $1.3 billion, respectively (Ruiz). Meanwhile, less than 1% of Americans give more than $200 to a political campaign, and less than half a percent give the maximum in any Congressional campaign. As a result, many politicians in the United States focus their careers on pleasing the 1 percent - or, worse, the .05 percent - to ensure their reelection even if the public is dissatisfied with their job performance (Lessig; Ruiz). The second subproblem is the miserable conditions in which many Congressional staffers work. These staffers, who work behind the scenes and are the people who the Congress runs on, must rely on lobbyists to provide them with public opinion research, legal expertise, and political insider knowledge. In the process, they often sway the Congressional aids, and with them the Congressmen, to their client’s side. One in eight congressional
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staffers in Washington, DC, are not paid a living wage (Grayer). Meanwhile, the hours are long (80-100 hour weeks are not uncommon), and frequently unpredictable (Drutman, “A Better Way”). This is why it is perhaps unsurprising that experienced, professional, and highly educated people are not attracted to such a career. The average staffer has only been in their position for 2.5 years (Grayer). 87% of the staffers are under the age of 40, and 55% have no more than a bachelor’s degree (Drutman, “A Better Way”). 65% of staffers plan to leave Congress within five years, with many taking their institutional knowledge and talents to lobbying firms (Grayer). Meanwhile, the staffers who do remain in Congress largely have to rely on lobbyists because of their inexperience and unwillingness to do hard tasks for such low pay in terrible conditions. For instance, one survey found that twothirds of staffers say that lobbyists are ‘necessary to the process’ of policymaking as either ‘collaborators’ or ‘educators.’ The American people, understandably, are upset about the situation. They view members of Congress as one of the least ethical professions, surpassed only by lobbyists themselves (Drutman, “What we get wrong”). Most share a widespread belief that corporations buy politicians and agree with the statement “no one is listening to me and my family” (Drutman, “What we get wrong”; Sabato). Removing the disproportionate power that wealthy Americans wield over US politicians would restore public faith in the American political process and force politicians to focus on the public interest. Doing so could require addressing the high campaign costs and the unwillingness of regular Americans to contribute to candidates, as well as the miserable conditions in which many Congressional staffers work.
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To combat the undue influence of corporations on elections through workarounds and campaign finance schemes like PACs and SuperPACs, which are organizations that pool campaign contributions from special interests and donate them to campaigns, some have suggested a program called “democracy vouchers.” In essence, it would give the public an incentive to financially support candidates that they prefer. Lawrence Lessig, a Harvard law professor and political activist, describes a potential implementation of the solution this way: Almost every voter pays at least $50 in some form of federal taxes. So imagine a system that gave a rebate of that first $50 in the form of a ‘democracy voucher.’ That voucher could then be given to any candidate for Congress who agreed to one simple condition: the only money that candidate would accept to finance his or her campaign would be either “democracy vouchers” or contributions from citizens capped at $100. No PAC money. No $2,500 checks. Small contributions only. And if the voter didn’t use the voucher? The money would pass to his or her party, or, if an independent, back to this public funding system. (Lessig) In fact, democracy vouchers were introduced in Seattle mayoral elections, and the program has so far shown some promising results. Public financing gave a shot to candidates who would have otherwise been unlikely to raise hundreds of thousands of dollars to expand their reach. For instance, mayoral candidate Andrew Grant Houston, who reported a net worth of zero dollars, was the leading voucher recipient in the 2021 mayoral race. Additionally, the voucher program has the biggest and most diverse donor pool in the United States, with around 7% of residents participating in 2019
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(Hyde and Todd). This undoubtedly levels the playing field and decreases candidates’ dependence on special interests. Instead, politicians are more likely to listen to the regular people rather than the overwhelmingly wealthy demographics who constituted the majority of campaign donors in the past. This saves taxpayers money by weakening the power of corporations to demand kickbacks, subsidies, and tariffs in exchange for their contributions. In 2009, the cost of such “corporate welfare” was $90 billion. Lessig argues that “if cutting the link to special interest funders could shrink that amount by just 10 percent, the investment would, across a two-year election cycle, pay for itself three times over” (Lessig). However, the “democracy voucher” solution is unsustainable and ineffectual. Even on the small scale of mayoral races, it has exhibited major flaws and failed to address key issues. A federal implementation of democracy vouchers would have even more loopholes and unintended consequences. The giant loophole in the democracy voucher program, linked to the Supreme Court’s Citizen United decision, is that “independent expenditures” flood in through Super PACs, which are political action committees that raise unlimited amounts of money, largely from special interests, and use it to finance campaigns. The two leading PACs that supported the two primary winners in the 2021 Seattle mayoral race raised nearly seven times more money than their counterparts in the last election (Hyde and Todd). So, unless the Supreme Court reverses the decision or there is a constitutional amendment passed, both highly unlikely outcomes, corporations will simply circumvent the new requirement and continue contributing large sums of money to candidates by pretending to be regular
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people. Because of this, democracy vouchers had little practical effect: Houston, the candidate who redeemed the most democracy vouchers, received less than 3% of the vote. Meanwhile, the top two candidates, Harrell and González, redeemed the smallest number of democracy vouchers among those who used them (Hyde and Todd). In the end, the candidates with the most financial and institutional support behind them still won the elections, democracy vouchers or not. Most importantly, this solution would be impractical even if there were no loopholes. For the last 15 years, companies have consistently spent 13 times more on lobbying than they have on PAC contributions (Drutman, “What we get wrong”). Extensive political science research has been unable to detect any systematic relationship between campaign donations and outcomes (Drutman, “A Better Way”). Campaign finance reform like democracy vouchers looks in the wrong direction when addressing the problem of corporate influence, and is bound to be ineffective by itself. Critics contend that campaign finance reform is unnecessary and instead suggest a solution that deals with lobbying, which, according to them, is the true villain. And the root cause of the disproportionate influence of corporate lobbyists on the legislative process is their expertise. Congressional staffers, whose job it is to research policy, issues, legislation, and public opinion, often must rely on lobbyists and consultants to provide information to them. In exchange, lobbyists get to push their clients’ agenda. Lee Drutman, a prominent political scientist, argues that if Congress began to pay staffers more and made it possible for them to work more family-friendly hours, professionals would be attracted to a career as a staffer, and staffers
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would be more likely to stick around longer, improving their skills and knowledge every year. As a result, they would be less likely to rely exclusively on lobbyists for policymaking expertise, and less likely to become lobbyists themselves and take their knowledge to corporations. The revolving door that government workers go through to become lobbyists and corporate analysts, and vice versa, would finally begin to close, and corporate influence would be lower. Additionally, Congress would be able to draw on a larger and more diverse talent pool to fill staffers’ positions, which would overall improve the quality of legislation, address issues more effectively, and combat the prevailing public belief that Congress is detached from the common folk (Drutman, “Three Fixes”). These improvements are also less cumbersome than many other solutions. To improve salaries, many assert that simply raising the pay floor of Congress will solve the issue. And to decrease working hours, Drutman suggests creating a nationwide searchable database of federal bills, each with a note on who lobbies on the bill and why, what the public opinion is on the bill, and what other lawmakers think. The database would significantly lighten the burden on staffers and reduce the time it takes to do their work (Drutman, “A Better Way”). Despite the optimism, there are legitimate concerns about the solution. Its major flaw is that it is entirely speculative. There has been no practical implementation of it in other countries or in the US, and there is thus no direct evidence that improving working conditions of Congressional staffers would reduce lobbying. As a result, taxpayers would be unlikely to support higher wages for staffers, which would be spent from the federal budget, in hopes that it may possibly reduce corporate influence. Without significant support
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from the people, this solution would be hard to practically implement. Also, improving working conditions of staffers may reduce lobbying in theory, if the federal government implements the solution effectively. But past experiences have shown that federal bureaucracy is inefficient and likely to misappropriate any money Congress may direct to higher wages for staffers. For instance, House Appropriators recently proposed a 21% increase in the money allocated to congressional offices to spend on their offices and payroll. Analysis has shown, however, that these policy changes would only affect approximately 3 percent of congressional staff (Grayer). Furthermore, the value of lobbying is questionable. The solution proposed by Drutman and others is based on the assumption that the expertise lobbyists provide, not campaign donations, grant corporations excessive influence. But research has shown that despite federal budgets representing over two trillion dollars, lobbying represents only three to four billion dollars. Additionally, only 10% of firms lobby (de Figueiredo and Richter). One cannot help but wonder, if lobbying is so key to corporate influence and provides such great benefits to special interests, why is there so comparatively little money in lobbying and why so few companies lobby given the magnitude of potential benefits politicians could redirect toward special interests? Indeed, while there is little direct evidence that financing campaigns leads to certain outcomes for the donors, 89% of corporations succeed in their lobbying goals, compared to only 40% of citizen groups and 37% of foundations. This trend is not seen in the European Union, where the majority of policymakers do not need to stand for election and thus are not beholden to wealthy special interests who pay for their campaigns (Mahoney). This suggests that contrary to what critics such as Lee Drutman
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believe, campaign finance does play a big role; otherwise, there is no reason why corporations are so much better at “swaying” lawmakers to their side than those fighting for common good. Higher wages and slightly shorter work hours for staffers are not enough by themselves to curb corporate influence, and an effective solution would combine multiple approaches, dealing with both campaign finance and lobbying. Ultimately, the best way to reduce undue influence of corporations is a combination of comprehensive moderate legislation that addresses key issues and a much more significant improvement in the working environment of congressional staffers. One proposed piece of legislation that would strengthen current anti-lobbying and campaign finance provisions is the For The People Act. It is simple, popular, and has bipartisan support (Eichen and Rissmiller). The act would be a big step towards bringing transparency and trust to our government. It would require foreign lobbyists to report any gifts, salaries, favorable regulatory treatment, or other economic or financial benefit that they may give or receive from office holders, require online platforms to maintain information about political ads purchased by or for foreigners, require super PACs to disclose major donors, and require registered lobbyists to identify who they are, who their client is, and indicate whether the client is a foreign entity when they make a lobbying contact (Convington; Sherman). To battle campaign finance abuse, the act would use public financing to match small dollar donations to House and presidential candidates (Sherman). Similar to democracy vouchers, this would incentivize candidates to rely on average voters’ donations rather than special interests and thus make politicians more responsive to regular people’s needs. For every dollar that is
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donated to a campaign, the government will donate some funds as well, provided that the recipient agrees to accept limits on special interests’ donations. This program has already been implemented in New York City, where a $10 contribution from a NYC resident to a participating candidate in the 2021 election could be worth as much as $90 to their campaign. It has so far shown similar benefits to Seattle’s democracy vouchers initiative, such as increasing competition, voter turnout, and transparency, giving a chance to candidates who have no wealthy benefactors, decreasing special interests’ influence, and saving millions of taxpayers’ dollars. Importantly, unlike democracy vouchers, small dollar matching actually balanced outside spending. In 2013, the top four candidates with the highest funding by PACs and super PACs all lost, and many Council candidates won despite special interests backing their opponents (“Matching Funds Program”). Furthermore, to eliminate the loopholes of older laws, the For The People Act would reduce the registration threshold for time spent on lobbying activities from 20% to 10%, which would significantly expand who might be considered a lobbyist. It would also regulate “shadow lobbying” (lobbying by those who are not registered lobbyists) by applying regulations to those who “counsel” on lobbying issues, even if they do not make a direct contact with a federal official. Finally, it would establish a dedicated enforcement group within the Department of Justice’s counterespionage unit tasked with enforcing the Foreign Agents Registration Act (current legislation regulating lobbying by foreign entities) and appropriate $10 million annually for that group, which would help ensure the existing and new regulations would be followed (Covington). Together, these provisions would make it harder to evade
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current regulations, decrease the monopoly corporations have on campaign donations, and improve the government’s reputation by increasing transparency. The act, as written now, would not be perfect, however. For instance, it would leave out an important loophole called the “LDA exemption,” which generally permits agents of private sector foreign entities to register under the Lobbying Disclosure Act, which is less burdensome and less transparent than the Foreign Agents Registration Act (Convington). Additionally, most Republicans do not support this act and are likely to filibuster it like they did last time the measure was brought to floor, primarily because the anti-lobbying and campaign finance provisions in it are tied to other electoral reforms, such as expanding voting rights, banning partisan gerrymandering, and creating new ethics rules for federal officeholders (Sherman). However, with some tweaking in the language of the For The People Act, elimination of even more loopholes, its separation from other electoral reforms, and application of public pressure on Republicans to emphasize the legislation’s broad support, the Act could be passed and would be a simple but major step in the right direction. The For The People Act, however, would of course not solve the problem of excessive corporate influence on the government by itself. To have a major impact, it must be combined with a policy to fix the root of the issue of lobbying by improving the working conditions of congressional staffers. A lot of evidence points to lobbyists’ expertise and the staffers’ lack thereof as one of the primary causes of special interests’ undue influence (Drutman, “A Better Way”). For years, congressional aides have espoused such opinions as “the biggest challenge for keeping staff in Congress today is
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the toxic political atmosphere” and “unless the House wants to rely entirely on the advice of lobbyists and Washington insiders, it is imperative that the degradation to House salaries is halted and reversed” (Fitch). The provisions described in Part II, namely raising the pay floor in Congress and creating a nationwide database of bills and public opinion, have potential but are insufficient by themselves and prone to misimplementation by the government. Bradford Fitch, a former congressional aide himself and current President and CEO of the Congressional Management Foundation, has proposed a roadmap for fixing staffers’ workplace, which would consist of several comprehensive steps, in addition to the ones outlined in Part II. First, Congress must establish a salary threshold for junior staff. Currently, many entry level staffers have to take a second job to make ends meet. By comparison, the executive branch has implemented such thresholds long ago - a new junior level staff assistant working at the Internal Revenue Service, for instance, would start at a salary of $40,883. The House has many assistants working for less than that in the extremely expensive city of Washington, DC. Second, Congress must pay staffers overtime. The Congressional Accountability Act, which was supposed to force Congress to live by the same laws as the rest of America, was passed nearly 30 years ago. Yet, Congress used loopholes in the law to avoid paying employees overtime as if it were a private entity. This has to be outlawed. Third, the student loan repayment program must become fairer. Because the benefits are apportioned per office, some staffers get more student loan benefits than others. These benefits should be apportioned per employee instead to reflect rising college costs and attract educated people who accumulated a lot of
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debt. Finally, Congress must raise the staffer-per-office cap. The current maximum was established in 1979, when staffers had less work, legislation was less convoluted, legislators represented fewer people, and politics was less complex. Now, Congress must accommodate for the increasing expertise requirements by hiring more staffers to divide up work among them, thus decreasing their working hours. This expanded solution addresses the flaws described in Part II: these changes are so numerous and monumental that even government bureaucracy and potential inefficiency cannot completely overshadow their positive impact. This solution is far from perfect, though. Improving staffers’ working environment would reduce the influence of lobbying, and the For The People Act has provisions targeting both lobbying and campaign finance. However, the programs are not colossal reforms and therefore may be viewed by some as insufficient to successfully combat big money influence. That may be true, but more comprehensive and ambitious solutions, such as overturning the Supreme Court’s Citizens United decision to effectively regulate super PACs rather than protecting them as free speech, or increasing the House size to decrease the amount of people each candidate has to reach and thus lower campaign costs in the first place, may be more successful, but are unrealistic and simply out of sight for now. Lobbying regulation and small donor matching are easier to implement and have broad support. Others may object to these proposals as being too expensive. While the changes would require more funding, the corporate welfare and other benefits corporations get by lobbying and paying for campaigns cost taxpayers way more money, as
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mentioned in parts I and II. This point needs to be emphasized to get the public and lawmakers on board with the solution. The purpose of a democratic government is always to represent the interests of its constituents. In the United States, this purpose has for a long time conflicted with the excessive power of corporations and other wealthy special interests. It is time to restore Americans’ trust in the government and address their, rather than corporations’, concerns. This can be accomplished through legislation that would increase transparency, eliminate loopholes in existing regulations, implement a small donor matching program, and significantly improve congressional staffers’ working conditions to reduce their reliance on lobbyists. The ball is in Washington’s court.
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References Covington. “Understanding H.R. 1 (Part 2): Changes to the Lobbying Disclosure Act and Foreign Agents Registration Act.” Covington & Burling LLP, 8 March 2021, https://www.cov.com/en/news-andinsights/insights/2021/03/understanding-h-r-1-part-2-changes-to-thelobbying-disclosure-act-and-foreign-agents-registration-act. Accessed 15 March 2022. de Figueiredo, John M., and Brian Kelleher Richter. “Advancing the Empirical Research on Lobbying.” Annual Review of Political Science, vol. 17, no. 1, Annual Reviews, 11 May 2014, pp. 163–185. Crossref, doi:10.1146/annurevpolisci-100711-135308. Eichen, Adam, and Kevin Rissmiller. “Despite Months of GOP Attacks, The For the People Act Remains Incredibly Popular.” Data For Progress, 1 July 2021, https://www.dataforprogress.org/blog/2021/7/1/voters-supportfor-the-people-act. Accessed 24 April 2022. Drutman, Lee. “A Better Way to Fix Lobbying.” Brookings, 6 June 2016, https://www.brookings.edu/wp-content/uploads/2016/06/ 06_lobbying_drutman.pdf. Accessed 23 February 2022. “Three Fixes For Our Lobbyist Problem.” The American Prospect, 5 June 2008, https://prospect.org/article/three-fixes-lobbyist-problem/. “What we get wrong about lobbying and corruption.” The Washington Post, 16 April 2015, https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/monkey-
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cage/wp/2015/04/16/what-we-get-wrong-about-lobbying-andcorruption/. Fitch, Bradford. “Dear congressional staffers: CMF has a roadmap to fixing your workplace.” The Fulcrum, 11 February 2022, https://thefulcrum.us/Government/Congress/ congressional-staff. Accessed 24 April 2022. Grayer, Annie. “New report finds 1 in 8 congressional staffers are not making a DC living wage.” CNN, 26 January 2022, https://www.cnn.com/ 2022/01/26/politics/congressional-pay-survey/index.html. Accessed 19 February 2022. Hyde, David, and Gracie Todd. “Did Seattle's Democracy Vouchers combat 'big money' in August's mayoral primary?” KUOW, 11 August 2021, https://www.kuow.org/stories/did-seattle-s-democracy-voucherscombat-big-money-in-the-august-mayoral-primary. Accessed 10 March 2022. Igan, Deniz, et al. “A Fistful of Dollars: Lobbying and the Financial Crisis.” NBER Macroeconomics Annual, vol. 26, no. 1, University of Chicago Press, Jan. 2012, pp. 95–230. Crossref, doi:10.1086/663992. Accessed 11 April 2022. Lessig, Lawrence. “Opinion | In Campaign Financing, More Money Can Beat Big Money.” The New York Times, 16 November 2011, https://www.nytimes.com/2011/11/17/opinion/in-campaign-financingmore-money-can-beat-big-money.html. Accessed 5 March 2022.
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Madison, James. “Federalist No. 10.” Library of Congress, 23 November 1787, https://guides.loc.gov/federalist-papers/text-1-10#s-lg-box-wrapper25493273. Accessed 11 April 2022. Mahoney, Christine. “Why lobbying in America is different – POLITICO.” Politico EU, 4 June 2009, https://www.politico.eu/article/whylobbying-in-america-is-different/. Accessed 21 February 2022. “Matching Funds Program.” New York City Campaign Finance Board, https://www.nyccfb.info/program. Accessed 1 May 2022. Ruiz, Jorge. “To Fix our Democracy, We Must Get Small Money into Politics.” Harvard Political Review, 21 April 2021, https://harvardpolitics.com/ democracy-voucher-donations/. Accessed 24 April 2022. Sabato, Larry. “Expand the House of Representatives.” Democracy Journal, 2008, https://democracyjournal.org/magazine/8/expand-the-house-ofrepresentatives/. Accessed 15 March 2022. Sherman, Amy. “House Democrats and HR 1: Voting rights expansion or federal power grab?” PolitiFact, The Poynter Institute, 8 February 2019, https://www.politifact.com/article/2019/feb/08/democrats-seekexpand-voting-access-2020-election-/. Accessed 24 April 2022.
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The Economics of Raising the Tobacco Age Daniel Lieberman Robert S Alexander High School
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With the recent developments in laws for consumption of tobacco in the U.S. one may wonder how this will affect Americans financially. Recently a law was passed that will make it illegal for Americans under the age of twenty-one to purchase tobacco products. To truly see how this may affect the U.S. one may evaluate the changes in states that have already adopted similar laws or look at the effects it has had on countries that have adopted these laws further in the past. It is easy to say that it is a good thing to change the law if one were to look through a social or futuristic lens, but what about an economic lens. How might this affect vendors, teens, or the tobacco industry? That is what was evaluated this year, and that is what will be explained in this essay. As a disclaimer, my goal here is not to prove one side of the argument to be true or false. I am merely attempting to evaluate this topic from every possible viewpoint with no opinion one way or the other. To start, I thought it to be a good idea to evaluate evidence that would show the predicted change in initiation age and the percentage of people within different age groups that smoke. To do this I pulled some data from an article done by Ph.D. Sajjad Ahmad of the University of California. The article used current and past data to predict the effects of the new smoking age in the year 2053, which at the time would have been forty-eight years in the future. The data in the article was from 2003, meaning that it was a projection for fifty years into the future as opposed to forty-eight. It showed that the implementation of the new law would not only be a shift in the average initiation age by about three years, but there would also be a lower percentage of new smokers. The article found that with the change in smoking age from eighteen to twenty-one, “The percentage of youth ages 14
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to 17 who smoke is likely to decrease to 2.4% from status quo prevalence levels of 13.3%” (Ahmad, 2005). It also predicts that the percentage in every age range will eventually decrease after the law is put in place. With this shift in initiation age, one might wonder how this will affect America financially. Smoking costs Americans millions in medical bills for tobacco-related illnesses. The United States’ “annual tobacco-related health costs are estimated at US$81 billion” (Fuchs et al). With a predicted decrease in the number of smokers initiated at ages fourteen to seventeen at almost eighty-two percent, the predicted amount of money spent on medical bills in the United States would also decrease. This would save Americans billions of dollars annually. Another way the change in policy would affect the United States is the number of working years per person. One huge concern with the use of tobacco products is each individual’s life expectancy. The longer the life expectancy of a person, the longer the projected healthy working years. With more healthy non-smoking Americans in the workforce, there will be an increase in profitability for companies with these workers. There will also be a better quality of life for those individuals as they are able to work longer and make more money. For women on average who smoke at age fifty in the United States has a decrease of “1.31 years of life expectancy” and men have a “deficit in life expectancy of 0.37” (Preston et al) With this information, one could easily see that an in changing the age for purchase of tobacco from eighteen to twenty-one positively impacts United States citizens financially. Another potential issue is the financial well
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being of those people who do work in the tobacco industry. How might the policy change affect those individuals? In the United States alone there are “1.8 million (American Economics Group, Inc.) and 3.1 million (Tobacco Merchants Association) jobs related to tobacco” (Gale et al). The article evaluated the effect that excise taxes have on the sale of tobacco. They found that just a one-dollar increase in excise tax could “affect an estimated 74,700 to 96,800 jobs” (Gale et al). The introduction of the smoking age of twentyone would decrease sales dramatically. It would decrease in the sale of tobacco products by almost eighty-two percent by the year 2053 resulting in even larger numbers of jobs to be affected than the excise tax alone. The change in demand after a one-dollar increase in excise tax was projected to be only twenty percent as opposed to eighty-two percent. Assuming that this would affect the industry in a proportionate way the number of jobs affected would be between the numbers of 298800 and 396880. That is a multitude of jobs that our economy may not be prepared for. For a multi-billion dollar industry of any kind to lose the ability to employ the majority of its employees is dramatic in and of itself would be dramatic, but an industry of this magnitude and of this much importance to lose this many employees would be tragic for the families of hundreds of thousands of Americans. Looking beyond the well-being of those who smoke, I think it is obvious that there are great advantages to raising the smoking age for some Americans and also a multitude of benefits to keeping the legal age at eighteen. After evaluating the evidence from both points of view, it becomes clear that the raising of the legal age for purchase of tobacco from eighteen to twenty-one would benefit future smokers. It may have a converse effect on
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the vendors of tobacco and those who produce and sell the product wholesale. A potential solution to the problem may be to increase excise tax instead of raising the legal age for purchasing tobacco. The excise tax has effectively reduced the purchase of tobacco products, but with a far less dramatic effect than the potential effects of raising the legal age to twentyone. Of course, the end goal of this all is to improve the livelihood of the American people, and if that means keeping the legal age the same for the time being, then perhaps that is what needs to be done. Taking less drastic measures may have a more positive effect. The loss of jobs within the industry would most likely decrease, but with much less extremity.
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References Bump, J. B., & Reich, M. R. (2012). Political economy analysis for tobacco control in low-and middle-income countries. Health policy and planning, 28(2), 123-133. Ahmad, S. (2005). The cost-effectiveness of raising the legal smoking age in California. Medical Decision Making, 25(3), 330-340. Schneider, S. K., Buka, S. L., Dash, K., Winickoff, J. P., & O'Donnell, L. (2016). Community reductions in youth smoking after raising the minimum tobacco sales age to 21. Tobacco control, 25(3), 355-359. Reyes-Guzman, C. M., Pfeiffer, R. M., Lubin, J., Freedman, N. D., Cleary, S. D., Levine, P. H., & Caporaso, N. E. (2017). Determinants of light and intermittent smoking in the United States: results from three pooled national health surveys. Cancer Epidemiology and Prevention Biomarkers, 26(2), 228-239. Silver, D., Macinko, J., Giorgio, M., Bae, J. Y., & Jimenez, G. (2016). Retailer compliance with tobacco control laws in New York City before and after raising the minimum legal purchase age to 21. Tobacco control, 25(6), 624-627. Fuchs, A., Gonzalez Icaza, M. F., & Paz, D. P. (2019). Distributional Effects of Tobacco Taxation: A Comparative Analysis. The World Bank. Preston, S. H., Glei, D. A., & Wilmoth, J. R. (2011). Contribution of smoking to international differences in life expectancy. International differences in mortality at older ages: Dimensions and sources, 105-31.
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Gale Jr, H. F., Foreman, L. F., & Capehart Jr, T. C. (2000). Tobacco and the economy: Farms, jobs, and communities (No. 1473-2016-120753).
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TikTok’s Political Discourse: Going Down the Far-Right Rabbit Hole Callie Whicker Atkins Academic & Technology High School
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Abstract With the popularity of social media apps, misinformation has infiltrated politics. These ideas, also known as conspiracy theories, spread far and wide due to the rapid nature of social media. Misconceptions as large as these are can lead to individuals defending a perspective that has been proven false, and thus influencing others. TikTok, an up-and-coming social media app, is cause for concern due to the nature of its algorithm. The app’s algorithm uses watch time, shares, comments, likes, hashtags, and a user’s followers to generate videos based on user preference, unlike other platforms. This makes TikTok a hotspot for political misinformation. Due to the quick and extremely personalized algorithm, users can fall down far-right “rabbit holes,” scrolling for hours, exploring topics filled with misinformation. My research shines a light onto far-right presence on TikTok and how the platform can encourage misinformation, by asking the question, "How has the spread of misinformation by TikTok’s algorithm contributed to extreme political ideologies in viewers ages 16-24?" Through generating a new account, I engaged with a subset of 50 videos expressing 2020 election misinformation, then allowed the algorithm to generate 530 videos. I recorded statistics on engagement for all far-right videos. I found that the algorithm generated many videos with far-right topics, such as neo-nazism, violent calls-to-action, implicit racism, ultranationalism, and 25 other far-right topics. I received 304 far-right videos on the FYP out of my sample of 534 (about 57%). There were no videos with a credible citation that had a recorded code. This means that any of the far-right content did not
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include a credible citation, showing misinformation spreading. Most of these videos contain high numbers in user engagement, proving that TikTok does give a platform to far-right content on a basis of misinformation, thus exposing TikTok’s young audience to extreme ideologies. As American politics continue to increase in polarity, it is necessary to look at contributing factors, including social media. This research will set a pathway to looking at the political impact on modern social media apps, diagnosing a cracking foundation in American society. Introduction The Spread of Misinformation With popularity of social media apps, such as TikTok, Instagram, and Twitter, misinformed concepts have grown in politics. As of November 2, 2021, hundreds of people part of an organization called QAnon stood on the curb where JFK was assassinated. They believed that JFK Jr. (who died 22 years ago) would come back from the dead to overtake the vice presidency with Donald Trump as President. This idea, and those similar are known as conspiracy theories. They spread over the country and even the globe due to the rapid nature of social media (Cohen et al., 2020). As stated in Social Media: A Pandemic of Misinformation, published by the American Journal of Medicine, conspiracy theories contain misinformation that has evolved from disinformation. Misinformation is false information that is mistakenly shared. Disinformation is inaccurate information that is spread to hurt or influence people to an extreme side. Misinformation and disinformation can spread far quickly. The researcher explains a realistic scenario where if a person has 400
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followers on Facebook and posts something containing wrong information, if just 1% of their followers see that post, that’s four people that have immediately seen it. This spread can be instantaneous, as they open the app. Those four people can, in turn, spread that information to their followers. This cycle portrays how misinformation is spread and its speed at infiltration (Moran, 2020). With the quick nature of misinformation, the importance of that factor increases drastically (Vraga et al., 2019). What to Believe? Social Media Commentary and Belief in Misinformation by two scholars of Political Science found that social media algorithms are made to keep you engaged, no matter the topic. In this study, they discussed that, even in an effort to find reliable news, news on social media is catered to the individual viewer. This creates bias in what news a viewer is seeing when they go onto a social media platform. They referenced that the Pew Research Center found that 32% of U.S. adults see incorrect news often and 39% of U.S. adults sometimes see incorrect news, miseducating many on relevant topics. This miseducation is seen quickly by many people, leading to false ideas in events, politics, and scientific information (such as vaccines or evolution). An examination of misinformation with politics shows that this can influence political beliefs of many people in a country (Anspach & Carlson, 2018). This study indicates when people are presented an article with commentary that discredits the claim of the article, they are likely to not believe the information in the article, even when it’s factual.
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The Tactics of Misinformation Misinformation can lead to more than people not understanding a topic or believing something false; the phenomenon can lead to fully defending a side of a topic that has been proven false and influencing others (Marocolo et al., 2021). A report completed by Stanford University discusses a variety of the methods that people who spread misinformation are using to convince others (and themselves) that they are correct. Such methods involve emotional tactics, such as religion, ideas of liberty, safety, freedom, and health. People who spread disinformation use emotion and testimonials to draw others to their side. Testimonials tend to be believed over facts due to the emotional connections, as the report discusses (Stanford University, 2020). Since testimonies have so much power over people, social media platforms misinformation-spreading ideas (Mena, 2020) as noted in What to Believe… and Social Media: A Pandemic of Misinformation. This idea is further proved through the study Science audiences, misinformation, and fake news, by authors in Life Sciences Communication at University of Wisconsin, saying that widespread belief of something that isn’t true can make it seem “normal” and have a greater chance of deceiving people. This study provides evidence regarding how individuals lack the ability to identify misinformation. They reference that the Pew Research Center found that 23% of American Adults admitting that they have shared misinformation through social media, knowingly or not, implying a lack of social media literacy (Scheufele & Krause, 2019). These two studies connect two different logical fallacies that these people use to convince others of their misinformation.
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TikTok and Its Algorithm Due to TikTok being a recently developed app, its algorithm hasn’t been figured out in its entirety (Wu et al., 2019). The study Trick and Please. Mixed Methodology Study on User Assumptions About the TikTok Algorithm puts forth inferred specifics of the TikTok algorithm. The study, by researchers at Carnegie Mellon University, analyzed about 300,000 trending videos and interviewed 28 TikTok users, finding that the top three things that matter to a trending video are using trending hashtags, video engagement, and posting time. They stated about the algorithm: “...TikTok…customizes video content for the individual user’s ‘for you’ page based on previous and continuous user engagement with presented video content through video viewing time, liking, commenting, and sharing…by constantly learning users’ video content preferences… the curated content feed…selects videos related to their apparent preferences” (Klug et al., 2021).
Accumulating research indicates that this algorithm is exceedingly advanced compared to other social media apps, because it can suggest content to you based on other forms of engagement to a higher degree (Alonso-López et al., 2021). TikTok is made to entertain users with short videos tailored to their interests with most videos being around 20 seconds long (Baumel et al., 2021). This establishes the app as a hotspot for political misinformation, due to the quick and extremely personalized algorithm (Basch et al., 2021). This political misinformation ends up being catered to
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younger viewers, given that the target audience of TikTok is between the ages of 16-24 and 25% of its users are 10-19 as of April 2021 (Statista Research Department, 2021). Since TikTok’s videos are short, this is more than enough time for misinformation to be spread, as Social Media: A Pandemic of Misinformation stated. This misinformation, with a younger and captivated audience, will lead viewers to rabbit holes, trails of topics, one leading to another with more engagement on a video (Valenzuela et al., 2019).
Literature Review The Professional Conversation Three studies in particular drew conclusions and connections in the establishment of my research question. These studies all looked at the farright presence on TikTok in different ways, each coming to similar conclusions through different approaches and perspectives.
Dancing to the Partisan Beat: A first analysis of political communication on TikTok This study, by authors from Technical University of Munich, aimed to find the features of political communication on TikTok through the perspective of political divide. They started with a data set of 7825 US Republican and Democratic videos to see how users communicate about political issues. This source put videos into three different categories, focusing on political parties, and found that there was more “traction” (engagement
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through likes and comments) onto Republican videos. This establishes a gap for my research to fill, where there is a call-to-action in the conclusion of this study; the authors say how it would be helpful to have studies involving the platform design and recommendation system on the content (Serrano et al., 2020).
Research note: Spreading Hate on TikTok Authors in Conflict and Terrorism aimed to analyze far-right presence on TikTok videos posted in early 2020 to find if far-right terrorists share a similar profile across TikTok, looking at conservative TikTok through a farright lens. In this study, they established that far-right terrorists and their presence on online platforms is harmful due to the ability to be connected more easily and get more disinformation out in a timely manner. The researchers started with identifying the far-right TikTok accounts, identifying them as: “neo-fascists, neo-Nazis, anti-Semites, white supremacists and other extremist groups and organizations that feature ultranationalist, chauvinist, xenophobic, theocratic, racist, homophobic, anti-communist, or reactionary views.” They analyzed what commenters and likers profile’s looked liked, finding a common theme: “Many rightwing users use flags of known far-right groups or images of far-right figures or symbols as their avatars or profile photo, as well as usernames relating to the ideology.” The findings and ideas behind this study demonstrate that the far-right terrorist presence on TikTok is there, having common themes with profile interface, and that these people
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on TikTok violate community service guidelines, which TikTok isn’t addressing (Masri & Weinmann, 2020).
TikTok’s algorithm leads users from transphobic videos to far-right rabbit holes Published by a non-profit research center, this study found that engaging with only one type of content, transphobic content, can lead a person to many other far-right rabbit holes on TikTok. This work uses a social implication perspective in looking at TikTok. This study was the key part in establishing my methodology. The study found that just through looking at content that is transphobic, as a person scrolls through their FYP and engages with only transphobic content, they get into much deeper, far-right rabbit holes (such as white supremacy and far-right violence.) This demonstrates that the FYP is made to engage viewers, no matter the topic, and can lead someone to far-right rabbit holes based on only one far-right topic (Little et al., 2020). These three studies all have one main tie: TikTok gives a platform to the spread of far-right misinformation, even though they all have different perspectives. Dancing… discusses the specifics of videos with “Republican” content gaining more attention, showing that there is an increase with engagement on videos from the right side. Research… builds upon that, saying that the presence of far-right terrorists is seen through profiles and that the TikTok platform is an easy outlet for misinformation to spread. Finally, TikTok’s algorithm… seals the idea that far-right misinformation can spread
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quickly, especially on a platform like TikTok. Only engaging with one topic can lead to a rabbit hole of others, as seen in the study. These studies solidify the idea that misinformation spreads quickly on TikTok through the process of engagement with content, due to the algorithm.
Common Method TikTok’s algorithm… informed me of the best methodology for my research question. The study coded 400 recommended videos through the “For You” page (FYP) and analyzed their content. They created a new account, then decided on 14 accounts to follow with only transphobic content. They engaged with just transphobic content, seeing that one topic could lead to far-right rabbit holes of content on the FYP (Little et al., 2021). This study gave headway to my methodology, as the researchers looked directly at FYP videos, giving more attention to the algorithm of TikTok. This basis of a methodology led to my own. I also built upon this methodology by looking at a political topic, looking into the misinformation in a video, and looking at comment responses (rejecting or supporting the claim/stance made in the video). Additionally, I am looking more into video engagement statistics, rather than just following the far-right rabbit holes as TikTok’s algorithm… did. My coding categories differentiate from this study, giving more specificity to the gap I am filling. For the purposes of this research project, disinformation and misinformation are used interchangeably in data collection. This is because whether the false information is disinformation or misinformation is not relevant since either type has harmful effects on its viewers.
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My definition of far-right, “extreme right-wing politics, with some mainstream conservatism incorporated,” was informed from these studies. These terms are listed in Appendix E if needed.
The Gap By studying all concepts of TikTok’s algorithm and political misinformation, I am filling a gap in modern research that will start a trend of more research into politics on TikTok. Other studies in this field do not address TikTok’s algorithm, political misinformation, and methods of far-right misinformation spread. Looking at one concept on TikTok to see what the personalized algorithm will generate can show how TikTok can lead someone down a rabbit hole of misinformation. My coding categories involving misinformation, video commentary and using a political perspective differentiate my work from other studies in this field. This differentiation led to my research question of “How has the spread of misinformation by TikTok’s algorithm contributed to extreme political ideologies in viewers ages 16-24?”
Hypothesis The expectation is that by engaging with one topic of political misinformation (misinformation regarding the 2020 elections), the algorithm generates videos expressing far-right beliefs. The section TikTok and its Algorithm described that the platform is made to keep you engaged, no
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matter the topic. TikTok’s algorithm… discussed this idea in depth and informed my methodology, showing that as the researcher engaged with transphobic content, the algorithm generated different videos with far-right topics, even though they just engaged with that one topic.
Methodology Within all of the studies revolving around TikTok, its algorithm, political misinformation, and other misinformation online, they all have a component of quasi experimental design, which I am using for my research. This is a mixed method approach with quantitative and qualitative data collection, to account for my use of coding categories that are qualitative while looking at statistics on videos that are quantitative. In this study, a quasi experimental approach was necessary to gauge engagement on far-right videos on TikTok. By using an independent variable of a preliminary subset of videos (in this case being with only 2020 election misinformation), and a dependent variable of algorithm generated videos, I am only affecting one variable without a control group. then coding generated videos based on topics and statistics, with no control group. This is because the engagement with the initial subset of videos leads to the videos generated by the algorithm. Common TikTok users are being studied to look how the algorithm contributes to extreme ideologies in the subset of viewers that TikTok has most. By looking at the engagement on far-right videos, I can see what far-right topics are seen by just one person looking at one topic of political misinformation, showing that
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the younger range of viewers can easily see far-right misinformation, growing an extreme ideology in viewers.
Preliminary Data For preliminary data, I gathered a sample set of 50 videos that had content making claims containing misinformation about the 2020 elections (i.e. “Trump won,” “Trump is president,” etc). These videos had to be posted after the 2020 election results to be used in the sample set to be recognized as misinformation. These videos and their statistics can be found in Appendix A. This sample set is needed as prior engagement, to show that just one topic of misinformation can lead users to far-right content on TikTok due to its personalized algorithm. This research required a fresh, new account on TikTok, to ensure there was no bias from any other source of media since there is no confirmed idea of how much TikTok uses to gauge user interest. I created a new account from a new email and used “BlueStacks” to generate a different IP address from my own. “BlueStacks” mimics an Android phone, allowing me to continue to have the same functionality as a real phone. This ensured that TikTok cannot pull any data from anything that I have viewed otherwise. Once the account was made, I engaged with each video from my sample set, liking, sharing, watching all of each video once, commenting the phrase “yep!”, and following the creator of the video. These steps were taken in order for the algorithm to recognize the one topic of videos that I was engaging with, showing that the user has an interest in that topic.
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Data Collection After prior engagement was completed, I allowed the algorithm to generate 534 videos through the FYP. I continued to only engage with the videos that expressed misinformation about the 2020 elections. Any video that didn’t have misinformation about the 2020 elections I did not watch through completely. This was to ensure that the algorithm did not pick up on the user fully watching a video of another topic, thinking that they enjoy that type of content as well. This would have interfered with the preliminary subset focusing on one topic of misinformation. Once the algorithm generations finished, I used TikTok’s metadata report to go back and collect statistics on each video. This allowed me to let the algorithm generate all of its videos only based on my preliminary engagement, without any interference due to collecting data. This data collection has subsequent steps. First, I coded the video by its topic. This connected to the statistics of the video, in order to show how many people it reached. If the video did not have a far-right topic, statistics on it were not recorded. The focus of this study is on far-right content engagement and not far-right content compared to any other content, so recording statistics on information that isn’t far-right would be null.
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Coding definitions can be found in Appendix B. If a video had multiple topics, I recorded the overarching topic, where the most claims were made about that particular topic. This was to ensure that no data was difficult to read or understand. Next, I determined if there’s a credible citation from the video/video creator. This step is to determine if misinformation being supported by commentary can affect the viewers’ beliefs in the claim demonstrated by the video, as mentioned in The Tactics of Misinformation section. Then, I recorded the following statistics about the video: like count, comment count, share count, followers on the creator’s account, and video number (number out of the sample size). This is to establish what topics are getting the most engagement, thus affecting the audience as described in the “Context” section. Finally, I recorded information about the top comment (comment with most likes) and if it supported the claim in the video. This is because the top comment is the first piece of information a viewer sees while opening the comments, which could further influence their beliefs as well. All of this information was recorded in a two-day span to ensure maximum reliability on statistics of videos, to try to keep engagement counts closest to what they were when originally seen. Performing my data collection in a way that is specific to video engagement and content made sure that I could analyze the trends over time, as Tiktok’s algorithm… did by connecting sample size and content. I recorded engagement counts to see which topics have the most engagement, and recorded the video number out of the sample size to see how the topics go into far-right rabbit holes over time, relating to Research note… which looked at far-right presence on TikTok. I also recorded information regarding
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comments to see how the misinformation presented in a video affects its audience; as discussed in Context, commentary can influence what people think about a topic. Recording comment counts shows that if even most people are arguing against a false claim made in a video, it adds to the boosting of the video by the algorithm, allowing more people to see it.
Results I received 304 far-right videos on the FYP out of my sample of 534 (about 57%). The topic with the highest number of videos on my FYP was “Biden Hatred.” The second highest number of videos on my FYP was “Christianity” and the third highest was “Conspiracy Theory.” This proves that TikTok is not only promoting a far-right political agenda, but conspiracies regarding the state of the country, universe, and Christianity. The FYP generated videos with numerous far-right topics (over 30), proving my hypothesis to be correct, as illustrated in Figure 1.
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Figure 1 shows the progression into numerous far-right rabbit holes over time, starting off with many videos on Biden Hatred, moving into Christianity, and finishing out with topics such as Ultranationalism, COVID Misinformation, and Conspiracy Theories.
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Appendix B features all 534 videos with all statistics recorded. There were no videos with a credible citation that had a recorded code. This means that all of the far-right content was on a basis of misinformation, which can spread quickly. 233 out of 307 (76%) videos with far-right content had the top comment supporting the claim made in the video. These comments support the claim made in the video gives a greater chance that a user could believe the video’s claim more, as discussed in “Tactics of Misinformation.” One limitation, however, is that 30 of the videos in the sample set of coded videos were from people that the account was already following due to the prior engagement step. This cannot be revised as the platform is attempting to recommend videos from who a person follows, a sign that they like that type of content. Another limitation includes that there was one video that was
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removed out of the coded videos before it could be viewed again. However, since the size of the sample is so large, this is a minuscule limitation. The following (Figures 2, 3, 4, and 5) show total likes, total views, mean number of likes based on category and mean number of views based on category, as forms of representing engagement.
Figure 2 demonstrates that the topic “Biden Hatred” had the most views, with overall views being at 75,186,562 and overall likes being at 7,092,175. The second most viewed was “Conspiracy Theory” with 59,012,968 total views. This shows that “Biden Hatred” and “Conspiracy Theory” content as a whole receive a lot of engagement, which can influence a viewer.
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Figure 3 shows that “Biden Hatred” had the most overall likes, being at 7,092,175. “Conspiracy Theory” followed, with likes at 830,902. This shows a similar trend as Figure 1 does, with many categories having similar percentages. Appendix D contains all of the likes and views for each topic.
Politics 698 In contrast to Figures 2 and 3, Figure 4 shows that “Ultranationalism” had the most likes in terms of mean, at 169,914. “Ultranationalism” was followed closely by “World Politics/Protest” with 169,517.
Figure 5 shows that “Conspiracy Theory” contains the most views in terms of mean, at 1,686,085. “Biden Hatred” closely followed at 1,595,722 mean views. This representation shows that, although total counts may differ, subjects with smaller total view and like counts can have more engagement per video. By looking at mean views and likes count per topic, a better understanding of engagement on each type of video is found. Figures 4 and 5 demonstrate that concepts of misinformation based on less political theory have large engagement counts, even if a large number of those types of videos were not generated by my run of the algorithm. This depicts that a susceptible viewer can easily see this content, swaying their beliefs.
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Conclusion The data has shown that TikTok has given a platform to far-right content, delving all the way into Conspiracy Theories, Neo-Nazism, and many more categories. Since there are such high engagement numbers on these videos, this shows that there are many people seeing this content, influencing many minds. This closely represents what was expected in the hypothesis, by engaging with one topic of political misinformation, the algorithm generates videos expressing far-right beliefs. High engagement counts on each video by topic (depicted by mean) shows a growing subset of viewers for harmful content such as “Conspiracy Theory” or “Ultranationalism,” even though “Conspiracy Theory” content may be seen as entertainment to some. However, to TikTok’s young audience, when they receive an algorithm generated video depicting a “Conspiracy Theory,” they ponder over it and start to ask themselves if it is real. 76% of videos containing a supporting claim for a far-right video demonstrates that many videos have commentary that can influence a person’s beliefs. 57% of the videos out of the sample set being far-right content shows that TikTok is promoting far-right content to new users, which can significantly contribute to the spread of misinformation. This research is on par with the study that influenced me, TikTok’s algorithm… However, differing from TikTok’s algorithm…, I found that none of the far-right videos I saw had a credible citation, showing that this content is misinforming and operating on misinformation. By using a similar method, I have proven that this phenomenon also exists from the political perspective, rather than a social perspective that they had. This research has answered its set question (“How has the spread of misinformation by TikTok’s algorithm contributed to
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extreme political ideologies in viewers ages 16-24?”) and others by determining that TikTok is influencing younger viewers in its audience through far-right topics with misinformation. This data has shown that the algorithm generates far-right videos based on one topic of political misinformation. This shows that if a young viewer was curious and engaged with even a single topic of political misinformation, they can be led to many far-right views. This research adds more past the question by looking at how viewers can be influenced, through misinformation, its tactics, and that TikTok fails to fulfill its own guidelines. Overall, far-right content on TikTok due to one concept of political misinformation is strong and affecting its subsequent young audience.
Discussion This section serves to discuss future implications and limitations, along with future directions for research. This data and research proves that there is a need for a plan to combat misinformation. I propose three main ideas for the U.S. to implement to combat misinformation online.
1. Use an educational game in schools, yearly, to grow a sense of empowerment and intelligence in students to combat online misinformation. As discussed in Breaking harmony square: A game that “inoculates” against political misinformation, there is a way to empower young people
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through a misinformation combat game. This study has two main pieces, one, the creation of a destruction of misinformation videogame (Harmony Square,) and the analysis of the effects of that game on a group of subjects. The study, led by a team of researchers at Harvard University, describes the game as, “Over the course of 4 levels, players learn about 5 manipulation techniques commonly used in the spread of political media content: trolling, using emotional language, polarizing audiences, spreading conspiracy theories, and artificially amplifying the reach of their content through bots and fake likes.” The game takes about 10 minutes to complete. The study found that most people could gauge misinformation better after playing the game. They found that the people playing the game were significantly less likely to share that misinformation. They also found that people were more confident in spotting misinformation after playing the game. This shows that just a simple videogame can entertain young students while allowing them to gain the skills needed to combat the growing number of misinformation in the 21st century (Roozenbeek & Van Der Linden, 2020). 2. Enforce TikTok’s community guidelines to remove more misinformation filled videos. TikTok fails to enforce its community guidelines, which leads to misinformation being spread. The study Broken promises: Tiktok and the German Election discusses how the German elections were interfered with. 13% of the German population uses TikTok, making it influential to a good part of its population. The study, published by a technical research organization, looked at three aspects of TikTok that could be influential to potential voters,
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“TikTok’s automated approach to labeling content about the German election with informational banners is not working effectively, with videos being improperly labeled. 2. TikTok implemented its fact-checking partnership with Germany’s largest press agency, dpa, only weeks before the election. 3. We uncovered several TikTok accounts with significant followings that are impersonating prominent German political institutions and figures. These fake accounts suggest the platform is failing to enforce its community guidelines in the critical countdown to the German election.” As seen on other social media platforms in other studies, the misinformation labels are not effective in combating misinformation, as the authors described. The idea of relying on keywords to be given a label is not effective; this can be misinterpreted. Labels can be put on videos not regarding the subject. The second part involves TikTok fact checking, saying that its efforts of fact checking aren’t beneficial due to the timeliness. In this case, TikTok only implemented a fact checking system weeks before the German elections. TikTok partnered with a large press agency, only at the end of August, when people could start to send in mail in ballots as early as September 5th. The third aspect of this is fake accounts. TikTok’s Community Guidelines say that there cannot be accounts impersonating someone else, however, there was a fake account for one of Germany's main federal parliament, with 14,000 followers. These accounts can be used to spread political misinformation with such a following. The study found more examples of this, and said that TikTok must take this more seriously to ensure a better control of misinformation (Bosch & Ricks, 2021). This study confirms that there is a need for TikTok to address its Community Guidelines more than
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it currently is. TikTok has shown that it enforces its Community Guidelines, as I saw when coding and after coding my videos, that some were removed, but it does not enforce them as it should. 3. Using “honeypot” accounts to lure in far-right accounts and then disable all collected accounts. The study Seven Months with the Devils: A Long-Term Study of Content Polluters on Twitter created a method to find “polluters” on twitter and to lure them in to be disabled over time. The study, published by Texas A&M, took 60 honeypots and attracted 30,000 users. These honeypots attract polluters through making themselves seem susceptible to misinformation, by tweeting about popular information or something of generic content. The other piece regarding polluters found that they average only 4 tweets per day, because if they tweeted a lot per day, they would be disabled by Twitter. This low number of tweets allows the user to be seen as an average user instead of a polluter. After profiling content polluters, they found a control group of “legitimate” users, randomly selected and active. This gives a percentage to each user in each group of how they are on twitter, either legitimate or polluted. Using the honeypots to attract the polluters makes it easy to report and disable the account. (Lee et al., 2011). If this method can be applied toward TikTok and its far-right accounts, it would be a great way to dismantle these far-right accounts and stop the spread of harmful information. Any of these 3 methods could be used to remove far-right content. All of these in tandem would make a significant difference to our society and give a strong foundation for youth growing up in the modern age of media.
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The limitations of this study include coding category definitions and time span of data collection. Coding definitions, as they were based on previous studies, have a basis of foundation from other studies, but were still written by me and evaluated by me in data engagement. This can create some differences in future replication. The two day time span of data collection could have influenced some engagement numbers on videos, but this is unavoidable for a sample size this large and thorough. Two days is not enough time for an overall trend to completely change in terms of engagement. Replicating this exactly is extremely difficult, as it deals with the algorithm generated videos. A future researcher would need to perform this multiple times to ensure similar trends on topics, and might have new topics appear, or not have some of the ones I had. This study can be used as recognition of TikTok giving far-right content a platform, showing a need for improvement. This research project is operating under the assumption that TikTok has users spreading disinformation/misinformation, because of the quick nature of the platform and TikTok not acting on its guidelines, as evidenced by studies such as Research Note… and Broken Promises… The specific findings of this research report give reason for educational and online solutions to the spread of political misinformation, along with new areas of study involving TikTok and its impact on modern society.
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Cohen, R., Moffatt, K., Ghenai, A., Yang, A., Corwin, M., Lin, G., Zhao, R., Ji, Y., Parmentier, A., P’ng, J., Tan, W., & Gray, L. (2020, November 23). Addressing misinformation in online social networks: Diverse platforms and the potential of Multiagent Trust modeling. MDPI. Retrieved September 29, 2021, from https://www.mdpi.com/20782489/11/11/539/htm. Klug, D., Qin, Y., Evans, M., & Kaufman, G. (2021, June 1). Trick and Please. A Mixed-Method Study On User Assumptions About the TikTok Algorithm. ACM Digital Library. Retrieved September 11, 2021, from https://dl.acm.org/doi/abs/10.1145/3447535.3462512. Little, O., Richards, A., Beecham , N., Evans, C., & Tuthill , J. (2021, October 5). TikTok's algorithm leads users from transphobic videos to far-right rabbit holes. Media Matters for America. Retrieved October 18, 2021, from https://www.mediamatters.org/tiktok/tiktoks-algorithm-leadsusers-transphobic-videos-far-right-rab bit-holes. Lee, K., Eoff, B. D., & Caverlee, J. (2011, January). Seven Months with the Devils: A Long-Term Study of Content Polluters on Twitter. Research Gate. Retrieved September 29, 2021, from https:// www.researchgate.net/publication/221297999_Seven_Months_with_the _Devils_A_Long-Te rm_Study_of_Content_Polluters_on_Twitter. Marocolo, M., Meireles, A., Rodrigues Souza , H. L., Mota, G. R., Arriel, R. A., & Rios Leite, L. H. (2021, March 17). Spreading Misinformation on Exercise and Health: Analysis of Instagram's Profiles. Research Square. Retrieved
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September 21, 2021, from https://assets.researchsquare.com/files/rs310913/v1/f57a5ad5-3a6e-45c2-9667-61a175969d0a.pdf? c=1631879374. Masri, N. & Weinmann, G. (2020, May 25). Research note: Spreading hate on tiktok. Taylor & Francis. Retrieved September 16, 2021, from https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/ 1057610X.2020.1780027. Mena, P., Barbe, D., & Chan-Olmsted, S. (2020, April 1). Misinformation on Instagram: The impact of trusted endorsements on message credibility. SAGE Journals. Retrieved September 18, 2021, from https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/2056305120935102. Moran, P. (2020, June 26). Social Media: A Pandemic of Misinformation. The American Journal of Medicine. Retrieved September 22, 2021, from https://www.amjmed.com/article/S0002-9343(20)305192/fulltext#relatedArticles. Roozenbeek, J., & van der Linden , S. (2020, November 6). Breaking harmony square: A game that “inoculates” against political misinformation. Harvard Library. Retrieved September 29, 2021, from https://dash.harvard.edu/bitstream/handle/1/37366465/roozenbeek_h armony_ suqare_game_misinfo rmation_20201106.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y. Sanderson, Z., Brown, M. A., Bonneau, R., Nagler, J., & Tucker, J. A. (2021, August 24). Twitter flagged Donald Trump's tweets with election misinformation: They continued to spread both on and off the platform: HKS Misinformation Review. Shorenstein Center. Retrieved September
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29, 2021, from https://misinforeview.hks.harvard.edu/article/twitterflagged-donald-trumps-tweets-with-election-m isinformation-theycontinued-to-spread-both-on-and-off-the-platform/. Scheufele, D. A., & Krause, N. M. (2019, April 16). Science audiences, misinformation, and fake news. PNAS. Retrieved September 30, 2021, from https://www.pnas.org/content/116/16/7662.short. Statista Research Department. (2021, April 15). U.S. tiktok users by age 2021. Statista. Retrieved January 13, 2022, from https://www.statista.com/ statistics/1095186/tiktok-us-users-age/. Stanford University. (2020, June 3). Online misinformation about vaccines. FSI. Retrieved September 22, 2021, from https://fsi.stanford.edu/ news/online-misinformation-about-vaccines. Serrano, J. C. M., Papakyriakopoulos, O., & Hegelich, S. (2020, July 1). Dancing to the PARTISAN Beat: A first analysis of political communication ON TIKTOK. Dancing to the Partisan Beat: A First Analysis of Political Communication on TikTok | 12th ACM Conference on Web Science. Retrieved September 11, 2021, from https://dl.acm.org/ doi/abs/10.1145/3394231.3397916. Valenzuela, S., Halpern, D., Katz, J. E., & Miranda, J. P. (2019, June 12). The paradox of participation versus misinformation: Social media, political engagement, and the spread of misinformation. Taylor & Francis. Retrieved September 29, 2021, from https://www.tandfonline.com/ doi/full/10.1080/21670811.2019.1623701.
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Vraga, E., Kim, S. C., & Cook, J. (2019, September 20). Testing logic-based and humor-based corrections for Science, health, and political misinformation on social media. Taylor & Francis. Retrieved September 29, 2021, from https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/ 08838151.2019.1653102. Wu, L., Morstatter, F., Carley, K. M., & Liu, H. (2019, December 1). Misinformation in social media: Definition, manipulation, and detection. ACM Digital Library. Retrieved September 29, 2021, from https://dl.acm.org/doi/abs/10.1145/3373464.3373475.
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Appendix Subset of Videos
Username @tconservativepgh
Likes
Date of Comments Publication Followers Shares
Views
752
130
44,255
1,398
0
4,895
1,591
137
44,237
40,500
9
13,300
17,100
532
44,459
4,466
887
110,200
@chelsywhite2
491
19
44,474
11,200
7
1,974
@sailorboijon76
913
83
44,217
2,694
110
7,924
@bionicknees4
77
9
44,490
14,900
6
1,459
464
23
44,303
9,226
54
1,580
@thatkid6_
3,470
187
44,352
152,700
157
24,600
@lucypatriot (couldn't comment on)
1,498
0
44,511
409
53
10,800
620
163
44,247
172
13
3,828
@pink.haired.grammie
619
43
44,491
8,130
50
4,193
@otisjackson54
376
99
44,444
115
6
1,702
88,600
3,095
44,181
79,800
4,143
379,400
@isaacaskarinam
12,900
779
44,344
899
421
67,500
@jacklynnkennedy
32,800
1,311
44,350
96,300
184
237,200
@sowhat_02
29,200
1,599
44,504
31,400 2,456
241,600
4,749
393
44,430
37,500
162
28,100
8,613
2,165
44,240
7,313
577
68,000
@therealsandybower
24,100
938
44,419
11,000
2,561
287,600
@aaron_sz14
21,900
1,820
44,403
5,417 3,050
125,200
1,001
100
44,388
5,760
41
8,155
186
15
44,456
55,200
21
991
35,400
1,463
44,381
2,484 2,240
178,000
7,648
451
44,202
9,327
@audreyplucinski
343,600
7,090
44,521
16,400
0 2,600,000
@democrats_cry_a_lot
149,200
3,699
44,486
19,700
0
1,700
1,518
82
44,534
1,576
0
14,900
23,100
1,807
44,430
14,500
2,258
758,100
755
32
44,528
50,200
10
5,754
@pnwyoungconservatives @partyof5creationsga
@rlmidnightrider
@bonjour1234567899999999
@crispymnmz
@pastormarkburns @concrete..man..5858
@trumpwonbig1776 @dylan.republican @ryanbowden06 @babygirls_acc_rhea
@trumpwondawg @wifeofanoutlaw2016 @jessfree91
130
43,100
Politics 711 @38_lets_go_brandon
4,008
252
44,534
2,159
256
24,500
@realfacts1010
27,400
978
44,453
7,372
1,025
122,300
@littlesuzysarcasm
41,900
1,693
44,500
18,000 2,829
266,600
@notgeorgiajcleasby
40,600
831
11,472
24,600
427
177,500
@og_coloradogirl
39,900
1,237
44,453
5,122
2,168
218,300
@shannonsharkey0
21,000
562
44,384
23,000
1,048
288,000
140,400
5,070
44,465
7,823 6,003
1,300,000
@gucci4_mushu
13,300
1,156
44,374
36,700
997
61,200
@trinitytuttle
11,900
435
44,424
15,000
70
81,200
@corygarrettphotography
6,947
361
44,444
11,400
122
27,300
@hansen.seth0
3,374
102
44,434
30,500
148
48,300
3,617
447
44,464
13,200
24
46,100
@tommyd2234
50,200
1,505
44,467
41,000 6,337
380,100
@tommyd2234
112,000
2,317
44,432
41,000 3,660
1,500,000
@shalanevans
18,100
1,637
44,438
6,970 4,709
103,300
@tigergordon
6,223
740
44,391
7,709
84
28,200
@sweetrushn
10,600
1,018
44,267
29,100
279
34,900
10,100
711
44,328
23,200
364
59,500
2,199
18
44,515
321
66
15,600
16,800
665
44,482
7,006
231
172,100
@trumployalty
@user3134442330478
@thebesttrumpclips @johnbuchner @shelbynicole70
Politics 712
Coding Categories Note: coding categories are based on other studies that have looked into similar topics. This can include new trends that must be interpreted.
Code
Definition
Biden Hatred
Content that expresses any mockery/hatred for Joe Biden. Content that expresses support for Trump in any regard, such as rhetoric supporting Trump/his time as president. Content that expresses support of antigovernment rhetoric and individual freedom.
Trump Support
Libertarian
World Politics/Protest
Christianity
Pro Life
Nationalism Ultranationalism
Christian Conspiracy Theory
Implicit Racism
Content that promotes conservative viewpoints in different world politics or shows a conservative protest in another country besides America. Content that expresses views of Christianity/belief in the Christian Religion in an attempt to convert others (can be through emotional rhetoric or symbols). Content that degrades abortion and people who have abortions. Content that expresses a love for the United States that is not violent or demeaning toward anyone else. Content that contains rhetoric about extreme nationalism toward one’s country, and the importance of advancing the superiority of America. Content that expresses belief of a christian conspiracy theory or evidence trying to prove a conspiracy theory in the christian religion. Content that is prejudiced against a person or group of people due to their ethnicity or skin color (a group that is marginalized or is a minority) or mocks an aspect of racism, implicitly.
Politics 713 Conspiracy Theory
Content that expresses a Conspiracy Theory about government collapse, ruin, etc or about a political figure or any other subject about present life.
Anti communism
Content that expresses a hatred/mockery of communism/its ideology and promotes America instead. Content that expresses a conservative view of the United States through rhetoric or footage Content that is suggesting false information about the coronavirus and its pandemic, i.e. “COVID is fake”, but not discussing the vaccine.
Conservative COVID-19 Misinformation
COVID-19 Vaccine Misinformation
Vaccine Misinformation Back the Blue
Confederate Anti democrat
Content that is suggesting that the COVID vaccine is harmful or is negative to everyone who has the COVID vaccine. Content that suggests false information about any vaccine besides the COVID vaccine. Content that expresses support for a police officer/cops in general. Content that expresses a confederate view, through symbolic speech or rhetoric. Content that expresses any mockery/hatred toward Democratic people, figures, or ideas.
Second amendment
Content that includes footage/rhetoric of gun support/saying something in support of the second amendment.
Violent call to action
Content that expresses violence in a way that is related to the future or a subset of people through imagery or rhetoric. This can include language that seems to be coded for a subset of people. Content that expresses discontent of the BLM movement.
Anti BLM
Politics 714 Neo-nazism
Content that expresses, outwardly or implicitly, a love for Nazi Germany and Adolf Hilter and expresses hatred of Jewish people.
Transmisogyny
Content that expresses hatred, anger, or discontempt toward transgender women.
Indigenous hatred
Content that expresses, outwardly or implicitly, a discontent for indigenious people.
Transphobia
Content that expresses hatred, anger, discontempt toward transgender people, through verbal language, such as saying there are only two genders or action, such as defacement of the trans flag. Content that expresses hatred, anger, discontempt toward any other sexuality other than straight, through verbal language or action, such as defacement of a pride flag.
Anti LGBTQ
Hate symbol
Content with the swastika, sonnerad, black american flag or rising sun.
None
Content with none of the above categories/any far-right content.
Politics 715
Statistics Topic
Number of Views Overall
Biden Hatred
Number of Likes Overall 7,092,175
75,186,562
Number of Likes Based on Mean 145,659
Number of Views Based on Mean 1,595,722
Trump Support
3,178,676
26,858,818
102,538
866,413
Libertarian
562,499
6,667,658
70,312
833,457
World Politics/Protest Christianity
888,335
7,145,390
169,517
1,287,486
3,633,397
26,550,886
86,509
648,475
Pro-Life
83,044
826,325
27,681
275,442
Nationalism
1,943,872
14,766,207
138,848
1,054,729
Ultranationalism
1,529,229
11,357,400
169,914
1,261,933
Christian Conspiracy Theory Implicit Racism
830,902
5,631,300 92,322
625,700
56,400
428,900
56,400
428,900
Conspiracy Theory
4,199,174
59,012,968
119,976
1,686,085
Anti communism
437
2,906
437
2,906
Conservative
1,662,861
13,988,996
58,549
466,300
COVID-19 Misinformation
225,758
2,199,902 75,253
733,301
COVID-19 Vaccine Misinformation Vaccine Misinformation Back the Blue
904,106
129,158
1,346,971
9,428,800
43,855
261,200
21,928
130,600
281,800
3,174,000
56,360
634,800
Confederate
116,600
523,300
58,300
261,650
Anti democrat
434,851
4,874,748
31,061
348,196
Second amendment
257,900
2,686,300
113,386
743,857
Violent call to action
972,842
8,012,942
89,737
707,429
Anti BLM
66,500
684,000
66,500
684,000
Neo-nazism
5,278
128,300
5,278
128,300
Politics 716 Transmisogyny
435
3,877
437
3,877
Indigenious hatred
12,500
99,600
12,500
99,600
Transphobia
102,060
2,156,100
34,165
719,992
Anti LGBTQ
64,800
920,300
64,800
920,300
Hate symbol
118,300
893,400
118,300
893,400
Definitions
Term
Definition
Misinformation
False information spread, regardless of an intent to mislead others.
Disinformation
False information spread deliberately, knowing it is misleading.
Far-right
Extreme right-wing politics, with some mainstream conservatism incorporated.
STUDENTRESEARCH JOURNA
SECTI ON 7
MI SCELLANEOUS
Miscellaneous 717
Cultural Marriage Aliya Faisal Thomas Sprigg Wootton High School
Miscellaneous 718
Marriage honestly means perspectives. Everyone has their own opinions of what they think marriage should look like. Their culture or religion commonly influences a person’s perspective on marriage. For example, in Buddhist and Islamic culture, the idea that intimacy isn’t allowed before marriage is heavily implemented in their views of marriage. However, there are a few distinct differences between these two cultures regarding marriage dynamics; the Muslim culture believes marriage is obligatory, while the Buddhist culture believes it’s a choice. Both religions agree with the idea that intimacy is not permissible before marriage. Due to their conservative values, both cultures have limits. The article “Buddhism vs Islam” supports that, in both religions, Islam and Buddhism, there can be a relationship where two people truly love each other but they cannot have sexual relationships, also known as celibacy. Intimacy can lead to problems within the family, like getting pregnant. Sheff, Elisabeth’s Psychology Today article “Religious Attitudes Towards Polyamory,” Islam discourages “extra- or non-marital sexuality” and Buddhism suggests “refraining from wrongdoing in relationship to sexuality.” To make it clear, both religions want people to discard all things in their life that can cause pain and vulnerability. In Islam, marriage is viewed as a moral obligation. The holy book, “The Quran,” suggests that there must be a marriage ceremony called a “Nikah”. A Nikah is required for any type of marriage, whether it is an arranged or love marriage. In my experience as a Muslim who has attended Islamic weddings, marriages either come from love, or an arrangement. An arranged marriage is where a parent or guardian chooses a spouse who is right for
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the woman or man, a traditional way of getting married. The reason why arranged marriages still exist in my culture and every other Muslim family is that this type of marriage is normalized in our society sticking with the traditional concept, like arranged marriages. The traditional concept is being evolved within this society. Love marriages came as a result of the traditional way. It is a new thing where they choose a person they want to marry. All in all, it is obligatory to have a marriage with the blessing of the parents. On the other hand, in the Buddhist culture, it is merely a choice to get married. The article “Buddhism views on marriage” briefly cited, the Buddhists think that marriage is not a religious obligation, or it does not give any "formal teachings' to people on what a marriage should look like. It’s a complete choice depending on the person. The article “Buddhism vs Islam”, mentions that having a marriage in the Buddhist culture is as simple as having a “happy and harmonious” wedding. Unlike the Islamic culture who holds a wedding ceremony called a “Nikah”, the Buddhist culture just holds “a blessing or celebration but there are no religious elements to the event” as mentioned by BBC “Marriage and Divorce.” Furthermore, there are specific religious elements that are in a Nikkah that aren’t in a simple blessing ceremony that the Buddhists hold. Based on the holy book, “The Quran” and personal experience, in a Nikkah ceremony, there have to be three witnesses who can kindly declare the marriage. An imam, who is a qualified person who exchanges vows in front of the witnesses for both partners, and a marriage contract which is raised on agreements on both the bride and groom. Contrary to this, in a Buddhist ceremony, there are no religious elements, it
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only consists of presenting food and flowers plus blessings from the parents, but they don’t have anyone who officiates the wedding ceremonies. Overall, the Buddhist culture and the Muslim culture have different varying views on what a marriage should look like and whether they should get married or not. In the real world, times have changed, and not everything is based on what the culture says. So what? Why should we care about this topic? Because marriage is a huge part of everyone’s life and every culture has different views on how it should be. Thinking about how other cultures compare to our own culture creates a huge impact on how we should acknowledge cultural marriages around the world -- the comparison between our culture and theirs.
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References Buddhism vs Islam.” Diffen, https://www.diffen.com/difference/ Buddhism_vs_Islam. Accessed 23 December 2020. “Religious Attitudes Towards Polyamory.” Psychology Today, https://www.diffen.com/difference/Buddhism_vs_Islamhttps://www.psy chologytoday.com/u s/blog/the-polyamorists-next-door/201401/ religious-attitudes-towards-polyamory. Accessed 23 December 2020. “What does Buddhism say on marriage?” BBC, https://www.bbc.co.uk/ bitesize/guides/zmjmyrd/revision/2#:~:text=say%20about%20marriage %3F,There%20is%20no%20obligation%20for%20Buddhists%20to%20ma rry%20and%20most,Buddhists%20are%20allowed%20to%20cohabit%20 .&text=Buddhist%20monks%20may%20bless%20a,conduct%20the%20a ctual%20marriage%20ceremony. Accessed 22 December 2020. “Muslim Relationships.” BBC, https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/guides/ zcjqrwx/revision/5. Accessed 23 December 2020.
Miscellaneous 722
The Secret Magic of Hit Records Carlee Morales Garland High School
Miscellaneous 723
Introduction Before I begin this journey, I would like to take the proper steps to fully lay out the foundation and path my essay will follow, as well as explain what sparked my curiosity towards this research question. When I was first given the chance to choose a topic of expertise to explore with great depth, my mind jumped to a subject I had often pondered: the life of music. The undeniably breathing body of music itself, shaped by countless stories and adaptations, modified and transformed to meet varying needs for humans around the world. Specifically, I was curious as to what caused humans to enjoy a certain song and to choose it over another. What was that special touch, that beautiful oddity that tickles the listener’s ear and influences how we feel, think, and love? The primary reason for my desire to understand the human connection to music is that I myself am a musician, playing percussion and other instruments such as guitar and piano. I took an online Berklee summer course focused on music production and analysis so that I can gain new understanding and tools to help me along this journey, as well as new insights for my future career. The course and research for the essay will benefit my own music-making process, specifically pop music which I am fond of, and develop a better foundation on which to form new ideas and creations in the future. When speculating my research path, I began to focus primarily on the most successful songs that reached number one on the Billboard charts. My thought process began, forming questions such as, what did each song have
Miscellaneous 724
in common? What characteristics made the piece a hit? How do other factors other than musicality affect its success? In order to narrow down my search and establish a strong focal point, I decided to solely select songs that reached number one on the US Billboard Charts, starting in the 1950s. Thus, my research question is as follows: Which musical features or properties have the highest influence on the success of a pop song on the Billboard Charts from the 1950s to present day? I will be exploring the underlying commonalities between hit songs using both my own ear and information from trusted sources, in order to effectively analyze which traits are shown to correlate with success. Billboard Charts One mission I must achieve before delving into the intricate layers of music is to define certain terms, as well as to disclose background information that will in turn offer credibility to my research question and sources. One important factor that must be addressed is the credibility of the Billboard Charts as a source of calculating top songs. Billboard has remained the most reliable and standard music company, due to its intricate methods of calculation in determining a song’s rank on the charts (Kindersley). In the early years of its existence (1955), the Hot 100 was calculated by combining sales, airplay, and jukebox activity, usually through a point system that weighted some aspects more heavily than others, with sales usually weighted higher than radio airplay. The current method as of 2020 has adapted to modern advancements, removing jukebox activity and replacing it with streaming platforms. Composed of three main factors, songs are ranked based on audience impressions through radio, television, and internet using
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the Nielsen BDS (Broadcast Data Systems), sales data calculated by Nielsen Soundstream (which includes both retail and digital sales), and online streaming platforms such as Spotify, Youtube, and Apple Music. As expected, streaming has become the most prevalent factor influencing the charts, while radio airplay and digital sales have decreased in significance. Each of these will play a role in the overall ranking of songs on the Hot 100. Given the extended time frame, however, different components will play larger roles as the years progress, which will also impact the availability of a song and thus its degree of success. Below is a YouTube video outlining some of the major shifts in musical genre prevalent in the Billboard charts,supporting the idea that musical priorities have morphed and transformed over the decades: Billboard Charts: The Evolution of Music Genre Popularity Historical Influence of Pop Music To best recognize specific musical additions to a certain pop song, first the foundation and basis of the genre must be described. The history of how pop music rose to fame can be traced directly to the formation of rock ‘n’ roll. Blossoming in the mid-1950s, rock ‘n’ roll was largely influenced by black culture, combining gospel-style harmonies with more aggressive rhythms and the new call-and-response singing approach (Encyclopædia). Following World War II, many new technologies and inventions caused by the war including magnetic tape helped lower the cost of record production, thus fueling more artists such as African Americans to seek employment and sign record labels (Darity). The rise in music production sparked greater variety, and soon became popular among predominantly teenagers, sparking a revolution of free music unfettered by past limitations and musical rules.
Miscellaneous 726
These newfound characteristics have continued through the ages of popular music and have branched away from urban blues to a more sophisticated sound. The popularity of rock music in the late 1900’s can be illustrated in the image below, taken from the previous Evolution of Music Genre Popularity video.
Through the timeline, we can see rock ‘n’ roll hit its peak in domination in 1983, with soul music taking a far second. However, as the decades, continued, the visuals reveal a change in style from that of rock to pop music, which emphasizes the ways in which rock built the foundation of music played on mainstream platforms today:
Miscellaneous 727
Though rock no longer takes the leading position in the music genre today, its underlying message of freedom in musical interpretation has sparked the modern hits seen in 21st century music.
Common Chord Tendencies As a musician myself, I have always been taught about the basic chord progressions that mesh well together and tend to be popularized in music today. One of the most commonly used chord progressions for pop music is a I – V – vi – IV progression. Some examples include Let It Be by the Beatles (1970) and Torn by Natalie Imbruglia (1997), both of which peaked at number one on the Hot 100 (Common chord Progressions - pop music). One reason for its common usage is that both the I and vi chord share scale degrees 1 and 3, which leads to great interchangeability of
Miscellaneous 728
notes between the chords. Similarly, the vi and IV also share scale degrees 6 and 1. Variations can also derive from these chords, including a commonly used I - vi - IV - V. Some examples of hit songs that have utilized this progression include Every Breath You Take by The Police, which reached number one in 1983 and was considered the most played song in radio history by the BMI (Broadcast Media Inc.) in May of 2019. The original key is in C sharp major; however, the example below has been transposed to the key of G major (Music, S).
Miscellaneous 729
One characteristic displayed above is the pull towards the tonic note of the key, which is revealed in the downbeat of measure 4 when the lead singer says “take”. Commonly, a pop song’s chord progressions tend to target the root note, or scale degree one in the song’s key (Ewer). Given that the key is in G major, the vocalist lands almost every phrase on a G3, emphasizing the easy melodic line that rarely strays away from its first scale degree. However, variety can arise by the different tones of each chord, with many pop hits utilizing both major and minor chords (D. J. W.). These components sound appealing to a listener because the major and minor chords consist of the same scale, allowing for alternate interpretations within a scale through their form and order, thus influencing the overall theme and feel of the piece. For example, Every Breath You Take begins with the melodic line on a G major, then shifts to an E minor chord in measure 6. Both chords are interchangeable and add emphasis to certain portions of the song, creating a powerful tool to engage the listener’s ear.
The Power of Song Form One aspect that many musicians take for granted is the importance of a song template. Specific orders and time allotted to different sections can clearly differentiate between a good song and a hit song. Over the decades, the common components used have shifted, beginning as an AABA form, which was most utilized up until the 1960s (Berklee). Composed of two main sections, the AABA format usually contained the A section consisting of a
Miscellaneous 730
repeated phrase sometimes referred to as a refrain, which also commonly referenced the title of the song. Next, the B portion of the piece, commonly known as the “bridge,” offers a slight contrast to the overall theme and usually contains the highest note of the entire piece (Berklee). A prime example can be found in the piece Over the Rainbow by Harold Arlen and E.Y. Harburg. The image shown below was utilized in the Music Production Analysis online course at Berklee College of Music, illustrating the length and different sections of the song.
Intro
A Section
2nd A Section
B Section
3rd A Section
Through the model, a viewer can notice that the intro and B section’s visual imagery are slightly different from the other 3 A sections, which share similar shapes. This reveals the differences in sound and dynamics that the intro and bridge contain from the rest of the song. The AABA format remained popular during the early nineteenth century, with slight differentiations between pieces.
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Shifting to the late nineteenth century, the music industry experienced an era of “blues,” bringing about the 12-bar form that would later embody the rock era (Hutchison). The 12 bar blues displays an AAB format, with each section docking at 4 bars. Lyrically, the first line in the first section will be different once the song comes to a resolution in order to conclude the story. One popular example of a 12 bar blues hit is Hound Dog by Elvis Presley. Though recorded and produced by more than 250 other artists, Elvis Presley’s version was the only one that reached number one, holding the top spot for more than 11 weeks in 1956, and was later inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame as one of the “500 Songs that Shaped Rock and Roll” (Songfacts).
After the blues sensation began to settle down, a new movement of artists began to take shape at the start of the 1960s, bringing a new approach to creativity. Though already commonly known in the folk world, the Verse-Chorus form, which contains more variations on musical sections than its neighboring partners, sparked largely due to the rising belief that artists should write their own lyrics instead of a seasoned, professional writer (Berklee). The Verse-Chorus form has remained one of the most popular methods of form-writing in pop music today, mainly because of the versatile and abundant combinations one can create with it. Listed below are the different sections included in the Verse-Chorus form, as well as examples of hit songs that share a predominantly strong feature of that section. This consists of both musical and lyrical focuses, each containing different components to balance out the theme.
Miscellaneous 732 Intro Verse
Definition/Components The first instrumental or vocal hook to draw the listener in. Usually included to ease a track into the leading vocals.
A musically repeated section that contains different lyrics each time. The verse will usually begin the exposition of the story told and will ask questions rather than answer them.
No. 1 on Hot 100 Example Positions by Ariana Grande (2020, Positions) includes a light pizzicato from a guitar introducing the underlying melody of the piece (Grande 0:00). Ends with a crescendo from a cello into the downbeat of the first verse (Grande 0:05). We Are The World by U.S.A For Africa (1985), featuring a variety of well known artists, perfectly portrays a verse that sets the context for the overall message of the piece and introduces the standard for the chorus (U.S.A. For Africa 0:26): “There comes a time When we heed a certain call When the world must come together as one There are people dying Oh, and it's time to lend a hand to life The greatest gift of all”
Pre-Chorus
The leading buildup to the chorus, usually allowed more freedom to change lyrically and musically each time. The PreChorus usually has higher notes than the Verse and acts as a transition in energy from the verse to the main chorus.
Chorus
The main idea and theme of the song, often including the title of the piece and repeating both lyrically and musically. Choruses are usually separated by verses and other lyrical sections, but often at the end of the piece repeat back to back.
Interlude
Solo
A mainly instrumental section that breaks up the vocal sections and provides a breath of space lyrically. In rock music, the interlude is oftentimes called the “riff,” which consists of a similar melodic line to the intro. An instrumental solo, which can often be misinterpreted as an interlude, is a uniquely different musical section from the song that can serve as a bridge without lyrics. Solos in pop music usually only last half the length of the verse.
Call Me Maybe by Carly Rae Jepsen (2012) contains a pre-chorus that builds in energy, and contains higher note values than the preceding verse, which mainly stayed in the G3 to B3 range (Jepsen 0:19).This then shifts up an octave to G4 and B5 in the last beats of the pre-chorus (Jepsen 0:26). Hey Jude by The Beatles (1970) exhibits one of the most well known, catchy phrases of its time, continuously repeating the simple line: Na na na na na na na, na na na na, hey Jude The chorus section in this piece repeats for 4 minutes and 2 seconds in the latter half of the recording (Beatles 3:09). My Sharona by The Knack (1979, Get The Knack) starts off with the melodic line of the chorus introduced by the lead guitar (Knack 0:12). This “riff” or interlude also appears in between the choruses and verses (Knack 0:42). Come Together by The Beatles (1969, Abbey Road), along with its unique and creative use of sounds, contains a small break from the vocals into a guitar solo, which simply plays the same rhythm with different notes and also acts as the outro
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Bridge
The bridge is known as a turning point in the song, containing different chord progressions and harmonies than the rest of the piece and only appearing once. Lyrically, the bridge will add a new piece of information, usually the most crucial part of the piece. It offers a change in scenery and breaks off from the linear path of the song.
Refrain
Often interchangeable with a chorus, a refrain is a repeated line, commonly the title of the piece, and appears at the end of the verses.
Collision
Like the name suggests, a collision is when two musical and/or lyrical sections combine and play simultaneously. Collisions usually happen at the end of the song as the climax in order to build energy and conclude the piece.
Outro
The last section of a piece, usually instrumental, that acts as a concluding statement. Can also be the same melody as the intro or interlude.
of the song as it fades away (Beatles 3:12). Drivers License by Olivia Rodrigo (2021) is a perfect example of a powerful bridge that builds in energy with its elongated vocal notes, intricate background vocal layering panned left and right to add a full effect, and important details lyrically about how the artist still sees her ex in everything they used to do, finishing off with a vigorous line bringing her point home (Rodrigo 2:24): “I still see your face in the white cars, front yards Can’t drive past the places we used to go to, ‘Cause I still ******** love you babe” She Loves You by The Beatles (1963) serves as a prime example of a repeated line. Throughout the piece, the line “She loves you” is repeated 13 times. I’m Yours by Jason Mraz (2008, We Sing. We Dance.) ends the piece by combining the previous bridge and main chorus line, with the bridge vocal taking the lead and the chorus or refrain sung in the background as a chant (Mraz 3:02). Hotel California by The Eagles (1977, Hotel California) is a 6 minute 31 second long song that ends with an incredible guitar solo and instrumental break with memorable riffs, which eventually fades out and lingers in the mind of the listener (Eagles 4:20).
Many additional terms and sections pop up across hit songs throughout the decades (including but not limited to the alternate chorus and breakdown section), but the categories listed above are the most common and can be intertwined into any combination.
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Repetition A myth that young producers or musicians may fall into is the idea that repeating a certain phrase or line over and over again can become a nuisance and lose the listener’s engagement. However, the contrary couldn’t be truer. According to a 2015 experiment by the Department of Biological Sciences in Western Michigan University, whenever a tested individual sang or chanted lyrics to a piece with a large group of people, the level of oxytocin (which is a neuropeptide hormone produced by the body associated with “trust”) increased dramatically (Keeler). These results revealed that group singing reduces stress and arousal in participants due to lower ACTH levels (often associated with biological stress). Berklee addresses this phenomenon in their production class, stating that a song that contains repetition, whether that be through a shout chorus or bridge, allows for greater listener participation and neurochemically makes them feel more inclined to sing along (Berklee). Without a solid repetitive foundation for the audience to grasp onto, they are left with no strings attached and are doubtful to remember a specific moment in a piece that was merely different elements mixed together. A few memorable examples of number one hits with explosive shout choruses and repetitive lyrics are shown below: Song Title + Timestamp
Memorable Repetitive Line
No. 1 on Billboard Hot 100 Date
Livin’ On a Prayer by
“Woah, we're half way there
Bon Jovi (1:32)
Woah, livin' on a prayer
2/14/1987
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Grenade by Bruno Mars
“What you don't understand is I'd catch a
(0:35)
grenade for ya (yeah, yeah)
1/7/2011
Throw my head on a blade for ya (yeah, yeah) I'd jump in front of a train for ya (yeah, yeah) You know I'd do anything for ya (yeah, yeah)” Cheap Thrills by Sia
“Baby I don't need dollar bills to have
(0:31)
fun tonight
6/24/2016
I love cheap thrills Baby I don't need dollar bills to have fun tonight I love cheap thrills”
Timeline Choices One of the most important factors that plays into producing a successful record is often overlooked by artists. This can be known as a song’s timeline, or at what point each section or element takes place, and how long it lasts. Timing can greatly influence how engaged a listener can be and whether they press the skip button before the song is complete. Two main elements that are engraved into the timeline philosophy include space, or how much room there is in the song to breathe, as well as a song’s climax, or the peak focal point that the record hits either lyrically
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and/or musically, both of which can greatly contribute to the prosperity of a song (Berklee). The idea of adding space to a mix can be quite challenging for many new producers and aspiring musicians, who oftentimes attempt to cram all of their ideas into one piece without room for the listener to digest the record. I myself have fallen into this habit and must be continuously reminded that emptiness in songs is actually encouraged. Through the Berklee online course, I discovered that one reason tightly packed songs lyrically can become a nuisance is that the listener doesn’t “get to appreciate (the lyrics) after a while, because it was always there” (Berklee). Many prestigious artists have incorporated space in a variety of ways, including instrumental breaks in order to give the vocal theme a rest, incorporating “stop time” where all instruments cut out abruptly and leave silence to be filled by a vocal or not be filled at all, or even more subtle gestures such as spacious lyrical phrasing. One clear example of a song that integrates space into its mix is Bad Guy by Billie Eilish, which charted at number two on the Hot 100 for 9 consecutive weeks before taking the no. 1 spot in the week of August 24, 2019 (Billboard). Building up to the chorus, the main bass line and percussion drop out on beat 2, leaving room for Billie to sing the famous line “I’m a bad guy” starting on beat 4 of that measure. Perhaps the most important part of the piece, the song then takes a dramatic pause of pure silence for about 2 counts before the artist abruptly exclaims “duh!” followed by the anticipated beat drop of the chorus. Billie marvelously portrays the importance of space in
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a record, and how the lack of sound does not equate to a lack of creativity but rather the contrary. A commonality between spaces in a song can also tie into its climax and highest peak, which oftentimes precedes a dramatic drop in sound. Many top-of-the-line producers build their hit songs to a specific point, as tension rises through the continued building of layers and intricate melodies stack upon each other until that tension is released at the climax. Most often the peak of a song will occur near the end of the piece, after most of the musical journey itself has been shaped and will usually consist of the highest notes melodically (Berklee). Some great examples of records that clearly exhibit a climax include I Will Always Love You by Whitney Houston, which undergoes a whole-step key change at the final chorus after a musical pause for effect. As the song builds in energy and velocity towards the end of the piece, the key sets itself up for the change from A major to B major by shifting to an E minor in the verse before the last chorus. The entire band falls silent for two measures, with one hit on beat 4 of the last measure from a floor tom to set up Houston for her astounding entrance in the new key. Whitney’s powerful deliverance has stood the test of time and amplified the significance of a striking climactic ending in a successful record.
Prosody To first define prosody, it is vital to understand its components and the relationship among the different elements included. Prosody, according to Berklee’s Music Production Analysis class, is the way in which
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the lyrics and melody of a song mesh together. Essentially, the theme and musicality of the piece must be in agreement in order to effectively connect to the listener and provide higher emotional impact. Both elements contain specific characteristics that are able to morph a song from ordinary to spectacular. One of the many tactics that songwriters use when composing lyrical music is to create a vivid scenario and image that the listener can capture. Brain-imaging technology has shown that listening to descriptive language has the power to turn on all four other senses, including sight, smell, touch, and taste, all of which create an almost surreal scene in one’s mind. The Beatles, one of the most influential songwriter groups in history, is known for considering these elements and tricks when crafting their lyrics. A popular example of descriptive language comes from their hit song Penny Lane, which was written by members Paul McCartney and John Lennon and peaked at number one on March 17th, 1967. A few of the lines go as follows:
In Verse 2, McCartney describes a town located in Liverpool that most likely used to be a childhood home or location for The Beatles. Through the lyrics the listener distinctly forms a scene of a small corner of a town with a
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unique bencher that doesn’t mind the rain (due to not wearing a mac, or coat) and most likely has a funny appearance (due to the children laughing). McCartney and Lennon wonderfully portrayed how powerful words can be, especially in creating clear imagery and scenarios in the listener’s mind that help to create a sense of importance and give substance to the song. Other great examples of powerful records that deeply embody the theme of descriptive language are shown in the chart below. Song & Artist with Timestamp
Expressive Lyrics
No. 1 on Billboard Date
Willow by Taylor Swift (0:11)
“I'm like the water when
12/25/2020
your ship rolled in that night Rough on the surface, but you cut through like a knife And if it was an open-shut case I never would've known from that look on your face Lost in your current like a priceless wine” Tom’s Diner by Suzanne Vega
“Oh, this rain it will
(1:25)
continue Through the morning as I'm listening To the bells of the cathedral I am thinking of your voice And of the midnight picnic once before”
12/21/1990
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Eleanor Rigby by The Beatles
“Eleanor Rigby
(1:30)
Died in the church and
9/23/1966
was buried along with her name Nobody came Father McKenzie Wiping the dirt from his hands as he walks from the grave No one was saved” Drivers License by Olivia
“Sidewalks we crossed
Rodrigo (2:24)
I still hear your voice in the
01/23/2021
traffic, we're laughing Over all the noise God, I'm so blue, know we're through”
Not only does lyrical meaning play a huge role in branching the minds of the listener into a new world, but the method in which it is presented musically can add a completely different punch to the line. A trick that musicians often use is to pitch the chorus higher than the verse, which helps to add a unique change in melody in the record but also guides the song to its climax and “peak” as discussed earlier (Berklee). Most producers encourage an artist to widen their vocal range in a piece, which often becomes limited by songwriters who write with only a guitar and favor certain ranges, restricting one's movement from a wider variety of melodic structures. A few key examples of records with a contrasting melodic range between their verse and chorus include Leave the Door Open released by Bruno Mars and Anderson Paak as the duo "Silk Sonic," which topped the charts on April 17, 2021 (Billboard). The range of the pre-chorus only spans
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from a E♭3 to a B♭3, but then it shifts in the chorus to a whopping D3 to D4 range, even hitting an F4 in the second chorus. Another perfect example exhibiting wide vocal range in the chorus is Unwell by Matchbox Twenty, which hit number one on May 2, 2003, staying on the charts for a solid 55 weeks. One aspect that boosted its popularity was the catchy melody line that once again contained higher pitches than the preceding verse and prechorus. Though the range of the verse is still a solid octave between C#2 and C#3, the chorus keeps a consistent interval between A2 and E3, even reaching an F#3 at its peak. The repetitive rhythm between A and E is displayed in the image below, containing the latter half of the verse leading to the chorus with added harmonies (Vocal Sheets RSS). These are just a few examples of the interesting effect that overall melodic range and pitch can play in accordance with a lyrical concept.
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Conclusion It is impossible to address in this essay every aspect of musical style that artists add to create successful records. The characteristics included are only the consistent highlights that arose through my research and Berklee class and are simply the tip of the iceberg representing the world of music. There is still much to discover and learn, but overall, I am very grateful that I had the opportunity to expand my horizon regarding musical production and open countless doors of information that will help my own musical career path. I was at first intimidated by the idea of attempting to dissect such a grandiose ideology, especially across such a wide span of time, but I’ve found that the framework of pop music has remained relatively consistent throughout the decades and still follows similar methods in its delivery. Not only has the process of discovering the common musical characteristics of thriving tracks been beneficial in broadening my cultural knowledge of the historical impact of music, but it
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has also made me realize a crucial aspect: that not every hit song, or popular piece of music for that matter, has necessarily reached number one on the Billboard charts. I found that I had to exclude quite a few excellent examples from my essay because they did not technically take the number one title. This goes to show that many wonderfully crafted and meticulously produced tracks don’t need to be the best of the best to still be a spectacular piece of art. Music is different for each human, and no numbers can alter that connection one experiences with a song close to their heart. That feeling is pure magic.
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References Beatles. “Come Together (Remastered 2009).” Spotify. https://open.spotify.com/track/2EqlS6tkEnglzr7tkKAAYD?si=0110 c64291554f35 Beatles. “Eleanor Rigby.” Spotify. https://open.spotify.com/track/6EOKwO6WaLal58MSsi6U4W?si= 21a701a775b34abd Beatles. “Hey Jude (Remastered 2009).” Spotify. https://open.spotify.com/track/3m7V717IKZqZLW5qUIOxdD?si=1 5750d7d19e5422b Beatles. “Let It Be.” Spotify. https://open.spotify.com/track/7iN1s7xHE4ifF5povM6A48?si=2dc e28506fc14787 Beatles. “Penny Lane.” Spotify. https://open.spotify.com/track/1sjmKmR4u9xDeJHjDCn2bZ?si=6 3f672667b624bbb Beatles. “She Loves You (Remastered 2009).” Spotify. https://open.spotify.com/track/48JM82SHQTBYkhEYhMaOaa?si= 356e2e06c9fc40e6 Blenkinsop, I., & Ziegler, R. (2019). Music: The definitive visual history. Dorling Kindersley Limited. Common chord Progressions - pop
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music. Mixed In Key. (2020, June 5). https://mixedinkey.com/ captain-plugins/wiki/common-chord-progressions-pop-music/. D. J. W., By, -, & Wildridge, D. J. (2019, December 24). Dr Justin wildridge. CMUSE. https://www.cmuse.org/characteristics-of-popmusic/. Eagles. “Hotel California (2013 Remaster).” Spotify. https://open.spotify.com/track/40riOy7x9W7GXjyGp4pjAv?si=45 f233cca2a44adf Eilish, Billie. “bad guy.” Spotify. https://open.spotify.com/track/2Fxmhks0bxGSBdJ92vM42m?si= b237db7ff85e44b6 Encyclopædia Britannica, inc. (n.d.). Rock and roll. Encyclopædia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/art/rock-and-roll-earlystyle-of-rock-music. Ewer, G. (2012, March 9). 10 top features that show up in most hit songs. The Essential Secrets of Songwriting. https://www.secretsofsongwriting.com/2012/03/09/10-topfeatures-that-show-up-in-most-hit-songs/. Garland, Judy. “Over The Rainbow.” Spotify. https://open.spotify.com/track/3wAIcORchxdSkWv6v5AkaU?si=c 34fc71b8cef4332
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Grande, Ariana. “Positions.” Spotify. https://open.spotify.com/track/35mvY5S1H3J2QZyna3TFe0?si=16 c63351a15e4e99 Houston, Whitney. “I Will Always Love You.” Spotify. https://open.spotify.com/track/4eHbdreAnSOrDDsFfc4Fpm?si=b 414bf7a58b34aef Hutchinson, R. (n.d.). Music theory for the 21st-century classroom. The 12Bar Blues. https://musictheory.pugetsound.edu/mt21c/TwelveBarBlues.html. Imbruglia, Natalie. “Torn.” Spotify. https://open.spotify.com/track/1Jaah2tmN9Hv81A87KZ1MU?si=4f b3e9b863ce4ff3 Jepsen, Carly Rae. “Call Me Maybe.” Spotify. https://open.spotify.com/track/3TGRqZ0a2l1LRblBkJoaDx?si=072 6d79d23e84929 Jovi, Bon. “Livin’ On a Prayer” Spotify. https://open.spotify.com/track/37ZJ0p5Jm13JPevGcx4SkF?si=2a 64e12c2dc24501 Keeler JR, Roth EA, Neuser BL, Spitsbergen JM, Waters DJM and Vianney J-M (2015) The neurochemistry and social flow of singing: bonding and oxytocin. Front. Hum. Neurosci. 9:518.doi: 10.3389/fnhum.2015.00518
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Knack. “My Sharona.” Spotify. https://open.spotify.com/track/1HOMkjp0nHMaTnfAkslCQj?si=46 dfc5daa8134641 Mars, Bruno. “Grenade.” Spotify. https://open.spotify.com/track/2tJulUYLDKOg9XrtVkMgcJ?si=f71 39bf4e13c4120 “Matchbox 20 - Unwell - Free Downloadable Sheet Music.” Vocal Sheets RSS, https://www.vocalsheets.com/piano/sheets/80056/ Matchbox_20_Unwell.html. Matchbox Twenty. “Unwell.” Spotify. https://open.spotify.com/track/6Bm6qUCSatPAqkQllFL7oA?si=7c df8e186c1b4dfe Music, S. (n.d.). Every breath you take piano sheet music the police. Free Sheet Music pdf. https://sheetmusic-free.com/every-breath-youtake-piano-sheet-music-police/. Mraz, Jason. “I’m Yours.” Spotify. https://open.spotify.com/track/1EzrEOXmMH3G43AXT1y7pA?si=2 6455ba037eb4250 Police. “Every Breath You Take.” Spotify. https://open.spotify.com/track/1JSTJqkT5qHq8MDJnJbRE1?si=32 3b0652f0fa47c3
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"Popular Music." International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences, edited by William A. Darity, Jr., 2nd ed., vol. 6, Macmillan Reference USA, 2008, pp. 376-377. Gale eBooks, https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/CX3045302000/GVRL?u=j05790 9002&sid=GVRL&xid=59 f25996. Accessed 11 Dec. 2020. Presley, Elvis. “Hound Dog.” Spotify. https://open.spotify.com/track/64Ny7djQ6rNJspquof2KoX?si=73 39c39d4cc74b4b Rodrigo, Olivia. “drivers license.” Spotify. https://open.spotify.com/track/5wANPM4fQCJwkGd4rN57mH?si =714c3409dd864bec Sia. “Cheap Thrills.” Spotify. https://open.spotify.com/track/3S4px9f4lceWdKf0gWciFu?si=7f 4eb5db02d4466e Silk Sonic. “Leave The Door Open.” Spotify. https://open.spotify.com/track/7MAibcTli4IisCtbHKrGMh?si=ccc6 b7164611418c Songfacts. (n.d.). Hound dog by Elvis PRESLEY - Songfacts. Song Meanings at Songfacts. https://www.songfacts.com/facts/elvispresley/hound-dog.
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Swift, Taylor. “Willow.” Spotify. https://open.spotify.com/track/0lx2cLdOt3piJbcaXIV74f?si=56f7 0a227d5a4086 The hot 100 chart. Billboard. (n.d.). https://www.billboard.com/ charts/hot-100. U.S.A. For Africa. “We Are The World.” Spotify. https://open.spotify.com/track/3Z2tPWiNiIpg8UMMoowHIk? si=6220696f371f4681 Vega, Suzanne. “Tom’s Diner.” Spotify. https://open.spotify.com/track/6OKUhXuJMvoVPde9fMJJzy?si=5 a8c0cf69aa64fb
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Fraud Within the Enron Company: Enron Scandal of 2002 Andrew Nguyen Clear Horizons Early College High School
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On December 2, 2001, the Enron Corporation, one of the largest energy companies in the United States based in Houston, Texas, filed for bankruptcy protection, the largest filing for bankruptcy in the United States at that time.i Kenneth Lee Lay, founder and chairmen of the board, resigned from Chief Executive Officer of the Enron Company on January 23, 2002.ii But in 2006, Lay was apprehended on six criminal charges and an additional four bank fraud charges.iii Though facing charges, he told to the KXAS-NBC 5 News Channel cameraman that “in fact, we’re innocent,” showing his ignorance of the fraud.
iv
This company was the epitome of the “fake it until you make it”
company that eventually failed, fooling investors to believe that everyone should invest in the Enron Corporation. Enron once was a respectable company, having one of the largest natural gas transmission networks and being the world largest gas and electricity marketer, yet quickly it became “synonymous with corporate greed and corruption” as well as a fraud company.v How did this rising company fall to the wayside? "Simply, the company's desperation to stay afloat financially led them criminally to exploit accounting principles and security laws. Before the fall, this company started as a merger between Houston Natural Gas, a subdivision from the Houston Oil Company, and InterNorth company.vi The Houston Natural Gas began selling gasoline in the 1920s, but sold their retail gas business in 1976.vii This allows to diversity and expand to gas exploration/production and other industries, making a profit of over $123 million and having assets worth $3.7 billion by 1984.viii InterNorth, formerly known as the Northern National Gas Company, began in Omaha, Nebraska in 1930, making total revenue as high as $7.5 billion by 1984 with their pipeline
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network.ix This merger between Houston Natural Gas and InterNorth started also in 1984, where Chief Executive Officer of InterNorth, Sam Segnar, planned to buy out the company.x Segnar bought out the Houston Oil Company under the merger name of the “HNG/InterNorth” for $2.4 billion that would be headquartered in Omaha, Nebraska with Segnar as both a chairman and the chief executive officer.xi But in 1986, a year after the merger, Sam Segnar retired from Chief Executive Officer and replaced himself with Kenneth Lay.xii Kenneth Lee Lay, born on April 15, 1942, had his Ph.D. in economics from the University of Houston in 1970.xiii He worked in many oil and gas refinery companies, including the Humble Oil and Refining company after graduation and later at the Florida Gas Corporation in 1973.xiv After the Chief Executive Officer of the Florida Gas Corporation, Jack Bowen, left from the position to work at the Transco Corporation in Houston, Texas, Lay replaced him as president and Chief Executive Officer in 1980.xv Lay later moved to Houston, Texas in 1981 to be president of the Transco Corporation, the same company that Jack Bowen left for.xvi During those years working in those oil and gas companies, he became a well-known name in the oil and gas industry, with many people describing him as an “effective spokesman for the industry” that helped those companies get out of long-term, high-priced contracts called “take or pay contracts” during a “time of falling prices and reduced demand” for oil in 1978.xvii In 1984, Lay became the Chief Executive Officer of the Houston Natural Gas and later again as Chief Executive Officer for the Houston Natural Gas/InterNorth merger in 1986.xviii Under the leadership of Lay, he renamed the company’s name to the Enron Corporation and relocated the new corporation to Houston, Texas, in
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1986, owning over “36,000 miles of pipe” connections in the United States.xix In 1984, the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission allowed any gas distributing company to buy gas from anyone and anywhere.xx Lay, along with former consultant of the McKinsey and Company, Jeff Skilling, worked together in 1991 to create the Gas Bank, a service that served as the “intermediary between buyers and sellers of gas,” becoming a success for the new company.xxi With the success of the Gas Bank, Lay saw more opportunities for the company to be a gas trader than gas producer, selling some of its pipeline networks in 2000.xxii The company became number seven on Fortune Magazine’s top 500 companies list, becoming a well-respected company.xxiii More Enron-funded projects help them grow more powerful, but many of those projects failed and eventually Enron had to resort to illegal accounting practices to stay afloat. One failed project was in 1994, when Congress deregulated the control of electricity and gas utilities from each state, allowing a company to sell their utilities to any state.xxiv The Enron Corporation began spending $100 million a year in California to control the electricity and gas utilities there.xxv But the project was cancelled in 1999, though they managed to be a power supplier of electricity to California until 2000.xxvi In 2001, the California Senate community held Enron, along with other energy companies involved in California’s energy crisis, in court for manipulating energy prices.xxvii Enron’s lawyer claimed that Enron refuse to comply with the committee because Enron claimed only the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission has jurisdiction over Enron and other energy companies.xxviii Another failed attempt to generate revenue was in July 1998, when the Enron Corporation bought out Wessex Water of Great Britain
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and renamed that company to Azurix.xxix But due to problems connecting their supply and transmission facilities at that company, Enron liquified Azurix and its assets two years later and wrote off its debt as a Special Purpose Entity (SPEs). SPEs are “shell firms created by a sponsor but funded by independent equity investors and debt financing,” to keep the record of that debt out of Enron’s accounting book; Enron used that practice significantly to pretend that their business was doing well.xxx One more significant attempt for the company to make revenue was by investing in broadband, fiber-optic cables. In 2000, the Enron Corporation announced the Enron Broadband Services, a broadband, fiber-optic cable business.xxxi Even before the Enron Broadband Services, Enron already invested in the technology industry with Enron Online in 1999, one of the “largest e-commerce sites in the world” at the time, so many people expected the Broadband Services to be a good natural expansion of the company.xxxii But due to an oversupply of capacity of the amount of fiber optic cables that can be put in the ground that other broadband company claimed before, Enron lost $1 billion through Enron Broadband Services.xxxiii The failures of these projects puts the Enron Corporation in a tight situation. How much longer could they survive without a good, steady flow of revenue? Would the Enron Corporation survive this situation? Once more Enron survived temporarily by illegal and unethical accounting practices. Instead of trying to find new ways to raise revenue, they doubled-down on creating false bookings of successful projects and revenues, creating a facade of a successful company to the general stock market.xxxiv With Jeff Skilling under the supervision of accounting, he adopted the mark-
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to-market accounting, where the value of an anticipated revenue is determined, and the expected costs of the revenue is expensed once a contract is signed.xxxv Unrealized and unexpected gains or losses of the market value of those contracts must be reported in the company’s annual earnings report, though Enron could also forged the losses.xxxvi Though this method of accounting is legal, the Enron Corporation and another auditor company, Arthur Andersen, illegally used this accounting practice to raise Enron’s stocks by fifty-nine percent in 1999 and eighty-seven percent by the next year, using this practice to their advantage to the point it went beyond parameters not mentioned in the law to inflate their stocks.xxxvii The two companies also signed up for prepaid agreements that allowed the company not to put the liability on these agreements to the balance sheet so that they can raise money.xxxviii They also began using more SPEs in their business during the 1990s to manage or fund the risks within a project or asset. People criticized the Enron Corporation for forcing investors and bankers to invest in their SPEs for a short time before replacing them with a new investor.xxxix When the Enron Corporation could not find investors for their SPEs, they ultimately relied on their own management personnel to either set in mark-tomarket contracts or to hide the losses from underperforming assets or projects.xl One final way to get funding for projects for this company was to get an international loan. In 1989, the Enron Corporation borrowed $56 million from the Overseas Private Investment Corporation (OPIC) from Argentina, a shady investment company that invested in overseas projects that many US companies use.xli Enron eventually racked up loans of $2.2 billion to invest in previous failed projects along with powerplants, gas pipelines, and gas
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extraction.xlii With many investments in projects that were doomed to fail and hiding those failures, Enron was in trouble. These false records of good investments and projects in their accounting books resulted in the bankruptcy of the Enron Corporation and its affiliate Arthur Andersen, and the creation of the Sarbanes and Oxley Act of 2002. With all these false records, the Enron Corporation’s crimes were eventually exposed to the public. In 2001, many financial analysists began questioning the Enron Corporation’s methods of accounting.xliii In 2000, the Enron Corporation claimed that Enron had $4.8 billion in cash flow, even though they had little cash flow.xliv Also, in 2000, the Enron Corporation claimed that they also had $100 billion in revenue not traded by hand that needed to be collateralized by credit rating services; these services questioned Enron’s legitimacy of their records.xlv While these events were happening, the fiber market was declining, but the Enron Corporation insisted that their broadband technology was doing fine, causing more suspicion.xlvi The Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) reported that the Enron Corporation had a negative cash flow of $1.3 billion, a stark contrast to the $4.8 billion the Enron Corporation was claiming.xlvii One of the Corporation’s SPEs, Marlin, had payment to investors at the end of 2001, but the Enron Corporation managed to refinance it for $1 billion dollars; the deal only would work if their stocks do not fall below $34 per share.xlviii But due to the falling energy prices, the Enron Corporation saw it stocks fall below $34 and must pay out $2 billion to investors.xlix This increase in payment to investors, along with other complications in the company, caused Jeff Skilling to retire from his position at Enron Corporation, leaving
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only Kenneth Lay to lead the Enron Corporation.l This sudden leaving of Jeff Skilling promoted more suspicion about the company by analysists, while the Enron Corporation’s stocks continued to decline, from a five dollar drop decrease of stock after Skilling left to a twenty-five dollar drop decrease of stock on September 12, 2001.li The Enron Corporation’s stocks continued to decline in price per share, reaching a low price point per share of twenty dollars and sixty-five cents per share.lii They used $3 billion in credit lines to avoid bankruptcy and liquification, but those credit lines only lasted for a few days due to short-term accounting filing.liii Since their stock prices fell, Enron now owned lenders billions of dollars.liv Enron’s only option to pay for their obligations was to use their pipelines, worth $1 billion, as a collateral to them. They also hired Andrew Fastow as the Chief Financial Officer to help them with their collateral.lv Now hired, Fastow worked with Enron’s off-book affiliates to inflate the company’s share prices.lvi In the eyes of Fastow, he was “being a hero.”lvii In November 2001 as a last attempt to save the Enron Corporation, Enron made a merger deal with Dynegy Incorporated in Houston, Texas that raised their stocks by ten dollars.lviii The Enron Corporation received $1.5 billion from Dynegy and $550 million from pipeline loans.lix But Enron’s thirdquarter losses was about $664 million, and their fourth-quarter prospects were skeptical at best.lx Credit rating services then rated the Enron Corporation just barely above junk status, causing the Enron Corporation to owe Dynegy Incorporated $690 million from another SPE called Rawhide.lxi This new SPE brought the total debt that Enron Corporation owed to more than $9 billion by 2002.lxii Realizing their mistake, Dynegy Incorporated ended
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the deal; many banks refused to lend any more credit.lxiii Enron attempted to sue Dynegy for ending their deal for $10 billion, but US District Judge, Alvin Hellerstein, shut the case down.lxiv Ultimately without any other choice, the Enron Corporation filed for bankruptcy protection under United States bankruptcy laws on December 2, 2002, which was one of the largest bankruptcy protection filings ever.lxv Many Enron employees suffered from these fraud records of accounting.lxvi Most of their savings and pension plans were tied to the value of Enron’s stock.lxvii As the value of the stocks decreased per share to the point of uselessness, so did the employee’s funds on those plans.lxviii About 20,000 employees sued Enron for encouraging them to buy Enron’s shares in their 401(K) plans while the top executives sold theirs.lxix Twenty-two Enron executives pleaded guilty or were charged with crimes; some of the Enron executives received probation while other executives, like chief financial officer Andrew Fastow and accounting chief Richard Causey, received prison time.lxx Authorities also convicted Arthur Andersen, the auditing company of Enron, trying to destroy Enron’s records to protect themselves.lxxi During a recorded video of the Congress questioning former chief executive of Enron Jeff Skilling at Washington D.C. on February 26, 2002, Sherron Watkins, former vice president of the Enron Corporation, stated that she expected “Mr. Lay to conduct a thorough investigation” over the potential danger of false accounting practices, but was disappointed when Lay ignored the potential threat to the corporation.lxxii She also stated that “Enron had a brief window” to save itself from fraud and manipulation of financial records, but since Lay ignored the issue, this manipulation caused the downfall of the Enron
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Corporation.lxxiii But in contrast to Sherron Watkins, Jeff Skilling stated that he was a major shareholder and a “supporter of Enron Corp”. He claimed that Enron and Kenneth Lay did nothing wrong, with “nothing to hide” from Congress.lxxiv Separate from the questioning, Richard Causey, though given the option of pleading guilty and testifying in exchange of leniency of punishment, also refused to testify against Lay and Skilling, stating that he did nothing wrong in the scandal.lxxv Andrew Fastow also plead not guilty, refusing to help convict Lay and Skilling.lxxvi With many people questioning the legitimacy of Enron’s actions, the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) searched the Enron Corporation’s premises in Houston to find any evidence of fraud within the boxes and piles of documents at the Enron Corporation’s headquarter building. In 2002, after the Enron Corporation filed for bankruptcy protection, the FBI in Houston, Texas sent two of its agents to investigate the Corporation.lxxvii Soon, as more information became available, the case became one of “the largest and most complex white-collar investigation in FBI history.” The FBI sent more agents from Houston and Washington D.C., bringing the total up to forty-five agents investigating the crime.lxxviii During this five-year investigation of the Enron Corporation according to a Supervisory Special Agent (SSA) and chief of the economic crime squad, Michael E. Anderson explained in January 2002 that they were given consent to search the premises of the fifty-stories-high Enron headquarter building. They investigated the five hundred boxes of documents and evidence within the building and interviewed hundreds of leads during nine days in the building.lxxix In February 2002, Enron’s board of directors conducted their own
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internal investigation, headed by the special investigation committee leader William Powers Jr., reporting that executives at Enron “reaped millions by violating basic accounting principles.”lxxx “That was a gold mine,” reported by Anderson.lxxxi This led to over 1,800 interviews being conducted in the United States and overseas.lxxxii The Computer Analysis and Response Team of the FBI obtained over four terabytes, or four thousand gigabytes, of data that included emails from six hundred employees.lxxxiii The Regional Computer Forensics Laboratory in Houston, Texas “processed some 30 terabytes of data” that had important leads and paper trails to help investigators find the cause and culprits.lxxxiv And financial analysists finally processed hundreds of fraudulent bank and brokerage accounts and purchases to help create restraining orders of the culprits, collecting over $168 million worth of the Enron Corporation’s assets and insider trading charges.lxxxv With all the information collected about the Enron Corporation, from Enron overvaluing its anticipated assets by the billions to keep Wall Street happy to overpricing California energy utilities, the FBI had enough information to apprehend the former chairmen of the Enron Company, Kenneth Lay and Jeff Skilling, with criminal charges and prison sentences.lxxxvi In 2006, Lay and Skilling were sent to a corporate jury trial, overseen by District Judge Sim Lakes.lxxxvii During that corporate jury trial, the jury convicted Lay of six counts of “conspiracy, securities and wire fraud” and four more counts in another banking trial. Lakes sentenced Lay to forty-five years in prison.lxxxviii Lakes also sentenced Skilling, after a conviction of nineteen counts of fraud, to one-hundred-eighty-five years in prison.lxxxix When the two were convicted, Lay, along with his family and friends, cried and held hands
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over the fact that he must serve the rest of his life in prison.xc But for Skilling and his brother, they showed no emotion or remorse of guilt about Skilling’s own sentence to prison, showing Skilling’s stern emotion and, to some, lack of guilt.xci To make sure this did not happen again, Congress passed the Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002. Before Lay and Skilling was sentenced to prison, the Sarbanes-Oxley Act was introduced by Michael G. Oxley on February 14, 2002.xcii This new, proposed act “establishes the Public Company Accounting Oversight Board” that will establish auditing rules and regulations, oversee auditing in public companies, and investigate and enforce their own auditing regulations to accounting firms and people.xciii Many more rules are also enforced in this Act, like in section 101 that banned any accounting boards to have more than two certified accountants auditing.xciv This act ensured that no company will audit false records and lie to investors. This act became public law on July 30, 2002.xcv The Enron Corporation was one of the biggest business scandals in the United States’ history. Many had lost their savings, retirement, and jobs. Others were arrested and went to prison. As of February 21, 2019, Jeff Skilling, who has been in prison for twelve years, left prison after his sentence was reduced by Judge Lakes.xcvi This scandal was one of the most eye-opening scandals in business history, changing our perspective towards a company’s success. Though devastating, this scandal taught lessons from this scandal, making sure the downfall of Enron and other companies did not happen again.
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References KXAS-TV . 2006. "[News Clip: Enron trial] All Clips." The Portal to Texas History. KXAS-TV. January 3, video, 0:25, Accessed November 23, 2020. https://texashistory.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc1049866/ m1/?q=enron Federal Bureau of Investigation. 2006. “Crime in the Suites: A Look Back at the Enron Case.” December 13. Accessed November 2020, 22. https://archives.fbi.gov/archives/news/stories/2006/december/enron_ 121306 Flanagan, Peter. 2020. Enron's former CFO Andrew Fastow once saw himself as 'a hero'. January 9. Accessed January 14, 2021. https:// www.houstonchronicle.com/business/energy/article/Andrew-FastowWho-Helped-Bring-Down-Enron-Saw-14962065.php. Oxley, Michael G. 2002. “H.R.3763 - Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002.” July 30. Accessed November 23, 2020. https://www.congress.gov/bill/107thcongress/house-bill/3763 “Ex-Enron Executives Face New Senate Questioning.” 2002. Associated Press. https://cdnapisec.kaltura.com/p/2503031/sp/250303100/playManifest/ entryId/1_py1qmly9/format/url/protocol/https Behr, Peter, and Carrie Johnson. 2002. Executives resisting Enron prosecutors. December 28. Accessed November 23, 2020. https:// www.houstonchronicle.com/business/enron/article/Executivesresisting-Enron-prosecutors-2092665.php
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Bloomburg Business News. 2004. Dynegy agreement with Enron stands. February 4. Accessed January 15, 2021. https://www.houstonchronicle.com/business/enron/article/Dynegyagreement-with-Enron-stands-2132360.php. 2004. Enron's bankruptcy judge orders $85 million set aside. August 4. Accessed November 23, 2020. https://www.houstonchronicle.com/ business/enron/article/Enron-s-bankruptcy-judge-orders-85-millionset-1679105.php 2001. Enron held in contempt in California. June 29. Accessed January 15, 2021. https://www.houstonchronicle.com/business/energy/ article/Enron-held-in-contempt-in-California-2042522.php. Frontain, Michael. n.d. "Enron Corporation." Texas State Historical Association. Accessed November 23, 2020. https://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/ entries/enron-corporation n.d. "Lay, Kenneth Lee (1942–2006)." Texas State Historical Association. Accessed November 23, 2020. https://www.tshaonline.org/ handbook/entries/lay-kenneth-lee Hays, Kristen. 2006. Lay, Skilling are convicted in collapse of Enron. May 25. Accessed November 23, 2020. https://www.houstonchronicle.com/ neighborhood/article/Lay-Skilling-are-convicted-in-collapse-of-Enron9551207.php Sixel, L.M. 2019. Jeffrey Skilling released after 12 years in prison for role in Enron scandal. February 21. Accessed November 23, 2020. https://
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www.houstonchronicle.com/business/energy/article/Skillingscheduled-for-release-after-12-years-in-13634433.php 2020. Once ‘the golden boy,’ ex-Enron CEO Jeffrey Skilling is out of prison and as fascinating as ever. June 26. Accessed January 14, 2021. https://www.houstonchronicle.com/business/energy/article/enron-ceojeffrey-skilling-houston-business-15367662.php. Texas State Board of Public Accountancy. 2002. Andersen. Texas State Board Report, August: 14. Accessed November 23, 2020. https:// texashistory.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metapth1033546/m1/14/?q=enron
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Bong Joon Ho’s Choices of Motif in the Film Parasite Eglantine Plisson Inglemoor High School
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Introduction In the movie, Parasite, Bong Joon Ho guides the viewer through modern-day South Korea, exploring its economical polarization and consequential social polarization. Bong seeks to “interrogate the capitalist system” through the poor Kim family and rich Park family (Rose). His film questions if exploitation between the rich and the poor is inevitable or whether there might be a better alternative. Bong describes his social commentary as “neutral” and believes that “people have to maintain mutual respect towards each other” (Rose). Parasite “deals with a situation where that minimal amount of respect you should have towards another human being is completely destroyed and ignored” (Rose). It is not about who is guilty and who is not, but rather seeks to uncover those “who are in society’s blind spots” (Rose). This poses the question: How does Bong Joon Ho use various motifs in the movie Parasite to comment on power dynamics between the Kims and the Parks? In this essay I will argue that Bong Joon Ho uses the motif of height to represent the hierarchy of power between the families, technology to represent the complicated back and forth of power between them, and vermin to represent the lack of power of the Kim family.
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Plot Parasite is the story of two modern Korean families, the poor Kims and the rich Parks. It follows the Kims as they infiltrate the Park family home by procuring jobs as driver, tutor, housekeeper, and art therapist for the park family while using backhanded techniques to get rid of the old employees. This delicate balance between the families then soon starts to fall apart and everything descends into chaos. I found this topic worth exploring because Bong’s specific thematic choices have not been explored on a level that connects back to currentday Korean issues and social polarization. Often, many reviews simply connect the broad ideas presented in the film to Korean issues. While this is part of my exploration, I sought to go deeper into Bong’s writing and unveil the more specific and convoluted motifs that underlay the power shifts between the Kim and Park families.
Height Bong employs a visual motif through height and grandeur to show the hierarchy of power between the Kims and the Parks. The Kims are part of the South Korean “stock image of housing for the poor”. In “2015, over 360,000 households have a semi-basement floor-plan” since “the average apartment price in Seoul surpassed 500 million won (about $413,541)” (Yong Par 6-7). The very first instance of the motif of height is the first scene. As KiWoo searches for Wi-Fi in the cramped semi-basement apartment he makes his way to the bathroom, it “is long and narrow and has a raised ‘altar’ at the
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far end where the toilet sits” (Bong 2). This “odd placement is necessitated by the semi-basement’s lower position in relation to the septic tank” (Bong 2). The Kim family is literally lower than shit. To further this idea “a drunk man [teeters] toward the semi-basement window” ready to use it as “a public toilet” (Bong 7-8). Even after the whole Kim family is hired by the Parks and they are having their celebratory dinner the window “is being rattled by a robust stream of urine” (Bong 59). This incessant idea that the Kims are lesser than even human waste furthers Bong’s message that they never truly are more powerful than the Parks. Even with the whole family “gainfully employed” with these part-time jobs they cannot afford to move up into an apartment (Bong 59). Forever bound to the slums. Bong immediately contrasts this through his careful detailing of the Parks’ mansion. As Ki-Woo makes his way up “a quiet road snaking up the hill of a wealthy neighborhood” the camera is at a low angle looking up at Ki-Woo between the high walls of mansions (Bong 13). There is “not a pedestrian in sight”, indicating that the people in this neighborhood travel by car. When he walks up the stairs into the light of the park family’s garden the camera moves around with him as his eyes explore the scenery. Birds can be heard singing. Not a skyscraper on site, it is a haven away from the city within the city. A huge contrast to the Kims’ ground-level view of trash bags. Further into the mansion, the camera is cleverly set to show wide angles of its big doors, tall ceiling, modern architecture, and open floor plan. This ascent to the heavens is like night and day to the Kims’ damp dark home. The cinematic choices amplify KiWoo’s journey to the quiet restful paradise. His eyes wander as he has never
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seen such grandeur and nature within the city, he has grown up in. Bong carefully chose every aspect of this neighborhood and mansion to directly contrast every aspect of the Kims’ neighborhood. The tall walls versus low semi-basements, cement versus lush garden, cramped home versus big bold grand architecture. Each detail looks down on the Kims as they make their way up the social ladder, always reminding them that they are smaller and weaker because they do not have money. Another instance of this height contrast is in the existence of the hidden bunker. Similar to the Kims’ home it had a “low ceiling, gray walls, [and] a small passageway” (Bong 75). It is secretly buried way beneath the mansion, carved into the hill, behind a cabinet. Interestingly, the first owner and architect, Mr.Namgoong, “didn’t mention it to the Parks when he sold the house”, it is not known exactly why, they hypothesize embarrassment (Bong 78). As Mun-Kwang and the Kims make their way down into the dark bunker the camera follows Chung-Sook at a high angle as if she is making her way down into the depths of despair. For Kun-Sae, who has been hiding from loan sharks down the bunker for four years it truly has become a pit of despair as he has slowly lost his sanity. Beneath the Park’s beautiful bright mansion lies a dark home harboring a desperate man, and they are not even aware of it. Blissfully ignorant of it. Same as they are of the people like the Kims who live downtown in the nooks and crannies of valleys. Overlooked by the giants on the hills. Both in the bunker and on the outside they all are desperately looking for scraps, any little thing to get by. While the rich reap the city of opportunities for people like the Kims.
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Perhaps the most powerful demonstration of height is in the floods. As Ki-Tek, Ki-Woo and Ki-Jung escape into the night “rain pours as they make their way down the winding road” from the park mansion (Bong 105). The camera “[looks] down on a hillside neighborhood” one of the “working class” only “illuminated by the lights of low-income apartments. The gates of poverty” (Bong 105). The camera continues to pan down as they keep making their way down, past “shabby, low-rent buildings”, until it doesn’t seem they could go any farther (Bong 107). They turn a corner to witness “a completely flooded alley” and total pandemonium (Bong 108). As Ki-Tek and Ki-Woo struggle to salvage what is left of their belongings in the almost completely flooded semi-basement, Ki-Jung “trudges toward the toilet, which is spewing shit water like an Icelandic geyser” (Bong 108). She must fight the lid down so that she can sit on it and rescue a “few folded bills stashed away” (Bong 108). The Kims are below sewage water. The camera does not change height and so as the apartment quickly floods with sewage the water rises and the shot becomes increasingly ground level. Cinematic choices are reversed from Ki-Woo’s ascent up the hills to the park mansion, once again demonstrating the Kims’ descent into a darker world. While the Parks were able to come home dry and warm, the Kims’ had to go back home damp and cold only to find their whole life flooded by human waste. The Parks are able to run away from their problems into cover, while the Kims are constantly fighting every obstacle in their way. Bong is very intentional in his choice to make the contrast between the Kims and Parks so visual. By doing this it makes it clearly evident to any viewer that the families hold very different positions in society. However, it
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also reveals their character traits. The Kims are resilient but vulgar. The Parks are proper but do not have much experience with adversity.
Technology Bong Joon Ho, known for his cunning use of symbolism and metaphor in his storytelling, employs technology and Wi-Fi as a weapon to show the tug of war battle for power between the Kim and Park families. In the very first seconds of the film, the camera is panning down at Ki-Woo on his phone “[running] from corner to corner searching desperately for a Wi-Fi signal” (Bong 1). His mother, Chung-Sook is worried that the family may miss potential work calls. South Korea has a rising income inequality issue, for which one of the causes is the “large wage gaps between regular and non-regular workers” (Choong Yong Par 10). Having an internet connection is essential for the Kims because they are dependent on these first come first serve part-time jobs to make a living. Ki-Woo makes his way to the highest part of the home, “onto the toilet”, and finally finds an open Wi-Fi (Bong 3). South Korea is notorious for its ubiquitous access to Wi-Fi, there are ““Egg” [devices that pick] up every signal nearby” allowing “smartphone ownership and Internet usage [to be] the highest in the world” (Shorrock Par 3). However, the Kim family is so poor that their “phones have been suspended for weeks' (Bong 2). Though the Park family and Kim family have not met each other, Bong has already demonstrated that the Kim family relies on cunning tricks to survive. While the Park family does not have to worry about such things since the father, Dong-Ik, is the CEO of a successful tech company. The Kims live day to day while the Parks live without worry
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that they will be “[picking] off the moldy parts” off the ends of bread for a meal (Bong 2). This desperation is what sets them apart. Wi-Fi is pivotal in allowing the Kims to infiltrate the Park family home, it grants them the power they need to take advantage of the Parks’ weaknesses. For example, after Ki-Jung has officially been hired as the Parks’ art therapist, she reveals that she “just googled ‘art therapy’ and did a little improv” in order to convince Yon-Kyo that she was a professional and well educated on the topic. Without technology and the internet Ki-Jung would not have been able to learn about art therapy and convince Yon-Kyo, further pressing how important technology is in the Kims’ pursuit of jobs. They need to be clever and use the resources at hand, taking advantage not only of the Yon-Kyo’s naivety but also of the educational resources open to all. Furthermore, securing Chung-Sook’s job requires another instance of technology in order to remove Mun-Kwang as the current housekeeper. After making the poor lady have an allergic reaction Ki-Tek “snaps a selfie” at a hospital “making sure to include Mun-Kwang in the background” (Bong 45). Later, he shows this photograph to Yon-Kyo and lies saying that he “heard her say that she was -- diagnosed with tuberculosis” (Bong 47). Without the cell phone’s camera, Ki-Tek would never have been able to convince Yon-Kyo to fire Mun-Kwang, leaving Chung-Sook without a job. These clever uses of technology allow the Kims to gain power over the Parks and leech off of their naivety and money. Bong Joon Ho utilizes modern technology to further the Kims’ efforts; he also employs it reversely. When the Kim family is revealed after their
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tumble down the bunker stairs Mun-Kwang is quick to “[take] out her cell phone” recording an incriminating video of the Kims’ scam (Bong 80). She then threatens to send the video to Mrs.Park but Ki-Tek is quick to question whether there is even reception so deep underground. Ki-Jung “looks at her phone” and responds that it is actually “pretty good” (Bong 82). Technology is starting to turn against the Kims and come back to bite them. They did not realize that technological power could turn on them so quickly and that they could land right back at the bottom of the power hierarchy. The metaphor truly crescendos when “Mun-Kwang sticks out her phone like a gun” threatening to send the video if the Kims get too close (Bong 83). Kun-Sae, her husband, then brings the metaphor to life as he remarks that the send button “[is] like a nuclear button”, Mun-Kwang is “like North Korea” and “the phone is Kim Jong-Un’s nuke” (Bong 83). As MunKwang takes this simile in stride as she impersonates a “North Korean news anchor” she gets distracted with the sudden power (Bong 84). The Kims take the opportunity to knock her “off balance and [make] her drop the phone” (Bong 86). In an overhead insert shot a tangled battle for the phone ensues. Technology has turned against the Kims. Mun-Kwang now wants to use it to get revenge and her job back; however, she is not as accustomed to such overwhelming power and eventually gets too cocky with it. The Kims were also irresponsible and did not realize it could be used to dethrone them as well. Perhaps the most ambiguous but powerful use of technology is at the very end of the movie. Ki-Woo is sitting at the top of a mountain, watching the Park mansion when he notices flashing lights. He “starts recording into his
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cell phone” the dashes and dots (Bong p.133). On the train, he “[listens] to the recording he made earlier” and “[transcribes] the dots and dashes” to reveal a message from his father who is hidden inside the bunker (Bong p.133). Bong then lets Ki-Woo narrate his wish to become rich and buy the mansion one day in hopes that he can let his father free. However, in traditional Bong fashion, it is never that simple. The last scene is of the camera panning back down to Ki-Woo, still sitting in his semi-basement home, transcribing the letter. This leaves the viewer questioning whether the Kims really did triumph in their use of technology, or whether in the end it never really mattered, and more was lost than gained for both the Park and the Kims.
Vermin Bong’s most obscure and powerful thematic choice is his use of vermin as a motif to show the Kim family’s lack of power. The first example of this in the story is when the Kim family is sitting in their semi-basement home folding mountains of pizza boxes for a part-time job. In the distance “they hear a truck rattling closer”, it is a “street fumigation truck spewing gas as it passes by” (Bong 4). As “the fog rolls closer to the window” Ki-Tek advises his family to leave the window open for “free fumigation [to] get rid of the damn crickets” since semi-basement homes in Korea are known for their “the prevalence of critters” (Bong 4, Yong 6). Of course, this is an unsafe decision, and “the fog quickly envelops the family” and they are “breathing through tear-inducing fumes just to make a meager living” (Bong 4). The crickets are not the only target of extermination. By having the Kims
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suffer through the fumes and Bong demonstrates that they are the same as those crickets. Like Kafka’s Metamorphosis, the Kims are the bugs that invade a home. Foreshadowing the Kims’ invasion of the park home, like the crickets that invade their semi-basement. Bong makes this metaphor clearer when the Kims are sitting around the Parks’ coffee table enjoying the luxuries of the home and “[imagining] for a second that this is [their] house” (Bong 69). The family then argues over whether or not at that moment it is indeed their home since they “ARE currently living here. For all intents and purposes” (Bong 70). Chung-Sook, ever the pragmatist, responds with a question, “What if Park comes back right now?” and directed at Ki-Tek, “He would skitter away like a cockroach” (Bong 70). She continues with an example, in “[their] apartment. [When they] turn on the lights, the roaches all run away and disappear under the cabinets” (Bong 70). She argues that Ki-Tek would do the same. The irony of her words unfolds very rapidly thereafter. After the fiasco in the bunker, Yon-Kyo informs Chung-Sook that they are almost home. The Kims look around at “the living room … littered with whiskey bottles, plates, [and] peaches” (Bong 87). Ki-Tek snaps them out of their frozen state and “the family jumps into action” (Bong 88). Ki-Jung is clearing the coffee table, Ki-Tek is dragging Kun-Sae to the basement, Ki-Woo is “[hurrying] up to the second floor” to put back Da-Hae’s diary (Bong 89). As soon as they “[hear] the Park family [walk] up the garage stairs” Ki-Jung “hides under the large coffee table” and Ki-Woo “hides under [Da-Hae’s] bed” (Bong 90). In a ground-level shot Junie the dog is seen “poking her head under the mattress” looking at Ki-Woo, Da-Hae “bends over to see what it is” but gets
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distracted, Ki-Woo barely escaping discovery (Bong 96). As the family is about to make their escape after exiting their hiding spots they hear “footsteps thundering down the stairs” and they rapidly crawl back underneath the coffee table escaping discovery once more (Bong 97). At one point Ki-Tek is flat on his stomach sliding across the living room floor where Yon-Kyo and Dong-Ik are asleep on the couch and “a strong beam of light” suddenly appears, almost revealing Ki-Tek. The couple wakes up but doesn’t notice Ki-Tek. The Kims have become cockroaches. Fleeing from sight at the last second and freezing to not be seen in the darkness. So close to being discovered only inches away in the dark corners. The Parks are completely oblivious to their presence. Had they been discovered their whole operation would’ve been exterminated and their presence in the home as well. Bong adds to the vermin-like nature of the Kims through a smell only noticeable to the Parks who are consistently disgusted by it. First noticed by Da-Song as he “shoves his nose in [Chung-Sook’s] belly” and then KiTek’s stating that they “smell exactly the same’, he adds that Ki-Jung shares the same odor as well (Bong 57-58). Later at dinner Ki-Jung states that “the smell won’t go away unless [they] leave” their semi-basement home (Bong 59). This smell originates from the “moldy smell due to [the] homes’ high humidity” produced in semi-basements (Yong Par 6). The Kims, even with their four incomes cannot cover up the smell. They are unable to escape the constant judgment that society puts on them, even at work. Bong exemplifies that by making them pests, things to be eradicated. Ignorantly
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and unknowingly the Parks continuously degrade them and keep up this pattern of abuse. The Kims are repeatedly stuck in place as they overhear or notice the Parks' disgust. For example, in a ground-level shot, the Kims are hidden under the coffee table like cockroaches. Dong-Ik, laying on the couch above, recognizes Ki-Tek’s smell. He describes it as a “subtle aroma that seeps into the air”, “the smell of an old radish pickle” or the smell “when you’re washing a dirty rag” (Bong 101). Dong-Ik often talks about ‘crossing the line’, a metaphor he uses to describe his preferred employer-employee relationship. The ‘line’ never gets described in more detail, but it can be inferred that it is a boundary of how much of their personal lives they share. Dong-Ik describes the smell as “definitely [crossing] the line” (Bong 102). Ignorantly calling Ki-Tek disgusting for something he cannot control. In the end, it is what gets him killed, Ki-Tek notices Dong-Ik frowning and “[holding] his nose at the awful smell” (Bong 128). Before thinking twice KiTek is “[swinging] the ax and plants it right between Dong-Ik’s neck and shoulder” (Bong 129). The Kims unexpectedly take revenge on the Parks disgustingly ignorant behavior. While it seemed that Bong’s intention for the use of smell would be to show how the Kims are vermin-like, it revealed the Parks’ internal vermin-like nature. Their inability to think beyond themselves and reflect on their words. At one point they talk about the smell being similar to that of the subways, yet they do not make that connection to semi-basement homes. They are so blinded by their perfect world that they have forgotten about those who struggle to make ends meet every day. They invent arbitrary ‘lines’ to keep themselves separated from that world.
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Had Dong-Ik been more open to learning about Ki-Tek’s struggles he might have been able to form a more meaningful connection with him. Instead, he separated himself and judged him, ultimately leading to the poorer family’s revenge. Bong’s grandest and most obvious use of vermin is in the title, ‘Parasite’. While it is overlooked after the first few seconds, its role is to tie the whole movie together. A parasite is an “organism that lives in or on an organism of another species (its host) and benefits by deriving nutrients at the other's expense” (“parasite n.1.”). In the case of the movie the Kims live off of the Parks and benefit from their wealth. Most notable in this definition are the words “an organism of another species”, this highlights the contrast between the Kims and Parks, marking them as nothing alike and their being an inability to form human connections (“parasite n.1.”). This is seen in DongIk’s ‘line’ and his inability to relate, empathize, or view his employees as humans with unique problems. Lastly, the words “at the other’s expense” seem to not fulfill themselves for the majority of the movie as the Parks are clueless about the Kims’ infiltration. In the end, however, the Parks do pay for it with their lives, livelihoods, and privilege. The biggest question that this poses, is whether the Kims were really parasites all along. Perhaps it is the Parks that are the parasites of society. Leaching off the poor’s hard labor while giving nothing in return.
Conclusion Bong Joon Ho’s use of technology, height, and vermin as motifs allowed him to demonstrate the social polarization and power dynamics
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between the Kims and the Parks as they navigate Korean society. Technology allows the Kims to successfully navigate the increasing income inequalities of South Korea. However, it simultaneously remains a weapon and can be turned against them to reveal their cunning ways. Variations in height visually represent the ever-growing separation between rich and poor as the income gap increases. Vermin demonstrates Bong’s comment on the poor being those “who are in society’s blind spots”; both in the Parks’ ignorance and in the comparisons of the Kims to pests (Rose). All of these motifs enhance Bong’s representation of the tug of war battle for power between the Kims and the Parks. Bong makes the viewer question which family is right and whether there really is a concrete answer to that question. This allows Bong to bring out the nuance of South Korean society, demonstrating that no single person is wholly good or bad, and show that capitalism produces a society in which both rich and poor exploit each other. In Parasite Bong brings these two worlds together, revealing the darkness and weaknesses that both holds. Perhaps, the catastrophe at the end of the film reveals that those worlds are too far apart and can no longer come together peacefully.
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References Bong, Joon Ho, director. Parasite. Screenplay by Joon Ho Bong and Jin Won Han, CJ Entertainment, 2019. Bong, Joon Ho, and Jin Won Han. "Parasite Script PDF." Amazon, scriptpdf.s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com/parasite-script-pdf.pdf. Accessed 28 Oct. 2021. Choong Yong, Ahn. "Rising Inequalities in South Korea and the Search for a New Business Ecosystem." Global Asia, vol. 11, no. 2, June 2016, www.globalasia.org/v11no2/cover/ rising-inequalities-in-south-koreaand-the-search-for-a-new-business-ecosystem_choong- yongahn.Accessed 21 Oct. 2021. "parasite n.1." OED Online, Oxford University Press, September 2021, www.oed.com/viewdictionaryentry/Entry/11125. Accessed 28 October 2021. Rose, Steve. "Parasite director Bong Joon-ho: 'Korea seems glamorous, but the young are in despair.'" The Guardian [London], 31 Jan. 2020. The Guardian, www.theguardian.com/film/2020/jan/31/parasite-directorbong-joon-ho-korea-seems-glamorous-but-the-young-are-in-despair. Accessed 28 Oct. 2021. Shorrock, Tim. "Wi-Fi as Metaphor: Bong Joon Ho's Parasite Reveals South Korea's Class Divide."The National Interest, Jan.-Feb. 2020, nationalinterest.org/blog/korea-watch/wi-fi-metaphor-bong-joon-
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hos-parasite-reveals-south-koreas-class-divide-120026. Accessed 17 Sept. 2021. Yong, Jin Yi. "State of Income Inequality in South Korea." The Borgen Project, 3 Mar. 2020, borgenproject.org/income-inequality-in-southkorea/. Accessed 5 Oct. 2021.
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The FAA and Boeing 737 crashes Ethan Poon Middlesex County Vocational and Technical School
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During the 1900s, people used to say the phrase “If it ain’t Boeing, I ain’t going.” Boeing had built up a great reputation for manufacturing technologically advanced aircraft that stood for quality, innovation, and safety. Employees felt proud to work at Boeing and the company had the trust of the public and Federal Aviation Administration (FAA). Manufacturing revolved around the idea of quality, not quantity and Boeing organized the process. It was a system of mutual trust and workers felt a sense of family and structure. Boeing took years to gain the trust of the public, but the company’s reputation was ruined by one mistake. This detrimental mistake was the Boeing 737 Max crashes in 2018, which cost many lives (Schaper). Boeing is responsible for the Boeing 737 Max disasters, but the FAA should be held to greater accountability.
Background of Boeing During its prime, Boeing cranked out revolutionary airplanes and became a major competitor in aviation. Eventually, the Boeing 737 Max was developed by Boeing and approved by the FAA. The FAA is responsible for ensuring that air travel follows the rules and regulations for safety. During the launch of the 737 Max, Boeing was pressured by a major competitor, Airbus, to develop a new plane. Airbus had recently developed the new A320Neo planes, which compelled Boeing to produce a new plane, one that would supposedly be more fuel-efficient and aerodynamic. This new plane was developed by shifting to a new, bigger engine under the wing of the plane of the previous 737 models. As Matthew Yglesias from Vox Media puts it, this alteration “changed the aerodynamics of the plane, such that the
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plane did not handle properly at a high angle of attack.” Boeing implemented the MCAS (Maneuvering Characteristics Augmentation System) system, which would function as a flight stabilizer, bringing the plane nose down if the engine would cause the plane to tilt up too high (high angle of attack). One sensor would adjust the horizontal stabilizer trim to push the nose down. This raised issues because if a sensor was interfered with by the wind, a bird, or a balloon, it would cause the MCAS system to malfunction and constantly push down on the plane (Yglesias). Since the MCAS system could be reset, every time the pilot tried to pull up on the plane, the system would force the nose down over and over again, causing a tug-of-war at the stick. Similarly, the black box, a flight recorder in an aircraft, in both planes showed the plane's nose pointing up and down repeatedly, eventually leading to the crash. The two crashes include the first in the Java Sea from Jakarta and the second in Ethiopia.
The Boeing 737 Crashes and their Impact On October 29, 2018, Lion Air Flight 610 left Jakarta and crashed into the Java Sea killing all 189 people on board (Schaper). This devastating incident shocked many since they thought Boeing was safe and the company had not been involved in any aviation incidents previously. Investigators were very confused about the crash since the aircraft was newly built, the weather was nice, and Boeing was reliable. Everyone was in denial. The 2 black boxes onboard recorded flight data and the cockpit voice. During the flight, bad data was sent to the system and the stick shaker would vibrate loudly to warn of an impending stall (Herkert).
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A few weeks after the crash, in a release statement, Boeing admitted that they knew the MCAS system was going to be problematic but decided not to tell pilots because they did not want to overwhelm them with information. No one had ever heard of MCAS and it was also not included in the information given to the FAA or seen in pilot training. Boeing then decided to brief pilot unions about the new system (“Downfall” 17:05-17:09). At the safety meeting with Boeing and the Allied Pilot Association, Boeing said that they “would have the software fixed in 6 weeks” (“Downfall” 19:01-19:06). However, Boeing decided not to ground the plane during its repair because “no one has yet concluded that the sole cause of this was the dysfunction of the airplane” (“Downfall” 19:17-19:20). Boeing and the FAA took no action as the investigation continued. While Boeing should have made adjustments to the plane, it was the FAA’s responsibility to ground it. This lack of initiative led to another disaster in Ethiopia. Just 19 weeks after the Lion Air crash, on March 10, 2019, the plane operated by Ethiopian Airlines crashed from its departure at Addis Ababa. The crash killed all 157 people on board, plummeting 500-600 miles into the ground (Schaper). Initial observations on the crash were eerily similar to the first crash: good weather and repeated nose-down pressure. Despite these crashes, Boeing continued to claim the planes were safe and the FAA decided not to ground the plane because they did not have adequate evidence (“Downfall” 20:02-20:05). After investigation, the plane was found in a full nose-dive position, and it was later concluded that the MCAS was responsible. The president then grounded all Boeing 737 Max planes. After careful examination,
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investigators found out that the pilot of the plane turned off the MCAS system correctly. However, the plane still crashed because it was flying at speeds too high (“Downfall” 21:08-21:10). Once again, Boeing officials “acknowledged that MCAS had misfired but maintained the Ethiopian crew did not do everything precisely as they were supposed to”. It was the first plane to be grounded by the president of the United States and this raises the question of how Boeing had been so successful in the past, suddenly becoming the center of 346 lost lives (“Downfall” 33:05-33:10).
Factors That Contributed to the Crash During the 1900s, Boeing listened to its employees and treated everyone with respect. Then in 1997, A merger between the Mcdonnell Douglas company and Boeing caused a shift in belief and quality. The new CEO, Harry Stonecipher, led Boeing toward being a financially driven company, focusing on speed and shortcuts. The company began “reducing the number of people working and expecting everyone to do more with less” (“Downfall” 46:24-46:27). Boeing no longer listened to its workers as one employee had their “pay docked for putting quality concerns in writing” (“Downfall” 52:51-52:54). They told employees “Flat out they do not want anything in documentation so they can maintain culpable deniability” (“Downfall” 52:54-55:56). This shift in beliefs and emphasis on speed is what caused Boeing to overlook their mistakes and emphasize agility over quality. Especially during the crashes, Boeing assured time and time again that the 737 Max was safe and tried to downplay MCAS.
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Another reason for Boeing’s flawed plane was that its competition began to create more pressure, especially from the French company, Airbus. Each year, Airbus would increase its market share eventually overtaking Boeing’s market share in 2003. Airbus excelled during the 2000s, consistently selling more planes and the new A320 Neo pressured Boeing into the introduction of a similarly efficient plane (Herkert). To remain competitive, Boeing tried to cut down on costs by not requiring flight simulation and any training done was through an iPad. In the documentary “Downfall”, Boeing documentation reads “If we emphasize MCAS as a new function there may be greater certification and training impact” (1:04:27-1:04:31) revealing that the MCAS system was a problem from the start. Boeing worked at all costs to prevent essential retraining because it was very costly and time consuming. As a solution, they lied that the new system was an extension of Speed Trim, an existing system that pilots had already been trained on. Pilots would have to react in less than 10 seconds to an undisclosed system. Boeing knew that the system would malfunction and planned to blame it on the pilots if anything devastating would occur (“Downfall” 1:12:53-1:12:57). When the planes were released, Boeing made sales around the world selling over 5,000 planes as profits soared. Boeing knew that there was something fundamentally wrong but continued to sell planes which is why they bear great responsibility for the 737 Max crashes.
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The FAA’s part in the Boeing 737 incidents Boeing never had the thought of removing the planes from the air but continued to prolong the investigation. In response to both crashes, the FAA did not respond according to its charter. The FAA should have grounded the plane immediately after the first crash with evidence found from the black box and the discovery of the MCAS. The FAA had also conducted a TARAM (Transport Aircraft risk Assessment Methodology) and found out there could be one crash every two years of a Max. Even with this knowledge, the FAA still did not do anything and the fact that it had to be grounded by the president of the United States illustrates how resistant the FAA was to ground the plane. The FAA had power to prevent the second crash and even the first one if it was not for their lack of oversight, slow response, and thinly veiled conflict of interest. During the approval of the new Boeing 737 MAX, the FAA had a proBoeing bias. Upon inspection of the new aircraft, many things were delegated to Boeing such that the FAA did not require documentation about the newly developed MCAS system. The FAA had “certified the MAX because Boeing had not identified MCAS as significant.” (“Boeing's Fatal Flaw” 23:4123:46). The FAA decided to blame Boeing because of the FAA’s lack of oversight. As an association held with such high regard, it is irresponsible of them to blame Boeing when they should have demanded details of MCAS. It shows the FAA’s lack of coordination and complete trust in Boeing when they should have been stricter. After the first crash, the FAA should have already taken the initiative to ground the airplane until corrections were made. However, the FAA
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followed Boeing’s agenda since it was composed of “a handful of Boeing employees, whose paychecks came from Boeing, but whose jobs were to represent the interests of the F.A.A”(“Boeing's Fatal Flaw” 20:06-20:11). This conflict of interest was inappropriate since the administration should approve designs that are in the interest of its passengers instead of the interests of Boeing. However, the FAA continued to support Boeing even when the flaws of the plane contributed to the loss of many lives. There is no argument that Boeing bears responsibility, however the FAA bears greater accountability because they are responsible for the oversight of aviation safety. Similar to a criminal and judge relationship, if a criminal is guilty of a crime, the judge should punish them according to the law. However, if the judge is irresponsible and ignores the behavior, the blame should be on the judge for being ineffective and not punishing the criminal accordingly. The criminal is undoubtedly the problem, but it is the judge’s responsibility to make the criminal less of a problem. For the FAA, like the judicial authority, to ignore this behavior was wrong which is why they should take greater blame. Organizations will naturally try to take shortcuts but for the FAA to accept that behavior at the expense of quality, shows that they are not doing their job and enforcing the message they stand for. Undoubtedly, as an administration with such power and authority, the FAA should be serious in regulating aviation and this incident shows that it was their irresponsible approval that cost so many lives.
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References “Boeing’s Fatal Flaw (Full Documentary) | FRONTLINE.” FRONTLINE PBS | Official. Oct 2021. Accessed 28 Mar. 2022. Boghani, Priyanka. “What Has Happened to Boeing Since the 737 Max Crashes” PBS, PBS FRONTLINE, September 2021, https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/frontline/article/what-has- happenedto-boeing-since-the-737-max-crashes/. Accessed 28 Mar. 2022. “Downfall: The Case Against Boeing.” Directed by Rory Kennedy and Michael Stumo, Imagine Documentaries, 18 Feb 2022. Netflix app. Accessed 28 Mar. 2022. Herkert, Joseph et al. “The Boeing 737 MAX: Lessons for Engineering Ethics.” Science and Engineering Ethics, vol. 26, 10 July 2020, pp. 2957-2974, DOI:10.1007/s11948-020-00252-y. Schaper, David. “737 Max Scandal Cuts Boeing's Once Rock-Solid Image.” NPR, NPR, 26 November 2019, www.npr.org/2019/11/26/783197253 /737-max-scandal-cuts-boeings-once-rock-solid-image. Accessed 28 Mar. 2022. Yglesias, Matthew. “The Emerging 737 Max scandal, Explained.” Vox, Vox Media LLC, 29 March 2019, www.vox.com/business-andfinance/2019/3/29/18281270/737-max-faa-scandal-explained. Accessed 28 Mar. 2022.
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