ícaro: medicine songs (the people)

ThePeople isoneofaseriesoffivebookshighlightingNu’aBon’s ícaro:medicinesongs, aresearchbasedconceptualartprojectofabstractpaintingsdoneinsituatoverthreehundredsitesofhuman conflictanddisastersinnatureacrossNorthAmerica.Bon’sworksincorporatesoilandgroundminerals fromruggedlandscapes.Steepedinrichculturalsymbolism,theyinteractwithandrespondtothesites wheretheywerecreatedtoreflectmoresignificantculturalandpoliticalissues,suchascolonialismand therelationshipbetweenindigenouspeoplesandtheland,andthecomplexissuesrelatedtothe impactofhumanactivityonthenaturalworld. ThePeople istheEnglishtranslationof Diné, the endonymtheNavajopeopleusetoidentifythemselves.ItisfittingasatitlebecauseBonlivesandworks onthetraditionallandsoftheDiné,thePueblos,andtheUtes,farfromhishomeinHawai’i.Updateson the ícaro seriesandothernewsandeventsmaybefoundonhiswebsite: www.nuabon.net

Cover ícaro1045GhostDanceWar,Nanissáanah(1890) WoundedKnee,SouthDakota,2016(pg.58)

Plate1.(precedingpage) TséBitʼaʼí,RockwithWings,NavajoNation,NewMexico, 2016

12Introduction

14NotesonTerminology,LandAcknowledgement,GPSLocationCoordinates,Copyright

18ícaro1048 TséBitʼaʼí,RockwithWings,DinéBaahane’, NavajoNation,NewMexico,2020

20LowerWorldsoftheDinéBaahane’

24SacredMountainsoftheDiné

26ícaro1077 DinéNi’hodootl’izhBlue(Second)World, MountTaylor,NewMexico,2020

30ícaro1078 DinéNihaltsoh,Yellow(Third)World, SanFranciscoPeaks,Arizona,2020

34ícaro1079 DinéNiʼhodisxǫs,White(Fourth)World, BlancaPeak,Colorado,2020

38ícaro1067 HopiSipapúni, GrandCanyonWest,Arizona,2020

42ícaro1068 HopiSipapúni, GrandCanyonWest,Arizona,2020

46ícaro1069 HopiSipapúni, GrandCanyon,Arizona,2020

48ícaro1070 HopiSipapúni, GrandCanyon,Arizona,2020

50ícaro1063 PuebloRevolt(1680) AcomaPueblo,NewMexico,2021

54ícaro1064 PuebloRevolt(1680) AcomaPueblo,NewMexico,2021

58ícaro1065 PuebloRevolt(1680) AcomaPueblo,NewMexico,2021

62ícaro1045 GhostDanceWar,Nanissáanah(1890) WoundedKnee,SouthDakota,2016

66ícaro1080 TrailofTears(1830-50) FortSmith,Arkansas, DinéNihodilhilBlack(First)World, 2019

76ícaro1200 GhostDanceWar(1890) WoundedKnee,SouthDakota,2018

78ícaro1001 US-DakotaWar,IndianAgents(1862) Minnesota,2016

82ícaro1002 SandCreekMassacre(1864) Eads,Colorado,2022

86ícaro1004 NearExtinctionoftheAmericanBison(19thC) Yellowstone,Montana,2013

90ícaro1003 FallofTenochtitlán(1521) MéxicoCity,México,2021

94ícaro1006 CaliforniaGoldRush(1848)Sutter’sMill,Coloma,California, 2013

98ícaro1007 JamestownColonyMassacre(1622) Williamsburg,Virginia,2012

102ícaro1009 Dakota38Executions(1862) Mankato,Minnesota,2016

106ícaro1013 LenapeForcedRemovals(1644) Manhattan,NewYork,2015

110ícaro1017 TsitsistasSlaveRevolt(1842) CherokeeNation,WebbersFalls,Oklahoma,2015

114ícaro1024 GreatSwampMassacre(1675) Kingston,RhodeIsland,2016

116ícaro1025 GreatSwampMassacre(1675) Kingston,RhodeIsland,2016

118ícaro1030 O’odhamUprising,PimaRevolt,SpanishMissions(1751) Tubac,Arizona,2017

122ícaro1033 ExpulsionoftheYellowstoneNations(pre-1872) Wyoming,Montana,2018

126ícaro1038 WagonMoundMassacre,SantaFeTrail(1850) WagonMound,NewMexico,2021

130ícaro1081 Kinłitsosinil,ChurchRockUraniumSpill(1979)DinéNihaltsohYellow(Third)World, NewMexico, 2022

136 ícaro1087 Cacao,pre-ColumbianMesoamericanTradeRoutes Arizona,California,NewMexico,Utah,2020

142ícaro1088 OregonTrail(1811-96)WaiilatpuMission Oregon,Montana,Washington,2016

148ícaro1093 SeminoleWars(1816-58) Apalachicola,Florida,2020

152ícaro1095 Genízaro Abiquiú,NewMexico,2022

156ícaro1096 HighwayofTears(1969-2011) BritishColumbia,Canada,2018

160ícaro1100 MissionIndians(1769-1848) PueblodelosÁngeles,California,2020

166ícaro1102 NezPercéWar(1877) Idaho,Oregon,Montana,Wyoming,2018

172ícaro1112 TMTandMaunaaWakea(2019)KūKia'iMauna,ProtectorsoftheMountain, Hawai’i,2019

178ícaro1144 LittleBighorn(1876) CrowIndianReservation,Montana,2018

182ícaro1076 DinéLongWalk,Hwéeldi,Naayéé’neizghání,SlayeroftheAlienGods(1864) BosqueRedondo,NewMexico, 2019

188ícaro1059 BrokenTrust,FortLaramieTreaties(1851,1868) FortLaramie,Wyoming,2018

194ícaro1115 CaliforniaGenocide(1846-73) Sutter’sMill,California,2012

196ícaro 1121 SevenCitiesofCíbola(1540) ZuniPueblo,NewMexico,2017

202ícaro1122 BearRiverMassacre(1863) FranklinCounty,Idaho,2017

206ícaro1126 OcetiSakowinCamp(2016-17) StandingRock,NorthDakota,2017

212ícaro1125 MesoamericanTradeRoutes ChacoCanyon,NewMexico,2016

216ícaro1132 Badlands SouthDakota,2016

220ícaro1140 ApalacheeMassacre(1704) VeldaMound,Florida,2015

224ícaro1149 CanadianIndianResidentialSchools(1996) GeorgeGordonFirstNation,Saskatchewan,2021

228ícaro1150 DinéNi’hodootl’izhBlue(Second)World, SantaFe,NewMexico,2021

232ícaro1157 MabilaMassacre(1540) Selma,Alabama,2020

236ícaro1160 AlbuquerqueIndianSchool(1881-1981) Albuquerque,NewMexico,2021

238ícaro1161 CanyondelMuertoMassacreCave(1825) Chinle,Arizona,2021

244ícaro1190 AcomaMassacre(1599) AcomaPueblo,NewMexico,2022

246ícaro1191 IndianRemovalAct(1830) Dahlonega,Georgia,2022

250ícaro1192 Quivira,SevenCitiesofGold(1541) Wichita,Kansas,2022

254ícaro1222 NatchezRevolt,MississippiBubble(1729) Natchez,Mississippi,2021

262ícaro1231 MysticMassacre,EuropeanSettlerCulture(1637) Mystic,Connecticut,2012

268ícaro1234 WoundedKneeOccupation,RussellMeans,LeonardPeltier(1973) PineRidge,SouthDakota,2020

274ícaro1236 AlcatrazOccupation,(AIM)AmericanIndianMovement(1969) AlcatrazIsland,California,2016

280ícaro1264 BeaverWars(1609-1701) QuebecCity,Canada,2018

284ícaro1011 ZapatistaUprising(1994) Chiapas,México,2022

288ícaro1053 OverthrowoftheHawai’ianKingdom(1893) Honolulu,Hawai’i,2022

294Otherbooksandpaintingsinthe ícaro:medicinesongs cycle

296Acknowledgements

298References

4Plate1. TséBitʼaʼí,RockwithWings,NavajoNation,NewMexico, 2016

16Plate2. Makapu’u,Hawai’i, 2019

21Plate3. TséBitʼaʼí,RockwithWings,NavajoNation,NewMexico, 2016

25Plate4. Tsisnaasjini’,BlancaPeak,Colorado, 2020

41Plate5. HopiSipapúni,GrandCanyonWest, 2021

45Plate6. HopiSipapúni,GrandCanyonWest,Arizona, 2021

57Plate7. SkyCity,AcomaPueblo,NewMexico, 2019

61Plate8. SkyCity,AcomaPueblo,NewMexico, 2019

74Plate9. WoundedKnee,SouthDakota, 2018

89Plate10. Bison,ChiefYellowhorse,Arizona, 2021

135Plate11. Elko,Nevada, 2016

139Plate12. ChacoCanyon,NewMexico, 2018

145Plate13. WallaWalla,Washington, 2016

155Plate14. GhostRanch,Abiquiú,NewMexico, 2021

163Plate15. ElPenitenteMorada,PueblodiAbiquiú,NewMexico, 2021

177Plate16. FromtheSummitofMaunaaWakea,Hawai’i, 2019

187Plate17. BosqueRedondo,NewMexico, 2019

201Plate18. ZuniPueblo,SanJuanBasin,NewMexico, 2021

211Plate19. OcetiSakowinCamp,StandingRock,NorthDakota, 2016

243Plate20. CanyondeChelly,Chinle,Arizona, 2016

261Plate21. Natchez,Mississippi, 2021

267Plate22. Mystic,Connecticut,2013

273Plate23. OcetiSakowinCamp,StandingRock,NorthDakota, 2016

279Plate24. OcetiSakowinCamp,StandingRock,NorthDakota, 2016

293Plate25. Waimānalo,Hawai’i, 2013

297Plate26. TheHealer,ChacoCanyon,NewMexico, 2018

Black Trails

ícaro:medicinesongs encapsulatethethemesandmessagesofNu’aBon’swork.The ícaro referstothe ceremonialsongsofhealingandprotectionsungbytheshamanicplantspiritmedicinehealersinSouth Americahestudiedwith.Itsinclusioninthetitleemphasisestheartist’sfocusonhealingcommunities affectedbypasttraumasandconflicts.Theuseof“medicine”inthetitlealsohighlightstheideathatthe artist’sworkisnotjustaboutaestheticsbutalsoaboutthehealingpowerofart. ícaro:medicinesongs bridgeanolder,nativewonderandunderstandingoftheworldwiththehardtruthsofthemodern-day Americas.IntheworkofNu’aBon,weseeapowerfulexplorationofthesoulofacontinent,aromantic andmeaningfulpursuitdrivenbyadesiretouncoverandretellthestoriesofNorthAmerica’sIndigenous peoples,thecomplexrealitiesofcolonialism,enslavedhumans,andruggedlandscapesinanewform.

Bon’sworkreflectshisownpersonalexperienceswithtraumaanddisplacement,andhisworkis profoundlysociallyaware,highlightingtheongoinglegacyofviolenceandinjusticewovenintoNorth America’sfabric.Foroveradecade,theartistembarkedonajourneytosomeofthedarkestcornersof ourcontinent,drivingthousandsofmilestositesofhumanconflictsuchasmassacresites,EPAsuperfund sites,battlefields,andlynchings.Throughaseriesofabstractpaintings,theartistchannelsthepainand traumaoftheseplaces,givingformtotheinvisiblewoundsthatlingerintheland.Thesepaintings challengeustoconfrontourhistory’sbrutaltruthsandworktowardshealingandreconciliation.Inthese works,wefeeladeepunderstandingofthecomplexlayersofhistorythatshapeourcontinent.Bon’suse ofcolourandformisstriking,withbold,gesturalbrushstrokesthatconveyasenseofmovementand energytoexplorecomplexthemesandideas.Thelayeringanderasuresofpaintechothelayersofhistory andmemoryembeddedinthesesites,andtheinterplayofnegativeandpositivespaceischaracterisedby

astronginternalstructurethatisbothintuitiveandlearned throughdecadesofpractice.Theviewerisdrawnintoa meditativeexplorationofthelandscapeofourcollectivepast.

ícaro:medicinesongs isapoignantexampleofconceptual artraisingsocialconsciousnessandenvironmentalawareness.

BorninHawai’iin1954,Bon’sbackgroundstudyingwith plantspirithealersintheAmazonandAfrica,inadditiontohis formaltrainingasanartistinParisandNewYork,asa journalist,andasaformerartsprofessorinHongKongand China,informshisapproachtoart-making,socialactivism,andhisrelationshiptothenaturalworld.His mixingofsoil,groundminerals,andwaterfoundoneachsitetohispaintsisapowerfulandmeaningful gesturetobuildaphysicalconnectiontoeachofoverthreehundredpaintingsites.Thisprocessallowsthe artisttocreateatangiblelinktoeachlocationandtoimbuethepaintingswithasenseofplaceandhistory.The project’sblendofphysicalandsymbolicconnectionstoeachsitemakesitavaluableandvitalcontributionto contemporaryart.TheartistlivesandworksinSantaFe,NewMexico,andonlineat www.nuabon.net

NotesonTerminology LandAcknowledgement

NotesonTerminology Sincethelate20thcentury,IndigenouspeoplesintheAmericashavebeenmorevocalabouthowtheywanttobeaddressed, pushingtosuppresstheuseoftermswidelyconsideredobsolete,inaccurate,orracist.

Theterm“Amerindian,”aportmanteauof“AmericanIndian,”wascoinedin1902bytheAmericanAnthropologicalAssociation.Bothhavebeencontroversialsince theircreation,soIavoidtheirusage.“AmericanIndian”isamainstreamlabelattachedtothousandsofindigenousnationsforsimplicity.Theexpressiondescribes thecollectivityofIndigenouspeoplewhooccupysimilarpolitical,cultural,andeconomicnichesinmainstreamUSsociety.WhilethetermAmericanIndianisvalid, itshouldonlybeusedifonetrulyunderstandsIndigenouspeoples’diversity,complexity,andlikemarginality.ThegeneraluseofthetermAmericanIndianimplies ahomogenisationthatdoesnotexist.Itdoesnotmeananyinternalculturalorpan-nationalunity.AmericanIndiansdonotformanethnicgroup;theyarecomposed ofthousandsofindependentnations,communities,andcultureswithverydifferentandspecificidentities.Inthe1960s,manyUnitedStatesandCanadianactivists rejectedthephrase“AmericanIndian”becauseitwasseenasamisnomerandsometimescarriedracistconnotations.NativeAmericansoonbecamethepreferred termofreference,butmanyIndigenousindividualslivingnorthoftheRioGrandecontinuedtorefertothemselvesasIndians.Iuse“Indigenous”and“Native” interchangeablywhenreferringtopeopleintheUnitedStates.IndigenouspeopleintheUnitedStatesdonotconsider“Indian”aslur,butIusuallyavoiditsuse.In Canada,however,theterm“Indian”isfrowneduponbecauseitrepresentstheCanadiangovernment’simpositionandrestrictionofIndigenouspeoplesandcultures. Thewords“Native”and“Eskimo”areregardedasdisrespectfulandrarelyusedunlessspecificallyrequired.“Indigenouspeoples”inCanadaareusedasthecollective nameforFirstNations,Inuit,andMétis(mixedblood).While“Indigenouspeoples”isthepreferredterm,manyindividualsorcommunitiesmayuseadifferentterm toself-describetheiridentity.InmostIndigenouscircles,“Aboriginal”hasalsofallenintodisfavourasit’sarelicofcolonialtimes.

CitizensofallIndigenousnationsmuchpreferthattheirnations’namesintheirlanguagebeused,suchasDiné(Navajo),Haudenosaunee(Iroquois),Tsalagi (Cherokee),andAnishinaabe(Ojibway,Chippewa).Ihaveusedsomeofthecorrectnamescombinedwithmorefamiliarusages,suchas“Sioux”and“Navajo.” Exceptinquotedmaterial,Idon’tusetheterm“tribe.”“Community,”“people,”and“nation”areusedinsteadandinterchangeably.

Incontemporaryusage,“Black”describespeopleofAfricanorAfricanAmericandescent.Iuseacapitalised“White”tosimilarlydescribepeopleofEuropean, Euro-American,EuropeanAmericanandAnglo-Americandescentinthesamecontextexceptinquotedmaterial.

InMéxico,thecategoryofmestizo/mestizaisanon-scientifictermbornofaracialcastesystemofexploitation,designedprimarilynotasaracialdescriptorbut todeprivepeopleoftheirfullhumanrights.ThecategoryofindigenacanbedefinednarrowlyaccordingtolinguisticcriteriabypersonsthatspeakoneofMéxico’s 89indigenouslanguages,andIacknowledgetheirdiversecultures.Igenerallyusetheterm“Indigena”whenreferringtotheIndigenouspeopleofMéxico.

WarriorsvsSoldiers Forthousandsofyears,menandwomenofIndigenousnationshaveprotectedtheircommunitiesandlands.“Warrior”isanEnglish wordthathascometodescribethem.However,theirtraditionalrolesinvolvedmorethanfightingenemies.Theycaredforpeopleandhelpedinmanywaysin anytimeofdifficulty.Theywoulddoanythingtohelptheirpeoplesurvive,includinglayingdowntheirownlives.Isubstitutetheterm“soldier,”andwhilethis mayconfusesomeusedtodescriptionsofEuropeanorAmerican“soldiers”battlingwithIndigenous“warriors,”Iclarifytheissuebyidentifyingtheiraffiliations.

Americans Ialsorefrainfromusing“America”and“American”whenreferringonlytotheUnitedStatesanditscitizens.Thoseblatantlyimperialisticterms annoypeopleintherestoftheWesternHemisphere,whoare,afterall,alsoAmericans.Iuse“UnitedStates”asanounand“US”asanadjectivetoreferto thecountryand“USAmericans”toitscitizens.

LandAcknowledgement Landacknowledgementisatraditionalcustominmany Nativecommunitiesandnationstoshowrespecttothepeopleofthelandsincetime immemorial.Theimportanceoflandacknowledgementsfornon-indigenousindividuals andcommunitiesreliesonrecognisingtheirrelationshiptotheoriginalinhabitantsofa locationandtheland.Furthermore,itisawaytoshowrespectandgratitudetothe traditionalstewardsofaspecificarea.WhenIapproachanysiteforoneofmyícaro: medicinesongpaintings,Iperformsimpleceremoniesasmyteachers,the paq’o intheHigh AndesofPéruandthe curandero/a and ayahuasqueros oftheAmazon,taughtme.Inaddition toaskingpermissiontoentertheselands,Ithanknatureanditssacreddirectionsformy beingabletositinpresencetodomywork.Alandacknowledgementstatementisaformal writtenorspokenintentiontoofferameaningfulwaytorecogniseIndigenouspeoples’ constantpresence,inbodyandspirit,andcontributetowardsworkingtocreateamore inclusiveandrespectfulsociety.ItcanhelpraiseawarenessaboutIndigenouspeoples’ historiesandculturesandtheongoingimpactsofcolonisationanddisplacementon Indigenouscommunitiesandserveasastartingpointfordiscussionsaboutreconciliation andhealing.It’simportanttonotethatthesestatementsvarydependingonthecontextand location,andit’sessentialtoconsultwithlocalindigenouscommunitiesandnationsfor guidanceonthemostappropriatewaytoacknowledgetheirpresenceandhistory.Websiteslike NativeLandDigital athttps://native-land.cacanhelpprovide informationaboutspecificareasand,importantly,linkyoutothewebsitesoftribalnationswhereonecaninquireabouthowbesttoacknowledgethetribe’s relationshipwiththeirancestrallands.

GPSLocationCoordinates Overthepastdecade,I’venavigatedtoandmarkedtheplaceswhereIpaintedinsituusingconsumerGPSunitsand Apple’sMapsandGoogleMapsprogrammes.IoftenhadtomakedowithasclosealocationtotheseareasasIcouldwhereIwouldnotcauseany disrespect,notdisturbanyoneand,inturn,whereIcouldpaintundisturbedforadayorsoandallowpainttodrybeforebeingabletopackupandmove tothefollowinglocationonmylist.So,althoughIwasabletositinpresenceateachsitelisted,theGPSsitecoordinatesI’verecordedmaynotprecisely correspondtoaninternetsearchoftheseplacesofconflictanddisastersinnature.So,bywayofadisclaimer,ifyouplanonretracingtheroadsI’vedriven throughoutNorthAmerica,adistanceovertwicethecircumferenceoftheEarthoverthepastdecade,don’trelyonmydatatonavigate;you’llendupin manyopenparkinglots,vacantbuildingsites,underbridges,innearbygrassyfields,anddeserts.

Copyright WhereverIcould,Iattributedthewordsandideasinthetexttothereferencesourceslisted.AlthoughIdidnotapplyscholarlycitations,these sourcesandWikipedia.comentriesforcontemporaryinformationwerewhollyresponsiblefortheresearchandfactsIused.Anywritingerrorsaremyown,and youcancontactmeatnuabon@gmx.comforsuggestionsandcorrections.AllimagesinthisbookbelongtoNu’aBon,allrightsreserved,copyright ⓒ 2023.

Plate2. Makapu’u,Hawai’i, 2019

TséBitʼaʼí,RockwithWings(Shiprock),isaprominentgeologicalfeatureintheNavajoNation,amonadnock,orisolatedsmallmountainrisingabruptly fromalevelsurroundingplain,locatedinthenorthwestcornerofNewMexico.ToearlyEuropeanexplorers,Shiprockresembledagreatocean-faringshipwith sails.ItisavolcanicrockformationthatissacredtotheDiné(Navajo)peopleandhasplayedasignificantroleintheirculturalhistory.AccordingtoDinélegend, ShiprockwasformedwhenthesuperheroNayenezgani,alsoknownas“SlayerofAlienGods,”defeatedthealiengodknownas“TheFlyingMonster.”The monsterwasagiantbirdterrorisingtheDinépeopleandcausingdestructioninthearea.Nayenezganiusedhispowerstotransformthemonsterintostone, creatingtherockformationnowknownasShiprock.ThestoryofShiprockanditsoriginisintegraltoDinécultureandpasseddownfromgenerationto generation.TherockformationisalsoanimportantculturalandspiritualsitefortheDinépeople.Manyvisititforceremonies,prayers,andotherculturalevents, theybringtheirchildrentheretotellthemoftheirplaceintheworld,anditholdsaspecialplaceintheheartsofmanyDinépeople.

TheDiné(Navajo)isaNativeAmericantribewithalongandrichhistory.Withabout400,000enrolledtribalmembersasof2023,theNavajoNationisthe largestfederallyrecognisedtribeintheUnitedStates.TheNavajoNationhasthelargestreservationinsizeandisslightlylargerthanthestateofWest VirginiaandthecountryofFrance.TheDinéBaahaneʼ(Navajo:StoryofthePeople),theDinécreationmyth,describestheprehistoricemergenceofthe DinéasapartoftheDinéreligiousbeliefs.ItcentresontheareaknownastheDinétah,thetraditionalhomelandoftheDiné,andformsthebasisofthe traditionalDinéwayoflifeandceremony.

TheDinéBaahaneʼisatraditionaloralnarrativethatexplainstheoriginsoftheDinépeopleandtheirplaceintheworld.AccordingtotheDinéBaahaneʼ,the Dinépeopleemergedfromunderground,or“lowerworlds,”andjourneyedtotheEarth’ssurface.ThestorydescribeshowtheDinéancestorsencountered variouschallengesandobstaclesontheirjourneyandhowtheywereaidedbytheHolyPeople,powerfulandbenevolentsupernaturalbeingswhoguidedand protectedthem.ItisconsideredasacrednarrativethatcontainsessentialteachingsandlessonsaboutthenatureoftheworldandtheplaceoftheDinéwithinit.

TheDinécreationstoryparallelstheBiblicalbookof Genesis;however,theyaredistantgeographicallyandtheologically.TheearlyAbrahamicconceptofthe worldisalsosimilartotheDinéconcept.TheDinélowerworldsareconnectedandrepresentdifferentjourneystages,whichresonatewithotherworldcultures.

Thedetailsandimageryusedtodescribethelowerworldscanvarydependingonthestory’sversion.Someversionsofthestorymayusespecificcolourstoaid intellingthestory,orothertypesofimagery,suchasspecificanimalsorcertainmineralsandobjectsliketurquoiseorshells,todescribethelowerworldsand theexperiencesoftheDinéancestors.ThespecificnumberandnamesofthelowerworldsthattheDinétravelledthroughvarydependingonthestory’stelling andthetribalvillagesetting.TheHopi,neighboursoftheDinéintheSouthwest,haveelementssimilartothePueblopeople’semergenceintheircreation stories.Still,theHopihaveuniquestoriesandinterpretationsoftheunseeableworld.

PaintingSite:TséBitʼaʼí,RockwithWings,NewMexico(GPS36.6875°N,-108.836389°W)

LandAcknowledgement:DinéBikéyah;Pueblos;Núu-agha-tʉvʉ-pʉ̱(Ute)

DinéBaahaneʼ(TheStoryofthePeople),theNavajocreationstory,describes theprehistoricemergenceoftheNavajoasapartoftheirreligiousbeliefs.It centresonDinétah,thetraditionalhomelandoftheNavajo,andformsthebasis ofthetraditionalNavajowayoflifeandceremony.

TséBitʼaʼí,RockwithWings,DinéBaahane’,Sipapú, NavajoNation,NewMexico,2020 60x48x2in.(153x122x5cm),acryliconlinen,alu/woodstretcher

LowerWorldsoftheDinéBaahane’

Nihodilhil,theFirstLowerWorld,isdescribedasaplaceofdarknessandchaos,greatconfusionanduncertainty,wheretheDinéancestorsweresaidto havestruggledtofindtheirwayinthedarkness.SomecallittheBlackworld.TheFirstLowerWorldisdepictedasaplaceofgreatdangerandsuffering,where theDinéancestorsweresubjectedtoaseriesofchallengesandtests.ThesechallengeswereintendedtotesttheDinéancestors’strengthandresilienceand preparethemforthejourneyahead.

Nihodootlizh,theSecondLowerWorldorBlueWorld,wasaplaceofgreatbeautyandspiritualsignificance.ItwassaidtobeinhabitedbytheHoly People,powerfulandbenevolentsupernaturalbeingswhoguidedandprotectedtheDinéancestorsontheirjourney.TheSecondLowerWorldisdescribedas aplaceoflightandorder,andtheDinéancestorsaresaidtohaveencounteredtheHolyPeopleandreceivedessentialteachingsfromtheminthisworld.These teachingscontainedcrucialtruthsaboutthenatureoftheworldandtheplaceoftheDinéwithinit,andtheyweremeanttohelptheDinéancestorsandtheir descendantsunderstandtheirpurposeandtheroletheyweremeanttoplayintheworld.

Nihaltsoh,theThirdLowerWorldorYellowWorld,isdescribedasaplaceofgreatbeautyandabundance,andtheDinéancestorsaresaidtohave encounteredmanyanimalsandothercreaturesinthisworld.TheThirdLowerWorldisdepictedasaplaceofoutstandingnaturalbeauty,withlushforests, clearstreams,andabundantwildlife.Itissometimesdescribedasaplaceofextraordinarycolourandvibrancy,withflowersandplantsofeveryhue.TheThird LowerWorldwassaidtobeaplaceofgreatpeaceandharmony,wheretheDinéancestorscouldrestandrecoverfromthechallengesanddangerstheyhad encounteredinthelowerworlds.DespitethebeautyandabundanceoftheThirdLowerWorld,theDinéancestorsweresaidtohaveknownthattheirjourney wasnotyetover,andtheycontinuedtowardstheFourthLowerWorld,andthechallengesawaitedthemthere.

Nihalgai,theFourthLowerWorldortheGlitteringorWhiteWorld,isdescribedasaplaceofgreatdarknessanddanger,andtheDinéancestorsare saidtohavefacedmanychallengesandtestsinthisworld.InsomeversionsoftheDinéCreationStory,theFourthLowerWorldisdepictedasaplaceofgreat sufferingandhardship,wheretheDinéancestorsweresubjectedtotrialsandordeals.ThesetrialswereintendedtotesttheDinéancestors’strengthand resilienceandpreparethemforthechallengestheywouldfaceontheearth’ssurface.

InsometellingsoftheDinéBaahaneʼ,theDinéancestorsendedtheirjourneythroughtheLowerWorldsbyenteringtheworldthroughtheFourthLower World,butinotherversions,thereisa FifthWorld whichtheyentered.Inthisstory,theFifthWorldwasasmallislandinthemiddleofabiglake,butthe BlueBodyGod,whoaccompaniedthefirstpeoples,hadbroughtalongfoursacredstonesfromtheFourthWorldandthrewthestonesinthefourdirections.

Inthisway,thelake’swatersdrainedthroughtheholesmadebythestonesuntilamuddyroadlinkingtheislandtothelandemerged.So,thegodsundertook aterraformationprocess,an“Earth-shaping”processtomaketheFifthWorldinhabitableforhumans.TheHopi’screationmythisslightlydifferentfromthe creationmythsoftheAztecsandDiné.TheHopibelievewealreadyliveintheFourthWorldbutareonthethresholdoftheFifthWorld.

References

PaulG.Zolbrod, DinéBahane:TheDinéCreationStory, 1987

HasteenM.Klah, DinéCreationMyth:TheStoryoftheEmergence,TheDinéBahane’LegendoftheNavajoNativeAmericanPeoples, 1942 PeterIverson, Diné:AHistoryoftheNavajo, 2002

Plate3. TséBitʼaʼí,RockwithWings,NavajoNation,NewMexico, 2016

TheFifthWorldisthefinalLowerWorldthattheDinéancestorstravelledthrough,anditisdescribedasaplaceofgreatlightandbeauty.Fromthisworld,the DinéancestorsemergedontotheEarth’ssurface.TheFifthWorldwasaplaceofgreatpeaceandharmony.ItwassaidtobealsoinhabitedbytheHolyPeople, powerfulandbenevolentsupernaturalbeingswhoguidedandprotectedtheDinéancestorsontheirjourney.TheHolyPeopleprovidedtheDinéancestorswith food,shelter,andothernecessities.Theygavethemessentialteachingsandlessonsaboutthenatureoftheworldanditsplacewithinit.Afterspendingsometime intheFifthWorld,theDinéancestorsweresaidtohavepreparedthemselvesforthefinalstageoftheirjourney,andtheyemergedontothesurfaceoftheearth.

TheSipapú,thePlaceofEmergence

TheHopi(andotherPuebloculturessuchastheA:shiwi(Zuni)andAcoma),whosenationlieswithintheNavajoNation,tellasimilarstoryoftravellingthrough differentworldstoenterthepresentworld.InthelanguageoftheHopi,“Sipapú”symbolisestheportalthroughwhichtheancientfirstmenemergedtotheupper sphere.InUto-Aztecan,thewordrefersto“thewomb,thenavelortheheartoftheEarth.”ThesacredstoriesamongtheHopiusetheSipapústorytoexplain whytheyaresofewamongthemorepopulatedNavajoNation.Accordingtothestory,inthebeginning,manlivedintheSipapútobetaughtrespectforMother Earthbytheirteachers,theMudheadKachinas.

Inthefullnessoftime,humanswerereadytofacetheworldoflight.Ahollowlogwasputonendasabridgefromthelowertotheupperworld.Itwasa ladderthroughwhichmankindcouldcrawlupward.TheSipapúwassaidtobeagatewaybetweentheundergroundworldsandthesurfaceoftheearth, anditwasthroughthisopeningthattheHopiancestorsemergedintothelightoftheworldabove.Itisbelievedtobeaplaceofgreatspiritualsignificance andisoftendepictedasaplaceofgreatlightandbeauty.SomepeoplebelievethattheSipapúrepresentsanactuallocationintheGrandCanyon,while othersseeitasasymbolofthepassagefromoneworldtoanother.Regardlessofitsliteralormetaphoricalnature,theSipapúisanintegralpartofHopi cultureandidentity,anditisoftenreferredtointraditionalstoriesandrituals.IntheHopicreationstory,humanitywasdestroyedbydestructivepractices andwarsinthethreepreviousworlds.Inthemostcommonversionofthestory,theSpiderGrandmother(Kookyangso’wuuti)causedareedtogrowinto thesky,anditemergedintheFourthWorldattheSipapú,asmalltunnelorinter-dimensionalpassage.Astheendofoneworlddrawsnear,theSipapú appears,leadingtheHopiintothenextworldphase.

References

HenryR.Voth, TheTraditionsoftheHopi.Vol.Fieldiana:Anthropology.Vol.8.UniversityofIllinoisUrbana-Champaign,1905 JoeS.Sando,The PuebloIndians, 1982

ícaro1048 TséBitʼaʼí,RockwithWings,DinéBahane’,Sipapú, NavajoNation,NewMexico,2020 60x48x2in.(153x122x5cm),acryliconlinen,alu/woodstretcher

SacredMountainsoftheDiné

TheDiné(Navajo)peoplehaveseveralsacredmountainsthatholdgreatspiritualsignificanceintheirculture.TheNavajoNationincludesfoursacred mountains,knownasthe“FourSacredMountains”or“FourHolyPeaks.”ÁłtséHastiin(FirstMan)andÁłtséAsdzą́ą́(FirstWoman)placedthesesacred mountainsineachofthefourcardinalordirectionalpointsoftheDinéuniverseandarebelievedtobethehomesoftheHolyPeople.Insomeaccountsofthe cardinalpoints,upanddownarealsocounted.TheDinépeoplehaveadeepspiritualconnectiontotheland,andmanyoftheSouthwestregion’smountains andothernaturalfeaturesholdgreatspiritualsignificance.ThesemountainsareoftenassociatedwithimportanteventsandstoriesfromDinémythologyand arereveredaspowerfulandsacredplaces.TraditionalDinébelievethesemountainsandtheirspiritscanhelpcurethesick,protectthepeopleandbringrain. Someofthemostwell-knownholymountainsoftheDinéinclude:

Tsisnaasjini’orSisnaajiní(BlancaPeak), DawnorWhiteShellMountain,istheeasternmost(Ha’a’aah)sacredpeak,locatedeastofAlamosa,Colorado, intheBlancaMassif.ItisthehighestpeakintheSangredeCristorangeandthefourthhighestintheRockyMountains.ItissaidtobethehomeoftheHoly People,powerfulandbenevolentsupernaturalbeingsreveredbytheDiné.ItisassociatedwiththecolourWhite(Ligia)andissaidtobecoveredindaylightand dawnandfastenedtothegroundwithlightning.Themountainisgenderedmale.(GPS37.577227°N,-105.485845°W)Elevation14345ft/4372m.

TsoodziłorDzilna’odilii(MountTaylor) isadormantvolcano,thesouthernmost (Sháddi’ááh) sacredDinépeak,andapowerfulspiritualplace.Itissaid tobethehomeofthespiritsofthedead.ItisalsocalledBlueBeadorTurquoiseMountainandliesnorthofGrants,NewMexico.MountTaylorissacredto thepueblosofAcoma,Laguna,ZuñiandtheHopiandDinépeople.InDinéstories,FirstMancreatedthesacredmountainsfromsoilfromtheFourthWorld, togetherwithsacredmatter,asreplicasofmountainsfromthatworld.HefastenedMountTaylortotheearthwithastoneknife.Itisassociatedwiththecolour Turquoise(Dootlizh). ThesupernaturalbeingsBlackGod,TurquoiseBoy,andTurquoiseGirlaresaidtoresideonthemountain.Themountainisgendered female.(GPS35.238692°N,-107.608519°W)Elevation11301ft/3445m.

Dookʼoʼoosłííd(SanFranciscoPeaksorspecificallyHumphreysPeak)istheAbaloneShellMountain,locatednorthofFlagstaff,Arizonaandisthewesternmost (E’e’aah) sacredpeakfortheDinéandotherNativeAmericantribes.ThePeaksarewestofthePaintedDesert,saidtobethehomeoftheKachinaspiritsofthe Puebloans.ThePeaksareassociatedwiththecolourYellow (Litzo),andtheyaresaidtocontainabaloneinside,tobesecuredtothegroundwithasunbeam,andtobe coveredwithyellowcloudsandeveningtwilight.ThePeaksaregenderedfemale.(GPS35.333333°N,-111.666667°W)Elevation12633ft/3851m.

YissoodziorDibéNtsaa(HesperusMountain),BigMountainSheeporObsidianMountain,isthehighestsummitintheLaPlataMountains,asubrangeoftheSanJuans,andisnorthofMancos,Colorado.Itisthenorthernmost (Náhookos) sacredpeak.Itisassociatedwiththecolour Black(Lizhin) andis saidtobeimpregnatedwithjet,acoalgemstone.WhenFirstMancreatedthemountainasareplicaofmountainsintheFourthWorld,hefastenedittothe groundwitharainbowandcovereditindarkness.(GPS37.444997°N,-108.088964°W)Elevation13232ft/4033m.

OthermountainsarealsoconsideredsacredorholdsignificantculturalandspiritualsignificancetotheNavajopeople.Theseincludethe Chuska Mountains, the Carrizo Mountains,andthe Lukachukai Mountains.Inaddition,othermountainsthroughouttheSouthwestholdessentialculturalandspiritual significancetotheDinépeople,suchas DzilNa’oodilii(HuerfanoMesa) EncirclingMountain(GPS36.425843°N,-107.845061°W),whichisoneofthe homesofFirstMan(‘AltsèHastiin)andFirstWoman(’AltsèAsdzáá); Ch’óol’í’í(ElGobernadorKnob) FirMountain(GPS36.78223°N,-107.59339°W); theLaPlataMountainsinColorado;theUteMountainsinColoradoandNewMexico;andtheMogollonRiminArizona;andatthecentreoftheNavajo Nationis TséBitʼaʼí,RockwithWings(Shiprock).OnesacredmountainIhaven’tvisitedyetis Naatsis’áán(NavajoMountain),HeadoftheEarth(GPS 37.034254°N,-110.869577°W).NavajoMountaininSanJuanCounty,Utah,hasarichandvariedhistoricalpast.TheearliestmapsidentifyitasSierra Panoche.TheruineddwellingsandirrigationditchesoftheDeshaandAncientPuebloan(Anasazi)people,evidenceofyearsofhumanoccupation,stillstand onnearbymesatops,canyonwalls,anddesertfloors.AlthoughNavajoMountainisn’tamongthesixsacredmountains,thepeakcarriessuchsignificancethat traditionalDinéstillrefusetoclimbthemountainabovethelowerelevations.

Plate4. Tsisnaasjini’,BlancaPeak,Colorado, 2020

ícaro1077 DinéNi’hodootl’izhBlue(Second)World, MountTaylor,NewMexico

TheDiné(Navajo)creationstorycentresaroundDinétah,thetraditionalhomeoftheDiné.Manymythologiesaroundtheworldspeakofgodsthatcamefromthe skyandtheirextraordinaryfeats.TheDinéBaahane’(TheStoryofThePeople)alsofallsunderthiscontext.TheDinéhaveapopulationofapproximately400,000 registeredmembersandliveinalargedesertreservationthatspanstheAmericanstatesofArizona,Utah,NewMexico,andColorado(largerthanthelandmassof France),formingthelargestNativeAmericantribeintheUS.Initially,theNavajohadmanymoremembers,asdidallNativeAmericangroupsbeforethearrival oftheEuropeans.TheDinéstoriesoffernumerousallegoricalinsightsintotheircultureandthewisdomofadaptabilitytochangingcircumstances.

BeforetheNavajoorDinébizaad(People’sLanguage)wastranscribedintoawrittenform(orthography)inthe1930s,theDinéBaahaneʼwasanoraltradition passedonfromgenerationtogeneration,withsomeof theversessungbythe Diné duringthetellingofthestory.Somestoriesareprobablybettertoldto youngstersoutsideatnightintheopenairunderthestarsaroundacampfirewithmysteriousdarkmountainsonthehorizon,andtheydon’talwayshaveto makeliteralsense.Still,thereareelements,suchasthesunrisingintheEastandsettingintheWest,andwhathappenswhenthecloudshaveacertainlook thattiesthenarrativetoreality.ThebasicoutlineofDinéBaahaneʼbeginswiththecreationoftheNiłchʼiDiyin(HolyWind)asthemistsoflightswhicharose throughthedarknesstoanimateandbringpurposetothefourDiyinDineʼé(HolyPeople)inthedifferentthreelowerworlds.Thiseventhappenedbeforethe Earth,andthephysicalaspectofhumanshadcomeintoexistence,butthespiritualpartofhumanshad.Thisnarrativeinvolvestravelstounknownworldsvia portals,differentdimensions,andfascinatingcosmicevolution.Inthedistantpast,whenhumansandanimalshadacommonlanguage,therewasadarkfirst worldilluminatedbyfireswhichburnedinsideincandescentcraters.Fromhere,theinsectpeoplestartedtowardsotherworlds,suchasthatofbirdsandlocusts.

Inthefourthworld,thefirsthumansoftheDinéBaahaneʼwerecreated,astoryexplainingthemysteryofhumanorigin.Thecrossingoftheworldsbythe firstbeingsrepresentsthejourneytowardsthe“ShiningWorldfromtheSurface.”Asfortheotherworlds,theseweredestroyed(andsimilartoAdamandEve beingbanishedfromParadise)becauseofthedisrespectofthelawsgivenbythegodsregardingcoexistencewithothers,withthosefromthesamepeople,as wellthosefromotherpeoplesandothercivilisations.Asinotheroriginmythologies,therulesgivenbythegodsmustberespectedtoavoiddestruction,butthere isalsoforgivenesswhichallowsforanewbeginninginanewworld.

ThePassage

TheDinéBaahane’speaksabouttheexistenceofseveralworlds.Beforediscoveringtheseotherworlds,thelistenershadtoaccepttheideaoftheexistenceof otherworldsanimatedbydifferentformsoflifeandbyothercivilisations.ThestoriesbeginwithaFirstWorldofdarkness,NiʼHodiłhił.FromthisDarkWorld, theDinéstartedajourneyofemergenceintothepresentworld.TheFirstWorldhadfourcorners,andovertheseappearedfourclouds.Thesefourclouds containedwithinthemselvestheelementsoftheFirstWorld.Theyweredescribedasdifferentcolours,black,blue,yellow,andwhite.TheBlackCloud representedthe“FemaleBeingorSubstance”becauseachildsleepsinthedarknessofawomb,soalllifesleepsinthedarknessofthecloud.TheWhiteCloud representedthe“MaleBeingorSubstance,”theDawnandtheLight.TheBlackCloudmettheWhiteCloudintheEastoftheFirstWorldandcreatedFirst Manandtheperfectwhitecorn.ThefirstseedfromthecornwasnamedDohonotini,wherethetwoCloudsmet.

PaintingSite:MountTaylor(Tsoodził),NewMexico(GPS35.238692°N,-107.608519°W)

LandAcknowledgement:Pueblos;Núu-agha-tʉvʉ-pʉ̱(Ute)

ícaro1077 DinéNi’hodootl’izhBlue(Second)World, MountTaylor,NewMexico,2020 60x48x2in.(153x122x5cm),acryliclinen,alu/woodstretcher

Nihodilhil,theFirstWorld,ortheDarkWorld,waschaoticblacknesssurroundedbyfourcloudcolumns.WhiteDawnontheeast,BlueDaylightonthe south,YellowTwilightonthewestandBlackNightontheNorth.TheFirstWorldwassmall,anislandsurroundedbyfourseasoramountaininthemist.In thisWorld,alonePineTreegrewontheisland(whichbecomesimportantlaterinthestory).Inthebeginning,onlytheHolyPeople,insects,SpiderAnts(who couldbite),beepeople,theWasppeople(whocouldcausegreatevilwiththeirpoison),DivineSpirit,andCoyote(alsocalledfirstAngry)livedthere.They callthesebeingstheMistPeople,whohadnodefiniteformbutwouldlatertransformintothehumans,beasts,birds,andreptilesofthePresentWorld. StandingintheEast,theFirstManwasnotinhispresentform,andneitherweretheotherbeingsofthisFirstWorldwhenBlackCloudonthenorthmet WhiteCloudontheeast.IntheWestoftheFirstWorld(latercalledtheLandoftheSunset),theYellowCloudandBlueCloudmetandcreatedFirstWoman. Shebroughttheperfectyellowcorn,justlikethewhitecornofFirstMan.FirstWomanalsohadthewhiteshell,yucca,andturquoisestonewithher.First WomanstoodintheWest,farawayfromFirstManstandingintheEast,eachrepresentingdifferentthings.FirstWomanrepresentedDarknessandDeath, whereasFirstManrepresentedDawnandLife.

TheFirstManhadacrystalwithhim,andheburnedittolightafire.Thecrystalwasclearandwastheawakeningofthemindforthefirsttime.Itrepresented clearseeingformales.TheFirstWomanburnedherturquoisealsotolightafire.Theybothsaweachother’sfiresinthedistance.Shehadnoticedthathis crystalwasmorepotentthanherturquoise,andFirstManasked,“Whydon’tyoubringyourfire,andwecanlivetogether?”Sothewomanwentwiththeman. ThevariousbeingsintheFirstWorldconstantlyfoughtandarguedwithoneanother.Eventually,theydepartedtotheSecondWorldbyflyingoutanopening intheeast,havingalllearnedtogrowwingsbywatchingadragonfly.Therearedenserandoftenmorecoherentversionsofthisstory.Still,theessenceofeach isaboutputtingthingslikethesunandthemoonsettingandarisingintoapattern,cautionarytalesofbeaststobewaryof,andthewonderofplantsproviding sustenancetopeopleandthesacrednatureofthat.It’salsoastoryaboutactionsandconsequences,sothisnarrativehasmoralandethicaldimensions.

NiʼHodootłʼizh,theSecondWorld,wasablueworld.Manybeingslivedintheblueworld,includingabluebird,abluehawk,andabluejay.Giantinsects alsolivedthere.WhenthebeingsintheFirstWorldarrivedintheSecondWorld,FirstManopenedhismedicinebundle,whichcontainedthefourcloudshe hadbroughtfromtheFirstWorld,andthecloudsroseagainattheedgesoftheSecondWorld.JustasintheFirstWorld,therewassufferingandsorrowinthe SecondWorld.ThegodsbecameangryanddestroyedtheSecondWorldwiththewind.WhenthepeopleaskedFirstMantofindanescape,hesentZigzag Lightning,StraightLightning,Rainbow,andSunrayinthefourdirections,buttheywereunabletofindawayout.Finally,FirstManmadeaprayerstickof WhiteShell,Turquoise,Abalone,andJet.Ontheprayerstick,hedrewfourfootprints.Whenthebeingsstoodonthefootprints,theyrosethroughareedFirst ManplantedinthesouthandescapedintotheThirdWorldwithFirstMancarryingtheinnerformsofsacredsoil,plants,andcloudsinhisbag.

References

PaulG.Zolbrod, DinéBahane:TheDinéCreationStory, 1987 HasteenM.Klah, DinéCreationMyth:TheStoryoftheEmergence,TheDinéBahane’LegendoftheNavajoNativeAmericanPeoples, 1942

PeterIverson, Diné:AHistoryoftheNavajo, 2002

HenryR.Voth, TheTraditionsoftheHopi.Vol.Fieldiana:Anthropology.Vol.8.UniversityofIllinoisUrbana-Champaign,1905

ícaro1077 DinéNi’hodootl’izhBlue(Second)World, MountTaylor,NewMexico,2020 60x48x2in.(153x122x5cm),acryliclinen,alu/woodstretcher

ícaro1078 DinéNihaltsoh,Yellow(Third)World, SanFranciscoPeaks,Arizona

NiʼHałtsooí,theThirdWorld,wasayellowworldwheresquirrels,chipmunks,turkeys,deer,spiders,andWaterMonster(Tééhoołtsódii)lived.Whenthe beingsemergedintothisworld,theyfoundtworivers,afemaleriverrunningeasttowestandamaleriverrunningnorthtosouth.FirstManplacedthejewels fromhisprayerstickwheretheybelonged,WhiteShellintheeast,Turquoiseinthesouth,Abaloneinthewest,andJetinthenorth.ThenFirstMantookthe soilhehadbroughtfromtheSecondWorldandmadesixsacredmountains.ThesearethemountainsthatareimportanttotheDinétoday.Intheeastwas MountBlanca,Tsisnaasjini’.InthesouthstoodMountTaylor,Tsoodzil.IntheweststoodMountHumphreysintheSanFranciscoPeaks,Doko’oosliid.Inthe northstoodHesperusMountain,DibéNitsaa.InthemiddlewasHuerfanoMesa,DzilNa’oodilii.

Alsointhecentrestoodacone-shapedmountaincalledElGobernador(Spanish:Governor)Knob,Ch’óol’í’í.Thebeingswerehappyintheyellowworld. Then,oneday,CoyotetookWaterMonster’s(Tééhoołtsódii)baby,andWaterMonster(Tééhoołtsódii)becameveryangry.Shewassomadthatshedecidedto makeitrain.Asitrainedandrained,thewaterrosehigherandhigher,andtheworldbegantoflood.Thebeingsdidnotknowwheretogotoescapetheflood. FirstManagainplantedareedwhichgrewtothesky.Thebeingsbeganclimbingontothereed.Turkeywasthelasttoleave;histailfeatherstouchedtherising water,whichturnedthetipswhite.Whentheygottothetop,theyfoundanotherworld.

PaintingSite:SanFranciscoPeaks(Dookʼoʼoosłííd),Arizona(GPS35.333333°N,-111.666667°W)

LandAcknowledgement:Hopitutskwa,Pueblos,Ndee/Nnēē:(WesternApache);Hohokam

ícaro1078 DinéNihaltsoh,Yellow(Third)World, SanFranciscoPeaks,Arizona,2020 60x48x2in.(153x122x5cm),acryliclinen,alu/woodstretcher

References

PaulG.Zolbrod, DinéBahane:TheDinéCreationStory, 1987

HasteenM.Klah, DinéCreationMyth:TheStoryoftheEmergence,TheDinéBahane’LegendoftheNavajoNativeAmericanPeoples, 1942

PeterIverson, Diné:AHistoryoftheNavajo, 2002

HenryR.Voth, TheTraditionsoftheHopi.Vol.Fieldiana:Anthropology.Vol.8.UniversityofIllinoisUrbana-Champaign,1905

ícaro1078 DinéNihaltsoh,Yellow(Third)World, SanFranciscoPeaks,Arizona,2020 60x48x2in.(153x122x5cm),acryliclinen,alu/woodstretcher

ícaro1079 DinéNiʼhodisxǫs,White(Fourth)World, BlancaPeak,Colorado

NiʼHodisxǫs,theFourthWorld,wasawhiteworld.WhenlocustsandtheHolyPeopleemerged,theyfoundtheearthcoveredwithwater,butasmallisland withalonepinetreeformedintheFirstWorld.Theytriedtodrainthewaterseveraltimes,butitcamebackupeverytime.WhenFirstMandiscoveredthat CoyotehadstolenWaterMonster’s(Tééhoołtsódii)baby(theymayhavebeentwins),heforcedCoyotetoreturnthebaby(ies)downthereedbacktotheThird World,andthewatersreceded.Afterthewatersank,anotherpersonappearedwhotoldthemhewasthebadger,Nahashch’id,andthathehadbeenformed wheretheYellowCloudhadtouchedtheEarth.ThisYellowCloudturnedouttobeasunbeam.AfterFirstManformedthesacredmountainsfromthesoilhe broughtfromtheSecondWorld,hetookoutthestars,thesunandthemoonandplacedtheminthesky.Hebeganplacingthestarscarefully,butCoyotegrew impatient.Hegrabbedthecornersoftheblanketthatheldthestarsandusedtheblankettothrowthestarsrandomlyacrossthesky.ChangingWoman(or WhiteShellWoman)wasborn,grewtowomanhood,andgavebirthtotheTwins,MonsterSlayer(Naayéé’neizghání)andBornforWater(Tóbájíshchíní).The twinsvisitedtheirfather,theSun.TheSungavethetwinslightning-boltbowsandarrows.Theyusedbowsandarrowstokillthemonstersthatroamedabout, tomaketheworldasafeplacetolive.

InsometellingsoftheDinéBaahane’,thereisa FifthWorld wherethebeingsfromtheFourthWorldescape,andnewfantasticalbeingswithmagicalabilities arefound.ThisFifthWorldistheoneweliveinwherethespiritsoflivingthingsexistandwhereallthebeingsandpeopleofthefourpreviousdarklower worldshavearrived.Whilewetoilawayatlifeinthisworld,somestorytellersdescribetwootherworldsaboveus:the WorldoftheSpiritsofLivingThings andthe PlaceofMeltingintoOne. So,ourtravellingtogethertootherworldsmaynotbeover.Howtoexplainthedeathordisappearanceofalovedone? ShehasascendedtoanotherWorld.Inothertellings,theFourthWorldisourpresentworld.

Dinémythologyreferstomanyworldsandmomentsoftransition.Theseincludeatimeinwhichaworldcanbecomeuninhabitable,thenecessityofleaving aworldforthesurvivalofcivilisation,portals,warsbetweeninhabitantsofvariousworlds,alternativedimensions,andthingswhich,inthepresentday,offer topicsforreflectiononthemysteriesoflife,theworld,andaboutchange–beingpreparedforit,andacceptingofthischange.

PaintingSite:BlancaPeak(Tsisnaasjini’),Colorado(GPS37.577227°N,-105.485845°W)

LandAcknowledgement:DinéBikéyah,Tséstho’e(Cheyenne);Núu-agha-tʉvʉ-pʉ̱(Ute);JicarillaApache

ícaro1079 DinéNiʼhodisxǫs,White(Fourth)World, BlancaPeak,Colorado,2020 60x48x2in.(153x122x5cm),acryliclinen,alu/woodstretcher

References

PaulG.Zolbrod, DinéBahane:TheDinéCreationStory, 1987

HasteenM.Klah, DinéCreationMyth:TheStoryoftheEmergence,TheDinéBahane’LegendoftheNavajoNativeAmericanPeoples, 1942

PeterIverson, Diné:AHistoryoftheNavajo, 2002

HenryR.Voth, TheTraditionsoftheHopi.Vol.Fieldiana:Anthropology.Vol.8.UniversityofIllinoisUrbana-Champaign,1905

ícaro1079 DinéNiʼhodisxǫs,White(Fourth)World, BlancaPeak,Colorado,2020 60x48x2in.(153x122x5cm),acryliclinen,alu/woodstretcher

TheHopipeopleareindigenoustothesouthwesternUnitedStatesandhaveatraditionofkeepingcertainaspectsoftheircultureandwayoflifeprivateand secretive.ThesecrecysurroundingaspectsofHopicultureisintendedtoprotecttheirtraditionsandwayoflifefromoutsideinfluenceandtomaintainasense ofcommunityandcontinuityamongtheHopipeople.AccordingtoHopitradition,thetribehasalwayslivedintheSouthwestandcloselyrelatestotheland anditsnaturalfeatures.TheHopicreationstory(andthatofsomeotherpeoplesoftheSouthwest)resemblesthemythological,cosmological,andeschatological beliefsandtraditionsofearlierMesoamericancultures.

TheSipapúniisanessentiallocationinthecreationstoriesofHopiandothertribesintheSouthwest,theA:shiwi(Zuni),Acoma,andDiné.TheSipapúniis asacredholeorportalintheearththatisbelievedtobewheretheHopipeopleemergedfromtheunderworldtothesurfaceoftheplanet.TheSipapúniand kiva(alsocalledSipapú)arepowerfulspiritualplacesconnectingtheHopipeopletotheirpast,ancestors,andgods.Poeticallyspeaking,aswithallritual enlightenment,theSipapúisaplaceofawakening.Itisalsothoughttobewherethespiritsofthedeadreturntotheunderworldafterdeath.

ThecentralthemeoftheHopioriginstoryholdsthatothercyclesofcreationanddestructionprecededthepresentworld.MostHopicreationstoriescentrearound Tawa(orTaiowa),theSunSpirit.Taraisthecreator;heformedtheFirstWorldoutofTokpella,orendlessspace,anditsoriginalinhabitants.Inthelowerworlds, theFirstWorld,“EndlessSpace,”containedtheFirstPeopleandwasapureandhappyuniverse,butitwasdestroyedbyfire.TheSecondWorld,“DarkMidnight,” wasdestroyedbycoldandice.TheChosenPeoplesurvivedinananthillandclimbedupaladderintothethirdworld.FloodsdestroyedtheThirdWorld.“Spider Grandmother”(Hopi:Kokyangwuti)savedtheseancestorsbyhidingtheminreedsandfloatingthemtodrylandintotheFourthWorld,“TheWorldComplete.” Inthisnarrative,GrandmotherSpiderisalsoknownastheGoodSpirit.Sheguidesthecreaturesinthefirstworld,helpingthemtraveltothehigherworlds.She teachesandmentorsthemastheychangeintodifferentforms,slowlybecomingmorehuman.SheleavesthecreaturesintheFourthWorldtosettlepermanently.

PaintingSite:GrandCanyonWest,Arizona(GPS35.987778°N,-113.8175°W)

LandAcknowledgement:Hualapai

ícaro1067 HopiSipapúni, GrandCanyonWest,Arizona

Plate5. HopiSipapúni,GrandCanyon,Arizona, 2021

ícaro1068 HopiSipapúni, GrandCanyonWest,Arizona

ThecaretakerofthisworldistheHopiGuardiannamedMaasaw(orMasau’u),theFireGodandCreatoroftheEarth.Massawpinpointedthelocationfor theHopitosettleafteragreatfloodthatdestroyedmuchofhumanitythelasttimeearth’spolaricecapsmelted.TheHopivillageofOraibiissaidtobethe oldestcontinuouslyinhabitedcommunityintheUnitedStates,althoughthenearbyAcomaPuebloalsoclaimsthisdistinction.TheHopibelievetheyweregiven auniqueroletoplayintheworld.ThesacredstoryofHopioriginsincludesacovenantthatHopipeopleswillbeearthstewards.Aftermakingthispromise, PuebloIndiansbeganaholyquest,underMaasaw’sorder,tofind“centrespaces”andsettle.Populationsmarkedtheirsettlementswithspiralinsigniaasthey foundthem.TheHopiweretaskedwithmaintainingbalanceandharmonyintheworldandweregiventhetoolsandknowledgetheyneededtofulfilthisrole, unlikethepreviousthree,whichweredestroyedbywaterandice.Inthelowerworlds,theyhadinitiallybeenwell-provideduntiltheseworldsbecame uninhabitable.Still,theFourthworldhasproventobeharsh,withdeserts,marshes,mountains,andviolentweather.SomeHopipropheciessaythisworldis ending,andtheFifthWorldhasbegun.TheHopicreationstorydiffersslightlyfromthecreationmythsoftheAztecsandDiné,whoborrowedelementsofthe Hopistory.TheDinébelieveweliveintheFifthWorld,whiletheHopibelieveweliveintheFourthWorldbutareonthethresholdoftheFifthWorld.

TheHopialsoprophesiedthatTurtleIsland(NorthAmerica)could“turnovertwoorthreetimes,andtheoceanscouldjoinhandsandmeetthesky.”This seemstobeaprophecyofa“poleshift”—aflippingoftheplanetonitsaxis.Interestingly,scientistshavesaidthatpolarmagneticreversalshaveoccurred beforeinEarth’slonggeologicalhistoryandthat(asof2023)theEarth’scoreisslowingdown.Anotherreversalisimminent(butinageologicaltimeframe, whenisunknown).TheHopicallthisimminentcondition—andthatofsocietytoday—“Koyaanisqatsi,”whichmeans“worldoutofbalance…astateoflife thatcallsforanotherway.”

EnteringtheSipapúnifromthelowerworlds,theancientfirstman,alizard-likebeing,morphedintohumanformwithintheSipapúniandemergedintothis world.Hewasfollowedbyachildandthenbyawoman,havinggonethroughaseriesoflowerworlds,oftendescribedasdarkandviolentplaces.Thedetails oftheseoraltraditionsvaryfromtribetotribe.Theysometimesvarywithineachtribe,consideringtheHopireticenceaboutdiscussingritualsecretsorcustoms, especiallytonon-Hopipeople.TheHopi,theA:shiwi(Zuni),andtheAcomabelievetheywerebornintheGrandCanyon,wheretheybelievetheoriginal Sipapúniislocated.Eventoday,youngHopimengoonasixteendayvisionquesttovisittheSipapúni.Forthem,theGrandCanyonisthePlaceofEmergence fortheIndigenouspeopleoftheSouthwest.TheKivaisasunkencircularceremonialspaceusedbytheAncestralPuebloansthatcontinuetobeusedby modern-dayPuebloans.TheHopipeoplehaveadeepspiritualconnectiontotheSipapúniandbelievethatitholdsthekeystounderstandingthemysteriesof theuniverseandtheforcesthatshapeourlives.InHopitradition,theSipapúniisasymbolofrebirthandrenewal,anditisassociatedwiththecreationofthe worldandthebeginningoflife.TheSipapúniisalsoconsideredaplaceofgreatpowerandisasourceofspiritualguidanceanddirection.

PaintingSite:GrandCanyonWest,Arizona(GPS35.987778°N,-113.8175°W)

LandAcknowledgement:Hualapai

References

FrankWaters, BookoftheHopi, 1963

RaymondLock, TheBookoftheNavajo, 2002

DianaDoyle, AztecandMayanMythology, 2004

HaroldCourlander, HopiVoicesRecollections,Traditions,andNarrativesoftheHopiIndians, 1982

ícaro1069 HopiSipapúni, GrandCanyonWest,Arizona

TheHopipeoplehaveseveralpropheciesthathavebeenpasseddownthroughgenerations.Somemorewell-knownHopipredictionsincludethe“Three Fires”prophecy,whichspeaksofthreeerasor“fires”ofhumandevelopment.Thefirstfirewasmarkedbyahunter-gatherersociety,andthesecondby agriculturalsocieties.Thethirdfireismarkedbyindustrialisationandtechnologicaladvancementinthecurrentera.The“Purification”prophecypredictsa timeofgreatupheavalandturmoilintheworld,followedbyaperiodofpurificationandspiritualrenewal.The“Rainbow”prophecy,whichspeaksofa comingeraofpeaceandunityamongallpeople,issymbolisedbyarainbow.The“BlueStar”prophecypredictsthearrivalofabluestar,signallingthe comingofanewageandtheendofthecurrentworld.

TheHopipeople’spropheciesarecloselytiedtotheirreligiousandspiritualbeliefs,andtherearedifferentinterpretationsandversionsoftheseprophecies amongotherHopicommunitiesandindividuals.Thereare12HopitribeslocatedontheHopiReservationinnortheasternArizonawithintheNavajoNation. TheHopiReservationcomprises12villageswithitstraditionalgovernmentandleaders.The12villagesareBacavi,Hotevilla,KeamsCanyon,Kykotsmovi, Mishongnovi,Moencopi,Oraibi,Polacca,Shungopavi,Sipaulovi,Tewa,andWalpi.Eachvillagehasitsuniquehistory,culture,andtraditionalpractices.

TogethertheyareconsideredoneHopiNationwithacommonlanguageandreligiousbeliefs.TheHopiNationhasacomplexsystemofgovernance,with differentlevelsofleadershipanddecision-makingauthority.Thetraditionalleadersofthe12villagesmakeuptheHopiTribalCouncil,whichisresponsible foroverseeingtheaffairsoftheHopiNationasawhole.

PaintingSite:GrandCanyon,Arizona(GPS36.3°N,-112.6°W)

LandAcknowledgement:Hopitutskwa;Pueblos;HavasuBaaja(Havasupai);Hualapai

ícaro1069 HopiSipapúni, GrandCanyonWest,Arizona,2021 48x48x2in.(122x122x5cm),earthpigments,acryliconlinen,alu/woodstretcher

ícaro1070 HopiSipapúni, GrandCanyonWest,Arizona

PaintingSite:GrandCanyon,Arizona(GPS36.3°N,-112.6°W)

LandAcknowledgement:Hopitutskwa;Pueblos;HavasuBaaja(Havasupai);Hualapai

ThePuebloRevoltof1680,alsoknownastheGreatPuebloRevoltorthePuebloUprising,wasarebellioninthePuebloregionofNewMexicoin1680.The revoltwasledbyagroupofPueblopeoplesseekingtooverthrowtheSpanishcolonisers’rule.TheSpanishhadconqueredtheirlandandimposedtheirreligion andcultureonthePueblopeople.TheSpanishconquistadorsbeganconqueringthePueblopeoplesintheAmericanSouthwestinthelate16thcentury.The firstcontactbetweentheSpanishandthePueblopeopleissaidtohaveoccurredin1540whentheSpanishexplorerFranciscoVasquezdeCoronadoledan expeditionintotheSouthwestinsearchofthelegendarySevenCitiesofGold.

However,theSpanishconquistadors’actualconquestofthePueblopeopledidnotbeginuntilthelate16thcentury,whentheSpanishestablishedacolonyinNew Mexico.In1598,theSpanishestablishedtheirfirstmissioninOhkayOwingeh(formerlyknownasSanJuanPueblo)andbegantospreadtheirinfluenceand controloverthePueblopeople.SantaFewasestablishedastheregionalcapitaloftheSpanishcolonyofNewMexicoin1610.TheSpanishcolonywasestablished byDonPedrodePeralta,governorofthenewlyestablishedprovinceofNewMexico.SantaFewaschosenasthecapitalbecauseofitscentrallocationand proximitytothePueblocommunities.WhenSantaFewasfirstestablishedasthecapital,severalPueblopeopleslivedintheregion,includingtheTano,Tewa, Keres,andA:shiwi(Zuni)communities.TheSpanishestablishedseveralregionalmissionstoconvertthePueblopeopletoChristianityandexertcontroloverthe area.TheleaderofthePuebloRevoltwasaTewaIndiannamedPopéorPo’Pay(RipeSquash),areligiousleaderandamemberofthePueblopeoplefromOhkay Owingeh.Popéwasaskilledleaderandstrategist,andhecouldunitethevariousPueblocommunitiesandorganiseasuccessfulrebellionagainsttheSpanish colonisers.TheSpanishbrutallysuppressedthereligiousceremoniesofthePueblo,andPopéwasoneof47religiousleadersofthenorthernPuebloarrestedby JuanFranciscoTrevino’sgovernmentfor“witchcraft”in1675.

Threewereexecuted,andonecommittedsuicide.Theotherswerewhipped,imprisonedinSantaFe,andsentencedtobesoldintoslavery.SeventyPueblosoldiers showedupattheGovernor’sofficeandpolitelybutpersistentlydemandedthatPopéandtheothersbereleased.TheGovernorcomplied,probablypartlybecause ApachesandDinéwarringpartiesseriouslytargetedthecolony,andhecouldnotaffordtoriskaPueblorevolt.RevoltsagainstSpanishrulewerefrequent,but theSpanishruthlesslyrepresseddissent.ThePueblosufferedabusesfromSpanishoverlords,soldiers,priests,andtheirMéxicanIndianallies,manyfromTlaxcala.

Afterhisrelease,PopéretiredtotheremoteTaosPuebloandbeganplanningarebellion,withsecretnegotiationswithleadersfromallotherpueblos.Popé’s messagewassimple:destroytheSpanishandtheirinfluenceandreturntotheoldwaysoflifethathadgiventhePueblosrelativepeace,prosperity,and independence.PopéralliedthePueblopeopletohiscauseandorganisedacoordinatedattackontheSpanishsettlementsinthePuebloregion.Therevolt successfullydrovetheSpanishoutofthePuebloregionforabout12years.

PaintingSite:AcomaPueblo,NewMexico(GPS34.896389°N,-107.581944°W)

LandAcknowledgement:Pueblos

ícaro1063 PuebloRevolt(1680) AcomaPueblo,NewMexico

Severalfactors,includingtheoppressivepoliciesoftheSpanishcolonialgovernment,theforcedconversionofthePueblopeopletoCatholicism,andthe exploitationofPuebloresourcesandlabour,sparkedthePuebloRevolt.TherevoltwasalsomotivatedbyadesiretopreservePueblocultureandwayoflife. ThePuebloRevoltsuccessfullydrovetheSpanishoutoftheregionforatime,anditresultedintherestorationofsomePuebloreligiouspracticesandthe establishmentofaperiodofrelativeautonomyforthePueblopeople.However,theSpanisheventuallyreturnedandreestablishedcontrolovertheregion, suppressingPuebloresistanceandthecontinuationofSpanishcolonialrule.ThePuebloRevoltof1680significantlyimpactedtheAmericanSouthwest’s historyandtherelationsbetweenNativeAmericantribesandEuropeancolonisers.ItisrememberedasanessentialchapterinthehistoryofNativeAmerican resistancetocolonisationandasasymbolofthestruggleforself-determinationandindependence.

SpanishMissions

Duringthecolonialperiod,theSpanishestablishedseveralmissionsintheAmericanSouthwest,includinginPuebloterritory.Butthenumberandlocationof themissionsvaried.SomePuebloshadmultiplemissionsestablishednearby,whileothersdidnothaveanymissionsestablishedwithinproximity.TheSpanish establishedthefirstmissioninPuebloterritoryin1598inOhkayOwingeh(formerlyknownasSanJuanPueblo).Afterthat,theSpanishestablishedseveral missionstoconvertthePueblopeopletoChristianityandexertcontroloverthearea.ManyofthesemissionswerebuiltnearexistingPueblos,butnotallof them.SomePueblos,suchasAcomaPueblo,activelyresistedtheSpanishandtheireffortstoestablishmissionsintheirterritory.DuringthePuebloRevoltof 1680,manySpanishmissionarieswerekilledorchasedawaybythePueblopeople.TherevoltwasacoordinatedeffortbythePueblopeopletodrivetheSpanish outoftheregionandreclaimtheirlandandtraditionalwayoflife.

ThePueblopeople,whohadgrownincreasinglyresentfulofSpanishrule,roseagainstthecolonisersinacoordinatedeffort.Severalfactors,includingthe forcedconversionofthePueblopeopletoChristianity,thedestructionofsacredsites,andtheimpositionofharshlabourandtaxationdemandsbytheSpanish, sparkedthePuebloRevolt.DuringtheSpanishcolonialperiodintheAmericanSouthwest,theSpanishimposedseveraltaxesonthePueblopeople.These taxeswereoftenassessedintheformoflabour,crops,andgoodsandweredesignedtoextractresourcesandwealthfromthePueblopeopleandsupportthe Spanishcolonialgovernment.

ícaro1064 PuebloRevolt(1680) AcomaPueblo,NewMexico

SpanishTaxes

OneofthemostcommontaxesimposedonthePueblopeoplewasthe“tribute”tax.ThistaxrequiredthePueblopeopletoprovideasetamountofgoods, suchasfood,textiles,andpottery,totheSpanishcolonialgovernment.ThesegoodswerethenusedtosupporttheSpanishsettlersandsoldiersstationedinthe region.AnothertaximposedonthePueblopeoplewasthe“encomienda”tax(forcedlabour).ThistaxrequiredthePueblopeopletoprovidelabourtothe Spanishcolonists,eitheronthecolonists’farmsorinthemines.ThistaxwasoftenimposedonthePueblopeoplewithoutcompensationandwasaformof enslavementTheSpanishalsoseta“repartimiento”tax,whichrequiredthePueblopeopletoprovidegoodsandservicestotheSpanishcolonistsatafixed price.ThistaxwasoftenusedtoextractresourcesandwealthfromthePueblopeopleandsupporttheSpanishcolonialgovernment.Thesetaxes,alongwith theforcedconversiontoChristianity,thedestructionofsacredsites,andtheimpositionofharshlabourandtaxationdemandsbytheSpanish,contributedto thegrowingresentmentofthePueblopeopletowardstheSpanishcolonisersandwereoneofthefactorsthatledtothePuebloRevoltof1680.

Duringtherevolt,thePueblopeopleattackedandburnedmanySpanishmissions,killingordrivingoutthepriestsandsoldiersstationedthere.ManySpanish settlerswerealsokilledorforcedtofleetheregion.ThePueblopeopleweresuccessfulintheirefforts,andtheSpanishweredrivenoutoftheareafor12years.

TheSpanishreturnedtotheregionin1692andre-establishedcontrol.Still,thePuebloRevoltof1680isthefirstsuccessfulindigenousrebellionagainst EuropeancolonialisminNorthAmerica.TheSpanishofficiallyleftNewMexicoin1821aftertotheMéxicanWarofIndependenceagainstSpain.Thewar endedwiththeTreatyofCordoba,signedonAugust24,1821,whichrecognisedMéxicoasanindependentnation,andSpaincededcontroloveritsterritories inMéxico,includingNewMexico.TheSpanishpresenceinNewMexicohaddeclinedforsometimebeforetheofficialwithdrawalin1821withtheincreasing resistancefromIndigenouspeoples.TheSpanishempireintheNewWorldwasfacingfinancialdifficulties,anditscontroloveritscoloniesweakened.After MéxicogainedindependencefromSpain,itinheritedtheterritoriesofNewMexico,andtheMéxicangovernmentcontinuedtogoverntheregionuntil1846 whentheUnitedStatesannexeditaspartoftheMéxican-AmericanWar.

TheSpanishmissionsinthePuebloterritoryhavesignificantlyimpactedthePueblopeople’sculture,history,andwayoflife.Manymissionswerebuiltontop ofornearsacredsites,andthePueblopeoplewereforcedtoabandontheirtraditionalreligiouspracticesandadoptChristianity.Somemissionswere abandonedafterthePuebloRevoltof1680whenthePueblopeoplesuccessfullydrovetheSpanishoutoftheregion,butotherswerelaterrebuiltorrepurposed.

PaintingSite:AcomaPueblo,NewMexico(GPS34.896389°N,-107.581944°W)

LandAcknowledgement:Pueblos

SpanishLandGrants

TheSpanishcolonialgovernmentissuedlandgrantstosettlersintheAmericanSouthwestduringthecolonialperiodprimarilytoSpanishsettlerstoencourage theregion’scolonisationandtoestablishcontrolovertheterritory.Thegrantsweretypicallyassignedtosettlerswillingtoestablishfarms,ranches,and settlementsintheareapledgedtoconvertthenativepeopletoChristianity.TheSpanishgovernmentrequiredlandgrantholderstopaytaxesonthelandthey weregranted,typicallyintheformoflabour,crops,andgoodsandweredesignedtoextractresourcesandwealthfromthelandgrantholdersandsupportthe Spanishcolonialgovernment.“Tribute”taxes,requiredlandgrantholderstoprovideasetamountofgoods,suchasfood,textiles,andpottery,totheSpanish colonialgovernment.Thesegoodswerethenusedtosupportthesoldiersstationedintheregion.Thelandgrantholderswerealsorequiredtoprovidelabour totheSpanishcolonistsonthecolonists’farmsorintheminesinexchangeforprotectionandsupportfromthecolonialgovernment.

Spanishlandgrantsweretypicallylarge,oftencoveringthousandsofacresandgrantedtoindividuals,families,ororganisations.Thegrantswereoftenusedto establishranchesandfarms,andthesettlersusedthelandtogrowcrops,raiselivestock,andextractnaturalresources.Someofthelandgrantswerealsoused toestablishtownsandsettlements.AftertheMéxicanWarofIndependencein1821,MéxicoinheritedtheterritoriesofNewMexico.TheMéxican governmentcontinuedtogoverntheregionuntil1846,whentheUnitedStatesannexeditaspartoftheMéxican-AmericanWar.ManySpanishlandgrants wereconfirmedandrecognisedbytheUSgovernment,butsomewerenotlegallyrecognisedandwerelaterdisputedbytheUSgovernmentandnativetribes.

ícaro1065 PuebloRevolt(1680) AcomaPueblo,NewMexico

Puebloans

ThePueblopeople’shistoryiscomplexandnotfullyunderstood.Still,itisbelievedthattheyfirstsettledintheSouthwestregionaround600-700CEanddeveloped aculturebasedonagriculture,pottery,andarchitecture.Theybuiltmulti-storyapartment-likestructurescalledpueblos,whichgavethenametothepeople.The Pueblopeoplewereskilledatusingadobe,atypeofbuildingmaterialmadefromclay,sand,andwater,formedintobricksanddriedinthesun,toconstructdurable andenergy-efficientbuildings.Thethickwallsofadobebuildingscanabsorbheatduringthedayandreleaseitatnight,providingnaturalinsulation.

Inhabitantsofadobebuildingscanwithstandtheharshdesertclimate,includingextremeheatandcoldtemperatures.Theyalsodevelopedcomplexsystems ofgovernment,religion,andtrade.Inthelate13thcentury,therewasaperiodofturmoilandmigration,possiblyduetoaprolongeddroughtandconflicts withothertribes.Thisledtotheabandonmentofmanysettlementsandtheformationofnewoneselsewhere.Theword“adobe”comesfromtheSpanish wordwhichinturncomesfromtheArabicword“al-tub,”whichmeansbrickmadeofsun-driedmud.TheconquistadorsusedtheSpanishwordtodescribe thetypeofbuildingstheyencounteredintheAmericanSouthwest,andthetermeventuallymadeitswayintotheEnglishlanguage.Hopipeoplecalladobe “tutskwa,”awordthatreferstothetypeofmudusedtomakeadobebricks.TheHopiwordfortheclayusedinpotteryis“pongapi.”Thiswordreferstothe clayusedtomakepotteryandothertraditionalHopicrafts,suchasbasketsandfigurines.Theword“pongapi”isderivedfromtheHopiword“pongva”,which means“clay”or“earth,”and“pi,”whichisasuffixthatindicatessomethingusedforpottery.OtherPueblopeopleusedifferentwordsdependingonthe communityanddialect.TherearenineteenPueblocommunitiesintotal,locatedinthesouthwesternUnitedStates.ThecommunitiesareAcomaPueblo, CochitiPueblo,IsletaPueblo,JemezPueblo,KewaPueblo(formerlySantoDomingoPueblo),LagunaPueblo,NambéPueblo,OhkayOwingeh(formerlySan JuanPueblo),PicurisPueblo,PojoaquePueblo,SanFelipePueblo,SanIldefonsoPueblo,SandiaPueblo,SantaAnaPueblo,SantaClaraPueblo,TaosPueblo, TesuquePueblo,ZiaPueblo,andZuniPueblo.

TheoldestPuebloisconsideredtobetheAcomaPueblo,alsoknownas“SkyCity.”ThispuebloislocatedinwesternNewMexicoandisbelievedtohavebeen continuouslyinhabitedforover1000years.TheexactageofAcomaPuebloischallenging,butarchaeologicalevidencesuggeststhatthesitewasfirstsettled around1150CE.AcomaPuebloisauniqueandimportanthistoricalsite,consideredoneoftheoldestcontinuouslyinhabitedcommunitiesintheUnited States.ThePuebloisbuiltona367-foot-tall(112m)sandstonemesaandisknownforitsimpressivedefensivestructures,includingafortress-likewall surroundingthevillage.ThepuebloisatestamenttotheingenuityandresilienceofthePueblopeople,whohavemanagedtomaintaintheirwayoflifeand cultureforoveramillenniuminaharshdesertenvironment.EachPueblocommunityhasitsuniquehistory,culture,andtraditionalpractices.Theyallhave differentlanguagesbutsharesimilarreligiousbeliefsandceremonies.Theyareallconsideredsovereignnations,withtheirowngovernanceandtraditional leaders.ThePueblopeoplehaveastrongsenseofcommunity,traditionandcultureandhavearichhistoryofpottery,basketry,jewellery,andotherartforms.

PaintingSite:AcomaPueblo,NewMexico(GPS34.896389°N,-107.581944°W)

LandAcknowledgement:Pueblos

TheprimarycauseofthePuebloRevoltwastheattemptbytheSpanishtodestroythereligionofthePuebloans,banningtraditionaldancesandreligiousicons suchaskachinadolls.KachinaarespiritbeingsinHopiculturebelievedtoresideinthespiritualrealmandinteractwiththehumanworld.Hopiculturehas hundredsofdifferentKachinaspirits,eachwithuniquecharacteristics,attributes,androles.TheexactnumberofKachinaspiritsvariesdependingonthe sourceandthespecificHopicommunity,butthereareestimatedtobeover300differentKachinaspirits.TheKachinaspiritsarebelievedtobepowerfuland benevolentbeingswithaspecificroleandpurpose,suchasbringingrainfall,healingthesick,oroverseeingthegrowthofcrops.Kachinascanbegroupedinto categoriesbasedontheirrolesandcharacteristics,suchaswarriorKachinas,rainKachinas,andfertilityKachinas.InHopiculture,Kachinaspiritsare associatedwithnaturalelements,animals,anddifferentseasonsandceremonies.ThebeliefandpracticesofKachinavaryfromoneHopicommunityto another,asthetraditionalHopireligioniscomplexanddiverse.Kachinaaredepictedinvariousforms,includingdolls,masks,andothercarvings,andare consideredpowerfulspiritualobjectsthatcanbringblessingsandgoodlucktothosepossessingthem.

TheKachinadollsaretypicallymadebyHopimen,althoughsomewomenalsomakethem.Thedollsaremadefromvariousmaterials,includingcottonwood root,paintedandadornedwithfeathers,fur,andothermaterials.ThedollsaretypicallymadeintheimageofaspecificKachinaspiritandareusedtorepresent thatspiritinceremoniesandrituals.TheyareusedtoteachHopichildrenabouttheirculture’sspiritualbeliefsandpractices.Theyarealsousedindancesand otherceremoniestoinvokethepresenceoftheKachinaspirits.Theyareoftengivenasgiftstosickchildrenorpeoplewhoneedspiritualguidance.

Popédiedin1688,withtheunitedPueblostateheenvisioneddividedandweak.TheexpulsionoftheSpanishhadnotbroughtpeaceandprosperityto thePueblos.Returningtothetraditionalreligiondidnotbringraintoeaseapersistentdroughtthatdestroyedcrops.Traditionalrivalriesdividedthe Pueblovillages.Popé’seffortstoruleoverallthePuebloswereresented,andhewasalsoconsideredatyrantbymanyPueblos;thereweremanydevout CatholicswithinthePuebloswhowantedthemissionstoreturn.TheApachesandNavajosteppeduptheirraidsonthePueblos,andtheprevious successfuleffortsoftheSpanishtorepelthemwereremembered.ThereturnoftheSpaniardswasnotbloodless.GovernorDiegodeVargasreturnedto SantaFein1693with800people,including100Spanishsoldiers.SeventyPueblosoldiersand400familymembersopposedhisentry.DeVargasandhis forcesstagedaquickandbloodyrecapturethatconcludedwiththesurrenderandexecutionoftheseventyPueblosoldiersonDecember30,andtheir survivingfamilies(about400womenandchildren)weresentencedtotenyears’servitudeanddistributedtotheSpanishcolonistsasenslavedpeople.While theindependenceofmanypueblosfromtheSpaniardswasshort-lived,thePuebloRevoltgainedthePueblopeopleameasureoffreedomfromfuture Spanisheffortstoeradicatetheircultureandreligionfollowingthereconquest.Moreover,theSpanishissuedsubstantiallandgrantstoeachPuebloand appointedapublicdefendertoprotecttherightsoftheNativeAmericansandarguetheirlegalcasesintheSpanishcourts.TheFranciscanpriests returningtoNewMexicodidnotagainattempttoimposeatheocracyonthePueblo,whocontinuedtopracticetheirtraditionalreligion.

References

RossFrank, Demographic,Social,andEconomicChangeinNewMexico,inNewViewsofBorderlandHistory, ed.byRobertH.Jackson,1998

AndrewL.Knaut, ThePuebloRevoltof1680:ConquestandResistanceinSeventeenth-CenturyNewMexico, 1995 AndrésReséndez, TheOtherSlavery:TheUncoveredStoryofIndianEnslavementinAmerica, 2016

Kachina

TheWoundedKneeMassacrewasthegenocidalmassacreofnearlythreehundredunarmedLakotapeoplebysoldiersoftheUSArmy.Itoccurredon December29,1890,ontheLakotaPineRidgeReservationinSouthDakota,followingabotchedattempttodisarmtheLakotacamp.Intheyearsleadingup totheconflict,theUSgovernmenthadcontinuedtoseizeLakotalandsdespitetreatiestoprotectreservationlandsfromencroachmentbysettlersandgold miners.ThethunderingbuffaloherdsoftheGreatPlains,astapleofthePlainsIndians,hadbeenhuntedtonearextinction.Hungeranddiseaseledtounrest onthereservations.Thepreviousday,adetachmentoftheUS7thCavalryRegimentapproachedabandof350MiniconjouLakotaand38HunkpapaLakota nearPorcupineButteandescortedthemfivemileswestwardtoWoundedKneeCreek,wheretheyweretoldtomakecamp.Theremainderofthe7thCavalry Regimentarrivedandsurroundedtheencampmentwith500troopers.Abatteryoffourrapid-firecanonssupportedtheregiment.

OnDecember29,theUSCavalrytroopsenteredthecamptodisarmtheLakota.WhiledisarmingtheLakota,adeafwarriornamedBlackCoyotewas reluctanttogiveuphisrifle,claiminghehadpaidalotforitwhilenotunderstandingthesoldiers’orders.BlackCoyote’sriflewentoffatthatpoint;theUS ArmybeganshootingattheIndians.TheLakotawarriorsfoughtback,butmanyhadalreadybeenstrippedoftheirgunsanddisarmed.Accordingtosome accounts,YellowBirdbegantoperformtheGhostDance,tellingtheLakotathefalsehoodthattheir“ghostshirts”were“bulletproof”.Twenty-fivesoldiers died,thirty-ninewerewounded,somevictimsoffriendlyfirefromtheirrapid-fireartillery,andtwentywerelaterawardedtheMedalofHonour.Bythetime themassacrewasover,morethan250men,women,andchildrenoftheLakotahaddied,and51werewounded(4menand47womenandchildren,someof whomdiedlater).Fourinfantswerefoundstillalive,wrappedintheirdeceasedmothers’shawls.

Followingathree-dayblizzard,themilitaryhiredcivilianstoburythedeadLakota.Theburialpartyfoundthedeceasedfrozen;theyweregatheredandplaced inamassgraveonahilloverlookingtheencampment,whererapid-firegunsshotintothecrowd.LootersquicklystrippedthebodiesofGhostDanceshirts andotherpossessionstobesoldtocollectorsandmuseums.Photographerscanvassedthecorpse-riddenfieldsandsoldtheirphotosaspostcards.Advertisements saidtheywere‘justthethingtosendtoyourfriendsbackeast.’In2001,theNationalCongressofAmericanIndianspassedtworesolutionscondemningthe militaryawardsandcalledonthefederalgovernmenttorescindthem.In1990,bothhousesoftheUSCongresspassedaresolutiononthehistoricalcentennial formallyexpressing“deepregret”forthemassacre.

PaintingSite:WoundedKnee,SouthDakota(GPS43.14114°N,-102.3623°W)

LandAcknowledgement:Tséstho’e(Cheyenne);OčhéthiŠakówiŋ;Oohenumpa;Mnicoujou

Ididnotknowthenhowmuchwasended.WhenIlookbacknowfromthishighhill ofmyoldage,Icanstillseethebutcheredwomenandchildrenlyingheapedand scatteredallalongthecrookedgulchasplainaswhenIsawthemwitheyesstillyoung.

—BlackElk(HeȟákaSápa),OglalaLakotaspiritualleader

ícaro1045 GhostDanceWar,Nanissáanah(1890) WoundedKnee,SouthDakota,2016 60x48x2in.(153x122x5cm),acryliconlinen,alu/woodstretcher

GhostDance

TheGhostDanceWar,alsoknownastheLakotaWarsortheSiouxWars,beganin1890whentheLakotaandotherNativeAmericannationsintheGreat PlainsregionbegantoengageinarmedresistanceagainsttheUnitedStatesgovernment.ViolentclashesbetweentheNativeAmericansandtheUSmilitary, widespreaddestructionofproperty,andgreatlossoflifecharacterisedtheconflict. TheLakota(Sioux)nation’sadoptionoftheGhostDancesparkedthe conflicts.TheGhostDancewasareligiousmovementthatemergedamongseveralNativeAmericannationsintheGreatPlainsregionoftheUnitedStatesin thelate1800s.ThemessianicPaiuteprophetWovokafoundedthemovement,claiminghehadavisioninwhichtheNativeAmericans’traditionalwayoflife wouldberestored,andtheWhitesettlerswouldleavetheirland.TheGhostDancemovementspreadquicklyamongseveralNativeAmericannationsinthe GreatPlainsregion,anditbecameasourceofhopeandresistanceformanyNativeAmericanswhowerefacingthelossoftheirlandandculture.The movementwasalsoasourceoffearandconcernfortheUSgovernment,whichsawtheGhostDanceasathreattoitsauthorityandcontrol.TheGhostDance movementwascharacterisedbyritualdancesbelievedtohavespiritualandtransformativepowers.ParticipantsintheGhostDancebelievedthatthedances wouldbringaboutthereturnoftheirancestorsandtherestorationofthenaturalworld,aswellastheendofWhitecolonisationandthesufferingoftheNative Americanpeople.TheGhostDanceWarendedinDecember1890whentheUSmilitarydecisivelydefeatedtheLakotaandotherNativeAmericannations attheMassacreofWoundedKneeinSouthDakota.

GhostDanceshirts,alsoknownasGhostshirtsorGhostDancedresses,weretraditionalgarmentswornbyIndigenouspeopleduringtheGhostDance movementofthelate1800s.GhostDanceshirtswerebelievedtohavespiritualpowersandwerethoughttoprotectthewearerfrombulletsandotherformsof violence.Theshirtsweretypicallymadeofwhitemuslinandweredecoratedwithpainteddesigns,beadwork,andotherembellishments.

References

DeeBrownandHamptonSides,BuryMyHeartatWoundedKnee:AnIndianHistoryoftheAmericanWest,1970 JamesMooney,ethnographer(1861-1921),TheGhostDanceReligionandWoundedKnee,1896

TheGhostDancewasareligiousmovementthatsweptthroughtheIndianreservationsof theWestinthelate1800s.Itpromisedtorestorethelandandthepeopletotheirformer glory,andmanyIndianssawitasawaytoresisttheencroachmentsofthewhiteman.

—RobertM.Utley, TheLanceandtheShield:TheLifeandTimesofSittingBull, 1992

ícaro1045 GhostDanceWar,Nanissáanah(1890) WoundedKnee,SouthDakota,2016 60x48x2in.(153x122x5cm),acryliconlinen,alu/woodstretcher

Theloveofpossessionisadiseasewiththem;theytaketithesfromthepoorandweakto supporttherichwhorule.Theyclaimthismotherofours,theEarth,fortheirownand fencetheirneighborsaway.

—SiouxChiefSittingBull(TȟatȟáŋkaÍyotake)

ToAndrewJackson,itwasaboutbeingmercifulandcharitable,ifnotindeed,atleastinthought,givingtoNativeAmericanstheirownseparateandhappy freedom.TheTrailofTearswasanethniccleansingandforceddisplacementofapproximately60,000peopleofthe“FiveCivilizedTribes”between1830and 1850bytheUnitedStatesgovernment.PresidentJacksongainedCongressionalpassageoftheIndianRemovalActof1830,whichauthorisedthegovernment toextinguishany“Indian”titletolandclaimsintheSoutheast.MembersoftheCherokee(Tsalagi),Muscogee(Creek),Seminole(Muscogee: simanó-li), Chickasaw (ChikashshaIyaakni),andChoctaw(Chahta) nationswereforciblyremovedfromtheirancestralhomelandsintheSoutheasternUnitedStateswe nowcalltheDeepSouthtothenewlydesignatedIndianTerritory(modern-dayOklahoma),westoftheMississippiRiver,landsdeemeda“GreatAmerican Desert”becauseitwasdifficulttoexploitbyWhitesettlers.In1831,theChoctawbecamethefirstNationtoberemoved,andtheirremovalservedasthemodel forallfuturerelocations.Aftertwobrutalwars,manySeminoleswereremovedin1832.TheCreekremovalfollowedin1834,theChickasawin1837,andthe Cherokeein1838.Afterextendednegotiationstoremainontheirland,theCherokeeremovalin1838washastenedbythediscoveryofgoldnearDahlonega, Georgia,in1828,resultingintheGeorgiaGoldRush.Euro-AmericansettlershadbeenpressuringthefederalgovernmenttoremoveNativeAmericansfrom theSoutheast;manyWhiteminersandsettlerswereencroachingonNativeAmericanlands,whileotherswantedmorelandavailabletopossess.

BeforeJackson’spresidency,theremovalpolicywasalreadyinplaceandjustifiedbythemythofthe“vanishingIndian.”HistorianJeffreyOstlerexplainsthat “scholarshaveexposedhowthediscourseofthe“vanishingIndian”wasanideologythatmadedecliningIndigenouspopulationsseemtobeaninevitable consequenceofnaturalprocessesandsoallowedAmericanstoevademoralresponsibilityfortheirdestructivechoices.”Monthsafterthepassageofthe RemovalAct,Jacksondescribedthelegislationasthe“happyconsummationofapolicypursuedfornearly30years.”ThepopularwritingofJamesFenimore Cooperwasessentialinmaintainingthedualmythosofthe“vanishingIndian”andthe“noblesavage”ThisvanishingnarrativeexistedbeforeTheTrailof TearsthroughCooper’s1826novel TheLastoftheMohicans.

ItisdifficulttodetermineexactlyhowmanyNativeAmericansdiedduringTheTrailofTears,astherearenopreciserecordsofthenumberofdeathsthat occurredduringthisperiod.TheforcedrelocationsandethniccleansingsoftheIndigenousnationshavesometimesbeenreferredtoas“deathmarches,” particularlywhenreferringtotheCherokeemarchacrosstheMidwestin1838,whichoccurredviaapredominantlylandroute.Itisestimatedthatthousands ofNativeAmericansdiedduringTheTrailofTearsduetodisease,starvation,andexposuretotheelements.Themortalityratewasexceptionallyhighamong childrenandtheelderly.TheTrailofTearswasadifficultandtraumaticexperiencefortheNativeAmericantribeswhowereforcedtoleavetheirhomesand theirwayoflifebehindandmarchhundredsofmilesthroughharshandinhospitableterrain.

PaintingSite:FortSmith,Arkansas(GPS53.763056°N,-122.745278°W)

LandAcknowledgement:(Osage);O-ga-xpaMa-zhoⁿ (O-ga-xpa)(Quapaw);OčhéthiŠakówiŋ;Caddo;Kiikaapoi(Kickapoo)

ItwillseparatetheIndiansfromimmediatecontactwithsettlementsofwhites;freethem fromthepoweroftheStates;enablethemtopursuehappinessintheirownwayandunder theirownrudeinstitutions;willretardtheprogressofdecay,whichislesseningtheir numbers,andperhapscausethemgradually,undertheprotectionoftheGovernmentand throughtheinfluenceofgoodcounsels,tocastofftheirsavagehabitsandbecomean interesting,civilised,andChristiancommunity.

—AndrewJackson

Diné(Navajo)originstoriesbeginwithaFirstWorldofDarkness,theBlackWorld(Nihodilhil).Fromthisdarkworld,theDinéancestorsstartedajourneyof emergencethroughdifferentworldsintothepresentworld.Inthedistantpast,whenhumansandanimalshadacommonlanguage,thedarkfirstworldwas illuminatedbyfireswhichburnedinsideincandescentcraters.Fromhere,theinsectpeoplestartedtowardsotherworlds,suchasthatofbirdsandlocusts.This narrativeinvolvestravelstounknownworldsviaportalsanddifferentdimensionsandtheirfascinatingcosmicevolution.

Thepeoplesofthebees,ants,dragonflies,scarabs,cricketsandflieslivedinthefirstworld.Theappearanceofflightinthisworldisexplainedbythelegendof thedragonfly,whichmadewingsforitselfandbegantomovethem,raisingitselfofftheground.Itflewtowardsthesky,andtheotherbeingsfromthisworld followeditsexample,startingtoflyaswell.Wantingtoescapefromthisfirstworldofhotcraterstocoloniseotherworlds,itsinhabitantsflewuntiltheyreached thehighestpartoftheirworld,lookingforanexitoutofthesky.Still,theskywassolidatthatpoint,buttheysearcheduntiltheysawabluelightfromwhich ablueheadcameout,acrossingpointoraportal.Inthisway,theinhabitantsoftheNavajofirstworldsucceededincrossingovertothesecondworld,where thewaragainstthebirdsbegan.

References

GloriaJahoda, TheTrailofTears:TheStoryoftheAmericanIndianRemovals1813-1855, 1995

ChristopherRossi, TheBlindEye:JusSoli,AndThe“Pretended”TreatyOfNewEchota, 2021

AnthonyWallace,EricFoner, TheLong,BitterTrail:AndrewJacksonandtheIndians, 1993

JeffreyOstler, SurvivingGenocide:NativeNationsandtheUnitedStatesfromtheAmericanRevolutiontoBleedingKansas, 2019

DinéNihodilhilBlack(First)World

TheGhostDanceof1890(Nanissáanah)wasaceremonyincorporatedintonumerousNativeAmericanbeliefsystems.Accordingtotheteachingsofthe NorthernPaiutespiritualleaderWovoka,whoalsowentbythenameJackWilson,properpracticeofthedancewouldreunitethelivingwithspiritsofthedead, bringthespiritstofightontheirbehalf,endAmericanwestwardexpansion,andbringpeace,prosperity,andunitytoNativeAmericanpeoplesthroughoutthe region.TheLakotaexpression SpiritDance, translatedas GhostDance,wasassociatedwithWovoka’sprophecyofanendtocolonialexpansionwhilepreaching goalsofcleanliving,anhonestlife,andcross-culturalcooperationbyNativeAmericans.ThebasisfortheGhostDanceisthe CircleDance, atraditionalNative Americandancethatsymbolisesthesun’sheavenlypathacrossthesky.TheNevadaNorthernPaiutefirstpractisedtheGhostDancein1889.Thepractice sweptthroughoutmuchoftheWesternUnitedStates,quicklyreachingareasofCaliforniaandOklahoma.AstheGhostDancespreadfromitssource,different nationssynthesisedselectiveaspectsoftheritualwiththeirownbeliefs.Thepeopleweretoldthattheycoulddanceanewworldintobeing.

Therewouldbelandslides,earthquakes,andbigwinds.Hillswouldpileuponeachother.Theearthwouldroll uplikeacarpetwithallthewhiteman’suglythings–thestinkingnewanimals,sheepandpigs,thefences,the telegraphpoles,themines,andfactories.Underneathwouldbethewonderfulold-newworldasithadbeenbefore thewhitefat-takerscame....Thewhitemenwillberolledup,disappear,gobacktotheirowncontinent.

TheGhostDanceWar,alsoknownastheLakotaWarortheSiouxWar,wasaconflictinthelate1800sbetweentheLakotaSiouxandtheUSgovernment.The USgovernmentviewedtheGhostDancemovementasthreateningitsauthorityandcontrolovertheLakotaSioux.Itrespondedwithamilitarycampaignto suppressthemovement.TheGhostDanceWarresultedinviolentconfrontationsbetweentheLakotaSiouxandUSsoldiers.ItendedaftertheWoundedKnee MassacreoccurredonDecember29,1890,onthePineRidgeIndianReservationinSouthDakota.AdetachmentoftheUSSeventhCavalry,ledbyMajorSamuel M.Whitside,confrontedagroupofLakotaSiouxwhomtheCavalryorderedtocampatWoundedKneeCreekfortalks.AlthoughtheLakotaSiouxhadbeen largelydisarmed,theconfrontationbeganwhenthesoldierstriedtodisarmafewLakotaSiouxwhodidnotgiveuptheirweaponsandtakethemintocustody.A scufflebrokeout,andashotwasfired,whichledtoafull-scalebattlebetweenthesoldiersandtheLakotaSioux.Thesoldiersopenedfirewithheavyweaponson theLakotaSioux,killing153Lakota,with50woundedand150missingmen,women,andchildren,somewearingGhostDanceshirtsundertheirotherclothing.

PaintingSite:WoundedKnee,SouthDakota(GPS43.1425°N,-102.365°W)

LandAcknowledgement:Tséstho’e(Cheyenne);OčhéthiŠakówiŋ;Oohenumpa;Mnicoujou

Ididnotknowthenhowmuchwasended.WhenIlookbacknowfromthishighhillof myoldage,Icanstillseethebutcheredwomenandchildrenlyingheapedandscattered allalongthecrookedgulchasplainaswhenIsawthemwitheyesstillyoung.

—BlackElk(HeȟákaSápa),OglalaLakotaspiritualleader

GhostDanceshirts,alsoknownasGhostDancedresses,weretraditionalgarmentswornbyIndigenouspeopleduringtheGhostDancemovementofthelate 1800s.Theshirtsweretypicallymadeofwhitemuslinandweredecoratedwithpainteddesigns,beadwork,andotherembellishments.GhostDanceshirtswere believedtohavespiritualpowersandwerethoughttoprotectthewearerfrombulletsandotherformsofviolence.Wovokaopposedviolentrebellionagainstthe whitesettlers.Hebelievedthatthroughpacifism,theLakotaandtherestoftheNativeAmericanswouldbedeliveredfromWhiteoppressionintheformof earthquakes.However,twoLakotawarriorsandfollowersofWovoka,KickingBearandShortBull,thoughtotherwise.TheybelievedthatGhostDanceshirts wouldprotectthewearerenoughtoresistUSmilitaryaggressionactively.JamesMooney,arenownedethnographerwholivedforseveralyearsamongthe Cherokee,arguedthatthemostlikelysourceofthebeliefthatghostshirtscouldrepelbulletsistheMormontemplegarment(whichMormonsbelieveprotects thepiouswearerfromevil,thoughnotbullets).Scholarsbelievethatin1890chiefKickingBearintroducedtheconcepttohispeople,theLakota.

Plate9. WoundedKnee,SouthDakota, 2018

References

RobertM.Utley, TheLanceandtheShield:TheLifeandTimesofSittingBull, 1992

JamesMooney,ethnographer(1861-1921), TheGhostDanceReligionandWoundedKnee, 1896

AliceBeckKehoe, MassacreatWoundedKneeCreek,TheGhostDance:EthnohistoryandRevitalization, 1989

TheUS-DakotaWarof1862wasadevastatingandbrutalconflictthatwastheresult ofyearsofbrokentreatiesandthemistreatmentoftheDakotapeoplebyIndianagents andtheU.S.government.Itwasatragicexampleoftheinjusticesandviolenceinflicted onIndigenouspeoplesinthenameofwestwardexpansion.

—PekkaHämäläinen, IndigenousContinent:TheEpicContestforNorthAmerica, 2008

TheDakotaWarof1862,alsoknownastheSiouxOutbreakof1862orLittleCrow’sWar,wasanarmedconflictbetweentheUnitedStatesandseveralbands ofeasternDakota,alsoknownastheSanteeSioux.TheLowerSiouxAgencywasaUSgovernmentagencylocatedinsouthwesternMinnesotaresponsiblefor overseeingrelationswiththeLowerSiouxIndianCommunity,establishedin1853bytheUnitedStatesgovernmenttocontrolthenewlycreatedLowerSioux IndianReservation.ThisreservationwastobethehomefortheMdewakantonandWahpekutebandsfollowingthe1851TreatyofMendota.Allfourbands ofeasternDakota,particularlytheMdewakanton,weredisplacedandreluctantlymovedtoareservationtwentymileswide,tenonbothsidesoftheMinnesota River.Meanwhile,theEuro-AmericansettlerpopulationinMinnesotaTerritoryhadgrownfrom6,077in1850to172,072in1860,afterithadbecomeastate.

OnAugust15,1862,theLowerSiouxturnedtotheAgencystaffforsupplies.RepresentativesofthenorthernSissetowanandWahpetonDakotabandshad successfullynegotiatedtoobtainfoodattheUpperSiouxAgencyonAugust4.However,ThomasJ.Galbraith,theIndianagentincharge,rejectedtheLower Siouxbands,ashewouldnotdistributefoodtothesebandswithoutpaymentfromtheirUSgovernmentannuitypaymentsbytheIndianagents,whichwere delayed.ThetraderssuspectedthepaymentsmightnotarriveduetotheAmericanCivilWar.AtameetingoftheDakota,theUSgovernment,andlocaltraders, theDakotarepresentativesaskedtherepresentativeofthegovernmenttraders,AndrewJ.Myrick,tosellthemfoodoncredit.Heresponded,“SofarasIam concernediftheyarehungry,letthemeatgrassortheirowndung.”OnAugust18,1862,attheLowerSiouxAgencyalongtheMinnesotaRiverinsouthwest Minnesota.LittleCrowledagroupofDakotasoldierswhoattackedtheLowerSiouxAgency.TheydiscoveredAndrewMyricktryingtoescapethrougha second-floorwindowofabuildingattheagency.Myrick’sbodywaslaterfoundwithgrassstuffedintohismouthbecauseofhisrecentstatementtotheDakota.

DakotasoldiersattackedaWhitesettlementintheMinnesotaRiverValley.Thefightingquicklyspread,andoverthenextfewmonths,theDakotaandtheir alliesfoughtagainstfederaltroopsandstatemilitia.Despitebeingoutnumberedandoutgunned,theDakotaputupfierceresistanceandwereabletoinflict significantlossesontheUSforces.Thefightingquicklyspread,andoverthenextfewmonths,theDakotaandtheiralliesfoughtagainstfederaltroopsandstate militia.Despitebeingoutnumberedandoutgunned,theDakotaputupfierceresistanceandwereabletoinflictsignificantlossesontheUSforces.Minnesota militiaforcesandBCompanyofthe5thMinnesotaVolunteerInfantryRegimentsenttoquelltheuprisingweredefeatedattheBattleofRedwoodFerry. Twenty-foursoldiers,includingtheparty’scommander,CaptainJohnMarsh,werekilledinthebattle.Thefederalgovernmenttookfurtherstepstoforcibly removetheDakotafromMinnesotaandrelocatethemtoreservationsintheDakotaTerritory.Ultimately,however,theDakotacouldnotholdoutagainstthe superiormilitarymightoftheUnitedStates,andthewarendedinlate1862withtheDakota’sdefeat.Bythewar’send,358settlershadbeenkilled,and77 soldiersand29volunteermilitia.

ThetotalnumberofDakotacasualtiesisunknown.ManyDakotawereimprisonedorforcedtofleetoCanadaaftertheconflict.Inlessthansixweeks,a commissionofofficersfromtheMinnesotaVolunteerInfantrysentenced303Dakotamentodeath.PresidentAbrahamLincolnreviewedtheconvictionsand approveddeathsentencesfor39outofthe303.OnDecember26,1862,38werehangedinMankato,Minnesota,withonegettingareprieve.Thiswasthe largestone-daymassexecutioninAmericanhistory.

PaintingSite:LowerSiouxAgency,Minnesota(GPS44.526111°N,–94.957778°W)

LandAcknowledgement:OčhéthiŠakówiŋ;Wahpekute

IndianAgents

ThefederalregulationofIndianaffairsintheUnitedStatesfirstincludedthedevelopmentofthepositionofanIndianagentin1793undertheSecondTrade andIntercourseAct(ortheNonintercourseAct).ThisrequiredlandsalesbyorfromIndigenouspeoplestobefederallylicensedandpermitted.Thelegislation alsoauthorisedthepresidentoftheUnitedStatesto“appointsuchpersons,fromtimetotime,astemporaryagentstoresideamongtheIndians”andguide themintoacculturationintoAmericansocietybychangingtheiragriculturalpracticesanddomesticactivities.Fromthecloseofthe18thcenturytonearly 1869,CongressmaintainedthepositionthatitwaslegallyresponsiblefortheprotectionofIndiansfromnon-Indians,andinestablishingthisresponsibility,it “continue[d]todealwithIndiantribesbyutilisingagentstonegotiatetreatiesunderthejurisdictionoftheDepartmentofWar.”

Inthe1830s,theprimaryroleofIndianagentswastoassistincommercialtradingsupervisionbetweentradersandIndians.Agentspossessedtheauthorityto bothissueandrevokecommercialtradinglicenses.

In1849,theBureauofIndianAffairsdecidedtoplacethepositionofIndianagentundercivilianjurisdiction.ThiscameatatimewhenmanyWhite AmericanssawtheroleofIndianagentsaslargelyinefficientanddishonestinmonetaryandseveraltydealingswithvariousIndigenouspeoples.

By1850,manycitizenshadbeencallingforreformoftheagentsintheBureauofIndianAffairs.Theirwishwasgrantedwhenin1869,thebureaucreated thecivilian-controlledBoardofIndianCommissioners.However,theUnitedStatesArmycommandwashighlydissatisfiedwiththetransferoftheBureauof IndianAffairsfromtheDepartmentofWartotheDepartmentoftheInteriorby1849,sotheybegantomakepubliccomplaintsaboutthecorruptivenature ofthecivilianpresenceinthejoboftheIndianagent.

Bythe1870s,duetoPresidentGrant’sPeacePolicy,theaverageIndianagentwasprimarilynominatedbyvariousChristiandenominationsduetothe increaseincivilisationreformstoIndian-Whiteaffairs,especiallyoverland.PartoftheChristianmessageofreform,carriedoutbytheIndianagents, demonstratedthepervasivethoughtofIndigenouspeoples’landownershipofthelate19thcentury:civilisationcanonlybepossiblewhenIndianscease communallivinginfavourofprivateownership.ManycitizensstillheldtheactivitiesofIndianagentsinpooresteem,callingtheagentsthemselves “unprincipledopportunists”andpeopleoflowquality.

WhenTheodoreRooseveltreachedthepresidencyattheturnofthe20thcentury(1901–1909),theIndianagentsthatremainedonthegovernmentpayroll wereallreplacedbyschoolsuperintendents.TheIndianBoardingSchoolsystembecametheagencyfor“civilising”Indigenouspeoples.“Between1819 throughthe1970s,theUnitedStatesimplementedpoliciesestablishingandsupportingIndianboardingschoolsacrossthenation.Thepurposeoffederal IndianboardingschoolswastoculturallyassimilateAmericanIndian,AlaskaNative,andNativeHawaiianchildrenbyforciblyremovingthemfromtheir familiesandIndianTribes,AlaskaNativeVillages,andNativeHawaiianCommunities.IndianchildremovalcoincidedwithIndianterritorialdispossession.”

References

PekkaHämäläinen, IndigenousContinent:TheEpicContestforNorthAmerica, 2008

SofarasIamconcernediftheyarehungry,letthemeatgrassortheirowndung.

—AndrewJ.Myrick,governmenttraderspeakingtoIndianagentThomasJ.Galbraith

TheSandCreekMassacreof1864wasadevastatingandbrutaleventthatresultedin thedeathsofhundredsofCheyenneandArapahopeople,themajorityofthemwomen, children,andelderly,itwasaclearexampleoftheviolenceandbrutalityinflictedon Indigenouspeoplesinthenameofwestwardexpansion.

—AmySturgis, TheTrailofTearsandIndianRemoval, 2007

TheSandCreekMassacre,alsoknownastheBattleofSandCreek,wasamassacreofCheyenneandArapahopeoplebytheUSArmyintheAmericanIndian WarsthatoccurredonNovember29,1864,whena675-manforceoftheThirdColoradoCavalryunderthecommandofUSVolunteersColonelJohn ChivingtonattackedanddestroyedavillageofCheyenneandArapahopeopleatSandCreekinsoutheasternColoradoTerritory,killingandmutilatingan estimated69toover600NativeAmericanpeople.Chivingtonclaimed500to600warriorswerekilled.However,mostsourcesestimatethataround150people werekilled,abouttwo-thirdsofwhomwerewomenandchildren.Manyofthevictimsweremutilatedandscalped.

Bythetermsofthe1851TreatyofFortLaramiebetweentheUnitedStatesandsevenIndiannations,includingtheCheyenneandArapaho,theUnitedStates recognisedthattheCheyenneandArapahoheldavastterritoryencompassingthelandsbetweentheNorthPlatteRiverandtheArkansasRiver,andeastward fromtheRockyMountainstowesternKansas.Thisareaincludedpresent-daysoutheasternWyoming,southwesternNebraska,mostofeasternColorado,and thewesternmostportionsofKansas.InNovember1858,however,thediscoveryofgoldintheRockyMountainsinColorado,thenpartoftheKansasTerritory, broughtonthePikesPeakGoldRush.ImmigrantsfloodedacrossCheyenneandArapaholands.Theycompetedforresources,andsomesettlerstriedtostay.

OnFebruary18,1861,sixchiefsoftheSouthernCheyenneandfouroftheArapahosignedtheTreatyofFortWisewiththeUnitedStates,inwhichtheyceded mostofthelandsdesignatedtothembytheFortLaramietreaty.MostbandsoftheCheyenne,includingtheDogSoldiers,amilitaristicbandofCheyenneand Lakotathathadoriginatedinthelate1830s,wereangryatthechiefswhohadsignedthetreaty.Theydisavowedthetreaty—whichneverreceivedtheblessing oftheCouncilof44,thesupremetribalauthority—andrefusedtoabidebyitsconstraints.Theycontinuedtoliveandhuntinthebison-richlandsofeastern ColoradoandwesternKansasandbecameincreasinglybelligerentoverthetideofWhitemigrationacrosstheirlands.Tensionswerehigh,particularlyinthe SmokyHillRivercountryofKansas,alongwhichWhiteshadopenedanewtrailtothegoldfields.Cheyenne,whoopposedthetreaty,saidasmallminority ofthechiefshadsignedwithouttheconsentorapprovaloftherestofthetribe,thatthesignatorieshadnotunderstoodwhattheysigned,andthattheyhad beenbribedtosignbyalargedistributionofgifts.

TheSandCreekMassacrewaswidelycondemnedatthetimeandhasbeendescribedasagraveinjusticeandahorrificactofviolenceagainstNativeAmericans. ThemassacreisrememberedasadarkchapterinAmericanhistoryandisoftencitedasanexampleofthemistreatmentandabuseofNativeAmericansbythe USgovernment.Ithashadlong-lastingconsequences,contributingtoongoingtensionsbetweenNativeAmericancommunitiesandtheUSgovernment.

PaintingSite:SandCreekMassacreNationalHistoricSite,Colorado(GPS38.944167°N,-103.444444°W)

LandAcknowledgement: ��������������������������������^����^(Osage);Tséstho’e(Cheyenne);OčhéthiŠakówiŋ;hinono’eino’ biito’owu’(Arapaho);Núu-agha-tʉvʉ-pʉ̱(Ute);NdéKónitsąąííGokíyaa(LipanApache)

GrandfatherOchinee(One-Eye)escapedfromthecamp,butseeingallthathispeoplewereto beslaughtered,hedeliberatelychosetogobackintotheone-sidedbattleanddiewiththem.

—MaryProwersHudnal

References

AmySturgis, TheTrailofTearsandIndianRemoval, 2007

DeeBrown, BuryMyHeartatWoundedKnee:AnIndianHistoryoftheAmericanWest, 1970 GregoryF.Michno, EncyclopediaofIndianWars:WesternBattlesandSkirmishes1850–1890, 2003

Atonce[thebuffalo]isasymbolofthetenacityofwildernessandthedestructionof wilderness;it’sasymbolofNativeAmericancultureandthedeathofNativeAmerican culture;it’sasymbolofthestrengthandvitalityofAmericaandthepettinessandgreed ofAmerica;itrepresentsafrontierbothforgottenandremembered;itstandsforfreedom andcaptivity,extinctionandsalvation.

―StevenRinella, AmericanBuffalo:InSearchofaLostIcon, 2008

HuntingtheAmericanbison(tatanka)orbuffalowasfundamentaltotheeconomyandsocietyofPlainsIndianswhoinhabitedthevastgrasslandsonthe InteriorPlainsofNorthAmericabeforetheanimal’snear-extinctioninthelate19thcenturyfollowingUSexpansionintotheWest.Bisonhuntingwasan essentialspiritualpracticeandsourceofmaterialforthesegroups,especiallyaftertheEuropeanre-introductionofthehorseinthe16ththrough18thcenturies enablednewhuntingtechniques.

Inthemid-19thcentury,itwasestimatedthat30millionto75millionbisonroamedtheplains.Inmassiveandmajesticherds,theyrumbledbythehundreds ofthousands,creatingthesoundthatearnedthemthenickname“ThunderofthePlains.”However,theirpopulationbegantodeclineintheearly19thcentury duetovariousfactors,includingoverhunting,habitatloss,anddisease.Thespecies’dramaticdeclineresultedfromhabitatlossduetotheexpansionofranching andfarminginwesternNorthAmerica.Also,justasNativeAmericanshadnoresistancetoEuropeandisease,bisonhadnoimmunitytotickfeverborneby TexascattledrivennorthtoranchesontheGreatPlains.Wandering,grazingcattlehadampleopportunitytointeractwithwildbison,especiallyinMontana, wherethedie-offwasfirstnoticed.

Industrial-scalehuntingpractisedbynon-Indigenoushunters,increasedIndigenoushuntingpressureduetonon-Indigenousdemandforbisonhidesandmeat, andadeliberatepolicybysettlergovernmentstodestroythefoodsourceoftheIndigenouspeoplesduringtimesofconflictaspartofabroaderprogramof genocideagainstNativeAmericans.Therewasexcellentmoneytobemadeshootingbison,skinningthem,andleavingthemeattorot.Thedevastationofthe bisonpopulationsignalledtheendoftheIndianWars.Inthepost-CivilWarera,theAmericanmilitary,wagingwarontheIndigenousnationstoclearland forWhitesettlement,madetheconnectionthatifthebisonwereremoved,theIndigenouspeopleswouldbeforcedtomoveontoreservations,dependenton thegovernmentforfoodandeverythingelse.NativeAmericanswerepushedintoreservationswithnocompensationbeyondthepromiseofreligiousinstruction meanttocivilisesavagesandpromisesofessentialsuppliesoffoodandclothing—promisesneverfulfilled.

Inthemid-19thcentury,Euro-AmericantrapperswhohadearlierdepletedthebeaverpopulationsoftheMidwestbegantradinginbuffalorobesandtongues; anestimated200,000werekilledannually.ThecompletionoftheTranscontinentalRailroadacceleratedthedecimationofthespeciesmakingiteasierfor hunterstoaccessandkilllargeanimals,oftenjustforsportfromtrainwindows.Bythelate19thcentury,itisestimatedthatonlyafewthousandbisonremained. Thisnear-extinctionofthebisonhadadevastatingimpactontheNativeAmericantribesthatreliedonthemandtheecosystemoftheGreatPlains.Bythe beginningofthe20thcentury,only300bisonwereleftinthewildandonly23inYellowstone.Inresponsetothiscrisis,effortsweremadetoprotectand conservetheremainingbison,andtheirpopulationhassincerecoveredsomewhat.Today,severalthousandsofbisoncanbefoundinseveralnationalparksand reservesintheUnitedStates.Ignorantofthescienceandputtingcattlemen’srightsaheadofconservationefforts,however,theMontanaDepartmentof Livestock(DOL)hasslaughteredthousandsoftheYellowstonebisonsince1985,claimingtheycarrythedisease“brucellosis”,whichaffects(continues)

PaintingSite:Yellowstone,Montana(GPS44.596389N,-110.547222W)

LandAcknowledgement:Cayuse,UmatillaandWallaWalla;Apsáalooke(Crow),Tséstho’e(Cheyenne);Shoshone-Bannock

ícaro1004 NearExtinctionoftheAmericanBison(19thC) Yellowstone,Montana,2013 72x72x2in.(183x183x5cm),earthpigments,acryliconlinen,alu/woodstretcher

birthingcattle.BrucellosiswasfirstdetectedintheYellowstonebisonherdin1917.Thebisonwereexposedtobrucellosisbydomesticcattle(unwisely)allowed tograzeintheparkandconfinedwithbison.Bisonhaveanaturalimmuneresponsetobrucellosis.Althoughthereisn’tasingledocumentedcaseofbrucellosis transmissionbetweenbisonanddomesticcattleundernaturalconditions,theantibodiesfromtheimmuneresponseoftestedbisonallowtheDOLtocullthe bisontoprotecttherelativelyfewcattlethatgrazeonpubliclands.Inadditiontotheimpactonthebisonpopulation,thedisplacementofNativeAmerican peoplesandthedestructionoftheirwayoflifewasadeliberatepolicyoftheUSgovernment,whichsoughttoclearthewayforWhitesettlementandeconomic development.ThispolicyincludedtheforcedremovalofNativeAmericanpeoplesfromtheirancestrallands,thecreationofIndianreservations,andthe suppressionofNativeAmericanculturesandtraditions.

References

AndrewC.Isenberg, TheDestructionoftheBison:AnEnvironmentalHistory,1750-1920, 2001

StevenRinella, AmericanBuffalo:InSearchofaLostIcon, 1994 PekkaHämäläinen, IndigenousContinent:TheEpicContestforNorthAmerica, 2022

ThenearextinctionoftheAmericanbisonwasatragicandavoidableevent,aresultof therelentlesspursuitofprofitandexpansionthatcharacterisedthewestwardexpansionof theUnitedStatesinthe19thcentury.

–PekkaHämäläinen

Fivehundredyearsago,aflotillalandedonthecoastofYucatánunderthecommandofthe SpanishconquistadorHernánCortésdeMonroyyPizarroAltamirano.Whiletheofficialgoal oftheexpeditionwastoexploreandexpandtheChristianfaith,everyoneinvolvedknewthatit wasprimarilyaboutgoldandthehuntforslaves.

—StefanRinke, ConquistadorenundAzteken:CortésunddieEroberungMexikos, 2019

AlthoughnumerousbattleswerefoughtbetweentheAztecEmpireandtheSpanish-ledcoalitioncomposedmainlyofTlaxcaltecmenledbySpanish conquistador(explorer-conqueror)HernánCortésdeMonroyyPizarroAltamirano,1stMarquessoftheValleyofOaxaca,itwasthesiegeofTenochtitlán, thecapitaloftheAztecEmpirein1521thatdirectlyledtothedownfalloftheAzteccivilisationandmarkedtheendofthefirstphaseoftheSpanish conquestoftheAztecEmpire.

HernánCortés(healsousedHernándoorFernándo)formedpartofSpain’sinitialcolonisationeffortsintheAmericas.WhilestationedinCuba,he convincedtheGovernorofCuba,DiegoVelázquezdeCuéllar,toallowhimtoleadanexpeditiontoMéxico,butVelázquezthencancelledhismission.His enmitywithDiegoVelázquezdeCuéllar,resultedintherecalloftheexpeditionatthelastmoment,anorderthatCortésignored.Eagertoappropriatenew landfortheSpanishcrown,convertIndigenouspeopletoChristianityandplundertheregionforgoldandriches,Cortésorganisedhisroguecrewof100sailors, 11ships,508soldiers(includingenslavedAfricans),and16horses.HesetsailfromCubaonFebruary18,1519,tobeginanunauthorisedexpeditionto Mesoamerica.CortézlandedhisexpeditionaryforceatPotonchan,locatedontheYucatánPeninsulaofwhatisnowMéxico.

TheSpanishhadpreviouslysentexpeditionaryforcestoexploretheregion,buttheywereunawareoftheextentoftheAztecempire.TheAztecs,ledbytheir rulerMoctezumaII(Montezuma),initiallywelcomedtheSpanishasgods.CortésclaimedtohavelearnedatthispointthattheAztecsconsideredhimtobe eitheranemissaryofthefeatheredserpentgodQuetzalcoatlorQuetzalcoatlhimself–abeliefcontestedbyafewmodernhistorians.AlthoughwaryofCortés, MoctezumasentemissarieswithlavishgiftstotheSpanishinacautiousgameofdiplomacy.Still,tensionssoonbegantoriseastheSpanishbegantotakeover thecityanditssurroundingterritories.Inthemeantime,CortésforgedallianceswithseveraldisgruntledAztecsubjectcity-states,chiefamongthemthe Totonac,theCempoala,andtheTlaxcalans,whosufferedfromtheAztecruleandwerereadytoenterintoallianceswiththeforeignerstooverthrowtheirold enemy.With200,000Indigenoussoldiersfromthecity-statesintow,CortésmarchedontheimportantAzteccityofCholulainOctober1519.ThereCortés andhisarmyslaughteredthousandsofunarmedcitizensafterlearningoftheirplantoambushtheSpanish.WhentheconquistadoresreachedTenochtitlán onNovember8,1519,Moctezumadidnotattackthembutwelcomedthemwithopenarms.ItwasanopportunityforhimtotrytoappeasetheSpanishwhile sizinguptheirarmy.CortéswasalsoobservingMoctezuma’sfightingforceandgrewconcerned.Despitetheemperor’shospitality,Cortésresolvedtoseize Tenochtitlán.HeplacedMoctezumaunderhousearrestandmovedhimintotheroleofapuppetking.

CortésreceivedwordthattheCubangovernorhadsentaSpanishforcetoarresthimforinsubordination. Cortéswrotelettersdirectlytothekingaskingtobe acknowledgedforhissuccessesinsteadofbeingpunishedformutiny. LeavinghistoplieutenantPedrodeAlvaradoinchargeofTenochtitlán,Cortéstookmen toattacktheSpanishforcesfromCubaatthecoast.Cortés’smendefeatedthetroopsandtookthesurvivingSpanishsoldiersbackasreinforcements toTenochtitlán.InCortés’absence,AlvaradohadhundredsofAztecnobleskilledduringaceremonialfeast,leadingtofurtherunrestamongtheAztecpeople. TenochtitlánresidentsdemandedthattheSpanishberemovedfromthecity.WhenthedetainedMoctezumacouldnolongercontrolTenochtitlán’sresidents, theSpaniardseitherallowedhimtodieduringaskirmishin1520orkilledhim.

Paintingsite:Tenochtitlán,MéxicoCity(GPS19.433333°N,-99.133333°W)

LandAcknowledgment:Méxihcah(TripleAlliance)

TheAztecseventuallyrevoltedagainsttheSpanishbutcouldnotwithstandtheconquistadors’superiorweaponsandtactics.WhiletheSpanishhadaccessto gunpowderandsteel,theIndigenouspeoplearmouredthemselveswiththickclothandanimalhides.Theyfoughtwithmacuahuitl(obsidian-bladedclubs),bows, andspears,weaponsthatprovedineffectiveagainsttheconquistadors’metalarmourandshields.TheSpanishdeployedacavalrythatcouldchasedownretreating Aztecsoldiers,dogstrainedtotrackdownandencircleenemiesandhorsescapableoftramplingadversaries.Thesefactorsworkingagainstthem,theIndigenous peoplesoonfoundthemselvesthesubjectsofforeignersarguablyasmercilessastheAztecshadbeenbeforethem.Thefightingalmostdestroyedthecity,andthe Spanishbuiltanewcity,MéxicoCity,ontopoftheruinsofTenochtitlán.TheAztecpopulationwasdevastatedbyhighmortalityduetoasmallpoxepidemic, whichkilledmuchofitsleadership,althoughsomeresearchershavesuggestedthatsalmonellaweakenedtheAztecs.BecausesmallpoxhadbeenendemicinAsia andEuropeforcenturies,theSpanishhadacquiredimmunityandwerelittleaffectedbytheepidemic.Thecity,locatedinwhatisnowMéxicoCity,wasoneof theworld’slargestandmostpopulouscitiesatthetime,withapopulationestimatedtohost200,000and300,000residents.Atitspeak,itwasthelargestcityinthe pre-ColumbianAmericas.Today,theruinsofTenochtitlánareinthecentre.Itsubsequentlybecameacabecera(chiefcity)oftheViceroyaltyofNewSpain.The fallofTenochtitlánalsoprofoundlyimpactedtheregion’sindigenouspopulations,astheSpanishconquestbroughtaboutsignificantchangestotheirwayoflife andculture.TheWorldHeritageSiteofXochimilcocontainswhatremainsofthegeography(water,boats,floatinggardens)oftheMéxicacapital.

AztecBeliefs

AlthoughthetermAztecsisoftennarrowlyrestrictedtotheMéxicaofTenochtitlán,itisalsobroadlyusedtorefertoNahuapolitiesorpeoplesofthecentralera andtheSpanishcolonialperiod(1521–1821).Fromthe13thcentury,theValleyofMéxicowastheheartofthedensepopulationandtheriseofthecity-states’. TheMéxicawerelatecomerstotheValleyofMéxico.TheAztecEmpire,Mesoamerica’sdominantpowerinthe15thandearly16thcenturies,controlleda capitalcitythatwasoneofthelargestintheworld.Itzcoatl,namedleaderoftheAztec/Mexicapeoplein1427,negotiatedwhathasbecomeknownastheTriple Alliance—apowerfulpoliticalunionofthecity-statesofMéxico-Tenochtitlán,TetzcocoandTlacopán.Asthatalliancestrengthenedbetween1428and1430, itreinforcedtheleadershipoftheAztecs,makingthemthedominantNahuagroupinalandmassthatcoveredcentralMéxicoandextendedasfarasmodern-day Guatemala.Theyfoundedthecity-stateofTenochtitlánonunpromisingisletsinLakeTexcoco,laterbecomingthedominantpoweroftheAztecTripleAlliance orAztecEmpire.ItwasanempirethatexpandeditspoliticalhegemonyfarbeyondtheValleyofMéxico,city-statesthroughoutMesoamericainthelatepostclassicperiod.TheconquistadorsdescribedTenochtitlánasthegreatestcitytheyhadeverseen.Itwassituatedonahuman-madeislandinthemiddleofLake Texcoco.Fromitscentrallocation,TenochtitlánservedasahubforAztectradeandpolitics.Itfeaturedgardens,palaces,templesandraisedroadswithbridges connectingthecitytothemainland.Religioustributessometimestooktheformofhumansacrifices.WhiletheAztec’smonetaryandreligiousdemands empoweredtheempire,theyalsofosteredresentmentamongsurroundingcity-states.AndyetTenochtitlánwasconqueredbytheSpanishin1521—lessthantwo yearsafterHernándoCortésandSpanishconquistadorsfirstsetfootintheAzteccapitalonNovember8,1519.

TheAztecideaoftheafterlifeforfallensoldiersandwomenwhodiedinchildbirthwasthattheirsoulswouldbetransformedintohummingbirdsthatwould followthesunonitsjourneythroughthesky.Afterdeath,theAztecsbelievedthatsoulswenttooneofthreeplaces:Tlalocan,Mictlan,andtheSun.Those whodrownedwouldgotoTlalocan,thefirstleveloftheupperworld.SoulsofpeoplewhodiedfromlessgloriouscauseswouldgotoMictlan,thelowestlevel oftheunderworld,takingfouryearsandpassingthroughmanyobstaclestoreachthisplace.TheCihuateteo,spiritsofwomenwhodiedinchildbirth,were notbenevolent.OnfivespecifieddaysoftheAzteccalendar,theydescendedtoearthandhauntedcrossroads,hopingtostealchildrentheyhadnotbeenable tohave.The CantaresMexicanos isanessentialcollectionoflyricpoetrytranscribedfromNáhuatlintoRomanlettersaround1550CE,about30yearsafterthe fallofTenochtitlán.Inhis1985editionofthesepoems,JohnBierhorstinterpretsthemas“ghostsongs”intendedtosummonthespiritsofdeadAztecsoldiers backtoearthtohelptheirdescendantsunderSpanishrule.Ifthesongsweresuccessful,theghostswoulddescendfromheavenfullyarmedandreadytofight, demandingpaymentinhumansacrifice.

References

StefanRinke, ConquistadorenundAzteken:CortésunddieEroberungMexikos(ConquistadorsandAztecs:AHistoryoftheFallofTenochtitlán), 2019 MiguelLeón-Portilla(ed.), TheBrokenSpears:TheAztecAccountoftheConquestofMexico, 1959 CharlesGibson, TheAztecsUnderSpanishRule:AHistoryoftheIndiansoftheValleyofMexico,1519-1810, 1964

ThefirstsignificantgoldrushintheUnitedStateswasinCabarrusCounty,NorthCarolina(eastofCharlotte),in1799attoday’sReed’sGoldMine.Thirtyyears later,in1829,theGeorgiaGoldRushinthesouthernAppalachiansoccurred.ItwasfollowedbytheCaliforniaGoldRushof1848–55intheSierraNevada,which capturedthepopularimagination.TheCaliforniaGoldRushbeganonJanuary24,1848,whenJamesW.MarshallfoundgoldatSutter’sMillinColoma, California.There’sevidencethatsomeNativeAmericangroupsinCaliforniahadsomeknowledgeofgoldanditspropertiesbeforetheGoldRush.SomeNative Americanpeopleshadatraditionofusinggoldandotherpreciousmetalsintheirritualsandceremonies,andthesemetalswereoftenassociatedwithspiritualpower andsignificance.SomeNativeAmericantribesalsousedgoldasaformofcurrency,anditwastradedandexchangedforothergoodsandservices.TheMiwok peopleofCaliforniausedgoldinsomeoftheirtraditionalcrafts,andtheNisenanpeopleoftheSierraNevadaregionhadatraditionofgoldpanning.However, thescaleandintensityoftheGoldRushfarsurpassedanythingthatNativeAmericangroupshadpreviouslyexperienced,andmanyNativeAmericanswerenot interestedinseekinggold.Instead,theyweremoreconcernedwithprotectingtheirland,resources,andwayoflifefromtheinfluxofgoldseekers.TheGoldRush severelyaffectedNativeCaliforniansandacceleratedtheNativeAmericanpopulation’sdeclinefromdisease,starvation,andtheCaliforniagenocide.Whole indigenoussocietieswereattackedandpushedofftheirlandsbythegold-seekers,called“forty-niners”(referringto1849,thepeakyearforGoldRushimmigration).

SpainestablishedseveralmissionsinCaliforniabeginninginthelate18thcentury,andthesemissionsplayedanessentialroleinthecolonisationand developmentofthestate.However,theSpanishweremoreinterestedinestablishingapresenceinCaliforniatoprotecttheirterritoryfromBritainandRussia andconvertingtheindigenouspeoplestoCatholicismthaninminingforgold.However,Spain’scontroloverCaliforniawasrelativelylimitedandtenuous,and itwasnotuntiltheearly19thcenturythatSpainbegantoexertmorecontrolovertheregion. NotlongafterbuildingtheCastillodeSanJoaquintoprotectSan FranciscoBay,SpanishrelationswithBritainbegantodeteriorate.Thetensionsbetweenthetwocountrieseventuallyeruptedintoafull-scalewarin1797.

Russian,British,Prussian,andUSshipshuntedwhalesandseaottersalongthePacificcoast.ThearrivalofRussianfurtradersalongthecoastspurredthe Spanishtoestablishwhatwouldbecomeachainof21missionstobolsteritsclaimtoAltaCalifornia.Eventually,thischainofmissionswouldreachasfarnorth asSonoma. Spain’sruleoverCaliforniaofficiallyendedin1822whenMéxicodeclareditsindependencefromSpain.CaliforniabecameapartofMéxicoand remainedaMéxicanterritoryuntiltheUnitedStatesannexeditin1848followingtheMéxican-AmericanWar.

GoldwasdiscoveredinCaliforniaasearlyasMarch9,1842,atRanchoSanFrancisco,inthemountainsnorthofpresent-dayLosAngeles.Californiannative FranciscoLopezwassearchingforstrayhorsesandstoppedonthebankofasmallcreek(intoday’sPlaceritaCanyon),about3miles(4.8km)eastofpresent-day Newhall,California,andabout35miles(56km)northwestofL.A.Whilethehorsesgrazed,Lopezdugupsomewildonionsandfoundasmallgoldnuggetin therootsamongthebulbs.Helookedfurtherandfoundmoregold.Lopeztookthegoldtoauthorities,whoconfirmeditsworth.Lopezandothersbeganto searchforotherstreambedswithgolddepositsinthearea.Theyfoundseveralinthenortheasternforestwithinpresent-dayVenturaCounty.InNovember, someofthegoldwassenttotheUSMint,althoughotherwiseattractedlittlenotice.In1843,LopezfoundgoldinSanFelicianoCanyonnearhisfirstdiscovery. MéxicanminersfromSonoraworkedtheplacerdepositsuntil1846.MissionIndians(CaliforniaIndians)alsomademinorfindsofgoldinCaliforniabefore 1848.Thefriarsinstructedthemtokeeptheirlocationsecrettoavoidagoldrush.

PaintingSite:Sutter’sMill,California(GPS38.683333°N,-120.994444°W)

LandAcknowledgement:Nisenan;Miwok

ItisdifficulttosaypreciselyhowmanygoldprospectorstherewereduringtheCaliforniaGoldRush,asrecordsfromthisperiodareincomplete.Manypeople travelledtoCaliforniawithoutleavingaclearrecordoftheirarrival.However,itisestimatedthat300,000and500,000peopletravelledtoCaliforniainsearch ofgoldduringtheGoldRush.ThesuddeninfluxofgoldintothemoneysupplyreinvigoratedtheAmericaneconomy;thesuddenpopulationincreaseallowed CaliforniatogorapidlytostatehoodintheCompromiseof1850.Whilegoldminingprovedunprofitableformostdiggersandmineowners,somepeoplemade largefortunes,andmerchantsandtransportationfacilitiesmadesignificantprofits.Theresultingincreaseintheworld’sgoldsupplystimulatedglobaltradeand investment.DuringtheCaliforniaGoldRush,manypeopletravelledtothegoldfieldsbyvariousmeans.OutsideofCalifornia,thefirstarrivedfromOregon, theSandwichIslands(Hawai’i)andLatinAmericainlate1848.Oftheapproximately300,000peoplewhocametoCaliforniaduringtheGoldRush,half arrivedbysea,andhalfcameoverlandontheCaliforniaTrailandtheGilaRivertrail;forty-ninersoftenfacedsubstantialhardshipsonthetrip.Whilemost ofthenewlyarrivedwereAmericans,thegoldrushattractedthousandsfromLatinAmerica,Europe,AustraliaandChina.Chineseimmigrantsplayeda significantroleintheCaliforniaGoldRushandothergoldrushesintheAmericanWest.ManyChineseimmigrantswereattractedtotheWestbythepromise ofgoldandtheopportunitytostrikeitrich,andtheymadeupalargeportionofthepopulationofgoldrushtownsandcities.SanFranciscowascalled“Gold Mountain”byChineseimmigrantsbecauseitwasbelievedtobeaplacewhereonecouldstrikeitrichduringtheCaliforniaGoldRush.SanFranciscogrew fromasmallsettlementofabout200residentsin1846toaboomtownofabout36,000by1852.

Agricultureandranchingexpandedthroughoutthestatetomeettheneedsofthesettlers.SanFranciscogrewfromasmallsettlementofabout200residents in1846toaboomtownofabout36,000by1852.Somepeoplewalkedorrodeonhorseback,whileotherstookboatsorsailedaroundCapeHornandupthe PacificCoast.OneofthemostfamousroutestothegoldfieldswastheCaliforniaTrail,anetworkoftrailsthatledfromMissouriandotherpartsofthe MidwesttoCalifornia.ThousandsofgoldseekersusedtheCaliforniaTrail,whichfollowedvariousroutesthroughtheGreatBasinandtheSierraNevada mountains.InadditiontotheCaliforniaTrail,therewerealsoseveralotheroverlandroutestoCalifornia,includingtheSantaFeTrailandtheOregonTrail. ManygoldseekersalsotooksearoutestoCalifornia,eitherbysailingaroundCapeHornorbytakingaboattotheIsthmusofPanamaandcrossingtheisthmus bylandbeforetakingashiptoCaliforniaWhilegoldminingprovedunprofitableformostdiggersandmineowners,somepeoplemadelargefortunes,and merchantsandtransportationfacilitiesmadesignificantprofits.Theresultingincreaseintheworld’sgoldsupplystimulatedglobaltradeandinvestment. Historianshavewrittenextensivelyaboutthemassmigration,trade,colonisation,andenvironmentalhistoryassociatedwiththegoldrushes.TheGoldRush alsohadseveralunintendedconsequences,includingenvironmentaldegradation,conflictswithnativepeoples,andthecreationofboomtownsthatwereoften lawlessandchaotic.Manysilverrushesfollowedgoldrushes.Astransportationandinfrastructureimprove,thefocusmaychangefromgoldtosilvertobase metals.Inthisway,Leadville,Colorado,startedasaplacergolddiscovery,achievedfameasasilver-miningdistrict,andthenreliedonleadandzincinitslater days.Butte,Montana,beganminingplacergold,becameasilver-miningdistrict,andbecametheworld’slargestcopperproducer.Thegoldrushin1849 stimulatedworldwideinterestinprospectingforgoldandledtonewrushesinAustralia,SouthAfrica,WalesandScotland.Successivegoldrushesoccurredin westernNorthAmerica:FraserCanyon,theCariboodistrictandotherpartsofBritishColumbia,inNevada,intheRockyMountainsinColorado,Idaho, Montana,easternOregon,andwesternNewMexicoTerritoryandalongthelowerColoradoRiver.AgoldrushinNovaScotia(1861-1876)producednearly 210,000ounces.ResurrectionCreek,nearHope,Alaska,wasthesiteofAlaska’sfirstgoldrushinthemid–1890s.OthernotableAlaskaGoldRusheswere Nome,Fairbanks,andtheFortymileRiver.

References

H.W.Brands, TheAgeofGold:TheCaliforniaGoldRushandtheNewAmericanDream, 2002 AnthonyB.Chan, GoldMountain:TheChineseintheNewWorld, 1983

CaptivatingHistory, TheCaliforniaGoldRush:ACaptivatingGuidetoOneoftheMostSignificantEventsintheHistoryoftheUnited StatesofAmericaandItsImpactonNativeAmericanTribes, 2021

ícaro1007 JamestownColonyMassacre(1622) Williamsburg,Virginia

DeconstructingaMassacre

Theterm“massacre”byEuro-AmericanstodescribeattacksbyNativeAmericansthroughoutAmericanhistoryautomaticallyplacestheblameforsuch violenceonsavage,half-nakedinjunswhilerelinquishingGod-fearing,pious,hard-workingEuropeansorAmericansoftheirculpability.Accordingtothe standardnarrativeofAmericanhistorythatimpacteddecision-makingfrom1622onward,onlyonesideinthisgreatculturalencountercommitted “massacres.”Incontrast,theothermerelyrespondedwithviolenceoutofself-defence.So-calledjustifiablevengeancecontributedtoastill-prevalentviewby Americansthattheyonlyattackedotherpeoplewhenprovokedandwerealwaysreasonablewiththeirresponse.Sometropespersistoutofhabit,rerunsofold cowboymoviesorplayactingbychildrenrepeatingtheactionsofothers.Atropecanalsobecommonbutloadedwordsusedtodescribedifferentgroups,tribes vscongregations,warriors(whoengageinwar)vssoldiers(defendersorprotectors),ortallandlankyvsdiminutiveandeffete.Onecanstarttotakeapartthe lieofastorybyviewingtheactionsoftwoopposingpartiesovermanyyearstograspthecausesandeffectsbetter.SoitiswiththeJamestownMassacre(s),a settlercultureattemptingtoextinguishthelivesandmemoriesofothers,inordertobuildabetterworldforthemselves.

1607. AprivateventurefinancedbytheVirginiaCompanyofLondontolocategoldandsilverandtofindariverroutetotheOrientfortrade.Onehundredfour menandboyEnglishsettlersestablishedtheJamestowncolonyinVirginiaonthelandofthePowhatan(Paqwachowng) people.Livinginriversidetowns,the peopleofTsenacomococlearedlandforfarmingandusedtheforestsforhunting.ThelocalIndigenouspeoplewerewillingtotradeprovisionstotheJamestown colonistsformetaltools.WarfareanddiseasescausedthePowhatanpopulationtoplungetoafewthousandbythe1630s,andmanyvillageswereabandoned. At itsheightin1607,thePowhatanChiefdomhadapopulationofabout25,000andincluded32Algonquian-speakingtribes,eachwithitsown werowance (chief).The Powhatancalledtheirhomeland“Tsenacomoco.”

TheEnglisharrivedduringtheLittleIceAge,aclimaticperiodlastingfromabout1300to1750,whenworldwide temperaturescooledslightly,leadingtoextremeweatherthat,inturn,affectedthecolonisingventuresofEuropeansinAmericaandfoodsuppliesforIndigenous peoples.BoththeareasaroundRoanokeandJamestownweresufferingfrommillennialdroughtswhenthecolonistsarrived,demandingfoodfromlocalIndian populations.Beforetheirarrival,EuropeansassumedAmerica’sclimatewouldmatchthatoflandssituatedalongthesamelinesoflatitudeelsewhere.Instead,the NewWorldwasbothhotterandcolderthantheyexpected. WhentheEnglishfoundedtheVirginiacolonyatJamestown,itwasoneofthecoldestperiodsinthe lastthousandyears. Wahunsenacawh (sachemPowhatan)sentfoodgiftstohelptheEnglishwhodiedoffever,famine,war,andfoulwater.Newcolonistsarrived fromEnglandbyshipin1608;oneaccidentallyburneddownthecolony’slivingquarters,deepeningthecolonists’relianceonthePowhatanforfood.

1609. FirstAnglo-PowhatanWar(1609-1614). The millennialdrought contributedtoalowwatersupplyfortheEnglishmen,whohadunknowinglylocated theirfortinanecologicalzone(oligohaline)wheretheexchangebetweenfreshandsaltwaterisminimal. JamestownGovernorSmithsentraidingpartiesto demandprovisionsfromIndigenoussettlements.Theseraidingpartiesburneddownsettlementsthatrefusedtheirdemandsandfrequentlystoleprovisionsfrom alreadydepletedsupplies,leadingtoresentmenttowardsthecolonistsandprecipitatingconflict.TheIndigenouspeopleeventuallylaidsiegetotheJamestown fortforseveralmonths.Unabletosecureenoughprovisions,manycolonistsinJamestowndiedofstarvationduringthe“StarvingTime”(1609–1611).Byearly 1610,80-90%ofthecolonydiedofstarvationanddisease,leaving100outof500alive. Colderweathersuitsthe Anophelesquadrimaculatus,ormalariamosquito, whichtheEuropeansmayhavespreadamongtheIndigenouspopulationkillingscoresofpeople.

1610. ThenewgovernorofJamestown,ThomasGatesraidstheKecoughtan,agroupledbyoneof Wahunsenacawh’ssons.“GatesluredtheIndiansintothe openusingmusic-and-danceactbyhisdrummerandthenslaughteredthem.”TheEnglish,ledbySamuelArgall,capturedelevenyearoldAmonuteor Matoax,nicknamedPocahontas(playfuloneorwantonone),daughterof Wahunsenaca(sachemPowhatan),themamanatowick(paramountchief)ofthe PowhatanChiefdom,andheldherhostageforransom. Asayounggirl,Pocahontaswouldhavewornlittletonoclothingandhadherhairshavenexceptfora smallsectioninthebackthatwasgrownoutlongandusuallybraided.TheshavenpartswereprobablybristlymostofthetimeasthePowhatanIndiansused musselshellsforshaving.CaptainJohnSmith(whoisperhapsasfamousasPocahontas)wascapturedbyPowhatan’sbrotherOpechancanough.The English “demandedthatallsevenEnglishcaptivesheldbyPowhatanbereleased,returnallEnglishtoolsandweaponstakenbyhiswarriors,andagreeuponalasting peace.” Duringhiscapture, Wahunsenacawh toldSmithhewaspartofthetribe.Inreturnfor“twogreatgunsandagrindstone,” Wahunsenacawh wouldgive SmithCapahowasick(ontheYorkRiver),and“foreveresteemhimashissonNantaquoud.”SmithwasthenallowedtoleaveWerowocomoco,Powhatan’s chieflyresidence.

PaintingSite:Williamsburg,VirginiaGPS(37.209167°N,-76.7775°W)

LandAcknowledgement:Kiskiack

1612. JohnRolfeintroducedanewtobaccospeciesthatbecameasuccessfulcrop.Jamestown’sone-croptobaccoeconomyquicklydegradedthelandand requirednewland,leadingtoconstantexpansionandseizureofPowhatanlands.RolfemarriesPocahontas,andpeaceprevailsuntil1622. Pocahontasbecame illanddiedinGravesend,Englandin1617whileonapromotionofJamestownwithRolfe. Importeddiseasessuchasmeaslesandsmallpoxhadkilled Powhatansbythedozensinthe1610sandplacedstressontheirtraditionalculturewhenconventionalhealingmethodscouldnotpreventdeath. Wahunsenacawh diesin1618andleadershippassesontohisbrotherOpechancanough.

1619. ThearrivalofthefirstenslavedAfricansbyshipbyPortugueseenslavers,whowereputtoworkinthetobaccofields.Colonyexpansionwith100women broughtfromEnglandtostartfamiliestoincreasethecolonialpopulation.

1620. VirginiaCompanyofficials,especiallyGeorgeThorpe,beganpressuringthePowhatanstosendsomeoftheirchildrentobe“civilised”amongthe colonists,arequestthePowhatansfoundintolerable.Tobaccoleachednutrientsoutofunfertilisedsoilinjustafewyears,requiringfarmerstoconstantlyacquire andtillnewlands.TheVirginiacolonistssuddenlybecameland-hungrybecauseoftheirsuccesssellingtobaccoinEngland,puttingincreasingpressureonthe Powhatanstosellorgiveuptheirland.IntheopinionoftheEnglish,so-calledemptyorunfarmedlandshouldbeconvertedtoagriculturaluses.Incontrast, thePowhatansviewedwoodedandunoccupiedareasaroundtheirvillagesascrucialhuntingareasandbufferedzonesbetweenvillages.

1622. SecondAnglo-PowhatanWar(1622-1632).RelationsbetweenthesettlersandthePowhatanwerestrained,andtensionsfinallyboiledoverintoviolence. TiredofEnglishexpansion,Opechancanoughlaunchedacampaignofsurpriseattacksonatleast31separateEnglishsettlementsandplantations,mainlyalong theJamesRiver.Twoweeksbeforethe1622attack,EnglishsettlerskilledaleadingPowhatanwarriorandshamannamedNemattanew,providingthesparkneeded toinflameanincreasinglytensesituation.350-400ofthe1,200settlersatJamestownwerekilledbythePowhatan.Thinkingtheywouldleave,Opechancanough withdrew.TheEnglishdon’tleave,andencroachmentsonPowhatanlandacceleratedwiththearrivalofmoreimmigrants.Acquiringlandbyrightofconquest hadguidedEuropeanrelationswithIndianssinceColumbusfirstencounteredtheAmericas.Still,theaftermathofthe1622attackwasthefirsttimetheEnglish employedthenotioninNorthAmerica.

1623. PlansweremadewiththePowhatantonegotiatepeaceandreleasethecaptivewomen.CaptainTuckerandagroupofmusketeersmetwithmembersofa PowhatanvillagealongthePotomacRiver.Inpreparationfortheevent,DrJohnPottspreparedpoisonedwine.CaptainTuckerandothersofferedceremonial toasts,and200Powhatansdiedafterdrinkingthewine.Another50peoplewerekilled.ThePowhatansachemOpechancanoughescaped,butseveraltriballeaders werekilled.TheEnglishthenattackedandburneddownPowhatanvillages.Thecolonistsralliedaroundthememoryofthe1622massacretojustifyseizing Powhatanlandforthenexttenyears.OpenwarfarelastedtenyearsinVirginiabeforeanuneasytrucekeptthepeaceforoveradecade.Aftertenyearsoffighting, apeaceaccordwiththePowhatanwasreached.

1644. ThirdAnglo-PowhatanWar(1644-1646).ThePowhatans,stillundertheleadershipofthenowelderlysachemOpechancanough,attackedagain,killing over400Englishcolonists.AnotherattackbyPowhatankilled350-400ofthe8,000settlers.

1646. TheThirdwarendedwithintwoyears.PowhatansachemOpechancanough,now100yearold,wascapturedandmurderedinaJamestownjailcell,and thePowhatanchiefdomended.HissuccessorsignedtreatieswhichmadePowhatanEnglishsubjectsandpayanannualtributetotheEnglishking.

1675. GreatSwampMassacreofNarragansettpeopleduringKingPhilip’sWarbetweentheEnglishcolonistsandNativeAmericanpeopleinNewEngland. SeveralWampanoagmenattackedandkilledcolonistsinSwansea,Massachusetts,onJune20,1675,whichbeganKingPhilip’sWar.AlthoughtheNarragansett wereneutral,outoffeartheywouldjointheWampanoag,theEnglishcolonistsgatheredalargeforceandmarchedagainsttheNarragansett,layingsiegetotheir fortinSouthKingstown,RhodeIsland.Afterabrutalbattle,theEnglishforceof1,000colonialmilitiaand150Indigenoussoldieralliescapturedandburned thefort,killing100Narragansettsoldiersand1,000Narragansettpeople,includingwomenandchildren,duringthecoldestwinterinyears.

References

RoxanneDunbar-Ortiz, AnIndigenousPeoples’HistoryoftheUnitedStates, 2014 HelenC.Rountree, ThePowhatanIndiansofVirginia:TheirTraditionalCulture, 2013 BrianFagan, TheLittleIceAge:HowClimateMadeHistory,1300–1850, 2000 KarenOrdahlKupperman, TheJamestownProject, 2007

TheDakota38hangingsrefertotheexecutionof38DakotaNativeAmericanprisonersbyhangingonDecember26,1862,inMankato,Minnesota,following theUS-DakotaWarof1862.ItwasthelargestmassexecutioninUnitedStateshistory.TheDakotaWarof1862wasabriefconflictlastingonlyfiveweeks betweentheDakotapeople,WhitesettlersandtheUnitedStatesgovernmentinMinnesota.Thedisputearoseduetolong-standingtensionsbetweenthe Dakotaandthegovernment,includinglandrights,treatyviolations,andthetreatmentoftheDakotapeoplebyWhitesettlers.Theconflictresultedinthe deathsofhundredsofpeople,includingmanyDakotaandWhitesettlers.Viewedinalargerhistoricalcontext,theDakotaWarwaspartofaseriesofconflicts calledtheAmericanIndianWars.Thesecaused,togetherwithstarvationanddisease,amassivedecimationoftheIndianpopulationacrosstheUnitedStates. Until1894,mostpublishedaccountsofthewarweretoldfromthepointofviewofEuro-Americansettlersandsoldierswhohadtakenpartinthewarand,to alesserextent,thewomenwhohadbeentakencaptive.Manyofthesefirst-personnarrativesfocusedonEuro-Americanvictims’accountsofatrocities committedduringthewar.

OnSeptember23,federalforcesdefeatedtheDakotaattheBattleofWoodLakeinYellowMedicineCounty.Threedayslater,theDakotasurrendered, releasingnearly300captives.TheDakotawhosurrenderedwerehelduntilmilitarytrialscouldtakeplacethatNovember.HundredsofDakotawereheldat CampReleasenearMontevideo.TheUnitedStatesgovernmentarrestedhundredsofDakotamenandchargedthemwithvariouscrimes,includingmurder, rape,androbbery.Ofthe498trialsheld,morethan300menweresentencedtodeathforcrimesrangingfromrapetomurder.Thedefendantswerenotallowed legalrepresentation,andthetrialsthemselveswerebrief,withsomelastinglessthanfiveminutes.ThehangingswerecarriedoutonordersofPresident AbrahamLincoln,whohadreviewedthecasesandconfirmedthedeathsentences,eventuallycommutingthesentencesof264ofthemen,leaving38tobe executed.Theexecutionwaspublic,onasquareplatformdesignedtodropfromunderthecondemned.Thegallowswerebuiltoutsidethesquarewithten noosesperside.A2,000-manmilitaryguardwasdictatedbythenumbersofangryMinnesotansettlersencampedatMankatoforthehangingsandtheconcern aboutwhattheywantedtodototheprisonersnotbeinghanged.Aftertheregimentalsurgeonspronouncedthemendead,theywereburiedenmasseinan unfrozensandbaroftheMinnesotaRiver.

PaintingSite:Mankato,MinnesotaGPS(44.1750°N,-93.9953°W)

Landacknowledgement:OčhéthiŠakówiŋ;Wahpeton;Wahpekute

TheDakota38werehungfornothingmorethandefendingourlandandpeople.It wasatragedyandastainonAmericanhistory.Theywerenotgivenafairtrial,they werejudgedguiltybeforetheyevensteppedintothecourtroom.

—ChiefLittleCrow(Taoyateduta)

Becauseofthehighdemandforcadaversforanatomicalstudy,severaldoctorswantedtoobtainthebodiesaftertheexecution.Despitehavingalargeguard forcepostedatthegravesite,allthebodieswereexhumedandtakenawaythefirstnight,andthebodiesweredistributedamongthedoctors,acommonpractice intheera.Inthelate20thcentury,theidentifiableremainsofMaȟpiyaAkanNažiŋandotherDakotawerereturnedbytheMayoClinictoaDakotatribefor reburialpertheNativeAmericanGravesProtectionandRepatriationAct.TheMayoCliniccreatedascholarshipforaNativeAmericanstudentasanapology forhavingmisusedthechief’sbody.

TheremainingconvictedDakotawereheldinprisonthatwinter.Theirfamilies,nearly1600Dakotawomen,childrenandelderly,wereheldduringthewinter of1862-63onPikeIsland,notfarfromtheBdoteandwithinsightofFortSnelling.Thefollowingspring,theprisonersweretransferredtoCampMcClellan inDavenport,Iowa,wheretheywereimprisonedfrom1863to1866.Bytheirrelease,one-thirdoftheprisonershaddiedofdisease.InApril1863,Minnesota voideditstreatieswiththeDakotaandsentthoselivinginthecampstoSanteeSiouxReservationinNebraska.Diseasequicklyspread,killinghundredsinthe camp.Duringtheirincarceration,theDakotacontinuedtostrugglefortheirrightfulcompensationofthelandscededbythetreatyandtheirfreedom,even enlistingthehelpofsympatheticcampguardsandsettlerstoassist.

InApril1864,theimprisonedDakotahelpedpayformissionaryThomasWilliamson’striptoWashington,DC,toargueinfavouroftheprisoners’release.He receivedareceptiveaudiencefromPresidentLincoln.Still,onlyafewDakotawerereleased,partiallyduetoaprovisoLincolnhadmadewithMinnesota membersofCongresswhocontinuedtorefuseclemency.PresidentAndrewJohnsonreleasedtheremainingDakotatwoyearslater,inApril1866.Theyand theirfamilieswerethenforciblyexiledtotheCrowCreekReservationinSouthDakota.CongresspassedlegislationmakingitillegalfortheDakotatolivein Minnesota.Itremainsalawtothisday.

TheDakota38hangingsandtheDakotaWarhavebeenwidelycondemnedasagraveinjustice.OnAugust16,2012,MinnesotaGovernorMarkDaytonissued aproclamationcallingforaDayofRemembranceandReconciliationforthe150thanniversaryoftheDakotaWarandalsorepudiatingGovernorAlexander Ramsey’scallsfortheDakotapeopletobeeitherexterminatedordrivenfromthestatewhenheaddressedtheMinnesotastatelegislatureinSeptember1862; flagswerealsoorderedtobeflownathalf-staffstatewide.Daytondeclared,amongotherthings,that“Theviciousnessandviolence,whichwerecommonplace 150yearsagoinMinnesota,arenotacceptedorallowednow.”

References

ScottW.Berg, 38Nooses:Lincoln,LittleCrow,andtheBeginningoftheFrontier'sEnd, 2013 KennethCarley, TheDakotaWarof1862:Minnesota'sOtherCivilWar, 2001

Idonotapprovethesentence,butIcannotoverturnit.Thelawsmusttaketheircourse.Itishard forme,asitwouldbeforanyman,tosentencementodeath,butitismydutytodoso.

—AbrahamLincoln

—RussellShorto, TheIslandattheCenteroftheWorld:TheEpicStoryofDutchManhattan andtheForgottenColonyThatShapedAmerica, 2004

LenapehokingistheLenapenamefortheLenapehomeland,whichspansfromWesternConnecticuttoEasternPennsylvaniaandtheHudsonValleyto Delaware,withNewYorkCityatitscentre.NativeAmericannationsinwhatisnowManhattan,NewYork,sufferedgreatlyduetocolonisationandtheactions ofEuropeansettlers.TheLenape,agroupofNativeAmericannationsthatlivedintheregion,wereforciblydisplaced.ThetreatmentofNativeAmerican nations,includingtheLenape,byEuropeancolonisersandlatertheUnitedStatesgovernmentisasadandpainfulpartofourhistory.Inthelate16thandearly 17thcenturies,DutchsettlersarrivedintheareaandestablishedNewAmsterdamonthesoutherntipof Manahatta Island.Awall,whichstartedshowingup onmapsinthe1660s,wasbuilttokeepouttheNativeAmericansandtheBritish.IteventuallybecameWallStreet,andManahattabecameManhattan,where partoftheLenapetraderoute,knownas Wickquasgeck,became Bredeweg,laterBroadway.

EuropeansnegotiatedtreatieswiththeLenapetopurchaseland,butthesettlersoftenviolatedthemandtookovermorelandthantheyhadagreed.PeterMinuit wasamerchantfromBelgium,theDirectoroftheDutchNorthAmericancolonyofNewNetherland,and3rdGovernorofNewNetherland.Hefoundedthe SwedishcolonyofNewSwedenontheDelawarePeninsulain1638.MinuitisgenerallycreditedwithorchestratingthepurchaseofManahattaIslandforthe DutchEastIndiaCompanyfromtheLenapeIndians.ManhattanlaterbecamethesiteoftheDutchcityofAmsterdamandtheboroughofManhattanof modern-dayNewYorkCity.OneaccountsaysthatMinuitpurchasedManhattanfor$24worthoftrinkets.AletterwrittenbyDutchmerchantPeterSchaghen todirectorsoftheDutchEastIndiaCompanystatedthatManhattanwaspurchasedfor“60guildersworthoftrade”,anamountworthabout$1,000US dollarsasof2020.AccordingtoresearchersattheNationalLibraryoftheNetherlands,“Theoriginalinhabitantsoftheareawereunfamiliarwiththe Europeannotionsanddefinitionsofownershiprights.FortheIndians,water,air,andlandcouldnotbetraded.Suchexchangeswouldalsobedifficultin practicaltermsbecausemanygroupsmigratedbetweentheirsummerandwinterquarters.Itcanbeconcludedthatbothpartiesprobablywenthomewith totallydifferentinterpretationsofthesalesagreement.”TheLenapelikelyviewedthe“sale”ofManhattanasadealtosharetheland,butnottosellit.The Dutch,however,vieweditasapropersale.TheywantedtheIndigenouspeopletoleavewhattheyconsideredas“their”land.Lettersandnotesfromthetime documenttheDutchfrustrationwiththeIndigenouswhowouldnotleave,includingonecomplaintloggedfromaNewAmsterdamcouncilmeetingonMay 25,1660,that“thesavageswouldnotremovefromthelandthattheyhadbought”towhichtheIndigenousrespondedthattheyhadonlysoldthegrassonthe land,notthelanditself.TheLenapealsosufferedfromintroduceddiseases,suchassmallpox,whichdevastatedtheirpopulation.AstheBritishtookcontrolof theareainthemid-1700s,theLenapewerepushedoutofManhattanandforcedtorelocatetootherpartsofthecountry.ManywerekilledastheDutch,and laterBritishcoloniserstookovertheland,scatteringtheLenapeNationtopresent-daylocations,includingtwoinOklahomaandtwoinCanadian communities.SomeLenapetodayareworkingtobringtheirheritagebacktothecity,startingwithManhattan-basedLenapeCenter,co-foundedbyCurtis ZunighaandHadrienCoumans,whosemissionistopromoteNativeAmericanartsandhumanities,environmentalstewardshipandLenapeidentity.

PaintingSite:LowerManhattan(GPS40.7077°N,74.0132°W)

LandAcknowledgement:Wappinger;MunseeLenape;Schaghticoke

TheDutchpurchaseofManhattanfromtheLenapein1626wasacomplexandcontested event,reflectingthedifferentperspectivesandunderstandingsoflandandpropertyheldbythe DutchsettlersandtheLenapepeople.

—PaulChaatSmith,associatecurator,NationalMuseumoftheAmericanIndian

Inthe1830sand1840s,initiallyattheinsistenceofPresidentAndrewJacksonandfollowedthroughbyhishand-pickedsuccessorPresidentMartinVanBuren, theUnitedStatesgovernmentforciblyremovedtheFiveCivilizedTribesfromtheirhomesinMississippi,Alabama,Tennessee,NorthCarolina,Georgia,and FloridatoIndianTerritorywestoftheMississippiRiver.TheirremovalopenedthelandstoWhitesettlersandplantationowners.

BlackenslavementinAmericausuallyevokesimagesoftheantebellumSouth.But,membersoftheFiveCivilizedTribes,theCherokees(Tsitsistas),Choctaws, Chickasaws,Creeks,andSeminolesinIndianTerritory,today’sOklahoma,alsoenslavedpeople.WhentheymovedtoIndianTerritory,thenationstookwiththem establishedsystemsofslavery.TheUSencouragedslaveryamongthenationinthesoutheasternUnitedStatestoaccomplishtwogoals.Onewasto“breedout”the nativepopulationbymixingthemwithWhitesettlersandadoptingchattelslavery.Culturalassimilationeffortswouldlatertaketheformofforcefullysending Indigenouschildrenintoboardingschools.AnothergoalwastokeepNativeAmericansfromprotectingenslavedBlackpeoplewhoranawayfromWhiteplantations. Earlyon,colonistsattemptedtoenslaveIndigenouspeoplethemselves.Thiswasmetwithmanydifficulties,amajoronebeingthatdiseaseslikesmallpoxkilledmany Indigenouspeople.Additionally,giventhattheIndigenouswereontheirlandandknewitbetterthanthecolonists,escapewasfareasierforthem.

SlaveryamongNativeAmericannationswasgenerallynotthesameaschattelslaveryintheUnitedStatesandotherpartsoftheAmericas.Nativeenslaved AmericansgenerallyhadmorefreedomandautonomythanenslavedAfricans,andsomeeventuallyearnedtheirfreedom.However,thesystemofslavery amongNativeAmericannationswasstillaformofexploitationandoppression,profoundlyimpactingthelivesofthoseheldinbondage.TheCheyenne,who livedintheGreatPlainsregion,acquiredenslavedpeoplethroughraidingandtradeandownedNativeAmericansandenslavedEuropeans.Enslavedpeople amongtheCheyennehadarangeofresponsibilities,includingperformingdomestictasksandparticipatinginagriculturalwork.Someenslavedpeoplewere alsoforcedtoparticipateinwarfare.Mixed-bloodNativeAmericans,theoffspringofWhitetradersandfrontiersmenwhomarriedNativeAmericanwomen, werethenation'sprincipalslaveholders,mainlybecausetheirfathershadtaughtthemtheeconomicsofslavery.Thosemixed-bloodNativeAmericans remainednationmembersandbecamenecessaryintermediariesbetweenWhitesettlersandIndigenouscommunities.ManyCherokeesalsodependedon enslavedBlackpeopleasabridgetoWhitesociety.Full-bloodNativeAmericanenslaversreliedonenslavedAfricansasEnglishinterpretersandtranslators. SomeNativeAmericanenslaverswereasharshandcruelasanyWhiteenslaver.Certainnationswereoftenhiredtocatchrunawayslaves;slave-catchingwas alucrativewayoflifeforsomeNativeAmericans,especiallytheChickasaws.TheChickasawNation,wholivednorthoftheNatchez,wasfrequentlyvisited byCaroliniantraders,thusgivingthemaccesstoasourceoffirearmsandalcohol.OneofthemostlucrativetradestheyhadwithCarolinianmerchants involvedtradinginenslavedIndians.Fordecades,theChickasawconductedslaveraidsoverabroadAmericanSoutheastregion,oftenjoinedbyalliedNatchez andYazoosoldiers.Theseraidingpartiestravelledlongdistancestoenslavepeoplefromhostilenations.LiketheircounterpartsintheSouth,NativeAmerican slaveholdersfearedslaverevolts.Thosefearscametruein1842whenenslavedpeopleintheCherokeeNationmadeadaringdashforfreedom.OnNovember 15,1842,morethantwenty-fiveenslavedpeople,mostfromVann’splantationattheArkansasRiverportofWebbersFalls,Oklahoma,rendezvousedata prearrangedlocationneartheporttown.Blackslockedtheirmastersandoverseersintheirhousesandcabinswhiletheyslept.Thentheyburglarisedastore, stealingguns,horses,mules,ammunition,food,andsupplies.Atdaylight,thegroup,whichincludedmen,women,andchildren,headedtowardMéxico,where slaveryhadbeenabolishedin1829,andmanyrunawayslavessoughtrefuge.WhenthefugitivesenteredtheCreekNationsouthwestofWebbersFalls,enslaved peoplefromtheplantationsofwealthyCreeksjoinedthem,increasingthenumberofrunawaystomorethanthirty-five.

PaintingSite:WebbersFalls,MuskogeeCounty,Oklahoma(GPS35.51°N,-95.146667°W)

LandAcknowledgement:(Osage);O-ga-xpaMa-zhoⁿ (O-ga-xpa)(Quapaw);Cherokee(Oklahoma);OčhéthiŠakówiŋ; Caddo;Kiikaapoi(Kickapoo)

TheFiveCivilizedTribesweredeeplycommittedtoslavery,establishedtheirownracialised blackcodes,immediatelyreestablishedslaverywhentheyarrivedinIndianterritory,rebuilt theirnationswithslavelabour,crushedslaverebellions,andenthusiasticallysidedwiththe ConfederacyintheCivilWar.

ThefugitivesencounteredtwoslavecatcherstakingafamilyofeightslavecaptivesbacktotheChoctawNation.Thefugitiveskilledthehuntersandallowed thefamilytojointheirparty.AlthoughanIndianpartyhadcapturedandkilledsomeenslavedpeoplenearthebeginningoftheirflight,theCherokeesought reinforcements.Theyraisedapartyofmorethan100Choctawsoldiersarmedtopursueandcapturethefugitives.Fiveenslavedpeoplewerelaterexecuted forkillingthetwoslavecatchers.Intheaftermathofthisescape,theCherokeeNationpassedstricterslavecodes,expelledBlackfreedmenfromtheterritory, andestablisheda‘rescue’(slave-catching)companytopreventadditionallosses.

Slaverevoltswerecommon,asenslavedpeopleoftenresistedtheiroppressionandsoughtfreedomthroughanymeansnecessary.Manyslaverevoltstookplace onindividualplantationsorfarms,whileothersweremoreorganisedandinvolvedlargergroupsofenslavedpeople.Oneofthemostwell-knownenslaved peoplesrevoltsintheWesternHemispherewastheHaitianRevolution,whichbeganin1791andeventuallyledtotheestablishmentoftheindependentnation ofHaiti.TheHaitianRevolutionwasledbyToussaintL’OuvertureandotherenslavedpeoplewhofoughtagainsttheirFrenchcolonisersandwontheir freedom.NotableslaverevoltsintheUnitedStatesincludetheNatTurnerRebellionof1831,whichtookplaceinVirginiaandwasledbyNatTurner,an enslavedBaptistpreacher,andtheGabrielProsserRebellionof1800,whichwasanunsuccessfulattempttoorganisealarge-scalerebellioninVirginia.Many smaller-scalerevoltsandactsofresistance,suchassabotageandescapeattempts,tookplacethroughoutthehistoryofslaveryintheUnitedStates.The historicalrecordofrebellionswasfrequentlycloudedbyexaggeration,censorship,anddistortion.Estimatesofthetotalnumberofenslavedpeoplesrevolts varyaccordingtothedefinitionofinsurrection.ForthetwocenturiesprecedingtheCivilWar,thereisdocumentaryevidenceofmorethan250uprisingsor attempteduprisingsinvolvingtenormoreenslavedpeoplewhoseaimwaspersonalfreedom.

ChattelSlavery

Thelegalinstitutionofhumanchattel(personalproperty),comprisingtheenslavementprimarilyofAfricansandAfricanAmericans,wasprevalentinthe UnitedStatesofAmericafromitsfoundingin1776until1865,predominantlyintheSouth.Slaverywasestablishedthroughoutcolonisation.From1526, duringearlycolonialdays,itwaspractisedinwhatbecameBritain’scolonies,includingtheThirteenColoniesthatformedtheUnitedStates.Underthelaw, anenslavedpersonwastreatedaspropertythatcouldbebought,sold,orgivenaway.SlaverylastedinabouthalfoftheUSstatesuntilabolition.

ChattelslaverywasacentralinstitutionintheUnitedStatesandplayedavitalroleinthecountry’seconomicdevelopment.Itwasnotabolisheduntiltheend oftheAmericanCivilWar(1861–65),whenthe13thAmendmenttotheConstitutionwasratified,whichdeclaredthat“neitherslaverynorinvoluntary servitude,exceptasapunishmentforthecrimeofwhomthepartyshallhavebeendulyconvicted,shallexistwithintheUnitedStates.”IntheUnitedStates, themythofthecontentedslavewasessentialtopreservingthis“peculiarinstitution,”aeuphemistictermthatWhitesouthernersusedforslavery.Inthedecades aftertheendofReconstruction,manyofslavery’seconomicandsocialfunctionswerecontinuedthroughstateJimCrowLawsdecreeingsegregation, sharecropping,andconvictleasing.ThelegacyofchattelslaverycontinuestohaveaprofoundimpactontheUnitedStatestoday,anditisanimportantand tragicpartofthecountry’shistory.

References TiyaMiles, TiesthatBind:TheStoryofanAfro-CherokeeFamilyinSlaveryandFreedom, 2005 EdwardE.Baptist, TheHalfHasNeverBeenTold,SlaveryandtheMakingofAmericanCapitalism, 2016 JoshuaRothman, FlushTimesandFeverDreams:AStoryofCapitalismandSlaveryintheAgeofJackson, 2012

AhelpfulthingaboutrecountingthestoriesofIndigenousarmedresistancetocolonialismisthatithelpsbalancethemanyuntruthfulaccountsofhow IndigenouspeoplesjustdisappearedbecauseofplaguesofdiseasesbornebyEuropeansthatwipedouttheIndigenouspopulation.Theydidnotjustdisappear normarchoffintooblivion.Instead,theyresistedtheinvasionoftheirlands,whichthecolonistsfoundamenabletosettlement,butonlyaftercenturiesofland managementbyIndigenouspeoples.TheGreatSwampMassacreof1675wasaconflictintheGreatSwampinpresent-daySouthKingstown,RhodeIsland. ThebattlewaspartofthelargerKingPhilip’sWar,aseriesofviolentclashesbetweenNativeAmericannationsandEnglishcolonistsinNewEngland.The warwasfoughtfrom1675to1678andisnamedforMetacom,theWampanoagchief(sachem),whoadoptedthenamePhilipbecauseofthefriendlyrelations betweenhisfather,Massasoit,theWampanoagsachem,whohadformedatreatyoffriendshipwiththeMayflowerPilgrims,Englishcolonistsintheearly1600s. ThePokanokethadhelpedtheoriginalpilgrimsettlerssurviveunderMassasoit’sleadership.KingPhilipinheritedtheleadershipoftheWampanoagtribefrom hisfatherandbecameknownasastrongandcapableleader.However,hewasalsodeeplyunhappywithhowthePuritancoloniststreatedtheNativeAmerican nationsintheregion.TheywereencroachingonWampanoagterritoryandinterferinginIndigenousaffairs.Philipbeganlayingplanstoattackthecolonists inMassachusetts,RhodeIsland,andConnecticut,slowlybuildingacoalitionofneighbouringIndigenousnations.Healsogatheredmusketsandgunpowder fortheeventualattack,butonlyinsmallnumberssothatthecolonistswouldnotbealarmed.SeveralWampanoagmenattackedandkilledcolonistsinSwansea, Massachusetts,onJune20,1675,whichbeganKingPhilip’sWar.TheNativenationslaidsiegetothetown,thendestroyeditfivedayslaterandkilledseveral morepeople.OfficialsfromthePlymouthandMassachusettsBaycoloniesrespondedquicklytotheattacksonSwansea;onJune28,theysentapunitivemilitary expeditionwhichdestroyedtheWampanoagtownatMountHopeinBristol,RhodeIsland.

ThecolonyofRhodeIslandandProvidencePlantations,ledbyRogerWilliamsandJohnEastonandseveralprominentRhodeIslanders,wasoutsideofthe Puritanconfederationbecauseofreligiousdifferences,whichmadethemhereticsintheeyesoftheotherEnglishcoloniesbutworkedassiduouslytopreserve peacebetweentheNarragansett'sandthePuritanpowers.TheNarragansettsremainedofficiallyneutralinthewardueinparttotheurgingofRogerWilliams signinganeutralitytreatywiththeMassachusettsBayColonyinOctoberof1675.TheNarragansettsatthistimewerethemostnumerousandpowerful confederationofIndigenousnationsinSoutheastNewEngland.TheyhadalsobeenengagedliketheWampanoaginastruggletomaintaintheirindependence fromanaggressiveandexpandingPuritanconfederationthatsawthemasasignificantthreat.Althoughnotinvolvedinthewar,theyhadshelteredmanyof KingPhilip’smen,women,andchildren,andseveraloftheirwarriorshadparticipatedinIndianraidingparties.Still,warwasdeclaredagainstthe NarragansettsbythePuritancoloniststwiceinthemid-1600sandonlynarrowlyavertedthanksmainlytoWilliams’sefforts.RhodeIslandremainedatpeace withlocalIndigenouspeoples.ThePuritancolonistsdistrustedtheNarragansettsandfearedthatthenationwouldjoinKingPhilip’scause,whichcausedgreat concernduetothenation’slocation.ThemilitiaburnedseveralabandonedNarragansettvillagesastheymarchedsoutharoundNarragansettBay.The NarragansettshadretreatedtoalargefortinthecentreoftheGreatSwampnearKingston,RhodeIsland,intheheartoftheNarragansettNation.The Narragansettssawswampsasidealdefensivelocationsinwartime,leadingthemtoresideintheGreatSwampduringtheconflict.

Thewar’smostsignificantbattleoccurredinRhodeIslandonthebitterlycoldandstormydayofDecember19,1675,whenaforceofMassachusettsBay, Connecticut,andPlymouthmilitiainvadedanddestroyedthefortifiedNarragansettvillage.ThePuritanArmyconsistedof1,000menfromthreeEnglish coloniesand150-200MohegansandPequots,traditionaladversariesoftheNarragansetts.Thevillagewasalargepalisadedfortofabout5acres(20,000m2). SeveralparticipantssaiditwasthelargestIndianforttheyhadeverseen.ThelowtemperaturesfrozethenaturalmoatsurroundingtheNarragansett encampment,allowingthecolonialtroopstopasseasily.

PaintingSite:GreatSwampinSouthKingston,RhodeIsland(GPS41.468611°N,-71.595556°W)

LandAcknowledgement:Nahaganset

Wewilldietothelastman,butwewillnotbeslavestotheEnglish.

—Canonchet,Narragansettsachem

Thebattlehasbeendescribedas“oneofthemostbrutalandlopsidedmilitaryencountersinNewEngland’shistory”anestimated1000Narragansetts wereinsidethefort.300-600werekilledinthebattle,withhalfoldermen,women,andchildren;mostwerekilledwhenthePuritanssetthefortalight. ManyNarragansettsoldiersandtheirfamiliesescapedintothefrozenswamp;hundredsdiedfromwoundscombinedwiththeharshconditions.Eighty soldiersandofficersoftheColonialmilitiadiedofwoundsorfrostbite.120-150woundedmilitiawereshippedofftoNewportonAquidneckIslandto recover,caredforbytheRhodeIslanders.

Inthespringof1676,bandsofIndigenousnations,Narragansettsincluded,burneddowneverydwellinginWickford,Warwick,andProvidenceinacounteroffensivebyCanonchet,NarragansettsachemandtheleaderofNativeAmericantroopsduringtheGreatSwampFightandKingPhilip’sWarafterhe organisedaconfederationof2000Indigenoussoldiers.MostWhiteRhodeIslandersthensoughtrefugeonAquidneckIslandinPortsmouth(formerlyPocasset) andNewport.Providencewasburned,includingRogerWilliam’shouse.TheNarragansettswerenearlydefeatedwhenCanonchetwassurprisedandcaptured inNarragansettterritoryonApril2,1676.HislifewasofferedhimonconditionofmakingpeacewiththeEnglish,buthespurnedtheproposition.When informedthathewouldbeputtodeath,hesaid:“Ilikeitwell.IshalldiebeforemyheartissoftandbeforeIhavespokenawordunworthyofmyself.”Heasked tobeexecutedbytheMohegansachemUncassinceheconsideredUncastobe“hisfellowPrince.”Instead,hewasexecutedbytheMohegansachemOneco, thePequotwarriorRobinCassacinamon,andtheNianticsachemHarmanGarrett(orhisson).HisheadwassenttocolonialleadersinHartford,Connecticut, whocelebratedhisdeath.KingPhilipwasultimatelydefeatedandkilledinAugust1676.Hisdeathmarkedtheendofthewar.Itwasoneofthebloodiest conflictsinthehistoryoftheAmericancolonies,withahighnumberoffatalitiesamongtheNativeAmericanandEnglishpopulations.ManyNativeAmerican communitiesweredevastatedbytheconflict,andtheNarragansetts,theWampanoagandothernationslostmuchoftheirlandandindependence.Many Narragansettsurvivorsweresoldintoslavery,sentencedtodeath,orfledtojoinothernearbynations,liketheNiantics.

References

EricB.Schultz;MichaelJ.Tougias, KingPhilip’sWar, 2000

M.E.Reilly-McGreen, Revolutionaries,RebelsandRoguesofRhodeIsland, 2011

MissionarieshadamajorpartinteachingnativepeopletheSpanishlanguageandEuropean values.UnlikeAnglo-Americanfrontiersthatoftenbroughtdestructiontonativesettlementsand theircultures,Spaniardslearnedtoco-existwithindigenouspopulations.

—H.E.Bolton, TheMissionasaFrontierInstitutionintheSpanish-AmericanColonies,1917

TheO’odhamUprising,alsoknownasthePimaRevolt,wasaseriesofconflictsthatoccurredin1751inArizonaandnorthernMéxico.Theconflictswerebetween thepeopleoftheO’odham(alsoknownasthePima)andtheSpanishcolonialauthorities.ThePimaareaNativeAmericanpeoplewhotraditionallylivedinwhat isnowArizonaandnorthernMéxico.TheyareknownastheAkimelO’odham,whichmeans“RiverPeople”intheirlanguage,andtheyhavelivedintheregion forthousandsofyears.ThePimaareknownfortheirsophisticatedagriculturalpracticesandarerenownedfortheirbasketweavingandpottery.TheUprisingwas sparkedbyeconomic,political,andculturalgrievancesthattheO’odhamhadwiththeSpanishcolonialauthorities,culminatingfromdecadesofviolencebythe localSpanishsettlersagainstIndiansbeginningin1684.O’odhampeoplewereunhappywiththetaxestheSpanishimposedonthemandtheSpanishmission system,whichtheysawasathreattotheirtraditionalwayoflife.TheperiodwascharacterisedbylocalIndigenouspeoples’graduallossofautonomyandterritory.

TreatiesallowingtheSpanishtomineandherdonNativelandsledtoaninfluxofnewsettlers;by1760,Hispanoshadbecomeasubstantialpresenceinthe present-dayAmericanSouthwest.TheO’odhamUprisingbeganinJanuary1751,whenagroupofO’odhamwarriorsattackedaSpanishmissioninwhatisnow southernArizona.TheattacksparkedaseriesofclashesbetweentheO’odhamandtheSpanish,eventuallyspreadingtootherregions.TheO’odhamUprising wasultimatelysuppressedbytheSpanish,whousedacombinationofmilitaryforceanddiplomacytobringtheconflicttoanend.

SpanishMissions

TherelationshipbetweenSpanishcolonisationandtheCatholicisationoftheAmericasisinextricable.TheSpanishmissionsintheAmericaswereCatholic missionsestablishedbytheSpanishEmpireduringthe16thto19thcenturiesduringtheSpanishcolonisationoftheAmericas.Thesemissionswere scatteredthroughouttheSpanishcolonies,extendingfromMéxicoandsouthwesternportionsofthecurrent-dayUnitedStatestoArgentinaandChile. Between1769and1823,theFranciscansorganised21missionsalongtheCaliforniacoast.FatherJuníperoSerra,aFranciscanpriestfromMallorca,Spain, initiatedthemissionchain.BeforecomingtoAltaCalifornia,SerrahadbeenamissionaryincentralMéxicoandBajaCalifornia.Heoversawthe foundationofthefirstninemissions.WhiletheSpanishcrowndominatedthepolitical,economic,andsocialrealmsoftheAmericasandpeopleindigenous totheregion,theCatholicChurchdominatedthereligiousandspiritualrealm.Theconversionoftheareawasviewedascrucialforcolonisation.The missionscreatedbymembersofCatholicorderswereoftenlocatedontheoutermostbordersofthecolonies.SpanishexplorershadviewedthePacificcoast ofNorthAmericaasacomplexanddistantplacetoreach—thefurthestpointoftheknownworld.ThemissionsfacilitatedtheexpansionoftheSpanish empirethroughthereligiousconversionoftheindigenouspeoplesoccupyingthoseareas.Missionarieshadasignificantpartinteachingnativepeoplethe SpanishlanguageandEuropeanvalues.UnlikeAnglo-Americanfrontiersthatoftenbroughtdestructiontonativesettlementsandtheircultures,Spaniards learnedtoco-existwithandcontrolindigenouspopulations.TheJesuitsandFranciscansperformedmostofthemissionworkinSpanishAmerica.Both orderssufferedaseverecrisisduetotheneedtosupplytrainedmen.Inthemid-17thcentury,theJesuitssolveditsignificantlybyenlistingGerman missionaries.TheFranciscanOrderwasareligiousassociationfoundedinItalybySt.FrancisofAssisiin1209.In1767,theyearoftheexpulsionofthe JesuitsfromSpanishAmerica,itisestimatedthattherewereaboutonemillionnativesinallmissionsinSpanishAmerica.Ofthese,theJesuitscaredfor nearly700,000;theFranciscansabout250,000.ThemissionarieswereallowedtocommunicatewiththelocalIndigenouspeopleandtheirleaderstoattract theircommunitiestotheChristianfaith,ashadbeendonealloverLatinAmericaintheprecedingcenturies.

PaintingSite:Tubac,Arizona(GPS31.610156°N,-111.056851°W)

LandAcknowledgement:Kumeyaay/Kumiais

It’ssaidthatarmiesandreligionhavebuiltthegreatempiresofhistory.TheSpanishexperienceintheNewWorldwasnoexception.TheSpanishcolonisation ofthesouthwestandCaliforniafollowedthesamepatternsandmethods,asinMéxico,withtheobligatoryadaptationsandabusesanderrorsofanyconquest. Thesoldier’sswordandthemissionary’scrossguidedallexpeditionsintounknownlands.InthegreatexpeditionsinNorthAmericaduringthemid-1500s, friarsmarchedamonghundredsofsoldiers.TheCatholicChurch,asaninstitution,wasinterestedinredeemingthesoulsoftheindigenousAmericans.They believedtheyweregiventhedivinerightandresponsibilityofChristianizingasmanypartsoftheworldaspossible.WhiletheycollaboratedwithSpanish officials,themissionariesoftendisagreedwiththemonseveralissues.Themissionaries’motiveswerereligious,andbelievedthatNativepeoplewouldhavea betterlifeasChristians.Spanishofficialsmainlysawthingsthroughthelensoftheircountry’sstrategicgoals.TheyhopedthatbybecomingCatholics,the IndianswouldbecomealliesofSpainagainstherEnglishandRussianrivals.

MissionariesweremotivatedtoconstructtheAmericasasthesiteofpureChristianity.ManyclergiesventuredtotheAmericastopreachwhattheyfeltwasapurer formofChristianityandtoredeemthesoulsoftheindigenouspeoples.The PatronatoReal,orRoyalPatronage,wasaseriesofpapalbullsconstructedinthe15th andearly16thcenturiesthatsetthesecularrelationshipbetweentheSpanishCrownandtheCatholicChurch,effectivelypronouncingtheSpanishKing’scontrol overtheChurchintheAmericas.ItclarifiedtheCrown’sresponsibilitytopromotetheconversionoftheindigenousAmericanstoCatholicismandtotalauthority overtheChurch,educational,andcharitableinstitutions.ItauthorisedtheCrown’scontrolovertheChurch’stitheincome,thetaxleviedonagriculturalproduction andlivestock,andthesustenanceoftheecclesiasticalhierarchies,physicalfacilities,andactivities.Asthesebullswerediscussedandgrantedbeforeandintheearly stagesofSpanishColonization,itisclearthattheCatholicChurchoperatedintheinterestsoftheSpanishCrownfromthestart.ItprovidedtheCrownwiththe righttoapproveorvetoPapaldispatchestotheAmericastoensuretheiradherencetothePatronatoReal.Itdeterminedthefoundingofchurches,convents, hospitals,andschoolsandtheappointmentandpaymentofsecularclergy.ThePatronatoRealprovidedtheSpanishCrownwithanunprecedentedlevelof authorityovertheCatholicChurch.ItdemonstratestheintricaterelationshipthepoliticalexpansionofthecolonieshadwithCatholicism.

References

RobertHowardJackson, MissionsandtheFrontiersofSpanishAmerica:AComparativeStudyoftheImpactofEnvironmental,Economical, Political,andSocio-culturalVariationsontheMissionsintheRiodelaPlataRegionandontheNorthernFrontierofNewSpain, 2005

RoxanneDunbar-Ortiz, AnIndigenousPeoples’HistoryoftheUnitedStates, 2014 H.E.Bolton, TheMissionasaFrontierInstitutionintheSpanish-AmericanColonies,1917

O’odhamUprising,PimaRevolt,SpanishMissions(1751) Tubac,Arizona,2017 48x48x2in.(122x122x5cm),earthpigments,acryliconlinen,alu/woodstretcher

Nationalparkshavebeencalled“America’sBestIdea,”yetmoreandmorepeoplearecallingattentiontotheviolenthistoriesofdispossession,enclosure,and erasurefromwhichtheNationalParkssystememerged.Theconservationistidealespousedbythefoundersofthecountry’sfirstNationalParkswasnotonly premisedonremovingIndigenouspeoplefromtheirhomelandsbutalsoonthedemonisationanderasureofIndigenouswaysofstewardingtheland.The romanticnarrativesofartisticrepresentationsoftheUnitedStates’westwardexpansionheavilyreflecttheemotionsofWhiteAmericanslivingintheeastern UnitedStatesatthetime.AbeliefinAmericanExceptionalism,rapidandfrequentlyviolentacquisitionofterritoriesclaimedbyothercountriesandbyNative Americans,trustthatGoddestinedtheUnitedStatestoexpanditsborders,andadmirationofthebravebutchallengingexperiencesofWhitesettlersinthe so-calledwilderness,partofamythaboutParadiseonEarthandofuntouchedland,expressedoptimism,religiousdestiny,andendlessopportunity,all significantthemesoftheart.ThomasMoran’spaintingsofYellowstoneexemplifythecomplexfactorsthatcharacterisedtheUSwestwardexpansionand economicdevelopmentaftertheCivilWar.

TheforcedremovalofNativeAmericancommunitiesfromtheirland,includingfromnationalparks,hasalongandpainfulhistoryintheUnitedStates. Yellowstonewasthefirstexampleofsuchremovalinthelate1800swhenthefederalgovernmentestablishedseveralnationalparksinthewesternUnitedStates. Inmanycases,theseparkswerecreatedonlandpreviouslyinhabitedbyNativeAmericancommunities.AnotherexampleofatreatytheUSgovernmentbroke toformanationalparkistheTreatyofMedicineCreek,signedin1854,whichestablishedareservationfortheNisquallyandotherNativeAmericannations inthepresent-daystateofWashington.ThistreatywaslaterviolatedwhenthefederalgovernmentestablishedtheMountRainierNationalParkonlandthat hadbeenreservedfortheNisquallyandothernations.TheTreatyofFortLaramie,signedin1868,grantedtheLakotaSiouxnationtherighttooccupythe BlackHillsregionofSouthDakota.However,thistreatywaslaterbrokenwhenthefederalgovernmentseizedtheBlackHillsandestablishedtheMount RushmoreNationalMonument.TheexpulsionoftheYellowstoneIndiannationsmeanttheremovalofseveralNativeAmericantribesfromtheYellowstone regioninthelate1800s,violatingtreatiessignedbetweentheUnitedStatesgovernmentandthesecommunities.

Insomecases,thesecommunitieswereforciblyremovedfromtheirlandtomakewayforthecreationofnationalparks.Thisincludedtheremovalofthe IndigenousnationsfromYellowstoneNationalParkinWyomingandYosemiteNationalParkinCalifornia.Thenationsthatwereexpelledincludedthe Apsáalooke(Crow),theBannock,theShoshone,andtheNorthernCheyenne.TheexpulsionoftheYellowstoneIndiannationswaspartofabroaderpolicy ofIndianremovalimplementedbytheUnitedStatesgovernmentinthe19thcentury.ThepolicywasoriginallydesignedtoremoveNativeAmericannations fromtheirancestrallandsintheeasternUnitedStatesandrelocatethemtodesignatedareasintheGreatPlainsregionwestoftheMississippi,calledtheGreat AmericanDesertbecauseitwasdeemednotsufficientforEuro-Americansettlement.

PaintingSite:YellowstoneCaldera,Montana(GPS44.4°N,-110.7°W)

LandAcknowledgement:Cayuse,UmatillaandWallaWalla;Apsáalooke(Crow);Tséstho’e(Cheyenne)

TheexpulsionofIndiantribesfromthenationalparkswasadirectresultofthe government’spolicyofforcedremovalandassimilationofNativeAmericans,andit representedaviolationoftheirrightsandsovereignty.

—PeterNabokov, NativeAmericanTestimony:AChronicleofIndian-WhiteRelations fromProphecytothePresent,1492-2000, 1999

ícaro1033 ExpulsionoftheYellowstoneNations(pre-1872) Wyoming,Montana,2018 60x48x2in.(153x122x5cm),earthpigments,acryliconlinen,alu/woodstretcher

ThecompletionofthefirstTranscontinentalRailroadin1869,governmentpolicies,andviolenceagainstNativeAmericancommunitieswereallintertwined withcreatingthefirstnationalpark.InthelandssurroundingYellowstone,goldwasdiscoveredin1867,contributingtothePlainsIndianwarsthatintensified aftertheCivilWarandeventuallyforcedtribesontoreservations.IntheFortLaramietreatiesof1851and1868,thegovernmenthadagreedthatlandinthe YellowstoneareabelongedtomultipleNativegroups.However,asthesitegrewinpopularityamongminersandtravellersalike,Nativesfoundtheiraccessto resourcesintheparkincreasinglyrestricted.AtnegotiationsforthesecondFortLaramieTreaty, Apsáalooke(Crow)leaderBlackFootsaid,“Mygrandfathers advisedthenationoftheCrowtobegood.Howcanwebegoodwhenyoutakeourlands,promisingsomanythingsyounevergiveusinreturn?”

ParkofficialsdownplayedthehistoricalrolesofIndigenousgroupsintheareaandspreadrumoursthatIndigenouspeoplefearedthepark’sgeysers.Yellow Wolf,aNezPercéparticipantintheNezPercéwar,recalledthat“thehotspringsandhigh-shootingwaterwerenothingnewto[them].”Yellowstonesawlittle oftheensuingbattlesbetweenIndigenousnationsandfederaltroopsintheGreatPlains.Still,thearearemainedasourceoftensionasIndianlandclaimswere disputedandreconsidered.TheIndigenousnationsusednaturalresourcesinwhatnowconstitutesYellowstoneNationalParkforcenturiesaspartoftheir seasonalmigrationcycles.OnebandofShoshone,theTukudikaorSheepEaters,livedinthehigherelevationsofYellowstoneandwereconsideredthepark’s onlyyear-roundresidents.Othergroups,includingthe Apsáalooke(Crow),Sihásapa(Blackfeet),Bannock,NezPercé,andShoshone,usedtheregionseasonally forhunting,gatheringfood,andtrading.ThemountainsofYellowstonewerepopularvisionquestsites,andthegeysersandhotspringswerebelievedtohouse spirits.Theareawasalsoasourceofsubstantialmineraldeposits,includingobsidianwhichwasusedtomakeweaponsandtools.

In1872,PresidentUlyssesS.GrantsignedtheActofDedication,creatingYellowstoneasthecountry’sfirstnationalpark.Theactwasmeanttoprotectthe area’sresourcesfromminersandlumbercompanies,“aswellasfrom‘lawless’ruralwhitesandIndians.”UnderSuperintendentNorrisinthe1870sand80s, parkofficialsheavilydiscouragedanIndigenouspresencewhichwasseenasathreattotourismbygovernmentofficialsandrailroadtourismpromoters.In1886 theUSArmyassumedcontroloftheparkandusedviolencetodeterIndigenouspeoplefromreturning.

References

PeterNabokov, NativeAmericanTestimony:AChronicleofIndian-WhiteRelationsfromProphecytothePresent,1492-2000, 1999 RoxanneDunbar-Ortiz, AnIndigenousPeoples’HistoryoftheUnitedStates, 2014 MarkDavidSpence, DispossessingtheWilderness:IndianRemovalandtheMakingoftheNationalParks, 1999

ícaro1033 ExpulsionoftheYellowstoneNations(pre-1872) Wyoming,Montana,2018 60x48x2in.(153x122x5cm),earthpigments,acryliconlinen,alu/woodstretcher

—DavidJ.Weber, TheSpanishFrontierinNorthAmerica, 2009

TheWagonMoundMassacreoccurredin1850inNewMexicobetweentheUSArmyandagroupofDiné(Navajo),JicarillaApache,andUteIndians.Itwas oneofaseriesofconflictsintheregionduringthemid-19thcentury,astheUSgovernmentsoughttoassertitscontrolovertheSouthwestandexpandits territory.TheSantaFeTrailwasahistorictradeandtransportationroutefromIndependence,Missouri,toSantaFe,NewMexico,andwasusedfromthe1820s tothe1870s.ThetownofWagonMoundresuppliedwagontrainsandisnamedafteranearbyhillthatwasalandmarktotravellersonthetrail.WagonMound wasadistinctiveandeasilyrecognisablefeaturethathelpedtravellerstoorientthemselvesandfindtheirwayalongthetrail.TwobranchroutesfromMissouri splitatFortLarned,Kansas,theMountainRoutewaslongerbutwithfewerwarlikeIndiansandmorewateralongtheroute.TheshorterJornadaRoute,also calledtheCimarronCutoff,atWagonMoundprovidedlesswaterbutsavedthetravellerstendaysbycuttingsouthwestacrosstheCimarronDeserttoSanta Fe.TheCimarronDesertroutewasshorterandmoreaccessibleforwagonpartiesthanthemountainousRatonPass,buttravellersriskedattacksby disenfranchisedNativeAmericansandbywatershortages.Theshorterroutewouldcarry75%oftheSantaFeTrailpioneersdespitethehazards.The CimarronCutoffwasusedasthemailroutebetweenIndependence,Missouri,andSantaFe,NewMexico,from1846to1861.Inadditiontoprovidingmonthly mailservice,thefirstcompanyawardedthemailcontract,Waldo,Hall,andCompany,providedpassengerservice,includingmeals,whichcost$150($5700in 2023).LightcarryallDearbornorJerseywagons,pulledbymules,wereprobablyused,astheroutewastoomountainousforthelargerConestogaheavy, broad-wheeledwagons,withtheirdistinctivecurvedfloorsandcanvascoversarchedoverwoodenhoops.Thirtydayswereallowedforeachtrip,andpassengers sleptontheground.Thecapacitywasninepassengersinsideandtwoontop.Whensoldierswereavailable,theysometimesescortedthemailexpress.

ThoughtheIndianTradeandIntercourseActof1834recognisedtheareabetweentheMissouriRiverandtheRockyMountainsasapermanent Indigenousland,theactwasnotrespectedastradersandtravellersdisruptedtheirwayoflife,huntedtheirgame,andinfringedupontheirlands.Asa result,severalattacksweremadeonSantaFeTrailtravellers.TheWagonMoundMassacrebeganwhenagroupofDinésoldierscombinedwithaforceof over100JicarillaApacheandUte,ledbyChiefNarbona,attackedawagontrainheadedtoSantaFeontheSantaFeTrailoveratwo-dayrunningbattle nearWagonMound.TheattackwasinresponsetotheUSArmy’sattemptstoforcetheDinétomovetoareservationandpunishtheDinéforstealing livestockastheirtraditionalhuntinggroundsbecamedepletedbytravellersandsettlers.Inresponsetotheattack,adetachmentofUSArmysoldierswas senttopursuetheDinéandpunishthemfortheattack.TheUSArmycaughtupwiththeDinéatWagonMound,wheretheyengagedinafiercebattle. TheDinéfoughtfiercelybutwereultimatelyoverpoweredbytheUSArmy’ssuperiorweaponryandnumbers.ManyDinésoldierswerekilledinthe fighting,andtheUSArmyemergedvictorious.In1851,FortUnion,NewMexico,wasestablished.Fromtheirnewbaseofoperations,UStroopsstationed ormarshalledatFortUnionspentmuchofthe1850sengagedinactiveandaggressivecampaigningagainsttheComanche,JicarillaApache,Diné,and Utepeople.TheWagonMoundMassacrewasasignificanteventinthehistoryoftheSouthwestandcontributedtotheongoingconflictbetweentheUS governmentandNativeAmericannationsintheregion.ItalsohighlightedthetensionsandconflictsthataroseastheUSexpandedwestwardandsought tocontrolthelandanditsindigenousinhabitants.

PaintingSite:WagonMound,NewMexico(GPS35.9750°N,104.4736°W)

LandAcknowledgement:NʉmʉnʉʉSookobitʉ(Comanche);Pueblos;Núu-agha-tʉvʉ-pʉ̱(Ute);NdéKónitsąąííGokíyaa (LipanApache);JicarillaApache

TheSantaFeTrailwasakeyrouteofwestwardexpansion,butitalsobroughtconflictand violenceasitcrossedthroughindigenouslands,asseenintheWagonMoundmassacre,which wasaproductoftheAmerican’sdesireforlandandresources.

ícaro1038 WagonMoundMassacre,SantaFeTrail(1850) WagonMound,NewMexico,2021

60x48x2in.(153x122x5cm)acryliconlinen,alu/woodstretcher

In1821,thelandbeyondMissouriwasavastunchartedregioncalledhometogreatbisonherdsandunhappyIndians,angeredoverthecontinualwestward expansionoftheWhiteman.BeforeMéxicooustedtheSpanishcolonialruleinSeptember1821,theSpanishbannedtradebetweenSantaFeandtheUnited States.Afterindependence,thenewlynamedMéxicanEmpireencouragedtrade.TheSantaFeTrailprovidedavitallinkbetweentheeasternUnitedStates andtheSouthwest,openinguptradeandcommunicationbetweenthetworegions.OnSeptember1,1821,WilliamBecknellsetoutfromFranklin,Missouri, withmanufacturedgoodsfromMissouriontoamuletraintotradeforfurs,gold,silver,andothergoodsinNewMexico;hefoundapassablewagonrouteby histhirdtrip,thusbeginningthemanywagontrainsheadingtotheSouthwest.Creditedasthe“FatheroftheSantaFeTrail,”Becknellcontinuedtomake multipletripsalongthetrail,profitingenormouslyonhisdaringtravels.Traders,merchants,themilitary,andothertravellersusedthetrailtotransportawide rangeofgoods,includingtextiles,hardware,andothermanufacturedgoods,fromtheEasttotheSouthwestandtobringbacksilver,gold,andothervaluable commoditiesfromtheSouthwesttotheEast.Thetrailwasfrequentlyusedwithmorethan2000wagons,incaravansofabout50departingeachspringfrom Missouri.TheSantaFeTrailalsoplayedacrucialroleinexpandingtheUnitedStateswestward.Asmoreandmorepeopletravelledthetrail,ithelpedto encouragesettlementanddevelopmentintheSouthwestandbeyond.Thetrailalsohelpedtofacilitateculturalexchange.ItspreadideasbetweentheEastand theSouthwest,addingtothemythosofthewesternAmericanfrontierthroughnewsdispatches,fictionalnovels,photographs,andpaintings.

TranscontinentalRailroad

ThefirstTranscontinentalRailroad,alsoknownasthePacificRailroad,wasaseriesofrailroadsbuiltacrosstheUnitedStatesinthelate19thcentury, connectingtheEastCoastwiththeWestCoast.TheraillinewasbuiltbythreeprivatecompaniesoverpubliclandsprovidedbyextensiveUSlandgrants.The railroadwascompletedin1869,significantlyimpactingtransportationandcommunicationintheUnitedStates.ItsconstructionmarkedtheendoftheSanta FeTrailasamajortransportationroute;theTranscontinentalRailroadmadetheSantaFeTrailobsoletebyprovidingafaster,safer,andmoreefficientmeans oftransportationbetweentheEastandtheWest.Beforetherailroadconstruction,theSantaFeTrailwastheprimaryroutefortransportingpeopleandgoods betweenthetworegions.But,itwasalong,challenging,andoftendangerousjourney.Therailroadmadeitpossibletotravelacrossthecontinentindaysrather thanweeksormonths,significantlyreducingtherisksandchallengesoflong-distancetravel.

References

ColoradoHistoricalSociety, TheSantaFeTrail:NewPerspectives,1987

DavidJ.Weber, TheSpanishFrontierinNorthAmerica, 2009

DavidDary, TheSantaFeTrail:ItsHistory,Legends,andLore, 2012

CanceranddiabeteswerenonexistentinNavajorez.

–FaithBaldwin,whogrewupontheNavajonationsurroundedbyabandoneduraniummines

TheraceduringtheColdWartodevelopnuclearweaponsledtotheestablishmentofuraniumminesthroughouttheNavajoreservation.Fordecades, theNavajoNationwasaprimarysourcefortheUnitedStates’uraniumstockpileduringthenucleararmsrace.From1944to1986,some30milliontons ofuraniumorewereextractedfrommines,butasdemandforuraniumdecreased,theminesclosed,leavingoverathousandcontaminatedsites,fewof whichhavebeencleanedup.

TheChurchRocknuclearwasteaccidentoccurredonJuly16,1979,attheUnitedNuclearCorporation(UNC)millnearChurchRock,NewMexico.The accidentinvolvedthereleaseofathickyellowsludgeofmorethan1,100tonsofradioactivemilltailingsand95milliongallonsofcontaminatedwaterintothe PuercoRiver,killingsheepthatdrankitandburningthefeetofchildrenwhowadedinit.ThePuerco,whichflowsthroughtheNavajoNationandeventuallyto theColoradoRiver,suppliesLakeMead,althoughthewastewassaidtoreachonly81miles(130km)fromthefaileddam.Theaccidentremainsthemost significantreleaseofradioactivematerialinUShistory,thethirdlargestnuclearaccidentaftertheFukushimaaccidenttriggeredbytheTōhokuearthquakeand tsunamiin2011andtheChernobyldisasterin1986,havingreleasedmoreradioactivitythantheThreeMileIslandaccidentfourmonthsearlier.Thenuclear contaminationspilleventreceivedlessermediacoveragethanThreeMileIsland,possiblybecauseitoccurredinaruralareainNativeAmericancountry,among acommunitythatatthattimewasnotpredisposedtospeakingout;manyNativeAmericansinaplacewherewell-payingjobsarescarcewereemployedatthe mill.IntheThreeMileIslandincident,amalfunctioningnucleargeneratingstation’scoolingsystemandcoreresultedintheleakofradioactivematerialandthe massevacuationof200,000residentsincentralPennsylvania.However,eventhoughtheChurchRockspillreleased46curiesofradiationintotheenvironment, threetimesmorethanradioiodinesproducedatThreeMileIsland,theincidentneverreachedthesamelevelofnotorietyasThreeMileIsland.

TheNavajoNationhasbeenaffectedbyhighlungcancerratesamongformeruraniumminers,theaccumulationofwasteontriballandsfromthemines,and pollutioneventsinwhichmassivequantitiesofradioactivematerialweredischargedintotheenvironment.TheNavajodidnotreceivethesamedegreeof publicassistanceasthecommunitiesaffectedbyThreeMileIsland.In1968,theUnitedNuclearCorporationbegantooperatethecountry’slargest undergrounduraniummineatChurchRock,NewMexico.TheUNCmill,whichranfromJune1977toMay1982,waslocatedonprivatelyownedlandabout 17miles(27km)northofGallup,NewMexico,andwasborderedtothenorthandsouthwestbyNavajoNationTribalTrustlands.TheChurchRocknuclear wasteaccidentwascausedbythefailureofanearthendamthatwasusedtocontainthemilltailingsandwastewater.Thedambroke,releasingthewasteinto theriverandcontaminatingthewaterdownstream.

PaintingSite:ChurchRock,NewMexico(GPS35.535°N,-108.611667°W)

LandAcknowledgement:DinéBikéyah;Pueblos;Núu-agha-tʉvʉ-pʉ̱(Ute);Shiwinna(Zuni)

Ourgenerationisafraidofhavingchildren.Cancerrunsinourfamily,butitshouldn’t.

ícaro1081 Kinłitsosinil,ChurchRockUraniumSpill(1979) NewMexico,2020

DinéNihaltsohYellow(Third)World 60x60x2in.(153x122x5cm),earthpigments,acryliclinen,alu/woodstretcher

TheaccidentsignificantlyimpactedtheenvironmentandthehealthoftheNavajopeople,leadingtowidespreadhealthconcernsandoutrage.Thespill contaminatedgroundwaterandrenderedthePuercoRiverunusabletoresidents,mostlyNavajopeoples,whousedtheriver’swaterfordrinking,irrigation,and livestock.Theywerenotwarnedfordaysofthetoxicdangersfromthespill.Lessthanfivemonthsafterthespilloccurred,theNuclearRegulatoryCommission permittedtheUnitedNuclearCorporationtoresumeoperationsattheChurchRockMill.Theseactivitiesworsenedconditionsinthearea,leadingtomore extensivegroundwatercontamination.TheUnitedNuclearCorporationeventuallydugnewdrinkingwellsandremoved3500tonsofsedimentfromthePuerco River,butthisamountedtoonly1%oftheestimatedtotalspillmaterial.Theminewasfinallyabandonedin1982,butChurchRockwouldlaterbeplacedon theEnvironmentalProtectionAgency'sNationalPrioritiesListin1983.Thesite’sdesignationasaSuperfundhashardlybeeneffectiveatprovidingmeaningful assistance.Afterover40yearsasaSuperfundSite,theEPA’swebsitestillreportstodaythat“groundwatercontaminationandthemigrationofcontaminated groundwaterisnotstabilised.”ManyNavajoshavelonggivenuphopeofgovernmentassistance.AccordingtotheEPA,over500abandoneduraniummines, millsites,andwastepilesonNavajoNationlandcontinuetocontaminatewater,soil,livestockandhousing.TheaccidentwasoneoftheworstintheUnited Statesandhasbeenrememberedasasignificantandtragiceventinthenuclearindustry’shistory.Theaccidentisareminderofthepotentialrisksanddangers associatedwiththehandlinganddisposalofnuclearwasteandhascontributedtoongoingdebatesaboutthebestwaystomanageanddisposeofthismaterial.

NuclearWasteDisposalSites

NuclearwastedisposalsitesintheUnitedStatesarelocationswhereradioactivewasteisstoredandmanagedinamannerthatminimisespotentialharmto humanhealthandtheenvironment.Thereareseveraltypesofnuclearwaste,includingspentnuclearfuel,low-levelwaste,andhigh-levelwaste,whichare generatedthroughtheoperationofnuclearpowerplantsandothernuclearfacilities.IntheUnitedStates,nuclearwasteistypicallystoredatthesitewhereit isgenerateduntilitcanbetransportedtoapermanentdisposalfacility.ThereiscurrentlyonlyonenuclearwastedisposalfacilityintheUnitedStates:theWaste IsolationPilotPlant(WIPP)33milessouthwestofCarlsbad,NewMexico,whichisusedtodisposeoflow-levelandtransuranicwaste.Twoisolatedaccidents happenedwithintendaysinFebruary2014attheWIPP.First,atruckfiredeepintheminespreadsootovercriticalequipmentanddisabledtherepository’s airmonitoringsystem.Thenachemicalreactionbreachedawastedrum,causingaradiologicalreleasethatcontaminatedlargeareasoftherepository.

Accordingtoa LosAngelesTimes analysis,theexplosionranksamongthecostliestnuclearaccidentsinUShistory.Thelong-termcostoftheaccidentcouldtop $2billion,roughlyintherangeofthecleanupafterthe1979partialmeltdownattheThreeMileIslandnuclearpowerplantinPennsylvania.Stillawaiting approvalsistheYuccaMountainrepositoryinNevada,90miles(145km)northwestofLasVegas,whichisdesignedtostorehigh-levelnuclearwaste,butthe site’sfutureremainsuncertain.ThegovernmentoftheStateofNevadaisopposedtotheYuccaMountainrepositoryonseveralgrounds,includingthemany unresolvedscientificissuesrelativetothesuitabilityoftheYuccaMountainsite.Theseissuesincludehydrology,theinadequacyoftheproposedwastepackage, repositorydesign,andvolcanism.TheYuccasiteisseismicallyandvolcanicallyactive,porousandincapableofgeologicallycontainingthewaste.Yucca’s aquiferdrainstotheAmargosaValley,oneofNevada’smostproductiveagriculturalregions.

ícaro1081 Kinłitsosinil,ChurchRockUraniumSpill(1979) NewMexico,2020 DinéNihaltsohYellow(Third)World 60x60x2in.(153x122x5cm),earthpigments,acryliclinen,alu/woodstretcher

ThestategovernmentalsosaysYuccaisn’tbigenoughtostorethenation’snuclearwaste.Morethan70,000metrictonsofhigh-levelnuclearwasteandspent nuclearareheldinmorethan77reactorsitesacrossthecountry.Thatnumberincreasesbymorethan2,000tonseachyear.Yucca’sstatutorydesigncapacity isonly77,000metrictons.TransportingwastetoYuccaMountainalsoputstheAmericanpublicatrisk.Morethan123millionpeopleliveneartheproposed truckandtrainrouteswhichwouldbeusedtodeliverwastetoYuccaMountain.Thoseroutestravelthrough703countiesin44states.Nevada’sAttorney General,AaronD.Ford,arguesthatcontrarytotheUSDepartmentofEnergy(DOE)arguments,buildingtheYuccaMountainrepositorywillnotmake Americasafer.Instead,itwillgiveterroristsmoreattractiveandvulnerabletargets.TheDOEexpectsmorethan100,000shipmentsofspentfueltobe transportedtoYuccaMountain-thuscreating100,000mobiletargets.Anaccidentorattackalongthoseroutescouldhurtorkillthousandsofinnocentpeople. Thedisposalofnuclearwasteisacomplexandcontroversialissue,andthereareongoingdebatesaboutthebestwaystomanageanddisposeofthismaterial.

Factorsconsideredwhenselectinganddesigningnuclearwastedisposalsitesincludethepotentialforcontamination,thestabilityofthesite,andthepotential forfuturetechnologicaladvancesthatmayimpactthesite’ssafety.

DinéNihaltsohYellow(Third)World

Nihaltsoh,theThirdLowerWorldorYellowWorld,isdescribedasaplaceofgreatbeautyandabundance,andtheDiné(Navajo)ancestorsaresaidtohave encounteredmanyanimalsandothercreaturesinthisworld.TheThirdLowerWorldisdepictedasaplaceofoutstandingnaturalbeauty,withlushforests, clearstreams,andabundantwildlife.Itissometimesdescribedasaplaceofextraordinarycolourandvibrancy,withflowersandplantsofeveryhue.TheThird LowerWorldwassaidtobeaplaceofgreatpeaceandharmony,wheretheDinéancestorscouldrestandrecoverfromthechallengesanddangerstheyhad encounteredinthelowerworlds.DespitethebeautyandabundanceoftheThirdLowerWorld,theDinéancestorsweresaidtohaveknownthattheirjourney wasnotyetover,andtheycontinuedtowardstheFourthLowerWorldandthechallengesthatawaitedthem.

References

DougBrugge,TimothyBenallyandEstherYazzie-Lewis(eds.), TheNavajoPeopleandUraniumMining, 2017 DougBrugge,CatBui,andJamiedeLemos. TheSequoyahCorporationFuelsReleaseandtheChurchRockSpill:UnpublicizedNuclear ReleasesinAmericanIndianCommunities. AmericanJournalofPublicHealth97,2007

JudyPasternak, YellowDirt:AnAmericanStoryofaPoisonedLandandaPeopleBetrayed, 2010.

Plate11. Elko,Nevada, 2016

ThetraderoutesthatconnectedChacoCanyontopre-ColumbianMesoamericaplayedasignificantroleintheculturalandeconomicdevelopmentofthe regionandcontributedtotheexchangeofideasandculturalinfluences.Theyalsofacilitatedthespreadofnewtechnologiesandinnovations,suchasusingthe wheelanddevelopingsophisticatedirrigationsystems.ThelegacyofthesetraderoutescanstillbeseenintheculturalandhistoricalsignificanceofChaco Canyontoday.ForyearsarchaeologistshaveworkedontheassumptionthatChacoCanyonwasprimarilyanancienttradingcentre.Instead,Chacowasa complexceremonialcentrewithextraordinaryastronomicalalignmentsofbuildingsandroads.Landscape,directions,sunandmoon,andmovementof shadowandlightwereusedbytheChacoanbuilderstounitewiththecosmicorder.Thesignificantnumberofcircularritualstructures,calledkivas,tellof large-scaleceremonies,possiblydrawingthousandsofpilgrimsfromacrosstheFourCornersregionandperhapsfarbeyond.Engineeredroadsstretchacross dozensofmilesinstraightlinestosignificantlandformsbutwithlittleevidenceoftravelortrade.Onesuchroad,theGreatNorthRoad,connectsthecentral canyon’sceremonialbuildingsacross35milesofdeserttoasteepbadlandscanyonintheNorth–adirectionofprofoundsignificancetodescendantPueblo people.Thereareover4,000archaeologicalsitesinthecanyon,including15greathousesandhundredsofotheroutlyingstructures.EventheNationalPark Serviceadmitsitdoesn’tknowexactlyhowmanystructuresexisted,buttherearemany.Unlikemanysitesthroughoutthesouthwest,builtinasingleseason, manyChacoCanyonGreatHouseswerebuiltoveralmost80-100years.Theytookimmenseplanningandastaggeringnumberofperson-hourstobuild.

ChacoCanyonisseenbyDrJamesW.Judge,principalinvestigatoroftheChacoProjectfortheNationalParkService,asbeingaceremonialcentreusedfor “thesocialintegrationofadispersedpopulationthroughpilgrimagefestivalsandceremonialrituals.”Thefestivalswererelatedtothere-distributionofgoods (corn,timber,pottery,meat,etc.)andtheceremonialritualsassociatedwithworshippingthesunandmoon.AccordingtoJudge’stheoryofChacoCanyon,the AncestralPuebloansintentionallydispersedtheirfarmingresourcesouttotheperipheriesoftheSanJuanBasintomaximisethecollectiveagriculturalyield. ThecollectedharvestswerethentransportedtoChacoCanyonalongitsroadsystem,storedinthegreathousesthere,andredistributedtoneedyareas.This interactionsystemhadtheeffectofsmoothingouttheharshenvironmentalconditionsthatcouldexistanywherewithinthewholeChacoanregionalsystem. Multi-sensoryexperiencesalsoareprominentinAncestralPuebloanceremonialrituals;forexample,toevokea paradisiacal realm,Chacoanpeoplewould performsensorialceremoniesbyuseofexoticartefactssuchasturquoise,shell,cacao,copperbells,andmacaws.Thereisevidencethatcacaowastradedand consumedinpartsofNorthAmerica,althoughitwasnotnativetothatregion.CacaobeanshavebeenfoundatmanyarchaeologicalsitesintheSouthwest andSoutheastUnitedStates,indicatingthatitwastradedandpossiblyconsumedbyindigenousculturesinthoseareas.However,theextentandnatureof cacaotradeandconsumptioninpre-ColumbianNorthAmericamustbebetterunderstoodandsubjecttoongoingresearchanddebate.

PaintingSite:ChacoCanyon,NewMexico(GPS36.060722°N,-107.961745°W)

LandAcknowledgement:DinéBikéyah;Pueblos;Núu-agha-tʉvʉ-pʉ̱(Ute)

ThismeanstherewerepeopleharvestingcacaoinMesoamericanforestsandtradingitup throughamassivenetworktoreachpeopleintheSouthwest.Itshowstheextensiveknowledge basethatpeoplehad.Inourglobalisedmodernworld,weoftendon'tthinkaboutpeople,preinternetandpre-masstransit,ashavingthesetypesofconnectionsover1000yearsago.

—DrTorbenRick,CuratorofNorthAmericanArchaeology, NationalMuseumofNaturalHistory

Cacao,thetropicalplantthatisthesourceofchocolate,isnativetoCentralandSouthAmerica.Severalpre-Columbianculturescultivateditinthoseregions, includingtheMayaandtheAztecs,anditplayedasignificantroleintheireconomies,societiesandspiritualpractices.ManyculturesusedcacaointhepreColumbianAmericasasanessentialpartofritualsassociatedwithbirth,comingofage,marriage,anddeath.Cacaobeanswereusedasacurrencyandconsumed asabeverage,oftenmixedwithwaterandspices.Chocolatehasbeenpreparedasadrinkfornearlyallofitshistory.Forexample,onevesselfoundatanOlmec archaeologicalsiteontheGulfCoastofVeracruz,México,dateschocolate’spreparationbypre-Olmecpeoplesasearlyas1750BC.OnthePacificcoastof Chiapas,México,aMokayaarchaeologicalsiteprovidesevidenceofcacaobeveragesdatingevenearlierto1900BC.Theresiduesandthekindofvesselinwhich theywerefoundindicatethattheinitialuseofcocoawasnotsimplyasabeverage.Still,thewhitepulparoundthecacaobeanswaslikelyusedasasourceof fermentablesugarsforanalcoholicdrink.

Thetradeincacaoandotherluxurygoods,includingshells,feathers,turquoise,andmetals,playedasignificantroleintheeconomiesofmanypre-Columbian culturesandfacilitatedtheexchangeofideasandculturalinfluences.ChacoCanyonwasahuboftradeandexchange.Itplayedacentralroleinthedevelopment oftheChacoculture,whichwasknownforitssophisticatedarchitectureandsophisticatedsystemsofgovernanceandresourcemanagement.TheAncestral PuebloanpeoplelikelytradedwithcivilisationsinotherpartsoftheUnitedStatesandMéxico,includingtheHohokamandtheMogollon.Providingsignificant evidenceofthesetraderoutes,in2003,aresearcherfromtheUniversityofNewMexiconamedDrPatriciaCrownbeganstudyingacacheof181cylindricalvessels foundinChacoCanyonandfoundthefirstevidencethatcacaohadfounditswaytotheAmericanSouthwest,some1200milesnorthofwhereitgrows.Crown’s discoveryofchocolateprovedthattheAncestralPuebloans,SouthwesterndesertdwellersinChacoCanyon,hadbeentradingwithtropicalMesoamericancacaoharvesters,liketheMaya,asfarbackas900CE.TheAncestralPuebloansusedcacaoinmuchthesamewayastheMaya.Theresultofcacaodiscoveriesinthe Southwestisthatarchaeologistshavehadtore-examinesomelong-heldassumptionsabouttheisolationofancientculturesinthisregion.Apictureofextensive tradeandperhapsevenmigrationhasemergedbetweenChacoCanyonandtheroughly770C.E.AlkaliRidgediscoveriesinsoutheasternUtah,wherecacao residuewasdetectedinSite13ceramicsaftertestingbyDorothyWashburn,anarchaeologistattheUniversityofPennsylvania'sUniversityMuseumof ArchaeologyandAnthropology,andWilliamWashburn(herhusband)andPetiaShipkova,bothchemistsatBristol-MyersSquibb.Ancientculturesbordered andoverlappedthroughoutwhatistodaytheUSandMéxico,makingcross-culturaltradeandimportnotjustlikely,butperhapsmorecommonthanever thought.WashburnbelievesthePuebloanstradedforthecacaowiththeirfineturquoise,astonethatreplacedjadeasafavouriteamongMesoamericansaround theyear900.ThechemicalsignatureofturquoisefromNewMexicanmineshasbeenfoundinpiecesinseveralsitesinMéxico,includingtheMayansite ChichenItza,theresearcherswriteinastudythatappearsintheJournalofArchaeologicalScience.

Cacao

Plate12. ChacoCanyon,NewMexico, 2018

Mesoamerica

MesoamericaisahistoricalregionandculturalareathatbeginsinthesouthernpartofNorthAmericaandextendstomostofCentralAmerica,thus comprisingthelandsofcentralMéxico,Belize,Guatemala,ElSalvador,Honduras,andNicaragua,andnorthernCostaRica,hometoseveraladvanced civilisations,includingtheOlmecs,Maya,andAztecs.ThetermMesoamericameans“middleAmerica”inGreek.MiddleAmericaoftenreferstoalargerarea intheAmericas,butithasalsopreviouslybeenusedmorenarrowlytorefertoMesoamerica.ScholarsusethetermMesoamericatorefertothecultural, historical,andlinguisticdevelopmentsthattookplaceintheregionfromapproximately2500BCEtothearrivaloftheSpanish3,000yearsbeforethe colonisation,whichbeganatHispaniolaislandin1493.Mesoamerica’stimeframecoversabout3500years,duringwhichseveralvitalcivilisationsandcultures developed,andtheregionsawsignificantadvancesinart,architecture,mathematics,astronomy,andotherfields.Asaculturalarea,Mesoamericaisdefinedby amosaicofculturaltraitsdevelopedandsharedbyitsindigenouscultures.Beginningasearlyas7000BCE,thedomesticationofcacao,raise,beans,tomato, avocado,vanilla,squashandchilli,andturkeyanddogintheArchaicperiodresultedinatransitionfromnomadicPaleo-Indianhunter-gatherertribal groupingstotheorganisationofsedentaryagriculturalvillages.TheOlmecsconsideredthefirstcivilisationinMesoamerica,flourishedfromapproximately 1400BCEto400BCE.TheMayacivilisation,knownforitsadvancedwriting,mathematics,andastronomysystem,flourishedfromabout2000BCEto1500 CE.TheAzteccivilisation,thelastoftheinfluentialculturestodevelopinMesoamerica,flourishedfromabout1300CEtothearrivaloftheSpanishin1519 CE.Inthe16thcentury,Eurasiandiseasessuchassmallpoxandmeasles,endemicamongthecolonistsbutnewtoNorthAmerica,causedthedeathsofupwards of90%oftheindigenouspeople,resultinginsignificantlossestotheirsocietiesandcultures.

Mesoamericantradenetworkswereextensive,andtraderoutesstretchedacrosstheregionandbeyond.Mesoamericantradeinvolvedvariousgoods,including rawmaterials,finishedgoods,andluxuryitems.SomeofthegoodsthatwerecommonlytradedinMesoamericaincludedavarietyofrawmaterials,including metals(suchasgold,copper,andtin),stone(suchasjadeandobsidian),andpreciousandsemi-preciousstones(suchasturquoiseandamethyst).Thesematerials wereusedtocreateavarietyoffinishedgoods,includingjewellery,tools,andotherobjects.Mesoamericancivilisationsproducedvariousfinishedgoods, includingceramics,textiles,andotherthings.Thesegoodsweretradedbothwithintheregionandbeyond.Theseitemswereoftenusedasstatussymbolsand werehighlyprizedbythosewhopossessedthem.

Bythe15thcentury,theAztecshadgainedcontrolofalargepartofMesoamericaandhadadoptedcocoaintotheirculture.Theyassociatedchocolatewith Quetzalcoatl,who,accordingtoonelegend,wascastawaybytheothergodsforsharingchocolatewithhumans.Theyidentifieditsextricationfromthepodwiththe removalofthehumanheartinsacrifice.TheAztecscouldnotgrowcocoathemselves,astheirhomeintheMéxicanhighlandswasunsuitable,sochocolatewasa luxuryimportedintotheempire.TheconquistadorsnotedtheimportanceofcacaototheMesoamericansearlyon.Cacaowasmorethanjustadrink;thebeans werealsousedashardcurrency.TheAztecs,unabletocultivatecacaotreesintheirvalley,initiallytradedforthebeanswiththeMayans.ButastheAztecempire expanded,conqueredpeopleswereforcedtopaythebeanstothestateastaxation.AsurvivingNahuatldocumentwrittenin1526indicatescacao’scommercialvalue: agoodturkeyhencouldbepurchasedfor100beans,afreshlypickedavocadooraneggcostthreebeans,andaripeavocadooratomatowasworthasinglecacao bean.InNicaragua,adecentenslavedpersoncost100beans,andtheservicesofaprostitutewereavailablefortenbeans.InAztecsociety,xocoatlwasprimarily reservedfortheupperclasses.Moctezuma,theruleratthetimeoftheSpanishconquest,reportedlyhad50portionspreparedingoldenchalicesforhisdailyuse,and another2000werewhippedupfortherestofhishousehold.Xocoatlsupposedlyhadbothstrength-givingandaphrodisiacqualities;thearmyconsumeditbefore battle,andMoctezumadrankitbeforespendingtimewithhisharem.Thebeveragewasanessentialpartofbanquets,servedonlyattheendofameal.

References

TraciWatson, EarliestEvidenceofChocolateinNorthAmerica, Science(22January2013) https://www.science.org/content/article/earliest-evidence-chocolate-north-america

SophieD.CoeandMichaelD.Coe, TheTrueHistoryofChocolate, 1996.

RobertS.Weiner, ASensoryApproachtoExotica,RitualPractice,andCosmologyatChacoCanyon, 2015

—Umtippe,CayusechiefwhoownedthelandonwhichtheWhitmanMissionwasbuilt

Themostwell-publicisedconflictalongtheOregonTrailwastheWhitmanMassacre,alsoknownastheWallaWallaMassacre,in1847.NativeAmerican landownerskilledseveralmembersoftheProtestantWhitman(alsoknownastheWaiilatpu)missionandtook53peoplehostage.Washingtonmissionaries MarcusWhitmanandhiswifeNarcissa,alongwithelevenothers,onNovember29,1847,werekilledbymembersoftheCayusenationwhoaccusedWhitman ofhavingpoisoned200Cayuseinhismedicalcare.Duringthewinterof1846,Whitmaninstructedaworkerinthemission’ssawmilltoplacepoisonedmeat intheareasurroundingWaiilatputokillNorthwesternwolves.SeveralCayuseatethedeadlymeatbutsurvived.Whitmanreportedlylaughed,sayinghehad warnedtheCayuseseveraltimesofthetaintedmeat.ThekillingsareusuallyascribedpartlytoaclashofculturesandpartlytotheinabilityofWhitman,a physician,tohaltthespreadofmeaslesamongtheNatives.AmeaslesoutbreakinNovember1847killedhalfthelocalCayuse.TheCayuseheldWhitman responsibleforsubsequentdeaths.TheColumbiaPlateaunationsusuallydidnotkillshamansordoctorsforfailingtocurepatients,buttheybelievedthat excessiveamountsofspiritualpowercouldinspiremurderousintentions.ItislikelythattheCayuseheldWhitmanresponsibleforthenumerousdeathsand thereforefeltjustifiedtotakehislife.

OthercomplaintsanddifferencestheNativeAmericanshadwiththemissionarieswasthatWhitmansoldwheattosettlers,givingnonetotheirCayuse landholdersanddemandingpayment calledthe“miller’stoll,”apercentageofthegrain forusinghiswater-poweredgristmill.TheCayusecomplainedof Whitman’srefusaltopayforusing130acresoftheirlandandtimberresourcesforhismissionandhispreferentialtreatmentofincomingWhitecolonists.

Anothersettlerwasplanningtobuildatradingpost,so,Umtippe,theCayusechiefwhoownedthesurroundingland,demandedpaymentforthelumberand firewoodgatheredbythemissionaries.TheWhitmanswerefrustratedattheNativeAmerican’sgrowingrelianceontheirmissionforsupplies.TotheCayuse, thebuildingofWaiilatpuontheirland,especiallygiventherelativeopulenceofitscabinsandfurniture,obligatedthecoupletodistributegoods.SamuelParker, thefirstPresbyterianministerintheregion,scoutedlocationsforpotentialmissionsamongtheLiksiyuandNiimíipunationsalongwithMarcusWhitmaninto portionsofthemodernstatesofIdaho,Oregon,andWashington.

DuringthespecificnegotiationsoverwhatbecametheWaiilatpuMissionin1835,SamuelParkerpromisedtheassembledCayusementhatabigship,loaded withgoods,wouldcomeeveryyeartobedividedamongtheIndiansasgifts.PloughsandhoesweretobegiventotheCayuse,andtheyweretobetaughtto cultivatetheland.TheCayuseallowedtheconstructionofthemission,believingthatParker’spromisesofsuppliesstillheld.(continues)

PaintingSite:WaiilatpuMission,Washington(GPS46.04°N,-118.461389°W)

LandAcknowledgement:Cayuse,UmatillaandWallaWalla;palúspam(Palus):ConfederatedTribesColvilleReservation

Doctor,youhavecomeheretogiveusbadmedicines;youcometokillus,andyoustealour lands.Youhadpromisedtopaymeeveryyear,andyouhavegivenmenothing.Youhadbetter goaway;ifmywifedies,youshalldiealso.

SahaptinnationscameintodirectcontactwithWhitecolonisersseveraldecadesbeforethearrivaloftheAmericanBoardofCommissionersforForeign Missions(ABCFM)missionarymembers.TheserelationssetexpectationsamongtheCayuseforhowexchangesanddialoguewithWhiteswouldoperate.The earlyEuro-AmericanswereprimarilyengagedintheNorthAmericanfurtradeandtheMaritime(seals)furtrade.Marinecaptainsregularlygavesmallgiftsto Indigenousmerchantstoencouragecommercialtransactions.Laterland-basedtradingposts,operatedbythePacificFurCompany,theNorthWestCompany andtheHudson’sBayCompany,regularisedeconomicandculturalexchanges,includinggift-giving.

RelationswiththeWhitmanshadalreadydegeneratedbecauseoftheCayuses’oppositiontoAmericanexpansion,themissionaries’inflexibility,personal grievancesabouthowMarcusandNarcissaspokewiththemandtreatedthemwithinthemissionary’shome,havingdifferencesinsensitivityaboutprivacy.The furtrade'sdemisebecauseofover-harvesting,thelanguagebarrier,andthemissionaries’suspicionthatrivalCatholicmissionarieswereconspiringagainstthem createdanatmosphereofanimosity.Therewasalong-lastingcompetitionbetweentheABCFMandCatholicmissionariestoconverttheSahaptin-speaking peoplestoChristianity.TheSahaptin,who callthemselvesNiMiiPuu,meaningsimply“thepeople”or“wethepeople,”areseveralNativeAmerican communitieswhospeakdialectsoftheSahaptinlanguage.TheSahaptincommunitiesinhabitedterritoryalongtheColumbiaRiveranditstributariesinthe PacificNorthwestregionoftheUnitedStates.Sahaptin-speakingpeoplesincludedtheKlickitat,Kittitas,Yakama,Wanapum,Palus,LowerSnake,Skinpah, WallaWalla,Umatilla,Tenino,andNezPercé.

TryingtopersuadetheCayusetoabandontheirseasonalmigrationsconsumedmuchofWhitman’stime.Hebelievedthatiftheycultivatedtheirfoodsupply throughfarming,theywouldremaininthevicinityofWaiilaptu.HetoldhissuperiorsatthejointPresbyterian,Congregational,andDutchReformed AmericanBoardofCommissionersforForeignMissions(ABCFM)inBostonthatiftheCayusewouldabandontheirhabitofrelocatingduringthewinter,he couldspendmoretimeproselytisingamongthem.Afterthemissionwasbuilt,Whitmanrefusedtofulfilthepromiseofgifts,insistingthatthelandhadbeen grantedhimfreeofcharge.Themurderswerebrutal,accordingtotheeyewitnesstestimoniesofsomeofthesurvivingWhitmanchildren,astheassailantsused theirtomahawkstoreleaseevilspiritsdwellingwithintheWhites.

ThemartyrdomoftheWhitmansandthemythologysurroundingthemassacrewereusedtojustifytakinglandfromtheCayusepeopleandremovingthem toreservations.Atthetime,Oregonwasunderaprovisionalgovernmentfollowingthe1846Anglo-Americanpartitionoftheterritory.Themurdersplayed convenientlyintothehandsoffree-soilNorthernerswhowantedtocounterSouthern—thatis,slave-holding—expansionintotheMexicanCessionafterthe TreatyofGuadalupeHidalgowassignedin1848,endingtheMéxican–AmericanWar.Theperiodbetween1849and1865wasdominatedbytheoriginsof theAmericanCivilWarbetweenNorthandSouthandthebloodyfightingfrom1861-1865.CongressestablishedtheOregonUSTerritoryonAugust14,1848. PresidentJamesPolksignedthebillmakingOregonthefirstUSterritorywestoftheRockies.

Plate13. WallaWalla,Washington, 2016

WagonTrails

WagontrailsplayedasignificantroleinthesettlementanddevelopmentoftheAmericanWest.Wagontrailswerepathsorroutesusedbysettlers,pioneers,and adventurerstravellingtomigratetothewesternterritoriesandstates,suchasOregon,California,andUtah.WagontrainsfollowedseveraltrailsintheAmerican West,almostalloriginatingatIndependence,Missouri,attheeasternend.ThemostfamousofthesetrailswastheOregonTrailwhichhadaspanof2,170miles (3,500km)andwasusedbyanestimated300,000-400,000Euro-AmericansettlerstomigratewestwardfromtheMissouriRivertothePacificNorthwestinthe 1840sto1860suntilthecompletionofthefirsttranscontinentalrailroadin1869,whichmadeitsafer,easier,andfastertotravelwest.Otherpathsincludedthe SantaFeTrail,theChisholmTrail,theCaliforniaTrail(whichsplitsouthwestwardfromtheOregonTrail),theMormonTrail,andtheOldSpanishTrail.

FurtraderswiththeHudson’sBayCompanyfirstusedtheOregonTrailintheearly19thcenturyuntiltheyexhaustedthesupplyofbeaversandmovedtohunt otheranimals,suchasbison.ThetrailpassedthroughwhatarenowthestatesofMissouri,Kansas,Nebraska,Wyoming,Idaho,andOregon.Otherwell-known trailsincludedtheSantaFeTrail,theCaliforniaTrail,andtheMormonTrail.ManyofthesetravellerswereattractedbythepromiseoffreelandintheOregon Country,offeredbytheUSgovernmentaspartofitspolicyofwestwardexpansion.Onaverage,ittookaboutsixmonthstotraveltheOregonTrailfrom MissouritoOregon.MostwagontrainsontheOregonTrailincludedbetween10and30wagons,althoughsomeweremuchlarger.Thesizeofawagontrain wasoftendeterminedbytheavailableresources,suchasfood,water,andanimals,topullthewagons.Although“wagontrain”suggestsalineofwagons,when terrainpermitted,wagonswouldoftenfanoutandtravelabreasttominimisetheamountofdustblownontootherwagons.Largerwagontrainsweremore expensivetooutfitandrequiredmoreresourcestosustain,sotheywerelesscommon.In1843,ProtestantmissionaryMarcusWhitman,whobuilttheProtestant WaiilatpuMission,alsoknownastheWhitmanMission,sixmilesfromthesiteofthepresent-daycityofWallaWalla,Washington,helpedleadthefirstmajor wagontrainofaroundtwohundredwagonsand1,000settlersalongtheOregonTrail,anexodusnowknownasthe“GreatMigrationof1843.”Trafficsoon skyrocketed,andbythelate-1840sandearly1850s,upwardsof50,000peoplewereusingthetraileachyear.NarcissaWhitmanwasthewifeofMarcusand oneofthefirstoftwoEuro-AmericanwomentocrosstheRockyMountains.NarcissaWhitmanwrotetohermother,“ThepoorIndiansareamazedatthe overwhelmingnumbersofAmericanscomingintothecountry.Theyseemnottoknowwhattomakeofit.”

Itwasalongandchallengingjourneythatrequiredalotofplanningandpreparation.Sometravellerstookaslongasayeartomakethejourney,whileothers couldcompleteitinaslittleasfourmonths.TherewereinstancesofviolencebetweenNativeAmericansandsettlersontheOregonTrail,buttheseincidents wererelativelyrare.ManyNativeAmericanpeopleswereinitiallyfriendlytowardsthesettlers,andsomeevenassistedthemontheirjourney.However,asthe numberofsettlersincreasedandmorelandwasclaimed,tensionsbetweenNativeAmericansandsettlersbegantorise.SomeNativeAmericanpeoplesresisted theencroachmentofsettlersontheirland,andtherewereincreasinginstancesofviolenceandconflict.Indigenousnationsweremorelikelytobealliesand tradingpartnerstothetravellersthanadversaries,andmanyearlywagontrainsusedPawneeandShoshonetrailguides.Hostileencountersincreasedinthe yearsafterthebeginningoftheCivilWar,butstatisticsshowthatbetween1840and1860,nativeskilledaround400settlers.Themorepressingthreatswere choleraandotherdiseases,responsibleformostoftheestimated20,000deathsalongtheOregonTrail.

References

CassandraTate, Unsettledground:TheWhitmanMassacreanditsshiftinglegacyintheAmericanWest, 2020 JohnDavidUhruh, ThePlainsAcross:TheOverlandEmigrantsandtheTrans-MississippiWest,1840–1860, 1979 RayAllenBillingtonandMartinRidge, WestwardExpansion:AHistoryoftheAmericanFrontier, 2001 DonaldWorster, RiversofEmpire:Water,Aridity,andtheGrowthoftheAmericanWest, 1985

SlaveryinFloridaismorecentraltoFlorida’shistorythanitistoalmostanyotherstate.TheSeminoleWars(1817–18,1835–42,1855–58)werethreemajorconflicts betweentheUnitedStatesandtheSeminoleIndiansofFloridabeforetheAmericanCivilWarthatultimatelyresultedintheopeningoftheSeminole’sdesirable landforWhiteexploitationandsettlement.TheSeminolesareaNativeAmericannationthat,inthe18thcentury,hadmovedintounoccupiedlandinthe southeasternUnitedStates,includingpartsofpresent-dayFlorida,Georgia,andAlabama.TheSeminoleTribeprimarilycamefromthe Muscogee(Creek)Nation, whohadmovedintoFloridafromsouthernGeorgiaandAlabama.TheSeminolesarealsodescendedfromothergroups,includingtheAlabamas,Yamasees,Yuchi, Hitchiti,andAfricanAmericanswhoescapedslavery,includingafewWhitesescapingtheharshGeorgiapenalsystem,andsoughtrefugewiththetribe.

TheSpaniardsdidnotbringmanyenslavedpeopletoFloridaastherewasnoworkforthemtodo—nominesandnoplantations.UnderSpanishcolonialrule,the enslavedinFloridahadrights.Theycouldmarry,ownproperty,andpurchasetheirfreedom.Theywerenotchattel.Freeblackswerenotsubjecttolegal discriminationaslongastheywereCatholic.Noonewasbornintoslavery.Mixed-racemarriageswerenotillegal,anddiverse-racechildrencouldinheritproperty. KingCharlesIIofSpainissuedadecreefreeingallenslavedpeopleescapingfromEnglishNorthAmericawhoacceptedCatholicism,similartotheMay29,1680, SpanishdecreeforenslavedpeoplefleeingfromtheLesserAntillesandtheSeptember3,1680,andJune1,1685decreesforescapingFrenchslaves.

AninfluentialabolitionistmovementgrewinBritainandNorthAmericancoloniesduringthe18thand19thcenturiesleadingtotheSlaveTradeActof1807 thatabolishedtheslavetradeintheBritishEmpire.AnimportbanwaspassedinCongressin1808,andthesebansessentiallyendedtheTransatlanticslavetrade duringthesecondSpanishperiod.EnslavedpeoplecontinuedtoescapefromtheirBritishandAmericanownersandtakerefugeinFlorida;theNorthAmerican slavetradewasprimarilycentredonenslavedAfricanpeoplesmuggledintoFlorida.BesidesthoseenslaversinBritishandAmericancoloniesupnorthseeking torecoverescapedenslavedpeople,smugglingwascommoninFloridafromAfrica.DrivenbylabourdemandsfromnewcottonplantationsintheDeepSouth, primarilyupontheinventionofthecottonginin1793thatquicklyseparatedcottonfibresfromseeds,whichmeantmoreprofitsforcottonplantations,theUpper SouthsoldmorethanamillionenslavedpeoplewhoweretakentotheDeepSouth.ThetotalenslavedpopulationintheSoutheventuallyreachedfourmillion. PlantersandtheirrepresentativeswenttoFloridatobuythesepeopleandsmugglethemintotheUSfortheirindigoandcottonplantations.Atthecentreof Florida’sslavetradewasthecolourfultraderandslaverydefenderQuakerZephaniahKingsley,ownerofslavingvessels(boats).Hetreatedhisenslavedwell, allowedthemtosaveforandbuytheirfreedom(ata50%discount),andtaughtthemcraftslikecarpentryandshipbuilding,forwhichreasonhishighly-trained, well-behavedslavessoldforapremium.

Florida’spurchasebytheUnitedStatesfromSpainin1819(effective1821)wasprimarilyameasuretostrengthenthesystemofslaveryonSouthernplantations bydenyingpotentialrunawaystheformerhavenofFloridaandrecapturingthem.AmongtheSeminoleIndians,the Muscogee(Creeks)comprisedthelargest group,includingLowerCreeksandUpperCreeks,andbothHitchitiandMuscogeespeakers.OnegroupofHitchitispeakers,theMvskoke(Muscogee),settled aroundwhatisnowLakeMiccosukeenearTallahassee.AnothergroupofHitchitispeakerssettledaroundtheAlachuaPrairieinwhatisnowAlachuaCounty. TheSpanishinSt.AugustinebegancallingtheAlachuaCreeks cimarrones,whichroughlymeant“wildones”or“runaways,”andwhichistheprobableorigin of“Seminole.”ThisnamewaseventuallyalsoappliedtotheothergroupsinFlorida,althoughtheNativeAmericansstillregardedthemselvesasmembersof differenttribes.OthergroupsinFloridaatthetimeoftheSeminoleWarsincluded“SpanishIndians,”socalledbecauseitwasbelievedthattheywere descendedfromCalusas,and“ranchoIndians,”personsofNativeAmericanancestry,possiblybothCalusaandCreekandmixedNativeAmerican/Spanish origin,livingatSpanish/CubanfishingcampsontheFloridacoast.

PaintingSite:Apalachicola,Florida(GPS29.725278°N,-84.9925°W)

LandAcknowledgement:Mvskoke(Muscogee)

ThenumerousIndiantribesonoursouthernandwesternborders…areupinarms,carrying deathanddesolationintheirtrain,andnotonlydefyingbutabsolutelyout-generallingtheU.S. troops.Theyhaveravagedmanyplantations,killedmanyinhabitants,andemancipateda considerablenumberofslaves.

–WilliamLloydGarrison,abolitionist

TheSeminolesareknownfortheirresistancetoEuropeancolonisationandhadprotractedconflictwiththeSpanishandthentheUnitedStatesgovernment. From1805thru1816,therewasincreasingfrictionbetweenWhitesettlers,FloridaIndians,andtheCreekConfederation.Theconflictsarosefromseveral factors,includingtheUSgovernment’sexpansionintoFlorida,thepresenceofEuropeansettlersintheregion,andtheacceptanceofenslavedAfricansbythe Seminolesintotheircommunities.TheSeminolesbeganhidingrunawayslaveswhohadescapedfromsouthernplantationsintoSpanishFlorida.The Seminolesdevelopedauniquecultureandwayoflifeinfluencedbytheirdiverseheritageandenvironment.

FirstSeminoleIndianWar

AftertheAmericanRevolution,enslavedpeoplefromtheStateofGeorgiaandtheSouthCarolinaLowCountrycontinuedtoescapetoFlorida.TheUSArmy ledincreasinglyfrequentincursionsintoSpanishterritory,includingthe1817–1818campaignbyAndrewJacksonthatbecameknownastheFirstSeminole War.TheFirstSeminoleWar,alsoknownastheFirstFloridaWar,occurredfrom1817to1818andwassparkedbyUSforces’captureofaSpanishfort.On November21,1817,GeneralGainessent250menfromFortScottinGeorgiatoarrestChiefNeamathla;gunfirewasexchanged,thusstartingtheFirst Seminole-IndianWar.DuringtheFirstSeminoleWar(1817-1818),theUnitedStatesArmycapturedseveralSpanishforts,scatteredvillagers,andburnedtowns inpresent-dayFlorida.ThemaingoalsofthewarweretorecapturerunawayBlackslaveslivingamongtheSeminoleandremovetheSeminoles,whowere resistingEuropeancolonisationandUSexpansion,fromFloridaandestablishUScontrolovertheterritory.OneofthefortsthattheUnitedStatescaptured duringthewarwasFortSt.Marks,whichwaslocatedinpresent-dayTallahassee,Florida.FortSt.MarkswasaSpanishfortestablishedintheearly18thcentury todefendSpanishinterestsintheregion.ItwascapturedbyUSforcesin1818andlaterusedasamilitarybaseandsupplydepot.InMarchof1818,General AndrewJacksoncrossedintoFlorida,attackingtheSpanishfortatSt.Markswith3,500menandthenmarchedeasttotheSuwanneRiverandattackedthe villageofChiefBoleck.ManyIndigenouspeopleescapedintotheswamps.JacksoncouldnotfindorcapturetheSeminoles,thusendingtheFirstSeminoleIndianWar.

FloridahadbeenaSpanishcolonysincethe16thcenturyandhadalongandcomplexhistoryofconflictwiththeUnitedStates.TheUnitedStateshadsought toacquireFloridaformanyyears,anditfinallysucceededwiththesigningoftheTranscontinentalTreaty,alsoknownastheAdams-OnísTreaty.In1819Florida wassoldbytheSpanishtotheUnitedStates.Therewereabout5,000SeminoleIndianswhoclaimedFlorida’s32millionacresoflandastheirown.Thetreaty wassignedin1819,butthetransferofsovereigntyfromSpaintotheUnitedStatesdidnotoccuruntil1821.Spain’sdecisiontoleaveFloridawaspartlymotivated byitsdesiretofocusonothercolonialpossessions,particularlyinSouthandCentralAmerica,whereitfacedmorepressingchallenges.Spainalsohopedthatby givingupFlorida,itwouldbeabletostrengthenitsrelationshipwiththeUnitedStatesandavoidfurtherconflictwiththegrowingnation.In1823underthe TreatyofMoultrieCreek,theSeminoleIndiansgaveuptheirclaim,reducingtheirlandto4millionacres,withnoaccesstocultivatedlands,game,orocean. TheTreatyofMoultrieCreekwiththeSeminolesestablishedareservationfortheminthemiddleoftheterritory,northofLakeOkeechobee,thelargest subtropicalwildernessintheUS,wheremalariaandyellowfeverwereendemic.TheTreatycommittedtheUSgovernmenttoprovidemoniesandsuppliesto helprelocate.ThetreatyalsostipulatedthatWhitesettlerscouldbuildroadsandseekrunawayslaveswithinthereservation.Thegovernmentwasslowin deliveringcash,andincursionsbybothsettlersandSeminolestookplacewithincreasingfrequencyastimewenton.Sixchiefs,however,wereallowedtokeep theirvillagesalongtheApalachicolaRiver.

Fromthe1820stothe1830s,asWhitesettlersbegantocovettheSeminolelandsfortheirdesiredagriculturaldevelopment,PresidentAndrewJackson,whohad foughtintheFirstSeminoleWar,signedtheIndianRemovalAct,requiringtherelocationoftheSeminolestoCreeklandinOklahoma,theIndianTerritoryalso calledTheGreatAmericanDesertbecauseitsdeemedunsuitablyforWhitesettlement.USdiplomatJamesGadsdenisassociatedwiththeGadsdenPurchase,also calledtheTreatyofLaMesilla.ThistransactionfollowedtheconquestofmuchofnorthernMéxicobytheUnitedStatesin1848.KnowninMéxicanhistoryasthe saleoftheMesillaValley(LaMesilla),itassignedtotheUnitedStatesnearly30,000additionalsquaremiles(78,000squarekm)ofnorthernMéxicanterritory,

References

JohnMissallandMaryLouMissall, TheSeminoleWars:America’sLongestIndianConflict, 2004 AnthonyE.Dixon, Florida’sNegroWar:BlackSeminolesandtheSecondSeminoleWar1835-1842, 2014

nowsouthernArizonaandsouthernNewMexico,inexchangefor$10million,promptedinpartbyadvocatesofasoutherntranscontinentalrailroad,forwhich themostpracticalroutewouldpassthroughtheacquiredterritory.GadsdennegotiatedtheTreatyofPayne’sLanding(1832)withvariousSeminoleleaders.It calledfortheSeminolestomovewithinthreeyearstothelandassignedtoCreekIndianswestoftheMississippiifSeminoleleadersfoundthelandsuitableandfor theSeminolestobeabsorbedbytheCreeks.ItalsorequiredthatAfricanAmericanslivingontheSeminolereservationbeleftbehindtobeclaimedaschattel enslavedpeople.AsmalldelegationofSeminoleswenttotheCreeklandsand,findingthemacceptablein1833,wascoercedintosigningtheTreatyofFortGibson, whichaffirmedthetermsoftheearliertreaty.TheSeminoleleadershipsubsequentlydeniedthattheyhadagreedtoberemovedsincetheywerenotapartytothe treatynegotiations.Still,between1835and1842,3,000to4,000SeminoleswereremovedtoOklahoma.

SecondSeminoleIndianWar

ThesecondSeminoleWar,alsoknownastheSecondFloridaWar,lastedfrom1835to1842andresultedfromtensionsbetweentheSeminoleandEuropean settlers.GeneralWileyThompsonwasassignedtooverseetheremovaloftheSeminolesin1834.AfterlearningthattheydidnotintendtoleaveFlorida,he informedtheSeminolesthatPresidentJacksonhadauthorisedhimtoremovethembyforceifnecessary.Osceola(Asi-yaholainCreek),ayounginfluential Seminoleleader,organisedoppositiontotherelocation.TheSecondSeminole-IndianWarbeganonDecember28,1935,whenOsceolaandabandofwarriors killedtheIndianAgentandfourotherWhitesatFortKing.Onthesameday,ChiefMicanopy’ssoldiersattackedMajorDadeandhistroops,killingMajorDade and105ofhis108men.ThreedaysafterthekillingofMajorDadeonthebanksoftheWithlacoocheeRiver,250SeminoleIndiansledbyOsceolaandAlligator, warchiefs,attackedGeneralClinchand750UStroops.Afterthissignificantbattle,theSeminolesbrokeintosmallguerrillabands.Theymovedtheirfamilies south, deeperintotheunpopulatedwildsof theEverglades,attackingbysurpriseanddisappearingintotheswamps.ThissavedmostoftheSeminolevillagesin thearea.GeneralThomasJesuptookchargeoftheUSforcesinOctober1837.JesupsetupbydeceptionafalseparleyforpeacetalksandcapturedOsceolaand dozensofhisfollowers.OsceoladiedatamilitaryprisoninCharleston,SouthCarolina,afewmonthslaterofcausesreportedasaninternalinfectionormalaria.

TheSecondSeminoleWarwasthebloodiestandlongestinUnitedStateshistory.ForeverytwoIndiansremoved,oneAmericansoldierdied.By1842,onlya fewhundrednativepeoplesremainedinFlorida.TheArmedOccupationActof1842promotedWhitesettlementinFlorida,andtheSecondSeminoleWar wasdeclaredoveronAugust14,1842;theSeminoleIndiansneversignedapeacetreaty.Asmanyas2,000USsoldierswerekilledintheprolongedfighting, whichcostthegovernmentbetween$20,000,000and$60,000,000(innon-inflation-adjustednumbers).

ThirdSeminoleIndianWar

TheThirdSeminoleWar,alsoknownastheThirdFloridaWar,occurredfrom1855to1858andresultedfromtherenewedUScampaigntoremovetheSeminole fromFlorida.ChiefBillyBowlegsledanattackinDecember1855,beginningtheThirdSeminoleWar.ThiswasdoneinprotestoftheUSgovernmentsending patrolsintotheSeminoleterritory.NegotiationsendedwithatreatybeingsignedgivingSeminoleslandinOklahoma.TheSeminoleWarsweremarkedbyviolence andconflict,andtheysignificantlyimpactedtheSeminolepeople.ManySeminoleswerekilledorforcedtofleetheirhomes,andthewarsdisruptedthetribe’s traditionalwayoflife.TheThirdSeminoleWarcausedlittlebloodshedandendedwiththeUnitedStatespayingthemostresistantbandofrefugeestogoWest.

Today,thereareseveralfederallyrecognisedSeminoletribesintheUnitedStates,includingtheSeminoleTribeofFlorida,theSeminoleNationofOklahoma, andtheMiccosukeeTribeofIndiansofFlorida.From1845to1913,theareawasknownasOrangeCounty.OnApril25,1913,thewordSeminolewaschosen asthenewcountyname,whichmeansrun-away,justliketheSeminoles.TheSeminoleshavearichculturalheritageandcontinuetoplayanessentialrolein thehistoryandidentityofthesoutheasternUnitedStates.

—EnriqueLamadrid,professoremeritusofSpanishattheUniversityofNewMexico

TheGenízaroswereenslaved,detribalisedNativeAmericansandpartofacomplexsocialfabric,includingmixed-bloodEspañolesandmestizos,Coyotes andIndios,thatgaveNewMexicoauniquemixtureofpeopleofEuropean,NativeAmerican,andAfricandescent. Mestizo meantamixofNativeand Spanish,and Coyote mainlywasNativewithsomeSpanish. Indios referredtothosefromtheNativepueblos,plusDiné(Navajo),Comanche,Apache,Uteand Kiowa,amongothers.FundedbytheSpanishCrown,theSpanishfirstabductedandthenpurchasedyoungwarcaptivesfromsurroundingtribes.Theterm genízaro, meantasacastelabelandaslurterm,isaSpanishwordborrowedfromtheItalianword giannizzero,whichwasadoptedfromtheOttomanTurkish word yeniçeri, or“newsoldier”or“newtroop.”ThisTurkishwordreferredtocapturedChristianboystrainedaselitesoldiersforthesultan’shouseholdtroops andbodyguardintheMuslimOttomanEmpire(theTurkishwordwasalsoadoptedintoEnglishas janissary).Thetermbecamegenerallyusedafter1692 whentheSpanishregainedcontrolofNewMexicoafterthePueblorevolt.

NewMexicointhe1700swasdangerous;nomadicNativesraidedHispanoandPueblovillages,killingmenandtakinghorses,womenandchildrencaptives, nevertobeseenagain.Hispanosdidthesame,raidingandkillingnomadicNativepeoples.NativepeopleraidedanddestroyedotherNativecommunities, sellingthecaptivechildrentoHispanosforaransompaymentcalled rescate. TherewasawidespreadandlucrativetradeinPlainsIndianchildandwomen captives,andtheyrepresentedvarioustribes,includingApaches,Navajos,Comanches,Kiowas,Pawnees,UtesandWichitas.Capturedinwarsorraids,they wereforciblyremovedfromtheirtribesandfamiliesandsoldintoslaverytoSpanishorMéxicansettlersinNewMexicoatTaosandSantaFeasindentured servants,shepherds,generallabourers,etc.Rapewascommon.Thecoloniststookthesecaptivewomenandchildrentotheirhouseholds,wheretheywere taughtSpanishandconvertedtoCatholicism.

GenízarosweremarginalisedyetcrucialtothesurvivalofNewMexicointhe1700s.TheSpanishcrownprovidedlandgrantstoGenízaroatAbiquiú,Belén,Tomé, Valencia,Carnuel,LosLentes,LasTrampas,Socorro,andSanMigueldelVado,frontiertownsthatservedasbufferstodefendHispanosandpueblosfrom nomadicraidingtribessuchastheApache,Comanche,Utes,andNavajo.TheGenízarosprotectedwagoncaravansheadingdownthevalleytoChihuahua.The awardingofacommunitygranttotheseGenízarofamilies,whileservingthedefensivepurposesoftheSpanishauthorities,gavethemtheopportunitytoowntheir homesandfarmtheirownlands.YoungGenízarosweresubjectedtoharshtreatment,includingforcedlabourandabuse,andtheywereoftentreatedasproperty. Méxicooutlawedslaveryin1829,soGenízaros,oncetheyreachedadultage,wereemancipatedafterindenturedservitudeandfreetosettleintheircommunities orevenamongHispanosatplacessuchasTaos,SantaFeandAlbuquerque.(continues)

PaintingSite:Abiquiú,NewMexico(GPS36.209444°N,-106.318611°W)

LandAcknowledgement:Pueblos,Núu-agha-tʉvʉ-pʉ̱(Ute)

Inthe1770s,ifyouweregoingtogetmarried,oneofthebestweddingpresentsyoucouldget isalittleIndiankidwhobecomespartofyourhousehold.Theytookonyourownlastname, andtheybecamepartofthefamily.

Genízarosjoinedothercitizen-soldiersofNewMexicoduringtheChimayóRebellionof1837tofightforNewMexico’sseparationfromthecentralistRepublic ofMéxico;thecommanderoftherebellion,JoséGonzales,wasaGenízaro.Bytheendofthe18thcentury,Genízaroswereestimatedtocompriseabout one-thirdoftheentirepopulationofNewMexico,whichin1793was29,041.

Peacewasestablishedinthelate18th centurybetweenNewMexico,theComanche,andtheUte.AnannualtradefairatAbiquiúdrewmanyindigenous peopletothetown,especiallytheUtes,whotradeddeerskinsforhorsesandtools.Also,settlerspurchasedorredeemedcaptivechildrenfromthenative people.BandsofUtesoftencampedforthewinternearAbiquiú.Butinthe1840s,thepeacewiththeUtesbrokedown,and1,000cametoAbiquiú withalistofgrievancesanddemands.PeacewiththeUteswasrestoredin1849bytheUSgovernment,[ whichhadrecentlyinvadedandconquered NewMexicointheMéxican–AmericanWar.

OutsideofGenízarocommunitiessuchasAbiquiú,thishistoryhasbeenslippingfrommemory.In2007,however,theNewMexicoLegislaturerecognisedGenízaros andtheircontemporarydescendantsasIndigenouspeople.Duringtheearly21stcentury,theycomprisedmuchoftheSouthValleyofAlbuquerquepopulationand significantportionsofthepopulationofnorthernNewMexico,includingEspañola,Taos,SantaFe,andLasVegas,inadditiontothatofsouthernColorado.Today, manyGenízarosandtheirdescendantsaremembersoffederallyrecognisedtribes.Theyactivelypreservetheirculturalheritageandseekjusticefortheirancestors’ injustices.Theyhaveacomplexandnuancedhistory,andtheirpresenceandculturalinfluencecanstillbefelttodayinNewMexico.

References

MoisesGonzales(editor),EnriqueR.Lamadrid(editor), NaciónGenízara:Ethnogenesis,Place,andIdentityinNewMexico, 2019 DorisSwannAvery, IntotheDenofEvils:TheGenizarosinColonialNewMexico, UniversityofMontana,GraduateThesis,2008

Plate14. GhostRanch,Abiquiú,NewMexico, 2021

—PamelaPalmater,Mi’kmawlawyer,author,andprofessoratRyersonUniversity

TheHighwayofTearsisa450-mile(725km)corridorofHighway16,partoftheTrans-CanadaHighwaysystem,betweenPrinceGeorgeandPrinceRupertinBritish Columbia,Canada,adark,wildlandofsprawlingforestswhichhasbeenthelocationofmanydisappearancesandmurdersbeginningin1969.Thisrouteisasection oftheTrans-CanadaYellowheadHighway,alsoknownasthePark-to-ParkHighway,whichspansBritishColumbia,Alberta,SaskatchewanandManitoba.Numerous municipalitiesandtwenty-threeFirstNationscommunitiesbordertheHighwayofTears.ThephrasewascoinedduringavigilheldinTerrance,BritishColumbia, in1998byFlorenceNaziel,whothoughtofthevictims’familiescryingovertheirlovedones.Ithasbecomeasymboloftheongoingissuesofviolenceand discriminationfacedbyIndigenouscommunitiesinCanada.ManyIndigenouspeopleinCanadahaveexperiencedsystemicdiscrimination.Theyhavebeen disproportionatelyaffectedbypoverty,addiction,andothersocialissues,contributingtohighviolenceandcrimeratesinIndigenouscommunities.

Anunconscionablyhighnumberofindigenouswomenareonthevictims’list.Indigenouswomenaccountformorethanhalfofallvictimsconsideredbypolice tobeassociatedwiththeHighwayofTear’skillings.Manybelievethesewomenbecameprimetargetsduetotheirsocioeconomiccircumstances,citingpoverty, drugabuse,widespreaddomesticviolence,disconnectionwithtraditionalculture,anddisruptionofthefamilyunitthroughthefostercaresystemandthe CanadianIndianresidentialschoolsystem.Povertyleadstolowratesofcarownershipandmobility;thus,hitchhikingisoftentheonlywayformanytotravel longdistancestoseefamily,gotoworkorschool,orseekmedicaltreatment.AlthoughIndigenouswomenmakeuplessthan4%ofthetotalfemalepopulation ofCanada,theycomprise16%ofallfemalehomicides,andmostofthesehavegoneunsolved,causingmanytocryoutagainstdiscrimination.

TheHighwayofTearshasreceivedsignificantattentionfromthemedia,advocacygroups,andtheCanadiangovernment,whichin2005createdan organisationcalledE-Pana.WithanamederivedfromanInuitwordforaspiritgoddess(specifically,onewhowatchesoverthesoulsoftherecently deceased),ProjectE-PanawasmadetoinvestigateandsolvethedisappearancestakingplacealongtheHighwayofTears.Adedicatedtaskforceof approximately50investigatorsandsupportstaffhavebeencommittedtodeterminingwhathappenedtothemissingormurderedwomen.Therehavebeen callsforincreasedeffortstoaddresstheissuesofviolenceanddiscriminationfacedbyIndigenouspeopleinCanada.Officially,40differentcaseshavebeen linkedtotheHighwayofTears,spanningmultipledecades,from1969to2006.But,inreality,thatnumbercouldbemuchhigher.Lookingbeyondthat sametimerange,somecases—consideredunofficiallylinkedtothehighway—areasrecentas2014,addingnearlyanotherdecade’sworthoftragedyto thelonglist.Asof2017,onlyonemurderhasbeensolved,forwhichserialkillerCodyLegebokoffwasconvicted.However,Americanserialrapistand suspectedserialkillerBobbyJackFowler,whodiedwhileimprisonedintheUnitedStatesforothercrimes,isasuspectinmanymurders.(continues)

PaintingSite:PrinceRupert,BritishColumbia(GPS54.312778°N,-130.325278°W)

LandAcknowledgement:La̱xyuubmTs’msyen(Tsimshian);Kitsumkalum;Gitxaała;LaxKw’Alaams

TheHighwayofTearsisatragicexampleoftheongoingviolenceanddiscrimination facedbyIndigenouspeoplesinCanada,andithighlightstheneedforimmediateand meaningfulactiontoaddresstheseissues.

MissingIndigenousWomen(MIW)isatermusedtodescribethehighratesofviolenceanddisappearancesexperiencedbyIndigenouswomenandgirlsin CanadaandtheUnitedStates.Indigenouswomenandgirlsaredisproportionatelyaffectedbyviolence,includingsexualviolenceanddomesticviolence, andtheyarealsomorelikelytogomissingthannon-Indigenouswomenandgirls.TheissueofMIWhasreceivedincreasingattentioninrecentyears,as advocatesandfamilieshavecalledforactiontoaddresstherootcausesofviolenceandtosupportthoseaffectedbyit.ThecausesofMIWarecomplexand multifaceted.Theyincludearangeoffactors,includingpoverty,marginalisation,anddiscrimination,aswellastheongoingimpactofcolonisationandthe lossofculturaltraditionsandpractices.EffortstoaddressMIWhavefocusedonarangeofinitiatives,includingdevelopingculturallysensitivesupport servicesforvictimsandtheirfamilies,promotingawarenessandpreventionefforts,andimplementingpoliciesandpracticesthatprioritisethesafetyand well-beingofIndigenouswomenandgirls.ItisessentialtocontinueworkingtoaddresstherootcausesofMIWandtosupportthoseaffectedbyviolence toensurethesafetyandwell-beingofIndigenouscommunities.

References

JessicaMcDiarmid,TheHighwayofTears:ATrueStoryofRacism,IndifferenceandthePursuitofJustice,2019 MaryTeegee,Documentary: HighwayofTears (2015),filmproducerandExecutiveDirectorofCarrierSekaniFamilyServices

—EliasCastillo, ACrownofThorns:TheEnslavementof California’sIndiansbytheSpanishMissions, 2015

MissionIndians,alsoknownasCaliforniaIndians(theirpreferredname),areIndigenouspeopleswholivedinSouthernCaliforniaandwereassociatedwith theSpanishmissionsestablishedinCaliforniainthelate18thandearly19thcenturies.AlthoughSpainclaimedCaliforniaasitsterritoryin1542,theSpaniards didn’ttrytooccupythelanduntilthelate1700s.TheSpanishmissionswerereligiousandcolonialoutpoststhattheSpanishEmpireestablishedwithCatholic priestsoftheFranciscanordertoevangeliseIndigenouspeoplesbackedbythemilitaryforceoftheSpanishEmpire.Anothermotivationforthemissionswas ensuringrivalcountries,suchasRussiaandGreatBritain,didn’ttrytooccupytheCaliforniaregion.Civiliansettlersandsoldiersaccompaniedmissionaries andformedsettlementslikethePueblodeLosÁngeles(fromwhichthecityofLosAngelesgrew).FranciscanpriestFatherJuníperoSerrafoundedthefirst missionin1769.ThiswasknownasMissionSanDiegodeAlcaláandwaslocatedinpresent-daySanDiego.ThenativeIndianswhooccupiedtheregionwere initiallyresistanttothemission.In1775,hundredsoflocalTipai-IpaiIndiansattackedandburnedtheSanDiegoMission,killingthreemen,includingFather LuisJayme.Themissionariesrebuiltthemissionasanarmyfort.

Thenativeconvertswereknownas“neophytes.”Aftertheywerebaptised,theywereexpectedtoperformlabourasstudentsoftheRomanCatholicismofthe Franciscans.MissionIndianswereforcedintosettlementscalled reductions,disruptingtheirtraditionalwayoflifeandnegativelyaffectingasmanyasone thousandvillagestoliveandworkatthe21FranciscanoutpostsormissionsinSouthernCalifornia,theAsistenciasandEstanciasestablishedbetween1796and 1823intheLasCaliforniasProvinceoftheViceroyaltyofNewSpain.Indianswerenotpaidwagesastheywerenotconsideredfreelabourersbutasstudents receivingreligiouseducationandinstruction,and,asaresult,themissionswereabletoprofitfromthegoodsproducedbytheMissionIndianstothedetriment oftheotherSpanishandMexicansettlersofthetimewhocouldnotcompeteeconomicallywiththeadvantageofthemissionsystem.TheFranciscansbegan sendingneophytestoserveasservantsofSpanishsoldiersinthepresidios,afortifiedmilitarybase.Eachpresidiowasprovidedwithland,elranchodelrey, whichservedasapastureforthepresidiolivestockandasafoodsourceforthesoldiers.Theoretically,thesoldiersweresupposedtoworkonthislandthemselves. Still,withinafewyears,theneophytesweredoingalltheworkonthepresidiofarmand,inaddition,wereservingasdomesticsforthesoldiers.

MissionIndianswereexpectedtoadoptEuropeancustomsandpractices,includingChristianity.TheCatholicpriestsforbadetheIndiansfrompractisingtheir nativeculture,disruptingmanytribes’linguistic,spiritualandculturaltraditions.WithnoacquiredimmunitytotheexposureofEuropeandiseases,aswellas theirsuddenculturalupheavalandlifestyledemands,thepopulationofCaliforniaIndianssufferedhighmortalityanddramaticdecreases,especiallyinthe coastalregions;thepopulationwasreducedby90percent,between1769and1848.BeforetheCaliforniamissions,therewereabout300,000California Indians.By1834,scholarsbelievetherewereonlyabout20,000remaining.(continues)

PaintingSite:PueblodelosÁngeles,California(GPS34.056944°N,-118.237778°W)

LandAcknowledgement:Chumash;Tongva(Gabrieleno)

TheSpanishmissionsofCaliforniahavelongbeenmisrepresentedasplacesofbenignand peacefulcoexistencebetweenFranciscanfriarsandCaliforniaIndians.Infact,themission friarsenslavedtheCaliforniaIndiansandtreatedthemwithdeliberatecruelty.Beginningin 1769,CaliforniaIndianswereenticedintothemissions,wheretheyandtheirdescendantswere imprisonedfor60yearsofforcedlabouranddailybeatings.

Atleast90,000Indigenouspeopleswerekeptinwell-guardedmissioncompoundsthroughoutthestateasdefactoenslavedpeople.ManyMissionIndianswere subjectedtoforcedlabour,abuse,andmistreatmentandsufferedsignificantlossesofland,culture,andautonomyduetothemissionsystem.Missionaries recordedfrustrationswithgettingIndigenouspeopletointernaliseCatholicscriptureandpractice,chastisingthemforwantingtovisitthebeachestheygrew upwith.Indigenousgirlsweretakenawayfromtheirparentsandhousedat monjeríos, ornunneries.Themissions’roleindestroyingIndigenousculturehasbeen describedasculturalgenocide.Thehighdeathrateatthemissionshasbeenattributedtoseveralfactors,includingdisease,torture,overworking,and malnourishment.

Forcingnativepeopleintoclosequartersatthemissionsspreaddiseasequickly.Whilebeingkeptatthemissions,nativepeopleweretransitionedtoaSpanishdiet thatleftthemunabletowardoffinfections,themostcommonbeingdysentery,feverswithunknowncauses,andvenerealdisease.Thedeathratehasbeen comparedtothatofotheratrocities.SomecriticshavechargedthattheSpanishmissionsystemforcedNativeAmericansintoslaveryandprostitution.American authorandlawyerCareyMcWilliamsarguedthat“theFranciscanpadreseliminatedIndianswiththeeffectivenessofNazisoperatingconcentrationcamps.”

By1810,Spain’skinghadbeenimprisonedbytheFrench,andfinancingformilitarypayrollandmissionsinCaliforniaceased.WhenMéxicogainedindependence in1834,itassumedcontroloftheCalifornianmissionsfromtheFranciscans,butabuseoftheMissionIndianspersisted.TheFirstMéxicanRepublicsecularised themissions,emancipatingIndigenouspeoplesfromthemissions.Missionlandswereprimarilygiventosettlers,soldiers,andaminorityofIndigenouspeople.

TheMéxican-Americanwarof1846to1848pittedapoliticallydividedandmilitarilyunpreparedMéxicoagainsttheexpansionist-mindedadministration ofUSPresidentJamesK.Polk,whobelievedtheUnitedStateshada“ManifestDestiny”tospreadacrossthecontinenttothePacificOcean.AseriesofUS victoriesfollowedaborderskirmishalongtheRioGrandethatstartedthefighting.Bythewar'send,Méxicohadlostaboutone-thirdofitsterritory, includingnearlyallofpresent-dayCalifornia,Utah,Nevada,ArizonaandNewMexico.AftergoldwasdiscoveredatSutter’sMillin1848,Americansbegan tomigratebythemassestoCalifornia.In1850,Californiaofficiallybecameastate.AbrahamLincolngrantedtheCatholicChurchownershipofsome Californiamissionsin1865.CaliforniaIndiansplayedasignificantroleinthehistoryofCaliforniaandtheUnitedStates,andtheycontinuetobeapartof theculturalandpoliticallandscapeofthestate.Today,manyCaliforniaIndiansaremembersoffederallyrecognisedtribes.Theyactivelypreservetheir culturalheritageandseekjusticefortheirancestors’injustices.HistoriansandCaliforniaIndianshaveraisedconcernsabouthowthemissionperiodin Californiaistaughtineducationalinstitutionsandmemorialised.

References

EliasCastillo, ACrossofThorns:TheEnslavementofCalifornia'sIndiansbytheSpanishMissions, 2015

StevenW.Hackel, ChildrenofCoyote,MissionariesofSaintFrancis:Indian-SpanishRelationsinColonialCalifornia,1769-1850, 2005

—ChiefLawyer(Hal-hal-tlos-tsot)

TheNezPercéWarwasanarmedconflictin1877intheWesternUnitedStatesthatpittedseveralbandsoftheNezPercénationofNativeAmericansand theirallies,asmallbandofthePalousenationledbyRedEcho(Hahtalekin)andBaldHead(HusishusisKute),againsttheUnitedStatesArmy.Foughtbetween JuneandOctober,theconflictstemmedfromtherefusalofseveralbandsoftheNezPercé,dubbed“non-treatyIndians,”togiveuptheirancestrallandsinthe PacificNorthwestandmovetoanIndianreservationinIdahoTerritory.Thisforcedremovalviolatedthe1855TreatyofWallaWalla,inwhichtheNezPercé weregranted7.5millionacresoftheirancestrallandsandthesamerighttohuntandfishonlandscededtotheUSgovernmentasEuro-Americancitizens. TheNezPercénaivelybelievedthattheUSgovernmentwouldhonourthetreatyandprotecttherightsnegotiated.UnderthetermsoftheNezPercétreaty, noWhitesettlerswereallowedonthereservationwithoutthepermissionoftheNezPercé.In“HearMe,MyChiefs!:NezPercéLegendandHistory,”Lucullus V.McWhorterarguesthattheNezPercéwereapeacefulpeopleforcedintowarbytheUnitedStateswhentheirlandwasstolenfromthem.

Sincethebeginningofthe19thcentury,whenWhitemenbegantoinvadethelandsoftheNezPercé,thenationmaintainedpeacefulrelationswiththemfor manyyears.ThepopularandofficialnameoftheNezPercé,“PiercedNoses,”wasoriginallygiventothepeoplebyFrench-Canadiantrappers.Theterm referredtothepeople’sformercustomofwearinga dentalium shell,atusk-likemolluscthroughaholeboredintheseptumofthenose.In1804theNezPercé resuppliedandaidedtheArmyexpeditionofCaptainsMeriwetherLewisandWilliamClark,whichprobablysavedtheexpeditionfrominevitablefailure.In the1830s,theNezPercéalsoaidedintheexpeditionofCaptainBenjaminBonneville,whotookaleaveofabsencefromtheArmytoproceedwithhiswestern expedition.However,in1860goldwasdiscoverednearpresent-dayPierce,Idaho,and5,000gold-seekersrushedontothereservation,illegallyfoundingthe downstreamcityofLewistonasasupplydepotonNezPercéland.

Ranchersandfarmersfollowedtheminers,andtheUSgovernmentfailedtokeepsettlersoutofIndianlands.Despitenumeroustreatyviolations,theNez Percéremainedpeaceful.Respondingtopressurestomakelandavailabletosettlers,theUSgovernmentforcedanothertreatyontheNezPercéin1863, reducingthesizeofthereservationby90%.TheNezPercéwereincensedatthefailureoftheUSgovernmenttoupholdthetreatiesandatsettlerswhosquatted ontheirlandandplougheduptheircamasprairies,whichtheydependedonforsubsistence.CamasprairieshavealongculturalsignificanceforIndigenous peoplesinthePacificNorthwest.ThecamaslilywasanimportantfoodsourceformanyNativeAmericancommunities.Theflowerswereharvestedandused invariousways,includingfood,medicine,andceremonies.

LedbyChiefJoseph(Hin-mah-too-yah-lat-kekt),whoseNezPercénametranslatesas“ThunderRollingDowntheMountain”oftheWallowabandofNez Percé,theNezPercépeoplefoughtaguerrilla-stylewaragainst500-400soldiersoftheUnitedStatesArmyledbyGeneralOliverO.Howard.TheNezPercé Warwasextensivelyreportedinthenation’spress.ThefightingretreatoftheNezPercéhadmadetheirleaderChiefJosephsomethingofanationalheroand amilitarygeniusintheeyesofmanyintheAmericanpublic.AlthoughJosephwasadiplomaticchiefandnottechnicallyawarchief,heprobablydidnot commandtheretreat;manyofthechiefswhodidhadbeenkilled.

PaintingSite:Pierce,Idaho(GPS46.491021°N,-115.799029°W)

LandmarkAcknowledgement:Cayuse,UmatillaandWallaWalla;KtunaxaɁamakɁis;Nimiipuu(NezPercé)

Wehaveneverwarreduponthewhites,andwehavealwaysfurnishedthemwiththemeansof subsistence,andwehavealwaysgiventhemafriendlywelcometoourcountry.

TheNezPercénumberedabout750men,women,andchildren,withabout150-200ofthemsoldiers.TheNezPercébegantheirjourneywiththemistaken notionthattheywouldfindapeacefulnewhomeaftercrossingthenextmountainrangeordefeatingthelatestarmysenttoopposethem.Initially,theyhad hopedtotakerefugewiththeCrowNationintheMontanaTerritory.WhentheCrowrefusedtograntthemaid,theyrealised,however,thattheonlysanctuary availabletothemwasinSaskatchewan,Canada,alongsidetheLakotaledbySittingBull,whohadfoundasylumthereaftertheGreatSiouxWarof1876. SittingBullandtheLakotahadfledtoCanadainMay1877toavoidcapturefollowingthe1876BattleoftheLittleBighorn.AfterpassingthroughYellowstone NationalPark,theNezPercéheadednorththroughtheMontanaTerritorytowardCanada.

TheBattleofWhiteBirdCanyonwasfoughtonJune17,1877,inIdahoTerritory.WhiteBirdCanyonwastheopeningbattleoftheNezPercéWar.Thebattlewas asignificantdefeatfortheUSArmy.TheBattleofCottonwoodwasaseriesofengagementsJuly3–5,1877,nearCottonwood,IdahoTerritory.TheNezPercé,led byChiefJoseph,brushedasidetheUSArmysoldiersandcontinuedtheir1,170miles(1,880km)fightingretreattocrosstheRockyMountainsinanattemptto reachsafetyinCanada.Withthemweremorethan2,000livestock,mostlyhorses.Theywerefairlywell-armedwiththegunsandammunitionNezPercéhad capturedatWhiteBirdCanyon.TheirobjectiveintheBattleofCottonwoodwastoengagetheWhitesonlylongenoughtoallowtheirfamiliessafepassage.The BattleoftheClearwater(July11–12,1877)wasabattleintheIdahoTerritorybetweentheNezPercé,thearmysurprisedaNezPercévillage;theNezPercécounterattackedandinflictedsignificantcasualtiesonthesoldiersbutwereforcedtoabandonthevillage.OnJuly28,theyenteredtheBitterrootValleyandproceeded southward.ChiefLookingGlassseemstohavetakenoverleadershipfromChiefJoseph;hepledgedtothewhitesettlersintheBitterrootValleythattheNezPercé wouldpassthroughtheirvalleywithoutviolence,andtheydidso,eventradingandpurchasingsuppliesfromWhitemerchants.

OnAugust8,adetachmentledbyLieutenantJamesBradleydiscoveredtheNezPercécampalongtheNorthForkoftheBigHoleRiver.ThatnightGibbon marchedoverlandtotheNezPercécamp,reachingitatdawn,leavinghistwelve-pound(5.4kg)howitzerandapacktraintofollowbehindwithaguardof twentymen.Hehadcometofight:hisorderswerenoprisonersornegotiations.TheBattleoftheBigHolewasfoughtinMontanaTerritory,August9–10, 1877,bothsidessufferedheavycasualties.Gibbon’smenfiredindiscriminatelyatmen,women,andchildren–althoughsomewomenweresaidtohavebeen armedandshotbackatthesoldiers.Realisingthathewasinan“untenableposition,”Gibbonorderedaretreatacrosstherivertoatimberedarea300or400 yardsdistantandoutofviewofthevillage.Thesoldiersdugriflepitsandconstructedrockandlogbarriers.Atthispoint,Gibbon’showitzerappearedonthe battlefieldandfiredtwoorthreeineffectualrounds.TheNezPercékilledorwoundedmostofthehowitzercrew,whoabandonedthegunbutnotbefore dismantlingit.TheNezPercéhadcollectedarmsandammunitionleftbehindbythesoldiersintheirretreat.ThatafternoontheNezPercécontinuedsniping atthesoldierswhiletheirwomenpackedup,gatheredthehorseherd,andmovedoutsouth,goingabout18milestoLakeCreek,wheretheymadecamp–this timewithdefensiveworks.TheNezPercéwithdrewingoodorderfromthebattlefieldandcontinuedtheirlongfightingretreat.Gibbon’ssuccessinsurprising theNezPercécausedLookingGlass’sprestigeasaleadertoplummet.HehadpromisedthemtheywouldbesafeinMontana,andinstead,nearlyeveryNez Percéfamilyhadsufferedalossinthebattle.ChiefJosephseemstohaveresumedhisroleastheprincipalleaderoftheNezPercé,althoughLookingGlass wouldcontinuetobeabattlefieldleader.FortheNezPercé,thelossesinthebattleweregrievous.Theyhadanticipatedthat,byleavingIdaho,theymightleave thewarbehindthemandlivepeacefully.Now,theyknewthattheycouldexpectnoquarterinfuturebattles.

TheBattleofCamasCreek,August20,1877,wasaraidbytheNezPercépeopleonaUnitedStatesArmyencampmentinIdahoTerritory;theNezPercé defeatedthreecompaniesofUScavalryandcontinuedtheirfightingretreattoescapethearmy.TheNezPercéwithdrewingoodorderfromthebattlefield andcontinuedtheirlongfightingretreatthatwouldresultintheirattempttoreachCanadaandasylum.TheNezPercéfledthroughYellowstoneNationalPark betweenAugust20andSept7,1877.AstheUSarmypursuedtheNezPercéthroughthepark,severalhostileandsometimesdeadlyencountersbetweenpark visitorsandtheIndiansoccurred.Withoutmuchdifficulty,theNezPercéheldoffandescapedfromacavalryforceoutnumberingthematleasttwotoone.

However,thelossofabout400horsestotheCrowscoutsintheserviceoftheUSArmywasablowasitplacedanadditionalburdenontheirremainingand increasinglyworn-outhorsesandslowedtheirflighttowardCanada.Theyhadalsoexpendedmuchoftheirscarceammunition.ThebetrayalbytheCrowwas apsychologicalblow,andafterthreemonthsofafightingretreat,theywerephysicallyexhausted.

OnSeptember22,1877,beforetheNezPercé,awagontrainhadleftCowIslandLandingwith35tonsoffreightandcattle,headingupCowIslandTrailfor Ft.Benton.OnSeptember23,severalhundredNezPercécrossedtheMissouriRiveratCowCreekintheirflighttowardCanada.Anarmygarrisonoftwelve menunderSergeantWilliamMolchertwasatCowIslandLanding,alongwithfourcivilianclerksrepresentingfreightinginterestsintheregion.OnSeptember 24,whilestillinCowIslandCanyon,thetrainwasovertakenbytheNezPercé,whoapproachedthemunthreateningly.ThateveningsomeNezPercévisited thecampofthewagontrainandtherewerecivilexchangesbetweenthemembersofthewagontrainandtheNezPercéwhowantedtotradeforammunition andothergoods.OnthemorningofSeptember25,asmallarmyreliefforceunderMajorGuidoIglesapproachedtherearoftheNezPercéassemblageon CowCreek.MajorIgleshadcomefromFt.BentontoaidtheoutpostatCowIslandLanding.

AftercrossingtheriveronSeptember25,themainbodyoftheNezPercéwentpastthesoldierswithoutincidentandcampedabouttwomilesupCowCreek. AsmallgroupofNezPercérodetotheentrenchment.Theyindicatedfriendlyintentionsandaskedforsomeofthestockpiledfood.Thearmysergeantin chargeatfirstignoredtheirrequest,whichreducedtheNezPercétobegging.Finally,thesergeantgavethemonebagofhardtackandonesideofbaconfrom thesoldier’sownstores.Afterdark,theIndiansbrokeintothesuppliesandtookwhattheyfounddesirableinthedark.Thesuppliesweresetonfire.Alarge stockpileofbaconburnedbrightlyformostofthenight.Thesoldiersattributedtheilluminationfromthisblazetopreventingaconcertedattack,asit’slikely thattheNezPercéonlywantedthesuppliesandnotapitchedbattlewiththesoldiers.OnthenightofSeptember25,thesteamer Benton arrivedatCowIsland Landing,dischargingfiftytonsoffreight,andthesteamer SilverCity approachedwithanadditionalonehundredtons.MajorIglessentcouriersreportingthe NezPercélocationtoGeneralNelsonA.Miles,advancingcrosscountryfromFt.KeoghwithfreshtroopstointercepttheNezPercé.WhentheNezPercé startedupCowCreek,theywereonly80miles(130km)fromCanada.WhilecampedonCowCreekontheeveningofSeptember25followingtheskirmish withMajorIgles,dissensionbrokeoutamongtheNezPercéleadershipbetweenthosewhowantedtopressonandthosewhowantedtoslowtoresttiredand weakenedpeopleandhorses.TheNezPercébelievedthesoldierswerenowfarbehindthem.TheywereunawarethatGeneralMileswascomingcrosscountry fromFt.Keoghasfastashistroopscouldtravel.ThecaptureoftheNezPercéoccurredbecausetheydelayedincrossingtheCanada–USborder,allowing GeneralMilestocatchuptothemwithafreshforceofsoldiers,whoweresuperiorinnumberandfirepower.

TheBattleofBearPawwasthefinalengagementoftheNezPercéWarof1877.Followinga1,200-mile(1,900km)runningfightfromnorthcentralIdaho Territoryoverthepreviousfourmonths,theUSArmymanagedtocornermostoftheNezPercéledbyChiefJosephinearlyOctober1877innorthernMontana Territory,just42miles(68km)southoftheborderwithCanada,wheretheNezPercéintendedtoseekrefugefrompersecutionbytheUSgovernment.

Theywereabletoevadecaptureforseveralmonths,pursuedbyelementsoftheUSArmy,withwhomtheyfoughtaseriesofbattlesandskirmishesonafighting retreatof1,170miles(1,880km)untilOctober1877,whentheNezPercépeoplewereforcedtosurrendertotheUnitedStatesmilitary.Unabletofightanylonger, ChiefJosephsurrenderedtotheUSArmywiththeunderstandingthatheandhispeoplewouldbeallowedtoreturntothereservationinwesternIdaho.Bythe timeJosephhadsurrendered,150ofhisfollowershadbeenkilledorwounded.

AlthoughJosephhadnegotiatedasafereturnhomeforhispeoplewithGeneralHowardandGeneralMiles,GeneralWilliamTecumsehSherman,Union commanderoftheWesternTheatreduringtheCivilWar(1861-1865),overruledthisdecisionandforcedJosephand400followerstobetakenonunheatedrail carstoLeavenworthineasternKansas,wheretheywereheldinaprisoner-of-warcampsiteforeightmonths.Towardtheendofthefollowingsummer,the survivingNezPercéweretakenbyrailtoareservationintheIndianTerritory(nowOklahoma);theylivedthereforsevenyears.Manyofthemdiedofepidemic diseaseswhilethere.ChiefJosephwastransportedbetweenvariousfortsandreservationsonthesouthernGreatPlainsbeforebeingmovedtotheColvilleIndian ReservationinWashington,wherehediedin1904atage64.

ChiefJoseph’sliferemainsaniconiceventinthehistoryoftheAmericanIndianWars.Forhispassionate,principledresistancetohistribe’sforcedremoval,Joseph becamerenownedasbothahumanitarianandapeacemaker.TheskillwithwhichtheNezPercéfoughtandhowtheyconductedthemselvesinthefaceof incredibleadversityearnedthemwidespreadadmirationfromtheirmilitaryopponentsandtheAmericanpublic.CoverageofthewarinUSnewspapersledto popularrecognitionofChiefJosephandtheNezPercé.An1877 NewYorkTimes editorialdiscussingtheconflictstated,“Onourpart,thewarwasinitsorigin andmotivenothingshortofagiganticblunderandacrime.”

References

DavidE.Stannard, AmericanHolocaust:ColumbusandTheConquestoftheNewWorld, 1992 ElliottWest, TheLastIndianWar:TheNezPerceStory, 2009 PekkaHämäläinen, IndigenousContinent:TheEpicContestforNorthAmerica, 2022

TheTMT(ThirtyMeterTelescope)andMaunaKeaprotestsrefertoaseriesofprotestsanddemonstrationsthathaveoccurredinrecentyearsinresponseto theproposedconstructionofthe$2.65billionTMTonthe13,803ft(4,207m)summitofMaunaKea(Hawai’ian:WhiteMountain)ashortenedformof MaunaaWakea,amountainontheislandofHawai’i.Wakeaisthenameofthegodthemountainisnamedfor,andheisthe“skyfather.”TheTMTproject, acollaborationbetweenseveralinternationalscientificinstitutions,isintendedtobeastate-of-the-arttelescopethatwillbeusedtostudytheoriginsand evolutionoftheuniverse.ProponentsoftheThirtyMeterTelescope(TMT),backedbytheUniversityofCaliforniaandotherinstitutions.onMaunaKea, arguethatbecauseofitsheightanddistancefromsourcesoflightpollution,themountainisuniquelysuitedtohouseastronomersandtheirresearchprojects astheygatherdataaboutsolarsystemsandgalaxies.Theadministratorsoftheprojectandstateofficialsalsotalkabouttheemploymentopportunitiesfor constructionandprojectoperators,alongwithothereconomicbenefits.

Businessandpoliticalleadersareeagerforastronomytosupportwell-payingjobsinastatethathaslongstruggledtodiversifyitstourism-dependenteconomy. Formorethan50years,telescopesandtheneedsofastronomershavedominatedthesummitofMaunaKea,amountainsacredtoNativeHawai’iansthat’s alsooneofthefinestplacesintheworldtostudythenightsky.In1968,thestategavetheUniversityofHawai’ia65-yearleaseforlandthattheschoolsubleases toleadingglobalresearchinstitutionsinexchangeforashareofobservationtime.Themasterleaserequiresthatallexistingtelescopesaredecommissioned andtheirsitesrestoredtotheiroriginalstateby2033ifthestatedoesn’tauthoriseanextension.Anewstatelawpassedin2022saysMaunaKeamustbe protectedforfuturegenerationsandthatsciencemustbebalancedwithcultureandtheenvironment.NativeHawai’ianculturalexpertswillhavevotingseats onanewgoverningbodyinsteadofmerelyadvisingthesummit’smanagersastheydonow.Astronomershopetheycanrenewleasesforstatelandunderneath theirobservatories,duetoexpirein2033andcontinuemakingrevolutionaryscientificdiscoveriesfordecades.Theprojecthasfacedsignificantoppositionfrom NativeHawai’ian(KānakaMaoli)groupsandothersconcernedabouttheimpactofthetelescopeontheculturalandnaturalresourcesofMaunaKea, consideredasacredsitebymanyNativeHawai’iansandhometoseveralsignificantculturalandnaturalresources.Environmentalgroupshaveraisedconcerns abouttheproject’spotentialenvironmentalimpacts,includingthepossibleeffectsonwaterresourcesandwildlife.

PaintingSite:ThirtyMeterTelescope,MaunaKea,Hawai’i(GPS19.8327°N,-155.4816°W)

LandAcknowledgement:KānakaMaoli(NativeHawai’ians)

ícaro1112 TMTandMaunaaWakea(2019)KūKia’iMauna,ProtectorsoftheMountain, 2019 100x75x2inches(254x191x5cm),earthpigments,acryliconlinen,alu/woodstretcher

ThehistoryofUSsettlercolonialisminHawai’iincludesbattlesoverwhatissacredandwhogetstodecidewhatissacred.Thesummitofthemountain,known asthe waoakua orrealmofthegods,isalsohometoHawai’iandeities,includingPoliahu—thesnowgoddessofMaunaKea.TraditionalHawai’ianreligious systemshavebeenchallengedsincethearrivalofthefirsthaole(White/foreigner)missionariestoHawaiʻiinthemid-1800s.Hawai’iansshareaconnectionto MaunaKea,bothsacredandgenealogicallytiedtotheland.Anditisbecauseofthisconnectionthattheyandothersfeelasenseof kuleana (responsibility)to mālama (carefor)andprotectMaunaKeathroughrepeateddesecrationandencroachmentbythesettlerstate.Hawai’iwassettledatleast800yearsagowith thevoyageofPolynesiansfromtheSocietyIslands.TheHawai’ianKingdomwasformedin1795,whenKamehamehatheGreat,oftheindependentisland ofHawaiʻi,conqueredtheindependentislandsofOʻahu,Maui,Molokaʻi,andLānaʻiandunifiedthem.In1810,theHawai’ianarchipelagobecameunified whenKauaʻiandNiʻihaujoinedtheKingdom.AnongoinggrassrootsHawai’iansovereigntymovement(Hawai’ian:keeaHawaiʻi)existsseekingautonomyor independenceforthestateofHawai’i.Sovereigntyadvocateshaveattributedproblemsplaguingnativecommunities,includinghomelessness,poverty,economic marginalisation,andtheerosionofnativetraditions,tothelackofnativegovernanceandpoliticalself-determination.

Variousgroupsandindividuals(thekukia’imaunaorprotector/caretakersofMaunaKea)haveopposedtheTMTproject,includingNativeHawai’ian culturalandcommunityorganisations,environmentalgroups,andotheradvocacyorganisations.ResistancetotheconstructionoftheTMTonMaunaKeais onlythelatestinalonghistoryofviolenceanddispossessionatthehandsofthesettlerstate,beginningwiththeUSMarines-ledmilitarycoupd’étatinstigated byEuropeanandAmericanbusinessmen,manydescendantsofearlyProtestantmissionaryfamilies,thatoverthrewtheHawai’ianMonarchyin1893, eventuallyleadingtoitsannexationasaUSterritory,thentoUSstatehoodin1959.Giventheloomingpresenceofthesettlerstateandthecontinuedresilience andresurgenceofkiaʻiatopMaunaKea,placeslikeMaunaKeaareworthfightingforbecauseoftherelationshipstolandandoneanother.

Theprotestshavebeenongoingforseveralyearsandhaveattractedwidespreadattentionandsupportfromvariousgroupsandindividuals.NativeHawai’ian groupshavearguedthatMaunaKeaisasacredsiteandthatthetelescope’sconstructionwoulddesecratethemountainandviolatetherightsandcultural practicesofNativeHawai’ians.TheTMTMaunaKeaprotestshaveincludedvariousactivities,includingdemonstrations,civildisobedience,andotherforms ofdirectactionthatledtothearrestsofsomeoftheprotesters.Lawenforcementarrested38kūpuna(respectedelders),mostlyNativeHawai’ians,whichonly attractedmoreprotesters.PolicewithdrewmonthsafterTMTsaiditwouldn’tmoveforwardwithconstructionimmediately.Protestersstayedputbutclosed campinMarch2020amidconcernsaboutCOVID-19.ThefutureoftheTMTprojectandtheresolutionoftheMaunaKeaprotestsremainuncertain.

ícaro1112 TMTandMaunaaWakea(2019)KūKia’iMauna,ProtectorsoftheMountain, 2019 100x75x2inches(254x191x5cm),earthpigments,acryliconlinen,alu/woodstretcher

MaunaKeaisthehighestmountaininHawai’iandisconsideredthe piko (navel),orcentre,oftheHawai’ianIslandsbyKānakaMaoli.Thepikoisregarded asthesourceoflifeandtheconnectiontotheancestorsandthegods.ItisonMaunaKeathattheancestorsofNativeHawai’iansareburied,anditisregarded asaplaceofgreatpowerandspiritualenergy.InHawai’ianmythology,thefivepeaksoftheislandofHawai’iaresacred.Acenturies-oldchantsaysthe mountainistheoldestchildofWakeaandPapawalinu’u,themaleandfemalesourcesofalllife.Anancientlaw(kapu)onceallowedonlyhigh-rankingali’i (chieftainclass)andkahunanui(highpriests)tovisititspeak.MaunaKeaisconsideredaplaceofoutstandingnaturalbeautyandishometomanysignificant culturalandnaturalresources,includingseveralendangeredspecies.AncientHawai’ianslivingontheslopesofMaunaKeareliedonitsextensiveforestsfor foodandquarriedthedensevolcano-glacialbasaltsonitsflanksfortoolproduction.Themountaindrawscloudsandrainfallthatfeedsforestsandfreshwater toHawai’i’sBigIslandcommunities.WhenEuropeansarrivedinthelate18thcentury,settlersintroducedcattle,sheep,andgameanimals,manyofwhich becameferalandbegantodamagethevolcano’secologicalbalance.

Thepikoisoftenassociatedwith aloha,whichreferstotheinterconnectednessofallthingsandtheideathateverythingisconnectedtoacommonsourceof lifeandspiritualenergy.Thepikoisconsideredasacredandpowerfulplaceandisoftenassociatedwiththeconceptof mana,aHawai’ianwordusedtodescribe spiritualpowerorenergy.InNativeHawai’ianculture,manaisbelievedtobeaforcethatexistswithinallthingsandthatcanbeharnessedandchannelledin variousways.InHawai’ianculture,thepikoisoftensymbolisedbyaleiorotherdecorativeitems,suchasaflowerorfeather,wornaroundtheneckorwaist. Thepikoisalsooftenassociatedwithbalanceandharmony,anditisbelievedtobeaplacewherepeoplecanconnectwiththeirancestorsandthegodsand findspiritualguidanceandstrength.

TheongoingcontroversysurroundingtheproposedconstructionoftheThirtyMeterTelescopeonthesummitofMaunaKeahashighlightedthesignificance ofthemountaintoNativeHawai’iansandtheimportanceofrespectingandprotectingitsculturalandnaturalresources.FormanyNativeHawai’ians,Mauna Keaisanessentialplaceofspiritualconnectionandculturalpracticeandisdeeplyvaluedasaplaceofculturalandspiritualsignificance.Themountainisalso animportantplaceofscientificresearchandhasbeenthesiteofseveralimportantscientificdiscoverieswithexistingtelescopesonthesummit.TheTMT matterremainsunresolved:itsbackersstillwanttobuildonMaunaKea,thoughtheyhaveselectedasiteinSpain’sCanaryIslandsasabackup.

References

DavidUahikeaikalei‘ohuMaile, ResurgentRefusals:ProtectingMaunaaWākeaandKanakaMaoliDecolonization, 2019 KamanamaikalaniBeamer, Tūtū’sAlohaʻāinaGrace, 2014 PuhipauandJoanLander,directors;NaMakaoKa‘Aina,producer, MaunaKea:TempleUnderSiege,(documentaryfilm)2005

Plate16. FromtheSummitofMaunaaWakea, Hawai’i,2019

TheBattleoftheLittleBighorn,knowntotheLakotaandotherPlainsIndiansastheBattleoftheGreasyGrassandalsocommonlyreferredtoasCuster’s LastStand,wasanarmedengagementbetweencombinedforcesoftheLakotaSioux,NorthernCheyenne,andArapahotribesandthe7thCavalryRegiment oftheUnitedStatesArmy.IttookplaceonJune25–26,1876,alongtheLittleBighornRiverintheCrowIndianReservationinsoutheasternMontana Territory.In1875,aftergoldwasdiscoveredinSouthDakota’sBlackHills,althoughtheSecondTreatyofFortLaramie(1868),ineffect,hadguaranteedto theLakotaandDakota(Yankton)SiouxaswellastheArapahonation’sexclusivepossessionoftheDakotaterritorywestoftheMissouriRiver,Whiteminers insearchofgoldweresettlinginlandsespeciallysacredtotheLakota.UnwillingtoremovethesettlersandunabletopersuadetheLakotatoselltheterritory, theCommissionerofIndianAffairsissuedanordertotheIndianagenciesthatallIndiansreturntotheirdesignatedreservationsbyJanuary31,1876,orbe deemedhostile.ChiefCrazyHorse(TȟašúŋkeWitkó,HisHorseIsCrazy)didnotrespondtothisultimatumandresistedthemilitaryenforcementofthe ultimatum.ThisbetrayalledmanySiouxandCheyennenationmemberstoleavetheirreservationsandjoinSittingBullandCrazyHorseinMontana.When severalnationsmissedafederaldeadlinetomovetoreservations,theUSArmy,includingCusterandhis7thCavalry,wasdispatchedtoconfrontthem.Among thePlainsTribes,thelong-standingceremonialtraditionknownastheSunDancewasthemostimportantreligiouseventoftheyear.DuringaSunDance aroundJune5,1876,onRosebudCreekinMontana,SittingBull(TȟatȟáŋkaÍyotake),thespiritualleaderoftheHunkpapaLakota,reportedlyhadavision of“soldiersfallingintohiscamplikegrasshoppersfromthesky.”Atthesametime,USmilitaryofficialswereconductingasummercampaigntoforcethe LakotaandtheCheyennebacktotheirreservations.OnJune17,1876,alongwithmorethan1,200Lakotasoldiers,CrazyHorsehelpeddefeatGeneralGeorge CrookattheBattleoftheRosebud.Eightdayslater,hehelpeddefeatthe7thCavalryattheBattleoftheLittleBighorn.

FederaltroopsledbyLieutenantColonelGeorgeArmstrongCusterfacedabandofLakotaSiouxandCheyennesoldiers,unawareofthenumberof IndigenoussoldiersfightingunderthecommandofSittingBullandChiefGall(Phizí).CusterattemptedasurpriseattackonanencampmentofNative AmericansalongtheLittleBighornRivertocapturewomen,children,andtheelderlyordisabledtoserveashostagestoconvincethewarriorstosurrender andcomplywithfederalorderstorelocate.Custer’sCrowscoutstoldhimitwasthelargestnativevillagetheyhadeverseen.Whenthescoutsbeganchanging backintotheirnativedressrightbeforethebattle,Custerreleasedthemfromhiscommand.Withasenseofimpendingdoom,theCrowscoutHalfYellow FacepropheticallywarnedCuster(speakingthroughtheinterpreterMitchBouyer),“YouandIaregoinghometodaybyaroadwedonotknow.”Whilethe villagewasenormous,CusterstillthoughttherewerefewerNativesoldierstodefendit.Custer’sscoutswarnedhimaboutthesizeofthevillage,withMitch Bouyerreportedlysaying,“General,IhavebeenwiththeseIndiansfor30years,andthisisthelargestvillageIhaveeverheardof.”Custer’soverridingconcern wasthattheNativeAmericangroupwouldbreakupandscatter.CusterhadbeenofferedGatlinggunsbutdeclined,believingtheywouldslowhisrateof march.CusterwasmoreconcernedwithpreventingtheescapeoftheLakotaandCheyennethanwithfightingthem.TheArmywasoperatingwithincorrect assumptionsaboutthenumberofNativeAmericansitwouldencounter.TheseassumptionswerebasedoninaccurateinformationprovidedbytheIndian Agentsthatnomorethan800“hostiles”wereinthearea.TheIndianAgentsbasedthisestimateonthenumberofLakotathatSittingBullandotherleaders hadreportedlyledoffthereservationinprotestofUSgovernmentpolicies,withoutconsideringthemanythousandsof“reservationIndians”thatjoinedSitting BullandChiefCrazyHorse.Thecommandapproachedthevillageatnoonandpreparedtoattackinfulldaylight.

PaintingSite:LittleBighorn,Montana(GPS45.565°N,-107.428889°W)

LandAcknowledgement:Cayuse,UmatillaandWallaWalla;Apsáalooke(Crow);Tséstho’e(Cheyenne);OčhéthiŠakówiŋ

TheCustermassacrewasagreatvictoryfortheSiouxandCheyenne,butitwasalsoa greattragedyforthesoldiers,whofoughtbravelyanddidnotdeservetodie.

—SittingBull(TȟatȟáŋkaÍyotake)

ThebattlewasthemostsignificantactionoftheGreatSiouxWarof1876.TheUS7thCavalry,aforceof700men,sufferedamajordefeat.Fiveofthe7th Cavalry’stwelvecompanieswerewipedout,andCusterwaskilled,asweretwoofhisbrothers,anephew,andabrother-in-law.TheUScasualtycountincluded 268deadand55severelywounded,includingfourCrowIndianscoutsandatleasttwoArikaraIndianscouts.Therewereabout50knowndeathsamongSitting Bull’sfollowers.FollowingtheBattleoftheLittleBighorn,thebandsofLakotaandCheyennewhowerepresentatthebattlebegantoscatter.Thecavalryand infantrycommandsfieldedbytheUSArmycontinuedtotrackthedispersedbands,attemptingtodrivethembacktotheGreatSiouxReservationestablished intheFortLaramieTreatyof1868.SittingBullandChiefCrazyHorse,leadersoftheSiouxontheGreatPlainsstronglyresistedthemid-19th-centuryefforts oftheUSgovernmenttoconfinetheirpeopletoIndianreservations.CrazyHorse,whorefusedtogoonareservationorfleetoCanadaasothersweredoing, setupwintercampontheTongueRiverinsouth-centralMontanaTerritory.HeattackedColonelNelsonMiles’forceonJanuary8,1877,butdidnotdefeat thearmy.TherelentlesspursuitbythemilitaryanddefeatattheBattleofWolfMountaininMontanaTerritoryconvincedCrazyHorsethatsurrenderwas inevitable.OnMay7,1877,CrazyHorseled1,100followersintoFortRobinsoninNebraskatosurrender.AtFortRobinsonandtheRedCloudAgency,old rivalries,misunderstandingsbetweenmilitaryofficers,variousLakotaSiouxpersonalities,andCrazyHorseeruptedintoopenanimosity.CrazyHorsewasto bearrestedtopreventcontinueddisruption,andintheensuingscuffle,CrazyHorsewasmortallystabbed.HediedontheeveningofSeptember5,1877.

References

PhillipThomasTucker, DeathattheLittleBighorn:ANewLookatCuster,HisTactics,andtheTragicDecisionsMadeattheLastStand, 2020

NathanielPhilbrick, TheLastStand:Custer,SittingBull,andtheBattleoftheLittleBighorn, 2010

YouandIaregoinghometodaybyaroadwedonotknow.

—CrowscoutHalfYellowFacewarningtoGeorgeArmstrongCuster

TheLongWalkoftheNavajo,alsocalledtheLongWalktoBosqueRedondo(Navajo:Hwéeldi),wasthe1864deportation,landtheft,andattemptedethnic cleansingoftheNavajo(Diné,“thePeople”)bytheUnitedStatesfederalgovernment.Some53forcedmarchesoccurredbetweenAugust1864andtheendof 1866.TheLongWalkwasadifficultandtraumaticexperiencefortheDiné,whowereforcedtoleavetheirhomesandtheirwayoflifebehindandmarch hundredsofmilesthroughharshandinhospitableterrain.Thedistanceitselfwascruel,butthefactthattheydidnotreceiveanyaidfromthesoldierswas devastating.Noteverysinglepersonwasinprimeconditiontotrek400miles.Manybeganthewalkexhaustedandmalnourished;otherswerenotproperly clothedandwerenotintheleastpreparedforsuchalongjourney.NeithersympathynorremorsewasgiventotheDiné.Theywereneverinformedwherethey weregoing,whytheywerebeingrelocated,andhowlongitwouldtaketogetthere.Someculturalanthropologistsclaimthatthe“collectivetraumaoftheLong Walk...iscriticaltocontemporaryDinés’senseofidentityasapeople,”althoughtheconditionsofpovertythesurvivorsreturnedtoaftertheirwalkbackhome totheNavajoNationandrebuildingtheirscorchedlivesmayhaveplayedassignificantarole.

TheUnitedStatesgovernmentsoughttoremovetheDinéfromtheirtraditionalhomelands,fromArizonathroughwesternNewMexico,wheretheDinéhad houses,plantedcrops,andraisedlivestockintheSouthwestandrelocatedthemtoBosqueRedondo,areservation250to450milesaway,dependingontheroute taken,ineasternNewMexiconearFortSumnerattheedgeoftheGreatPlains.HostilitieshadescalatedbetweenEuro-AmericansandNavajosfollowingthe scalpingoftherespectedDinéleaderNarbonain1849.InAugust1851,ColonelEdwinVoseSumnerestablishedFortDefiancefortheUSgovernment(near present-dayWindowRock,Arizona)andFortWingate(originallyFortFauntleroynearGallup,NewMexico).BeforetheLongWalk,treatiesweresignedin1849 and1858,andthesetrucesandtreatiespromisedtheUSarmywouldprotecttheDiné.Instead,thearmyallowedotherNativeAmericannationsandMéxicansto steallivestockandenslaveDiné.AnothertrucebetweenthearmyandtheDinéwassignedonFebruary15,1861.Theywereagainpromisedprotection,butaspart ofthetruce,twooftheDinés’foursacredmountainsandaboutone-thirdoftheirtraditionallyheldlandweretakenfromthem.

UnionArmyColonelChristopher“Kit”Carson,inchargeofconqueringtheDinéanddeportingthem,usedascorchedearthpolicytostarvetheDinéoutof theirtraditionalhomelandandforcethemtosurrender.CarsonenlistedneighbouringnationstoaidhiscampaigntocaptureasmanyDinéaspossible.One tribethatprovedtobemostusefulweretheUtes,longhostiletotheDinéandknowledgeableofthelandsoftheDinéandtheirstrongholds.Carsonlaunched hisfull-scaleassaultontheDinépopulationinJanuary1864.Hedestroyedeverythinginhispath,eradicatingthewayoflifeoftheDinépeople.Hoganswere burnedtotheground,livestockwaskilled,andirrigatedfieldsweredestroyedtostarvetheDinéintosubmission.Withthedestructionoftheirhomes,fields andlivestock,byearly1864,thousandsofDinébegansurrenderingtotheUSArmy.SomeDinérefusedtosurrenderandscatteredtoNavajoMountain,the GrandCanyon,theterritoryoftheChiricahuaApache,andpartsofUtah.Diné,whosurrendered,weretakentoFortCanbyontheMojaveRiver,andthose whoresistedweremurdered.SomeDinéescapedCarson’scampaignbutweresoonforcedtosurrenderduetostarvationandthefreezingtemperatureofthe wintermonths.

PaintingSite:FortSumner,BosqueRedondo,NewMexico(GPS34.401944°N,-104.194722°W)

LandAcknowledgement:Gáuigú(Kiowa);NʉmʉnʉʉSookobitʉ(Comanche);MescaleroApache;NdéKónitsąąíí;Gokíyaa (LipanApache);JicarillaApache

IwasorderedtotaketheNavajos’stock,andItookit.Iwasorderedtodestroy theirfields,andIdestroyedthem.”

—KitCarson

ícaro1076 DinéLongWalk,Hwéeldi(1864) BosqueRedondo,NewMexico,2019

Naayéé’neizghání(Nagaynezgani),SlayeroftheAlienGods 48x60x2in.(122x153x5cm),earthpigments,acryliconlinen,alu/woodstretcher

AmongthecropsthesoldiersdestroyedwasonenotgenerallyassociatedwithIndigenouspeoplesoftheSouthwestorthedesert—peaches.TheSpaniardshad broughtpeachtreestoNorthAmericainthe1600s,andtheorchardsflourishedonmissionsandfarms.ForcenturiestheDinéhadtendedpeachorchardsinCanyon deChelly,theepicentreofDinéculture,ahistoricalandspiritualplaceinnortheasternArizona.WhentheDinéarrived,asmallgroupofresidentHopistoldofthe peachtreesthatthrivedintheirhomelandfartherwest.DinéfarmersvisitedtheHopivillages,returnedwithpeachseedsandplantedthemaroundWhiteHouse RuininCanyondeChelly.ThenationsoftheFourCornersarea(attheintersectionofNewMexico,Colorado,Arizona,andUtah)establishedaninterconnected economywheretheytradedlivestock,craftedgoods,meatandagriculturalproducts.AtthetimeofthePuebloRevoltin1680,whenthePueblopeoplerevolted againsttheSpanish,theDinéandthePuebloansengagedintradeandculturalexchange.WhentheSpanishreconqueredthePueblos12yearslater,manywentto livewiththeDiné.In1805,inretaliationforDinéraidsonSpanishsettlements,LieutenantAntonioNarbonaandhismountedmenmarchedintoCanyondeChelly, killedmorethan100Dinéandcapturedmorethan30others.Inthe1500s,Spainestablishedacolonyinpresent-dayMéxico.Spanishsettlersbeganmovingnorth intopresent-dayNewMexicointhe1600s.TheyestablishedSantaFeasacapitalin1610.TheSpanishcolonialregimewasharsh,andthenativepeoplewere frequentlyforcedtoworkonSpanishsettlementsoronmilitarycampaigns.TheSpanishsettlerswereattractedtotheareabecauseofitsabundantnaturalresources, includingtimber,minerals,andgrazinglandforlivestock,and ahungerforgoldintheirlong-standingquestforthelegendary Cíbola,theSevenCitiesofGold. The SpanishwerethefirstEuropeanstotraveltoNewMexico.TheywerefollowedbytheFrenchandtheBritish.TheUnitedStatesacquiredtheareain1848aspart oftheTreatyofGuadalupeHidalgo,whichendedtheMéxican-AmericanWar.

ManyDinédiedduringtheLongWalk,andthosewhosurvivedwereforcedtoliveindifficultandimpoverishedconditions.TheprisoncampatBosque Redondohadsevereproblems.About400MescaleroApaches(Naa’dahéńdé) wereimprisonedtherebeforetheDiné.TheMescalerosandtheDinéhadalong traditionofraidingeachother;thetwotribeshadmanydisputesduringtheirencampment.Furthermore,theinitialplanwasforaround5,000people,certainly not10,000men,women,andchildren.Waterandfirewoodweremajorissuesfromthestart;thewaterwasbrackish,andthegroveoftreeswasrelativelysmall. Natureandhumanscausedcropfailuresyearly,andfoodsuppliesprovidedbytheUSgovernmentweremismanaged,soin1865,Dinébeganleaving.By1867 theremainingDinérefusedtoplantacropbecausethecorncropwasinfestedwitharmywormsandfailedrepeatedly. Nermernuh(Comanches)raidedthem frequently,andtheDinéraidedthe Nermernuhinturn,oncestealingover1,000horses.Thenon-Indiansettlersalsosufferedfromtheraidingpartiestryingto feedtheirstarvingpeopleontheBosqueRedondo.In1868theexperiment,meanttobethefirstIndianreservationwestofIndianTerritory,wasabandoned.

OnJune18,1868,theonce-scatteredbandsofDinésetofftogetheronthereturnjourney,the“LongWalk”home.Thisisoneofthefewinstanceswherethe USgovernmentpermittedatribetoreturntotheirtraditionalboundaries.TheDinéweregranted3.5millionacres(14,000km2)oflandinsidetheirfoursacred mountains.TheDinébecameamorecohesivetribeaftertheLongWalkandsuccessfullyincreasedthesizeoftheirreservationtoover16millionacres (70,000km2).Someculturalanthropologistsclaimthatthe“collectivetraumaoftheLongWalk...iscriticaltocontemporaryDiné’ssenseofidentityasa people,”andconditionsofpovertythesurvivorsreturnedtointheNavajoNationmayalsohaveplayedasignificantrole.TheNavajoLongWalkis rememberedasatragicanddecisivemomentinthehistoryoftheDinéasasymboloftheinjusticesandhardshipstheyhavefaced.TheLongWalkisan integralpartoftheDinéculturalnarrativeandisrememberedandcommemoratedbytheDinétoday.

Weweremarchedlikeprisonersofwar,andtreatedworsethananimals.

—Barboncito,aDinéleader

ícaro1076 DinéLongWalk,Hwéeldi(1864) BosqueRedondo,NewMexico,2019

Naayéé’neizghání(Nagaynezgani),SlayeroftheAlienGods 48x60x2in.(122x153x5cm),earthpigments,acryliconlinen,alu/woodstretcher

Therewasatimewhentheearthwasinfestedwithmanygiantmonsterswhowereevilforeigngods,the Anaye,whotookpleasureinkillingpeopleandwere rapidlydepopulatingtheearth. Tsetahotsiltali (CliffDweller),whotookpleasureinusinghismassivelegstokickpeopleoffcliffs, Tsé’nagahi (TravelingStone),who wasamonstrousrockthatwouldrollandcrushpassersbytodeath; Sasnalkáhi (TheBearthatPursues)wasagiantbearthathidinitscave,killinganyonewho camenear,and BinayeAhani (EyeKillers),agroupoflimblesscreaturesthatcouldshootlightningfromtheireyesorkillthingsjustbylookingatthem.There weremanyothers,butthelargestandmostpowerfuloftheAnayewas Yeitso,ascalygiantaslargeasamountainwhocouldwalkasfarasamancouldtravel fromsunrisetosunsetinasinglestepandcoulddrinkanentirelakeinfourgulps.AccordingtothisDinéstory,Anayecameaboutwhenmenandwomen separatedafteradispute,resultinginthewomenhavingsexualintercoursewithrandomobjectstheyfound.Thisresultedinthemgivingbirthtomonsters resemblingwhattheir“father”was.Forexample,Yeitsowasbirthedfromastone.

Fortunately,thetwinboys Nayenezgáni and Tobadzistsini werebornbyabeautifulwomanwithsupernaturalpowers, Ylkaiestsan(orEstsanatlehi),TheWhiteShell Woman.Ylkaiestsanbecamepregnantafterbaskingintheraysof Tsohanoai,theSunGod,whilebathinginapoolofwater.WhenthegiantYeitsoheardabout thetwins,hesetouttokillanddevourthem,butYlkaiestsanhidthem.Bornfromwater,theirprenatallifecoveredaperiodofonlytwelvedays,andmaturity wasattainedinthirty-twodaysafterpassingthrougheightchanges,oneofwhichcameeveryfourdays.Thefirst-bornandstrongerNayenezgániappearsto bethelordoflight,andhisbrotherTobadzistsiniisthelordofdarknessandwater.Afterbothbrothershadmatured,theysetouttodestroytheAnaye.One oftheearliestcreaturestheyencounteredwas NasteEstsan,thekindlySpiderGrandmother,whogaveeachafeatherthatwoulddefendthemontheirjourney, whichtheyusedtoprotectthemselvesagainstmultiplemonsters(includinggiantbirds,bears,andserpents).Onefeathercouldsubdueenemies,andtheother feathercouldpreservelife.Aftermanyadventures,protectedbythefeathers,theyhappenupontheWindPeople,whotoldthemTsohanoai,theSunGod,was theirfather,andtheymustgoeastandcrossthebigwaterstoseehim.Theyreachthesunhouseandafterafewteststodeterminethetruthoftheirbirths, Tsohanoaigiftsthempowerfularmsandaquiveroflightningboltarrows,includingachain-lightningarrow,asheet-lightningarrow,asunbeamarrow,anda rainbowarrowtokilltherestoftheAnaye.Manymoreadventureslater,andwithmostoftheAnayeslain,with Nayenezgáni,theMonsterSlayer, dealingfearful blowstotheevilspiritsthreateningtheworld,heand Tobadzistsini encounterYeitsoatalakeandkillhiminstantlywithalightningbolt.

References

GladysAmandaReichard, NavahoReligion:AStudyofSymbolism, 1974

RobertS.McPherson, DinéjíNa`nitin:NavajoTraditionalTeachingsandHistory, 2012

Nagaynezgani(Naayéé’neizghání),SlayeroftheAlienGods

Plate17. BosqueRedondo,NewMexico, 2019

TheUnitedStatesgovernmenthasalonghistoryofbreakingtreatieswithNativeAmericannations,makingagreementswiththem,andfailingtofulfilits obligations.ThesebrokentreatiessignificantlyandnegativelyaffectNativeAmericannations,includinglosingland,resources,sovereignty,andlives.Oneof themostegregiousexamplesofabrokentreatybetweentheUnitedStatesandNativeAmericansistheTreatyofFortLaramie,whichwassignedin1851and establisheda“permanentIndianfrontier”intheBlackHillsregionofSouthDakotafortheLakotaSiouxnation.Thetreatyalsorecognisedthesovereigntyof theLakotaSiouxnationandpromisedthattheUnitedStateswouldprotectthenation’srightstothereservation.However,theUnitedStateslaterbrokethis treatywhenitallowedgoldtobeminedintheBlackHills,whichledtothedisplacementoftheLakotaSiouxandthelossoftheirland.Otherexamplesof brokentreatiesbetweentheUnitedStatesandNativeAmericannationsincludetheTreatyofMedicineCreek,whichwassignedin1854andestablisheda reservationfortheNisquallyNationinWashingtonstate,andtheTreatyofFortWise,whichwassignedin1861andestablishedareservationfortheCheyenne andArapahonationinColorado.Inbothofthesecases,theUnitedStateslaterbrokethetreatiesandtookactionsthatresultedinthelossoflandandresources fortheaffectednations.Perhapsthemostwell-knowntreaty,theTreatyofNewEchota,calledforremovingtheCherokees(Tsalagi)livinginGeorgia,North Carolina,Tennessee,andAlabama.ThetreatywasopposedbyamajorityofmembersandofficialsoftheCherokeeNationbutwassignedbyrepresentatives ofaminorityCherokeepoliticalfaction,theTreatyParty.

Convincedthatremovalwasinevitable,theTreatyPartynegotiatedaclausethatthetreatywouldallowallCherokeeswhosodesiredtoremainandbecome citizensofthestatesinwhichtheyresidedonindividualallotmentsof160acres(0.65km2)ofland.Withthatclauseadded,itwasunanimouslyapprovedby thecontingentatNewEchotaandsignedbythenegotiatingcommitteeoftwenty.However,thatclausewaslaterstruckoutbyPresidentJackson.Althoughthe treatywasnotapprovedbytheCherokeeNationalCouncilnorsignedbyPrincipalChiefJohnRoss,itwasamendedandratifiedinMarch1836.Itbecame thelegalbasisfortheforcibleremovalknownastheTrailofTears.

PaintingSite:FortLaramie,Wyoming(GPS42.209167°N,-104.535861°W)

LandAcknowledgement:Tséstho’e(Cheyenne);OčhéthiŠakówiŋ;hinono’eino’biito’owu’(Arapaho)

ThetreatieswereafraudperpetratedontheSiouxNationbytheUnitedStates government.Theywerenottreatiesinthelegalsenseofthewordbutratheragreements betweenunequalpowers.TheywerenothonouredbytheUnitedStatesgovernmentand wereusedasameansofcontrolovertheSioux.

—RobertM.Utley, TheIndianFrontieroftheAmericanWest,1846-1890, 1984

TheFortLaramieTreatieswereaseriesofagreementssignedbetweentheUnitedStatesgovernmentandvariousNativeAmericannationsinthemid-1800s. ThetreatieswerenamedafterFortLaramie,amilitaryfortinpresent-dayWyomingthatwasusedasasitefornegotiationsbetweentheUSgovernmentand theNativeAmericannations.TheFortLaramieTreatieswereintendedtoestablishpeacefulrelationsbetweentheUnitedStatesandtheNativeAmerican nations,torecognisetheirsovereignty,andtodefinetheboundariesofthenation’sland,givingtheLakotaSiouxtribeownershipoftheBlackHills.Thetreaties alsoincludedprovisionsfortheprotectionofNativeAmericanrightsandtheprovisionofgovernmentservicestothenations.Still,theywerefrequently disregardedbytheUSgovernment,whichfrequentlyencroachedonNativeAmericanlandandviolatedthetermsofthetreaties.Keyeventsthatledtothe breakingoftheFortLaramieTreatiesincludeTheHomesteadActof1862.ThisactencouragedWhitesettlerstomoveontolandintheWest,includingland reservedforNativeAmericannations,accordingtotheFortLaramieTreaties.TheactledtoasignificantincreaseinthenumberofWhitesettlersintheWest andcontributedtothedisplacementofNativeAmericannations.TheconstructionoftranscontinentalrailroadsintheWestledtotheremovalofNative Americannationsfromtheirland,anotherviolationoftheFortLaramieTreaties.

TheIndianWarswereaseriesofconflictsintheWestbetweentheUSgovernmentandNativeAmericannations.ThewarswereoftensparkedbytheUS government’sviolationoftheFortLaramieTreatiesandbytheNativeAmericannations’resistancetoWhitesettlementandencroachmentontheirland.A turnaboutmaystillcomesomeday,however.Despitetheseviolations,thetreatiesremainlaw,andFederalagenciesareresponsibleforfaithfullycollaborating withIndigenousnationsinwaysthatsupporttreatyobligations.ApopularmisconceptionisthatsuccessiveUSviolationsinvalidatedthesetreaties.Onesuch violationwastheillegalseizureoftheBlackHills.Inresponsetothisviolationoftreatyterms,thepeopleoftheOcetiSakowinenteredintolegalproceedings againstthefederalgovernmentintheearly20thcentury.Thecaseculminatedina1980decisionbytheSupremeCourtdeclaringtheUSseizureoftheBlack HillsillegalandofferingIndigenousnations$100millionfortheland.LandmarkslikeMountRushmore,EllsworthAirForceBaseandprivatelyownedor residentiallandwereexcludedfromthedebate.ThepeopleoftheOcetiSakowinhavecontinuallyrejectedthisofferandhaveassertedthatthesacredlands wereneverforsale.In2011thetrustvaluegrewto$1.3billion.OcetiSakowincontinuedtosaythepaymentwasinvalidbecausethelandwasneverforsale, andacceptingthefundswouldbetantamounttoasalestransaction.Inanyevent,the$1.3billionisjustafractioncomparedtothemonetaryvalueofgold, mineralsandtimberextracted,evenbasedontheirvalueatthetimeofthetreaty,andthesefunds,ifreceived,wouldquicklybeexhaustedtoaddressthe community’ssignificantneeds.

References

JenniferViegas, TheFortLaramieTreaty,1868:APrimarySourceExaminationoftheTreaty

ThatEstablishedaSiouxReservationintheBlackHillsofDakota, 2005

Pekka Hämäläinen, LakotaAmerica:ANewHistoryofIndigenousPower, 2019

ThehistoryofgenocidecastsashadowoverCalifornia.Ithoversoverthelandoftheendless summer,overDisneyland,overthesurfers,theBeachBoys,thepalmtrees,theHollywoodSign …andyet,thereisalsoastoryofCaliforniaIndianresistanceandsurvivalthatismiraculous.

—BenjaminMadley, AnAmericanGenocide:TheUnitedStatesandthe CaliforniaIndianCatastrophe,1846–1873, 2016

TheCaliforniagenocideresultedfromseveralfactors,includingexpandingEuropeansettlementsintheregion,thediscoveryofgoldinCaliforniain1848,and federalpoliciestoassimilateNativeAmericansintomainstreamAmericansociety.TheCaliforniagenocidedescribesthewidespreadviolence,displacement, andotherformsofharminflicteduponNativeAmericannationsinCaliforniaduringthe19thandearly20thcenturies.

CaliforniawasoneofthelastregionsintheAmericastobecolonised.CaliforniawasthenamegiventoamythicalislandpopulatedonlybybeautifulAmazon warriors,asdepictedinGreekmyths,usinggoldtoolsandweaponsinthepopularearly16th-centuryromancenovel LasSergasdeEsplandián(TheAdventuresof Esplandián) bySpanishauthorGarciRodríguezdeMontalvo.Europeans’contactwithCaliforniabeganinthemid-1530swhenHernánCortez’smenventured toBajaCalifornia,whichwasthoughttobeanislandbyearlyexplorers.Notuntil1542didSpaniardssailnorthtoAlta(Upper)California.Thatyear,Juan RodriguezCabrillo’sexpeditionmadelandingsasfarnorthasmodernSantaBarbara.DuringtheSevenYearsWar(1756-1763),whichrealignedEuropean alliancesandtheircolonialempires,SpainbecameseriousaboutassertingcontrolofAltaCalifornia,mainlybecauseofBritainandRussiacolonialambitions.

CatholicSpanishmissionaries,ledbymilitaryforces,didnotreachthisareauntil1769.Spanishmissionariesbegansettingup21Californiamissionsonornear thecoastofAlta(Upper)California,beginningwiththeMissionSanDiegodeAlcalanearthelocationofthemodern-daycityofSanDiego,California. Spanishmilitaryforcesbuiltseveralforts(presidios)andthreesmalltowns(pueblos)duringthesameperiod.Twoofthepuebloswouldeventuallygrowintothe citiesofLosAngelesandSanJose.ThemissionswereintendedtospreadtheCatholicfaithtopacifytheregion’sNativepeoplesandestablishandexpandthe reachoftheSpanishEmpire.Still,SpanishandlaterMéxicanruledevastatednativepopulations,andCalifornia’snativepopulationofIndiansbegana catastrophicdecline.Mostofthefallstemmedfromimporteddiseases,lowbirthrates,andthedisruptionoftraditionalwaysoflife,butviolencewascommon, andsomehistorianshavechargedthatlifeinthemissionswasclosetoslavery.BeforetheSpanisharrival,Californiawashometoanindigenouspopulation thoughttohavebeenashighas300,000.ThelargestgroupwastheChumashpeople,withapopulationofaround10,000.Theregionwashighlydiverse,with numerousdistinctlanguagesspoken,andthearchaeologicalrecordshowsfewintertribalconflicts.

AfterMéxico’sindependencewaswonin1821,CaliforniafellunderthejurisdictionoftheFirstMéxicanEmpire.Twenty-fiveyearsaftertheMéxican–AmericanWarof1846–1848,theMéxicanRepublicwasforcedtorelinquishanyclaimtoCaliforniatotheUnitedStates.MéxicosignedtheTreatyof GuadalupeHidalgo,cedingtotheUnitedStatesavastareaoftheSouthwestthatincludedallofpresent-dayCalifornia.Withthegenerousfundingof $1,700,000(massiveforthetime)fromtheUnitedStatesgovernment,governmentagents,militias,andprivatecitizensinthe19thcenturybegancampaigns thatkilledthousandsofIndigenouspeoplesofCaliforniafollowingtheinfluxofWhitesettlersduetotheCaliforniaGoldRush,whichacceleratedthe declineoftheIndigenouspopulationofCalifornia.

PaintingSite:Sutter’sMill,Coloma,California(GPS38.803472°N,-120.892361°W)

LandAcknowledgement:Cayuse,UmatillaandWallaWalla;Nisenan

Between1846and1873,itisestimatedthatnon-Nativeskilledbetween9,492and16,094CaliforniaIndians.Hundredstothousandswereadditionallystarved orworkedtodeath.Actsofenslavement,kidnapping,rape,childseparation,anddisplacementwerewidespread.Stateauthoritiesandmilitiasencouraged, tolerated,andcarriedouttheseacts.Thestateandfederalgovernmentsspentatleast$1,700,000oncampaignsagainstCaliforniaIndians,ahugeamountof taxpayermoney.Thenativepopulationof150,000in1848declinedto30,000in1870andfellfurtherto16,000in1900.DeclaredaUSstatein1850, Californiauseditsinstitutionstofavour Whitesettlers’rightsoverindigenousrights,dispossessingnatives.ManyleadersinthegenocideagainsttheCalifornia Indianpopulationwererewardedfortheireffortswithinfluentialpositionsinthestateandfederalgovernment.

Sincethe2000s,severalAmericanacademicsandactivistorganisations,bothNativeAmericanandEuro-American,havecharacterisedtheperiod immediatelyfollowingtheUSconquestofCaliforniaasoneinwhichthestateandfederalgovernmentswagedgenocideagainsttheNativeAmericansin theterritory.TheCaliforniagenocideisareminderofthedevastatingimpactofcolonialismandtheimportanceofacknowledgingandaddressingthe harmsinflicteduponIndigenouscommunities.In2019,California’sgovernorGavinNewsomformallyapologisedforthegenocideandcalledforaresearch grouptounderstandthetopicbetterandinformfuturegenerations.

ícaro1115 CaliforniaGenocide(1846-73) Sutter’sMill,California,2012

68x103x2in.(172x262x5cm),earthpigments,acryliconcanvas,alu/woodstretcher

References

BenjaminMadley, AnAmericanGenocide:TheUnitedStatesandtheCaliforniaIndianCatastrophe,1846-1873, 2016

DamonB.AkinsandWilliamJ.BauerJr., WeAretheLand:AHistoryofNativeCalifornia, 2021

68x103x2in.(172x262x5cm),earthpigments,acryliconcanvas,alu/woodstretcher

ícaro1121 SevenCitiesofCíbola(1540) ZuniPueblo,NewMexico

ThemythoftheSevenCitiesofGold,alsoknownastheSevenCitiesofCíbola,waspopularinthe16thcenturyandlaterfeaturedinseveralworksofpopular culture.Accordingtolegend,thesevencitiesofgoldreferredtoAztecmythologyrevolvingaroundthePueblosoftheSpanishNuevoMéxico,today’sNew MexicoandtheSouthwesternUnitedStates.

WhenChristopherColumbusarrivedintheAmericasin1492,theonecommoditythatallEuropeanmonarchscravedwasgold.Withthispreciousyellow metal,armies,mercenaries,andgunpowderweaponscouldbepaidfor,andtheirkingdomscouldbedefendedandexpanded.Columbus’sdiscoveryopeneda floodgateofSpanishexploration.Inspiredbytalesofriversofgoldandtimid,malleablenativepeoples,laterSpanishexplorerswererelentlessintheirquest forlandandgold.Perhapssurprisingly,ifallthegoldinEuropehadbeencollectedtogetherinoneplace,itwouldhavetakenupthevolumeofamere6ft(2 m)sidedcube.Thatwouldstillhaveweighed88tons,butthegoldtheconquistadorswereabouttostumbleuponintheNewWorldwoulddwarfthispaltry sumandenrichtheSpanishCrownbeyonditswildestdreams.ThestaggeringquantityofgoldtheconquistadorsextractedfromtheAmericasallowedSpain tobecomethewealthiestcountryintheworld.Thethirstforgoldtopayforarmiesandgainpersonalenrichmentresultedinwavesofexpeditionsofdiscovery andconquestfrom1492onwards.Inthefirsthalf-centuryoftheSpanishconquestoftheAmericas,over100tonsofgoldwereextractedfromthecontinent.

InadditiontofundingfromtheSpanishcrown,manyexpeditionswerebackedbywealthymerchantsandlandownerswhohopedtoprofitfromdiscovering newsourcesofwealthintheAmericas.Theseindividualswouldofteninvestinexpeditionsinexchangeforashareofanydiscoveredriches,andmanybecame incrediblywealthyduetotheirinvestments.Thecostoftheseexpeditionswashigh,andtheyoftenrequiredlargeamountsofmanpower,supplies,and equipment.However,theSpanishsawthemasanecessaryinvestmentintheirquestforwealthandpower.Theycontinuedtofundandsponsorexpeditions throughoutthe16thand17thcenturiesinsearchofthelegendarycitiesofgold.Thelustforgoldhaditsprice,mainlyonlocalcultureswholosttheirlands, wealth,freedom,andlives.Manyexpeditionsthatsearchedfortheglitteringmetalweredeadlyfailures,suchasthe1523-4expeditiontoHondurasledby CristóbaldeOlid.DiegodeAlmagroledalargeandexpensiveexpeditiontoChilein1535butfoundnogold.

Theconquistadors,searchingforwealthandnewlandstoconquer,heardtalesofawealthyandadvancedcivilisationintheAmericanSouthwestacrossthe desert,hundredsofmilestothenorth,theSevenCitiesofCíbola,fromIndigenouspeople(apparentlythe16th-centuryversionofGoogle),primarilyfromthe nativetribesofMéxicoandtheSouthwest.It’snotentirelyclearwheretheIndigenouspeoplegottheirinformationaboutCíbola.Somescholarsspeculatethat thestoriesofCíbolamayhavebeenbasedonpre-existinglegendsofwealthycivilisationsintheregion.Incontrast,otherssuggestthatthewealthandadvanced cultureoftheAztecEmpireinMexicomayhaveinspiredthem.ThestoriesmayhavetheirrootinanearlierPortugueselegendaboutsevencitiesfoundedon theislandofAntilliabyaCatholicexpeditioninthe8thcenturyoronebasedonthecaptureofMérida,Spain,bytheMoorsin1150.ThelaterSpanishtales werecausedmainlybyreportsgivenbythefourshipwreckedsurvivorsofthefailedNarváezexpedition,whichincludedexplorersÁlvarNúñezCabezadeVaca andhisMoorishslaveEstebanDorantes,orEstevanico,thefirstAfricantoexploreNorthAmerica.UponfinallyreturningtoNewSpain(México)aftereight yearsofwanderingthroughwhatisnowtheAmericanSouthwest,theadventurerssaidtheyhadheardstoriesaboutcitieswithgreatandlimitlessrichesfrom Indigenouspeople.Everyonelistenedintentlytotheirstoryofanincrediblelandtothenorthcomprisedofseven“largecities,withstreetslinedwithgoldsmith shops,housesofmanystories,anddoorwaysstuddedwithemeraldsandturquoise!”Uponhearingthecastaways’tales,AntoniodeMendoza,theViceroyof NewSpain(México),commissionedFrayMarcosdeNiza,anItalianFranciscan,toleadanexpeditionnorthinsearchofthefabledSevenCitiesofCibola. Estevanicowasinstructedtoserveasaguidefortheexpedition.

PaintingSite:ZuniPueblo,NewMexico(GPS35.069444°N,-108.846667°W)

LandAcknowledgement:Pueblos;Shiwinna(Zuni)

TheCatholicChurchplayedasignificantroleintheSpanishconquestandcolonisationoftheAmericas,providingreligiousandmoralsupportfortheSpanish expeditionsandexertingspiritualcontroloverthenativepopulations.InthecaseofthesearchforCíbola,FranciscanfriarsaccompaniedtheSpanish conquistadorsontheirexpeditionsandhelpedtoestablishmissionsintheareastheyexplored.Thefriarsplayedacrucialroleinconvertingnativepopulations toCatholicism,andtheirestablishedmissionsservedasreligiousandpoliticalcentres,exertingsignificantcontroloverthelocalpeople.

ThefirstcontactbetweenSpaniardsandPuebloansoccurredin1539intheancientvillageofHáwikuh(orHawikku,meaning“gumleaves”inZuni).When Estevanicowaswithinaday’sjourneyofCíbola,hesentamessengeraheadtoannouncehisarrival.WheninformedofEstevanico’simpendingvisit,thefirst villagechiefangrilyorderedthemessengertoleaveandthreatenedtokillanyonewhocameback.Estevanicoseemedunconcernedbythesethreatsandproceeded toCíbola.Whenthepartyarrived,thevillagerstooktheirtradegoodsandheldthemovernightwithoutfoodorwater.OneoftheIndianswhohadbeenwith Estevanico’spartymanagedtoescapeandhidenearby.ThefollowingdayhesawthemenofCíbolachasingEstevanicoandshootingarrowsathim.Hedidnot seewhathappenedtotheAfrican,butothersinhispartywerekilled.Theterm“Cíbola”isthoughttocomefromtheindigenousZuni(A:shiwi)word“sibola,” whichmeans“yellow,”areferencetothegoldthatwasbelievedtobeabundantinthecities.MarcosdeNizacalledZuniPuebloandthesurroundingareaCíbola.

MarcosdeNizareturnedtoMexicoCityandsaidthattheexpeditionhadcontinuedevenafterthedeathofEstevanico.HeclaimedthattheyhadseenCíbola fromagreatdistanceandthatitwasmoresignificantthanTenochtitlan;inthiscity,thepeopleuseddishesofgoldandsilver,decoratedtheirhouseswith turquoise,andhadgiganticpearls,emeralds,andotherbeautifulgems.Somehistoriansnowbelievethatthemica-inflectedclayoftheadobepueblosmayhave createdanopticalillusionwheninflamedbythesettingsun,thusfuellingthetale.ThoughFrayMarcos’reportwasgarbledandexaggerated,ViceroyMendoza wasconvincedofthecities’existence.It’spossibleMarcosdeNizahadotherreasonsfortellingthisstoryofgreatriches,perhapssuppressionoftheIndigenous peopleandfundingforaCatholicmissioninZuniPueblo.

Uponhearingthisnews,theViceroydeMendozawastednotimeorganisingalargemilitaryexpeditiontotakepossessionoftherichesthemonkhaddescribed withsuchvividdetail.ConquistadorFranciscoVázquezdeCoronadobeganhisexpeditionupontheViceroy’scommand.CoronadohadcometoMéxicoin 1535andrapidlyroseinstatusthroughhisfriendshipwiththeviceroyandpastsuccessfulmissions.CoronadoleftwithasmallgroupofexplorersfromCuliacán onApril22,1540.Theviceroy,however,counselledCoronadobeforehisdepartureandcautionedhimthatthequestwastobeamissionaryundertaking,not oneofmilitaryconquest.AccompanyingCoronadowasMarcosdeNizaashisguide,severalotherpriests,over300Spanishsoldiers,severalhundredMéxicanIndianallies,and1,500stockanimals.AdditionalsuppliesfortheexpeditionweresentnorthbyshipunderCaptainHernandodeAlarcón.Afterreaching Culiacán,Coronadoand100soldiers,anxioustobeholdCibola,marchedswiftlyaheadoftheslower-movingmainarmy.

References

ShaneMountjoy,WilliamH.Goetzmann, FranciscoCoronadoandtheSevenCitiesofGold, 2009

DouglasPreston, CitiesofGold:AJourneyAcrosstheAmericanSouthwest,1999

StephenClissold, TheSevenCitiesofCibola, 1962

DavidM.Carballo, CollisionofWorlds, 2020

FernandoCervantes, Conquistadores,2020

OnJuly7,1540,CoronadofinallyarrivedatHáwikuhpueblo,southofpresent-dayGallup,NewMexico,andthefirstofCibola’sfabledcities.Hediscovered thatthestorieswereunfoundedandthattherewere,infact,notreasuresasthefriarhaddescribed—onlyIndigenousfarmerslivinginvariouscommunities andvillagesinArizonaandNewMexico.TheseweretheHopi,Zuni(A:shiwi),RioGrandePueblo,Apache,andDiné(Navajo)peoples.Healsofoundthat, contrarytothefriar’saccount,theseawasnotwithinviewfromthatregion,butitwasmanydays’journeyaway.Nevertheless,Coronadooccupiedthearea bymilitaryforceanduseditasabaseforfutureexplorations.WhileatHáwikuh,Coronadosenthiscaptainsouttoexplorethesurroundingregion.DonPedro deTovarandhistroopsreachedtheHopiIndianvillagesinnortheasternArizona.Atthesametime,GarciaLópezdeCárdenasandhismentravelledasfar westastheGrandCanyonoftheColoradoRiver.Athirdcaptain,HernandodeAlvarado,marchedeastwardpastAcomaandTiguexpueblostoCicuye(Pecos) pueblo,nearmodern-daySantaFe.TheSpanishsoondiscoveredrichcopperandturquoiseminesinthePueblocountry,whichmadetheregionfamousforits mineralwealtheveninrecenttimes.

Whileamongthetowns,CoronadoheardanotherrumourfromanIndigenouspersoninSantaFehecalled“theTurk”aboutacitywithplentyofgoldcalled Quivira,locatedontheothersideoftheGreatPlains,whoseleadersupposedlydrankfromgoldencupshangingfromthetrees.TheTurk’sstoriesrenewedhopes amongtheSpaniardsoffindingthegreatwealththathadthusfareludedthem;however,withwinterapproaching,furtherexplorationhadtowaituntilspring,when Coronadoledanexpeditionofmorethan1000SpanishandIndigenousindividualsontotheGreatPlainsin1541.TheTurkservedastheexpedition’sadviser.The nameQuiviraisthoughttocomefromtheWichitatribe,whoinhabitedtheregionatthetimeofEuropeancontact.Theexactmeaningofthenameisunclear, butitmaymean“thelandoftheplains.”After40longdaysoftravel,CoronadosentmostofhismenbacktoTiguexandcontinuedmarchingnortheastwith asmalldetachment.However,whenhefinallyreachedthisplace(variouslyconjecturedtobeinmodernKansas,Nebraska,orMissouri),locatedneartheGreat BendoftheArkansasRiverincentralKansas,hefoundlittlemorethanstraw-thatchedvillages.TheTurkfinallyconfessedthatthestoryofQuivirawas nothingmorethanaplotconceivedbythePuebloIndianstoluretheSpaniardsoutontotheplainsinhopesthattheywouldbecomelostandeventuallydieof starvation.CoronadoreturnedtoMéxico,butbeforethat,heorderedthattheTurkbeexecutedatQuivira.

BesidesCíbolaandQuivira,namesassociatedwithsimilarlostcitiesofgoldalsoincludedElDorado,Paititi,CityoftheCaesars,LakeParimeatManoa,Omagua, andAntilia. ElDorado(TheGoldenOne),wasalegendarycityofgoldinSouthAmericathatwasbelievedtobelocatedintheinteriorofColombia.Thestories ofElDoradooriginatedamongtheindigenouspeopleofSouthAmerica.TheSpanishconquistadorslateradoptedthemintheirsearchforwealthandnewlands toconquer. Paititi.TheSpanishandotherEuropeanadventurerslaunchednumerousexpeditionsinsearchofPaititi,butthecityhasneverbeenfound.Thename PaititiisthoughttocomefromtheQuechualanguage,thelanguageoftheIncaempire,andmaymean“theplaceofthemountainsofthemoon.”Paititiisoften calledthe“LostCityofGold”andoneofSouthAmerica’smostfamousandenduringlegends. CityoftheCaesars (CiudaddelosCésares),alsovariouslyknown astheCityofPatagonia,theWanderingCity,TrapalandaorTrapananda,LinLinorElelín,isamythicalcityofSouthAmerica.Itwassupposedlylocated somewhereinPatagonia,inavalleyoftheAndesbetweenChileandArgentina.DespitebeingsearchedforduringthecolonisationofSouthAmerica,noevidence provesthatiteverexisted,althoughreportsofitcirculatedfortwohundredyears. LakeParimeatManoa isalegendarygoldcityinSouthAmerica’sinterior. ThenameManoaisthoughttocomefromtheregion’sIndigenouspeople,butitsexactmeaningisunclear.TheSpanishconquistadorssearchedforManoainthe 16thand17thcenturies,butthecitywasneverfound. Omagua isacityofgoldlocatedalongtheAmazonRiverinSouthAmerica.ThenameOmaguaisthought tocomefromtheregion’sIndigenouspeople,butitsexactmeaningisunclear.TheSpanishsearchedforOmaguainthe16thcentury,butthecitywasneverfound. Antilia (orAntillia)isaphantomislandthatwasreputed,duringthe15th-centuryageofexploration,tolieintheAtlanticOcean,fartothewestofPortugaland Spain.TheislandalsowentbythenameofIsleofSevenCities.ItoriginatesfromanoldIberianlegendsetduringtheMuslimconquestofHispaniac.714,about sevenChristianVisigothicbishopsseekingtofleefromtheMuslimconquerorsbuildingsevenmissionsonsevenislands.

Plate18. ZuniPueblo,SanJuanBasin,NewMexico, 2021 201

—JamesDuaneDoty,UtahTerritorialSuperintendentofIndianAffairs

TheBearRiverMassacreof1863wasagenocidalmassacrethathasbeendescribedasa“bloodbath”ofhundredsofNativeAmericanmen,women,and childrenfromtheNorthernShoshonepeoplecampedneartheBearRiverinSoutheasternIdaho,attackedbymembersoftheCaliforniaVolunteers,aunitof theUnitedStatesArmy.ItwasoneofthedeadliestincidentsofitskindinthehistoryoftheAmericanWest,evenmoredeadlythantheslaughteratSandCreek. TheBearRiverrunsthroughCacheValley,initiallycalledSeuhubeogoi(Shoshone:WillowValley);itwasthetraditionalhuntinggroundfortheNorthwestern Shoshone.Theygatheredgrainandgrassseeds,fishedfortrout,huntedsmallgamesuchasgroundsquirrelandwoodchuck,andbiggameincludingbison, deer,andelk.TheestablishmentoftheCaliforniaTrailandtheOregonTrailandthefoundingofSaltLakeCityin1847broughttheShoshonepeopleinto regularcontactwithWhitecolonistsmovingwestward.By1856,Euro-AmericanshadestablishedtheirfirstpermanentsettlementsandfarmsinCacheValley, startingatWellsville,Utah,andgraduallymovingnorthward.BrighamYoung,presidentoftheChurchofJesusChristofLatter-daySaints(LDSChurch),had initiallyconsideredtheCacheValleythelocationforhisnewsettlementofMormonpioneers.Instead,YoungchoseSaltLakeValley.But,overthenextfew years,MormonsettlerseventuallymovedtoCacheValley.Asearlyas1847,delegationsofShoshonemetwiththeMormonstodiscusstheirlandclaimsin northernUtah.Thesettlerswereconsumingsignificantfoodresources—theShoshone’sonceabundantgamenolongerappeared—andthesettlersweretaking overareasthatpushedincreasinglypushedtheShoshonetoareasofpoorerfoodsources.JamesDuaneDotyandJacobForney,theSuperintendentofIndian AffairsfortheTerritoryofUtah,recognisedtheimpactofmigrants,writing,“TheIndians...havebecomeimpoverishedbytheintroductionofaWhite population.”HerecommendedtohissuperiorsthatanIndianReservationbeestablishedinCacheValleytoprotectessentialresourcesfortheShoshone,but thiswasn’tdone.Desperateandstarving,theShoshoneattackedfarmsandranchestosurvive.

OnJuly28,1862,JohnWhitediscoveredgoldonGrasshopperCreekinthemountainsofsouthwesternMontana.Soon,minersfromaroundthecountrycreated amigrationandsupplytrailrightthroughCacheValley,betweenthenewminesandSaltLakeCity.WhenaresidentofSummitCreekfoundhishorsemissing, heaccusedayoungShoshonefishingatnearbySummitCreekofstealingtheanimal.RobertThornley,anEnglishimmigrantandthefirstresidentofSummit Creekdefendedtheyoungman,thelocalchief’ssonandtestifiedforhim.Nonetheless,ajuryofWhitesettlersconvictedhimandhangedhimforstealingthe horse.LocalhistoryrecordedtheShoshone’snameasPugweenee.LaterinformationrevealsthatPugweeneeistheShoshonewordfor“fish,”andsotheyoung manmayhavebeensaying,“Lookatmyfish,”or“Iwasjustfishing.”Withindays,theShoshoneretaliatedbykillingacoupleofyoungmenoftheMerrillfamily gatheringwoodinthenearbycanyon.ManyminorskirmishesandmurderousraidsensuedbetweentheminersandsettlersandtheShoshoneoverthenextfew months.AmilitaryfortwassoonbuiltnearthepresentlocationofBoise,Idaho.SpoilingforafightinearlyJanuary,thesoldierspreparedtoexterminatethe NativeAmericanswho’dbeenattackingtheminersandtheirfamiliestravellingtothegoldmines.

PaintingSite:BearRiverMassacreSite,FranklinCounty,Idaho(GPS42.146111°N,-111.914167°W)

LandAcknowledgement:Shoshone-Bannock;Núu-agha-tʉvʉ-pʉ̱(Ute)

TheIndianshavebeeningreatnumbers,inastarvinganddestitutecondition.Noprovisions havingbeenmadeforthem,eitherastoclothingorprovisionsbymypredecessors...TheIndians conditionwassuch-withtheprospectthattheywouldrobmailstationstosustainlife.

Realisingthatheightenedconflictwiththesoldierswaspossible,theShoshonechiefsorderedthatpreparationsbemade,mainlygatheringfoodstuffsfrom surroundingMormonsettlements.TherelativelyfewfirearmsthattheShoshonehadatthetimeoftheattackhadbeencapturedinpreviousskirmishes,traded fromfurtrappers,Whitesettlers,andotherNativeAmericantribalgroups,orsimplyantiquesthathadbeenhandeddownforgenerations.MajorMcGarry andthefirstcavalryunitsofthe2ndRegimentCaliforniaVolunteerCavalryarrivedattheBearRivercampat6:00am,justasdawnwasbreakingoverthe mountains,perhapsthecoldestandsnowiesttimeoftheyearinCacheValley.Localsettlersreporteditwasanunseasonablycold−20°F(−30°C).The Calvary’sartilleryneverarrivedastheygotcaughtinasnowdriftsixmiles(9.7km)fromtheShoshoneencampment.

TheShoshonewerenotanticipatingadirectmilitaryengagementwiththesesoldiers;rather,theyexpectedapeacefullynegotiatedsettlementwherethechiefs couldtalkwithUSArmyofficersandcometoanunderstanding.Instead,Col.PatrickEdwardConnorandtheCaliforniaVolunteersbeganadirectfrontal offensiveagainsttheShoshone.Theywere,however,unexpectedlyoverwhelmedwithreturngunfirefromtheShoshoneandsufferedheavycasualtiesduring thisfirstassault.Aftertemporarilyretreatingandregrouping,ConnorandMcGarrybegantoattackthevillagefromthesidesandbehind.Aftertwohours,the Shoshonehadrunoutofammunition;someShoshonewereseentryingtocastleadammunitionduringthemiddleofthebattleanddiedwiththemouldsin theirhands.Connorreportedthathisforceskilledmorethan224outof300warriors.Healsoreportedcapturing175horsesandsomearmsanddestroying 70lodgesandalargequantityofstoredwheatinwintersupplies.Hereportedlyleftasmallamountofgrainforthe160capturedwomenandchildren. AccountsfromcitizensofthetownofFranklin,friendlytotheShoshone,claimedthatthenumberofdeadwomenandchildrenwasmuchhigherthanConnor claimedandthatfewerShoshonewarriorswerekilledaswell.Inhis1911autobiography,DanishimmigrantHansJaspersonclaimstohavewalkedamongthe bodiesandcounted493deadShoshone.Thedeathtollwassignificant,butsomeShoshonesurvived.ChiefSagwitchwasshottwiceinthehandandtriedto escapeonhorseback,onlytohavethehorseshotoutfromunderhim.HewenttotheravineandranintotheBearRivernearahotspring,wherehefloated undersomebrushuntilnightfall.Sagwitch’sson,BeshupTimbimboo,wasshotseventimesbutsurvivedandwasrescuedbyfamilymembers.Sagwitchand othersurvivorsretrievedthewoundedandbuiltafiretowarmthesurvivors.

ChiefSagwitchandmanymembersofhispeoplealliedwiththeMormons.ManywerebaptisedandjoinedtheLDSChurch.Sagwitchwasordainedasan ElderintheMelchizedekpriesthood.MostoftheremainingmembersoftheNorthwesternbandofShoshonebuiltfarmsandhomesteadsunderLDSChurch sponsorship,andtheirdescendantsintegratedintomainstreamLDSsociety.In2018thetribeannouncedthepurchaseofroughly600moreacresofthe massacresiteforaculturalinterpretivecentreandmemorialasareminderoftheviolenceandsufferingthatNativeAmericancommunitieshaveexperienced duetotheexpansionofEuropeansettlementsintheAmericas.

References

DarrenParry, TheBearRiverMassacre:AShoshoneHistory, 2019 CharlesRiverEditors, TheBearRiverMassacre:TheHistoryandLegacyoftheU.S.Army’sMostNotorious AttackontheShoshoneinthePacificNorthwest, 2018 RodMiller, MassacreatBearRiver:First,Worst,Forgotten, 2008

ícaro1126 OcetiSakowinCamp(2016-17) StandingRock,NorthDakota

TheStandingRockprotestsof2016-2017wereaseriesofdemonstrationsledbytheStandingRockSiouxTribeandtheiralliesagainsttheconstructionofthe DakotaAccessPipeline.Theprotestersbelievedthepipelinethreatenedtheirwatersupplyandsacredculturalsites.Themovementgainednationalattention, withthousandsofactivists,indigenouspeople,andalliescampingattheStandingRockSiouxReservationtoshowsolidarity.Despiteheavypolicepresence andharshwinterconditions,theprotestscontinuedformonths.Inlate2016,theUSArmyCorpsofEngineersannouncedthattheywouldnotgrantthepermit forthepipelinetocrossunderLakeOahe,asignificantvictoryfortheStandingRockSiouxTribeandtheprotesters.However,inearly2017,thenew administrationreversedthedecision,andconstructionresumed.Theprotestsultimatelyfailedtostopthepipelinecompletion,buttheysparkedamore significantmovementtoprotectindigenousrightsandtheenvironment.

TheDakotaAccessPipelineProtestsbeganinearly2016asgrassrootsoppositiontoconstructingEnergyTransferPartners’DakotaAccessPipeline(DAPL)in thenorthernUnitedStates.DAPLhadbeenunderenvironmentalreviewsinceJune2017,itsfortunesdependentonpoliticalwinds.Theundergroundpipeline runs1,172milesfromtheBakkenoilfieldsinwesternNorthDakotatoadistributioncentreinsouthernIllinois,crossingbeneaththeMissouriandMississippi riversandunderpartofLakeOaheneartheStandingRockSiouxIndianReservation.ManymembersoftheStandingRocknationandsurrounding communitiesconsideredthepipelineaseverethreattotheregion’swater,wildrice(manoomin)marshes,andancientburialgroundsandculturalsitesof historicalimportance.

InApril2016,youngpeoplefromStandingRock,NorthDakotaandsurroundingNativeAmericancommunitiesorganisedacampaigntostopthepipeline. JoyeBraunoftheIndigenousEnvironmentNetworkandtribalhistorianLaDonnaBraveBullAllardhelpedestablishawaterprotectors’campasacentrefor directaction,demonstratingspiritualresistancetothepipelineinbothadefenceofIndigenoussovereigntyandculturalpreservation.Delegatesofhundreds oftribalnationsfromtheWesternHemisphereflewtheirflagstosupporttheprotestorsandtheirFirstAmendmentrights.

ImadeacoupleoftripstoStandingRockfromProvidence,RhodeIsland,in2016todelivermedicalandheatingsuppliesandtodoacoupleofpaintingsfor myícaroseries.Themoodinthecampwashopeful,andthedrummingbyyoungandoldaddedanairofsolemnityforthehundredsgatheredthere.Flagsof almosteveryIndigenousnationinNorthAmericaandelsewherewereflying,andoldhistoricalenemiesoftheLakota,theCrowandtheCheyennecameto standwiththem.Thenationshavefeltlikethey’vebeenpushedaroundfordecades.StandingRocktribalchairmanDavidArchambaultsaid,“WhentheArmy CorpsofEngineersdammedtheMissouriRiverin1958,ittookourriverfrontforests,fruitorchardsandmostfertilefarmlandtocreateLakeOahe.Nowthe Corpsistakingourcleanwaterandsacredplacesbyapprovingthisrivercrossing.Whetherit’sgoldfromtheBlackHills,hydropowerfromtheMissouri,oroil pipelinesthatthreatenourancestralinheritance,thetribeshavealwayspaidthepriceforAmerica’sprosperity.”

PaintingSite:StandingRock,NorthDakota(GPS45.9133332°N,-100.9637434°W)

LandAcknowledgement:Tséstho’e(Cheyenne),OčhéthiŠakówiŋ

InNovember2016,armouredvehiclesrolledin.Lawenforcementusedautomaticrifles,soundcannons,andconcussiongrenadesagainstwaterprotectors.

Personnelandequipmentpouringinfromover75lawenforcementagenciesaroundthecountryandNationalGuardtroopscreatedabattlefield-like atmosphereatStandingRock,wherepolicedogsbitprotestorsandteargaswasshot.Anestimated300protesterswereinjuredinNovemberwhenpolicein riotgearusedwatercannonsforhoursinsubfreezingweathertodispersethem.

ThefinalgroupofprotestorswereforcedoutoftheOcetiSakowincamp,razedbytheUSArmyCorpsofEngineersandmilitarisedStatepoliceinFebruary2017. UnderPresidentBarackObama’sadministration,theCorpsofEngineersdeniedaneasementforthepipelineconstructionundertheMissouriRiver.Thedecision wasreversedthefollowingmonthbytheincomingadministrationofPresidentDonaldTrump.ThepipelinewascompletedbyApril2017,anditsfirstoilwas deliveredonMay14.AspillcouldstillhavemajoradverseeffectsonthewaterstheStandingRockReservereliesupon.ThecompanyEnergyTransferplansto addpumpstationstoboostthepipeline’sefficiencyandspeed.Oncetheexpansionisup,asmuchas1.1millionbarrelsofoilwillflowthroughthepipelinedaily.

TheReverendJesseJacksonannouncedsupportforthemovement,sayingitwas“TheripestcaseofenvironmentalracismIhaveseeninalongtime.Thetribes ofthiscountryhavesacrificedalotsothatthisgreatcountrycouldbebuilt.Withpromisesbroken,landstolenandsacredlandsdesecrated,theStandingRock SiouxTribeisstandingupfortheirrighttocleanwater.Theyhavelostlandforsettlerstofarm,morelandforgoldintheBlackHills,andthenagain,evenmore landforthedambuiltforhydropower.Whenwillthetakingstop?”ThemediadidnotreportontheDakotaAccessPipelineprotestsuntilaboutfivemonthsafter ithadstartedhappeningandgainingattentiononsocialmedia(theystartedreportinginAugust2016).Somearguethatthisshowsthatthemediaisindifferent towardNativeAmericans.AndwhattheydidreportincludedstereotypesaboutNativeAmericans,describingteepeesandspeakingofpovertyandalcoholism.

TheLakotaphrase“Mníwičhóni”(Waterislife)wastheprotestanthemfromStandingRockheardaroundtheworld,butitalsohasaspiritualmeaning rootedinIndigenousworldviews.ForNativeAmericans,waterdoesnotonlysustainlife,itissacred. ThephrasewasusedbytheStandingRockSioux tribeanditssupportersasarallyingcryduringtheDakotaAccesspipelineprotests,astheyarguedthatthepipelinethreatensthetribe’swatersupplyand sacredsites.OtherIndigenouscommunitiesalsousethephrase,whichsymbolisestheimportanceofwaterintheIndigenousculturesanditssignificance forthesurvivalofhumanlife.

Plate19. OcetiSakowinCamp,StandingRock,NorthDakota, 2016

Ancientpathwaysmovedpeople,objects,andideasacrossconsiderableexpansesoftheAmericas,whereboundariesandborderswerelessprohibitivethan theyaretoday.Whileterritorieswereindeedmarkedanddefended,theneedtoacquirecriticalnon-localresourcesandmaintainsocialobligationsmeantthat travelwaslikelyunrestricted,evenduringperiodsofconflict.Naturaldisasters,politicaltensionsorperhapspopulationpressuresoccasionallycompelledgroups andevenentirecommunitiestosearchfornewlandstosettle.

MesoamericaisahistoricalregionandculturalareaspanningsouthernNorthAmericatomostofCentralAmerica.Itextendsfromapproximatelycentral MéxicothroughBelize,Guatemala,ElSalvador,Honduras,Nicaragua,andnorthernCostaRica.Withinthisregion,pre-Columbiansocietiesflourishedfor morethan3,000yearsbeforeEuropeancolonisation.Mesoamericawasthesiteoftwoofthemostprofoundhistoricaltransformationsinworldhistory: primaryurbangenerationandtheformationofNewWorldculturesfromthelongencountersamongindigenous,European,AfricanandAsiancivilisations. The34,000-acre(138 km2) ChacoCanyon,locatedinNewMexiconearNageezi,wheretheChacocultureflourished(800to1140CE),wasasignificanttrade andculturalexchangecentreintheancientMesoamericanworld.Thecanyonwashometomanylargeandsophisticatedpueblocommunitiesconnectedtoa networkoftraderoutesthatstretchedfromthePacificcoasttoperhapsasfareastastheMississippiancultureatCahokia,thepre-ColumbianNativeAmerican city(whichexistedc.1050–1350CE)directlyacrosstheMississippiRiverfrommodernSt.Louis,Missouri.VisitorstoHuecoTanks,nearElPaso,wesee paintedimagesofQuetzalcoatlandtheraingodTlaloc–deitiescelebratedatthegreatpyramidsofTeotihuacán,1,200milesaway.

Thepresenceofwaternecessarilydictateshowfarandwherepeoplecantravel.ResearchsuggeststhatthedesertregionsinthewesternUS–includingNevada, Utah,Oregon,andpartsofCalifornia—wereratherdampsettingsuntilapproximately8,200yearsago,whentheregionbegantodryout,eventually assumingthearidenvironmentsweseetoday.TheSouthwesterndesertdrylakesliketheBonnevilleSaltFlatsinUtah,ElMirageLakeinthecentralMojave DesertinCalifornia,anddriedriverbedsweseetodaymayhavelookedquitedifferent3,000yearsago.ThePueblopeopleandotherindigenousgroupsused thetraderoutesthroughChacoCanyontoexchangegoods,ideas,andtechnologieswithothercommunities.ThesetraderoutesconnectedChacoCanyonto manyMesoamericancultures,includingtheancientHohokam,Anasazi(pre-Puebloan),andMogollon,southwesternculturesofwhichwestillknowlittle.In the1930s,archaeologistsworkinginPhoenixandTucson,Arizona,documentedevidencethattheHohokam,asearlyas2,000yearsago,builtvillages,farmed cornandpaintedpottery.Thissocietyseemed“outofplace”–itdidn’tconnectwithothersitesintheUnitedStates.AllaroundthedesertsofUtah,Nevada, southernOregon,andeasternCalifornia,ancientshorelineslinethehillsidesabovedryvalleyfloors,likebathtubrings,remnantsofthelakesoncefound throughouttheregion.(continues)

PaintingSite:ChacoCanyon,NewMexico(GPS36.06°N,-107.96°W)

LandAcknowledgement:DinéBikéyah;Pueblos;Núu-agha-tʉvʉ-pʉ̱(Ute)

TheconnectionbetweenthePuebloanworldandMesoamericaishotlydebatedinarchaeology. Whatdoesitmeanthatcacao–chocolatefromthetropics–wasconsumedatChacoCanyon intheFourCorners?OrthatboththeMayaandtheMimbresofNewMexicotoldstoriesof the“warriortwins,”whojourneyedthroughtheunderworldandchallengedtheforcesofdeath?

—DrewStuart,Producerforthe MarfaPublicRadio series NatureNotes

ícaro1125 MesoamericanTradeRoutes, ChacoCanyon,NewMexico,2016 66x101x2in.(168x257x5cm),earthpigments,acryliconcanvas,alu/woodstretcher

Evenastheicesheetsretreatedattheendofthelasticeage,12,000yearsago,theregionremainedmuchwetterthanitistoday.Theearliestsettlersofthearea arelikelytohaveencounteredaverdantlandscapeofspringsandwetlands.InthecaseofChacoCanyon,ithasbeensuggestedthatAncestralPuebloanswho builttheastronomicallyalignedmassivestoneandtimberinfrastructurepushedbeyondasustainableleveloflanduse.Theirlandscapemodificationsfor agricultureandwoodgatheringforarchitecturalneeds,foodresources,andfirewoodforcookinginthehighdeserttippedthebalanceatsomepointwherethe treesthatheldthesoiltogetherledtosevereerosionandthewashingawayoftopsoilduringtheheavyrainsthatcharacterisetheregion,asa27October2021 ScienceDaily journalarticlefromtheUniversityofCincinnatisuggests.(www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2021/10/211027150700.htm).

Considerhowpathwaystoacquirenaturalresourcesandtradegoodsmaydevelopintoroutesforsacredpilgrimages.Asaculturalarea,Mesoamericaisdefined byamosaicofculturaltraitsdevelopedandsharedbyitsIndigenouscultures.Beginningasearlyas7000BCE,thedomesticationofcacao,maise,beans,tomato, avocado,vanilla,squashandchilli,aswellastheturkeyanddog,resultedinatransitionfrompaleo-Indianhunter-gatherertribalgroupingstotheorganisation ofsedentaryagriculturalvillages.ThetraderoutesthroughChacoCanyonplayedasignificantroleintheculturalandeconomicdevelopmentoftheregion. Theyfacilitatedtheexchangeofawiderangeofgoods,includingcottontextiles,macawfeathers(perhapsfromlivemacawscultivatedintheChihuahuanDesert inmoretemperatetimes),turquoise,obsidian,malachite,pottery,Pacificshells,andotheritems.Tracesofcacaohavebeendetectedonpotteryshards,and ceramicswiththesameformasusedinAzteccultureshavebeenexcavatedinUtahandatChacoCanyon.Atthesametime,turquoisewiththesamechemical signalsasjewelleryfoundnearChacoCanyonhasbeenfoundinTenochtitláninMéxicoCity.Traderoutesalsoencouragedexchangingideasandtechnologies, suchasagriculturaltechniques,architecturalstyles,andreligiouspractices.Theseroutesmayalsohaveembodiedsignificantculturalmeaning.Theyare rememberedandstudiedasawaytounderstandtheconnectionsandinteractionsbetweendifferentculturesandtheroleoftradeinshapinghumansocieties.

References

FrancesF.Berdan, TheAztecsofCentralMexico:AnImperialSociety, 1982

AlfredoLópezAustin&LeonardoLopezLujan, Mexico’sIndigenousPast,2001

ícaro1125 MesoamericanTradeRoutes, ChacoCanyon,NewMexico,2016 66x101x2in.(168x257x5cm),earthpigments,acryliconcanvas,alu/woodstretcher

BadlandsNationalParkisaprotectedareainSouthDakotaknownforitsruggedanddramaticlandscape,deepcanyons,toweringcliffs,androllinggrasslands. Theparkishometoadiversearrayofplantandanimallife,includingbison,pronghorn,bighornsheep,prairiedogs,andvariousbirdspecies.Locatedinthe GreatPlainsregion,itcoversanareaofover240,000acres(971 km²) andwasestablishedasanationalparkin1978,managedbytheNationalParkService. Badland’sgeologyisparticularlystriking,withtheruggedterrainformedbymillionsofyearsoferosionandishometomanygeologicalfeatures,includinglayered rockformations,fossilbeds,anddeepcanyons.Theparkalsohasarichculturalhistory,withevidenceofhumanhabitationdatingbackover11,000years.

TheBadlandsregionofSouthDakotahasalongandcomplexhistory,includingthedisplacementofIndigenouspeoplefromtheirancestrallandsinthelate 1800sandtheearly1900s.TheareanowBadlandsNationalParkhasbeeninhabitedbyIndigenouspeopleforthousandsofyears,andseveralnations, includingtheOčhéthiŠakówiŋ(LakotaSioux)andtheTsalagi(Cheyenne),havestrongculturalandspiritualconnectionstotheland.

ThecreationofYellowstoneNationalPark,thefirstnationalpark,inthelate1800sinvolvedthedisplacementofseveralIndigenouspeoples,includingthe Apsáalook(Crow), Notameohmésêhese(NorthernCheyenne),andEasternShoshone.Thesenationswereforcedtoleavetheirtraditionallandsandmoveto reservations,oftenagainsttheirwill.Thecreationofothernationalparks,suchasYosemite,Glacier,andRockyMountain,alsoinvolvedthedisplacementof Indigenouspeoples,includingtheAhwahnee,Hidatsa,andKootenai.TheUSgovernmentsoughttoclearIndigenouspeoples’landtomakewayforWhitesettlers andopentheareaformining,ranching,andothercommercialactivities.TheforcedremovalofIndigenousnationsfromnationalparksresultedfromtheUS government’spolicyofassimilatingIndigenouspeopleintoEuro-Americanculture.ThepolicywasaimedatdestroyingtheculturalheritageofIndigenouspeople, anditcausedalotofsufferingandtraumatothetribes.ThedisplacementofIndigenouspeopleandtheimpactontheirculturesandtraditionscontinuetobea sourceofconflictandcontroversy.Manyfamilieswereseparatedandlosttheirhomes,huntinggrounds,andaccesstosacredsites.Inrecentyears,therehavebeen effortstorecogniseandaddresstheimpactsofthecreationofnationalparksonIndigenouscommunitiesandtoworktowardsreconciliationandhealing.

TheSouthUnitofBadlandsNationalParkisentirelyonTribalTrustland,meaningthelandthereisheldtrustbytheFederalGovernmentfortheuse andbenefitofthetribalmembersoftheOglalaSiouxTribe.In1976,aMemorandumofAgreementwassignedbetweentheparkandtribalgovernment thatoutlinedprioritiesandmutuallybeneficialitemsthatbothpartieswouldseektoimplementforthebettermentoftheAmericanpublicandthecitizens oftheOglalaLakotanation.

PaintingSite:Badlands,SouthDakota(GPS43.75°N,-102.5°W)

LandAcknowledgement:Tséstho’e(Cheyenne);OčhéthiŠakówiŋ;Mnicoujou

TheforcedremovalofIndiantribesfromnationalparkswasaclearexampleofthe UnitedStatesgovernment’spolicyofculturalgenocide,aimedatassimilatingNative AmericansintowhiteAmericanculture.

—RoxanneDunbar-Ortiz,historian

References

RoxanneDunbar-Ortiz, AnIndigenousPeoples’HistoryoftheUnitedStates, 2014 DavidStannard, AmericanHolocaust:ColumbusandtheConquestoftheNewWorld, 1993

ícaro1132 Badlands, SouthDakota,2016 68x105x2in.(173x267x5cm),earthpigments,acrylicpolymeroncanvas,alu/woodstretcher

ícaro1140 ApalacheeMassacre(1704)VeldaMound, Florida

TheApalacheeMassacrewasaviolentconflictin1704intheApalacheeregionofFlorida,aSpanishcolony.Theconflictwassparkedbymisunderstandings andmiscommunicationsbetweentheSpanishandtheApalachee.ThemassacreresultedfromtensionsbetweenEnglishandSpanishcolonisationof southeasternNorthAmerica,withdisputesoverclaimsoverFloridaterritorysincethemiddleofthe17thcentury.Traders,raiders,andslaversfromthenew EnglishprovinceofCarolina,withthefoundingofCharlesTown(present-dayCharleston,SouthCarolina,in1670),penetratedFlorida,leadingtoraiding andreprisalexpeditionsonbothsides.Since1623,SpanishFloridawasahavenforfugitiveslavesfromtheEnglishSoutherncolonies.TheSpanishcolonial authoritiesinFloridafreedAfricanenslavedpeoplewhoreachedtheirterritory,askingforrefugeiftheyconvertedtoRomanCatholicism.Mostsuchfreedmen settledintheSt.AugustineareaatGraciaRealdeSantaTeresadeMose(FortMose),thefirstsettlementofformerlyenslavedpeopleinNorthAmerica.Spanish FloridahadnumerousAfricanenslavedwhoescapedslaveryintheThirteenColonies.Ineffect,theSpaniardscreatedamaroonsettlement(arunaway communityoftheformerlyenslaved)inFloridatodefendagainstEnglishattacksfromthenorth.ThesepeoplecouldbecomefreeSpanishcitizensandbe assistedinestablishingtheirworkshopsiftheyhadatradeorweregivenagrantoflandtocultivateiftheywerefarmers.Inexchange,theywouldberequired toserveintheSpanishmilitiaforsomeyears.

CatholicmissionswereinstalledthroughouttheAmericastointegratenativepopulationsaspartoftheSpanishculture;fromthepointofviewofthe Monarchy,theIndigenousofAmericawereseenasCrownsubjectsinneedofcare,instructionandprotectionfromthemilitaryandsettlers,manyofwhom wereinthepursuitofwealth,landandnobilitytitles.ThemissionariesaimedtoconvertnativestoChristianitybecausediffusionofChristianitywasdeemed areligiousrequirementand,asamilitarystrategy,atacticalone.SpanishVice-royaltiesinAmericahadthesamestructureastheVice-RoyaltiesinSpanish provinces.TheCatholicchurchdependedontheKingsadministrativelybut,indoctrine,wasconstantlysubjectedtoRome.

TheApalacheeMassacrebeganwhenagroupofSpanishsoldiersandtheirMuscogee(Creek)alliesattackedtheApalacheevillageofIvitachuco.The ApalacheewereanIndigenouspeopleoftheSoutheasternWoodlands,specificallythePanhandle,untiltheywerecaughtbetweentheSpanishandEnglishat war,eachwithdifferentnativealliances.TheApalacheespokeaMuskogeanlanguagecalledApalachee,whichisnowextinct.Asagriculturalpeoplewho cultivatedcorn(maise)andsquash,theApalacheewerealsonotedsoldiers.Theywereultimatelysubduedinabout1600andmissionisedbySpanish Franciscans.Theycontinuedtoprosperin1655;6,000–8,000Apalacheeoccupiedeighttowns,eachwithaFranciscanmission.

TheApalacheemassacrewasprecededbyaseriesofraidsforenslavedpeoplebyEnglishcolonistsfromtheProvinceofCarolinaandtheirIndianalliesagainst alargelypeacefulpopulationofApalacheeIndiansinnorthernSpanishFloridathattookplaceduringQueenAnne’sWar.Theseattacksculminatedin1703 whenanarmyofafewhundredEnglishmenandseveralthousandMuscogee(Creek)soldiersdefeatedthecombinedSpanishandApalachee.

PaintingSite:VeldaMound,ApalacheeProvince,Florida(GPS30.501219°N,-84.222161°W)

LandAcknowledgement:Seminole;Timucua;Miccosukee,Mascogo

ícaro1140 ApalacheeMassacre(1704) VeldaMound,Florida,2015

66x105x2in.(168x267x5cm),earthpigments,acryliconcanvas,alu/woodstretcher

QueenAnne’sWar(1702–1713),alsoknownastheWaroftheSpanishSuccession,wasthesecondinaseriesofFrenchandIndianWarsfoughtinNorth AmericainvolvingthecolonialempiresofGreatBritain,France,andSpain;ittookplaceduringthereignofAnne,QueenofGreatBritain.JamesMoore,an Irishcolonialadministrator,plantationownerwith4,000enslavedpeople,andamilitaryofficerfortheEnglishwhoservedasthegovernorofCarolinafrom 1700to1703,isbestknownforleadingseveralinvasionsofSpanishFloridaduringQueenAnne’sWar,includingattacksin1704and1706whichwipedout mostoftheSpanishmissionsinFlorida.HereliedonalliedNativepeoples,especiallytheYamasee,formostofhismilitaryforce,amultiethnicconfederation ofNativepeopleswholivedinthecoastalregionofpresent-daynortherncoastalGeorgianeartheSavannahRiverandlaterinnortheasternFlorida.Onthe newsoftheQueenAnne’sWaroutbreakin1702,heled500colonists,300nativeallies,and14smallshipsonaninvasionofSpanishFloridaalongthecoast, destroyingtheremainingSpanishmissionsanddevastatingthelandsaroundSt.Augustine.

MooreenslavedandbroughtthousandsofIndigenouspeoplebacktoCarolina,manyboundforhis2,400-acreplantation.Exportingcropsandgoodsfromthe NewWorldtoEuropeoftenprovedtobemoreprofitablethanproducingthemontheEuropeanmainland.Avastamountoflabourwasneededtocreateand sustainplantationsthatrequiredintensiveworktogrow,harvest,andprocessprizedtropicalcropsforsaleinEurope.AnetworkofSpanishmissionswasdestroyed againstlimitedSpanishandIndigenousresistance;mostofthepopulationeitherwaskilledorcaptured,fledtomoresignificantSpanishandFrenchoutposts,or voluntarilyjoinedtheEnglish.NativepeopleswereatfirstutilisedasenslavedlabourbyEuropeansuntilalargenumberdiedfromoverworkandOldWorld diseases,makingtheAfricanenslavedpeoplewhoescapedtoFloridaevenmorevaluedduetotheirpriorexposureandresistancetothesediseases.Dueinpart tothesomewhatfragmentary,unclear,andcontradictoryprimarymaterialsabouttheseraids,historianshaveattimeswrittenwidelyvaryingaccountsofthe numberofenslavedIndigenouspeoples.AlthoughsomehistoriansclaimthatmanyApalacheewereenslaved,modernhistoriansbelievethatmanywent voluntarilyandwerenotslaves.VernonCrane,in TheSouthernFrontier,1670–1732(originallypublishedin1929),uncriticallyacceptsJamesMoore’snumbers,and 19thcenturySouthCarolinahistorianEdwardMcCradyonlymentions1,400Apalacheesbeingtaken,ofwhomonly100wereenslavedpeople.Inamodern analysis,historianAllanGallayopinesthattheraidsin1704resultedinbetween2,000and4,000Indigenousenslavements,whichledtothedeclineofthe Apalacheepeoples,whowereeventuallyabsorbedintootherNativegroupsintheregion.

References

VernonCrane, TheSouthernFrontier,1670–1732, 1929

EdwardMcCrady, SouthCarolina:HistoryRevolution,1775-1784, 1902

JeraldT.Milanich, LaboringintheFieldsoftheLord:SpanishMissionsandSoutheasternIndians,1999

AllanGallay, TheIndianSlaveTrade:TheRiseoftheEnglishEmpireintheAmericanSouth, 2003

ícaro1140 ApalacheeMassacre(1704) VeldaMound,Florida,2015 66x105x2in.(168x267x5cm),earthpigments,acryliconcanvas,alu/woodstretcher

CanadianIndianresidentialschoolswereinstitutionsfundedbytheCanadiangovernmentandrunbychurches.IndigenouschildreninCanadawereforcibly removedfromtheirfamiliesandcommunitiesandplacedintheseschools.CanadianIndianresidentialschoolswereoperatedbyseveraldifferentchurches, includingtheRomanCatholicChurch,theAnglicanChurchofCanada,theUnitedChurchofCanada,andthePresbyterianChurchofCanada.The Canadiangovernmentfundedtheschoolsandsignedagreementswiththesechurchestoestablishandoperatetheschools.Thegovernmentalsopassed legislationthatmadeitmandatoryforIndigenouschildrentoattendtheseschools,andinsomecases,thepolicewereusedtoenforceattendance.Itisestimated thatoverthecourseoftheresidentialschoolsystem’soperation,approximately150,000IndigenouschildreninCanadawereforciblyremovedfromtheir familiesandplacedintheseschools.Manyofthesechildrenweretakenfromtheirfamiliesagainsttheirwillandwithouttheconsentoftheirparents.

Manychildrenexperiencedphysical,emotional,andsexualabuseduetothatseparation.Theschoolswereakeypartofabroaderpolicyofculturalassimilation thatsoughttosuppressIndigenouslanguagesandculturesandtoassimilateIndigenouschildrenintoEuropean-Americanculture. Studentsintheresidential schoolsystemfacedmanycasesofabusebyteachersandadministrators,includingsexualandphysicalassault.Theysufferedfrommalnourishmentandharsh disciplinethatwouldnothavebeentoleratedinanyotherCanadianschoolsystem.Corporalpunishmentwasoftenjustifiedbyabeliefthatitwastheonlyway tosavesoulsorpunishanddeterrunaways.Theinjuriesordeathsustainedintheireffortstoreturnhomewouldbecometheschool’slegalresponsibility. Overcrowding,poorsanitation,inadequateheating,andalackofmedicalcareledtohighratesofinfluenzaandtuberculosis;inoneschool,thedeathrate reached69percent.Federalpoliciesthattiedfundingtoenrollmentnumbersledtosickchildrenbeingenrolledtoboostnumbers,thusintroducingandspreading disease.Theproblemofunhealthychildrenwasfurtherexacerbatedbytheschools’overcrowdingandpoorventilation,waterqualityandsewagesystems.

ThefirstresidentialschoolinCanadawasestablishedinthe1870s,andtheresidentialschoolsystemwasinoperationuntil1996,whenthelastresidentialschool closed.Overthecourseoftheresidentialschoolsystem’soperation,approximately150,000Indigenouschildrenwereremovedfromtheirfamiliesand communitiesandplacedintheseschools.CanadianIndianresidentialschoolswerelocatedinvariouslocationsacrossCanada.Morethan130residential schoolswereestablished,mostlocatedinthewesternandcentralpartsofthecountry.Someprovincesandterritorieswhereresidentialschoolswerelocated includeAlberta,BritishColumbia,Manitoba,NewBrunswick,NewfoundlandandLabrador,theNorthwestTerritories,NovaScotia,Ontario,Quebec,and Saskatchewan.Manyoftheseschoolswerelocatedinremoteareas,whichmadeitdifficultforchildrentomaintaincontactwiththeirfamiliesandcommunities. RemovingchildrenfromtheirfamiliesandcommunitiesandtheirplacementintheseschoolsdevastatedIndigenouscommunitiesandculturesinCanada.

PaintingSite:Punnichy,Saskatchewan,Canada(GPS51.264167°N,-104.288611°W)

LandAcknowledgement:Anishinabewaki ᐊᓂᔑᓈᐯᐗᑭ

);MichifPiyii(Métis);Cree

OurobjectiveistocontinueuntilthereisnotasingleIndianinCanadathathasnotbeen absorbedintothebodypoliticandthereisnoIndianquestion,andnoIndianDepartment.

—DuncanCampbellScott,IndianAffairsSuperintendent,1920

ThelastresidentialschoolinCanadawasinGordon’sFirstNation,Saskatchewan.ItwascalledGordon’sIndianResidentialSchoolandoperatedfrom1884 until1996.Likemanyotherresidentialschools,Gordon’sIndianResidentialSchoolwasoperatedbyachurch(inthiscase,theAnglicanChurchofCanada) andfundedbytheCanadiangovernment.IndigenouschildrenfromvariouscommunitiesinSaskatchewanandotherpartsofwesternCanadawereforcibly removedfromtheirfamiliesandplacedinthisschool.TheTruthandReconciliationCommissionofCanada(TRC)wasestablishedin2008toinvestigatethe impactoftheresidentialschoolsystem.TheTRCreleaseditsfinalreportin2015,whichincludednumerousrecommendationsforaddressingthelegacyof residentialschoolsandimprovingtherelationshipbetweenIndigenousandnon-IndigenouspeoplesinCanada.Theresidentialschoolsystemanditslegacy continuetobecontroversial,andreconciliationeffortsareongoing.ItisdifficulttodetermineexactlyhowmanyIndigenouschildrendiedwhileattending residentialschoolsinCanada,astherecordsoftheseschoolsareoftenincompleteorinaccurate.However,theTruthandReconciliationCommissionof Canada(TRC)estimatesthatatleast4,100childrendiedwhileattendingresidentialschools.TheTRC’sfinalreport,releasedin2015,statesthat“theactual numberofdeceasedchildrenislikelymuchhigher,giventhatthedeathsofmanychildrenwerenotrecorded.”

ResidentialschoolsforIndigenouschildrenwerealsooperatedintheUnitedStates,butthesamechurchesdidnotnecessarilyoperatethemastheresidential schoolsinCanada.IntheUnitedStates,residentialschoolsforIndigenouschildrenwereoperatedbyvariousorganisations,includingchurches,thefederal government,andvariousstategovernments.LiketheresidentialschoolsinCanada,thegoaloftheseschoolsintheUnitedStateswastoassimilateIndigenous childrenintoaEuropean-AmericancultureandsuppressIndigenouslanguagesandcultures.

TheresidentialschoolsystemintheUnitedStateshadasimilarlydevastatingimpactonIndigenouscommunitiesandculturesastheresidentialschoolsystem inCanada.ThelastresidentialschoolforIndigenouschildrenintheUnitedStateswasinAlbuquerque,NewMexico.ItwascalledtheAlbuquerqueIndian Schoolandoperatedfrom1881untilitclosedinthelate1960s.TheAlbuquerqueIndianSchoolwasoperatedbytheBureauofIndianAffairs,afederalagency responsibleforadministeringIndigenouspeoples'affairsintheUnitedStates.LikemanyotherresidentialschoolsintheUnitedStates,theAlbuquerqueIndian SchoolwasestablishedtoassimilateIndigenouschildrenintoaEuropean-AmericancultureandsuppressIndigenouslanguagesandcultures.Thelegacyof residentialschools,includingtheAlbuquerqueIndianSchool,continuestobeasourceofcontroversyandreconciliationeffortsareongoing.

References

J.R.Miller, ResidentialSchoolsandReconciliation:CanadaConfrontsitsHistory, 2017 DavidB.MacDonald, SleepingGiantAwakens:Genocide,IndianResidentialSchools,andtheChallengeofConciliation, 2019

IwastakenawayfrommyfamilywhenIwassixyearsold.Iwasputinaresidentialschool andIwastherefor11years.Iwasnotallowedtospeakmylanguage,Iwasnotallowedto practicemyculture,andIwasphysicallyandemotionallyabused.

–PhilFontaine,formerNationalChiefoftheAssemblyofFirstNations

ícaro1150 DinéNi’hodootl’izhBlue(SecondWorld) SantaFe,NewMexico

Nihodootlizh,theSecondLowerWorldorBlueWorld,wasaplaceofgreatbeautyandspiritualsignificance.ItwassaidtobeinhabitedbytheHoly People,powerfulandbenevolentsupernaturalbeingswhoguidedandprotectedtheDiné(Navajo)ancestorsontheirjourney.TheSecondLowerWorldis describedasaplaceoflightandorder,andtheDinéancestorsaresaidtohaveencounteredtheHolyPeopleandreceivedessentialteachingsfromtheminthis world.TheseteachingsweresaidtocontaincrucialtruthsaboutthenatureoftheworldandtheplaceoftheDinéwithinit,andtheyweremeanttohelpthe Dinéancestorsunderstandtheirpurposeandtheroletheyweremeanttoplayintheworld.

ícaro1150 DinéNi’hodootl’izhBlue(SecondWorld) SantaFe,NewMexico,2021 72x72x2in.(183x183x5cm),acryliconcanvas,alu/woodstretcher

ícaro1150 DinéNi’hodootl’izhBlue(SecondWorld) SantaFe,NewMexico,2021 72x72x2in.(183x183x5cm),acryliconcanvas,alu/woodstretcher

OneofthegreatmysteriesofAmericanarchaeologyisthelocationofMabila,aMississippianvillageinthestateofAlabama,whereanall-outbattlebetween theSpanishconquistadorHernandodeSotoandtheIndigenousChiefTascalusaoccurred.Accordingtothefour deSotochronicles,onOctober9,1540, HernandodeSoto’sexpeditionthroughtheNorthAmericandeepsoutharrivedintheprovincescontrolledbyTascalusa,aparamountMississippianchief risinginpoweratthetimeofthebattle.Tascalusa’shistoricalimportanceisreflectedinplacenamesthatsurvivetoday:thecityofTuscaloosaisnamedfor him,TascaluzaisaChoctaworMuskogeanword(blackwarrior),andtheBlackWarriorRiverisnamedinhishonouraswell.

Tascalusa’smajorsettlementwascalledAtahachi,wheredeSotofirstmethim,probablywestofthemoderntownofMontgomery.Therecollectionsofthe chroniclersdescribedTascalusaasagiant,afullhalfaheadtallerthantheirtallestsoldier.WhendeSoto’smenmetTascalusa,hewasseatedinAtahachi’splaza, accompaniedbymanyretainers,oneofwhomheldatypeofdeerskinumbrellaoverhishead.There,aswastheirusualpractice,deSoto’smendemandedthat Tascalusahandoverporterstocarrytheexpedition’sgearandlootandwomentoentertainthemen.Tascalusasaidno,sorry,hecouldn’tdothat,buttheSpanish wouldgetwhattheyaskedforiftheywenttoMabila,oneofhisvassaltowns.DeSototookTascalusahostage,andtogethertheyallstartedforMabila.

DeSotoandTascalusaleftAtahachionOctober12thandfollowedtheAlabamaRivertothetownofMabila,wheretheSpaniardsexpectedtofind suppliesandperhapsevengold.WhathegotwasthebloodiestbattleonAmericansoiluntilShiloh332yearslater.ArrivinginMabilaonthemorningof the18th,accordingtothechronicles,deSotoledthewayintothesmalltownofMabilawith40horsesoldiers,aguardofcrossbowmenandhalberdiers (atwo-handedpoleweapontoppedwithanaxebladeandaspike),acook,afriarandseveralenslavedpeopleandportersbearingthesuppliesandloot collectedbytheSpanishsincetheyarrivedinFloridain1539.Therearguardlaggedfarbehind,rummagingthecountrysideformorelootandsupplies. Mabilawasasmallvillagetuckedinsideafortifiedpalisadewithbastionsatthecorners.Twogatesledintothecentreofthetown,whereaplazawas surroundedbythehousesofthemostinfluentialpeople.DeSotodecidedtobringhiscollectedlootandstaywithinthepalisaderatherthancampoutside itswalls.Afiercebattlewasplayedoutforthenexttwodaysandnights.

PaintingSite:Selma,Alabama(GPS32.416389°N,-87.024722°W)

LandAcknowledgement:Mvskoke(Muscogee);Koasati(Coushatta);Alabama

ícaro1157 MabilaMassacre(1540) Selma,Alabama,2020 50x50x2in.(127x127x5cm),acryliconcanvas,alu/woodstretcher

GarciasodelaVega’s LaFlorida, themostdetailedrecordofdeSoto’sjourney,claims“thenumberofIndians,menandwomen,whoperishedinthisconflict bytheswordandbyfirewasthoughttoexceedeleventhousandpersons.”Theaccountmayexaggeratethenumbers,butthebattlewasaslaughter:eighty-two Spaniardsandpossiblyasmanyas4,000to5,000Indigenouspeopledied.ThebattlewasthedefiningeventindeSoto’sfour-yearentradaandanominous portentforrelationsbetweenEuropeansandnativeculture.

Afterthebattle,theSpanishstayedintheareaforamonthtoheal,andlackingsuppliesandaplacetostay,theyturnednorthtolookforboth.DespitedeSoto’s recentknowledgethatshipswerewaitingforhimataharbourtothesouth,theyturnednorth.DeSotofeltleavingtheexpeditionafterthebattlewouldmean personalfailure:nosupplies,noloot,andstoriesoffiercewarriorsratherthaneasilysubjugatedpeople.Arguably,thebattleatMabilawasaturningpointforthe expedition,whichwasnottoendwellafterdeSotodiedin1542.TheSpanishemergedvictorious,buttheMabilaMassacrewasasignificantandtragiceventin thehistoryofNorthAmerica,asitmarkedthebeginningofalongandviolentperiodofconflictbetweenEuropeansandNativepeoplesintheAmericas.

TheexactlocationofMabilahasbeendebatedforcenturies,butsouthwestofpresent-daySelma,Alabama,isonepossibility.Inlate2021, archaeologistsannouncedtheexcavationofSpanishartefactsatseveralNativesettlementsitesinMarengoCounty,indicatingthattheyfoundthe historicalprovinceofMabila,althoughnotthetownitself.Beforediscoveryandsettlement,theareaofpresent-daySelmahadbeeninhabitedfor thousandsofyearsbyvariouswarringtribesofNativepeoples.There,theEuropeansencounteredthehistoricNativepeopleknownastheMuscogee (Creek),whohadbeenintheareaforhundredsofyears.

References

CharlesHudson, KnightsofSpain,WarriorsoftheSun:HernandoDeSotoandtheSouth'sAncientChiefdoms, 1997. VernonJamesKnightJr.,ed. TheSearchforMabila:TheDecisiveBattlebetweenHernandoDeSotoandChiefTascalusa, 2009

ícaro1157 MabilaMassacre(1540) Selma,Alabama,2020 50x50x2in.(127x127x5cm),acryliconcanvas,alu/woodstretcher

ícaro1160 AlbuquerqueIndianSchool(1881-1981) Albuquerque,NewMexico

AlbuquerqueIndianSchool(AIS)wasaNativechildren’sboardingschoolinAlbuquerque,NewMexico,thatopenedin1881.Itwasoneoftheoldestand largestoff-reservationboardingschoolsintheUnitedStates.AISusedstrictmilitary-styledisciplinetostripstudentsoftheirnativeidentityandassimilatethem intoEuropeanAmericanculture.Theschoolofficiallyclosedin1981,onehundredyearsafteritsopening.Afteritsclosing,theschoolexperiencedovertwentyninefires,withthefirstrecordedfireoccurringonthefinaldayoftheschool’sexistence,onMay28,1981.Whilepositiverecollectionsareassociatedwiththe AISasaschool,notallaccountsareaffirming,asaccountsfrommanyformerIndianBoardingSchoolsurvivorsfromaroundthecountryhavedemonstrated. Therewere408schoolsin37statesand53unmarked/markedburialsitesintheUnitedStates.

IndianboardingschoolswereestablishedforNativechildrenintheUnitedStatesinthelate1800sandearly1900s.Theseschoolswerepartofamore comprehensivepolicyofculturalgenocidethattheUnitedStatesgovernmentimplementedtoexertcontroloverIndigenouscommunitiesandassimilatethese childrenintoEuro-Americanculture.ThefederalgovernmentpaidChristianmissionariestooperateIndianschoolsbeginningin1819withtheIndian CivilizationFundAct.JesuitsandPuritansoftenforciblyseparatedNativechildrenfromtheirfamiliestoreceivecivilisingChristianinstruction.

TheIndianboardingschoolsystemwasasignificantandtragicpartofthehistoryofcolonialismintheUnitedStates.Theschoolswereoftenovercrowdedand underfunded,andmanyNativeAmericanchildrenfacedphysicalandemotionalabusefromtheschoolstaff.Additionally,theseparationfromtheirfamilies andcommunitieswasoftenasourceofgreatstressandsadnessforNativechildren.ManyNativechildrenwhoattendedIndianboardingschoolsfaceddifficult andoftentraumaticexperiences.Thisforcedassimilationincreasedsubstanceabuseandsuicidesamongthesestudentsastheysufferedmentalillnessessuchas depressionandPTSDwithoutthebenefitsoftreatmentwithinoroutsidetheschoolsystem.DrJonReyhner,ProfessorofEducationintheDepartmentof EducationalSpecialtiesatNorthernArizonaUniversity,describedmethodsofdiscipline:“Theboyswerelaidonanemptybarrelandwhippedwithalong leatherstrap.”Methodssuchasthesehaveleftphysicalinjuriesandmadetheinstitutionsdangerousforthesechildrenastheylivedinfearofviolence.Many childrendidnotrecoverfromtheirwoundscausedbyabuseastheywereoftenleftuntreated.Theschoolswereoftenovercrowdedandunderfunded.Although schoolsdiduseverbalcorrectiontoenforceassimilation,moreviolentmeasureswerealsoused,ascorporalpunishmentwascommoninEuropeanAmerican society.Archuletaetal.(2000)notedcaseswherestudentshad“theirmouthswashedoutwithlyesoapwhentheyspoketheirnativelanguages;theycouldbe lockedupintheguardhousewithonlybreadandwaterforotherruleviolations;andtheyfacedcorporalpunishmentandanotherrigiddisciplinedaily.”

Beyondphysicalandmentalabuse,someschoolauthoritiessexuallyabusedstudentsaswell.Theadministratorsoftheseprogramsperpetratedthesexualabuseof Indigenouschildreninboardingschools.Teachers,nuns,andpriestsperformedtheseactsupontheirstudents.Childrenweretouchedandmolestedforpleasureby thesementorswhoweresupposedtoeducatethem.Severalmentorsconsideredthesestudentsobjectsandsexuallyabusedthembyformingrotationstoswitchin andoutwhenevertheyweredonesexuallytormentingthenextstudent.Intracingthepathofviolence,severalstudentsexperiencedanassaultthat“canonlybe describedasunconscionable.Itwasaviolationnotonlyofachild’sbodybutanassaultontheirspirit.”Thisactcreatedamajorityamongthechildrenwhowere victimsinsilence.Thisrecurredinboardingschoolsacrossthenationindifferentscenarios,includingboysbeingsexuallyassaultedontheir13thbirthdaysorgirls beingforciblytakenatnightbythepriesttobeusedasobjects.

PaintingSite:AlbuquerqueIndianSchool,Albuquerque,NewMexico(GPS35.1087°N,-106.6555°W)

LandAcknowledgement:Pueblos;Tigua(Tiwa);Piro

Theschoolsoftenhadstrictrulesandregulations,andstudentswererequiredtospeakEnglish,wearWestern-styleclothing,andfollowthecustomsand practicesofmainstreamAmericansociety.Thegoalofthispolicywasto“civilise”Nativechildrenandtobreaktheirconnectiontotheirownculturesand traditions.Whenstudentsarrivedatschool,theycouldnot“beIndian”inanyway.Boardingschooladministrators“forbade,whetherinschooloronthe reservation,tribalsinginganddancing,thewearingofceremonialand‘savage’clothes,thepracticeofnativereligions,thespeakingoftriballanguages,the actingoutoftraditionalgenderroles.”

OneofthemostsignificantproblemsfacedbyIndianboardingschoolswasthehighmortalityrateamongstudents.ManyNativeAmericanchildrendiedwhile attendingtheseschools,oftenduetopoorlivingconditions,lackofmedicalcare,anddiseaseoutbreaks.Thesedeathswereatragicandlastinglegacyofthe Indianboardingschoolsystem.

Today,churchesarejoiningtheUSfederalgovernmentinfacingtheoften-brutalhistoryofNativeboardingschools,whichforcedchildrenfromtheirfamilies intoschoolswheretheywereoftenabused,underfed,andusedasvirtualslavelabour.Somediedtherewithoutevergoinghome.USInteriorDepartment SecretaryDebHaaland(LagunaPueblo)launchedtheFederalBoardingSchoolInitiativeinJune2022,directingtheagencytoprepareareportdetailing historicalrecordsofschoolsoperatedbytheUSgovernment.AlthoughhundredsofdeceasedIndigenouschildrenareyettobefound,investigationsare increasingacrosstheUnitedStates.

DespitemanycallsfromIndigenouspeopleintheUSandCanada,theCatholicchurchhasnotapologisedforitsroleinoperatingIndigenousresidentialand boardingschools.Thechurchhasalsochosennottorepudiatethe DoctrineofDiscovery(intercaetera), consideredbymanytobefoundationalinauthorising ChristianEuropeandominationandsuperiorityoverIndigenouspeoples.Firstpresentedin1493byPopeNicholasVasaPapalBull,apublicdecreeissuedby apope,itestablishedlegal,spiritual,andlegalauthorisationforEuropeancolonisationandseizureoflandsandthekillingofIndigenouspeopleswhoresisted.

References

DavidWallaceAdams, EducationforExtinction:AmericanIndiansandtheBoardingSchoolExperience,1875–1928, 1995. TimA.Giago, ChildrenLeftBehind:DarkLegacyofIndianMissionBoardingSchools, 2006 MargaretL.Archuleta,BrendaJ.Child,andK.TsianinaLomawaima,eds., AwayfromHome:AmericanIndianBoardingSchool Experiences,1868-2000, 2000

ícaro1161 CanyondelMuertoMassacreCave(1825) Chinle,Arizona

CanyondeChelly(pronounced“canyond’shay”)isoneofthelongestcontinuouslyinhabitedlandscapesinNorthAmerica,preservingtheruinsoftheAncestral Puebloans(Anasazi)totheDiné(Navajo).“Chelly”isaSpanishborrowingoftheDinéwordTséyiʼ,whichmeans“canyon.”TheseAncientPuebloanpeoplearethe predecessorsoftoday’sPuebloandHopi,andtheywereoftenreferredtoasAnasazi,aDinéwordmeaning“ancientenemy.”Fornearly5,000years,peoplehave usedthetoweringsandstonewallsofCanyondeChellyasaplaceforcampsites,shelters,andpermanenthomes.LocatedinnortheasternArizona,withintheDiné Nation’sTrustboundaries,thearea,coveringalmost84,000acres,wasestablishedasaNationalMonumentinApril1931.By1300,thePuebloanlifeinCanyonde Chellyabruptlyended.Aprolongeddroughtinthe1200sdriedouttheFourCornersregionofArizona,Utah,Colorado,andNewMexico.Disease,conflictand theallureofnewreligiousideastothesouthpromptedthePuebloanpeopletodisperse.Theyleftthecanyonsearchingforaconstantwatersupply.Theyeventually establishedvillagesalongtheLittleColoradoRiverandatthesoutherntipofBlackMesainApache-NavajoCounties,Arizona.Thepeopleofthesevillages,known astheHopi,occupiedthecanyonsporadically.TheHopiusedthecanyonforseasonalfarming,ritualpilgrimages,andoccasionallengthystays.TheHopi’slife patterncontinuedfrom1300untilthelate1600sortheearly1700swhentheyencounteredtheDinéinCanyondeChelly.Around1700,adversariessuchasthe UtepushedtheDinépeoplesouthandwestintotheCanyondeChellyregion.TheybroughtdomesticatedanimalsacquiredfromtheSpanishandaculture modifiedbyyearsofmigrationandadaptation.

TheMassacreCavelieswithintheCanyondelMuerto(CanyonoftheDead,acanyonwithinCanyondeChelly).TheMassacrewasaviolentconfrontationthat occurredin1825.Bythelate1700s,lengthywarfareeruptedbetweentheDiné,otherIndigenouspeoples,andtheRioGrandeValley’sSpanishcolonists.The DinéshadattackedtheSpanishmilitarypostatCebolleta(tenderonion)andnearbysettlements.TheDinéweretryingtorecovertheirgrazinglandatthefoot ofMountTaylor(namedafterZacharyTaylorin1849),Tsoodził,theirsacredBlueBeadorTurquoiseMountain.In1825aSpanishmilitaryexpeditionledby LieutenantAntonioNarbonatravellednorthfromZuniPueblo,passingthroughtheNarbonaPasstoattacktheDinéatCanyondeChelly.

Onawinterdayin1825,theSpaniardsfoughtanall-daybattlewithagroupofDinépeoplefortifiedinarockshelterinCanyondelMuerto.WhiletheDiné menwereawayhunting,theSpaniardsattackedtheremainingDinéintheCanyondelMuertoofCanyondeChelly.Children,oldermen,andwomenspotted theraidingpartyandtookrefugeinwhatisnowknownasMassacreCave,highupthe1000ftcanyonwallandinaccessiblefromabove.TheSpaniardslocated themfromtherimaboveandbeganahailofbullets.SomeoftheSpaniardsdidthearduousclimbupfrombelow.Bytheendoftheday,Narbonareported that115Dinéwerekilled.TheDinéclaimthattheirmenwereawayhunting,andwhentheyreturnedaftertheirfamilieshadbeenkilled,theSpaniardskilled 90ofthem.TheSpaniardsenslaved33womenandchildren.Therearestillmarksonthecavewallsleftbyricochetingriflebullets.Inhand-to-handbattles whichfollowed,aDinéwomanpushedaSpanishsoldierbackwardsofftheledgeandfellwithhimtodeathontherocksbelow.

InDinéreligiousbelief,achindi(chʼį́įdii)istheghostleftbehindafterapersondies,believedtoleavethebodywiththedeceased’slastbreath.Thechindiiseverything badabouttheperson,the“residuethatmanhasbeenunabletobringintouniversalharmony.”TraditionalDinépracticeallowsdeathtooccuroutdoors,enabling thechinditodisperse.Ifapersondiesinahouseorhogan,thatbuildingisbelievedtobeinhabitedbythechindiandisabandoned.AsthedeathsatMassacreCave wereundercoverandsoviolent,somebelievechindistillwanderthroughthecavetodayandhearthedisembodiedcriesofwomenandchildren.

PaintingSite:CanyondeChelly,Arizona(GPS36.155281°N,-109.508995°W)

LandAcknowledgement:DinéBikéyah;Hopitutskwa;Pueblos;Núu-agha-tʉvʉ-pʉ̱(Ute)

ícaro1161 CanyondelMuertoMassacreCave(1825) Chinle,Arizona,2021 50x50x2inches(127x127x5cm),earthpigments,acryliconlinen,alu/woodstretcher,

References

Plate20. CanyondeChelly,Chinle,Arizona, 2016

TheAcomaMassacrereferstoamassacreofrevengebySpanishconquistadorsatAcomaPuebloinJanuary1599thatresultedinthedeathsofaround 800Acomapeoplekilledinathree-daybattle.Itisalsopossiblethatthecasualtieswereevenhigherastheconflictcontinuedoverseveraldaysandinvolved nearbycommunities.ManyoftheremainingAcomawhosurvivedtheattackweresentencedto20yearsofenslavementandpunitiveamputationsofthe rightfootofeveryAcomamanovertheageoftwenty-five.

TheSpanishconquestoftheAmericaswascharacterisedbyviolenceandexploitationledbyFranciscoVázquezdeCoronadoandotherconquistador’squest forthelegendarilywealthySevenCitiesofGold,otherwiseknownastheSevenCitiesofCíbola.AcomaPueblo,inWestCentralNewMexico,isbelievedto havebeenestablishedinthe12thcenturyorevenearlier,makingittheoldestcontinuouslyinhabitedcommunityintheUnitedStates.Thepuebloortownis locatedatopa360ft(110meters)tallsandstonemesaand,untilrecently,withtheconstructionofaroadway,couldonlybereachedbyanearverticalhand-cut staircasecarvedintotherockface,earningitthesobriquet“SkyCity.”

TheAcomaMassacrewasoneofmanybrutalactsagainstIndigenouspeoplesintheNewWorld.TheAcomapeoplehadlivedintheareaforthousandsof years,andthearrivaloftheSpanishinthelate16thcenturymarkedasignificantturningpointintheirhistory.Inthelate1500s,theSpanishCrownbegan orderingconquestexpeditionsintotheterritoriesofthePueblopeople.TheearlyyearsofSpanishexploitsintheareahadseenafewmostlypeaceful encounterswiththeAcomapeople,whooutnumberedthecolonisersinthedecadesafter1540.

In1595theconquistadorDonJuandeOñateyZaldívarwasgrantedpermissionfromKingPhilipIItocoloniseSantaFedeNuevoMéxico,thepresent-day USstateofNewMexico.OñatemadehimselfknownasasternrulerofIndigenouspeopleandtheSpanishColonists.AccordingtohistorianRobert Silverberg,“WhilethemissionariesfloggedandevenhangedtheIndianstosavetheirsouls,thecivilauthoritiesenslavedthem,plunderedthewealthoftheir cornfields,forcedthemtoabidebyincomprehensibleSpanishlaws.”SeekingtoprotectPueblo’smaterialandreligiousintegrity,Puebloleadershipdecidedto preparetoresistSpanishaggression.In1598,Zutacapan,theAcomacacique(tribalchieftain)andspiritualleader,learnedthattheSpanishemissariesintended toconquerAcomaPueblobyforce.ZutacapanalsolearnedthattheSpanishplanwastohaveallthePueblopeoplemovetoanewvillageinthevalley,where theywouldbelivingunderSpanishrule,workingfortheCrownunderthecolonialforced-laboursystemknownas encomiendas. Acomapeoplewouldalsobe forcedtoconverttoCatholicismandforsaketheirtraditionalbeliefsandpractices.Anestimated4,500peoplelivedatoraroundtheAcomaPuebloin1598,of whomatleast1,000werePuebloansoldiers.

JuandeZaldívar,Oñate’snephewandsoldier,wassenttothepueblotomeetwithZutacapan.UponarrivingonDecember4,1598,theSpanishenvoy demandedfoodandshelterforhimselfandhissixteenmenanddemandedtheprovisionstheAcomaPueblopeoplehadstoredtosurvivetheoncomingwinter. Afterbeingrebuffed,thegroupreportedlyinvadedAcoma’shomes,breakingwallsanddestroyingpropertytotakemaiseandblankets(Puebloancloaks)by force,leavingKereswomencurledupnakedwiththeirchildren.TheAcomaresisted,andafightensued,leavingZaldívarandelevenofhismendead.

PaintingSite:AcomaPueblo,NewMexico(GPS34.896389°N,-107.581944°W)

LandAcknowledgement:Pueblos

WhilethemissionariesfloggedandevenhangedtheIndianstosavetheirsouls,thecivil authoritiesenslavedthem,plunderedthewealthoftheircornfields,forcedthemtoabideby incomprehensibleSpanishlaws.

–RobertSilverberg

WhenOñatelearnedoftheincident,hedeclareda“warofbloodandfire”andorderedJuan’sbrother,VicentedeZaldívar,toleadanexpeditiontopunish theAcomaandsetanexampleforotherPueblos.Takingaboutseventymen,VincentedeZaldivarleftSanJuanPuebloinlateDecemberorearlyJanuaryand arrivedatAcomaonJanuary21,1599.ThemainbattlebetweentheAcomaandtheSpaniardsbeganthefollowingmorning.TheAcomacouldwithstand SpanishforcesforthefirsttwodaysuntilZaldívarbreachedthePueblo’sdefencesonthethirddaywhenheandtwelvemenascendedthemesathePueblowas builtonandopenedfirewithasmallcannontheybrought.TheSpaniard’sheavyartillerywasincomparabletotheAcoma’sarsenal.Alargefireengulfedmany Acomahomesduringthebattle.Theconquistadorsbelowthemesathenstormedthesettlement.Theystabbedprisonersandthrewthemoffthemesa.They setfiresthatsuffocatedwomenandchildrenwho’dtakenshelterinsacredroomsknownaskivas.

500Acomamen,alongwith300womenandchildren,werekilledduringathree-daybattle.Some500prisonersweretakenandlatersentencedbyOñateto variouspunishmentsafteratrialwasheldatSanJuanPueblo(OhkayOwingeh).Oñateorderedeverymaleabovetwenty-fivetohavehisrightfootcutoffandbe enslavedfortwentyyears.Eightymensufferedamputation.Malesbetweentheagesoftwelveandtwenty-fivewereenslavedfortwentyyears,alongwithall femalesabovetheageoftwelve.

MostoftheremainingnativesweredispersedamongtheresidencesofgovernmentofficialsoratFranciscanmissions.Sixtyoftheyoungestwomenwere deemednotguiltyandsenttoMéxicoCity,wheretheywere“parcelledoutamongCatholicconvents.”TwoHopimenweretakenprisoneratthepueblo;after eachhadoneofhishandscutoff,theywerereleasedtospreadthewordofSpain’smight.Afterthemassacre,thetownwasabandonedoutoffear.Several AcomasescapedcapturebytheSpanishin1599andby1601hadrebuilttheirpueblo,whichstillstands.

WhenKingPhilipheardthenewsofthemassacreandthepunishments,JuandeOñatewasbanishedfromNewMexicoforhiscrueltytothenatives.InMéxico City,Oñatewasbroughtupon30chargesofmismanagementandexcessivecruelty.Hewasfoundguiltyofcruelty,immorality,andfalsereportingandwas exiledtoSpainin1606toliveouttheremainderofhislife.TheKingappointedhimheadofallmininginspectorsinSpain.HediedinSpainin1626.Oñate issometimesreferredtoas“theLastConquistador.”

1998markedthe400thanniversaryofOñate’sarrival.InDecember1997,therightfootwascutoffastatueoftheconquistadorthatstandsinAlcalde, NewMexico,inprotestofthemassacre.SignificantcontroversyarosewhenalargeequestrianstatueofOñatewaserectedinElPaso,Texas,in2006.On June15,2020,thestatueofOñateinAlcalde,NewMexico,wastemporarilyremovedbyRioArribaCountyworkersatthedirectionofofficials.Civic institutionswillmakethefinaldecisiononthestatue’sfuture.

References

JoséRabasa, Writingviolenceonthenorthernfrontier:thehistoriographyofsixteenthcenturyNewMexicoandFloridaandthelegacyofconquest, 2000

AndrewKnaut, ThePuebloRevoltof1680, 1995

RobertSilverberg, ThePuebloRevolt, 1994

Philanthropycouldnotwishtoseethiscontinentrestoredtotheconditioninwhichour forefathersfoundit.Whatgoodmanwouldpreferacountrycoveredwithforestsand rangedbyafewthousandsavagestoourextensiveRepublic,studdedwithcities,towns, andprosperousfarms,embellishedwithalltheimprovementsthatartcandeviseor industryexecute,occupiedbymorethan12,000,000happypeople,andfilledwithallthe blessingsofliberty,civilisation,andreligion?

—AndrewJackson

TheIndianRemovalActof1830wasaUnitedStatesfederallawthatauthorisedthePresidenttonegotiatetreatieswithIndigenousnationsinthesoutheastern UnitedStatestoexchangetheirlandsforlandswestoftheMississippiRiver.TheactwassignedintolawbyPresidentAndrewJacksononMay28,1830.By theendofJackson’sPresidency,hisadministrationhadnegotiatedalmost70removaltreaties.Theseledtotherelocationofnearly50,000to60,000eastern NativestotheIndianTerritory—whatlaterbecameeastOklahoma.Itopenedup25millionacresofeasternlandtoWhitesettlementand,sincethebulkof thelandwasintheUSSouth,totheexpansionofslavery.

AndrewJacksonhadbuilthismilitaryandpoliticalcareerfightingIndigenousnationsfortheUSgovernmentanddevelopedaprofoundprejudiceagainstthem. Whenhewaselectedpresident,JacksonbelievedthatIndigenouspeoplesweresavageandbarbarousandthattherecouldbenocoexistencebetweenEuropean AmericansandIndigenouspeoples.ThetreatieswereimplementedoverthenextseveralyearsbyJackson’shand-pickedsuccessorMartinvanBuren,who servedunderJacksonasvicepresident.PressuredbyWhitesettlersintheDeepSouth,thelawauthorisedthepresidenttonegotiatewithsouthern(including Mid-Atlantic)IndigenousnationsfortheirremovaltofederalterritorywestoftheMississippiRiverdesignatedIndianTerritoryinexchangeforWhite settlementoftheirancestrallands.TheIndianRemovalActestablishedthelandsbutkeptremovalvoluntary.Toexpeditetheprocess,however,Jacksonstopped payingIndigenousnationswhattheywereowedforlandspurchasedbytheUnitedStates.Hepromisedtoresumepaymentoncetheymoved.

TheUnitedStatesgovernmentbeganasystematicefforttoremovesixtythousandNativepeoplesfromtheSoutheastbetween1830and1850.Jacksondeclared thatremovalwould“incalculablystrengthenthesouthwesternfrontier.”ClearingAlabamaandMississippioftheirNativepopulations,hesaid,would“enable thosestatestoadvancerapidlyinpopulation,wealth,andpower.”Jacksonportrayedtheremovalasagenerousactofmercythatwaswiseandhumaneand wouldsavetheNativepeoplesfrom“utterannihilation.”

FrontiersmanDavyCrockett,whosegrandparentswerekilledby Mvskoke(Creeks)andTsalagi(Cherokees),wasascoutforAndrewJacksonduringtheCreek War(1813-14).However,whileservingasaUScongressmanfromTennessee,CrockettbrokewithPresidentJacksonovertheIndianRemovalAct,callingit unjust.DespitewarningsthathisoppositiontoIndianremovalwouldcosthimhisseatinCongress,wherehe’dservedsince1827,Crockettsaid,“Iwouldsooner behonestlyandpoliticallydamnedthanhypocriticallyimmortalised.”

PaintingSite:Dahlonega,Georgia(GPS34.5325°N,-83.985°W)

LandAcknowledgement: ᏣᎳᎫᏪᏘᏱ Tsalaguwetiyi(Cherokee,East),S’atsoyaha(Yuchi);Miccosukee

IndianRemovalAct(1830) Dahlonega,Georgia,2022 65x80x2in.(165x203x5cm),earthpigments,acryliconlinen,alu/woodstretcher

ItwasacontroversiallawwithsignificantnegativeconsequencesformanyNativeAmericantribes.ItledtotheforcedremovalofthousandsofNative AmericansfromtheirancestrallandsinthesoutheasternUnitedStates,aprocessknownastheTrailofTears.TheactresultedintheremovaloftheCherokee, Creek,Chickasaw,Choctaw,andSeminoletribes,amongothers,fromtheirhomelandsinAlabama,Florida,Georgia,Mississippi,andTennessee.ManyNative Americansdiedduringtheremovalprocess,whichwasmarkedbydisease,starvation,andotherhardships.TheIndianRemovalActwasopposedbymany, includingabolitionistsandotherreformerswhosawitasaviolationofNativeAmericanrightsandaformofethniccleansing.Despitethisopposition,theact wasimplementedandsignificantlyimpactedthehistoryoftheUnitedStatesandtheNativeAmericanexperience.Itremainsacontroversialandsignificant eventinAmericanhistory.

TheTrailofTearswasaforcedremovalofNativeAmericannationsfromtheirancestrallandsinthesoutheasternUnitedStatestoIndianTerritory(presentdayOklahoma)intheearly19thcentury.TheTrailofTearsisso-namedforthesufferingandhardshipexperiencedbytheNativeAmericantribesduringthe removalprocessfollowingtheIndianRemovalActof1830,whichauthorisedthePresidenttonegotiatetreatieswithNativeAmericannationstoexchangetheir landsforlandswestoftheMississippiRiver.ManyNativeAmericansdiedduringthejourney,whichwasmarkedbydisease,starvation,andotherhardships.

TheTrailofTearsisconsideredatragicandsignificanteventinthehistoryoftheUnitedStatesandtheNativeAmericanexperience.

References

H.W.Brands, AndrewJackson:HisLifeandTimes, 2006

ThedaPerdue, TheCherokeeNationandtheTrailofTears, 2007

JohnEhle, TrailofTears:TheRiseandFalloftheCherokeeNation,1988

ícaro1191 IndianRemovalAct(1830) Dahlonega,Georgia,2022 65x80x2in.(165x203x5cm),earthpigments,acryliconlinen,alu/woodstretcher

ícaro1192 Quivira,SevenCitiesofGold(1541) Wichita,Kansas

WhenChristopherColumbusarrivedintheAmericasin1492,theonecommoditythatallEuropeanmonarchscravedwasgold.Withthispreciousyellowmetal, armies,mercenaries,andgunpowderweaponscouldbepaidfor,andtheirkingdomscouldbedefendedandexpanded.Columbus’sdiscoveryopenedafloodgate ofSpanishexploration.Inspiredbytalesofriversofgoldandtimid,malleablenativepeoples,laterSpanishexplorerswererelentlessintheirquestforlandand gold.Perhapssurprisingly,ifallthegoldinEuropehadbeencollectedtogetherinoneplace,itwouldhavetakenupthevolumeofamere6ft(2m)sidedcube. Thatwouldstillhaveweighed88tons,butthegoldtheconquistadorswereabouttostumbleuponintheNewWorldwoulddwarfthispaltrysumandenrichthe SpanishCrownbeyonditswildestdreams.ThestaggeringquantityofgoldtheconquistadorsextractedfromtheAmericasallowedSpaintobecomethewealthiest countryintheworld.Thethirstforgoldtopayforarmiesandgainpersonalenrichmentresultedinwavesofexpeditionsofdiscoveryandconquestfrom1492 onwards.Inthefirsthalf-centuryoftheSpanishconquestoftheAmericas,over100tonsofgoldwereextractedfromthecontinent.

Thequestforgoldhaditsprice,notonlyonlocalculturesbutalsoontheconquistadorsthemselves.Manyexpeditionsthatsearchedfortheglitteringmetal weredeadlyfailures,suchasthe1523-4expeditiontoHondurasledbyCristóbaldeOlid.DiegodeAlmagroledalargeandexpensiveexpeditiontoChilein 1535butfoundnogold.MostinfamouswastheexpeditionledbyFranciscoVásquezdeCoronadoin1540toexploreNorthAmericainsearchofCibola,a legendarygroupofcitiesrumouredtobepavedwithgold.Insteadofwealth,hefoundIndigenousfarmerslivinginvariouscommunitiesandvillagesinArizona andNewMexico.TheseweretheHopi,Zuni,RioGrandePueblo,Apache,andDiné(Navajo)peoples.

AsCoronadoarrivedattheRioGrande,hewasdisappointedbythelackofwealthamongthePueblopeople,butheheardfromaPlainsIndiandubbed“The Turk”ofawealthynationnamedQuivirafartotheeast,whoseleadersupposedlydrankfromgoldencupshangingfromthetrees.Hearingofthis,Coronado ledanexpeditionofmorethan1000SpanishandIndigenousindividualsontotheGreatPlainsin1541.TheTurkservedastheexpedition’sadviser.Itappears, however,thattheTurkwasluringtheSpaniardsawayfromNewMexicowithtalesofwealthinQuivira,hopingperhapstheywouldgetlostinthevastnessof theGreatPlains.Coronadosentmostofhisslow-movingexpeditionaryforcebacktoNewMexico.With30mountedSpaniards,Indigenouspersons,priests, theTurkandTeyacaptives,hecontinuedontoQuivira.TeyaswereanIndigenouspeoplelivingnearLubbock,Texas,whofirstmadecontactwithEuropeans in1541whenenslavedbyFranciscoVásquezdeCoronado.Mostauthoritiesbelievethatthename“Teyas”derivesfromaPuebloword,thereisanintriguing similaritywith“Tejas,”theCaddoanwordthatmeans“friend”andistheoriginof“Texas.”CoronadochangedcoursenorthwardinsearchofQuivira,and afteramarchofmorethan30days,hefoundalargeriver,probablytheArkansasRiver,andsoonmetseveralIndigenousbisonhunters,wholedhimtoQuivira.

PaintingSite:Wichita,Kansas(GPS37.688889°N,-97.336111°W)

LandAcknowledgement:Gáuigú(Kiowa);Osage);Wichita;OčhéthiŠakówiŋ;Núu-agha-tʉvʉ-pʉ̱(Ute)

ícaro1192 Quivira,SevenCitiesofGold(1541) Wichita,Kansas,2022 65x80x2in.(165x203x5cm),acryliconlinen,alu/woodstretcher

QuivirawasaprovinceoftheancestralWichitapeople,locatedneartheGreatBendoftheArkansasRiverincentralKansas.Theexactsitemaybenear present-dayLyonsextendingnortheasttoSalina.TheWichitacityofEtzanoa,flourishingbetween1450and1700,islikelypartofQuivira.Coronadospent25 daysinQuiviraandtravelledabout25leagues100km(65mi)fromoneendofthecountrytotheother.Hefoundnothingmorethanstraw-thatchedvillagesof upto200houseseachandfieldsofcorn,beans,andsquash.Hefoundnogoldotherthanasinglesmallpiece,whichhespeculatedtheTurkacquiredfroma memberofhisexpedition.Disappointedathisfailuretofindwealth,CoronadoturnedhisfacetowardNewMexico,marchedacrosstheplains,metupwiththe restofhisarmythere,and,thefollowingyear,returnedtoMéxico.BeforeleavingQuivira,CoronadoorderedtheTurkexecutedbystrangulation.

References

DavidM.Carballo, CollisionofWorlds, 2020

FernandoCervantes, Conquistadores, 2020

ícaro1192 Quivira,SevenCitiesofGold(1541) Wichita,Kansas,2022 65x80x2in.(165x203x5cm),acryliconlinen,alu/woodstretcher

TherelationshipbetweenEuropeancolonisersandNativeAmericanshasdrawnmuchattentionlately,withasomewhat“woke”realisationthattheEuropeans wereinvadersthattookNativeAmericanlandsandresourcesbyforce.NewFrancehadextendedinNorthAmericawellbeyondCanadaandtheNorthern partofwhatisnowtheUnitedStates,withalargeSouthernandWesternterritoryclaimedbyFrance,muchofwhichlaterbecamethepropertyoftheUnited StateswiththeLouisianaPurchasein1803.TheLouisianaterritory,whatcouldbecalledtheSouthernpartofNewFrance,wassoldtotheUnitedStatesin 1803byNapoleonBonaparte,whoneededthemoneyandwastoopreoccupiedwiththewarintheOldWorldtoworryabouttryingtohangontoLouisiana. In1717,FrenchcolonistsestablishedFortRosalieandatradingpostinNatchez,seekingtoprotecttheirtrademonopolyintheregionfromBritishincursions. TheFrenchalsograntednumerousconcessionsforlargetobaccoplantationsandsmallerfarmsonlandacquiredfromtheNatchez.

TheNatchezrevolt,ortheNatchezmassacre,wasanattackbytheNatchezpeopleonFrenchcolonistsnearNatchez,Mississippi,in1729.TheNatchezand FrenchhadlivedalongsideeachotherintheLouisianacolonyformorethanadecadebeforetheincident,mainlyconductingpeacefultradeandoccasionally intermarrying.Natchezwereaproudpeople.WhentheFrenchfailedtoobservetheircustoms,neglectingtorenewanalliancebysmokingthepeacecalumet, orinsultingtheminanyway,Natchezreactedfiercely.ThisresultedinseveralwarsbetweentheFrenchandtheNatchez.

By1700theNatchez’numbershadbeenreducedtoabout3,500bythediseasesthatravagedindigenouspopulationsinthewakeofcontactwithEuropeans, andby1720furtherepidemicshadhalvedthatpopulation.TheNatchezchiefswerecalledSuns,andtheparamountchiefwascalledtheGreatSun.When theFrencharrivedin1682,theNatchezwereruledbytheGreatSunandhisbrother,TattooedSerpent.TheGreatSun’sfactionwasgenerallyfriendlytoward theFrench.ViolenceusuallybeganinorwastriggeredbyeventsamongtheNatchezofWhiteApple,avillagetothenortheast.From1722to1724,briefarmed conflictsbetweentheNatchezandFrenchweresettledthroughnegotiationsbetweenLouisianagovernorBienvilleandNatchezwarchiefTattooedSerpentof theGrandVillageoftheNatchez,thecentreofpower.InAugust1726,thearrivalofanewgovernor,ÉtiennePerier,sparkednewtensions.Perierbrokewith Bienville’spolicyofdiplomaticengagementwithneighbouringtribes,includingtheNatchezandrefusedtorecogniseNativeAmericanownershipoftheir traditionallands.IncreasingconfiscationofIndianlandsandthedeathoftheGreatSun,theprimarychiefoftheNatchezin1728,causedarapid deteriorationoftherelationshipbetweentheNatchezandtheFrenchcolonists.

NatchezleaderswerefurtherprovokedtorevoltwhentheFrenchcolonialcommandant,SieurdeChépart,demandedlandfromaNatchezvillagetoaddto hisplantationnearFortRosalie,threateningtoburntheirsacredplacesiftheNativesdidnotcomplywithhisdemandforland.Governor PerierandChépart enteredapartnershiptodevelopalargeplantationonNatchezland.AfterChépartannouncedtotheNatchezthecompleteremovalofthetribefromtheir landshortly,theNatchezbegantoprepareforastrikeontheFrenchatFortRosalie,borrowingfirearmsfromsomeFrenchcolonistswithpromisestogohunting andsharethegamewiththeguns’owners.

PaintingSite:GrandVillageoftheNatchez,Mississippi(GPS31.525205°N,-91.381638°W)

LandAcknowledgement:Natchez;ChahtaYakni(Choctaw)

TheNatchezRebellionof1729broughtanendtotheCompanyoftheIndies’Louisiana enterpriseanddestroyedFrance’sdreamsofcolonisingtheinterioroftheLowerMississippi Valley…thestoryoftheNatchezIndiansisacautionarytaleaboutwhatcanhappenwhen verydifferentculturalgroupsarethrowntogetherandexpectedtocoexistfortheattainmentof largerpoliticalandeconomicgoals.

—JamesF.BarnettJr, TheNatchezIndians:AHistoryto1735, 2007

NatchezIndiansrecruitedseveralenslavedindividuals,promisingthemfreedomiftheyjoinedintheirrevoltagainsttheFrench.Thiswasoneoftheearliest recordedincidentsofenslavedAfricansuprisinginthearea.TheFrenchbroughtthefirstenslavedAfricanstoNatcheztocultivatetobacco.Understandably,these Africanswereresistanttoforcedmigrationandforcedlabour.Theiraggressioninitiallytooktheformofresistanceonslaveships.TheFrenchsoonrecognised theinevitablecontactandinteractionbetweentheenslavedAfricansandtheNatchezIndians,eventuallyextendingtheircrueltytotheNativeAmericans.The NatchezIndianssawthattheFrenchbegantowhiptheiryoungboysliketheirenslavedAfricans.Thiscruelty,alongwiththepro-Britishleaningsofsometribal leadersandtherecentlandgrabbytheFrenchcommanderatFortRosalie,movedtheproudNatcheznoblestoact.FortRosalieservedastheprimaryFrench strongholdandtradingpostamongtheNatchez.FrenchsettlementsandtobaccoplantationswereestablishedinNatchezterritory,withthefortservingasthe localseatofthecolonialgovernment.

TheNatchezplottedtheirattackoverseveraldaysandconcealedtheirplansfrommostoftheFrench.Colonistswhooverheardtheplanningwarnedadrunken Chépartofanattack,butheconsideredthemuntruthfulandputtheminlegirons.TheNatchezseizedandoccupiedFortRosalieonNovember29,1729. Approximately230colonistswerekilledoverall,andthefortandnearbyhomeswereburned.TheydestroyedtheFrenchsettlement,killingnearlyallthemen andtakinghundredsofwomenandchildrencaptive.TheNatchezkilledalmostallthe150FrenchmenatFortRosalie,andonlyabout20managedtoescape, somefleeingtoNewOrleans.Mostofthedeadwereunarmed.Women,children,andenslavedAfricansweremainlyspared;manywerelockedinsideahouse onthebluff,guardedbyseveralNatchezsoldiers,fromwheretheycouldseetheevents.TheattackonFortRosaliedestroyedsomeoftheLouisianacolony’s mostproductivefarmsandendangeredshipmentsoffoodandtradegoodsontheMississippiRiver.

WhentheFrenchinthecolonialcapitalofNewOrleansheardthenewsofthemassacre,theyfearedageneralIndianuprisingandwereconcernedthatthe Natchezmighthaveconspiredwithothertribes.TheyfirstrespondedbyorderingamassacreoftheChaouachapeople–whohadplayednoroleintherevolt–andwipedouttheirentirevillage.TheFrenchandtheirChoctawalliesretaliatedagainsttheNatchezvillages,capturinghundredsofNatchezandsellingthem intoslavery,manysoldintheCaribbean.TheNatchezwagedlow-intensitywarfareagainsttheFrenchoverthefollowingyears.Therewereretaliatoryexpeditions againstNatchezrefugeeslivingamongtheChickasawin1730.By1741,theNatchezhadestablishedatowninthenorthernpartsoftheAbihka(UpperCreek) Nation.There,withpermissionfromtheAbihka,theyreconstitutedtheirvillageandweresignatoriestothe1790TreatyofNewYork and the1796Treatyof Colerain, earlyagreementsbetweenPresidentGeorgeWashingtonofthenewlyformedUnitedStatesandNativeAmericansovereignties. Theyremaina constituenttribeoftheMuscogee(Creek)Nation.Today,mostNatchezfamiliesandcommunitiesarefoundinOklahoma,whereNatchezmembersareenrolled inthefederallyrecognisedCherokeeandMuscogee(Creek)nationsinOklahoma.TwoNatchezcommunitiesarerecognisedbythestateofSouthCarolina.

TheMississippiBubbleof1718-1720wasaneconomicbubbleofspeculativeinvestmentintheFrenchcolonyofLouisianain18th-centuryFrancethat triggeredaspeculativefrenzyandendedinafinancialcollapse.Thebubble’sseedsweresownin1715whenFrancewasnearlyinsolventfromwar.Thecountry haddefaultedonitsdebtandcutbackoninterestpayments.

France’sKingLouisXVwasonlyfiveyearsold,andthe Philipped’Orléans wastheFrenchgovernment’sregent.Ratherthanreducinggovernmentspending, indesperation,heaskedhisfriendJohnLaw,aScottishadventurerandfinancialwizard,forhelp.Lawwasanearlytheoristofmonetaryeconomicstheory.In 1705,hearguedagainstmetallicmoneyinfavourofpapermoneybecausehebelieveditsusewouldstimulatecommerce.Throughtheregent,Lawreceived theFrenchgovernment’spermissiontoestablishanationalbank,theBanqueGénérale,whichtookindepositsofgoldandsilverandissued“paper”banknotes inreturn.In1717,LawestablishedtheCompagnied’Occident(CompanyoftheWest)andobtainedexclusiveprivilegestodevelopthevastFrenchterritories intheMississippiRivervalleyofNorthAmericafortwenty-fiveyears.ThecompanyabsorbedtheCompagniedesIndesOrientales(CompanyoftheEast Indies),theCompagniedeChine(CompanyofChina),andotherrivaltradingcompanies.Law’scompanysoonmonopolisedtheFrenchtobaccoandAfrican slavetrades,andby1719theCompagniedesIndes(CompanyoftheIndies),asithadbeenrenamed,heldamonopolyofFrance’scolonialtradeandwas grantedatrademonopolyoftheWestIndiesandNorthAmericabytheFrenchgovernment.

LawsoonafterwardsmergedtheBanqueGénéralewiththeCompagniedesIndes.AllbecameknownastheMississippiCompany.LawacquiredtheMississippi CompanyroyalcharterfromtheexplorerRobertdeLaSalle.WhiledescendingtheMississippiRiverin1682,RobertdeLaSallebecamethefirstFrenchman toencountertheNatchezanddeclaredthemanally.In1682LaSalleclaimedtheMississippiRiverbasinforFranceaftergivingitthenameLaLouisiane (Louisiana).TheMississippiCompany(CompagnieduMississippi)wasfoundedin1684byLaSalle,butitwasunsuccessful.ThenewMississippiCompany becameinvolvedintheTrans-Atlanticslavetrade,importingenslavedAfricanstoLouisianaandFrenchterritoryintheCaribbean.ThecolonialSouthAtlantic andCaribbeaneconomiesdependedonlabourtoproducesugarcane,tobacco,andothercommodities.SlaverywasviewedascrucialbyWesternEuropeanstates, which,inthelate17thand18thcenturies,werevyingwithoneanothertocreateoverseasempires.In1718,therewereonly700EuropeansinLouisiana.The MississippiCompanyarrangedshipstobringin800moresettlers,wholandedinLouisianain1718,doublingtheEuropeanpopulation.Prisonersweresetfree inParisfromSeptember1719onwardsandencouragedbyLawtomarryyoungwomenrecruitedinhospitals,aeuphemismforprostitutesandthedestitute.As morecolonistsarrivedinLouisiana,morelandwasseizedfromtheNatchez.Inthemid-1700s,FrancecontrolledmoreofNorthAmericathanEngland.

JohnLawexaggeratedthewealthofLouisianawithaneffectivemarketingscheme,whichledtowildspeculationonthesharesofthecompanyin1719. InvestorsstartedsalivatingoverthesupposedlyimmensebountyofresourcesintheMississippiTerritory,includinggoldandsilver;giventhepotentialforprofits, publicdemandforsharesintheMississippiCompanyincreasedsharply.Afrenzyofwildspeculationensued,leadingtoageneralstock-marketboomacross Europe.Meanwhile,theexpectedprofitsfromthecompany’scolonialventureswereslowtomaterialise,andtheintricatelinkingofthecompany’sstockwith thestate’sfinancesendedinacompletedisasterin1720;the“bubble”burstattheendof1720.Whentheshares’valueplummeted,itcausedageneralstock marketcrashinFranceandothercountries.ThecollapseofTheMississippiCompanyplungedFranceandneighbouringEuropeannationsintoaneconomic depression,layingthegroundworkfortheFrenchRevolutionin1789. Bytheendof1720,Philipped’OrléanshaddismissedLawfromhispositions.Lawfled FranceforBrussels,eventuallymovingtoVenice,wherehelivedoffgambling.

TheMississippiBubbleoccurredconcurrentlywiththeBritish SouthSeaBubble,the speculation maniathatruinedmany British investorsinSeptember1720. Thebubble,orhoax,centredonthefortunesoftheSouthSeaCompany,foundedin1711totrade(mainlyinslaves)withSpanishAmerica,ontheassumption thatthe WaroftheSpanishSuccession,thendrawingtoaclose,wouldendwithatreatypermittingsuchtrade.

References

RobertV.Haynes, TheNatchezDistrictandtheAmericanRevolution, 2008 JamesF.BarnettJr., TheNatchezIndians:AHistoryto1735, 2016 JonMoen, JohnLawandtheMississippiBubble:1718–1720, 2001

MississippiBubble

Plate21. Natchez,Mississippi, 2021

Beforethe17thcentury,thePequotpeoplelivedinaportionofsoutheasternConnecticut.Theycontrolledaconsiderableamountofterritory,extending towardthePawcatuckRivertotheeastandtheConnecticutRivertothewest.WhentheEnglishsettlersarrivedintheregion,theyadoptedthename“Mystic” fortheriverandthesurroundingarea.Thename“Mystic”isbelievedtohavecomefromthePequottribe’sword“missi-tuk,”whichmeans“greattidalriver.”

Whentheyarrived,Englishcolonistscovetedthislandanditsresources,suchasfarmingpotential,minerals,timber,andwildgameanimals.Theyknewitwas necessarytoremove,oftenviolently,enslave,ordestroyitsIndigenouspopulationtomakeittheirown.

RacismandChristianreligionplayedsignificantrolesintheprocessofculturalgenocidethatwasinflicteduponNativecommunitiesintheAmericasand elsewhere.EuropeansettlerswhocolonisedtheAmericasoftenusedChristianityasajustificationfortheexploitationandoppressionofNativecultures.

EuropeansbelievedthatIndigenouspeopleswereinferiorandtheircultureswerenotworthpreserving.ThisbeliefledsomeEuropeanstoviewtheIndigenous populationasobstaclestoprogressandtojustifytheirremovalfromtheirlands.Progress,asmanyEuropeansunderstood,involvedtheexpansionofEuropean settlements,aGod-givenrighttoexploitationofnaturalresources,andthefreelabourofferedbyenslavingIndigenouspeopleorkidnappedpeoplefromAfrica.

AnotherwaytheideaofprogresswasdestructivetoIndigenouscultureswasbysuppressingtheirlanguagesandcultures.To“civilise”NativeAmericansand assimilatethemintoaEuropean-Americanculture,Indigenouslanguages,culturalvalues,andtraditionswereoftensuppressedanddiscouraged.Thisprocess, oftencalled“culturalgenocide,”hadalastingimpactandcontributedtothelossofculturalknowledgeandpractices.

ManyfactorscontributedtoEuropeansettlers’advantageoverNativepeopleswhencolonisingtheAmericas.Thesefactorsincludedmilitarytechnology, disease,trade,andlegalandpoliticalsystems.

Toaccomplishthis,Europeansettlersoftendisplacedtribesthroughvariousmeans,includingmilitaryconquest,genocide,deception,treaties,andotherlegal instruments.EuropeanlawsandtreatiesfavouredtherightsandinterestsoftheEuropeansoverthoseoftheNativepeoplesunfamiliarwithEuropeanconcepts ofexclusivelandpossessionandrights.

PaintingSite:Mystic,Connecticut(GPS41.354167°N,-71.966389°W)

LandAcknowledgement:Pequot;Mohegan

Europeansettlersandtheirarmieshadaccesstovariousadvancedmilitarytechnologies,suchasgunsandcannons,whichgavethemasignificantadvantage overNativepeoples,whowereoftenarmedwithmoreprimitiveweapons.Theclothandthickhidesarmourandtheobsidian-toothedclubsoftheAztecswere nomatchforthesteelarmourandweaponsoftheSpanishConquistadors,alongwiththeirhorsesshippedfromEurope.

Europeansettlersbroughtdeadlydiseases,suchassmallpox,measles,andinfluenza,towhichNativepeopleshadnoimmunity.Thesediseasesspreadrapidly anddevastatedNativepopulations,givingtheEuropeansasignificantadvantage.

OneofthecriticalwaysinwhichChristianityplayedaroleinculturalgenocidewasthroughtheprocessofforcedconversion.ManyEuropeansettlersand missionariesferventlybelieveditwastheirmoraldutyto“civilise”and“Christianize”NativeAmericans.Theyusedavarietyofmeans,includingbeatings, rape,andstarvation,toconvertNativeAmericanstoChristianity.ThisprocessofforcedconversionofteninvolvedthesuppressionofNativeAmericanreligions andculturalpracticesandthereplacementofthesepracticeswithChristianones.EducationwasessentialtotheNewEnglandcolonists,enablingchildrenand servantstolearnliteracyandhouseholdskills.MissionschoolswereeducationalinstitutionsthatwereestablishedbyChristianmissionariestoassimilateNative AmericanchildrenintoaEuropean-AmericancultureandtobreakthetransmissionofNativeAmericanculturesandtraditionsfromonegenerationtothe next.ManyNativeAmericanculturesviewthenaturalworldasasourceofspiritualandculturalinspirationandstronglyemphasiselivinginharmonywith thenaturalenvironment.NativeAmericanculturesalsooftenemphasisepreservingandpassingonculturaltraditionsfromonegenerationtothenext.

TheMysticMassacreculminatedinthecolonists’landgrabinMystic,Connecticut.ItoccurredoverthepredawnhoursonMay26,1637.Theconflictwas partofthelargerPequotWar,aviolentconfrontationbetweentheEnglishcolonistsandthePequottribeinNewEnglandfrom1636to1638.Agroupof Englishcolonists,ledbyCaptainJohnMason,attackedaPequotvillageinMysticinretaliationforthekillingofseveralEnglishcolonistsbythePequottribe earlierthatyear.Bothsideshadpursuedthewarseeminglywithoutrestraint,killingwomenandchildren,torturingcaptives,andmutilatingthedead.The Englishcolonistskilled400to700men,women,andchildrenduringtheattack.Thevillagewassetonfire,andmostoftheinhabitants,mostlywomenand children,wereburnedaliveorshotastheytriedtofleetheflames.Thewar’sbrutalitycompelledthecoloniststodefendthemselvesagainstaccusationsthat theyhadbecomesavages.SurvivorsweresoldintoslaveryorforcedtofleetootherNativeAmericantribes.

References

NealSalisbury, ManitouandProvidence:Indians,Europeans,andtheMakingofNewEngland,1500-1643, 1982 JillLepore, TheNameofWar:KingPhilip’sWarandtheOriginsofAmericanIdentity, 1998

ThePequotWarof1636and1637sawthevirtualeliminationofthePequotIndians.ThePequottribe,oneofthemostpowerfulandinfluentialtribesinthe regionbeforetheconflict,lostmuchoftheirlandandsurvivorswereforcedtoliveonreservations.Thevictors,EnglishcolonistslivingalongtheConnecticut RiverandtheirMoheganandNarragansettallies,mettodecideonthedivisionofthefruitsofvictory.TheMoheganandNarragansetttribesandthethree EnglishsettlementsinNewEnglandthatwouldbecometheConnecticutRiverColonyin1639participatedinthetreaty.SurvivingPequotprisonerswere dividedbetweenthetribes,withanunspecifiednumberofcaptivesbeingkeptbytheNewEnglandcolonists;eachtribereceived80captives,with20captives beingawardedtoNinigret,asachem(chief)oftheEasternNianticwhowasalliedwiththeNarragansett.

Overthecenturiesthatfollowed,theremainingPequotpeoplefacedongoingpressurefromEnglishsettlersandtheUSgovernment,whosoughttocontroltheirlandand resources.Despitethesechallenges,thePequotpeoplepersisted,andtodaythereisafederallyrecognisedPequottribe,theMashantucketPequotTribe,inConnecticut.

WoundedKneeOccupation,RussellMeans,LeonardPeltier(1973)

PineRidge,SouthDakota,2020

PineRidgeandotherNativeAmericanreservationsfacemanychallengesthatcontributetotheireconomicstruggles,includingalackofaccesstoeducation andjobtraining,inadequateinfrastructureandhousing,andthelackofcontrolovernaturalresourcesandland.Theseissueshavebeenasourceoffrustration andactivismformanyNativeAmericancommunities,includingtheLakotaSiouxonthePineRidgeIndianReservation.

TheWoundedKneeoccupationwasaprotestinvolvingfederalauthorities,membersoftheLakotaSiouxtribeandsupportersfromtheAmericanIndian Movement(AIM),aNativeAmericanactivistgroupfoundedinMinneapolis,Minnesota,inJuly1968.Theoccupationwasaprotestagainstthetreatmentof NativeAmericansbytheUSgovernmentandademandforthefederalgovernmenttohonourtreatieswithNativeAmericantribes.OnFebruary27,1973,the stand-offturnedviolent,andtwoNativeAmericanprotesterswerekilled,FrankClearwaterandBuddyLamont.Inaddition,onefederalagent,WilliamF. Kelley,waskilled,andseveralotherswereinjured.Theoccupationlasted71daysandendedonMay8,1973,whenfederalauthoritiesandAIMactivistsagreed toendthestandoff.TheagreementincludedreleasingAIMleaderswhohadbeenarrestedduringtheoccupationandformingacommissiontoinvestigatethe grievancesofNativeAmericansonthePineRidgereservation.ThePineRidgeIndianReservation(Lakota:WazíAháŋhaŋOyáŋke),alsocalledPineRidge Agency,isanOglalaLakotaIndianreservationlocatedalmostentirelywithintheUSstateofSouthDakota,withasmallportioninNebraska.Originally includedwithintheterritoryoftheGreatSiouxReservation,PineRidge,itconsistsof3,468.85sqmi(8,984km2)oflandarea.Itisoneofthelargest reservationsintheUnitedStates.

RussellMeans

RussellMeanswasaNativeAmericanactivist,actor,andpoliticalleader.Hediedin2012attheageof72.MeanswasamemberoftheOglalaLakotatribe andwasinvolvedinseveralhigh-profileeffortstoadvocateforNativeAmericanrightsandsovereigntyasaco-founderofAIM.Meansparticipatedinthe1969 Alcatrazoccupationand,later,theWoundedKneeoccupation,whichtookplacein1973onthePineRidgeIndianReservationinSouthDakota,oneofthe poorestcommunitiesintheUnitedStates.DennisBanksandCarterCampledAIM’soccupationofWoundedKnee,whichbecamethegroup’sbest-known action,andMeansappearedasaspokesmanandprominentleader.MeansremainedactiveinNativeAmericanactivismandpoliticsthroughouthislife.Means wasalsoanaccomplishedactorwhobroughtdepthandauthenticitytohisrolesandusedhisplatformtobringattentiontoimportantissuesfacingNative Americancommunities.ABCNewssaidMeans“spentalifetimeasamodernAmericanIndianwarrior...,railedagainstbrokentreaties,foughtforthereturn ofstolenlandandeventookuparmsagainstthefederalgovernment...,callednationalattentiontotheplightofimpoverishedtribesandoftenlamentedthe waningofIndianculture.”

PaintingSite:PineRidgeIndianReservation,SouthDakota(GPS43.353333°N,-102.089167°W)

LandAcknowledgement:Tséstho’e(Cheyenne);OčhéthiŠakówiŋ;Oohenumpa

ícaro1234

WoundedKneeOccupation,RussellMeans, LeonardPeltier (1973) PineRidge,SouthDakota,2020

LeonardPeltierisaNativeAmericanactivistconvictedandimprisonedforhisallegedinvolvementinthemurderoftwoFederalBureauofInvestigation(FBI) agentsin1975.TheincidentoccurredonthePineRidgeIndianReservationinSouthDakota,resultingfrompoliticalconflictandviolencebetweenthe AmericanIndianMovement(AIM)andthetribalgovernment.

Thereweremanyunsolvedmurdersanddrive-byshootingsonthereservationovertheyears,saidtobecausedbyacultureclashbetweentraditionaland AmericanizedSiouxofthetribalgovernment.TheAmericanIndianMovement(AIM)wasinvitedtothereservationtohelpasserttraditionalvalues.Itwas headquarteredatCalvinJumpingBull’spropertyonthesouthernedgeofOglalaonthePineRidgeIndianReservation.TheJune26,1975,“incidentat Oglala”wasprecipitatedbytheFBIinvestigationofapairofstolenboots.JimmyEagle,oneoftheAIMteenagemembers,wasthoughttohavetakenapair ofbootsafterafight.FBIagentsJackR.ColerandRonaldA.Williamswantedtotalktohimaboutitandpursuedavehicletheythoughthewasdrivinginto theAIMcamp,leadingtoashootoutwhichleftbothdead.AlsokilledinthegunfirewasNativeAmericanJoeStuntz,amemberofAIM,whosedeathprompted nolegalaction.Atthetime,thereservationwasexperiencinghighlevelsofpoliticalconflictandviolencebetweentheAmericanIndianMovement(AIM)and thetribalgovernment,backedbytheFBI.TheincidentoccurredintheaftermathoftheWoundedKneeoccupation,a71-dayarmedstandoffbetweenAIM activistsandfederallawenforcementthatendedin1973.

Peltierwasarrestedandchargedwiththemurderoftheagentsbutmaintainedhisinnocencethroughouthistrialandappeals.Histrialandconvictionwere highlycontroversial,withsupportersandhumanrightsorganisationsallegingthattheevidenceagainsthimwascircumstantial,witnesstestimonyduringthe trialwascoerced,andhewasthevictimofgovernmentmisconduct.Peltier’ssupportersarguethathisprosecutionwaspoliticallymotivatedandthathewas targetedbecauseofhisactivismasamemberofAIM.ThisgroupadvocatedforNativeAmericanrightsandwasperceivedasathreatbytheFBI.Peltierwas convictedandsentencedtotwoconsecutivelifesentencesin1977.Peltierhasbeeninprisonforoverfourdecades,andhiscasecontinuestobecontroversial anddebated.Hehasbeendeniedparoleseveraltimes,andhissupporterscontinuetocallforhisrelease,arguingthathedidnotreceiveafairtrialandthathe shouldbegrantedclemency.Despitenumerousappeals,hisconvictionhasbeenupheldbythecourts,andheremainsinprison. Peltier,77in2022,wants PresidentJoeBidentoreviewhiscaseandgranthimclemencysohewon’tdieinprison.He’snotlookingforapresidentialpardonbecauseitwouldbegranted foracrimeheinsistsheisinnocentof;instead,hewantsanewtrial.

References

RoxanneDunbarOrtiz, IndiansoftheAmericas:Self-DeterminationandHumanRights, 1984

DavidTreuer, TheHeartbeatofWoundedKnee:NativeAmericafrom1890tothePresent, 2019

StewMagnuson, WoundedKnee1973:StillBleeding:TheAmericanIndianMovement,theFBI,andtheirFighttoBurytheSinsofthePast, 2013

LeonardPeltier

WoundedKneeOccupation,RussellMeans, LeonardPeltier (1973) PineRidge,SouthDakota,2020

Plate23. OcetiSakowinCamp,StandingRock,NorthDakota, 2016

ícaro1236 AlcatrazOccupation,(AIM)AmericanIndianMovement(1969) AlcatrazIsland,California

TheAmericanIndianMovement(AIM)takeoverofAlcatrazIslandin1971wasaseminalmomentintheRedPowermovementofthelate1960sandearly 1970s.InNovember1969,agroupofNativeAmericanactivistsoccupiedthedesertedislandofAlcatrazinSanFranciscoBay,claimingitasIndianland accordingtoan1868treaty.TheprotestwasledbyJohnTrudell,whoservedasspokesman,RichardOakes,LaNadaMeans,andothers,includingmembers oftheAmericanIndianMovement(AIM),whointendedtousetheislandtobuildanIndianculturalcentreanduniversity.

TheOccupationofAlcatrazwasa19-month-longprotest(November20,1969–June11,1971)when89NativeAmericansandtheirsupportersoccupiedthe abandonedfederalprisononAlcatrazIslandandclaimeditasIndianland.TheOccupationwasaresponsetothetreatmentofNativeAmericansbytheUS governmentandademandforthefederalgovernmenttohonourtreatieswithNativeAmericantribes.Theprotestersarguedthattheislandwaspartoftheir ancestrallandandthattheUSgovernmenthadnorighttoclaimit.Theoccupiersissuedastatementexplainingtheiractions,whichincludeddemandsforthe federalgovernmenttoprovidefundingforNativeAmericaneducationandculturalprogrammes.TheOccupationendedwhenfederalauthoritiesforcibly removedtheremainingprotestersfromtheisland.Althoughtheoccupationdidnotachieveitsimmediategoals,itbroughtnationalattentiontothestruggles ofNativeAmericansandhelpedtogalvanisetheNativeAmericanrightsmovement.Itisrememberedasaboldandcreativeactofresistanceandatestament totheperseveranceanddeterminationofNativeAmericanactivists.

PaintingSite:AlcatrazIsland,California(GPS37.826667°N,-122.422778°W)

LandAcknowledgement:Ohlone;Ramaytush;Muwekma;ConfederatedVillagesofLisjan

AmericanIndianMovement(AIM)

TheAmericanIndianMovement(AIM)wasfoundedinMinneapolis,Minnesota,in1968byDennisBanks,ClydeBellecourt,EddieBentonBanai,and GeorgeMitchell.Later,RussellMeansbecameaprominentspokesmanforthegroup.ItsoriginalpurposewastohelpIndiansinurbanghettoswhohad beendisplacedbygovernmentprogramsthathadtheeffectofforcingthemfromthereservations.AIMaddressedtheissuesfacingNativeAmerican communities,suchaspoverty,policebrutality,andlackofaccesstoeducation,healthcare,andotheressentialservices.TheAlcatrazoccupationandother protestsorganisedbyAIMbroughtattentiontotheongoingstrugglesofNativeAmericancommunitiesandtheirdemandsforself-determination, sovereigntyandrespectfortheirtreatyrights.ThemovementalsohelpedtogalvanisethebroaderNativeAmericancivilrightsmovementandtoraise awarenessaboutthehistoryofinjusticesanddiscriminationagainsttheIndigenouspeoplesofNorthAmerica.Inthemid-1970s,AIM’seffortswerecentred onthepreventionofresourceexploitationofIndianlandsbythefederalgovernment.Withmanyofitsleadersinprisonandtornbyinternaldissension, thenationalleadershipdisbandedin1978,althoughlocalgroupscontinuedtofunction.From1981anAIMgroupoccupiedpartoftheBlackHills(South Dakota)topressitsdemandsforthereturnoftheareatoIndianjurisdiction.

References

RoxanneDunbarOrtiz, IndiansoftheAmericas:Self-DeterminationandHumanRights, 1984 DavidTreuer, TheHeartbeatofWoundedKnee:NativeAmericafrom1890tothePresent, 2019

Plate24. OcetiSakowinCamp,StandingRock,NorthDakota, 2016

ícaro1264 BeaverWars(1609-1701) QuebecCity,Canada

The“BeaverWars”wereaseriesofconflictsinthe17thcenturybetweentheIroquoisConfederacyandotherFirstNationspeoplesandtheHuron,Algonquin, andMontagnaispeoplesforcontrolofthefurtradeandhuntingterritoryinCanada.TheIroquois(Haudenosaunee),basedinpresent-dayNewYorkstate, gainedcontrolofthetradebyallyingwithFrenchtradersandusingEuropeanfirearmstodefeattheirrivals.TheIroquoisConfederacywasoneofthemost powerfulIndigenousgroupsintheregion.TheyusedtheirmilitarystrengthandstrategicallianceswithEuropeanpowerstoasserttheirdominanceoverother Indigenousnations.TheIroquoisConfederacy,alsoknownastheFiveNationsorHaudenosaunee,wasalignedwiththeFrenchduringtheBeaverWarsin Canadainthe17thcentury.TheallianceallowedtheIroquoistoaccessEuropeanfirearms,whichtheyusedtodefeattheirrivalsandgaincontrolofthefur trade.ThisalliancewasbeneficialforboththeIroquoisandtheFrench,asitallowedtheFrenchtogaincontrolofthefurtradeintheregionandtheIroquois toexpandtheirterritoryandgaineconomicpower.ThewarswerefoughtbetweentheIroquoisConfederacy,agroupofIndigenousnationsthatincludedthe Mohawk,Onondaga,Oneida,Cayuga,andSeneca,andseveralotherIndigenousnationsandEuropeanpowers,includingtheFrenchandtheBritish.

TheHuron,AlgonquinandMontagnaistribes,alsoknownastheWendat,Algonquin,andInnu,respectively,werenotalignedwithanyEuropeanpowers duringtheBeaverWars.ThesetribeswereprimarilyinterestedinmaintainingtheirtraditionalwaysoflifeandhadrelativelylittleinteractionwithEuropean tradersandsettlers.TheywereoftenatoddswiththeIroquoisConfederacy,whichwasalignedwiththeFrenchandhadaccesstoEuropeanfirearms.The Huron,AlgonquinandMontagnaistribescouldnotmatchthemilitarypoweroftheIroquois.Theywereeventuallydefeated,resultinginthelossoftheir huntingterritoriesanddecliningpopulations.

TheBeaverWarswereprimarilydrivenbycompetitionforresources,particularlybeaverpelts,inhighdemandinEuropeforuseinthefurtrade.The BeaverWarssignificantlyimpactedtheregion’sIndigenouspeoplesandplayedakeyroleinshapingthepoliticalandeconomiclandscapeofeastern CanadaandtheUnitedStates.TheEuropeandemandforbeaverpeltsforhat-makingledtotheover-trappingandoverhuntingofbeaverpopulationsin NorthAmericaduringthe17thand18thcenturies.Bytheearly19thcentury,beaverpopulationsinmanyareasofNorthAmericahadbeengreatly reduced,andthesupplyofbeaverpeltsbegantodecline.

AftertheFrenchleftCanada,theIroquoisConfederacyalignedthemselveswiththeBritish.TheBritishhadtakencontrolofNewFrancein1763duetothe TreatyofParis,andtheIroquoissawthemasvaluabletradingpartnersandallies.TheywereinvolvedinthemilitaryconflictsbetweentheBritishandthe AmericancoloniesduringtheAmericanRevolution,andmanyIroquoisfoughtontheBritishside.AftertheAmericanRevolution,theBritishabandonedthe Iroquois,whowerelefttofacethenewAmericanRepublicalone.TheylostmostoftheirlandtotheAmericangovernmentthroughtreatiesandlaterforced removalintheearly19thcentury.SomeIroquoiscommunitiesjoinedtheBritishinCanadaandweregrantedlandinOntarioandQuebec.FortheNative Americannations,thewarsresultedinsignificantlossoflife,displacement,andreducedcontrolovertheirlandandresources.

PaintingSite:QuebecCity,Canada(GPS46.813889°N,-71.208056°W)

LandAcknowledgement:Nitassinan(Innu);Wendake-Nionwentsïo

TheLastoftheMohicans isaromanticisedhistoricalnovelbyJamesFenimoreCooper,firstpublishedin1826.Thenovelissetinthelate17thcenturyintheeastern partofNorthAmerica,andittellsthestoryofagroupofEnglishcolonistswhobecomecaughtupinaseriesofconflictsbetweentheEnglish,theFrench,and variousIndigenousnations,includingtheMohawk,Huron,andAlgonquin.Thenovel,however,isaworkoffictionandisnotahistoricallyaccuratedepiction oftheeventsoftheBeaverWars.CooperwasinterestedintheAmericanprogressnarrativewhenmorecolonistswereincreasingpressureonNativeAmericans, especiallyintheEast.ThenovelwaswrittenatatimewhenmanyEuropeanAmericansettlersbelievedandperpetuatedthemyththatNativeAmericanswere simplydisappearing,believingtheywouldultimatelybeassimilatedorkilledoffentirelyduetothegenocidalstructureofsettlercolonialism.Assuch,itwasthe naturalorderofthingsthatIndigenouspeopleswouldeventuallydisappear,ineffect,becauseitwasGod’swillandinthenaturalorderofthingsatonelevel.At anotherlevel,itisamisreadingoftheDarwiniannaturalprocessofselection.Ofcourse,CharlesDarwin’s OntheOriginofSpeciesbyMeansofNaturalSelection,orthe PreservationofFavouredRacesintheStruggleforLife, wasnotpublisheduntilsomethirtyyearslater,in1859.Thelandsof NativePeoples’werestolenandsettledon inthenameofUSexpansion,ManifestDestiny,andJeffersonianagrarianism.ThenarrativethatmanyNativePeopleswere“vanishing”wasprevalentinboth novelslikeCooper’sandinlocalnewspapers.ThisallowedsettlerstoreinforcetheirbeliefinEuropeanethnicandracialsuperioritythrough,amongother rationalisations,thetenetsofscientificracismthatDarwinismseemedtopromise. TheLastoftheMohicans wasJamesFenimoreCooper’smostpopularwork.It influencedpopularopinionaboutAmericanIndiansandthefrontierperiodofeasternAmericanhistory.Theromanticisedimagesofthestrong,fearless,and ever-resourcefulWhitefrontiersman,aswellasthestoicandwise“redsavage,”doomedtorepresentthesolesurvivorofanoblerace.

References

BarbaraGraymont, TheIroquoisintheAmericanRevolution, 1975

RichardWhite, TheMiddleGround:Indians,Empires,andRepublicsintheGreatLakesRegion,1650-1815, 2010

TheLastoftheMohicans

TheZapatistauprisingof1994,alsoknownastheZapatistaNationalLiberationArmy(EZLN)rebellion,wasarevolutionaryleftistmovementthatbeganin thesouthernMéxicanstateofChiapasonJanuary1,1994,ending12dayslater.OnNewYear’sDay1994,asmallgroupofMayanpeasants,ledbya charismaticformerUniversityProfessor,RafaelSebastiánGuillénVicente,commonlyknownasSubcomandanteMarcos,grabbedtheattentionoftheworld bytakingoverSanCristobal,thecapitalofChiapas,Méxicotorallyagainsttheprevailingorthodoxyofneo-liberalcapitalismthatwasdestroyingthe infrastructureofthepeasanteconomy.MarcosborethetitleandrankofSubcomandante(“Subcommander”inEnglish),asopposedtoComandante (“Commander”inEnglish),becausehefeltsubordinatetoandunderthecommandoftheindigenouscommanderswhoconstitutedtheEZLN’sClandestine RevolutionaryIndigenousCommittee’sGeneralCommand(CCRI-CGinSpanish).AsoneofthefewEnglishspeakersattheheadofthemovement,Marco wasoftenthefocalpointofforeignmediainterviews.HewasanorganiserandhostoftheAugust1994NationalDemocraticConventionthatbroughttogether 6000membersofcivilsocietytodiscusshowtoorganiseapeacefulstrugglethataimedtomakeMexicofreer,morejust,andmoredemocratic.

TheChiapasconflict(Spanish:ConflictodeChiapas)comprisesthe1994ZapatistaUprising,the1995Zapatistacrisisandensuingtensionbetweenthe MéxicanstateandtheindigenouspeoplesandsubsistencefarmersofChiapasfromthe1990stothepresentday.TheZapatistasdemandedgreaterrightsand autonomyfortheindigenouspeopleofChiapasandanendtogovernmentcorruptionandeconomicinequality.Theconflictwassparkedbythesigningofthe NorthAmericanFreeTradeAgreement(NAFTA),whichtheEZLNbelievedwouldnegativelyaffectindigenouscommunitiesinChiapasandotherpartsof México.ThecatalystfortheEZLN’sdecisiontorevoltwasthe1991revisionofArticle27inMéxico’s1917revolutionaryconstitution.UnderArticle27,Native communallandholdingsor ejidos wereprotectedfromsaleorprivatisation.WiththeremovalofArticle27,Nativefarmersfearedthelossoftheirremaining landsandcheapimportsfromtheUS.Therewerecasualtiesonbothsidesduringtheconflict.Accordingtosomeestimates,over150people,includingcivilians andmilitarymembers,werekilledintheinitialuprisingin1994.Intheyearsthatfollowed,therewereadditionalcasualties,buttheexactnumberisunknown. On9February1995,PresidentErnestoZedillopubliclyannouncedthatSubcomandanteMarcoshadbeenidentifiedasRafaelSebastiánGuillénVicenteand immediatelyorderedtheMéxicanmilitarytogoontheoffensiveandcaptureorannihilateMarcosandtheZapatistas.TheMéxicanArmyinvadedZapatista territoryintheLacandonJungle,butwithnegativeresponsesfrommanylevelsofsociety,Zedillowasforcedtopromptlycalloffthemilitaryoffensive.

PaintingSite:Chiapas,México(GPS16.7500°N,-92.6333°W)

LandAcknowledgement:BatsilWinik’Otik(Tzotzil);WinikAtel(Tzeltal)

TheZapatistasarenotanarmyofthepoor.Theyareapoorarmy,anarmyoftheexcluded, anarmyofthosewhohavenothingtolose.

—JohnRoss, Zapatista!:MakingAnotherWorldPossible:ChroniclesofResistance2000-2006,2006

Disease,enslavement,andexploitationhaveaffectedanddevastatedmanyAmericanIndigenouscommunities,andtheeffectsofcolonisationhavecontinued toaffectMéxicanIndigenouscommunities.Indigenouspeoplemakeup15%ofMéxico’spopulation,andin2011,thedemographicalsomadeupmostofthe 18%ofMéxico’spopulationlivingwithfoodinsecurity.AboutathirdofpeopleinMéxico’ssouthernmoststateofChiapasidentifyasIndigenous.Thestate hasthesecondhighestpovertyrateinMéxico,followingthestateofGuerrero.AbouthalfoftheIndigenouspopulationinChiapasreportednoincomeinthe 2010census,withanother42%ofindividualsearninglessthan$5aday.

TheZapatistauprisingbeganonJanuary1,1994,whentheEZLNlaunchedaseriesofattacksonmilitaryandgovernmenttargetsinChiapas.TheMéxican governmentrespondedwithamilitarycrackdown,andtheconflictquicklyescalated.Thefightinglastedafewweeksbeforeacease-firewasdeclared,and negotiationsbetweentheEZLNandthegovernmentbegan.TheZapatistauprisingsignificantlyimpactedMéxico,bringingnationalandinternational attentiontoIndigenousrightsissuesandeconomicinequality.Duringtherebellion,agatheringofabout100,000peopleinMéxicoCityprotestedagainstthe attemptedgovernmentsuppressionoftheZapatistas.Otherprotestersalsoengagedinmarches,roadblocks,sit-ins,andstrikesuntiltheIndigenousRightsBill becamelawin2001.ItalsosparkedabroadermovementforsocialandpoliticalchangeinMéxico,andtheEZLNremainsactivetoday.However,ithas primarilyabandonedarmedconflictinfavourofpoliticalanddiplomaticefforts.In2001,MarcosheadedadelegationofZapatistacommanderstoMexico CitytodelivertheirmessageonpromotingindigenousrightsbeforetheMexicanCongress,attractingwidespreadpublicandmediaattention.InMay2014, MarcosstatedthatthepersonaofSubcomandanteMarcoshadbeen“ahologram”andnolongerexisted.Manymediaoutletsinterpretedthemessageas MarcosretiringastheZapatistas’militaryleaderandspokesman.

References

JohnRoss, Zapatista!:MakingAnotherWorldPossible:ChroniclesofResistance2000-2006, 2006 AlexKhasnabish,AnnaMdee,etal., Zapatistas:RebellionfromtheGrassrootstotheGlobal, 2010 JohnHolloway,EloinaPelaez(eds.), Zapatista!:ReinventingRevolutioninMexico, 1998

ForcenturiestheislandsofHawai’iwereruledbywarringfactions.TheislandswerefirstsettledbyPolynesianssometimebetween124and1120CE.Hawai’ian civilizationwasisolatedfromtherestoftheworldforatleast500years.In1810,KingKamehamehaunifiedallHawai’ianIslandsintooneroyalkingdom.In ablatantactofimperialismin1893,thetraditionalHawai’ianmonarchywasoverthrowninfavourofaconstitutionalmonarchy.

ThefirstpermanentsugarplantationbeganinKaua’iin1835.WilliamHooperleased980acresoflandfromKamehamehaIIIandbegangrowingsugarcane. Withinthirtyyears,plantationsoperatedonthefourmainislands.SugarcompletelyalteredHawaii'seconomy.AmericaninfluenceinHawai’iangovernment beganwithUSplantationownersdemandingasayinKingdompolitics,drivenbymissionaryreligionandsugareconomics.By1887,theKingdomofHawai’i wasoverrunbyWhitelandowners,missionaries,andbusinessmen.USsugarplantationownerscametodominatethepoliticsoftheislands.Theirpresence impactedsocialandeconomiclifeaswell–thelandholdingsystemchanged,andmanyaspectsoftraditionalculturewereprohibited,includingteachingthe Hawai’ianlanguageandperformingthenativeHuladance.DavidKalākaua,thelastkingofHawai’i,promotedHawai’iancultureandtraditions,but Hawai’iansovereigntysuffered.WhenKingKalākauadiedin1891,hissisterLili'uokalanisucceededhim.Thoughsheintroducedanewconstitutionrestoring herpowerandHawai’ianrights,shewouldbeHawai’i’slastmonarch.

The1893overthrowoftheHawai’ianKingdom(KoHawaiʻiPaeʻĀina)wasamilitarycoupd’étatandannexationbytheUnitedStatesgovernmentofthe KingdomofHawai’iin1893.ThekingdomwasasovereignstatethathadexistedforseveralcenturiesinthePacificOcean,andtheKamehamehaDynasty wasthereigningmonarchyoftheHawai’ianKingdom.In1893,agroupofAmericanandEuropeanbusinessleadersandmembersoftheHawai’ian monarchyconspiredtooverthrowthekingdom.ThegroupusedforceandintimidationtodeposeQueenLili’uokalani,thelastmonarchofHawai’i,and establishanewgovernmentmorefavourabletotheirinterests.TheoverthrowoftheHawai’ianKingdomendedthekingdomandbegananewerainwhicha provisionalgovernmentruledtheislands.TheoverthrowwasseenbymanyasablatantactofimperialismandaviolationofthesovereigntyoftheHawai’ian people.The1893overthrowoftheHawai’ianKingdomsignificantlyimpactedthehistoryoftheUnitedStates,asitledtotheannexationofHawai’iasaUS territoryin1898andStatehoodin1959.

InJune1887,localbusinessmen,sugarplanters,andpoliticiansbackedbytheHonoluluRifles,volunteermilitarycompaniesoftheHawaiianKingdom,forced thedismissalofthecabinetofcontroversialWalterM.Gibsonandmovedtheadoptionofthe1887ConstitutionoftheKingdomofHawai’i.WalterMurray GibsonwasanAmericanadventurerandagovernmentministerintheKingdomofHawai’ibeforethekingdom’s1887constitution,foundedacolonyamong membersoftheMormonChurchwhowerealreadyintheislands.HepurchasedlandontheislandofLanaiwithfundsfromthecolonyinhisname.Gibson wasexcommunicatedafteraninvestigationbythechurchregardingaccusationsofpreachingfalsedoctrine,maladministrationofthecolony,and embezzlementofchurchfunds.ThenewConstitutionlimitedvotingrightstotheliteratemalesofHawai’ian,European,andAmericandescentwhileimposing incomeandwealthrequirementstobeeligibletovotefortheHouseofNobles.Thiseffectivelyconsolidatedpoweramongtheeliteresidentsoftheisland.In addition,thenewConstitutionminimisedthepoweroftheMonarchinfavourofmoreinfluentialgovernancebythecabinet.Doleandotherlawyersof Americandescentdraftedthisdocument;thenewconstitutioncametobeknownasthe“BayonetConstitution”becauseKalākauasigneditunderduress.

PaintingSite:‘IolaniPalace,Honolulu,Hawai’i(GPS21.306667°N,-157.858889°W)

LandAcknowledgement:KānakaMaoli(NativeHawai’ians)

TheHawaiianpearisnowfullyripe,andthisisthegoldenhour fortheUnitedStatestopluckit.

—SanfordB.Dole,Americanbusinessmanandleaderofthecoup,ina lettertoUSPresidentBenjaminHarrison,1892

OverthrowoftheHawai’ianKingdom(1893) Honolulu,Hawai’i,2022 75x69x2in.(191x175x2cm),acryliconcanvas,alu/woodstretcher

TheAmericanandEuropeanbusinessandpoliticalleadersinvolvedinthe1893overthrowoftheHawai’ianKingdomwereagroupofinfluentialandpowerful individualswithdeepfinancialinterestsintheKingdomofHawai’i.Manyoftheseindividualswereassociatedwiththesugarindustry,asignificanteconomic forceinthekingdom.TheUnitedStateswasthemajorimporterofHawai’ianagriculturalproducts.In1885,followingatraditionoftreatiesfavouringthe UnitedStates,KingKalākauasignedatradereciprocitytreatywiththeUnitedStates.Thisfree-tradeagreementmadeittax-freeforsugartobesoldtotheUS market.LedbySanfordDole,theCommitteeofSafety,agroupofnon-nativeUSbusinessmenandpoliticianswithsugarinterests,fearedthattheUnitedStates wouldestablishatariffonsugarimports,endangeringtheirprofits,andwantedtoprotectHawai’i’sfree-tradestatus.

TheKingdomofHawai’i’smonarchyendedonJanuary17,1893,afteracoupd’étatorganisedbymanyofthesameactorsinvolvedinthe1887revolt.In 1893,thequeenwasarrestedbythenewgovernmentalforcesaidedbyadetachmentofUnitedStatesMarines.Thequeenwastriedbeforeamilitarytribunal, whereshewaschargedwithconcealmentoftreasonagainstthenewgovernment,theRepublicofHawai’i.Shewasconvictedandwasconfinedforseveral monthsatWashingtonPlace,herprivateresidence,afterherreleasefromimprisonmentatʻIolaniPalace(Hawai’ian:HaleAli’iʻIolani).QueenLili’uokalani abdicatedand,underduress,sworeallegiancetotheRepublicofHawai’i.

JohnL.StevenswastheUnitedStatesMinistertotheHawai’ianKingdomin1893whenheconspiredtooverthrowQueenLili’uokalaniinassociationwiththe CommitteeofSafety,ledbyLorrinA.ThurstonandSanfordB.Dole—thefirstAmericansattemptingtooverthrowaforeigngovernmentundertheauspices ofaUnitedStatesgovernmentofficial.MinisterStevensrecognisedthenewgovernmentwithoutpermissionfromtheUSStateDepartmentandproclaimed Hawai’iaUSprotectorate.PresidentBenjaminHarrisonsignedatreatyofannexationwiththenewgovernment.BeforetheSenatecouldratifyit,Grover ClevelandreplacedHarrisonaspresidentandwithdrewthetreaty.WithGroverCleveland’ssecondelectionasPresidentoftheUnitedStatesin1893,the ProvisionalGovernment’shopesofannexationwerederailedforatime.Indeed,Clevelandtriedtodirectlyhelpreinstatethemonarchyafteraninvestigation ledbyJamesHendersonBlount.TheBlountReportofJuly17,1893,commissionedbyCleveland,concludedthattheCommitteeofSafetyconspiredwithUS ambassadorJohnL.StevenstolandtheUSMarineCorpstoforciblyremoveQueenLili’uokalanifrompoweranddeclareaProvisionalGovernmentof Hawai’iconsistingofmembersfromtheCommitteeofSafety.

AddressingtheunauthorisedlandingofUnitedStatestroopsinthecapitalcityoftheHawaiianKingdom,PresidentClevelandstated,“onthe16thdayof January1893,betweenfourandfiveo’clockintheafternoon,adetachmentofmarinesfromtheUnitedStatessteamerBoston,withtwopiecesofartillery, landedatHonolulu.Themen,upwardsof160,weresuppliedwithdoublecartridgebeltsfilledwithammunitionandhaversacksandcanteensandwere accompaniedbyahospitalcorpswithstretchersandmedicalsupplies.”PresidentClevelandascertainedthatthis“militarydemonstrationuponthesoilof HonoluluwasofitselfanactofwarunlessmadeeitherwiththeconsentoftheGovernmentofHawaiiorforthebonafidepurposeofprotectingtheimperilled livesandpropertyofcitizensoftheUnitedStates.ButthereisnopretenceofanysuchconsentonthepartoftheGovernmentoftheQueen,whichatthat timewasundisputedandwasboththedefactoandthedejuregovernment.Insteadofrequestingthepresenceofanarmedforce,theexistinggovernment protestedagainstit.”Hethenstated,“acandidandthoroughexaminationofthefactswillforcetheconvictionthattheprovisionalgovernmentowesits existencetoanarmedinvasionbytheUnitedStates.”

ícaro1053 OverthrowoftheHawai’ianKingdom(1893) Honolulu,Hawai’i,2022 75x69x2in.(191x175x2cm),acryliconcanvas,alu/woodstretcher

IhavecometounderstandthatthelawfulpoliticalstatusoftheHawaiianIslandsisthatofasovereignnation-statein continuity,butanation-statethatisunderastrangeformofoccupationbytheUnitedStatesresultingfromanillegalmilitary occupationandafraudulentannexation.Assuch,internationallaws(theHagueandGenevaConventions)requirethat governanceandlegalmatterswithintheoccupiedterritoryoftheHawaiianIslandsmustbeadministeredbytheapplicationof thelawsoftheoccupiedstate(inthiscase,theHawaiianKingdom),notthedomesticlawsoftheoccupier(theUnitedStates).

DrAlfred-MauricedeZayas,UNIndependentExpertonthePromotionofa DemocraticandEquitableInternationalOrder(2012-2018)

CommitteeofSafety

SanfordB.Dole wasalawyer,jurist,andmemberoftheHawai’ianlegislaturewholaterservedasthefirstpresidentoftheRepublicofHawai’i.Heplayed acrucialroleinoverthrowingtheHawai’ianKingdom.AdescendantoftheAmericanmissionarycommunitytoHawai’isenttoconvertHawai’iansto ChristianitybytheAmericanBoardofCommissionersforForeignMissions(ABCFM),DoleadvocatedthewesternisationoftheHawai’iangovernmentand culture.Aftertheoverthrowofthemonarchy,heservedasthePresidentoftheRepublicofHawai’iuntilhisgovernmentsecuredHawai’i’sannexationbythe UnitedStates. LorrinA.Thurston wasalawyerandamemberoftheHawai’ianlegislaturewhowasalsoinvolvedinoverthrowingtheHawai’ianKingdom. HewasavitalleaderoftheprovisionalgovernmentandlaterservedastheMinisteroftheInterior.HewasthegrandsonofAsaThurston,aProtestant missionaryfromtheUnitedStateswhowaspartofthefirstcompanyofAmericanChristianmissionariestotheHawai’ianIslands. JamesA.King wasa businessmanwhoownedasugarplantationinHawai’iandwasamemberoftheHawai’ianlegislature.HewasalsoinvolvedinoverthrowingtheHawai’ian Kingdomandservedasamemberoftheprovisionalgovernment. WilliamO.Smith,fromafamilyofAmericanmissionaries,wasalawyerandamember oftheHawai’ianlegislatureinvolvedinoverthrowingtheHawai’ianKingdom.SmithwastheattorneygeneralfortheProvisionalGovernmentandthe RepublicofHawai’i.

1993ApologyResolutionbytheUSCongress

The1993ApologyResolutionbytheUSCongressconcedesthat“theoverthrowoftheKingdomofHawai’ioccurredwiththeactiveparticipationofagents andcitizensoftheUnitedStates,andtheNativeHawai’ianpeopleneverdirectlyrelinquishedtotheUnitedStatestheirclaimstotheirinherentsovereigntyas apeopleovertheirnationallands,eitherthroughtheKingdomofHawai’iorthroughaplebisciteorreferendum.”

UnitedNationsandtheUSCongressAcknowledgestheOccupationoftheHawai’ianKingdom

In2018,theUnitedNationsandtheInternationalCourtofJusticereaffirmedtheillegalityoftheoverthrowandannexationoftheHawai’ianKingdomand therightsoftheHawai’ianpeopletoself-determination,sovereignty,andindependence.

References

RalphSimpsonKuykendall, TheHawaiianKingdom, 1967 Haunani-KayTrask, FromaNativeDaughter:ColonialismandSovereigntyinHawai’i, 1999 GavinDaws, ShoalofTime:AHistoryoftheHawaiianIslands, 1974

Plate25. Waimānalo,Hawai’i, 2013

Otherbooksandpaintingsinthe ícaro:medicinesongs cycle

Earth Freedom

ícaro1226 SanAndreasFault

ícaro1193 GoldKingMineSpill,EPA(2015)

ícaro1186 YuccaMountainNuclearWasteSite

ícaro1185 ThreeMileIslandNuclearAccident(1979)

ícaro1162 GreatChicagoFire(1871)

ícaro1148 CaliforniaWaterWars(1913)

ícaro1143 SouthwestMegadrought(2000)

ícaro1142 PeshtigoWildfire(1871)

ícaro1130 RachelCarson,SilentSpring(1962)

ícaro1129 MeltingPermafrost,ClimateChange

ícaro1128 WildHorses,Mustang

ícaro1124 TheDustBowl(1934-40)

ícaro1116 KarenGaySilkwood(1974)

ícaro1111 TrinityNuclearTestSite(1945)

ícaro1099 CampFire(2018)

ícaro1098 CascadiaEarthquakeandTsunami(1700)

ícaro1097 GalvestonHurricane(1900)

ícaro1090 MeltingPermafrost,ClimateChange

ícaro1089 HurricaneKatrina(2005)

ícaro1081 Kinłitsosinil,ChurchRockUraniumSpill(1979)

ícaro1066 NewlandsReclamationAct(1902)

ícaro1052 JohnstownFlood(1889)

ícaro1049 SanFranciscoEarthquake(1906)

ícaro1047SuperTornadoOutbreak(2011)TornadoAlley(1911)

ícaro1042 WetlandsDestruction

ícaro1034 SuperstormSandy(2012)

ícaro1027 LoveCanal(1940-98)

ícaro1026 FlintWaterCrisis(2014-17)RustBelt

ícaro1012 GreatFlood(1862)

ícaro1005 ExtinctionofthePassengerPigeon(1914)

ícaro1004 NearExtinctionoftheAmericanBison(19thC)

ícaro1008 TriangleShirtwaistFactoryFire(1911)

ícaro1014 LudlowMassacre(1914)

ícaro1015 OklahomaCityBombing,Far-rightMilitia(1995)

ícaro1020 QAnonConspiracyTheorists(2017)

ícaro1021 Antifa,WhiteSupremacists,neo-Nazis(2016)

ícaro1028 WacoSiege(1993)

ícaro1029 Heaven’sGate(1997)

ícaro1036 HartfordWitchCraze(1662)

ícaro1039 OpioidAddictionEpidemic

ícaro1040 CyberWarfare,CyberEspionage,Ransomware

ícaro1043 January6thUSCapitolAttack(2021)

ícaro1050 September11thAttacks(2001)

ícaro1057 PovertyonIndianReservations

ícaro1058 MentalDisorder,PTSDTreatment

ícaro1060 SandyHookElementary,GunControl(2012)

ícaro1062 Pride,EqualityAct(2019)

ícaro1075 OccupyWallStreet,ArtandConflict(2011)

ícaro1082 Feminism,19thAmendment(1848)

ícaro1084 OccupationofMalheurNationalWildlifeRefuge(2016)

ícaro1085RobberBarons,WealthInequality

ícaro1091 RobbElementarySchoolShooting(2022)

ícaro1094 LasVegasShooting(2017)

ícaro1103 StonewallRiots(1969)

ícaro1106 HanapēpēMassacre(1924)

ícaro1109 PearlHarbour(1941)

ícaro1110 TheCrucible,SalemWitchTrials(1692)

ícaro1123 GreatDepression,WPAFederalArtProject(1929-39)

ícaro1127 HIV/AIDS(1981)

ícaro1133 CesarChavez,DelanoGrapeStrike(1965-70)

ícaro1134 DomesticViolence,MalePrivilege PalmBeach,Florida

ícaro1137 Pulse(2016)

ícaro1141 ArtandConflict,ArtandActivism(2022)

ícaro1156 ERAEqualRightsAmendment(1923-today)

ícaro1204 MatthewShepard(1998)

ícaro1206 ColumbineHighSchoolMassacre(1999)

ícaro1218 BisbeeDeportation(1917)

ícaro1242 ContemporaryIndigenousandDiasporaArtists,ChangingNarratives

ícaro1246 Kaho’olaweProtests(1976)

ícaro1250 PovertyandHomelessnessinNorthAmerica

ícaro1262 Anti-VietnamWarProtests(1965)

ícaro1270 HarveyMilkAssassinationRiots(1978)

Black Trails

ícaro1272 StrangeFruit(1939)Lynchings

ícaro1260 NewYorkCityDraftRiots(1863)

ícaro1258 BattleofRhodeIsland,SlaveryinRhodeIsland(1778)

ícaro1248 FreedomRiders,Desegregation(1961)

ícaro1244 HoustonMutiny(1917)

ícaro1230 CharlestonChurchShooting(2015)

ícaro1229 TrayvonMartin(2012)BlackLivesMatter

ícaro1228 BattleofChickamauga(1863)

ícaro1224 HarrietTubman(1850)TheUndergroundRailroad

ícaro1220 RosewoodMassacre(1923)JimCrow

ícaro1216 RedSummer(1919)OmahaRaceRiot

ícaro1202 LaPietadeManzanar(1942-45)

ícaro1180 RedSummer(1919)WashingtonDCRaceRiot

ícaro1171 Mexican-AmericanRepatriation,RepatriaciónMexicana(1929-39)

ícaro1164 BattleofHayesPond(1958)

ícaro1135 RedSummer(1919)ElaineMassacre

ícaro1108 ExecutiveOrder9066,SantaFeRiot(1945)

ícaro1105 RubyBridges,SchoolDesegregation(1960)

ícaro1104 LosAngelesChineseMassacre(1871)

ícaro1101 16thStreetBaptistChurchBombing(1963)

ícaro1086 MOVEbombing(1985)

ícaro1083 YellowPeril,ExecutiveOrder9066(1942)

ícaro1074 Anti-OrientalRiots(1907)

ícaro1072 Gettysburg(1863)

ícaro1071 BloodySunday,EdmundPettusBridge(1965)

ícaro1061 EmmettTill(1955)

ícaro1056 Gadsden’sWharf(1776-1808)

ícaro1051 NatTurner'sSlaveRebellion(1831)

ícaro1046 KillingofVincentChin(1982)

ícaro1037 WattsRiots(1965)

ícaro1032 MartinLutherKingJr.Assassination(1968)

ícaro1031 MLKAssassinationRiots(1968)

ícaro1023 GhettoRiots(1964-69)

ícaro1022 GeorgeFloyd(2020)BlackLivesMatter

ícaro1021 Antifa,WhiteSupremacists,neo-Nazis(2016)

ícaro1019 ElPasoShooting(2019)

ícaro1017 TsitsistasSlaveRevolt(1842)

ícaro1114 ZootSuitRiots,ElMovimiento(1943)

ícaro1016 JohnBrown'sRaid(1859)

ícaro1010 GreensboroMassacre(1979)

ícaro1000 BlackWallStreetMassacre(1921)

ícaro1268 ManifestDestiny(1845)

ícaro1266 KeystonePipeline,CanadianCoastalGLPRailwayProtests(2020)

ícaro1256 EllisIsland(1892)

ícaro1254 Cowboys,MythosofTheWildWest(1865-90)

ícaro1252 intercaetera,DoctrineofDiscovery(1493)

ícaro1240 CaliforniaStateRoute1,MythosoftheOpenRoad

ícaro1238 GreatAmericanDesert,MythosoftheWesternFrontier(1820)

ícaro1176 PasifikaDiaspora,Hanapēpē,Kaua’i

ícaro1174 PasifikaDiaspora,Hāna,Mau’i

ícaro1166 MarielBoatlift(1980)

Ícaro1158 MormonWar(1838)

ícaro1151 DrugCartelSmugglingRoutes

ícaro1131 USRoute66,TheMotherRoad

ícaro1126 OcetiSakowinCamp(2016-17)

ícaro1125 pre-ColumbianMesoamericanTradeRoutes

ícaro1119 TransatlanticTriangularTrade(1619)

ícaro1113 VirginSoilEpidemic

ícaro1107 Space,ChallengerDisaster(1986)

ícaro1096 HighwayofTears(1969-2011)

ícaro1088 OregonTrail,WaiilatpuMission(1811-96)

ícaro1087 Cacao,pre-ColumbianMesoamericanTradeRoutes

ícaro1080 TrailofTears(1830-50)NavajoNihodilhilBlack(First)World

ícaro1076 NavajoLongWalk,Hwéeldi(1864)

ícaro1066 NewlandsReclamationAct(1902)

ícaro1044 TheGreatMigration,JimCrow(1910-70)

ícaro1041 HumanTrafficking,BorderCrossings

ícaro1038 WagonMoundMassacre,SantaFeTrail(1850)

Acknowledgements

Theworldweinhabitisacomplexsystemofinterrelatedentities,eachofwhichtheothersshape.This developmentalversionof ThePeople isthefirstoffivebookshighlightingmydecade-longproject ícaro:medicinesongs, aresearch-basedconceptualartprojectofabstractpaintingsdoneinsituatover threehundredsitesofhumanconflictanddisastersinnatureacrossNorthAmerica.Theabstractnature ofthepaintingsisaninvitationtolookbeyondtheimmediatesubjectmatterandconsiderthebroader implicationsofenvironmentaldegradationanddisasters.Thefightforfreedomandrights,adefining characteristicofNorthAmerica,isdeeplyintertwinedwithstoriesofmovementandmigration.The strugglesofBlack,Asian,andIndigenouspeoplesandsettlerstomakeabetterlifeinNorthAmerica havebeenmarkedbyracism,biases,xenophobia,enslavement,lynchings,andlawsliketheJimCrow laws.Despitethesebarriers,thesegroupshavefoughttirelesslyfortheirrightsanddignity,oftenputting theirlivesontheline.Thehistoryofthesestrugglesisoneofbothtriumphsandsetbacks,but throughoutitall,thefightforjusticeandequalityhasremainedaconstant.Inevitably,manycorrections willbeneededbeforethisbookgoestoprint.Still,Ithankthereadersofthisbookforyourinterestinand appreciationofthebeautyandsignificanceoftheindigenouscommunitiesandnationsacrossNorth AmericawhoselandsIexploredanddepictedthroughart.Manyhistorians,writers,teachers,andother artistsprovidedmewithinspiration,insight,andguidanceonNorthAmerica’shistory,cultures,and environmentalchangesoverthepast600years,duringthecreationofthepaintingsandthebooks. Theircontributionswereessentialandinvaluable. –Nu’aBon,Abiquiú,NewMexico,2023

Plate26. TheHealer,ChacoCanyon,NewMexico, 2018

20

ícaro1048 TséBitʼaʼí,RockwithWings,DinéBaahane’, NavajoNation,NewMexico,2020

LowerWorldsoftheDinéBaahane’

34 ícaro1079 DinéNiʼhodisxǫs,White(Fourth)World, BlancaPeak,Colorado,2020

PaulG.Zolbrod, DinéBahane:TheDinéCreationStory, 1987

HasteenM.Klah, DinéCreationMyth:TheStoryoftheEmergence,TheDinéBahane’LegendoftheNavajoNativeAmericanPeoples, 1942

PeterIverson, Diné:AHistoryoftheNavajo, 2002

HenryR.Voth, TheTraditionsoftheHopi.Vol.Fieldiana:Anthropology.Vol.8.UniversityofIllinoisUrbana-Champaign,1905

JoeS.Sando,The PuebloIndians, 1982

38 ícaro1067 HopiSipapúni, GrandCanyonWest,Arizona,2020

FrankWaters, BookoftheHopi, 1963

RaymondLock, TheBookoftheNavajo, 2002

DianaDoyle, AztecandMayanMythology, 2004

HaroldCourlander, HopiVoicesRecollections,Traditions,andNarrativesoftheHopiIndians, 1982

58 ícaro1065 PuebloRevolt(1680) AcomaPueblo,NewMexico,2021

RossFrank, Demographic,Social,andEconomicChangeinNewMexico,inNewViewsofBorderlandHistory, ed.byRobertH.Jackson,1998

AndrewL.Knaut, ThePuebloRevoltof1680:ConquestandResistanceinSeventeenth-CenturyNewMexico, 1995

AndrésReséndez, TheOtherSlavery:TheUncoveredStoryofIndianEnslavementinAmerica, 2016

ícaro1045 GhostDanceWar,Nanissáanah(1890) WoundedKnee,SouthDakota,2016

DeeBrownandHamptonSides, BuryMyHeartatWoundedKnee:AnIndianHistoryoftheAmericanWest, 1970

JamesMooney,ethnographer(1861-1921), TheGhostDanceReligionandWoundedKnee, 1896

66 ícaro1080 TrailofTears(1830-50) FortSmith,Arkansas, DinéNihodilhilBlack(First)World, 2019

GloriaJahoda, TheTrailofTears:TheStoryoftheAmericanIndianRemovals1813-1855, 1995

ChristopherRossi, TheBlindEye:JusSoli,AndThe“Pretended”TreatyOfNewEchota, 2021

AnthonyWallace,EricFoner, TheLong,BitterTrail:AndrewJacksonandtheIndians, 1993

JeffreyOstler, SurvivingGenocide:NativeNationsandtheUnitedStatesfromtheAmericanRevolutiontoBleedingKansas, 2019

76 ícaro1200 GhostDanceWar(1890) WoundedKnee,SouthDakota,2018

RobertM.Utley, TheLanceandtheShield:TheLifeandTimesofSittingBull, 1992

JamesMooney,ethnographer(1861-1921), TheGhostDanceReligionandWoundedKnee, 1896

AliceBeckKehoe, MassacreatWoundedKneeCreek,TheGhostDance:EthnohistoryandRevitalization, 1989

78 ícaro1001 US-DakotaWar,IndianAgents(1862) Minnesota,2016

PekkaHämäläinen, IndigenousContinent:TheEpicContestforNorthAmerica, 2008

82 ícaro1002 SandCreekMassacre(1864) Eads,Colorado,2022

AmySturgis, TheTrailofTearsandIndianRemoval, 2007

DeeBrown, BuryMyHeartatWoundedKnee:AnIndianHistoryoftheAmericanWest, 1970

GregoryF.Michno, EncyclopediaofIndianWars:WesternBattlesandSkirmishes1850–1890, 2003

86 ícaro1004 NearExtinctionoftheAmericanBison(19thC) Yellowstone,Montana,2013

AndrewC.Isenberg, TheDestructionoftheBison:AnEnvironmentalHistory,1750-1920, 2001

StevenRinella, AmericanBuffalo:InSearchofaLostIcon, 1994

PekkaHämäläinen, IndigenousContinent:TheEpicContestforNorthAmerica, 2022

90 ícaro1003 FallofTenochtitlán(1521) MéxicoCity,México,2021

StefanRinke, ConquistadorenundAzteken:CortésunddieEroberungMexikos(ConquistadorsandAztecs:AHistoryoftheFallofTenochtitlán), 2019

MiguelLeón-Portilla(ed.), TheBrokenSpears:TheAztecAccountoftheConquestofMexico, 1959

CharlesGibson, TheAztecsUnderSpanishRule:AHistoryoftheIndiansoftheValleyofMexico,1519-1810, 1964

94 ícaro1006 CaliforniaGoldRush(1848) Sutter’sMill,Coloma,California,2013

H.W.Brands, TheAgeofGold:TheCaliforniaGoldRushandtheNewAmericanDream, 2002

AnthonyB.Chan, GoldMountain:TheChineseintheNewWorld, 1983

CaptivatingHistory, TheCaliforniaGoldRush:ACaptivatingGuidetoOneoftheMostSignificantEventsintheHistoryoftheUnitedStatesof AmericaandItsImpactonNativeAmericanTribes, 2021

98 ícaro1007 JamestownColonyMassacre(1622) Williamsburg,Virginia,2012

RoxanneDunbar-Ortiz, AnIndigenousPeoples’HistoryoftheUnitedStates, 2014

HelenC.Rountree, ThePowhatanIndiansofVirginia:TheirTraditionalCulture, 2013

BrianFagan, TheLittleIceAge:HowClimateMadeHistory,1300–1850, 2000 KarenOrdahlKupperman, TheJamestownProject, 2007

102 ícaro1009 Dakota38Executions(1862) Mankato,Minnesota,2016

ScottW.Berg, 38Nooses:Lincoln,LittleCrow,andtheBeginningoftheFrontier'sEnd, 2013 KennethCarley, TheDakotaWarof1862:Minnesota'sOtherCivilWar, 2001

106 ícaro1013 LenapeForcedRemovals(1644) Manhattan,NewYork,2015

RussellShorto, TheIslandattheCenteroftheWorld:TheEpicStoryofDutchManhattanandtheForgottenColonyThatShapedAmerica, 2004

110 ícaro1017 TsitsistasSlaveRevolt(1842) CherokeeNation,WebbersFalls,Oklahoma,2015

TiyaMiles, TiesthatBind:TheStoryofanAfro-CherokeeFamilyinSlaveryandFreedom, 2005

EdwardE.Baptist, TheHalfHasNeverBeenTold,SlaveryandtheMakingofAmericanCapitalism, 2016 JoshuaRothman, FlushTimesandFeverDreams:AStoryofCapitalismandSlaveryintheAgeofJackson, 2012

116 ícaro1025 GreatSwampMassacre(1675) Kingston,RhodeIsland,2016

EricB.Schultz;MichaelJ.Tougias, KingPhilip’sWar, 2000

M.E.Reilly-McGreen, Revolutionaries,RebelsandRoguesofRhodeIsland, 2011

118 ícaro1030 O’odhamUprising,PimaRevolt,SpanishMissions(1751) Tubac,Arizona,2017

RobertHowardJackson, MissionsandtheFrontiersofSpanishAmerica:AComparativeStudyoftheImpactofEnvironmental,Economical,Political,and Socio-culturalVariationsontheMissionsintheRiodelaPlataRegionandontheNorthernFrontierofNewSpain, 2005

RoxanneDunbar-Ortiz, AnIndigenousPeoples’HistoryoftheUnitedStates, 2014

H.E.Bolton, TheMissionasaFrontierInstitutionintheSpanish-AmericanColonies,1917

122 ícaro1033 ExpulsionoftheYellowstoneNations(pre-1872) Wyoming,Montana,2018

PeterNabokov, NativeAmericanTestimony:AChronicleofIndian-WhiteRelationsfromProphecytothePresent,1492-2000, 1999

RoxanneDunbar-Ortiz, AnIndigenousPeoples’HistoryoftheUnitedStates, 2014

MarkDavidSpence, DispossessingtheWilderness:IndianRemovalandtheMakingoftheNationalParks, 1999

126 ícaro1038 WagonMoundMassacre,SantaFeTrail(1850) WagonMound,NewMexico,2021

ColoradoHistoricalSociety, TheSantaFeTrail:NewPerspectives,1987

DavidJ.Weber, TheSpanishFrontierinNorthAmerica, 2009

DavidDary, TheSantaFeTrail:ItsHistory,Legends,andLore, 2012

130 ícaro1081 Kinłitsosinil,ChurchRockUraniumSpill(1979)DinéNihaltsohYellow(Third)World, NM, 2022

DougBrugge,TimothyBenallyandEstherYazzie-Lewis(eds.), TheNavajoPeopleandUraniumMining, 2017

DougBrugge,CatBui,andJamiedeLemos, TheSequoyahCorporationFuelsReleaseandtheChurchRockSpill:UnpublicizedNuclearReleasesin AmericanIndianCommunities, AmericanJournalofPublicHealth97,2007

JudyPasternak, YellowDirt:AnAmericanStoryofaPoisonedLandandaPeopleBetrayed, 2010

ícaro1087 Cacao,pre-ColumbianMesoamericanTradeRoutes Arizona,California,NewMexico,Utah,2020

TraciWatson, EarliestEvidenceofChocolateinNorthAmerica, Science(22January2013)

https://www.science.org/content/article/earliest-evidence-chocolate-north-america

SophieD.CoeandMichaelD.Coe, TheTrueHistoryofChocolate, 1996

RobertS.Weiner, ASensoryApproachtoExotica,RitualPractice,andCosmologyatChacoCanyon, 2015

142 ícaro1088 OregonTrail(1811-96)WaiilatpuMission Oregon,Montana,Washington,2016

CassandraTate, Unsettledground:TheWhitmanMassacreanditsshiftinglegacyintheAmericanWest, 2020

JohnDavidUhruh, ThePlainsAcross:TheOverlandEmigrantsandtheTrans-MississippiWest,1840–1860, 1979

RayAllenBillingtonandMartinRidge, WestwardExpansion:AHistoryoftheAmericanFrontier, 2001

DonaldWorster, RiversofEmpire:Water,Aridity,andtheGrowthoftheAmericanWest, 1985

148 ícaro1093

SeminoleWars(1816-58)

Apalachicola,Florida,2020

JohnMissallandMaryLouMissall, TheSeminoleWars:America’sLongestIndianConflict, 2004

AnthonyE.Dixon, Florida’sNegroWar:BlackSeminolesandtheSecondSeminoleWar1835-1842, 2014

152 ícaro1095

Genízaro Abiquiú,NewMexico,2022

MoisesGonzales(editor),EnriqueR.Lamadrid(editor), NaciónGenízara:Ethnogenesis,Place,andIdentityinNewMexico, 2019

DorisSwannAvery, IntotheDenofEvils:TheGenizarosinColonialNewMexico, UniversityofMontana,GraduateThesis,2008

156 ícaro1096 HighwayofTears(1969-2011) BritishColumbia,Canada,2018

JessicaMcDiarmid, TheHighwayofTears:ATrueStoryofRacism,IndifferenceandthePursuitofJustice, 2019

MaryTeegee,Documentary: HighwayofTears (2015),filmproducerandExecutiveDirectorofCarrierSekaniFamilyServices

160 ícaro1100 MissionIndians(1769-1848) PueblodelosÁngeles,California,2020

EliasCastillo, ACrossofThorns:TheEnslavementofCalifornia’sIndiansbytheSpanishMissions, 2015

StevenW.Hackel, ChildrenofCoyote,MissionariesofSaintFrancis:Indian-SpanishRelationsinColonialCalifornia,1769-1850, 2005

166 ícaro1102 NezPercéWar(1877) Idaho,Oregon,Montana,Wyoming,2018

DavidE.Stannard, AmericanHolocaust:ColumbusandTheConquestoftheNewWorld, 1992

ElliottWest, TheLastIndianWar:TheNezPerceStory, 2009

PekkaHämäläinen, IndigenousContinent:TheEpicContestforNorthAmerica, 2022

172 ícaro1112 TMTandMaunaaWakea(2019)KūKia'iMauna,ProtectorsoftheMountain, Hawai’i,2019

DavidUahikeaikalei‘ohuMaile, ResurgentRefusals:ProtectingMaunaaWākeaandKanakaMaoliDecolonization, 2019 KamanamaikalaniBeamer, Tūtū’sAlohaʻāinaGrace, 2014

PuhipauandJoanLander,directors;NaMakaoKa‘Aina,producer, MaunaKea:TempleUnderSiege,(documentaryfilm)2005

178 ícaro1144 LittleBighorn(1876) CrowIndianReservation,Montana,2018

PhillipThomasTucker, DeathattheLittleBighorn:ANewLookatCuster,HisTactics,andtheTragicDecisionsMadeattheLastStand, 2020 NathanielPhilbrick, TheLastStand:Custer,SittingBull,andtheBattleoftheLittleBighorn, 2010

182 ícaro1076 DinéLongWalk,Hwéeldi(1864)Naayéé’neizghání,SlayeroftheAlienGods, BosqueRedondo,NM, 2019

GladysAmandaReichard, NavahoReligion:AStudyofSymbolism, 1974

RobertS.McPherson, DinéjíNa`nitin:NavajoTraditionalTeachingsandHistory, 2012

188 ícaro1059 BrokenTrust,FortLaramieTreaties(1851,1868) FortLaramie,Wyoming,2018

JenniferViegas, TheFortLaramieTreaty,1868:APrimarySourceExaminationoftheTreaty

ThatEstablishedaSiouxReservationintheBlackHillsofDakota, 2005

Pekka Hämäläinen, LakotaAmerica:ANewHistoryofIndigenousPower, 2019

194 ícaro1115 CaliforniaGenocide(1846-73) Sutter’sMill,California,2012

BenjaminMadley, AnAmericanGenocide:TheUnitedStatesandtheCaliforniaIndianCatastrophe,1846-1873, 2016

DamonB.AkinsandWilliamJ.BauerJr., WeAretheLand:AHistoryofNativeCalifornia, 2021

196 ícaro1121 SevenCitiesofCíbola(1540) ZuniPueblo,NewMexico,2017

DavidM.Carballo, CollisionofWorlds, 2020

FernandoCervantes, Conquistadores,2020

ShaneMountjoy,WilliamH.Goetzmann, FranciscoCoronadoandtheSevenCitiesofGold, 2009

DouglasPreston, CitiesofGold:AJourneyAcrosstheAmericanSouthwest,1999

StephenClissold, TheSevenCitiesofCibola, 1962

202 ícaro1122 BearRiverMassacre(1863) FranklinCounty,Idaho,2017

DarrenParry, TheBearRiverMassacre:AShoshoneHistory, 2019

CharlesRiverEditors, TheBearRiverMassacre:TheHistoryandLegacyoftheU.S.Army’sMostNotorious AttackontheShoshoneinthePacificNorthwest, 2018

RodMiller, MassacreatBearRiver:First,Worst,Forgotten, 2008

206 ícaro1126 OcetiSakowinCamp(2016-17) StandingRock,NorthDakota,2017

BikemEkberzade,StandingRock:Greed,OilandtheLakota’sStruggleforJustice,2018

212 ícaro1125 MesoamericanTradeRoutes ChacoCanyon,NewMexico,2016

FrancesF.Berdan, TheAztecsofCentralMexico:AnImperialSociety, 1982

AlfredoLópezAustin&LeonardoLopezLujan, Mexico’sIndigenousPast,2001

226 ícaro1132 Badlands SouthDakota,2016

RoxanneDunbar-Ortiz, AnIndigenousPeoples’HistoryoftheUnitedStates, 2014

DavidStannard, AmericanHolocaust:ColumbusandtheConquestoftheNewWorld, 1993

220 ícaro1140 ApalacheeMassacre(1704) VeldaMound,Florida,2015

VernonCrane, TheSouthernFrontier,1670–1732, 1929

EdwardMcCrady, SouthCarolina:HistoryRevolution,1775-1784, 1902

JeraldT.Milanich, LaboringintheFieldsoftheLord:SpanishMissionsandSoutheasternIndians,1999

AllanGallay, TheIndianSlaveTrade:TheRiseoftheEnglishEmpireintheAmericanSouth, 2003

224 ícaro1149 CanadianIndianResidentialSchools(1996) GeorgeGordonFirstNation,Saskatchewan,2021

J.R.Miller, ResidentialSchoolsandReconciliation:CanadaConfrontsitsHistory, 2017

DavidB.MacDonald, SleepingGiantAwakens:Genocide,IndianResidentialSchools,andtheChallengeofConciliation, 2019

232 ícaro1157 MabilaMassacre(1540) Selma,Alabama,2020

CharlesHudson, KnightsofSpain,WarriorsoftheSun:HernandoDeSotoandtheSouth'sAncientChiefdoms, 1997.

VernonJamesKnightJr.,ed. TheSearchforMabila:TheDecisiveBattlebetweenHernandoDeSotoandChiefTascalusa, 2009

236 ícaro1160 AlbuquerqueIndianSchool(1881-1981) Albuquerque,NewMexico,2021

DavidWallaceAdams, EducationforExtinction:AmericanIndiansandtheBoardingSchoolExperience,1875–1928, 1995.

TimA.Giago, ChildrenLeftBehind:DarkLegacyofIndianMissionBoardingSchools, 2006

MargaretL.Archuleta,BrendaJ.Child,andK.TsianinaLomawaima,eds., AwayfromHome:AmericanIndianBoarding SchoolExperiences,1868-2000, 2000

238 ícaro1161 CanyondelMuertoMassacreCave(1825) Chinle,Arizona,2021

JillLeslieFurst, TheNaturalHistoryoftheSoulinAncientMexico, 1997

CampbellGrant, CanyondeChelly:ItsPeopleandRockArt, 1984

244 ícaro1190 AcomaMassacre(1599) AcomaPueblo,NewMexico,2022

JoséRabasa, Writingviolenceonthenorthernfrontier:thehistoriographyofsixteenthcenturyNewMexicoandFloridaandthelegacyofconquest, 2000

AndrewKnaut, ThePuebloRevoltof1680, 1995

RobertSilverberg, ThePuebloRevolt, 1994

246 ícaro1191 IndianRemovalAct(1830) Dahlonega,Georgia,2022

H.W.Brands, AndrewJackson:HisLifeandTimes, 2006

ThedaPerdue, TheCherokeeNationandtheTrailofTears, 2007

JohnEhle, TrailofTears:TheRiseandFalloftheCherokeeNation,1988

250 ícaro1192 Quivira,SevenCitiesofGold(1541) Wichita,Kansas,2022

DavidM.Carballo, CollisionofWorlds, 2020

FernandoCervantes, Conquistadores, 2020

254 ícaro1222 NatchezRevolt,MississippiBubble(1729) Natchez,Mississippi,2021

RobertV.Haynes, TheNatchezDistrictandtheAmericanRevolution, 2008

JamesF.BarnettJr., TheNatchezIndians:AHistoryto1735, 2016

JonMoen, JohnLawandtheMississippiBubble:1718–1720, 2001

262 ícaro1231 MysticMassacre,EuropeanSettlerCulture(1637) Mystic,Connecticut,2012

NealSalisbury, ManitouandProvidence:Indians,Europeans,andtheMakingofNewEngland,1500-1643, 1982

JillLepore, TheNameofWar:KingPhilip’sWarandtheOriginsofAmericanIdentity, 1998

268 ícaro1234 WoundedKneeOccupation,RussellMeans,LeonardPeltier(1973) PineRidge,SouthDakota,2020

RoxanneDunbarOrtiz, IndiansoftheAmericas:Self-DeterminationandHumanRights, 1984

DavidTreuer, TheHeartbeatofWoundedKnee:NativeAmericafrom1890tothePresent, 2019

StewMagnuson, WoundedKnee1973:StillBleeding:TheAmericanIndianMovement,theFBI,andtheirFighttoBurytheSinsofthePast, 2013

274 ícaro1236 AlcatrazOccupation,(AIM)AmericanIndianMovement(1969) AlcatrazIsland,California,2016

RoxanneDunbarOrtiz, IndiansoftheAmericas:Self-DeterminationandHumanRights, 1984

DavidTreuer, TheHeartbeatofWoundedKnee:NativeAmericafrom1890tothePresent, 2019

280 ícaro1264 BeaverWars(1609-1701) QuebecCity,Canada,2018

BarbaraGraymont, TheIroquoisintheAmericanRevolution, 1975

RichardWhite, TheMiddleGround:Indians,Empires,andRepublicsintheGreatLakesRegion,1650-1815, 2010

284 ícaro1011 ZapatistaUprising(1994) Chiapas,México,2022

JohnRoss, Zapatista!:MakingAnotherWorldPossible:ChroniclesofResistance2000-2006, 2006

AlexKhasnabish,AnnaMdee,etal., Zapatistas:RebellionfromtheGrassrootstotheGlobal, 2010

JohnHolloway,EloinaPelaez(eds.), Zapatista!:ReinventingRevolutioninMexico, 1998

288 ícaro1053 OverthrowoftheHawai’ianKingdom(1893) Honolulu,Hawai’i,2022

RalphSimpsonKuykendall, TheHawaiianKingdom, 1967

Haunani-KayTrask, FromaNativeDaughter:ColonialismandSovereigntyinHawai’i, 1999

GavinDaws, ShoalofTime:AHistoryoftheHawaiianIslands, 1974 303