The Asian Trends Monitoring Bulletin is a project
Production
sponsored by the Rockefeller Foundation, New
Chris Koh, Manager, Production & Research
York and the Lee Kuan Yew School of Public Policy,
Dissemination
National University of Singapore. The Lee Kuan Yew
Michael Agung Pradhana, Layout & Design
School of Public Policy gratefully acknowledges the financial assistance of the Rockefeller Foundation.
Image credits, with thanks All images in this issue were taken by the ATM team
The Asian Trends Monitoring Bulletin focuses on
during their field visits to Jakarta, Manila, Hanoi, and
the analysis of pro-poor projects and innovative
Vientiane in 2012
approaches that will contribute to alleviate poverty. The emphasis is put on identifying major trends
Permission is granted to use portions of this work
for the poor in rural and urban areas, highlighting
copyrighted by the Lee Kuan Yew School of Public
sustainable and scalable concepts, and analysing
Policy. Please follow the suggested citation:
how these could impact the future of Asia’s wellbeing and future development.
When citing individual articles Indrakesuma, T., & Loh, J. (2013). Educating the poor:
The Asian Trends Monitoring Bulletin are designed
past, present, future. In Asian Trends Monitoring
to encourage dialogue and debate about critical
Bulletin (2013), Bulletin 20: Educating the Urban
issues that affect Asia’s ability to reduce poverty and
Poor (pp. 6-7). Lee Kuan Yew School of Public Policy,
increase awareness of the implications for pro-poor
Singapore.
policy and policy development. When citing the entire bulletinAsian Trends
The ATM Urban Poverty Series
Disclaimer
Monitoring Bulletin (2013), Bulletin 20: Educating the
The opinions expressed in the Asian Trends Monitoring
Urban Poor (pp. 6-7). Lee Kuan Yew School of Public
Download all previous ATM Bulletins from our website: www.asiantrendsmonitoring.com
Bulletin are those of the analysts and do not
Policy, Singapore.
necessarily reflect those of the sponsor organisations. When citing our survey data Frequency
Asian Trends Monitoring (2012). A dataset on urban
The Asian Trends Monitoring Bulletin will be produced
poverty and service provision. Lee Kuan Yew School
eight times a year and can be downloaded for free at
of Public Policy, National University of Singapore.
http://www.asiantrendsmonitoring.com/downloads Please acknowledge the source and email a copy of Principal Investigators
the book, periodical or electronic document in which
Darryl S.L Jarvis
the material appears to chris.k@nus.edu.sg or send to
Phua Kai Hong T S Gopi Rethinaraj
Chris Koh Lee Kuan Yew School of Public Policy
Jakarta's Poor
Manila's Poor
Empowering Hanoi's Poor
Vientiane - Poor But Different
Research Associates
469C Bukit Timah Toad
Johannes Loh
Singapore 259772
Taufik Indrakesuma Nicola Pocock
3
Educating the Urban Poor by Taufik Indrakesuma & Johannes Loh
Education is a vital tool for breaking the vicious cycle of poverty. Indeed, it is often claimed that educated children will be able to earn more money in the long run, eventually lifting the entire family out of poverty. This, in turn, leads to the future generations being better educated and able to enhance the financial well-being of families and communities.
• A school that works together with a microfinance institution to teach children from poor families the value of savings; and • Schools built for trash-picker communities that live in landfills. The data and case studies that are used in this bulletin are the result of primary data collection and field research. This year’s research on urban
However, reality is rarely that simple. A 2006 OECD reporti on education
poverty entailed travelling to four of Southeast Asia’s major cities: Jakarta,
notes that economic and social disadvantages are equally important ele-
Manila, Hanoi, and Vientiane. In this issue, we compare the major challenges
ments to consider as they can severely hamper the educational experience
faced by officials in these four cities in the field of education as well as their
of learners. While social disadvantages influence test scores and educa-
innovative solutions.
tional achievements in the developed world, in the developing countries of
We invite you to share the ATM Bulletin with colleagues interested in pro-
Southeast Asia, economic and social disadvantages are severe impediments
poor issues in Southeast Asia. The Bulletin is also available for download at
to even accessing and attending school.
www.asiantrendsmonitoring.com/download, where you can subscribe
Despite efforts by nearly all governments across Southeast Asia to pro-
to future issues. We encourage you to regularly visit our website for more
vide access to free education until secondary level, there remain several
updates and recent video uploads in our blog. Thank you again for support-
stumbling blocks that lead to low enrollment rates and unsatisfactory edu-
ing the ATM Bulletin, and as always, we gladly welcome your feedback.
cational outcomes. For example, there are often additional costs beyond the tuition expenses, including the opportunity cost of foregone income from the child working to support a parents business or engage in independent economic activity. Poor service delivery represents another problem, where subsidies and other forms of assistance do not reach the poorest households.
Contents 4 s Southeast Asia: A general overview of education by Taufik Indrakesuma and Johannes Loh
6 s Educating the poor: past, present, future by Taufik Indrakesuma and Johannes Loh
8 s The opportunity costs of education by Taufik Indrakesuma and Johannes Loh
12 s Educating “non-existent” children
Suggested citation
In order to fill the provision gap left by the government, non-governmental organizations have been active in creating schools for the poor.
When citing individual articles
Numerous organizations have developed alternative models of education
• Indrakesuma, T., & Loh, J. (2013). Educating the poor: past,
provision, adapting their schools to the unique circumstances of poor com-
present, future. In Asian Trends Monitoring Bulletin (2013),
munities. Some organizations find ways to accommodate their students’
Bulletin 20: Educating the Urban Poor (pp. 6-7). Lee Kuan
work schedules, while others modify the curriculum to include a heavier
Yew School of Public Policy, Singapore.
vocational component. In this issue of the ATM we take an in-depth look at alternative future scenarios that might arise from the adoption of conventional and alternative models in educating poor communities. This issue also highlights the unique experiences of people and organizations we engaged with in researching educational provision and the experience of poor communities. Case studies in the bulletin include: • An NGO that provides several schools for a large slum area;
When citing the entire bulletin • Asian Trends Monitoring Bulletin (2013), Bulletin 20: Educating the Urban Poor (pp. 6-7). Lee Kuan Yew School of Public Policy, Singapore. When citing our survey data • Asian Trends Monitoring (2012). A dataset on urban poverty and service provision. Lee Kuan Yew School of Public Policy,
by Taufik Indrakesuma and Johannes Loh
National University of Singapore.
14 s The curriculum conundrum by Taufik Indrakesuma and Johannes Loh
Researcher Johannes Loh poses with schoolchildren in Jakarta.
i Machin, Stephen (2006). “Social disadvantage and education experiences”. OECD Social, Employment and Migration Working Papers. Accessed from: http://www.oecd.org/social/ socialpoliciesanddata/36165298.pdf
4
5
Primary school students in Vientiane, enjoying their afternoon break.
Southeast Asia: A general overview of education by Taufik Indrakesuma & Johannes Loh
Figure1. Government spending in different sectorsiii
Education is considered one of the cornerstones of modern society. Once considered a privilege of the elite, it is now viewed as a basic human right that governments are desperately trying to provide to their constituencies. Education policies all around Southeast Asia reflect this prioritization, with education taking up an increasingly large share of government spending. For example, Indonesian law now mandates that educational spending should comprise at least 20% of the national budgetii. Government spending in Thailand, Vietnam, Malaysia, and the Philippines are at similarly high levels, each above 15%. This level of expenditure is higher than other important sectors such as health and defense spending. Figure 1 shows a comparison of central government spending in the different sectors. This increased spending has manifested itself in several policies that make formal education more accessible for the poor. The Philippines has a nationwide free education policy for primary school level, Indonesia and Thailand ii
Indonesian constitutional court decree 13/PUU-VI I 2008
provide free education up to secondary school,
Despite the large amounts of attention and
while countries like Laos and Vietnam provide
spending, there are still huge gaps in provision.
school fee subsidies for the poorest households
In major urban centers like Jakarta and Manila,
in each district. Other school expenses such as
hundreds of school-age children are unable
textbooks are circumvented by government
to attend school, despite free basic education
funding to improve public school libraries.
and other similar blanket policies. In the Asian
iii
World Development Indicators Global Development Finance (WDI GDF) data, World Bank (WB)
Trends Monitoring Bulletin’s survey on urban
accessing good schools. The evidence in the
finding good quality schools for their children.
poverty, out of 804 households with children
field suggests that these policies are not work-
This suggests that either the assistance is not
in Jakarta, Manila, Hanoi, and Vientiane, 201
ing effectively. Figures 2 and 3 below shows that
enough, e.g. subsidized school fees are still too
households had at least one child under 16 who
the current education policy regimes in these
expensive, or that the assistance is simply inac-
was out of school.
cities are still unable to help the bottom of the
cessible to these households. ATM
The ATM survey revealed that poor com-
pyramid. Many households in our sample strug-
munities in these major cities still have trouble
gle with paying school-related expenses and
6
7
Educating the poor: past, present, future by Taufik Indrakesuma & Johannes Loh
As the statistics presented in the previous sec-
Sohail Inayatullah (2008), analyzes a problem
past are the traditions and historical factors that
tion indicate, the poor at bottom of the pyra-
through three time frames: future, present,
act as a barrier to change.
mid are still unable to access education. Costs
past. The “pulls of the future” are the ideals and
In the case of education policies in Southeast
are still too high and subsidies are not reaching
images of the future that people envision and
Asia, the futures triangle takes shape as shown
the households that need it the most. In order to
base current policies around. The pushes of the
below.
determine the root causes of the problems and
present are the emerging issues and trends that
There are several historical factors that influ-
the necessary solutions, it is useful to use ana-
are influencing the status quo and that could be
ence today’s education policies. For example,
lytical tools such as the futures triangle.
either supporting or hindering society’s move
the current format of one-size-fits-all national
towards the future images. The weights of the
education provision model is a Western import
The futures triangle, as conceptualized by
that has persisted for decades. The traditional
vision: the “Rise of Asia”. Asia’s growing stock
made up of migrants who do not have official
shape and structure of classrooms, the social
in the world’s power structure has compelled
residency status in these cities. Thus, the house-
norms for teachers and students, and the assess-
Asian countries to focus more resources on their
holds are not eligible for education subsidies
ment criteria are all inherited from past genera-
best and brightest, in order to be able to com-
and the children are unable to attend schools.
tions and are rarely evaluated for relevance in
pete with the best and the brightest of the rest
From this futures triangle, we have distilled
today’s society. This can become a hindrance
of the world. This is what futurists refer to as a
three major problems that we believe are most
when considering innovations that break away
“used future”, where the visualized end goal is
important to address in order to improve educa-
from traditional education structures.
arbitrarily determined and not compatible with
tion provision in Southeast Asia.
There are also new and emerging issues that
reality. Now, the poor require education that
1. Economic incentives of families must
challenge the existing education paradigms and
will equip them with the skills to enter the work
be taken into account when design-
policies. Large numbers of people are flooding
force and escape poverty. This kind of alterna-
ing education policy. This includes the
major cities in search of jobs, without the skills
tive goal to education requires not only the
incentive for child labor and the cost/
to actually obtain them. As a consequence,
extra resources that are currently being spent
benefit calculations of sending a child
many parents at the bottom of the income pyr-
elsewhere, but also a complete paradigm shift
to school.
amid cannot make enough to afford urban life,
in education policy makers.
2. The land tenure issue must be
forcing the children to leave school and help
Analyses can be drawn from linkages
addressed or bypassed in order to
with earning money. This is exacerbated by the
between past, present, and future. For exam-
open education access to all children.
intensifying education “arms-race” of the mid-
ple, historical rural traditions of child labor are
Traditional service provision models
dle class and growing global competitive pres-
brought to the city by the influx of rural-urban
must be revised, or alternative provi-
sures, which perpetually raises the minimum
migrants. This leads to a higher incidence
sion sources must be found.
education requirements of decent jobs. If these
of child labor, which is problematic not only
3. A new future image is needed that is
patterns continue, the poor children of today
because urban labor conditions can be less safe
more inclusive of alternative pathways
will find attractive jobs to be increasingly out
than rural labor conditions, but also because
out of poverty. It is not enough to talk
of reach. On a macro scale, this means that the
the long hours of work pull the children out of
about education for the purpose of
growth of megacities such as Jakarta and Manila
school almost permanently. The team has heard
improving the competitiveness of
may become stunted by a widening mismatch
first-hand accounts of this, where children in
the top of the pyramid. Curriculums
of skills in demand and available labour on the
Manila’s trash collector community are sent to
must be restructured or diversified in
ground.
work in hazardous dump sites as soon as they
order to provide a more relevant and
are strong enough to carry a burlap sack.
meaningful education to poor house-
These realities are in sharp contrast to the idealistic images that people associate with
The emerging issue of rural-urban migration
holds. In the long run, this would also
education. The world today envisions a future
also clashes with the traditional service provi-
contribute to a more balanced labour
where children are shaped by the education
sion model. Education subsidies (as well as pub-
force composition with likely benefits
system as “reformed citizens”: well-educated,
lic services in general) are usually distributed
for the country’s overall productivity.
well-informed, and able to transition into a
based on census and residential data. However,
ATM
decent white-collar job. This region in partic-
most households that are at the bottom of the
ular is also preoccupied with another future
pyramid and require the most help are usually
Some alternative curriculums teach practical skills such as gardening.
8
9
Laos are beginning to dedicate more government spending on making education cheaper, with free education being offered to the poorest households in each neighborhood (see ATM #18 - Hanoi’s Poor, p.8 : The Poor List). Despite all these efforts to reduce education expenses for poor households, school enrollment is not yet universal. Even where enrollment is nearly universal, quality of education is by no means guaranteed. The ATM team’s investigation into the matter through interviews with parents of poor families and surveys of poor households reveals that the problem is not a lack of parental awareness or negligence. In fact, the survey results in all four cities indicate that parents place a high value on their children’s education, and believe that if their children go to school, they will have a brighter future in the long run. The problem, however, is still related to costs. Despite government subsidies for tuition Even makeshift school buildings can become excellent venues for learning.
fees, other expenditures related to school remain high. Sending a child to school entails additional expenses for transportation, school
The opportunity costs of education
uniforms, textbooks, and other school supplies. Most countries, unfortunately, do not include these items in their subsidy schemes.
by Taufik Indrakesuma & Johannes Loh
Some households we interviewed reported that these expenses are exacerbated by the rapid
All around Southeast Asia, governments at all
changes in school curriculums, which means
levels have attempted to lower the cost of edu-
that younger siblings cannot use the old text-
cation. Indonesia has instated free education
books of their older siblings and are forced to
for all children up to the ninth year of school
buy new ones.
. The Philippines has a similar free education
However, one of the largest cost is the intan-
policy, where primary and secondary education
gible “opportunity cost” of foregone income.
has been free of charge since the Free Public
Many of the poorest households cannot survive
Secondary Education Act of 1988. Thailand
on the parents’ income alone. This means that
is, perhaps, the best example of free educa-
much of the time, the children have to work as
tion provision. Not only does the government
well, earning additional money through beg-
guarantee twelve years of free basic educa-
ging, collecting rubbish, or assisting in their
tion, it also provides free textbooks and other
parents’ businesses. Thus, any time spent in
educational supplies for the students. Even
school is seen as time that is not spent work-
less developed countries such as Vietnam and
ing. The long-term payoffs of a good education
vii
The difficulty in prioritizing education In Phonethong Village, Vientiane, the team interviewed a woman named Malychanh who was one of the poorest residents of the village. She lives with her husband who sells trinkets out of a pushcart in the nearby market, and her four children. Malychanh herself only works during harvesting season, harvesting rice crops from large farms and getting paid in rice. Because of this working arrangement, although the family has enough food to survive, there is not much money for other necessities. One of those necessities that have become unaffordable is sending her children to school. One of her daughters has graduated secondary school and wants to attend university, but the family can barely afford it. Malychanh also said that things will become even more complicated soon, as her youngest daughter is almost 6 years old, and will start attending primary school. Although the school itself is free of charge, she said that other expenses such as textbooks, uniforms, meals and transportation still add up to quite a hefty sum, which represents an insurmountable challenge to the household’s budget. Finally, when asked whether, in the event of a cash windfall, she would prioritize spending the money on sending her children to better schools, she thought long and hard before answering that she would have to prioritize opening a small business ahead of her children’s education.
suddenly pale in comparison to the immediate vii
Indonesian National Education System Law of 2003
ix
World Development Indicators Global Development Finance (WDI GDF) data, World Bank (WB)
x
World Development Indicators Global Development Finance (WDI GDF) data, World Bank (WB)
10
11
need to put food on the table. One solution that government agencies have used to address opportunity costs is conditional cash transfers. Indonesia, Cambodia, and the Philippines have implemented CCT programs linked to education behaviors. The Pantawid Pamilyang Pilipino Program (P4), for example, requires an 85% attendance record for all school age children in the household as one of the conditions for payment. Cambodia’s CCT program, the Cambodia Education Sector Support Project, was made specifically to improve school attendance, and includes passing grades as one of the conditionsxiii. Indonesia has a CCT program that is community-based, which encourages households to monitor and assist each other in making sure that all children in the community are in school. For years, NGOs and other stakeholders in the education sector have experimented with their own alternative solutions for poor communities unable to attend government schools due to either financial or physical restrictions. Each of the organizations that the ATM team spoke to had their own unique solutions. Sekolah Kami, a school in Jakarta, compromises through shortening school hours, allowing children to work after school hours (see box "Sekolah Kami"). The Philippine Christian Foundation (see Box " The Philippine Christian Foundation") attempts to incentivize school attendance by providing work opportunities for mothers within the school’s premises. ATM xiii
World Bank. Cambodia: Education Sector Support Project.
Conditional cash transfers are a type of cash payment with prerequisites or conditions. These cash payments are only made to households that can fulfill conditions that usually include child welfare improvements, including vaccinations and routine medical checkups for young children, and routine school attendance for both boys and girls.
Sekolah Kami Sekolah Kami, or “our school”, is a school that was built on top of a
time provides their children with valuable knowledge and skills
landfill to the east of Jakarta in 2007 by Dr. Irina Amongpradja. The
The second aspect is Sekolah Kami’s customized curriculum.
school can hold up to 150 students, and has been the sole beacon
Sekolah Kami does not follow the Indonesian national primary
of hope for the residents of the surrounding slums. (For more gen-
school curriculum. Although some conventional components such
eral information about the school, refer to ATM Bulletin #16: Jakarta’s
as mathematics, Indonesian and English are present, the school
Poor.)
focuses the children’s education on practical skills. Younger children
The school system itself presents a unique approach to educat-
are taught gardening and organic soap-making, while the older chil-
ing the poor and dealing with the opportunity costs of education.
dren are taught to sew and to make handicrafts from recycled mate-
There are two vital aspects of the Sekolah Kami approach that make
rials. This way, students are able to apply the things they learn in
it appealing to the poor: its stance towards working children and its
school to earn money on the side – perhaps much more than they
custom curriculum.
would earn as trash collectors. The children are able to get an edu-
The approach that Sekolah Kami takes towards working children
cation, learning English and mathematics alongside their practical
is that of compromise and pragmatism. As a school that caters to
skills, and the parents are happy because the flow of income may
a trash collector community, Dr. Irina recognizes that parents need
actually increase at the same time.
their children’s assistance in order to earn enough money. Children
The drawbacks to this method are obvious. Less classroom time
as young as six years old have to spend most of their days out in the
means fewer lessons, and an abridged formal component of the cur-
landfills or the surrounding streets to find recyclables and other valu-
riculum means that it will be difficult for the children of Sekolah Kami
ables in the rubbish. As such, keeping the children in school for the
to continue to formal secondary schools unless they cover a signifi-
usual six to eight hours per day is out of the question for these par-
cant amount of extra ground. Thus, graduates of Sekolah Kami are
ents. This is why Sekolah Kami’s school day is only four hours long.
equipped with not much more than the practical skills and a basic
Children are in school from 8AM to noon, at which point they can
understanding of reading, writing, and mathematics. This method
go home and proceed to help their parents with their work. This
becomes a means to make small improvements in the lives of poor
method lowers the parental resistance to school, as the parents do
families, but does not give them the ability to fully escape poverty.
not feel like they are being denied an income stream, but at the same
However, perhaps those small improvements are enough for now.
12
13
over 10,000 poor households live with nowhere
The Philippine Christian Foundation
near enough schools, compelled the Urban Poor
PCF’s staff. Even the PCF livelihood programs are consistent with this belief. The livelihood program trains people in the art of making recycled
Jane Walker runs the Philippine Christian Foundation (PCF), a Manila-
handicrafts from aluminum pull tabs and other recycled materials.
based charity that set up a school for a trash collector community liv-
These handicrafts are then sold to both local and international mar-
ing near the Smokey Mountain dump site. The school is able to take
kets, with a fair share of the proceeds going to the workers. Only the
in around 100 students and has become a major asset to the slums
parents can participate in the program, whereas the children are not
around Smokey Mountain. (For more information on the Philippine
allowed. “We provide work for their parents in order to get them to
Christian Foundation, refer to ATM Bulletin #17: Manila’s Poor)
better accept their children’s enrollment in school. If the parents can
One of the big differences between PCF’s education model and
make enough money, the children will not be forced to help.” This
other organizations that we interviewed in the four cities is that
offer has been taken up enthusiastically by the mothers and helped
PCF’s schools do not tailor their curriculum to the more immediate
to lower absenteeism rates by 40%.
income-generation needs of the poor. Rather, they teach the con-
This model shows that the opportunity costs of sending chil-
ventional curriculum, albeit modified with a focus on building self-
dren to school can be overcome with a hardline stance of no child
esteem and “dreaming big”. Where most other NGO schools provide
labor. However, being unwilling to compromise on child labor comes
financial support for its graduates to start their own businesses, PCF
necessitates the provision of alternate sources of income for the par-
instead offers university scholarships to its brightest students.
ents. Not all organizations will be able to provide jobs for the parents
“I do not believe in child labor, and neither does my organiza-
of their students, and not even PCF is able to provide jobs for all of
tion,” Walker said. In fact, a quick visit to the PCF website showed
the parents. Thus, while this method is not easily replicable, it nev-
a very prominent display of the statement “END CHILD LABOR” on
ertheless fills a significant educational gap in Tondo’s trash-picker
the front page. This paradigm represents the driving motivation for
community.
Educating “non-existent” children by Taufik Indrakesuma & Johannes Loh
Consortium to start up a number of schools in the district (see box "Urban Poor Consortium"). These are not insignificant numbers of children, and population growth is sure to exacerbate the problem. As more poor people move into cities and slums continue to grow, the reliance on NGOs to provide schools for slums becomes unsustainable, due to limited funding and insufficient scale. Policy makers must find solutions that work in the long term. One of the favored solutions of government officials that the team has spoken to is slum relocation, which moves the
Urban Poor Consortium
households to public housing estates that are
informal classrooms that teach alternative curriculums. UPC believes that there is not much merit to teaching the conventional
closer to public schools. However, as the team
Penjaringan district in North Jakarta
Indonesian curriculum, as the students are
has argued several times in past bulletins, slum
is home to one of the largest and poor-
unlikely to continue to formal education.
relocation is not only problematic in execution
est slums in Jakarta. In this otherwise
Instead, the curriculum taught is focused
but also unpopular.
service-deprived slum, there are over ten
on
creativity,
entrepreneurship,
and
One policy alternative is for governments
small schools where poor children can
practical skills that can be used to earn a
to, without the end goal of relocation, con-
experience an education for free. These
decent income.
duct proper information gathering of slums,
schools were founded by the Urban Poor
Our UPC source informed us that the
e.g. with a census or special surveys. If govern-
Consortium (UPC), a Jakarta-based pro-
success of the schools attracted the atten-
ments have better information about the popu-
poor NGO that specializes in advocacy but
tion of the city government, convinc-
lation, including the number of school age chil-
also dabbles in service provision.
ing the government to approach UPC
dren residing in the slums, the government can
According to UPC, public facilities in
and offer a takeover of the schools and
then build enough schools and provide enough
Penjaringan, including public schools, are
a conversion to the formal public educa-
funding to subsidize school fees in the neigh-
very rare because it is not a formal resi-
tion curriculum. This would be the ideal
borhoods. This circumvents the need to relocate
dential area. Most of the dwellings in the
transition for a small NGO-run school:
and formalize the residency status of the comresidency status. This means that millions of
that are willing to take in children from “illegal”
area are built on top of reclaimed marsh-
the government, with more resources at
As mentioned in a previous section, most of
munities. However, the biggest drawback to this
poor people who moved to the city in search of
households.
land, making it extremely flood-prone and
its disposal, would be better able to sus-
Southeast Asia already has some sort of edu-
system is the high mobility and turnover of slum
a better living are forced to live without formal
In the field, the ATM team identified sev-
unsafe for habitation. The services that do
tain the school in the long run. However,
cation subsidy for poor households. Indonesia,
communities. Most NGOs that work in slums
residency status. They often do not have legal
eral schools that were founded specifically to
exist are poorly maintained, as there is not
UPC rejected the offer, citing its general
Philippines, and Thailand already have their
have mentioned that people move in and out
tenure over their places of residence in the city,
cater to slums because the city governments
much funding allocated to improving con-
distrust of the government and desire to
nationwide free education policies, while
constantly – the neighborhoods they serve can
making it even more difficult to prove their eli-
did not have accurate data on the population
ditions in informal slums.
maintain its alternative curriculum. This is
countries like Laos and Vietnam have special
have completely different inhabitants from one
gibility for government services, such as educa-
and have not provided schools for the neigh-
One of the most pressing concerns of
quite clearly a missed opportunity due to
schemes in place for the poorest households.
year to the next. This makes it difficult to keep
tion subsidies.
borhood. The West Bekasi dumpsite in Jakarta,
UPC was the complete lack of school facili-
a lack of willingness to compromise from
However, in the major cities of these countries,
track of the community’s children; slum reloca-
In some slums in major cities, the problem is
where Sekolah Kami (see box "Sekolah Kami")
ties for the hundreds of children living in
both sides. Governments should be more
there are still many children who cannot access
tion would encourage settling in one area for an
even worse. Because these slums are not built
operates, is home to over 100 households with
the area. Public schools are very far away
open to the alternative methods of NGOs,
these services, because they are not legal resi-
extended period of time, giving stability for the
on formal residential zones, the government
over 300 children. Over 1,000 children live in
from the slums, making it unfeasible for
while NGOs should be more willing to
dents of the city.
children’s schooling.
does not have an obligation to build schools
the dumpsite in Tondo, Manila, where PCF (see
children to attend. UPC decided to inter-
consider the longer term benefits of gov-
In many of these major cities, governments
Another option is to support the NGO-run
for the families in the slums. Thus, the children
box "Philippines Christian Foundation") runs its
vene by using volunteer teachers to start
ernment cooperation.
have been trying to curb migration levels by
schools with government funding. This allows
making it more difficult for people to gain
have to rely on schools run by charities or NGOs
school. Penjaringan district in Jakarta, where
NGOs to continue their operations and build on
14
15
their existing relationships with the communi-
to government schools which are seen as dis-
Consortium in Jakarta, such a deal could not
for tertiary education, will not be of much prac-
ties, while the government fulfills its responsibil-
tant and bureaucratic. However, this requires a
be struck. If the NGO-run school is designed
tical use or in many cases exceed the children’s
ity by supporting the organizations financially.
willingness, on the part of the NGOs, to coop-
to follow standard curriculum from the begin-
existing knowledge base.
This may be effective because NGO schools are
erate with the government and, on the part
ning, the obstacles for government cooperation
generally well received because they ensure
of the government, to allow the NGO schools
would be lower. ATM
parental and community support through dia-
to continue their operations, customized cur-
relevant to children from extremely poor back-
logues and direct involvement, as opposed
riculums and all. In the case of the Urban Poor
grounds. The team visited several NGO schools
On the other hand, there is the choice of creating a customized curriculum that is more
that chose this model. Sekolah Kami in Jakarta teaches a curriculum full of practical skills, like soap-making and sewing. The KOTO organization in Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City (read ATM #18 on Hanoi’s Poor) takes unschooled street children and trains them in hospitality and culinary skills. This model works better in the short run, as attending school gives immediate payoffs in terms of increased income potential. Children who are taught practical skills or trained in a
The team interviews students about their education and their future aspirations.
The curriculum conundrum by Taufik Indrakesuma & Johannes Loh
The ATM team observed that the many NGO
adopted the national public school curricu-
acknowledge the unique circumstances of
schools took very different approaches with
lum, such as PCF’s school in Manila. In addi-
children from poor households. The equality
regards to curriculums. Some NGOs chose to
tion, all public schools in poor neighborhoods
of opportunity approach does not take into
adopt the formal education curriculum in order
also still follow the formal curriculum. This mea-
account the lower likelihood that such children
to allow their students to take standardized
sure is one that favors equality of opportunities,
will continue their formal education beyond
examinations and remain within the formal
because it treats poor children the same way it
primary or secondary school. Although teach-
education system. Other NGOs chose “alterna-
would treat other children. Poor children who
ing them the formal curriculum theoretically
tive” paths with fully-customized curriculums
are taught the national curriculum will be able
gives them the opportunity to continue to high
that are tailored to the likely needs of children
to take national examinations and will be able to
school or university, it rarely actually happens.
from poorer families. There were also some
continue down the formal education path. If the
Often, the cost barriers of continuing education
who adopted a “hybrid” model that included
children can make it through the formal educa-
to that level (both actual school fees and oppor-
elements of the formal curriculum while pro-
tion path, it equips them better for decent jobs
tunity costs) are insurmountable, which leads
viding additional lessons outside the formal
and gives them more opportunities to lift their
children to opt out and start working instead. In
curriculum.
families out of poverty.
this case, the formal curriculum, full of theoreti-
However, some schools that we saw also
However, this is a method that does not
cal knowledge and tailored to prepare students
Teaching practical skills can give significant income boosts to poor households.
16
17
particular vocation are able to use their new knowhow to earn a living. This makes them an asset to their families because it boosts their family’s income. So, it can be said that the knowledge of soap-making or craftsmanship is much more valuable in the short run than the potential to attend university somewhere down the line. However, this model also puts the children into a long-term disadvantage. Focusing lessons on making handicrafts means that the children are pigeon-holed into that way of life in the future. Not having the potential to continue to higher levels of education means that the income potential of these youngsters can-
Ekphattana Microfinance Institute
not get much larger than whatever amount they
that its clients are not only lenders, but also savers. “The problem
can make from their practical skills. This may be
with the Lao people is that saving is not really part of the culture,”
enough to support their parents’ incomes while
said Chantha Mingboupha, Deputy Director of EMI. The ATM survey Some additions to school curriculum can be neither academic nor
findings supported these claims, with 53% of respondents citing that
vocational, but rather life skills that would be useful in the long run.
they do not save regularly.
For example, in the field of microfinance, one of the biggest chal-
The education program entails weekly visits to the school to give
lenges that microfinance providers face is the unreliable behavior
lessons about the importance of savings, as well as a mandatory daily
of their clients. Households in poor communities are unlikely to be
savings of 1000 kip (US$ 12.5 cents) per student per day. Students are
financially literate, let alone financially responsible. Thus, one micro-
shown the potential amount of money that can be saved over the
finance organization in Vientiane decided to nip the problem in the
course of the year as a way to build motivation and discipline.
bud and teach financial literacy to children.
they are young, but may not be enough to raise their own families in better conditions. This method, then, needs to be complemented with adult learning programs that can fill the gaps and provide different skills later on in life. There are some other organizations that focus on neither the public school curriculum nor practical skills. For example, a Manila-
The pilot program for EMI’s financial training for children was
Ekphattana Microfinance Institute is the first and largest microfi-
launched in Sokpaluang Primary School in Vientiane. Because it was
nance provider in Lao PDR. It is also one that puts much emphasis on
a pilot program, the organization could not take the risk of starting
financial education of poor communities. It runs several financial lit-
in a “poor” school. However, Mingboupha said that the education
eracy training programs every month for both potential and current
program, if successful, could be spread to more schools, including
clients. Because the organization is looking to become a 100% sav-
ones with primarily poor students.
based organization called Childhope Asia runs “open classrooms” where social workers go to poor neighborhoods and teach the local street children. Although they teach reading, writing, and basic arithmetic, they focus their sessions on teaching values and social norms, building
ings-based MFI and wants to continue its expansion, it is important
self-esteem, and providing psychosocial counseling. In this case, Childhope Asia’s knowledge of the local conditions (the families of these street children do not provide a real support network, often involving abusive adults) gives their method an advantage because it caters to the most pressing needs of the children. It is not designed to replace formal school. In this case, teaching values and building self-esteem may actually ease the transition into a formal eduA teacher in Jakarta explains the merits of teaching children about gardening.
cation setting, making the students more comfortable with daily social interactions of formal schools. ATM
18
With proper interventions, these children can be guaranteed a better future.
19
20
Principal Investigators
Research Associates
Phua Kai Hong is a tenured professor at the LKY School
Johannes Loh is working as a Research Associate at the
of Public Policy and formerly held a joint appointment as
Lee Kuan Yew School of Public Policy. He holds a Master’s
Associate Professor and Head, Health Services Research
degree in Public Policy from the Hertie School of Public
Unit in the Faculty of Medicine. He is frequently con-
Policy in Berlin, and a Bachelor of Arts in Integrated
sulted by governments within the region and interna-
Social Science from Jacobs University Bremen. His previ-
tional organisations, including the Red Cross, UNESCAP,
ous research experience includes aid governance, visual
WHO and World Bank. He has lectured and published
political communication and public sector reform in
widely on policy issues of population aging, health-
developing countries. Prior to joining the Lee Kuan Yew
care management and comparative health systems in
School of Public Policy he has also worked for the United
the emerging economies of Asia. He is the current Chair of the Asia-Pacific Health
Nations Environment Programme in Geneva, Transparency International Nepal, and
Economics Network (APHEN), founder member of the Asian Health Systems Reform
the Centre on Asia and Globalisation in Singapore. His email is johannes.loh@nus.
Network (DRAGONET), Editorial Advisory Board Member of Research in Healthcare
edu.sg and you can follow his updates on trends in pro-poor policies in the region on
Financial Management and an Associate Editor of the Singapore Economic Review.
Twitter @AsianTrendsMon.
His email address is spppkh@nus.edu.sg T S Gopi Rethinaraj joined the Lee Kuan Yew School
Taufik Indrakesuma is a research associate at the Lee
of Public Policy as Assistant Professor in July 2005.
Kuan Yew School of Public Policy. He is a recent gradu-
He received his PhD in nuclear engineering from the
ate of the Master in Public Policy programme at the
University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. Before
Lee Kuan Yew School of Public Policy. He also holds a
coming to Singapore, he was involved in research and
Bachelor in Economics degree from the University of
teaching activities at the Programme in Arms Control,
Indonesia, specialising in environmental economics.
Disarmament and International Security, a multi-disciplin-
Taufik has previously worked as a Programme Manager
ary teaching and research programme at Illinois devoted
at the Association for Critical Thinking, an NGO dedicated
to military and non-military security policy issues. His
to proliferating critical thinking and human rights aware-
doctoral dissertation, “Modeling Global and Regional Energy Futures,” explored the
ness in the Indonesian education system. His research interests include behavioural
intersection between energy econometrics, climate policy and nuclear energy futures.
economics, energy policy, climate change mitigation and adaptation as well as urban
He also worked as a science reporter for the Mumbai edition of The Indian Express
development policy. His email is taufik.i@nus.edu.sg
from 1995 to 1999, and has written on science, technology, and security issues for various Indian and British publications. In 1999, he received a visiting fellowship from the Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, Chicago, for the investigative reporting on South Asian nuclear security. His current teaching and research interests include energy security, climate policy, energy technology assessment, nuclear fuel cycle policies and international security. He is completing a major research monograph "Historical Energy Statistics: Global, Regional, and National Trends since Industrialisation" to be published in Summer 2012. His email address is spptsgr@nus.edu.sg
The Lee Kuan Yew School of Public Policy is an autonomous, professional graduate school of the National University of Singapore. Its mission is to help educate and train the next generation of Asian policymakers and leaders, with the objective of raising the standards of governance throughout the region, improving the lives of its people and, in so doing, contribute to the transformation of Asia. For more details on the LKY School, please visit www.spp.nus.edu.sg