Vocational Training in the Informal Sector by Agence Française de Développement

Agence Française de Développement

Working Paper March 2006

Vocational Training in the Informal Sector Issue Paper

Richard Walther, ITG consultant (walther.richard@wanadoo.fr)

Département de la Recherche

Agence Française de Développement 5 rue Roland Barthes 75012 Paris - France Direction de la Stratégie www.afd.fr Département de la Recherche

Foreword This report is part of a study conducted by the Research Department of the Agence Française de Développement (AFD) on training

in seven African countries, which are, in alphabetical order, Angola, Benin, Cameroon, Ethiopia, Morocco, Senegal and South

Africa.

The Research Department defined the methodological and operational framework for the overall study and entrusted the

scientific and technical responsibility, as well as the writing up of all the country reports, to Richard Walther. The study also benefited

from input from the German Technical Co-operation Agency, GTZ, for the financing and conduct of the Ethiopia survey, and from

the Directorate General for International Co-operation and Development of the French Ministry of Foreign Affairs (DGCID) for the financing and conduct of the Angola survey. The AFD expresses sincere thanks to these two partners for making it possible

to widen the field of investigation to a selection of countries representative of the economic, social, cultural and linguistic diversity of Africa.

The field surveys have been written up in country reports, which have all been published in French and English. The Angola report

is also available in Portuguese. These reports can be downloaded from the AFD website (www.afd.fr, in the Our Publications

drop-down menu, select Working Papers).

Working Paper No. 15: Vocational Training in the Informal Sector – Issue Paper.

Working Paper No. 16: Vocational Training in the Informal Sector – Report on the Morocco Field Survey.

Working Paper No. 17: Vocational Training in the Informal Sector – Report on the Cameroon Field Survey. Working Paper No. 19: Vocational Training in the Informal Sector – Report on the Benin Field Survey.

Working Paper No. 21: Vocational Training in the Informal Sector – Report on the Senegal Field Survey.

Working Paper No. 30: Vocational Training in the Informal Sector – Report on the South Africa Field Survey. Working Paper No. 34: Vocational Training in the Informal Sector – Report on the Ethiopia Field Survey. Working Paper No. 35: Vocational Training in the Informal Sector – Report on the Angola Field Survey.

The summary report, which provides a comparative analysis of all the country reports, is available in French and English in the

AFD Notes and Documents series (www.afd.fr, in the Our Publications drop-down menu, select Notes and Documents). It draws out some elements of analysis, conclusions and tentative proposals designed to help those involved in vocational training in the

informal sector, as well as national authorities and donors, to better target their action and investment in the training and skills development field towards a sector that dominates the economies of developing countries.

Disclaimer The analysis and conclusions in this document are those of the authors. They do not necessarily reflect the official position of the AFD or its partner institutions.

Table of contents

A preliminary question: what is the informal sector?

The ‘statistical’ definition of the informal sector

1.1.

The origins of the term

1.3.

The informal sector and the debate on the legitimacy and legality of activities The informal sector, or continuity of traditional activity

The major importance of the informal sector in developing countries

1.2.

1.4.

2.1.

The informal sector’s contribution to employment policies

The informal sector in relation to the formal sector: autonomy or a variable for adjustment purposes?

2.2.

The informal sector’s contribution to countries’ national wealth

The informal sector and vocational training

Knowledge and skills acquisition systems in the informal sector

2.3.

3.1.

Data on the education and training of informal sector workers

3.3.

The relationship between formal training and the informal sector

3.2.

3.4.

3.5.

Examples of innovative training schemes in the informal sector

15 16

The beginnings of a financial approach

The AFD study’s terms of reference

4.2.

Methodology of the study

4.1.

The goals of the study

1. A preliminary question: what is the informal sector?

1.1 The origins of the term The term ‘informal sector’ was first used in a 1971 study on

products. These entrepreneurs had limited access to schools,

urban employment in Ghana and was officially acknowledged

made limited use of electricity and pursued semi-permanent

employment in Kenya in the framework of the World

There was extensive debate about the suitability of this

in a report by the International Labour Organisation (ILO) on Employment

Programme.1

It was first defined in 1976 as follows: it is a sector “consisting

of enterprises that employed no more than ten persons, were

activities.”2

definition, notably as to whether or not informal sector units complied with administrative and tax regulations. The point

was to avoid confusing the informal sector with the

free from administrative and legal regulation, used family

underground or hidden economy. These debates also focused

of credit and produced final as opposed to intermediate

utility.

labour, employed flexible hours, made use of informal sources

on the description of the sector’s economic activity and social

1.2 The ‘statistical’ definition of the informal sector In January 1993, the ILO’s Fifteenth International Conference

on a continuous basis but may employ contributing family

statistics in the informal sector. The purpose was to facilitate

micro-enterprises, or “enterprises of informal employers.”

of Labour Statisticians adopted a resolution on employment statistical analysis in countries where the role played by

informal micro and small enterprises (MSEs) in terms of jobs

and contribution to GDP is sufficiently substantial as to

workers and/or casual workers;

These are household enterprises that employ one or

more workers on a continuous basis.

The conference furthermore provides its overall definition of

necessitate specific consideration of the sector in

the sector.

This working definition states that the informal sector is a

consisting of units engaged in the production of goods or

macroeconomic modelling and sectoral

policies.3

subset within the household sector in national accounts. It

“The informal sector may be broadly characterised as

services with the primary objective of generating employment

consists of a fraction of household-owned enterprises which

and incomes to the persons concerned. These units typically

in that they neither keep full sets of accounts nor constitute

between labour and capital as factors of production and on

are distinguished from corporations and quasi-corporations legal entities distinct from the households that own them.

Irrespective of the kind of workplace where the activities are

carried out, the extent of fixed capital assets used, the

duration of the enterprise, and its operation as a main or secondary activity, the informal sector covers unincorporated

enterprises responding to the following criteria:

household enterprises, or “informal own-account

enterprises”. Such enterprises do not employ workers

operate at a low level of organisation, with little or no division a small scale. Labour relations—where they exist—are based

mostly on casual employment, kinship or personal and social 1 Collège Coopératif Provence, Alpes, Méditerranée (1999), Les apprentissages en milieu urbain, Formation professionnelle dans le secteur informel en Afrique, Ministère des Affaires Etrangères, Paris.

2 Birks et al. (1994), Skills acquisition in micro-enterprises: evidence from West Africa, OECD, Paris. (Sethuraman, S.V., cited in the study by the French Ministry of Foreign Affairs).

3 Soulèyve KantéKanté, S S. (2002), Le secteur informel en Afrique subsaharienne francophone, Vers la pPromotion d’un travail décent, BITILO.

1. A preliminary question: what is the informal sector?

relations rather than contractual arrangements with formal

guarantees. Production units of the informal sector have the

intention of evading the payment of taxes or social security

contributions, or infringing labour or other legislations or

characteristic features of household enterprises. The fixed and

administrative provisions. Accordingly, the concept of informal

such but to their owners.

activities of the hidden or underground economy.”

other assets used do not belong to the production units as

“The units as such cannot engage in transactions or enter into

contracts with other units, nor incur liabilities, on their own

sector activities should be distinguished from the concept of

The INSEE/AFRISTAT survey,4 which is the latest survey

on the informal sector in the economic capitals of the seven

behalf. The owners have to raise the necessary finance at

countries of the West African Economic and Monetary Union

debts or obligations incurred in the production process.

International Conference of Labour Statisticians, but primarily

their own risk and are personally liable, without limit, for any

(WAEMU), uses the working definition given by the

Expenditure for production is often indistinguishable from

identifies the concept of an MSE on the basis of its actual

buildings or vehicles may be used indistinguishably for

informal sector is defined as being all production units without

household expenditure. Similarly, capital goods such as business and household purposes.

“Activities performed by production units of the informal sector are not necessarily performed with the deliberate

method of managing administration and accounts. “The

an administrative registration number and/or which do not

keep formal written sets of accounts (accounts permitting the

preparation of an operating account and a balance sheet).”

1.3 The informal sector and the debate on the legitimacy and legality of activities In the 1990s, the working approach developed by statisticians

During the same period, other studies focused on categories

sector and its position with regard to society. Thus, according

between the legitimacy and legality of activities.5 Legality

was coupled with analysis of the economic realities of the

of informality and legality, introducing interesting distinctions

to the study by the French Ministry of Foreign Affairs, two

places the sector’s actors in relation to administrative, fiscal

during this period:

an act in relation to the degree of support from society and,

economic approaches to the sector were developed in parallel

the first combined the informal sector with the notion of

marginality and poverty, consequently placing its activities

in a logic of survival;

the second, focusing its analysis on the nature of the activities developed, highlighted production and service activities or, in other words, the social function fulfilled

essentially by the crafts sector and small-scale commerce.

and social regulations. Legitimacy defines the social value of

in this case, explains why informal sector activities, because

of their acknowledged utility, are more than tolerated by the

authorities, even when they fail to comply with established

regulations. Thus, according to the INSEE/AFRISTAT survey,

while only 18% of informal production units (IPUs) are suitably

registered (for example, with the patent register, trade register

and social security), a mere 4 to 8% of IPUs have problems

with government officials.

1.4 The informal sector, or continuity of traditional activity In a paper written for the International Centre for Educational Studies (Centre international d’études pédagogiques, CIEP),

André Gauron, senior adviser at the French Court of Auditors

and former President of the High Committee on Education,

the Economy and Employment, reports on the approach developed by Christian Morrisson and Donald Mead,6 and

argues that the word ‘traditional’ is more appropriate than

‘informal’. “What characterises these activities is neither their

4 STATECO (2005), Méthodes statistiques et économiques pour le développement et la transition, nno.° 99. 5 Niang, A. (1996), Le secteur informel : une réalité à réexplorer : ses rapports avec les institutions et ses capacités développantes, Afrique et Développement.

6 Morrisson, Ch., Mead, D. (1996), “Pour une nouvelle définition du secteur informel”, Revue d’économie du développement.

1. A preliminary question: what is the informal sector?

exclusion from the market—craftworkers, for example,

impact of structural adjustment policies on the formal sector

without paying regard to any legal or fiscal regulations—

developing countries of the role of small, individual

produce goods to sell—nor the fact that they are performed which is rarely the case—but rather the absence of visible

demand, which makes it impossible to plan any further ahead

than a few months. Craftworkers or small enterprise owners

in developing countries, and to the increased awareness in

entrepreneurs as drivers of innovation and development in

economies in crisis or recession. It emphasises the notion of

economic/business units and defines the informal sector as

can only muster limited financial resources and consequently

an arena for micro-enterprise and small business or, in other

workers without a contract. If no local market emerges, it is

development that is specific to the economic organisation of

act to minimise fixed capital and salary costs and prefer to hire impossible to expand. So in most cases, exports offer the only

means of turning a traditional activity into a modern

one.”7

What emerges from this approach is that the specific nature

of the sector, aside from the fact that it operates almost

exclusively within local markets, is defined by the lack of

medium or long-term visibility for its activities: the development of activity can only be planned in the short term.

Another finding is that more often than not IPUs seem to comply with legal and tax regulations. This observation

words, a potential arena for economic growth and

developing countries. Some authors, while not denying the

sector’s traditional role, identified a scale of activities ranging

from basic survival to productive activities that could enter the

modern sector.8 Each of these categories can be broken

down further into more specific sub-categories according to

the type of entrepreneur, activity, surrounding environment

and growth potential:

income-generating activities exercised for survival purposes;

however goes against the facts because, as noted by the

micro-enterprises (or very small enterprises);

15% in industry and 17% in the trade sector) complied with

medium-sized enterprises (which could be in either the

INSEE/AFRISTAT survey, only 18% of IPUs (24% in services, one of the regulations in place. Furthermore, according to data

small enterprises;

informal or the formal sector).

in the same survey regarding the status of the sector’s

Other authors pursue the same logic in classifying the sector

contract and less than 3% receive a payslip. 9.1% of workers

activities according to their development potential: the

workforce, only 9% of dependent workers have a written job

are registered for social security purposes and 3.3% are

covered by company-paid social security contributions.

This ‘traditional activity’ approach is useful because it

by type of economic unit while simultaneously categorising

survival-based informal sector, the subsistence-based

informal sector, the development-based informal sector and

the transition-based informal sector.9

emphasises that the sector cannot be understood without

This whole approach suggests that analysis of the informal

continue to determine the way it operates, particularly

should be made according to the nature of the economic

and employment policy (the importance of family and

activities or rural activities), the level of technology required

considering its socio-economic and cultural origins, which

regarding sales practices (predominance of local markets)

neighbourhood networks as a recruiting ground for

sector should not be imprecise or broad, and that distinctions

players (cultural handicrafts, production or services, urban for production and services (types of tools and equipment

contributing workers and apprentices). However, it takes no

used) and lastly, to use the terms employed by the

products sold by IPUs come from abroad) or professional

developed by IPUs in order to renew themselves, grow and

account either of certain changes in IPUs’ markets (15% of organisations’ eagerness to move increasingly towards modes

of production and management similar to those used in the

INSEE/AFRISTAT statistical survey, the approaches make the transition towards the formal economy.

formal sector (cf. the management training courses that such organisations are developing in order to ensure that these activities survive longer than the short term).

Another approach, very different from the previous one, was also developed during the 1990s in response to the negative

7 There are nevertheless examples of traditional activities becoming modern ones simply as a result of internal demand: pasteurisation of dairy products or bakery using electric ovens.

8 Botzung, M., Le Bissonais, A. (1995), Dispositifs d’appui aux micro et petites entreprises en Afrique : une analyse critique, Etudes et Travaux, GRET. 9 Niang, A. (1996).

2. The major importance of the informal sector in developing countries

“Contrary to what has long been presumed, the informal

International Labour Organization (ILO)10 is based on

sector is not a passing phenomenon, nor is it marginal and

quantitative data and shows that not only does the informal

growing complexity within the economic, social and political

American and Asian economies, but it also plays an

particular,

wealth production.

destined to disappear in the medium term. Its size and landscape of developing countries in general, and Africa in are

unchallenged

and

increasingly

acknowledged reality.” This observation made by the

sector account for a significant share of the African, South

increasingly predominant role in job creation and national

2.1 The informal sector’s contribution to employment policies The ILO report on the promotion of decent work makes some

2001 and 2003, it accounted for 76.2% of jobs as opposed

interesting observations on the increased importance of the

to 14.2% for the private formal sector and 8.4% for the public

report, it shows that the sector experienced spectacular

In Latin America, according to the ILO, the proportion of

informal sector. Drawing on data from the 2001 World Bank growth between 1980 and 1990, increasing from an

sector (of which 1.8% are in public enterprises).

urban informal employment in relation to total urban

employment rate of two-thirds to three-quarters of the non-

employment increased from 52% in 1990 to 58% in 1997. This

Africa. It thus became a potential source of employment for

taken on by MSEs rather than entering self-employment or

agricultural, economically active population in Sub-Saharan

change was caused by a rise in the numbers of people being

92% of women and 71% of men outside the agricultural

domestic employment.

created in the informal sector. The STATECO study on the

informal workers accounts for between 45% and 85% of

sector. During the same period, over 90% of new jobs were seven major WAEMU cities shows that the size of the informal

sector in terms of employment has remained stable and

even slightly increased since the 1990s because, between

In Asia, according to the same sources, the proportion of

non-agricultural employment, and between 40% and 60% of urban employment.

2.2 The informal sector’s contribution to countries’ national wealth “As currently available information stands, the informal sector

accounts for a major proportion of the national economies of Sub-Saharan African countries: between a quarter and two-

thirds, depending on whether or not agriculture is included.

However, it is to be noted that this sector is still not a

considered as separate category in some countries’ national

accounts, although most conduct assessments which take it

into account implicitly. The methods used to do this are fairly

diverse and depend on the sources and data.”

This information given at the Bamako seminar on the informal

sector and economic policy in Sub-Saharan Africa in March

1997 has barely changed since. According to more recent

10 Maldonado, C. et al. (2004), Méthodes et instruments d’appui au secteur informel en Afrique francophone, BITILO.

2. The major importance of the informal sector in developing countries

estimates, the informal economy’s contribution to GDP is possibly between 25% and 50% in the eight WAEMU

countries (ILO data, 2002) and between 7% and 38% in the

provider in Sub-Saharan Africa, but that its contribution to national wealth is on the increase, often placing it in second

position after agriculture, but ahead of the modern sector.

14 countries of Sub-Saharan Africa. The figures vary

In Asia, according to the ILO, the sector’s contribution to

instruments used for gathering and analysing the data. It is

between 12% and 13% in Mexico.

depending on national methods of calculation and the

no less the case that the sector is not only the main job

GDP is possibly between 16% and 32%. It is possibly

2.3 The informal sector in relation to the formal sector: autonomy or a variable for adjustment purposes? Bearing all these data in mind, there is no doubt that the

informal sector is more than just a transition phase toward the

subcontractor to modern sector enterprises. Structural

adjustment programmes have obliged the latter to seek

formal economy, or a kind of waiting room before moving on

increased competitiveness and have more or less encouraged

In reality it offers a specific means of structuring developing

processes more flexible and reduce their costs. As an

to the modern side of development and employment policies.

countries’ economies, centred on the different roles MSEs

them to contract out to IPUs in order to make their production economic official from Burkina Faso noted, “It’s the formal

play and their ability to generate subsistence, income and

sector that creates the informal sector through its capacity to

However, the analysis would be incomplete if it did not take

production and service areas, which helps it increase its

growth adapted to the local and national markets.

into account a rarely noted and little-studied aspect, which is

the potential role the informal sector can play as a low-cost

contract out to other producers or street traders in both

profit margins.”

3. The informal sector and vocational training

Developing countries’ investments in vocational training go

promote continuing training and apprenticeship have taken

overwhelmingly to the technological and vocational education

stock of the challenge represented by the need to develop the

private formal sector jobs. As F. Fluitman writes, “it is far

and are starting to interact with existing education systems.

system, which is in turn focused primarily on public and

from clear, in many countries, why governments keep

investing their scarce resources in pre-employment training

for sectors that are not hiring, while people who have no

choice but to create their own employment, pay dearly to private providers that are not always up to the

task.”11

Past studies on the financing of vocational training in French-

speaking Africa show that certain training funds set up to

3.1

skills of young people and adults outside the formal sector,12

Nevertheless, training for young people in the informal sector

is mainly delivered through traditional apprenticeship systems,

which some funds are trying to align with the dual training

model. For adults, it is delivered through projects and

programmes implemented by training funds with support from local professional organisations and bilateral or multilateral donor agencies.

Data on the education and training of informal sector workers

The statistical results of the STATECO survey clearly show

Only 11% of enterprise owners had received some basic

levels and the type of job they do. Accordingly, in the seven

other than apprenticeship, 39% had never been to school and

a direct relationship between young people’s educational major cities surveyed, public sector employees have spent an

average 11.3 years in education in comparison to 8.2 years

vocational training, only 7% had access to continuing training 17% had never completed their primary education.

It then gives some significant data on apprentices’ career

for private sector employees and only 3.5 years for informal

paths. While emphasising that their educational level is on

official sense of the term). These results clearly bear out

young school leavers, even those coming from secondary

sector workers (of whom only 17.9% are employees in the

that the function of the education system in Sub-Saharan

countries is more to select for employment (the higher people

are in the educational hierarchy, the greater their chance of

accessing a public sector job) than to prepare for employment (informal sector jobs are primarily characterised by lack of schooling).

the increase in comparison to their bosses, it shows that school, have to undertake apprenticeship and gain work experience if they want to succeed in the informal sector,

especially if they later want to have their own business. It

draws two conclusions that the AFD study must take into account when considering training in the informal sector:

A study carried out ten years earlier on behalf of the OECD13

gives, despite its datedness, a very detailed insight into the

links that exist between basic education and apprenticeship

in the informal sector.

It firstly revealed that very few enterprise owners had previously been to a technical or vocational training college.

11 Fluitman, F. (2002), “Working, but not well :”, notes on the nature and extent of employment problems in Sub-Saharan Africa, Turin, 2002. 12 Walther, R., Gauron, A. (2006), Les mécanismes de financement de la formation professionnelle, Les résultats de l’enquête terrain dans cinq pays d’Afrique, MAE (to be published). 13 Birks,, S., Fluitman, ,F.,, et al. (2004), Skills acquisition in micro-enterprises: Evidence from West Africa, OECD-World Bank-ILO.

3. The informal sector and vocational training

a high level of education followed immediately by a period

of apprenticeship shortens the time young people take to

become their own boss;

apprenticeship is the most frequent type of training for jobs and entrepreneurship, irrespective of educational level, as

this alone can give them the professional and behavioural skills required for a career in the informal sector.

Basic education and vocational training in MSEs should

therefore be combined and not opposed to one another.

3.2 Knowledge and skills acquisition systems in the informal sector 3.2.1 In the youth training field

methods and cycles. The central role played by

This mainly concerns traditional apprenticeship schemes for

integration and its capacity to evolve into a more structured

young school leavers implemented in crafts workshops and MSEs. These still account for the large majority of training

schemes in most Sub-Saharan countries and entail on-the-

job training, which consists in acquiring, in the workplace, the

basic techniques required in order to exercise a trade. The

apprenticeship as a vehicle for professional and social

form of training argue in favour of apprenticeship being

supported and improved with help from the relevant

authorities, without their needing to incorporate it into the regulations of the formal system.

various past analyses on types of apprenticeship practised

3.2.2 In the field of continuing training for adults

work output is more important that training aspects, and the

There is no formal system at this level and self-training is still

level) show that young people hired under such schemes

especially in services. However, in Sub-Saharan Africa,

the master craftsmen’s inadequate skills and their inability

training schemes targeted at members of craftsmen’s, traders’

(Sahelian apprenticeship with no fixed duration, in which coastal sort, with a set term, a written contract and validated

come up against two major difficulties:

to present the theory underlying certain concepts and techniques;

the most common form of training for workers in the sector,

certain training funds have started to develop continuing and farmers’ professional associations. The ILO has developed training aids and content to help strengthen the

the lack of structured learning sequences in the

managerial and organisational skills of production and service

distinct phases for acquiring behavioural skills, learning

helped to craft monitoring and research tools, as well as

apprenticeship process, although this does however entail

how to use tools and finally participating in all of the

master craftsman’s tasks.

These deficiencies do not prevent traditional apprenticeship

unit managers. The French development authorities have

expert groups to help analyse the skills development needs

of the different economic actors. However, such activities

are still too marginal and cannot therefore offer an effective

from being a key element in young people’s skills

alternative to the absence of training for adults employed in

technical assistance, notably from German development

this field, as it has developed training aids and methods

development. In countries that have set up training funds, agencies, has recently helped to bring traditional

apprenticeship systems in line with dual apprenticeship

the informal sector. South Africa offers a unique example in specifically adapted to the informal sector under its National

Skills Development Strategy.

3. The informal sector and vocational training

3.3 The relationship between formal training and the informal sector There is no real initial vocational training system in Sub-

controlled by white people, and continuing vocational training

Saharan Africa, although there are technical and vocational

and apprenticeship, which aimed to help black people enter

sector jobs and on acquiring general knowledge and skills far-

and skills development in the workplace in the secondary and

characterised by “inefficient and obsolete infrastructure;

its determination to use its national and sectoral training

education and training (TVET) systems that focus on formal

removed from the labour market realities. TVET is often

ineffective and poorly motivated teachers; training courses mainly focused on acquiring qualifications, while students are

forced to enter the informal sector due to the lack of potential jobs or any recognition by companies; a lack of financial

autonomy for colleges; and a total absence of continuing vocational

training.”14

The situation is nevertheless changing, because countries have realised that training provision is ill-suited to the needs

of the economy. They are changing mainly due to pressure

from training funds, which are jointly managed by the public

the labour market. The country is now introducing dual training

higher education systems. However, the country is unique in funds to introduce real training schemes for informal sector entrepreneurs, notably black farmers who are setting themselves up in business further to land reform.

These examples, which illustrate how the training needs of young uneducated people and adults working in the crafts and farming sectors are met, are just signs that things are beginning to change in the informal sector. They will be worth examining in the study to determine whether these changes

simply reflect the need to adapt existing systems or whether they really take the informal sector’s economic and

authorities, social partners and professional organisations,

organisational particularities into account. They should above

to the demand of informal production and service units.

financial resources in the countries concerned in order to take

and have consequently introduced training initiatives adapted For example, Mali wants to develop skills and apprenticeship training in addition to TVET by 2015. This will concern the

lower levels of qualification and above all give 60% of

uneducated young people leaving basic education some

vocational training to help ensure they enter the labour market.

all be viewed in light of the need to refocus policies and into consideration a sector without which there would be no employment for the vast majority of the population, no

effective fight against poverty, or even no economic

development, which cannot depend solely on stimulating formal business activity.

Between 2002 and 2005, Benin, with support from the

German, French and Swiss development authorities and in

partnership with the National Federation of Craftworkers

(Fédération nationale des artisans du Bénin, FENAB), has developed a comprehensive regulatory framework governing

dual apprenticeship and introducing a final apprenticeship

diploma: the Vocational Skills Certificate (Certificat de

qualification professionnelle, CQP). In collaboration with

crafts associations for four construction and electricity trades,

a methodology has been developed and teachers and master craftsmen have been trained in order to introduce training

courses in various public colleges. At the end of 2005, two

cohorts of apprentices were being trained, and the first exam was due to be held in mid-December (for 300 apprentices).

Under the apartheid system in South Africa, there was a

total separation between the education system, which was

14 Gauron, A. (2006), Rapport sur le fonds de formation du Mali, MAE (unpublished)

3. The informal sector and vocational training

3.4 Examples of innovative training schemes in the informal sector Efforts undertaken to meet the informal sector’s skills

Focusing training activities on real economic and financial

have given rise to various pilot schemes and good practices

entrepreneurs for a small but real financial contribution

development needs, especially by sectoral training funds, concerning training for young people and adults. The study

will try to identify, describe and if possible analyse these in detail. Various training schemes run in the various countries

can be cited as examples, namely for:

results makes it possible to ask the craftworkers or

towards their training.

The involvement of professional organisations and/or local stakeholders in the preparation and monitoring of

training is undoubtedly a guarantee of success.

young uneducated people, to help them acquire a

Governments must allow the social partners and private

other countries) or to help them create their own enterprise

management, organisation and adaptation of training

vocational qualification (Benin, Mali, Burkina Faso and (Zimbabwe);

master craftsmen, to increase their skills levels and enable

sector to assume their full responsibility for the

provision and to play their rightful role in organising the

overall system.

them to train apprentices better (Benin, Mali, Burkina

It is important to introduce a system for accrediting skills

MSE owner/managers, to train them to manage their

although it is not always desirable for this accreditation to

Faso, Tanzania, Zambia and other countries);

activity better (South Africa, Burkina Faso and other

countries);

acquired by young people or adults from the sector,

espouse formal qualification/certification channels and methods.

farmers, to train them both at technical and managerial

Training must be devised in such a way as to promote

adults and young people, to help them set up their own

Certain projects have combined traditional apprenticeship

crafts organisations, to help them better analyse their

been possible when close partnerships have been forged

level (South Africa and other countries);

business (South Africa and other countries);

members’ skills and training needs (Benin, Mali, Burkina Faso and other countries).

Evaluations of current pilot schemes, whether these involve

projects run in southern Africa (GTZ study)15 or training funds

participants’ functional literacy, if necessary.

and technical training courses, although this has only between the public authorities and sectors concerned, and

when training has been designed to meet the informal

sector’s particular labour market needs.

in Sub-Saharan Africa, give a preliminary indication of their

relevance with regard to objectives set and groups trained.

Training interventions for MSEs motivate and succeed if they primarily aim to bring about an improvement in socioeconomic circumstances (profit, employment) and notably

alleviate poverty, rather than simply achieve educational objectives.

A training intervention should not be an isolated act, but be placed in the broader framework of co-ordinated

intervention by the different stakeholders concerned.

It is desirable to incorporate the training activity within a range of services (access to innovative techniques,

financial services, etc.) that can contribute to the quantitative and qualitative development of the sector.

15 GTZ (2004), Projects/Programmes aimed at Economic Improvement and Poverty Alleviation through non-formal training in Sub-Saharan Africa.

2. The country’s economic and social challenges

3.5 The beginnings of a financial approach To date, no estimations have been made of either the real cost

South Africa has some detailed financial data on various

cost/benefit ratio of this form of acquiring knowledge and

by the National Skills Fund (NSF) and at sectoral level by

of traditional apprenticeship or, most importantly, the

skills. It would be complicated to do so, as this would firstly

schemes run in the informal sector, both at national level

the Sectoral Education and Training Authorities (SETAs).

require classifying apprentices according to their mode of

It is possible to work out the unit training costs per

It would then be necessary to relate the value of this

thus evaluate the amounts spent compared to the

apprentices cost master craftsmen and the return they give

The major observation that can be made concerning the

However, some existing data do give a preliminary insight into

on very different financial sources from those used by the

payment (salaries, daily wages, profit-related, in kind, etc.). remuneration to an evaluation of the ratio between what in terms of production and services.

the financial realities of training in the informal sector.

beneficiary from the formal and informal sectors, and

objectives set (per master craftsman).

financial approach to informal sector training is that it draws

technical and initial vocational education systems. In fact,

The ISTARN-TAP project run in Zimbabwe in partnership

these sources are mainly private. They are mostly funded by

has undertaken a cost-benefit evaluation of its operation

payroll costs. Depending on the county concerned, such

formal training), it had achieved results that would normally

partially or totally distributed to formal funds in the form of

Training funds in Sub-Saharan Africa provide some

allocations does not alter the fact that the training is financed

with the German Technical Co-operation Agency, GTZ, and concluded that, within one year (apprenticeship and have taken three years.

important data in this field. For example, the Vocational

Training and Apprenticeship Fund (Fonds d’appui à la formation professionnelle et à l’apprentissage, FAFPA) in Mali has a unit training cost for informal sector

beneficiaries that represents a third of the unit training cost for employees in modern enterprises. Although these

data have not been calculated for identical periods of

vocational training levies on formal sector companies’ overall

levies, usually collected by government tax authorities, are

direct grants or budget allocations. This use of public budget by levies and thus by private funding sources.

It is a fact that the financial approach to training in the informal

sector cannot be developed using the same assumptions as those of the public education system, because neither the main funding sources nor the sources of co-financing are the

same.

time or training content, and the cost differences are

mainly due to the more individual nature of training in the

formal sector, they nevertheless show that schemes for apprentices and craftworkers are significantly cheaper

than those for employees. The Continuing Vocational

Training and Apprenticeship Development Fund (Fonds de développement de la formation professionnelle continue et de l’apprentissage du Benin, FODEFCA) in

Benin does not give a comparison of unit training costs between beneficiaries, but it does give specific data on the

financial profitability (impact on income) of training

schemes run for 100 enterprise owners and 500 apprentices in the field of motorcycle repair and hairdressing.

2. The country’s economic and social challenges

Training actions

Traditional apprentices

Main source of finance

Craftworkers

Dual system apprentices

Training levies through training funds

Craftworkers, owners/entrepreneurs

Training levies through training funds

Young uneducated people, un- or poorly-trained adults Training levies through national and sectoral funds (South Africa)

Source of co-finance

Apprentices’ families

Apprentices’ families Donor agencies The state budget if dual apprenticeship is introduced within TVET (the case in Benin) The craftworker him/herself through compulsory co-payment Donor agencies when they contribute to the co-payment Enterprises when training is alternated between college and the workplace (dual training)

4. The AFD study’s terms of reference

The study, to be conducted in 2006 by AFD’s Research

Department, set all its theoretical and practical assumptions

within the above-defined context. It will be carried out

through field studies in the seven pre-selected countries

(Angola, Benin, Cameroon, Ethiopia, Morocco, Senegal and South Africa).

4.1 The goals of the study The AFD, with support from the international network of experts, GEFOP, proposes to conduct an in-depth study on the conditions and forms of investment in training in the

informal sector. The study should achieve the following

objectives.

First objective: to provide updated information on

the how existing training systems meet the informal sector’s skills training needs.

economic and social needs and the context in which they have been expressed.

Second objective: to identify existing actions or schemes for acquiring knowledge and skills in the informal sector

While TVET in all countries is a fully-fledged part of the education system and duly desired and financed by the

public authorities, some more or less structured ways of

While existing studies provide information and analyses on

acquiring knowledge and skills exist outside the system. This

tried to identify precisely the extent to which current systems

self-apprenticeship. Often considered as traditional,

the objectives of TVET and how it is organised, they have not have either ignored or taken account of the needs expressed

by MSEs. There is therefore no way of verifying whether

is mainly through on-the-job apprenticeship in MSEs and apprenticeship is mainly used in technical trades. Self-training

is almost the only way to acquire a minimum set of

training strategies for the informal sector can be implemented

occupational skills in the services sector.

or whether efforts to tailor training provision to economic

apprenticeship and the types and levels of skills it can provide.

by developing existing training organisations and schemes,

and social needs outside the formal sector require a relatively

comprehensive reorganisation of existing systems.

The study should identify the salient aspects of current

It should particularly examine apprenticeship’s capacity to shift away from a conservative context and create the conditions

This first objective will therefore mean describing in great

necessary for increased efficiency in informal sector

systems and the social and economic environment of the

established training/production system is changing in order

detail the relationship between established vocational training country studied, and identifying whether or not these systems have developed an appropriate response to the training

production and service units. It should thus examine how the to take account of the skills shortage among enterprise

owners and the need for more structured and more academic

needs of the entire working population and the whole range

training for apprentices. Lastly, it should check whether there

the ability of the various central, regional and local systems

by apprentices or their bosses and analyse the possible

of economic stakeholders. In particular, it will require analysing

to adapt their interventions and training provision to meet

are any tacit or formal means for recognising skills acquired impact such recognition has on the way they act.

4. The AFD study’s terms of reference

The study should also analyse the means used for passing

of the stakeholders responsible and possibly benefiting

where apprenticeships do not exist. It should specifically

impact: co-ordination and evaluation, results and impact

organisations and the way they act, or could act, as a driving

lessons to learn: replicable good practice, principles

Third objective: to analyse existing innovative

Fourth objective: to determine the optimal

informal economy and move from a logic of

provision to the needs of the informal sector

on professional conduct and knowledge in informal activities

identify the role played at this level by existing professional force to transform the current situation.

training initiatives designed to stimulate the survival to a logic of growth and development. The GTZ study on informal sector training

projects16

gives a

preliminary insight into intervention opportunities in this area and provides a conceptual framework for presenting and analysing

from the action;

achieved with regard to established indicators;

raised, innovative aspects that could be exploited.

conditions for adapting public and private training

Achievement of the first three objectives should provide

greater insight into the different features and priorities of existing TVET systems. This should also clarify how knowledge and skills are really acquired through existing

past and present experiences. It notably stresses that the

forms of apprenticeship and self-learning and help to identify

to attain educational objectives but, more importantly, to improve

of efforts in pilot schemes focused on training those in the

primary goal of training interventions for MSEs should not be

socio-economic circumstances and particularly alleviate poverty. It also provides some very interesting insights into the way

training interventions can be placed in a more global framework

the dynamic factors that facilitate change and redeployment informal sector.

The study will take established observations as a starting point

in order to analyse the conditions needed to change existing

of interventions co-ordinated by the various stakeholders, and

situations and to provide support tools for stakeholders on the

package of services designed to contribute to the sector’s

managers who want to intervene in the informal economy in

into the desirability of including training activities in an overall

ground, and for vocational training project and programme

quantitative and qualitative development.

a structured and efficient manner. It will open up areas for

economy and its importance in the economies of the seven

access tools for identifying existing skills in informal trades

The STATECO study highlights different trends in the informal

major cities analysed. However, it makes a statement which requires

analysis

and

verification:

informal

sector

further consideration enabling them to:

and, if necessary, to develop strategies for recognising and upgrading skills;

entrepreneurs rarely mention the need for support

promote optimal synergy between training actions in the

etc.) and only 7% of them say that they have encountered

encourage innovative and efficient training schemes for

programmes (technical training, training in management, difficulties in finding skilled labour.

The work to be carried out will take account of the above-

formal and informal sectors;

young people and adults in the informal sector, in co-

ordination with all of the stakeholders concerned;

mentioned analysis, whilst at the same time emphasising the

bring all existing measures together into a coherent

sector’s knowledge and skills levels in the selected countries.

legislative framework, thus combining all of their micro,

description of current practices for improving the informal Drawing on the methodology developed by GTZ, the following elements should be underlined:

the context: identification of the issue, current and possible stakeholders, concepts and assumptions underlying the action;

the process: description of the intervention, milestones and critical points, obstacles and facilitating factors, role

organisational, institutional and (if necessary) legal and meso and macro effects;

introduce financing instruments that establish a single process for defining objectives to be achieved, involving

stakeholders, co-ordinating training action management and evaluating the effectiveness and impact of results.

16 GTZ (2004), Projects/Programmes aimed at Economic Improvement and Poverty Alleviation through non-formal training in Sub-Sahara Africa.

4. The AFD study’s terms of reference

4.2 Methodology of the study The study will work on the basis of assumptions resulting from

the studies carried out in the sector. They may be defined as

follows:

Training interventions in the informal sector should be considered in context, in other words as one of a number

The major phases of the study, from analysis of each country’s

situation to completion of the overall report, may be described as follows:

A field survey of the main informal sector

of elements in a support framework designed to improve

stakeholders

and human circumstances. Bearing in mind the analysis

This will be carried out through week-long visits to each

IPUs in seven WAEMU cities, it is evident that skills and

interviewed during the visits:

economic as well as social, institutional, organisational carried out by STATECO on the current situation regarding

training support is only relevant for those who run IPUs if it is part of an action designed to facilitate their access to product and service markets. The study should

country concerned. The following people should be those responsible for national vocational training policy;

representatives of professional organisations practising traditional apprenticeship;

therefore describe any training support in the informal

representatives of organisations that have created and/or

efficiency;

representatives of social partners who are members of the

sector in terms of the optimal conditions for ensuring its The pre-requisite for ensuring the efficiency of informal

sector training is the active involvement of the different

implement new forms of informal sector training;

various advisory committees in the field of vocational training;

stakeholders concerned in all stages of the intervention.

informal sector training providers;

unalterable nature of such involvement both for defining

representatives of national and international donors

The studies mentioned in the introduction stress the the purpose and objectives of an action and for organising

groups of beneficiaries;

involved in financing training for the sector’s workers;

its different phases: identification of requirements, needs

country experts who have worked on the evaluation of

and evaluation of the efficiency and effectiveness of

To carry out the field survey in the best possible conditions,

analysis, training solution design, selection of providers results achieved;

It is impossible to separate the overall quality of provision in the informal sector from that of the type of financial

instrument used. The Europe/Africa comparability study

past or present training schemes.

the best people to interview must be identified prior to the visit

and, if possible, they must be provided with a list of questions some days beforehand.

of existing financing mechanisms in eight countries17

Country studies

chance of success if there is a good interrelationship and

Each field survey will be written up in a country report of about

resources

the informal sector’s situation in light of the country’s

clearly indicates that a training action has much more

match between the objectives set, stakeholders involved,

established.

deployed

and

financing

instruments

On the basis of these assumptions, the study will include

analyses of IPUs in seven African countries. They have been

selected for the diversity of their economic and social

circumstances and vocational training policies: Angola, Benin,

Cameroon, Ethiopia, Morocco, Senegal and South Africa.

thirty pages, which should broadly be structured as follows:

economic and social realities: priority sectors for

intervention, characteristics of jobs offered, contribution

to wealth creation in the country, interaction between the formal and informal sector, etc;

17 Walther, R., (2005), Financing Vocational Ttraining: a Europe-Africa Comparison, Notes and Documents, AFD.

4. The AFD study’s terms of reference

analysis of existing or potential links between the

how can the resulting observations and conclusions be

training: nature of existing relationships between training

vocational training that would help raise the sector’s level

established vocational training system and informal sector

establishments

and

occupational

organisations

representing the informal sector, whether any training

providers work in both sectors, attempts to develop

traditional apprenticeship using dual training or alternate

periods of college training and work placements,

relevance of continuing training provision to IPUs’ specific

needs, etc;

specific training interventions in the informal sector: identification of the most significant projects, their

objectives and content, stakeholders involved and target

groups, activities carried out and results obtained;

used to develop a structured approach to informal sector of skills and qualification?

A summary report on the situations and major trends regarding informal sector training in Africa

This will summarise the main points raised in the country

studies. It will notably respond to the main issues raised by

the study’s four objectives:

the need to overhaul existing formal training systems in order to take account of the informal sector’s skills and

training needs;

conditions for financing and running selected projects: the

the strengths and weaknesses of the ways stakeholders

established for both promoting and financing the actions,

dynamic and innovative practices identified and used to

public/private and national/international partnerships

planned/established success indicators and management tools, evaluations done and lessons learnt in terms of conditions needed for achieving effectiveness, for

in the informal sector acquire knowledge and skills;

help the informal sector become more skilled and move from a logic of survival to a logic of growth and

development;

establishing the action in the long term, and for replicating

the conditions required for the development of appropriate

methods for recognising and accrediting skills and

their circumstances and the need to recognise, enhance

the training activities elsewhere;

qualifications acquired by the beneficiaries of training

actions in the informal sector: has work experience been

identified or validated prior to the training, are the training actions part of an organised qualifications system, or are

they subject to any other type of accreditation or

validation?

the relationship between training, poverty alleviation and

training solutions tailored to the different target groups, and transform the informal sector;

the initial elements of an approach to the financial realities of informal sector training.

The conclusions of the summary report will focus on the

conditions and means of stimulating the informal sector through vocational training.

access to a decent job: how have the projects described and assessed helped the beneficiaries to get trained

while enabling them to make a living and increasing their chances of finding a more stable job?