AFD Evaluation
ExPost exPost
September 2014
Pastoral Water Development in Chad Evaluation of AFD Interventions over the last 20 years Saverio KRÄTLI, Marie MONIMART, Blamah JALLO, Jeremy SWIFT, Ced HESSE
Agence Française de Développement 5, rue Roland Barthes 75012 Paris < France www.afd.fr
n° 51
Saverio KRÄTLI, researcher and international consultant Marie MONIMART, researcher and international consultant Blamah JALLO, livestock engineer, Réseau Billital Maroobe Jeremy SWIFT, doctor in Economics Ced HESSE, geographer and principal researcher, IIED Coordination: Nicolas BRILLION, Evaluation and capitalisation Unit
Disclaimer The analyses and conclusions presented in this document are those of the authors. They do not necessarily reflect the official views of Agence Française de Développement or its partner institutions.
Publication Director: Anne PAUGAM Editorial Director: Laurent FONTAINE ISSN: 1962-9761 Copyright: 3rd quarter 2014 Photo: Abdellatif FIZZANI Layout: Eric THAUVIN
Pastoral Water Development in Chad
Acknowledgements
The IIED team would like to extend its warmest thanks to everyone in Chad, France and the UK who helped us with this fascinating and complex exercise. There are too many people to mention everyone by name here, so we will have to limit ourselves to those who bore the brunt of our repeated demands on their time and energy. We are especially grateful to: - Abdellatif FIZZANI, the principal contact in MDPPA, for (among other things) the superb photo on the cover of this report! - Ali DAOUD ADAM, Coordinator of the Almy Al Afia 2 project, for his determination and efficiency in arranging our trips around the region and organising the scenario planning workshops, which would not have been possible without his and Abdellatif FIZZANI’s invaluable assistance. - The entire Almy Al Afia team, which was responsible for the organisational and logistical aspects of this mission, with a special mention for our inspired and indefatigable translator Tahir Al Issel. - Khalil Hamid, the chief of the encampment where Au cœur de la transhumance was produced, for making such a long journey and spirited contribution to the scenario planning workshop in Mongo. - Jean Laurent and all the staff in the AFD office in N’Djamena. - The COPIL steering committee and its watchful chairman, André Marty. - Everyone from the different ministries, the Platform, projects, PTF, IRAM, ANTEA, CIRAD, various resource persons and, last but not least, all those in AFD who gave us their time, attention and documents. Regardless of whether they were still working in this sector, had retired or moved on to other fields and different lives, everyone we spoke to was united by their shared interest in the pastoralists of Chad.
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Pastoral Water Development in Chad
TABLE OF CONTENTS
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
5
INTRODUCTION 23 1. Context
29
1.1. Fundamental changes in knowledge about pastoralism between 1990 and 2013
29
1.2. History of AFD support for pastoralism in Chad: 20 years of projects
38
2. Findings and analysis: Looking back over the last 20 years
45
2.1. How sustainable is pastoral infrastructure?
45
2.2. Impacts on the complementarity of production systems and regional integration
61
2.3. Has the development of pastoral lands helped pastoral livestock rearing systems?
66
2.4. How best to support social dynamics?
76
2.5 The total economic value of pastoral livestock rearing
83
2.6. Influence on national and regional policies
86
2.7. Conclusions on the characteristics and limitations of the AFD approach
91
3. Strategic directions and recommendations
99
3.1. Main contextual factors
99
3.2. Arguments in favour of pastoralism
107
3.3. Proposed strategic directions
108
Abbreviations and acronyms
118
References
120
â&#x20AC;˘
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Map 1: Location of pastoral water projects in Chad funded by AFD
Governorate capital Political capital National boundary Governorate Projects ALMY BAHIM ALMY AL AFIA BORKOU 1-ENNEDI 2-TIBESTI KANEM EXTENSION AREA Irriba Bilia area
Source: Reproduced by R. ABEGA, May 2012.
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Executive summary
In 2012 the Evaluation Division of AFD’s Research Department
ii) field visits to N’Djamena, eastern Chad, central Chad and
decided to evaluate and follow up 20 years of AFD Group
Lake Fitri (17 February-10 March 2013); iii) preparing the
interventions in the pastoral water sector in Chad. This exercise,
summary and recommendations (March-May 2013).
which covered 11 projects implemented in three areas of Chad between 1993 and 2013, was driven by the need for a global
Due to the scope of the exercise, it was decided to conduct a
analysis that would help the agency build on 20 successive years
meta-evaluation based on previous evaluations and the huge
of support – going beyond previous evaluation exercises
amount of documentation relating to the 11 projects. Another
undertaken in 2004, 2010 and 2012. Its three objectives were to:
priority was to gather the viewpoints of different actors in France
i) evaluate the overall relevance and coherence of AFD Group
and Chad, including both stakeholders and non-stakeholders in
interventions; ii) assess the performance of pastoral water
these interventions. The analysis of the interventions took account
projects; iii) propose strategies for continuing the process (with
of changing pastoral paradigms over the past two decades and
significant changes) or gradually winding it down.
the three (societal, economic and ecological) pillars of pastoral systems. Local actors in Chad had the opportunity to express
IIED1 was appointed to conduct this exercise. It established an
their views at three scenario planning workshops, which showed
international, multi-disciplinary team2 which carried out the work
that water and mobility are universally regarded as the main
in three stages, maintaining regular contact with the steering
drivers of change.
committee throughout the seven-month process of i) structuring the evaluation procedure (November 2012-February 2013);
1
International Institute for Environment and Development.
2 Ced HESSE, Blamah JALLO, Saverio KRÄTLI, Marie MONIMART and Jeremy SWIFT.
Context
Pastoral development theories and the understanding of
pastoral rangelands should be understood as non-equilibrium
pastoral ecosystems have changed radically over the last 20
ecosystems, and that mobile strategies are a reasoned
years. The unpredictable variability of rangelands can be a
response to their unpredictable variability. What is a constraint
valuable resource for food production, and livestock mobility
for intensive agriculture can be an advantage for mobile
is now recognised as a crucial strategy in the specialised
livestock rearing. Therefore, it is important to support rather
exploitation of drylands. More recently, pastoral systems have
than oppose it. This formal challenge to the orthodox model
also been seen as a means of allowing human society to
of rangeland management (Behnke et al., 1993) came two
occupy arid and remote areas that are at risk of becoming
years before the start of the Almy Bahaïm project. It is now the
no-man’s lands. In the mid-1980s, researchers showed that
accepted paradigm, although the tools and methodologies
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(such as statistics and indicators) have not yet caught up with
even in countries where most agricultural GDP is derived from
this change, and need to be adjusted accordingly.
livestock production in arid areas. Most investment is focused
In unpredictable environments it is essential to be in the right place at the right time to ensure that livestock get the best
on modernisation options that serve the logic of globalised agricultural production systems. Such solutions may be effective in their own field, but they go against the logic of
quality fodder. Quantity is no substitute for quality; therefore, mobility aids production. Various African countries now recognise the value of mobility, and are gradually reviewing
specialised animal production in drylands – to work with environmental variability rather than against it – and cannot match the economic and ecological efficiency of pastoral
their policies on pastoralism accordingly.
systems. Different production logics require their own
The strengths of pastoral systems have been underestimated and undervalued. They are often considered to be of little economic importance and labelled as illogical, archaic and limited to subsistence – although theoretical changes over the last 20 years have led to a re-evaluation of their contribution to local and national economies. In most African countries with robust pastoral systems, they account for a significant proportion of GDP and represent exceptionally high returns
modernisation processes (Krätli and Schareika, 2010; Krätli et al., 2013a). In this general context, the objective of AFD’s first projects in Chad was to safeguard pastoral mobility. Projects like Almy Bahaïm were extremely innovative in the early 1990s, when Chad still followed the colonial policy of sedentarising and controlling mobile populations. Pastoral water was seen as a key instrument in sedentarisation, although many herders
on investment (African Union, 2010). They are also attracting
returned to transhumance as sedentary production proved
attention as examples of resilience to climate change. Part of
unsustainable.
the growing recognition of their economic value is associated with the management of rangelands as both ecological and
The first pastoral water project funded by AFD in northern
political spaces: so far the only systems that have proved
Chad in 1993 (Borkou-Ennedi-Tibesti, BET) was a water sector
capable of effectively managing the vast areas concerned are
project that not only aimed to provide water for herders in the
extensive pastoral economies. The real or perceived costs of
north, but also to make productive use of unexploited pastures
securing “ungoverned spaces” are generally astronomical
and install amenities along caravan routes.
(Ploch, 2011), as is tragically illustrated by the current situation
The Almy Bahaïm pastoral project in central Chad in 1994
in northern Mali.
marked the start of a new approach for AFD, with a focus on
Modernisation and pastoralism are generally regarded as
securing livestock mobility. Since then, AFD has provided
mutually exclusive, although this view is challenged by the
uninterrupted support for pastoralism in Chad in virtually every
relatively recent possibility of defining pastoralism in terms of
pastoral area (including BET projects), with an overall financial
its production strategies and way of exploiting the environment,
commitment of over EUR 60 million. Table 1 below summarises
rather than by simple subtraction. Agricultural modernisation
this support and its changing objectives over the last 20 years.
programmes still invest relatively little in pastoral systems,
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Table 1: AFD pastoral water projects in Chad, 1993-2013 Year
Location
1993 -1994 1995 -2000
BET
1995 -1998 1999 -2003 2003 -2004 2005 -2010 + 2000-2002
Tchad oriental
1999 -2003
Tchad occidental Kanem
Borkou, Ennedi, Tibesti
Ouadi Fira Ouadaï Sila, Salamat Est Batha + Irriba Bilia zone
Bahr el Ghazal
2004 -2007 2008 -2009 2010 -2014
Tchad central Batha Ouest Guera
Project
Rationale / Objectives
BET 1 BET 2
Improve the supply of good quality water in nomadic livestock rearing zones and along caravan routes Provide drinking water for herders Make productive use of unexploited pastures Install new permanent water points along caravan routes
Almy Bahaïm Phase I Phase II Phase III Irriba Bilia
Secure livestock rearing in eastern Chad
PHPK Kanem 1 + Kanem 2
Rehabilitate and construct wells to secure water supplies for livestock and herders
Almy Al Afia Phase I Phase intérimaire Phase II
Secure access to pastoral resources and their management
Improve access to water resources in order to secure herds, through combined efforts to: • Extend the pastoral water network • Secure the use of pastoral infrastructure Irriba Bilia i) complete the pastoral water network in Chad ii) support local people (Zaghawas) in order to reduce conflicts iii) test new structures (groundwater dams)
Ensure permanent access to water and resources Secure access to grazing Improve animal health
Facilitate access to groundwater with new wells Open up underused grazing through new water points, wells/ponds Secure existing water resources by rehabilitating old wells Safeguard livestock mobility by developing transhumance routes and creating intermediate water points (wells/ponds) Help secure pastoral use rights through: • Joint management of pastoral infrastructure • Joint management of common resources
Source: IIED 2013 evaluation.
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Rather than following the same standard procedures, these
have been no violent conflicts over the works funded within
projects were part of a continuous, flexible and innovative
this approach, although one issue that still needs to be resolved
process. AFD broke new ground and has been an inspiration
is the sustainability and funding of these structures and their
for all subsequent pastoral interventions in Chad. The main
management bodies. The projects were also technically
methodological change in the last 20 years has been the shift
innovative, sinking wells in very difficult areas, creating
from a sectoral approach in pastoral water development (in
strategically temporary pools, and combining the demarcation
BET projects) to using pastoral water as the entry point for a
of transhumance corridors with the creation of water points.
systemic approach to interventions aimed at supporting
In terms of human resources, the emphasis on continuity in both national and expatriate staff facilitated an exceptional
pastoral mobility. The emphasis has switched from water
process for learning, and building and developing expertise in
provision as the end goal to water provision as a means of
terms of pastoralism, especially among national actors.
safeguarding pastoral systems, governing pastoral spaces and achieving peace, and as a strategic decision to operate on a
AFD also started providing institutional support to the Ministry
scale that encompasses the main north-south transhumance
of Livestock in 2009. This culminated with the conference on
routes. The institutional setup has stayed the same, with the Ministry of Water responsible for project management, and the Ministry of Livestock and a team of expatriate operators
the sectoral policy for pastoralism in Chad in 2011, and the creation of a permanent platform composed of state and nonstate actors where actors from pastoral civil society are starting
assigned to implement two interrelated water and pastoral
to find their voice. Several series of national-level thematic
components. The projects have managed to reconcile their
studies have been undertaken, and a regional conference on
technical and social imperatives by prioritising social consensus
the theme “Pastoral livestock rearing: A sustainable contribution
and developing consultative methodologies and tools for
to pastoral development and security in Saharan-Sahelian
dialogue. They have always given precedence to customary
spaces” took place in late May 2013. Work is under way to
modes of management, and have established the principle of
identify a major project to support pastoral development, and
free pastoral water – unlike previous approaches where
a large-scale study on the Lake Fitri area has just been
structures were appropriated and people had to pay to use
completed. All this is evidence of the great vitality – and
water points. What is most striking is that in 20 years there
productivity – of AFD’s interventions in this domain in Chad.
Main findings of the evaluation Sustainability of pastoral infrastructure
and technical imperatives. The deliberately temporary ponds established along the livestock corridors have been hailed as
Over 1,100 pastoral water structures have been put in place
“the most useful contribution to herders’ daily lives”.
in the last 20 years. A large proportion of them are wells (76 per cent), most of which have been rehabilitated, and the rest are
No detailed assessment has been made of the condition of
ponds. These structures were installed in response to the high
these structures. Despite the technical innovations introduced
demand from herders, whose primary concern is being able to
by the projects, there seem to have been significant losses
access water as they move around. The decision to select the
among certain facilities – especially wells in Kanem, which were
installation sites in consultation with users represented a major
installed in very challenging areas. The sites in eastern and
methodological breakthrough in combining the projects’ social
central Chad have probably fared better (ERE, 2012).
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Although the technical choices have proved valid, some
systems (well managers). While these management systems
structures in areas with insufficient water points to meet the
have proved very effective in running the amenities peacefully
growing demand from both humans and livestock are suffering
(without violent conflict), the issue of investment finance and
from overuse. In addition to this, the quality of work has declined
the rehabilitation of pastoral water points in Chad has yet to be
while costs have risen sharply, more than doubling per linear
resolved – as has the question of how these management
metre. This trend started a good decade ago and has accelerated
bodies will be funded. The overall impact of the projects has
over the last few years. This has been ascribed to: i) declining
been positive, and action and work on pastoral water should
standards in national companies due to contracts being awarded
continue. However, these questions are a cause for concern
to the lowest bidder; ii) procedures and governance across the
and need to be viewed holistically as they cannot be resolved
procurement chain, which affect the entire chain and ultimately
by simply separating them into “hard” and “soft” issues or by
the quality of the works; iii) the fact that there are insufficient
changing procedures. What is needed are wide-ranging thought
installations to meet demand. Another issue that needs to be
processes involving multiple partners.
tackled is the level of local water resources and water tables – especially given that the most recent studies on water
Complementary production systems and regional integration
resources in Chad date back to the 1960s. This is not such a problem for ponds, although they cannot be routinely maintained
In environments that are characterised by unpredictable
by users (unlike wells), and there have been cases where they
variability, agriculture and livestock rearing can be integrated
have silted up or their shores become degraded. Questions
at a higher level than the family farm. Pastoral mobility en-
have also been raised about the quality of the water obtained from these installations (CIRAD, 2010). While transhumant
ables distinct and specialist groups of farmers and herders
herders are mainly concerned about being able to access water
to interact at the trans-regional level, which helps strengthen
along livestock corridors, its quality for domestic use is
the productivity, sustainability and resilience of both produc-
questionable, especially where ponds are concerned. However,
tion systems. It is worth noting that this added value for both
we should not forget that, strictly speaking, none of the water
production systems is specific to large-scale integration. The
from wells is potable. Continued efforts to seek new water
projects recognised the importance of operating on a large
extraction technologies and provide training on water hygiene
scale. However, their contribution to this critical level of inte-
are needed.
gration has been ambiguous, sometimes encouraging complementarity and interaction between crop farming and pastoral livestock keeping, and sometimes formalising separation.
In addition to installing water points, the projects also put in place discontinuous markers to demarcate the most threatened
Participants at the scenario planning workshops in the three
sections of transhumance corridors, developing very elaborate methodologies to build social consensus around these initiatives.
zones emphasised the importance of integrating local
The latest models in stone have proved the most durable.
agriculture and transhumant livestock rearing as a single system. Segregation is simply not an option for them:
The way that facilities are managed has a significant effect on
“Herders and farmers seek each other out” because they
their sustainability. These projects run counter to mainstream
need to live together. Nevertheless, the reality is that resting
systems for managing water installations, by opting to provide
areas and transhumance corridors everywhere are being
water free of charge and for amenities to be managed along
whittled away. This is not necessarily due to a lack of land
customary lines, either by existing bodies (like the joint committee
(as in peri-urban areas like the outskirts of Abéché), but more
in Abéché), bodies created with support (joint committees or
to the fact that pastoral use of the land increases its value in
conflict prevention committees) or other customary management
the eyes of farmers.
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Sedentary communities now own large numbers of livestock,
basis of rural development in Chad. In general terms, the
but most of them have to be kept on the move by transhumant
National Livestock Development Programme (PNDE)
herders. The macro system of crop-livestock integration
combines two visions: helping “secure pastoral systems”
within which these arrangements take place helps stimulate
through a mixed model of very small-scale family farming
trade and social exchanges, improve sustainable livestock
and sedentary or much less mobile livestock rearing; and
and soil productivity, and strengthen both systems in the face
investing in the kind of agro-industrial livestock rearing seen
of crises (resilience).
in Latin American countries, which is geared towards export and highly dependent on technological transfers. The most
AFD projects have been credited with supporting the
recent findings on pastoral production systems indicate that
complementarity between crop farming and pastoral systems,
there is a direct correlation between less mobile or smaller-
by committing to large-scale, long-term interventions.
scale livestock rearing and lower productivity and – above
However, their impact in this regard has at times been
all – reduced resilience (greater vulnerability to drought, for
ambiguous. While they have been careful to build local
example). In the case of Chad, where the large-scale
consensus and involve customary institutions in efforts to
integration of agriculture and livestock rearing has particularly
demarcate and secure transhumance corridors – in response
strong historical roots and economic relevance, this could be
to strong demand from both tribal chiefs and heads of canton
expected to have a negative impact on both agricultural and
– this process combined an aim of complementarity with tools
pastoral production systems. The interventions supported by
based on the logic of separation. These projects have
AFD have been highly pertinent efforts to secure mobile
succeeded in preventing conflicts (or at least violent conflicts
pastoral systems by working on a large scale with a view to
over the works), but have not halted the general erosion of
the future and modernisation.
pastoral resources. The current crisis in the joint committee
Developing pastoral areas and supporting pastoral livestock-rearing systems
in Abéché seems to suggest that peace has yet to take real root, and that their success may be based more on politics than on the economy or the strengthening and development
Water is the key entry point for developing pastoral areas. In
of common interests.
fact, it is the key to controlling land. Therefore, by using pastoral water as their entry point, these projects intervened
Support policies and cross-border issues also need to be
at the keystone of the whole macro system. The decision to
taken into account. These pastoral areas are too large and
keep the number of new wells in more northern areas to a
remote to be controlled by a sedentary population. This can only be achieved effectively by a dynamic and flourishing network of mobile pastoralists who are closely linked into the national economy and national institutions. A viable, extensive
minimum and invest more in temporary ponds (the innovative strategy in Almy Bahaïm) is consistent with support for pastoral mobility.
and prosperous pastoral economy that covers all these
As the key to developing pastoral areas, water should not be
regions but is closely integrated with the south would be the
seen as a commodity but as a de facto instrument of
first line of defence against the propagation of new forms of
governance, and treated accordingly. The projects addressed
insecurity. This kind of economy could provide economic and
these issues by focusing on the “heritage” aspect of the works
political stability, not just as a default activity, but as an
as common assets, and defending them against the “ownership”
effective and productive modern livelihood system capable
model promoted by other actors (mainly the World Bank),
of contributing to Chad’s development as a successful
sometimes just a few kilometres away. This “heritage” approach
modern state. There is still no clear long-term vision for multi-
is particularly interesting when the water points are designed
regional integrated agriculture and livestock rearing as the
for pastoral use (especially by transhumant herders) in
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territories under the jurisdiction of cantons and sedentary
of transhumance corridors. Paradoxically, demarcation
villages, and was very helpful in strengthening and consolidating
transforms well-established but constantly adapting itineraries
the spirit and logic of mobility based on secular relations of
of transhumance into fixed “roads”. While marking a limit to
solidarity and mutual aid.
the expansion of fields, demarcation also limits the “pastoral space”, it protects relatively modest areas of pastoral land
The large-scale vision of these interventions, coupled with
deemed to be particularly at risk, but at the price of formalising
the experience and knowledge of Chadian pastoral systems
the rest of the space as “non-pastoral”. Furthermore, the
acquired over the last 20 years, may be useful in addressing
deliberately discontinuous demarcation of the mourhâls3 covers
aspects of decentralisation policies (such as territorial division)
very few resting areas. The progressive loss of these key areas
that do not sit well with pastoralist land use strategies, which
is now a main concern for transhumant herders seeking to
assume that specific modes of management based on
safeguard their mobility. The lack of clarity in the law about the
intercommunality and the free circulation (non-taxation) of
legal status of the markers means that demarcation itself does
mobile livestock will be in place. In addition to this, building on
little to stop the loss of pastoral resources, despite customary
customary structures (mechanisms for managing water works,
rights. Mobility (a customary strategy) is both promoted and
preventing conflict and safeguarding mobility) also provides
discouraged, and the Abéché joint committee has been thrown
an opportunity to test a local approach to managing pastoral
into crisis by the continued obstruction or closure of corridors
mobility and promote effective mechanisms run by local actors.
by sedentary farmers using them to grow crops.
In terms of environmental impacts, the projects followed an
Along with general questions about pastoral land tenure and
“ecologically cautious” approach to limit the problems known
the effort invested in preparing a Pastoral Code, there is also
to be associated with pastoral water development programmes.
the issue of recognising pastoralism as a productive land use,
This resulted in some innovative and even brave technical
and the coherence of developments along the main routes.
choices, such as only using low-discharge structures to
For example, the wadis or rivers that travel from east to west
minimise the risk of overgrazing; designing water points that
impede north-south mobility, which is essential for livestock
can only be used on a temporary basis, to avoid sedentarisation
productivity. Nothing has yet been done to secure the crucial
in the surrounding areas; intervening in the south as well as
crossing of the river Batha, despite a study by Almy Al Afia
the north, by opening up unexploited pastures (via the creation
(AAA1) recommending the construction of a secure pastoral
of new water points) to facilitate a better distribution of the
passage to Koundjourou and specific funding from AFD for
pastoral herds spending the dry season there. Almy Bahaïm
this purpose.
and PHPK also put a lot of effort into ecological monitoring –
When considering the impact of water structures on peace
most notably with the study on the potential of rangelands,
and security, it is worth noting that while water, peace and
which involved a major mapping exercise. But despite the
physical security are closely inter-related, water is an
considerable resources invested in this aspect of their work,
ambiguous asset. Creating water points may reduce conflict,
neither project’s impact monitoring and evaluation system was
but may also increase it. AFD’s pastoral water projects in Chad
able to confirm or refute whether they helped regenerate plant
have greatly reduced the incidence and gravity of conflict and
cover or avoid its degradation.
are widely praised for their role in helping create political and
As well as working on pastoral water installations, the projects
institutional spaces to manage it. There have been no violent
also marked out at-risk sections along thousands of kilometres
conflicts (involving death or serious injury to humans) over the water points and markers installed by these projects. In this
3
A Chadian Arabic term for cattle corridors.
regard, the approach adopted over the last 20 years is
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universally acclaimed as a success by previous evaluations,
as the wider audience reached by the Platform’s website, the
diverse interviewees and subsequent developments. The core
book and film “Au Coeur de la transhumance”, everyone who
principle of providing water free of charge was pivotal in limiting
has read the studies... If these “beneficiaries” had to be
the risks of appropriation and exclusion associated with
counted, there would be tens or even hundreds of thousands
payment for water, and all the installations have been put to
of them, given the scale of the interventions. The projects have
priority pastoral use as intended. Nevertheless, it is important
been prudent and honest in not setting quantitative objectives
to be cautious on this point: “In the absence of sufficiently
for their expected beneficiaries, as counting “nomads” is
refined observatories of conflicts associated with pastoral
always a tricky business. Above and beyond the numbers
mobility and their evolution over time, it is difficult and
involved, they also seek to build on efforts that have generated
dangerous to make hard and fast judgements about whether
an unprecedented amount of knowledge about pastoral and
they have increased or diminished” (André Marty, April 2013).
rural societies in the three regions of Chad covered by the interventions. The book and eponymous film “Au Coeur de la
Questions about the impacts of these projects also need to
transhumance” (Marty et al., 2009) were produced as part of
take the size of their intervention area into consideration.
a rare and innovative procedure that involved two researchers
Having made a correlation between water installations and securing transhumance routes, they followed a dynamic
spending six months living in an encampment.
(odographic) approach to spatial planning, often operating on
While they undoubtedly affected huge numbers of different
a very large scale. While this decision was consistent with their
types of people, it is clear that the main beneficiaries of the
objectives, it raises the question of whether the considerable resources they were allocated were in fact adequate. The Almy Barhaïm projects covered over 200,000 km², leading some to
capacity building delivered by these projects were men, and among herders, predominantly mature or even elderly men. It was certainly appropriate and effective to prioritise working
argue that while they were strategically placed, the 120 wells, 160 pools and 7 micro-dams were still insufficient to meet demand. This issue will need to be addressed in future projects.
with this category of actor, given their knowledge and power in social and land matters, but it is regrettable that these interventions and the literature they have generated over the last 20 years are deafeningly silent about gender and generational issues. Women’s lack of visibility could ultimately jeopardise the whole process of support for pastoral mobility,
Support for social dynamics
as the strain of living under such harsh conditions may lead The “beneficiaries” or stakeholders of the 11 projects funded
them to push for sedentarisation.
by AFD over the last 20 years are extremely diverse and have been affected by activities at various levels. They include
Given that Chad has one of the highest demographic growth
mobile pastoralists and their families, sedentary agro-
rates in the world, it would also have been interesting to
pastoralists and farmers, local customary institutions and local
consider the links between urban and rural populations. The
administrative authorities, livestock traders and the private
population looks set to double over the next 20 years, and it
sector. On a broader level, there are all the actors involved in
is unlikely that all young pastoralists will be willing or able to
capacity building – in the ministries (MHUR and MDPPA), civil
stay in rural areas. The dynamics between “bushmen” and city
society (especially the Platform), senior staff in projects
dwellers are changing as new information and communication
supported by AFD and other donors, researchers and teachers
technologies (NICTs) narrow the gap between them, yet there
(LRVZ, universities, and so on). At the international level, we
are no studies or data to assess the impacts of AFD’s pastoral
have the community of experts and researchers involved in
water projects on social capital, professional structuring or
pastoral and rural development in sub-Saharan Africa, as well
gender and generational relations.
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Pastoral Water Development in Chad
Previous evaluations (CIRAD, 2010) have focused on the
and education services. Other technologies coming on stream
lack of inter-sectorality in the approaches adopted by AFD’s
include small motorised pumps that provide access to better
pastoral water projects (with the exception of PHPK Kanem),
quality water, satellite reconnaissance (hydrology, rangeland
arguing that they did not work on certain social components
resources, counting livestock) and Google Earth, all of which
that are important for the stability of pastoral systems, and
constitute entry points for helping supposedly “archaic” pastoral
which would have enabled them to focus on more social
systems (that have often already adopted NICTs) adapt to
concerns. We believe that the key question is not inter-
modernity.
sectorality, but taking account of the new demand from nomadic Total economic value of pastoral livestock rearing
herders for health and education services that are compatible with their mobile lifestyles. Although these projects did not
A growing number of international studies on livestock rearing
intervene directly in education and health, studies were
systems in arid and semi-arid zones show a positive correlation
conducted by specialists/experts in these fields (see studies
between livestock mobility and productivity, and reveal the
undertaken in the context of institutional support to the Ministry
importance of pastoral production systems for their respective
of Livestock and the Platform). Things could and should
national economies. Much of this knowledge has been
change for the new generation of projects (see the feasibility
incorporated into the literature generated by the projects covered
study on eastern Chad and education).
by this evaluation – for example, the study on taxation undertaken in the context of research for the Platform. Comments by MDPPA
In terms of health, the question of water quality at pastoral
technicians and producers generally confirm that slowing the
water points is a more direct concern for pastoral water
pace of transhumance (thanks to the installations) has a positive
projects. The health hazards associated with ponds are a
impact on production: the animals can gain weight while they
problem, but we should remember that transhumant herders’
are on the move. It has also been said that transhumance has
main priority is still access to water on extremely long stretches
a stimulating effect on local economies along livestock corridors.
of routes where people (and animals) may die of dehydration if there are no water points. Hygiene is a familiar issue in the
The glaring lack of knowledge about the economic contribution
water chain, and while pastoral and village wells may not be
made by pastoral systems is largely due to the fact that current
models of good drinking water, the quality of the water they
mechanisms of economic appraisal are insensitive to a whole
provide is not everything. The fact that there is no health
series of values that are seen as important within these systems.
support for herders is an issue that future projects will need to
These include the use of livestock products as a means of
address – especially, but not exclusively, with regard to women,
subsistence (animals born into pastoral systems have already
who are starting to demand better reproductive health services
provided years of economic services by the time they are taken
(delivery conditions, contraception). A good gender approach
to market) and the scale of the informal market. In addition,
would be helpful in this respect.
there are indirect values such as environmental services or contributions to other aspects of the economy – starting with
Finally, NICTs are now a key aspect of pastoral modernity
agriculture and including meaningful employment outside
and mobility. Mobile phones, motorcycle taxis, etc. are
primary livestock production (Krätli et al., 2013b). The official
changing the whole order of things, especially in terms of
figures often hide more than they reveal.
gender, generation, etc. These NICTs are too new to have been taken into account in previous interventions, but they will
Influence on national and regional policies
play a crucial role in the political mobilisation of pastoral producers, and have huge potential for innovative approaches
The projects supported by AFD have had an effect on policies
that will enable mobile communities to access basic health
at the national level. Changing the name of the Ministry of
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Livestock to the Ministry of Pastoral Development and Animal
other issues. The political actors and development practitioners
Production (MDPPA) represented a political advance and
we spoke to were very positive about the quality of the outputs
marked a positive shift in the perception of pastoral issues
designed to aid decision-making, such as the economic study
among senior staff within the ministry (unlike their counterparts
showing the extent to which livestock rearing contributes to
in neighbouring countries such as Niger and Burkina Faso).
GDP and the amount the State loses due to illegal practices.
These pastoral water projects have also contributed to the
However, there is still much to be done to ensure that help with
emergence of institutions such as the Centre for Nomadic
decision-making is effective and has the backing of Chadian
Education (Direction de l’Éducation Nomade), and the
civil society. The Pastoral Code offers considerable scope for
restructuring of the MDPPA with the creation of a General
this – especially in terms of recognising pastoralism as a
Directorate for Pastoral Development and Animal Production.
productive land use. Much has been learned from these
The main influence of AFD’s support can be seen in the
innovative pastoral water projects, which have helped support
creation of a department responsible for securing pastoral
Chad’s particularly dynamic pastoral sector. Their legacy is
systems within this general directorate.
acknowledged by projects like PROHYPA and PAFIB,4 Oxfam interventions in Kanem, and by Swiss Cooperation (SDC). By
Certain policy choices tie in with the direction taken by AFD-
filling the remaining legislative and regulatory gaps, Chad could
supported projects. For example, the national livestock
position itself as a leader in terms of support for pastoral
development programme (PNDE) includes a specific focus on
livestock rearing in the sub-region. The fact that the 2013
safeguarding pastoral mobility (in accordance with the
regional Conference on Pastoralism, Security and Development
restructuring of the ministry). A similar influence can be seen
took place in N’Djamena suggests that this may already be
in the regulatory framework for water resources, particularly
happening.
the Master Plan for Water and Sanitation (2003-2020) and the conferences held in 2005, 2011 and 2013.
Characteristics and limitations of the AFD approach
The Platform established after the conference in 2011 is now
AFD started implementing its pioneering approach in 1994.
recognised as a legitimate interlocutor in Chad’s institutional
Its objective was to combine the installation of sorely-needed
and organisational landscape, although it needs to be able to
pastoral water structures with efforts to secure the strategies
do more to support proposals put forward by the leaders of
for mobility developed by different categories of pastoralist,
pastoral organisations. Reflection on mobile pastoral citizenship
and to link water works with initiatives to secure transhumance
is needed to develop an approach that combines a vision of
routes (markers). This positive recognition of mobile pastoralism
peaceful cohabitation based on complementary production
as a relevant and effective mode of production, way of life and
systems with recognition of mobile herders as full citizens with
form of land occupancy was entirely innovative.
rights and responsibilities identified within the concept of “mobile citizenship”.
Although it was still called “a pastoral water project”, the new logic introduced with Almy Bahaïm centred around maintaining
In addition to all the multi-disciplinary reports on pastoralism
herders’ mobility, ultimately viewing the provision of water as
produced for the pastoral water projects, the institutional
a means to this end rather than an end in itself. This represented
support delivered from 2009 onwards generated various
a crucial shift from the traditional “water sector” approach to a
thematic studies on education, the economy, conflicts and
systemic one, a decision that itself represents a major achievement – one that must be safeguarded no matter
4
PROHYPA: Pastoral Water Project in Kanem financed by IFAD. PAFIB: Beef Sector Support Programme financed by the EU.
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Pastoral Water Development in Chad
Another key achievement was reconciling the technical and
generation of interventions. Tendering and procurement
social imperatives of these projects. Given the huge need for
procedures are by far the weakest link in the project chain.
water, using pastoral water works as an entry point to support
The preliminary procedure to build social consensus around
pastoral systems was and still is a highly relevant approach,
the works is threatened by lengthy delays in tendering
despite its inevitable limitations. Installing new water points
procedures, which also undermine the credibility of the
(especially surface water points and ponds) along the routes
projects. Questions about the transparency of the companies’
used by transhumant herders has helped secure a coherent
use of funds and the quality of the works also need to be
network over thousands of kilometres of land. These
addressed.
installations have helped slow the descent of transhumant
Tendering and procurement procedures will be more of a
herders at the end of the rainy season, benefiting herders,
concern for future AFD pastoral water interventions in Chad,
their livestock and sedentary farmers further south, and
which are still much needed. Dysfunctionality and corruption
reducing the risk of damage to fields and thus the incidence
along the chain are longstanding problems that need to be
of conflicts.
tackled effectively. Even though this is an issue that affects all
By prioritising support for customary modes of management,
the other technical and financial partners (TFPs) and the whole
this approach has helped strengthen priority use rights over
procurement chain, not just AFD and water interventions, we
the right of appropriation, maintain the spirit of reciprocity
believe that it constitutes the most serious threat to the future
between users and provide free access to water for livestock.
of these water projects and to “hard” and “soft” support for the
All these factors have contributed to more peaceful
sector (infrastructure, wells and ponds; institutional support
management of shared resources – although the situation
and capacity building).
does seem to be deteriorating in high pressure areas such as
The knowledge and national capacities generated by
the outskirts of Abéché. As a result of this approach, water is
these interventions also constitute a major achievement.
coming to be seen as an instrument of governance rather than
This wealth of experience and knowledge has had a significant
a commodity.
influence on pastoral livestock projects and programmes
Where the approach seems to fall down, however, is in
across the country. Chad now has a pool of senior national
putting in place the monitoring, maintenance and management
staff with proven expertise in pastoralism, with many of those
systems needed to ensure that these installations are
who learned at the “school” of Almy Bahaïm, PHPK Kanem
sustainable. Some management bodies seem ill-prepared to
and Almy Al Afia redeployed in various ministries, pastoral
take over when projects end, there is little local-level
development projects and civil society and research
involvement by the technical livestock rearing services, and
organisations (the Platform, university, LRVZ). While it is still
beneficiaries are not given any training on how to maintain
hard to say how much influence they will have on future policy
water points.
orientations, this still represents a considerable and lasting achievement.
Institutional setup/tendering and procurement procedures
One can only applaud this exceptional output of high quality
The institutional setup has hardly changed since 1994. The
knowledge and intense efforts to build on what has been
Ministry of Water still has overall responsibility for initiatives,
learned through this continuous and complementary process.
and an expatriate operator from a hydraulic company is
These excellent studies and documents should feed into
assigned to manage the projects. While this setup worked for
political advocacy in support of pastoralism – although it has
early pastoral water projects, it could be reviewed for the next
to be said that they are still too “expert” for general consumption,
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and need to be made more accessible (in every sense of the
The system for monitoring and evaluating these projects has
word) in order to reach a wider audience and be put to more
attracted a lot of criticism, including accusations that little or
concrete use.
nothing has been done in this respect. In fact, project activities have been monitored and evaluated, but not in a classic quantitative way that is easy for external evaluators to read,
Innovation and recognised added value: the passport to the future
particularly once the projects have ended. There have been studies, surveys and follow-up activities, but there are no
The support provided by AFD has helped put pastoral issues
numerical indicators or information on clearly established “pre-
at the heart of development strategies, and has thus opened the way for pastoral livestock rearing to be recognised and supported in Chad. Everyone has been very positive about this
project” situations that would allow post-project projects effects and impacts to be measured. We need to recognise that existing monitoring and evaluation systems are not suitable for large-
initiative. All the TFPs that we contacted said that they have
scale initiatives to support pastoral livestock rearing, mobile
followed the path forged by AFD, which has not only provided
actors and variability. Therefore, new systems need to be
a fertile seedbed for AFD’s own efforts (in eastern Chad, Kanem
developed for future interventions.
and central Chad), but also informed projects such as PAFIBEU, PROHYPA-IFAD, SDC and Oxfam, not to mention others
Despite these limitations, the three previous evaluations
that are still coming on stream. This is an exceptional and
recognise that the overall impact of these projects has been
remarkable achievement.
positive, and the present evaluation confirms the innovative, intelligent and positive aspects of the approach. While it does
While intervening on such a large spatial scale is no mean
have shortcomings that need to be addressed, the approach
feat, the impacts of these projects do raise questions about the
adds real value and deserves to be promoted and pursued right
adequacy of their resources, given that they do not provide
across sub-Saharan Africa, extending and deepening different
permanent solutions to problems with water, free movement
fields of knowledge and continuing to innovate with perseverance
and peaceful transhumance. It would seem desirable to gather
and intelligence. At a time when whole swathes of the Sahelian
a group of interested TFPs to provide more resources to
belt are descending into chaos, the vitality and modernity of
intervene on such a scale and try to resolve the procedural
mobile pastoralism in Chad make it an invigorating example of
issues that continue to hamper progress.
a production system.
Directions for future AFD interventions in this domain
The context of interventions in this domain is highly topical.
contribute to economic development at both the national and sub-regional levels.
Although the crisis in pastoralism is often ascribed to economic, social or even ecological factors such as herd viability
Demographic growth and increased purchasing power have
thresholds, conflicts and degraded rangelands, scientific
created a large and growing market for livestock products in
research has shown that these problems are not so much due
Chad, especially in urban areas. This is largely due to the oil
to the failure of pastoral systems as the failure of public policies
economy. Climate change will increase variability, and thus the
that have undermined rather than supported these systems.
comparative efficiency of mobile modes of livestock rearing.
The context in Chad and the sub-region offers an opportunity
Although the institutional context in the sub-region is becoming
to redress this situation and capitalise on their potential to
more favourable to pastoralism, things have not moved on so
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Pastoral Water Development in Chad
far in Chad (Pastoral Code). The country’s pastoral systems are at a crossroads, facing numerous constraints on the one hand and strong prospects for constant evolution on the other. It is not a question of choosing between pastoralism and an oil-based economy or other types of livestock-rearing (including intensive peri-urban systems) or agricultural systems, but of developing a vision and policy for livestock rearing that is better able to embrace the integration of different livestock-rearing and agricultural systems on a large scale. Modernity and pastoralism are neither contradictory nor mutually exclusive. Envisioning the future through scenario planning workshops Local participants identified future drivers of change during three scenario planning exercises where water and mobility were repeatedly classified as the most important factors in this respect. Participants at each workshop emphasised that in order to be of genuine use to mobile communities, basic services (and especially education) need to become “mobile” themselves, or at least not use modes of delivery designed for sedentary communities. The scenarios identified as the most
desirable were those that safeguarded pastoral mobility. These exercises were used to extrapolate two extreme scenarios: one of continuing degradation accompanied by famine and war, with echoes of the very worrying situation in the sub-region (northern Mali); the other a vision of peace and economic prosperity where mobile herders have their rightful place and access to social services. As the current debate about the future of pastoralism lurches between these two extremes, it seems important to set out the main arguments in favour of pastoralism: • Its specialised form of land use and way of maintaining the environment; • Its complex and sound economic value, which is undervalued; • Its suitability to modernity and globalisation; • Its invaluable contribution to the governance of arid and remote areas.
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Strategic directions and recommendations
General strategic directions: Continue with a third generation of innovative projects
• Human resources: Ensure the continuity, diversification and sustainability of skills. Maintain a core level of national
Having established and consolidated some very solid achievements over the last two decades, AFD is now in a position to deepen its interventions to support mobile pastoral systems in Chad over the next 10 to 20 years. The combination of pastoral water works and efforts to secure pastoral resources is still a relevant entry point for a systemic approach (particularly in a highly strategic region like eastern Chad), but it must remain open to innovations at different levels (institutional, technical and financial) and other entry points need to be envisaged. In order to help achieve this
and international expertise, anticipate the dispersal of teams by ensuring that they are recruited for future projects, maintain focal points in parent ministries, reappoint effective operators, include new profiles (meeting criteria for gender and generational issues, NICT skills, and so on). • Ensure the professional and institutional viability of project teams: Prepare for the future by transforming teams into NGOs or consultancy firms (see ADRB’s experience with Swiss Cooperation).
objective, six main strategic directions are proposed and
• Institutional setup: Consider appropriate setups for
separated into highly interactive recommendations. If adopted,
new types of project. Review the existing setup of projects
they should be implemented as part of a revised strategic
that use pastoral water as an entry point (such as eastern
approach to rural development.
Chad), while testing new setups with new partners (land use planning, decentralisation).
Direction 1: Renewed portfolio with third generation projects General recommendation
• Anticipate links/bridges with innovative action-research
General recommendation : Design third generation projects, with four types of inter-related projects that i) use pastoral water as an entry point (eastern Chad); ii) incorporate pastoral production systems into rural development (Lake Fitri); iii) provide institutional support for state and non-state actors involved in pastoral development (MDPPA and the Platform);
projects in social sectors (such as education, health and micro-finance) and avoid the multi-sectoral project approach. It should be noted that this evaluation is clear about the need to resist the temptation of multi-sectoral projects and the attendant risks of the multi-sectoral approach, a trap that has so far been avoided.
iv) conduct action-research projects/initiatives on education
• Monitoring and evaluation system: Broader participatory
and/or health and/or financial services for nomadic
reflection on all future projects is needed, making a
communities.
concrete start with the feasibility/ex ante evaluation phase of the project in eastern Chad. The following questions need to
Specific recommendations
be considered: How to adapt tools to monitor a system that
• Scale of interventions: Ensure that the geographic scale of the interventions is appropriate to the scope of north-south transhumance and synergy with east-west trade routes (see the pre-feasibility study on eastern Chad and study on Lake Fitri).
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functions on a large scale in unpredictably variable conditions; how to identify new indicators and monitoring measures that are relevant and appropriate to the scale and variability of the intervention areas covered by future projects; how to integrate the indicators of ecological impacts developed by the Comité
Pastoral Water Development in Chad
Scientifique Français de la Désertification (CSFD) supported
teams are working on projects, as with the system introduced
by AFD.
by Almy Al Afia 2. Involve users in monitoring construction works.
Direction 2: Improve the sustainability of pastoral infrastructure – funding, maintenance, management bodies, governance
• Continue to consider and test sources of funding for bodies that will manage the works, without challenging the principle of free pastoral water. This is linked with
There are widespread problems with the quality, sustainability
mobilising financial resources for pastoral infrastructure
and financial governance of water works, which urgently need
(through taxes on livestock markets or other funds); responses
to be addressed.
will need to be adapted as decentralisation progresses (local taxes, etc.).
Specific recommendations • Improve quality and cost management by reviewing
• Reflect on the allocation by AFD and the Chadian
the entire chain with the actors concerned: Identification,
government of financial resources to fund pastoral
“integrated” feasibility studies, orchestrating concomitant and
infrastructure – investment and maintenance.
complementary projects, funding, agreements and their
• Develop an argument supporting the redistribution of
provisions, contractual procedures, application of tax and
oil revenues to the pastoral development sector. Chad
customs provisions, evaluating tenders, protecting actors and
could position itself as a modern leader in the sub-region by
their means of production, staff skills.
supporting a particularly dynamic and sustainable sector of its
• Fund a national-level study on the sustainability of
economy with revenues from a non-renewable resource.
water works, drawing on high levels of hydro-geological, economic/financial and sociological expertise (evolution
• Strengthen consultations between technical and
of costs, including water costs, quality of works, responsibility
financial partners to promote co-funding and partnerships
for maintenance).
in order to be able to continue to intervene on a large scale, but with more resources to achieve more visible impacts,
• Research/development to initiate new technical
especially in establishing networks of water points (eastern
responses to sets of constraints that need more work or have
Chad). Help harmonise approaches between different
yet to be addressed. Monitor prototypes and feedback, look
intervening agencies, especially at the regional level.
into diversifying different types of pastoral water works and new technologies such as bladders (portable tanks), mobile
Direction 3: Increase AFD involvement in shaping national/sub-regional policies through greater interaction between pastoral water projects and institutional support for state and non-state actors
pumps and satellite detection. • Strengthen the technical capacities of national companies by reviewing quality/cost assessments and
AFD interventions have contributed to the emergence of state
mobilising sufficient funding to support the best bids and
and non-state structures that are favourable to pastoralism.
technical resources, in order to rebuild companies undermined
The institutional support to the Ministry of Livestock, the
by a decade of low bids. Optimise works (over-investment) to
Platform and the regional conference on security and
simplify maintenance and reduce maintenance costs.
pastoralism (May 2013) are evidence of more visible AFD support for national policies. Possible areas for this kind of
• Strengthen quality control, companies and users: Introduce self-monitoring quality assurance while the technical
action are outlined below.
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Specific recommendations
• Help increase the financial and technical autonomy of
• Better influence the policy environment and regulatory and legislative framework for the livestock rearing sector in Chad: Prioritise implementation of the Pastoral Code. Help
civil society organisations. It would be useful to develop alliances and partnerships with actors that have proven expertise in facilitating the creation of local NGOs (ADRB), such as Oxfam or the Swiss Agency for Development and
facilitate the adoption of the Pastoral Code and the formulation
Cooperation. Finally, promote greater openness and
and application of its implementing decrees. AFD’s role is not to
collaboration between producer organisations in Chad and
substitute for local actors, but to enable pastoral civil society
other African countries that have gone through similar
organisations to contribute meaningfully to the process.
experiences, such as AREN (Niger), RECOPA (Burkina Faso)
• Ensure that this work on pastoralism is incorporated
and Billital Maroobe (at the regional level).
into the overall policy for rural development in Chad. This
• Training on the concept of mobile citizenship: Knowledge
includes helping develop scenarios that include rural
of laws, rights and responsibilities, a concept of “mobile citizenship”
modernisation and development through the mobilisation of
that is both accountable (responsibilities) and respected (rights),
water resources (implementing the Master Plan for Water and
participation in informed debates … Develop a training module
Sanitation), territorial development through regional planning
on mobile citizenship (like the one on pastoralism in the Sahel
(see the work done by SIDRAT) and links with urban markets.
delivered by partners such as ARED and IIED).
The design of the future project for eastern Chad is very much Direction 4: Optimise knowledge generation and sharing through innovative action-research and the practical application of what has been learned and achieved
in accordance with this aim, and will constitute an immediate field for experimentation. • Strengthen civil society capacities at the national and local levels: The Platform for actors, pastoral organisations,
Theme 1: Better share, develop and disseminate existing knowledge in Chad and across the Sahelian belt
conflict prevention/works management bodies, etc. This will involve ensuring that national actors take the lead in influencing
• Reorganise and prioritise knowledge and outputs;
policies and in lobbying and advocacy activities. • Develop attractive and accessible new materials that link • Develop a programme of coaching for leaders of
in with NICTs.
producer organisations so that they can fully engage in Theme 2: Develop action-research on modernising
policy dialogue with decision-makers.
pastoral modes of production • Support the structuring of pastoral civil society. The pyramidal structuring procedure started by PAFIB should be
At the moment there is little or no investment in research that
continued and strengthened, and particular attention given to
specifically supports pastoral modes of production. Research
ensuring that women who make a living from rearing livestock
and/or action-research is needed in the following fields:
are represented and can make their voices heard through joint
• Taxation and fiscal matters;
bodies or women’s organisations.
• Technological innovations adapted to mobility;
• Increase the weight and autonomy of local bodies responsible for managing resources and preventing conflicts: Help create bridges between customary and formal institutions.
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Pastoral Water Development in Chad
Direction 5: Incorporate innovative approaches in the education/health/finance sectors into the systemic approach to pastoralism, without falling into the trap of the sectoral approach
(Batha, etc.), security conditions and so on, in conjunction with action-research (Direction 4). • Training: use NICTs for education/literacy training.
This does not mean replicating the setup for integrated rural
Direction 6: Incorporate the whole AFD procedure into support for pastoralism to promote long-term cross-border peace and security/pastoralism involving fragile states
development projects or pastoral water projects like PHPK Kanem. Tackling issues such as access to social services (which are still largely inaccessible to mobile groups) should not involve planning one component for education, one for
AFD projects operate on a large spatial scale, but have so
health and so on, but establishing links with specialists in these
far reflected the logic of national mobility within country borders.
fields, as outlined in the 2011 pre-feasibility study on eastern
Given the size of its intervention area, the future project in
Chad (education sector).
eastern Chad will need to take account of cross-border logics (Central African Republic, Libya, Sudan). Initiatives that take
Recommendations:
account of cross-border mobility should incorporate the three • Finance pilot projects or action-research type education
following activities:
and health initiatives that are adapted to nomadic ways • Considering climate change and its possible impacts
of life. AFD is already committed to supporting studies on
on herd productivity (see NAPAs).
nomadic schools (Swift, 2011; Dos Santos, 2013). It could build on this by funding small innovative independent projects to
• Promoting and securing cross-border economic trade:
make social services more accessible, or supporting initiatives
Strengthen the chain by focusing on the total economic value
within pastoral projects. A link needs to be established with
of pastoral livestock rearing in order to respond to the growing
AFD’s Chad portfolio (14 per cent) for these sectors, and with
demand for livestock products in urban markets, with actions
actions in N’Djamena (on reproductive health, for example).
to develop services along caravan routes and (east-west)
There should also be interaction on improving water quality in
intersections between transport and transhumance routes.
pastoral areas, with work on infrastructure and education on water hygiene.
• Helping improve security in the sub-region: The conference on this theme in N’Djamena in May 2013 generated
• Pilot support for mobile financial services in pastoral
some very interesting responses drawing on experience in
areas through current efforts to develop new technologies
various countries. Funding will be needed for studies and
(possibly in conjunction with mobile phone networks such
cross-border analysis of the development and impacts of water
as Tigo), and monitor money transfers, impact on savings,
points on each side of the border (between Chad and Niger
etc. (this could be done through a PhD researcher, for
and Chad and Sudan, for example) to avoid creating
example).
infrastructure that might generate conflict over cross-border
• Use these NICTs to generate useful and accessible
movement under normal conditions, and particularly in times
information on markets, weather, human and animal health,
of crisis in states that are classified as fragile (such as the
the condition of pastures or water points, flood water levels
Central African Republic, Darfur, Libya).
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Pastoral Water Development in Chad
Introduction
The evaluation exercise presented in this report was
generated over the course of these two decades. All in all,
unusual in its broad scope, its historical sweep, and its remit
this initiative to determine how AFD and Chad may be able
to assess AFD support for pastoralism in Chad from 1993-
to move forward in an uncertain future represented quite a
2013 and determine its future direction. Twenty years
challenge, raising a whole range of issues and calling for a
amounts to one human generation and several generations
fresh evaluation approach.
of decision-makers, experts, policies, paradigms and projects. AFD wanted nothing less than a critical review of past
This section begins by setting the scene for the evaluation
interventions and their spin-offs, along with strategic directions
exercise and describing its genesis, objectives, procedure
for future rural development initiatives across the vast sub-
and methodology. Particular attention is given to the scena-
Saharan belt. There was also a mountain of literature to trawl
rio planning workshops, as this was the first time they had
through – all the reports, studies, evaluations and follow-up
been undertaken in Chad.
Context and procedure for the exercise
In the second half of 2012, the Evaluation Division of AFD’s
The exercise had several objectives: i) evaluate the overall
Research Department prepared the terms of reference for
relevance and coherence of interventions by AFD Group; ii)
the “Evaluation and follow-up of 20 years of AFD Group
assess the performance of pastoral water projects; and iii)
interventions in the pastoral water sector in Chad”. This
propose strategies for continuing the process (with significant
exercise, which covered 11 projects implemented in three
changes) or gradually winding it down. The evaluation was
areas of Chad (see Map 1 above) between 1993 and 2013,
to proceed in two phases, the first involving ex post evaluation
was driven by the need for an overall analysis that would
and follow-up, and the second a prospective analysis of
help AFD build on 20 successive years of support – going
pastoral water in the medium to long term.
beyond previous cross-project evaluations undertaken by
The terms of reference specified that the work should be
IRAM (2004), CIRAD (2010) and ERE (2012), and detailed
undertaken in three phases: the first to determine the
follow-up by various projects (BET in the north, Almy Bahaïm
structure of the evaluation procedure and present it in a
in eastern Chad, PHPK in Kanem, and Almy Al Afia 1 in
framework document to be approved by a specially created
central Chad). What was wanted was a critical external
steering committee (COPIL); the second to implement the
review and summary that would provide the basis for
evaluation procedure through field visits in Chad; and the
strategic directions for a possible (but by no means definite)
third to prepare the summary and recommendations (interim
second generation of innovative interventions that would be
report, final report).
incorporated into the national development system.
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The procedure would take place in three stages over
the five-member team from IIED). The next step was to produce
seven months (November 2012 – May 2013).
a framework document (which was delivered in December 2012). This period was also spent consulting the documentation
Stage 1: Defining the structure for the evaluation procedure (November 2012-February 2013)
and contacting a whole range of actors in Paris, Montpellier, Avignon and elsewhere in France in order to draw on their invaluable experience and knowledge of interventions over
AFD appointed the London-based International Institute for
the last 20 years. The team was also given unrestricted access
Environment and Development (IIED) to conduct the
to all AFD’s available documentation. It took considerable time
evaluation, on the basis of the bid IIED presented in Paris at
and effort to establish a list of key documentary references
the end of October 2012 and a revised version submitted on 31 October 2012. It is important to note that the team included a hydrologist in its original proposal, but because AFD did not
covering this long period, as the documents were not presented in any order of priority, and some “old” ones were missing. A second COPIL meeting was held in mid-January 2013 to
see this as essential it was decided to ask ERE (a consultancy
validate the framework paper, restructure the evaluation
firm based in Cameroon that had overseen the most recent
questions around eight major points, and determine how the
crosscutting evaluation in 2012) to make a contribution on the sustainability of the water works. All five members of IIED’s international team had between eight and forty years’ experience in this domain, bringing a range of complementary skills and insights to the various assignments involved in the
field visit to Chad would be organised. Detailed minutes were taken at each meeting to strengthen the consensual process. In view of the growing insecurity across the Sahelian belt, plans were also made to hold a regional conference in
evaluation:
N’Djamena in May 2013 on the theme “Pastoral livestock
• Ced Hesse, a geographer and principal researcher in IIED’s
rearing: A sustainable contribution to pastoral development
Drylands Department, Climate Change Group, based in
and security in Saharan-Sahelian spaces”, with support from
Edinburgh, led the exercise;
AFD. Although this activity had not been included in the terms of reference, AFD asked IIED to contribute to the conference
• Saverio Krätli, researcher and specialist in pastoralism,
as part of the evaluation exercise because it is well placed to
based in the UK;
facilitate contacts with actors and institutions from East Africa.
• Marie Monimart, sociologist and gender expert, head of mission in Chad, based in France;
IIED consented, and it was agreed that while this contribution would constitute an important output, it would be secondary to the main objectives of the evaluation/follow-up exercise. Saverio Krätli presented this communication to the Conference
• Blamah Jalloh, Programme Officer for the Billital Maroobe
in May 2013.
herders’ and pastoralists’ network, based in Niger; • Jeremy Swift, pastoral expert and researcher, based in the UK.
Stage 2: Field visit to Chad (17 February-10 March 2013).
The first meeting of the steering committee (COPIL) took
Three members of the IIED team participated in this stage
place in Paris on 30 November 2012. It was chaired by pastoral
(Monimart, Krätli and Jalloh), with constant support from focal
expert Mr. André Marty, and attended by members of AFD’s
points in the two ministries involved in pastoral water projects:
Paris office, representatives from the Ministry of Urban and
Mr. Ali Daoud, coordinator of Almy Al Afia 2 for the MHUR, Mr.
Rural Water (MHRU) and the Ministry of Pastoral Development
Abdellatif Fizzani for MDPPA, and Mr. Jean Laurent from AFD.
and Livestock Production (MDPPA), the AFD office in
Mr. Yves Ficatier, from the EVA department in AFD Paris,
N’Djamena (by video-conference) and the Consultant (two of
accompanied the mission for the first week, when the scenario
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Pastoral Water Development in Chad
planning workshop in Abéché took place, and Ms. Charlotte
great willingness to meet and talk to us. We would like to
Cheumani from ERE came for three days to advise on the
extend our warmest thanks to all the men (and the very few
sustainability of the water works. During this mission the team
women) who participated in this exercise.
made contact with various actors, ran a four-day launch Stage 3: Preparing the summary report and recommendations (mid-March to mid-May 2013).
workshop in N’Djamena, and went on field visits to Abéché in eastern Chad, and Mongo and Yao Fitri in central Chad (10 days), where they ran three scenario planning workshops. In
This period was devoted to producing the interim report,
the final week they made further high-level contacts, held a
which was discussed at COPIL’s third meeting in Paris in mid-
meeting in Kanem, produced a 20-page checklist and ran a
April 2013. Comments and observations made by the French
workshop in N’Djamena to report back on the exercise.
and Chadian parties were incorporated into the final report,
It is worth noting several points about this stage. Firstly, the
which was submitted to AFD in mid-May. COPIL then met for
field visit was far too short for the Consultant to make even a
the fourth and final time on 11 June 2013 – after the conference
minimal assessment of the diverse intervention contexts and
in N’Djamena – to obtain feedback on the evaluation
outputs involved, especially given the scope of the evaluation
presentation at the conference, validate the final report and
(20 years and 11 projects). Twice the time was needed, but
plan its distribution.
this was not possible due to budgetary constraints. Secondly,
All in all, the seven months of the exercise mainly went
it was not possible to visit the north (BET), the south (Salamat),
according to plan. The terms of reference provided a good
Kanem (for security reasons) or any encampments, and
framework for the process, which was built on consensus and
contact with herders was effectively limited to the scenario
close stakeholder involvement (AFD, Chad, COPIL). The
planning workshops. The mission was also constantly
overall timetable was respected, and the evaluation
accompanied by a special police force (ISD) vehicle, which
presentation at the conference in N’Djamena validated the
did try to maintain as discreet a presence as possible.
approach taken by both the Client and the Consultant.
Despite these considerable constraints, the three scenario
Evaluation teams invariably lament the lack of time allocated
planning workshops went ahead as planned thanks to the
for field visits, and sadly we did not make any great strides in
diligent efforts of the Chadian support team. Each workshop
this respect, despite the innovative aspects of this exceptionally
was attended by 40 to 50 people, and we were able to make
wide-ranging exercise. The question is, will it be repeated in
the best use of the short time available thanks to everyone’s
2033?
Methodology
Due to the huge scope of the evaluation/follow-up exercise
post evaluation methods. Instead, IIED opted for a meta-
(the time, space and number of projects involved), the
evaluation procedure, using a participatory process of critical
existence of several excellent evaluations (2004, 2010, 2012)
analysis that built on existing material and work. An enormous
validated by AFD, the sheer volume of related documentation
amount of time was spent organising and prioritising secondary
and the limited time in the field, the team avoided classic ex
data such as evaluations, follow-up reports and studies.
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The team’s researchers also broadened the documentary
Previous evaluations had already demonstrated the
field to include external literature on pastoralism, much of
fundamental need (in all 11 projects funded by AFD) for a
which was not written in French, the working language (see
monitoring and evaluation system with appropriate indicators
the references at the end of this document). Another priority
for a classic ex post evaluation exercise. We took a different
was gathering a very wide a range of (possibly contradictory)
approach to performance analysis, basing it on in-depth
views through interviews with resource persons, actors,
reflection on pastoralism, changing paradigms and approaches
experts, stakeholders and non-stakeholders in these projects.
(see section 1.1 of this report), and the “three pillars” analytical
Nearly 300 people were interviewed during the course of this
framework (see below and Figure 1). This sees pastoralism
exercise – individually, in interest groups, and during the five
as a complex socio-economic and ecological system made up
workshops held in Chad. Far from being cosmetic, COPIL
of three heterogeneous but interdependent components that
played a meaningful role in the process and made valuable
need to be in harmony and balance for the system to work
contributions throughout. Other major stakeholders such as
properly. The characteristics of each component influence each
the MHRU and MDPPA, the Platform and AFD Paris and
other, but their interdependence is not linear. All seven
N’Djamena were asked for their opinions at every key stage
evaluation questions relate to these three pillars, focusing on
of the process, and their comments taken into account. We
different ones according to the issue under consideration. The
would like to thank them all for their attentive and productive
final evaluation question, which is an overall assessment of
participation. The IIED team also drew heavily on the diverse
AFD’s intervention, covers all three pillars.
skills and experience of its five members, and held two residential workshops at key points in the exercise: one in December 2012 to prepare the framework document, and the
Figure 1: The three pillars of pastoralism
other in April 2013 for the interim report.
TY LI BI O M
TY
LI
BI
two over-arching questions: i) how has AFD provided systemic
O
and one prospective. The retrospective analysis had to answer
Society Institutions Social services, policy, laws, platform, ...
M
This exercise focused on two main themes, one retrospective
support for pastoralism in a period when understanding of the systemic approach has changed, and was it right to focus on one sector (pastoral water) as the entry point for pastoral
Economy Livestock Animal health markets, ...
support? and ii) was this support delivered in an appropriate manner? These two broad questions were broken down into the seven main evaluation questions, which are covered in
Ecology Pastoral ressources Water, pastures, salt, ...
section 2 of this report. The aim of the prospective analysis, which was based on our observations, was to determine the directions and recommendations for future AFD interventions on pastoralism in Chad. The scenario planning exercises described in this document were the lynchpin of this prospective analysis, which is considered in section 3 of this report.
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MOBILITY
Source: IIED 2013 evaluation.
Pastoral Water Development in Chad
Scenario planning workshops
The evaluation team used scenario planning methods to facilitate interviews with pastoralists and other local users, document their assessment and analysis of the projects objectives, activities and results, and seek their views on the future of pastoralism and its contribution to the overall economy and society in Chad.
project, and the third in Yao, in Fitri, which ran over two half days due to logistical reasons. Each of these workshops was attended by over 40 people identified by AFD focal points and AAA3 staff, in accordance with the evaluation team’s recommendations. The aim was to involve different types of participant to ensure that transhumant
The “scenarios” developed during these exercises represent
herders, dignitaries (canton and tribal chiefs), women livestock
a whole range of possible favourable and unfavourable futures,
producers, livestock traders and officials from deconcentrated
which participants identify through a process of mechanical combination and logical analysis. They are particularly useful for medium- and long-term planning in unpredictable conditions,
agencies would be represented. The exercise was broken down into four main stages: i. Plenary session to discuss major changes in the locality
when the inevitable lack of information makes operational
over the last 20 years, and their causes (including ongoing
planning a less effective tool. The general aim of planning is to
changes);
minimise uncertainty. Scenario planning, however, uses uncertainty constructively by defining its limitations, identifying possible combinations of processes that will lead to different
ii. Key “drivers of change” identified and prioritised by participants;
outcomes, and then analysing how such alternative futures can
iii. Scenarios mechanically constructed using two selected
be pursued, influenced or avoided. IIED first started using
key drivers of change in four possible high- and low-intensity
scenario planning with pastoralists in Niger and Kenya in 2008-
combinations;
2010,5
where it proved very effective in helping local
communities articulate their vision of the future for pastoralism in the context of much bigger drivers of socio-economic change. Scenario planning exercises can last for several months, depending on their context and objectives. In this evaluation, we ran three specially adapted one-day exercises during our visit to the region: the first in Abéché in eastern Chad (three years after the closure of the Almy Bahaïm 3 project); the second in Mongo as part of Phase 2 of the Almy Al Afia (AAA) Scenario planning was first tested with the Wodaabe Fulani in Niger (Krätli, 2008), then applied on a larger scale with Karamojong herders in Uganda (including children) as part of the review of the alternative basic education strategy for Karamoja – ABEK (Krätli, 2009), and in Kenya with Boran, Maasai, Somali and Turkana herders during consultations on the national strategy for nomadic education (SOS Sahel and IIED, 2009; Cavanna and Abkula, 2009). See: http://www.drylands-group.org/ Articles/1697.html. 5
iv. Logical description and discussion of the scenarios. A full list of the drivers of change identified during these three exercises is presented in Table 7 in section 3.1 of this report. This list is the product of joint reflection on the past and the present. It does not represent desired or ideal conditions, but real drivers of change observed by participants. It is worth noting that water and mobility constantly recurred as the most important factors throughout the process of developing scenarios through a mechanical combination of factors, using actors’ knowledge and experience to build arguments and logical sequences (“if x and y happen, then z will ensue”), and imagining and negotiating their details. The scenarios developed in Abéché are presented in Figure 2 to illustrate the methodology, and the content of the three scenarios is summarised in section 3.1 below.
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Although these three workshops were not held in the best
participants, providing an excellent translation service, and
conditions, the fact that they happened at all (especially in
running and reporting back on the process. We would like to
Abéché, which is no longer supported by a project) was quite
take this opportunity to thank them warmly for all their hard work.
an achievement given the constraints of the mission –– and a first in Chad. There was a good deal of active participation and lively debate, especially in Abéché and Mongo,
The scenarios developed during these workshops provided the basis for the directions and recommendations presented in section 3 of this report, where they are reviewed and
demonstrating that the future is a highly topical issue.
discussed in relation to other scenarios.
The most productive exercise was the workshop in Mongo. This was held as an AAA2 project activity, and mainly attended
Arguments developed from the scenarios at Abéché:
by transhumant herders, some of whom had travelled several hundred kilometres to get there. There was also a significant
Peace and prosperity:
female presence as five of the participants were women. They
Mobility assured – Access to social services assured
were interviewed separately to enable them to express their
Peace prevails. Intense exchanges between farmers and
views more freely (see section 2.4 below). While they certainly did not constitute a critical mass at this workshop, it is worth noting that only one woman attended the workshop in Yao, and none went to Abéché. The whole team from Almy Al Afia were closely involved in the workshop, especially senior staff
integrated. Lower maternal mortality rates. Educated pastoralists invest profits from livestock rearing elsewhere. ral areas. Pastoralists engage with political decision-ma-
(AGRP) and the two ministerial focal points. They played a
king spheres.
crucial role in its organisation and logistics, identifying
Back to the wall: Mobility not assured – Poor access to social services
Figure 2: Scenarios from the workshop in Abéché
Widespread poverty and food insecurity in the country. Falling state revenues. Mass emigration by pastoralists
STRONG Mobility Assured
cure land tenure. Education and pastoral activities are well
Young doctors and vets (male and female) stay in pasto-
from the pastoral resource management support component
Peace & Prosperity
herders and dynamic local and national economies. Se-
and/or explosion of conflicts and violence. Advantages of complementary production systems undermined. Loss of specialisation and low productivity in livestock rearing and
No change
agriculture: All pastoralists have fields, all farmers have livestock. No change: Either Mobility not assured – Access to
Basic service (education, health) for nomadic communities
social services guaranteed or Mobility assured – Poor
WEAK
STRONG
No change
Mobility Assured
access to social services The combination of these two scenarios is already a
Back to the wall
reality: Those who are mobile have little or no access to basic services, while access to basic services entails a loss of mobility (with a negative impact on social and economic status, leading to a breakdown of the system).
WEAK
Source: IIED 2013 evaluation.
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Pastoral Water Development in Chad
1. Context
1.1. Changes in understanding of pastoralism over the last 20 to 30 years
Pastoral development theories and understanding of pastoral
growing recognition of the fact that (mobile) pastoral systems
ecosystems have changed radically over the last 20 years. It
can populate harsh and remote areas where the absence of
is now understood that the unpredictable variability of pastures,
citizens and civil society creates breeding grounds for socio-
which used to be seen as a barrier to development, can be
political problems, and which can rapidly turn into “ungoverned”
transformed into a valuable resource for food production.
spaces.
Environments that are regulated by unpredictable variability are fundamentally different from those in which globalised
1.1.1. Fundamental changes in knowledge about
intensive agriculture has developed. Their characteristic
pastoralism between 1990 and 2013
variability can either be regarded and tackled as an obstacle, or exploited as a resource. The former course of action had
The 1990s (when AFD projects began) were an important
been preferred in globalised agricultural production, but is
period for the study of pastoralism, especially in Africa. The
becoming increasingly expensive with climate change; the
famines of 1972-73 and 1984 had produced an image of
latter requires a very different approach – working with
pastoral systems on the edge of collapse. However, the
unpredictable variability rather than against it. Pastoral systems
international attention associated with these crises had also
are a particularly clear example of this approach. Livestock
triggered an unprecedented amount of research on pastoralism
mobility (in its various forms and functions) is then seen as a crucial strategy in a highly specialised system that exploits
from a variety of disciplines. From this new critical mass of
unpredictable environments for food production; a system that
field observations there developed a fundamentally different
carries an important lesson at a time when volatile weather
way of understanding pastoral systems and the drylands, and
conditions are becoming the norm worldwide. There is also
thus pastoral development.
Box 1: Ecological succession
Frederic Clements’ (1874-1945) theory of ecological succession (1916) combines mechanistic-Darwinian metaphors with a view of vegetation as a complex organism. Vegetation develops through stages of increasing complexity, until competition between species leads to a stable or self-perpetuating community (climax community), which describes the vegetation best suited to the local conditions. Once this equilibrium, or steady state, is reached, succession stops and, as in an organism, change is controlled by homeostatic mechanisms. Under “ideal conditions”, vegetation responds to a “disturbance” by growing back towards the steady state (Tobey, 1992).
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For more than half a century, development interventions in
rangelands might be better understood as “non-equilibrial”
pastoral areas of Africa had been dominated by a model of
ecosystems driven by unpredictable environmental
rangeland management that originated in the western United
perturbations rather than regulated by homeostatic
States (1900-1930). Although the model was backed up with
mechanisms (Ellis and Swift, 1988; Westoby et al., 1989).
Clementsian successional theory (1916-1920), its application
Development interventions aimed at “returning” the
centred around the pre-existing notion of carrying capacity
ecosystem to a stable state might have been the solution
(1880s) and the related focus on controlling grazing (Sayre
to a false problem.8
and Fernandez-Gimenez, 2003). 6 This model essentially
A formal challenge to the orthodox model of range
describes vegetation and ruminants as part of a self-regulated system that leans toward a state of equilibrium. Within this approach, an “optimal” livestock population could be
management soon came in the form of a collection of studies published just before the launch of Almy Bahaim: Range Ecology at Disequilibrium, which started from a critical
calculated for a given area on the basis of a simple set of
analysis of the tenet of carrying capacity (Behnke et al.,
ecological parameters (initially, only average rainfall). The
1993).9
imperative to “rationalise” grazing by controlling stocking and land tenure promoted a view of nomadic pastoralism as a natural enemy: a disturbance to both the equilibrium of the rangeland ecosystem and the task of managing it. If the Sahelian crises had seemed to provide evidence for this view, the principle that pastoral production needed “rationalising” had been in rural development circles since at least the 1930s.7
The notion that rangelands had a determinable “carrying capacity” (based on the average rainfall in the area) was developed to assist grazing leases in New Zealand and Australia, and this preceded the work of Clements by a good couple of decades (Sayre and Fernandez-Gimenez, 2003; Sayre, 2008). This research on the history of the concept of carrying capacity concludes that the power of this approach is to be found outside the ecological theory: “Clements (1920) explicitly rejected fixed carrying capacities, and his theory appears to have provided a post hoc scientific rationale for decisions shaped principally by economic and political considerations: Static, ideal, quantitative carrying capacities assigned to fenced and leased allotments facilitated bureaucratic administration for government agencies and gave bankers and ranchers a way to capitalise public lands” (Sayre, 2008: 124). 6
Box 2: Pastoralism and vulnerability
“A degree of vulnerability is inherent to pastoralism as it is inherent to any system operating by harnessing risk and instability (e.g. marine fishing or the military). When addressing vulnerability in pastoralism it is therefore crucial to distinguish between this ‘baseline
For example, when the research station of Filingué, Niger, was created in 1931, this was “with the general aim of developing livestock rearing in the Sahelian region in a rational manner” (Agriculture Service, Annual Agriculture Report 1931, Central Government of French West Africa. Colony of Niger, cited in Krätli, 2007). See also Landais, 1990. 7
vulnerability’, which is strategic, and which the system is designed to manage, and the unnecessary and dysfunctional vulnerability that arises from the sudden or cumulative incapacity to operate the system due to
For example Ellis and Swift (1988: 457-458): “We have attempted to show that in Ngisonyoka Turkana and most probably in many other arid or semi-arid pastoral ecosystems, equilibrial conditions are not attainable. Rather, ecosystem dynamics are dominated by the stochastic perturbations of multi-year droughts. […] The obvious conclusion is that conventional development procedures are destabilising influences in ecosystems which are dominated by stochastic abiotic perturbations and which operate essentially as non-equilibrial ecosystems”. 8
structural changes triggered by external forces, internal adjustments, or disasters.” Source : Krätli et al. 2013 b : 46.
The analysis of carrying capacity by Behnke and Scoones (1993) returned the concept to its original domain of economics, by showing that it can only be defined in relation to a given system of rangeland management: Different management objectives for the same ecosystem give different carrying capacities (depending on whether it is managed like a ranch or a natural reserve, for example). 9
By the mid-1980s, this model was unable to explain what a new generation of scholars working in pastoral contexts were observing. Some of them started to suggest that
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Box 3: A different way of using the environment for food production
Unpredictable variability in the environment can be an obstacle or an asset for food production, depending on the production strategy (the way of using the environment). Livestock mobility in pastoral systems is a strategy for production. Livestock production of any significant scale in arid and semi-arid environments (whether by “nomads” or by “sedentary” communities) is usually mobile for at least a part of the year. The most recent forms of “sedentary” production depend on mobile systems for their long-term existence. Unpredictable environmental variability is a problem for the (now globalised) intensive approach to agriculture, which is native to temperate climates and specialises in exploiting the uniformity and stability of resources. Conversely, it is an asset for mobile livestock rearing systems native to environments dominated by variability, and which specialise in exploiting unpredictable and ephemeral concentrations of resources. In a context where the availability of resources is unpredictable and unevenly distributed, the strategic mobility of livestock maximises exploitation by enabling timely and selective access to resources, and levelling up negative spikes (droughts) by increasing the scale of operation. Mobile livestock obtain more nutrients and experience fewer droughts than the average values in each location they use. Their experience of “drought” – i.e. serious insufficiency of pasture over an extended period – should be expected to increase in frequency as mobility is hindered and the scale at which pastoral systems operate is reduced. In difficult production environments where social organisation and complex knowledge are extremely important, strategically mobile livestock rearing allows for large-scale crop-livestock integration across specialised production systems rather than at the farm level, therefore without sacrificing specialisation.
Pastoralism was seen in a completely new light once it was
across a series of environments […] with an emphasis on
considered outside the orthodox “equilibrium” model. Pastoral
exploiting environmental heterogeneity rather than attempting
strategies that had been hindered and discouraged as irrational
to manipulate the environment to maximise stability and
–especially livestock mobility – suddenly made sense. The
uniformity” (Behnke et al., 1993: 14-15).
unpredictable variability that had been treated as a disturbance to an equilibrium ecosystem, and regarded as something that
This realisation clearly had profound implications for the way
had to be corrected or neutralised, was understood as integral
that development policies and interventions should be
to the functioning of the rangeland ecosystem. Consequently,
approached, prompting a second series of research exercises
production systems like pastoralism that developed in
to analyse its ramifications (Scoones, 1995).10 These were
environments characterised by unpredictable variability could
also published in French (Scoones, 1999).
be understood as functioning effectively with it and not See Scoones: “The history of livestock development in Africa […] has been one of the equilibrium solutions being imposed on non-equilibrium environments”(1995:4). 10
struggling ineffectively against it: “The producer’s strategy within non-equilibrium systems is to move livestock sequentially
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1.1.2. Timely access to fodder for selective feeding
Efforts to reconsider and understand arid lands and pastoral production have generated an impressive and ever-
Nutrients that are good for livestock accumulate in grasses
growing number of studies over the last two decades.11
as the plant grows, until they are used by the plant to
Theoretical elements of the literature on pastoralism now
complete its cycle. Scattered rainfall in arid areas means
engage with this paradigm shift in one way or another, and
that these nutrients become available in unpredictable and
the alternative outlook has spread beyond academia into
ephemeral concentrations. By allowing livestock to reach
national and international development circles.
At this
pastures as their nutritional content peaks, strategic mobility
general level, the framework for thinking on pastoralism has
can make the difference between abundance and scarcity
been transformed and now allows for more sophisticated
in the same environment.13
12
analysis – in principle at least.
Ruminants whose diet is poor cannot compensate by
In reality, replacing or adapting the tools we rely on as
eating more. In fact, they respond by eating less, leading
practitioners is a time-consuming and much more laborious
to rapid loss of weight. This is why pastoralists try to rear
process. This practical level ties in closely with development
animals that are particularly good at feeding selectively – in
interventions, from basic “technologies” in the broad sense
other words, which are capable of feeding on the “best bits”
(starting with the technical language, definitions and
of mixed quality pasture and ignoring the rest (Krätli, 2007).
typologies used to describe projects and their operational contexts) to the mechanisms used to measure and calculate performance (for example, indicators and statistics), and complex intervention methodologies. For the best part of this process, it is inevitable to have, so to speak, the “head” in one model and the “feet” in another. Teasing out the old
When pastoral systems are allowed to operate according to their underlying logic, the strategic mobility of competent selective feeders can produce a nutritional marvel: a diet whose quality exceeds the average nutritional value of the rangeland that has been grazed (observed for the first time by N’Golo Traoré and Abdarahamane Diallo in 1978; see
from the new, and real change from ad hoc adjustment is
Breman and De Wit, 1983).14
just as important as re-qualifying the whole range of development problems and solutions.
Behnke et al. (1993); Scoones (1995); Niamir-Fuller (1999); Hodgson (2000); Homewood (2008); Krätli and Schareika (2010); Gertel and Le Heron (2011); Catley et al. (2012). Studies comparing the performance of (bovine) livestock rearing systems with different levels of mobility in dryland East and West Africa have found a positive correlation between mobility and productivity for all the main parameters, with fertility and milk production increasing and calf mortality declining as mobility increases (see, for example, Wilson and Clarke, 1976; Cossins, 1985; Colin de Verdière, 1998). A total of 26 independent studies on pastoralism in nine countries in East, West and southern Africa have found that livestock reared in pastoral systems yield several times more per hectare than those raised under ranching systems (Scoones,1995; Ocaido, 2009). 11
Including, among others, FAO (1997); UNDP-GDI (2003); Mortimore et al. (2008); COMESA (2009); IIED and SOS Sahel (2009). 12
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A study looking at this issue in terms of the ecology of populations of wild ungulates in the Sahel found that “Wild ungulate populations migrate to make use of nutritious but very seasonal food supplies. In doing this, they maintain a higher population size than they could as sedentary populations.” (Sinclair and Fryxell, 1985:987). 13
Colonial veterinarians Paul Mornet and Kassoum Kone had hinted at this crucial point in their work on Bororo zebu raised by Fulani Wodaabe in Niger. Although they spoke in terms of “roaming” rather than “strategic mobility” (this was the 1940s!) and did not develop their intuition, they were right on the target: “in order to be able to keep their zebu in good condition, the Fulani […] continue this ceaseless roaming and every year win […] this challenge of keeping alive animals whose nutritional needs (given their size) are disproportionate to the capacity of the pastures” (Mornet and Koné, 1941: 179). 14
Pastoral Water Development in Chad
Box 4: Refocusing the approach to policy formulation
Several West African states have promulgated legislative codes that are specifically designed to support pastoralism, acknowledging that mobility is an asset that needs to be secured, formally recognising pastoralists’ customary rights of access and communal management systems, and protecting “pastoral resources” (Islamic Republic of Mauritania, 2000; Republic of Mali, 2001; Republic of Niger, 2012). The African Union’s framework for a policy on pastoralism in Africa starts by declaring that “pastoralists are custodians of key national resources found in arid and semi-arid areas and, as a system, pastoralism helps to protect and safeguard these resources” (African Union, 2010:1).
A recent policy to develop arid and semi-arid areas in Kenya stipulates that “Pastoralism is the extensive production of livestock in rangeland environments [...] its principal defining features are livestock mobility and the communal management of natural resources […] until recently, most governments viewed pastoral areas as net consumers of national wealth that offered poor prospects of return on investment. Pastoralism was therefore less valued than other forms of land use and less well-supported. Recent studies have shown that these views were misplaced.” This policy also aims to “recognise through legislation, pastoralism as a legitimate form of productive land use and development on the same basis as farming” and “ensure that devolved structures accommodate mobility and resource-sharing across administrative boundaries and draw on the knowledge and experience of customary institutions” (Republic of Kenya, 2012:19). The International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) recommends “Investment in pastoral livestock production based on the assumption that pastoralism is rational, and that it can be reinforced with appropriate technological and management adjustments, but cannot be sustainably substituted” (IUCN 2011:29). The International Livestock Research Institute’s (ILRI) research on payments for ecosystems services highlights the crucial role of pastoral systems (Silvestri et al., 2012), while a recent global study by FAO emphasises that pastoralism is a lowcarbon production system compared with intensive livestock systems (Steinfeld et al., 2010).
1.1.3. Undervalued assets The orthodox ecological model of pastoral development
economies and the aggregation of data, efforts are now
regarded pastoral production as having very little economic
being made to show what pastoral systems contribute to
importance. Pastoralism was viewed as illogical and even
the economy (Hesse and MacGregor, 2006; Krätli, 2013).
disruptive, limited to subsistence and stuck in the past. The
Pastoral systems are also attracting growing attention as
theoretical changes over the last 20 years have led to a
examples of resilience to climate change (AU-IBAR, 2010;
re-evaluation of its economic contribution. In most African
Brooks, 2006; Birch and Grahn, 2007). The fact that they
countries with robust pastoral systems their contribution
use land in a way that allows environmental instability to be
accounts for a significant proportion of GDP and represents
exploited for food production has come to be seen as an
exceptionally high returns on investment (African Union,
important lesson for a world facing increasing climatic
2010). Although its value tends to be masked by informal
volatility (Krätli et al., 2013a).
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Part of the growing recognition of their economic value is
Box 5: What is “pastoralism”?
associated with the management of rangelands as both ecological and political spaces. In the first case, the value
Pastoralism has usually been described in terms of
can be calculated in the form of payments for environmental
what it is not, and thus: defined “by subtraction”. The
services (see Silvestri et al., 2012, among others). In the
National Policy for the Sustainable Development of
second case, indirect values include social management of
Northern Kenya and other Arid Lands (Republic of
conflict (peace) and reproduction of the social fabric. Unlike
Kenya, 2012) departs from traditional subtractive
most production systems, pastoral systems come equipped
descriptions of pastoralism and commits to the
with “infrastructure”: the informal institutions and forms of
following “substantive” definition:
social organisation that enable citizens to inhabit political
“The term refers to both an economic activity and a
spaces in remote and inhospitable regions that state
cultural identity, but the latter does not necessarily
institutions find hard to reach. So far, the only systems that
imply the former. As an economic activity, pastoralism
have proved capable of effectively managing the vast areas
is an animal production system which takes advantage
concerned are extensive pastoral economies. This service
of the characteristic instability of rangeland
attracted very little attention in the past, but is now
environments, where key resources such as nutrients
recognised as increasingly valuable. Governments often
and water for livestock become available in short-lived
find it hard to keep control of this land, and where pastoral
and largely unpredictable concentrations. Crucial
systems are declining, the spaces they used to control
aspects of pastoralist specialisation are:
become “ungoverned”. The cost of securing “ungoverned areas” (be they real or perceived) is usually astronomical
1. The interaction of people, animals and the
(Ploch, 2011).
environment, particularly strategic mobility of livestock and selective feeding 2. The development of flexible resource management systems, particularly communal land management
1.1.4. A place in the future
institutions and non-exclusive entitlements to water resources.” (Republic of Kenya, 2012).
In the orthodox ecological model (of equilibrium), pastoralism has been associated with the past and seen as
Using a definition with a firm basis in reality allows to
the benchmark against which the future and development
recognise pastoralism as a system that has its own
is measured: an evolutionary stage that needs to be passed
internal logic and operates with actual production
or which has already been passed. Modernisation and
strategies. Now equipped with a description of its
pastoralism have been seen as mutually exclusive, not so
“content”, we can recognise pastoralism regardless of
much on the basis of empirical evidence as by definition.
how it is labelled.
This view echoed the “tripartite theory”, representing pastoralism as a transitional stage between hunter-gathering and farming.15 This model found fertile ground not only in the well documented socio-evolutionist renaissance of the colonial era (see, for example, Khazanov, 1984), but also in the contemporaneous theory of ecological succession, where different stages lead to a state of equilibrium through competition. 16 The representation of pastoralism as
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inevitably competing with agriculture as part of a “natural evolution” towards mixed farming – popular among old-school technicians and relaunched in the late 1990s – has its roots in this view. This vision of pastoralism is also reflected in livestock development policies in Chad (see Barraud et al., 2001: 33). 15
In Saving the Prairies, Ronald Tobey analyses the influence of socioevolutionary theories – and of course the neoclassical economics – on the development of the theory of ecological succession (Tobey, 1981). 16
Pastoral Water Development in Chad
This representation is challenged by the relatively recent
consists of working with environmental variability rather than
possibility of defining pastoralism in terms of its production
against it. As a result, they have proved unsustainable in
strategies and particular way of using the environment, rather
these conditions and unable to match the economic and
than by subtraction. According to the most recent
ecological efficiency of pastoral systems.17
understanding of pastoral systems, the transformation of pastoralists and farmers into agro-pastoralists and mixed
Now that the new theoretical model allows us to see this
farmers looks more like a regressive rather than a progressive
fundamental difference, it follows that an alternative logic of
step, representing a loss of specialisation and complementarity
production requires its own process of modernisation (Krätli
often associated with impoverishment and greater vulnerability
and Schareika, 2010; Krätli et al., 2013a). Instead of relying
to ecological crises and conflict (see, for example, Banzhaf,
on ready-made “modernity”, genuine modernisation of a
2005).
predominantly pastoral livestock sector will entail mobilising scientific research and technological progress to generate
Better understanding how pastoral systems function enables
innovative solutions that are specifically designed (in dialogue
us to distinguish between production logics and daily
with primary producers) to fit the production logic of pastoral
practices. Specialising in the exploitation of the ephemeral
systems.
and unpredictable concentrations of resources typical in arid
1.1.5. How do AFD projects fit into this general context?
and semi-arid pastures (which is what pastoral systems do) is no more “traditional” than specialising in the exploitation
To our knowledge, Almy Bahaïm was the first development
of uniform and stable temperate settings, as in the so-called
programme specifically designed to safeguard pastoral mobility.
“command-and-control” model of globalised intensive
In 1995, this kind of objective represented a remarkable leap
agriculture. There is nothing intrinsically “anti-modern” in the
forward. The programme procedure was developed completely
logic of pastoral production systems; it is more that modern
independently of the parallel process under way in the theory
science and technologies have yet to provide pastoral
of pastoral development. Indeed, the shift in paradigm observed
producers with real opportunities to improve their practices.
in the Anglophone context did not appear in project documents or related papers until the mid-2000s (Barraud et al., 2001;
Agricultural modernisation programmes still invest relatively
Reounodji et al., 2005; Julien, 2006).
little in pastoral systems, even in countries where most drylands agricultural GDP is derived from livestock production.
Once integrated, this shift provided powerful support for the
Most investment focuses on ready-made modernisation
project approach, and has been used accordingly. But because
options that serve the logic of globalised agricultural
the projects were designed “ahead of the theory” as it were, a
production systems. Such solutions may be effective in their
lot of work was needed to systematically and coherently bring
own field, but they do not fit into the logic of specialised animal production in arid areas, which (as we have seen)
them into line with the new theoretical framework. One important
One example is ranching, which has existed for centuries but is still considered “modern” because of its roots in the market economy (Strickon, 1965). Ranching schemes were pioneered in pastoral areas of Africa in the 1950s to 1970s, often thanks to funding from USAID (Doornbus and Lofchie, 1973; Behnke, 1984; Boutrais, 1990; Rutten, 1992). The World Bank promoted ranching in pastoral areas from the mid1960s until the early 1980s, when it decided that this strategy was unviable and inefficient (de Haan, 1994). By the early 1990s, 25 independent studies conducted in nine countries in East, West and southern Africa noted that per-hectare yields in pastoral production systems were several times higher than those in ranching systems (Scoones, 1995).
implications of project objectives that had not been visible
aspect of this work was identifying and addressing the
17
outside the new framework. Another critical task (which also needed to be tackled in the more general context of the changing paradigm) was separating the old from the new in project design and implementation. As we will see, this work took a while to get off the ground and is still under way.
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1.2. History of AFD support for pastoralism in Chad: 20 years of projects
1.2.1. AFD interventions in Chad’s pastoral water sector
ranching. When these ranching systems failed in the late 1980s, sedentarised pastoralists gradually started returning
Context of pastoral water before BET
to transhumance, followed by numerous herders from sedentary communities (Barraud et al., 2001; Aubague and
The colonial policy of sedentarising and controlling mobile communities culminated in the Law of 31 October 1959
Grimaud, 2011).
regarding the regulation of nomadic behaviour in Chad (which was never applied, but remains the only legislative framework for pastoral issues). This law sets the start date and itinerary for transhumance, and only authorises movements and resting areas outside “home” districts for “groups” with
AFD appears on the scene The resumption of transhumance in the late 1980s and early 1990s called for a review of the way that pastoralism was regarded. In 1987, an identification study led by BURGEAP18
“passes” that have to be presented to the local administrative
paved the way for a future pastoral water intervention by AFD.
authorities. Failure to do so could result in heavy fines and
This took shape after the evaluation by J.M. Bellot in 1994,
penalties of up to six months’ imprisonment.
and resulted in the first project designed to secure livestock
The policy of sedentarisation continued to dominate pastoral
rearing in eastern Chad: Almy Bahaïm 1, which began in
development policies after independence. Barraud et al.
1995. A total of 11 pastoral water projects would be
(2001: 32) cite an issue of Tchad et Culture published in 1975, which describes nomadic behaviour as a burden and pastoral water as the key instrument in sedentarisation policies: “The
implemented in the 20 years between 1993 and 2013 (see calendar).
need for nomadism or transhumance can only be reduced
AFD interventions in Chad’s water sector before 1990
by developing pastoral water. This is the first condition to be
mainly consisted of support for village water projects in the
met in trying to sedentarise communities, which will help
south of the country (the Koros projects). It seems that the
contribute to human progress.”
first move towards funding pastoral water infrastructure in northern Chad (Borkou, Ennedi, Tibesti in Saharan-Sahelian
When BET was launched in 1993, pastoral water had been
areas near the Libyan border) was prompted by requests
used for over 40 years as an instrument to restrict and
from nomadic herders from these areas for AFD to undertake
ultimately dismantle transhumance systems. The aim was to encourage pastoralists to settle in “home territories” (defined by the colonial administration) and take up supposedly new market-oriented forms of livestock rearing, especially
We were unable to find this document. One of its authors, M. Steenhoudt, is now head of the pastoral water component for Almy Al Afia 2. 18
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water works in the south where they went on transhumance. The first BET project ran in conjunction with the Koros project, of which it was a component.
Pastoral Water Development in Chad
Table 2: AFD projects in Chad 1993-2013
Year 1993 -1994 1995 -2000
1995 -1998 1999 -2003 2003 /2004 2005 -2010 + 2000-2002
1999 -2003
Location
BET Borkou, Ennedi Tibesti
Eastern Chad Ouadi Fira Ouadaï Sila, Salamat Est Batha + Irriba Bilia zone
Western Chad Kanem
Project BET 1 BET 2
Central Chad Batha Ouest Guera
Improve the supply of good quality water in nomadic livestock rearing zones and along caravan routes Provide drinking water for herders Make productive use of unexploited pastures Install new permanent water points along caravan routes
Almy Bahaïm Phase I Phase II Phase III Irriba Bilia
Secure livestock rearing in eastern Chad Improve access to water resources in order to secure herds, through combined efforts to: • Extend the pastoral water network • Secure the use of pastoral infrastructure Irriba Bilia: i) complete the pastoral water network in Chad ii) support local people (Zaghawas) in order to reduce conflicts iii) test new structures (groundwater dams)
PHPK Kanem 1 + Kanem 2
Rehabilitate and construct wells to secure water supplies for livestock and herders Ensure permanent access to water and resources Secure access to grazing Improve animal health
Bahr el Ghazal
2004 -2007 2008 -2009 2010 -2014
Aims / Objectives
Almy Al Afia Phase I Phase intérimaire Phase II
Sécurisation de l’accès et de la gestion des ressources pastorales Facilitate access to groundwater with new wells Open up under-used grazing through new water points, wells/ponds Secure existing water resources by rehabilitating old wells Safeguard livestock mobility by developing transhumance routes and creating intermediate water points (wells/ponds) Help secure pastoral use rights through: • Joint management of pastoral infrastructure • Joint management of common resources
Source : évaluation IIED 2013.
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BET 1 and 2 were essentially pastoral water infrastructure
commercial livestock rearing”
19
(CIRAD, 2010 evaluation).
projects without a pastoral component. They were important
They created 67 wells – 18 of them in west Kanem where
because they “took account of the productive needs of the
BET2 was based due to security problems in the north – but
most marginalised actors (sedentary, nomadic and transhumant
did not intervene in the way that the installations were
herders) in major pastoral zones, as well as the needs of
managed. This was done using customary procedures, and
Table 3. Timetable of AFD pastoral water interventions in Chad 1990 / 1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
Future
Support to Ministry of Livestock Central Chad Almy Al Afia
PHPK Phase 1 6 M€ + 1,8 (“Kanem 2”)
PHPK Kanem Eastern Chad Almy Bahaim + IrribaBilia
1987 Iden tification study TCO
Feasibility study AB
Évaluation AB Bellot
xxx
Almy Bahaïm Phase 2 EUR 7,5
EUR 6,5 AB2 + Irriba-Bilia EUR 2.8m
BET Phase 1 EUR5.2m (with Koros)
BET Koro HVA KORO HVA (village water & sanitation)
Almy Bahaïm Phase 1
Koro HVA
BET Phase 2 Borkou-Ennedi-Tibesti EUR 5.2m
Projet Koro 2
These areas were also seriously affected by the conflict with Libya: Approaches to pastoral wells were mined and wells were filled in or poisoned (interview with J.M. Bellot, AFD, November 2011). 19
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2002
Pastoral Water Development in Chad
2003
no violent conflicts were reported. While these interventions
pastoral production systems through water, targeting access
used a decidedly sectoral approach to improve the coverage
to under-exploited grazing (mobility), supporting the pastoral
of water points in semi-desert areas, they were driven by some
economy (improving main caravan routes) and, albeit by
of the concerns behind second-generation projects like Almy
default, supporting the customary management of pastoral
Bahaïm, PHPK Kanem and Almy Al Afia: the desire to secure
wells. The total cost of BET 1 and 2 came to EUR 10.4 million.
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
Western Chad study
Fitri study
TA Ministry of Livestock Conference 2011
Almy al Afia 1
AAA1 Interim phase
EUR 8m
PHPK 2 Interim phase Almy Bahaïm
Almy Bahaïm Phase 3
PHPK
2013
2014
TA interim. + TA national Platform + Conference on security
AAA 2 EUR 11m + Fitri study
Voir : AAA 2 Et : PROHYPA FIFA AB capitalisation
Eval AB3 ERE
EUR 6.4m EUR 0.6m
Source: IIED 2013 evaluation.
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Almy Bahaïm: A revolutionary and productive “livestock water” project
component from the first phase, at their request). The projects created wells and ponds, marked out mourhâls as
The economic importance of livestock rearing was first
part of the strategy to secure access to water (AB2), and
recognised in Chad in the early 1990s. In his 1994 evaluation
promoted social consensus and customary management of
report, J.M. Bellot notes that it accounts for 30 per cent of
the installations through various management bodies. Almy
formal and informal exports, 13 per cent of GDP and involves
Bahaïm 1 involved a whole series of pastoral projects (AFD
40 per cent of the population. In addition to its economic importance, he also demonstrates that mobility is an efficient production strategy: “Mobility […] is the best strategy for
and non-AFD), and follow-up work in 2010 proved invaluable in building on all phases of the project, which cost EUR 23.8 million in total.
ensuring that the environment is used in a balanced way and that herds have enough to eat during the dry season.” This marked a major departure from previous perceptions and
PHPK Kanem: Geographical equity, technical and institutional innovations
practices, which focused on sedentarisation. In terms of space, the project focused on the “Sudano-Sahelian regions”
PHPP Kanem was designed in response to a request from
south of the 13° parallel, which had seen i) a substantial
the Directorate of Water Resources in late 1996 to rehabilitate
increase in livestock rearing among sedentary communities,
pastoral water points in Kanem (on the border with Niger)
and ii) large numbers of herders from pastoral communities settling in the south, occupying areas that transhumant
and Bahr el Ghazal in western Chad. Water works in this area are notoriously difficult due to the technical challenges
herders previously used for dry season stopovers. This huge
presented by saline water and loose sand, and the wells
area was then extended up to the border with Sudan in
were in particularly bad shape after 20 years of neglect. The
Phase 2 (which covered over 200,000 km²).
project included three components: i) work on the wells,
Almy Bahaïm aimed to address this situation by i) providing
which was a huge undertaking involving over 300 new or
some secure water supplies during transhumance for herders
rehabilitated wells; ii) support for pastoral groups, with
in the north and ii) opening up new grazing areas in the south
improved access to animal health services and protected
to make space for transhumant herders during the dry
fodder resources; iii) research-development on water and
season. The project targeted eastern Chad, which supports
natural resource conservation. PHPK also had a water
over 60 per cent of the national herd. Between 1999 and 2002, a fourth project20 executed by the Almy Bahaïm team
INADES, IRAM, LRVZ, VSF), many of whom were also
northeast of the zone (Irriba and Bilia in Ennedi and Biltine)
involved in Almy Bahaïm. This was an innovative project in
– this was essentially the water component. All three phases
many senses, not only in terms of its technical/water works
of Almy Bahaïm (and the interim phase between AB2 and
and monitoring and evaluation, but also in using customary
AB3) pursued the same aim of securing pastoral mobility.
modes of management and testing a multi-sectoral approach
Each project included a water component and a pastoral
(with environment and animal health). Because of the
component (apart from Irriba Bilia), worked with groups of consultants (BURGEAP-VSF, BURGEAP-VSF-AGRITCHAD, BURGEAP-IRAM-AGRITCHAD) and received support from
•
2 was transferred to the Kanem project to construct wells in cost of the project came to EUR 7.8m (EUR 6m for PHPK+ EUR 1.8m for BET).
In response to a request from the Government of Chad.
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security situation in the north (BET zone), funding for BET the north of its intervention area (EUR 1.8m). The overall
CIRAD and LRVZ (IRAM/A. Marty supported the pastoral
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strong team of facilitators (15 people) and numerous partners providing scientific and technical support (CIRAD, DDPAP,
worked to improve conditions for Zaghawas herders in the
20
component and a pastoral component. It had an unusually
40
Pastoral Water Development in Chad
Almy Al Afia (“water for peace”): Geographic coverage, validation of achievements, new fields of research and activity
2011 conference on the sectoral policy for pastoralism in Chad was one of the major outputs of this project. AFD has also supported pastoralism in Chad through two institutional support
The Almy Al Afia (AAA) 1 and 2 projects in central Chad make
projects (2009-2011 and 2012-2013). While they do not exactly
up the third “family” of AFD pastoral water projects and
fit into the portfolio of this evaluation, as they were not pastoral
complete the geographic coverage between eastern Chad and
water projects, they were part of the procedure and are referred
PHPK Kanem. Their name, which means “water for peace”,
to in the next sub-section on methodological change.
clearly shows that they aim to go beyond water for livestock 1.2.2. Pastoral water as a conduit for support: 20 years of cut-and-paste or two decades of methodological change?
and humans. Their objectives (see Table 1) are in line with those of previous projects, with a particular focus on support for peaceful management of installations and resources. The programme started in 2004, and will run without interruption
This is one of the questions that was raised in the terms of
until 2014 (when AAA2 is scheduled to end) thanks to a two-
reference. We will start to answer it here, although section 2
year interim phase (mid-2008 to mid-2010) that kept the teams
(2.7.5) gives more details about the process approach, which
and actions going despite the serious troubles of 2008 (which
combined continuity, flexibility and innovation, and is
also affected Almy Bahaïm 3). The AAA projects use the same
summarised in Table 4 below. AFD’s pastoral support has
institutional setup as their predecessors and also include a
been characterised by the continuity of its projects’ innovative
water component and a pastoral component (AGRP). They
and relevant approaches, and the fact that each project built
have continued and deepened the technical and methodological
on the lessons learned from its predecessors in order to
aspects of the “AFD school” approach, and included two major
tackle the target issues in greater depth. This is why we talk
innovations: the study Au cœur de la transhumance, which
about the “AFD school” or learning process.
looked at pastoral systems at the camp and family level, and the huge inter-disciplinary study of the Lake Fitri region, which
The AFD approach aims to go beyond internal change and
paves the way for a possible future intervention by AFD in this
innovation by generating lessons and projects that are
crucial lakeland area.
themselves evolving and innovative. Even if the “marriage” between AFD and IFAD did not lead to a joint project in
Projects that support pastoralism, but not through pastoral water
Kanem or central Chad, the pastoral water project did continue the work started with PHPK Kanem in its own way,
In 2009, AFD used funding from the Federal Energy
and the future project in eastern Chad and study on Lake
Regulatory Commission (FERC) to provide institutional support
Fitri open the way for continuity and innovation in new fields.
for the Ministry of Livestock, delivering technical assistance on pastoral issues in Chad through IRAM, which had provided technical assistance for the AGRP component in AAA1. The
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Table 4: Methodological continuity and change in AFD’s pastoral water projects Continuity
Change
From a sectoral to a systemic approach
From village water and sanitation (HVA) to sectoral pastoral water (PW) BET/1993 From sectoral water to a systemic approach: Almy Bahaïm, PHPK, AAA1 (1994 – 2014) + institutional support projects for the Ministry of Livestock and civil society (Platform) (2009-2013) + future projects (eastern Chad, Fitri?) 2013 onwards
Pastoral water as the main but not exclusive entry point
From water for humans and livestock to water to secure pastoral mobility/pastoral modes of production + non-water works to support mobility: Marking mourhâls (AB2) To water to secure peace/water as a way of governing spaces PHPK: An attempt at multi-sectorality (animal health, environment) that was not followed up AAA1: Addressing the need to cross bahrs and wadis that run east-west when moving south-north: Koundjourou bridge, pedestrian/cattle crossings (unfinished)
Strategic level
Initially only pastoral areas in northern Chad, then eastern Chad (north-south, including Salamat), then Kanem (west) then central Chad = coverage of all pastoral areas in Chad Eastern Chad (2013 onwards): Restart on a large scale north-south + west-east trade routes (incorporating lessons from PAFIB)
Institutional setup/ project operators
Initially only water (BET), then same setup for all pastoral water projects Ministry of Water + Ministry of Livestock (all projects) Water component and pastoral component (which becomes support for pastoral resource management) Non-pastoral water projects: Ministry of Livestock, civil society (Platform)
Reconciling technical and social imperatives
Priority given to consultation and developing methodologies and tools for consultation and dialogue: Settlement on sites, social consensus/avoiding conflicts, preference for customary modes of management, reaffirming principle of free pastoral water. PHPK renounces EIG/World Bank approach. AB: Support for the joint committee in Abéché, umbrella organisations tried and abandoned, strategy of diverse customary modes of management AAA: Relaunch mixed conflict management and prevention committees; securing pastoral use rights
Technical works: Wells, ponds
Permanent pastoral wells, rehabilitation of existing wells preferred, adapted and innovative techniques in difficult areas: Wells in Kanem, biseau sec,21 bedrock… Short-term ponds along transhumance routes: AB, AAA Underground dams (Irriba Bilia)
Measuring environmental impacts
BET: Not documented Starting with AB: Principle of ecological prudence; SPOC coordinated observation sites tried with AB, then external global study (Geney) PHPK: Innovation with comparative observation of 3 types of well
Studies and follow-up
BET: Not documented. Starting with AB: Wide range of high quality studies in numerous (hard and soft) areas relating to pastoral systems AAA1: Publication and film Au cœur de la transhumance Institutional support projects: National-level thematic studies, conferences, website Starting with AB: Comprehensive follow-up work
Human resources: National and international
Continuity and diversity in teams to establish a skill base Retaining effective teams and operators in “hard” and “soft” areas from BET to AAA1: Learning process promoted for greater continuity and efficiency Building a productive national skill base, with focal points in the two supervisory ministries
Source: IIED 2013 evaluation.
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Pastoral Water Development in Chad
1.2.3. AFD contributions to overall support for pastoral development
July 2002: Joint agreement signed by the Ministry of Livestock and herders’ associations regarding joint actions to support pastoral mobility – including a national seminar
AFD’s work in Chad over the last 20 years has significantly
on “The issues and challenges for pastoral development in
contributed to broader understanding and support for
Chad” to be held in 2005;
pastoral systems. While it may initially have been a case of seizing the opportunities presented by the decline of cotton:
2005: Seminar on “The issues and challenges for pastoral
the devaluation of the CFA franc (brutally “liberating” funds
development in Chad” heralded as “one of the rare occasions
that were redirected to pastoralism), and visionary and
for different national sensibilities to voice their opinions on
committed actors who knew how to pass on the lessons
the main challenges to pastoralism” (Reounodji and
learned,22 it was not simply a matter of having “the right
Alfaroukh, 2011). This event brought together herders,
people in the right place” during this difficult period. AFD had
farmers, administrators, customary chiefs, researchers,
a long-term strategy, which it has pursued over a 20-year
development practitioners and civil society associations
programme of uninterrupted support at a cost of over EUR
seeking political and technical solutions to improve
60 million. Despite this, surprisingly little is known about this
pastoralists’ living conditions;
extremely unusual initiative outside Chad.
2011: Conference on the sectoral policy for pastoralism in
The so-called “pastoral water” projects supported by AFD
Chad: The culmination of institutional support for the Ministry
in Chad are part of a very much broader range of support
of Livestock, which led to the (unprecedented) creation of a
for pastoral systems and rural development across the
committee to follow up the conference recommendations – a
Sahelian belt. While AFD was leading the way with its
permanent Platform bringing together state and non-state
pioneering pastoral interventions, increasing attention from
actors, providing a real launch pad for pastoral civil society
other quarters also helped determine the course of
in Chad. Since then several series of studies have been
pastoralism in Chad over the last decade (with or without
conducted on major themes such as the economy, education
support from AFD interventions), with events such as:
in nomadic communities, funding for infrastructure, and so on;
1999: The national seminar in N’Djamena on conflicts between farmers and herders organised by Médiation
2013: Regional conference on the theme “Pastoral livestock
Nationale, which led to a formal recommendation for a review
rearing: A sustainable contribution to pastoral development
of Law N° 04 of 31 October 1959;
and security in Saharan-Sahelian spaces”.
2002: Proposed draft bill on the “Regulation of nomadic
Far from being unsystematic or sectoral, AFD’s involvement
behaviour, transhumance and livestock keeping in Chad”. A
with pastoralism in Chad over the last 20 years has addressed
national workshop decided that this had been hastily
the major current and future issues affecting the sub-region.
prepared and that a Pastoral Code needed to be developed;
An area of eastern Chad characterised by clayey-sandy subsoil on a crystalline substratum. Water resources are very limited – hence the decision to use ponds to collect rainwater for herds to drink. 21
Such as L. Authoserres, V. Barraud, J.M. Bellot and A. Marty, to name but a few of those who were in contact with senior Chadian actors, AFD, experts and researchers. 22
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AFD 2014
Secteur de l’Hydraulique pastorale au Tchad
2. Findings and analysis: Looking back over the last 20 years This section presents the main findings (observations and
production systems; support for social dynamics; the total
analysis) of the retrospective element of the evaluation. Each
economic value of pastoral livestock production; impacts on
sub-section is structured around a key evaluation question
peace and security; influence on policies. This retrospective
that emerged from the framework document validated by
part of the exercise ends with a discussion of the strengths
COPIL, namely: the sustainability of the infrastructure and
and weaknesses of AFD’s approach (sub-section 2.7).
development of pastoral areas; the complementarity of
2.1 How sustainable is pastoral infrastructure?
This sub-section deals with the vital issue of the sustainability
We will consider these issues in three ways, looking at: a)
of pastoral infrastructure, and considers AFD’s decision to use
the technical/physical quality of the works; b) how the
pastoral water as an entry point for its support for this sector over
installations are managed, especially in terms of maintenance;
the last 20 years. In this report, the term “sustainability” refers to
c) funding to maintain existing infrastructure (especially
both the physical permanence and functionality of the installations
major maintenance works) and invest in new installations.
(temporal dimension), and the viability of the mechanisms used to manage, maintain and fund them. It should also be remembered
2.1.1. Infrastructure: Technical achievements and
that AFD projects funded a range of pastoral infrastructure works,
track record
which are not all water-related. In addition to wells, ponds and micro-dams, they also marked out transhumance routes, and
At this point it is worth noting that we were not mandated
Phase 2 of Almy Al Afia includes work on the future bridge over
to evaluate the condition of the installations, and that the
the Batha. When assessing the sustainability of this infrastructure,
consultant was only able to take a quick look at various
three important factors need to be borne in mind: i) the extent to
ponds, wells and markers to get an idea of the types of
which the water points meet physical supply and demand; ii) the
infrastructure concerned. Therefore, the following
balance between levels of use and levels of water resources,
assessment is based on secondary data from previous
and retaining the original character of the installations; and iii)
evaluation reports, 24 interviews with users in Chad and
the cost of periodic maintenance and repairs and responsibility
France, and the three scenario planning workshops.
for their execution.
23
A total of 1,157 structures were created between 1993 and 23
Notes by the hydrologist for Almy Al Afia Phase 2, March 2013.
2013 (see Table 5 below). With the exception of the first
Especially the evaluation by ERE, as well as follow-up documents and assessments by ministers, AFD, project staff and experts. 24
Borkou-Ennedi-Tibesti (BET) pastoral water project in 1993,
•
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AFD 2013
Evaluation and Capitalisation Series . N°51
most of the structures were wells. These accounted for 76
from loose sand to bedrock and biseau sec. AFD is not the
per cent of water works, with over half of the wells (67 per
only intervening agency to have had problems in the Kanem
cent) rehabilitated. About a quarter of the water works
area,25 which is characterised by very fine-grained, unstable
involved ponds, with about 260 ponds created in response
sand that makes it difficult to sink and maintain cemented
to the (ongoing) high demand from herders. No detailed
well shafts. Despite these obstacles, the water components
assessment of the works has been made in the last 20 years.
of AFD projects have produced significant technical results
Previous evaluations say little about their technical
and innovations in various intervention areas, and their
sustainability, and none seem to have been able to make a
development has contributed to the exceptional body of
meaningful assessment based on a representative sample
knowledge generated over the last 20 years (see ANTEA
of the physical condition of the water points in the projects
follow-up on PHPK Kanem, 2003; BURGEAP/IRAM/
under consideration.
AGRITCHAD follow-up on the three phases of Almy Bahaïm, 2010, and Almy Al Afia Phase 1 – ANTEA/IRAM).
The most recent assessment by ERE (2012) only covers the last two projects: Phase 3 of Almy Bahaïm and Phase 1
Pastoral water has proved an effective and highly relevant
of Almy Al Afia. Although it states that “virtually all the
entry point for this kind of intervention, both in terms of users’
installations still work well”, it did not use a very representative
needs and government policy guidelines (see Master Plan
sample, and specialists do not regard site visits as a sound
for Water and Sanitation). However, commendations for its
evaluation methodology. When the consultant met with
undoubted achievements and continued relevance over the
people who had worked in the PHP Kanem area between
next two decades are tempered by concern about the lack
1999 and 2003, it was suggested that very few wells (less
of any overall assessment of the physical condition (and thus
than 20 per cent) in the Bahr el Ghazal zone were still
the sustainability) of the works undertaken by AFD-funded
functional 10 years after the project ended, due to water
projects. The three scenario planning workshops and many
quality (salinity, bitterness), silting or potential conflicts over
interviews held during this exercise clearly show that the
their management. If we took all the actors’ testimonies into
most pressing concern for herders is still the availability of
account, there would be a considerable difference between
water. This is due to a combination of demographic growth,
the coverage shown on maps and the wells that actually
estimated increases in herd size, and the fact that there have
function.
never been enough pastoral water points in Chad to meet their needs. No matter what form they take, the physical
It is worth remembering that the zones where these projects
sustainability of these facilities is a major challenge that must
operated present major hydro-ecological challenges, ranging
25
be addressed.
Interview with C. Eberschweiler, ANTEA, April 2013.
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Pastoral Water Development in Chad
Table 5: Pastoral water works undertaken with financial support from AFD between 1995 and 2010
Type of works
TOTAL works
Deep boreholes with pumps BET 1 Exploratory boreholes Total wells Rehabilitated wells New wells and borehole-fed wells Cleaned wells with covers Deepened ponds
Cleaned ponds from AB Phase 1 Micro-dams TOTAL water points created and rehabilitated
AB1
AB2
Iriba Bilia
Interim phase
AB3
AB Series
BET 1
BET 2
Kanem
AAA1
TOTAL
1995 / 1999
2000 / 2003
2000 / 2003
2003 / 2004
2005 / 2009
1995 / 2009
1993 / 1994
1995 / 2000
1999 / 2003
2005 / 2010
1995 / 2010
103
81
39
16
80
469
50
148
545
213
1 425
0
0
0
0
0
0
0 2
0
0
9
9
54
42
0
0
13
109
-
81
0
73
263
54
42
0
0
13
109
-
81
0
82
272
49
0
2
4
0
55
2
25
455
55
592
24
11
5
12
20
72
48
42
90
37
282
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
8
8
30
70
24
0
60
184
2
0
0
31
219
0
0
0
11
30
41
0
0
0
0
41
0
0
8
0
0
8
0
0
0
0
8
103
81
39
27
110
360
54
67
545
131
1 157
Source: ERE paper and various evaluation reports on these projects, supplemented by the Consultant (BET 1).
ExPost exPost
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47
AFD 2014
Evaluation and Capitalisation Series . N°51
Map 2: Location of works undertaken by Almy Bahaïm
Figure 3: Distribution of different types of water point
ré
Séries 1 Microdams
8 0,73 %
Séries 1 Ponds
256 23,21 %
Séries 1 Wells
839 76,07 %
Source: IIED Evaluation 2013. Town Pond Micro dam Well Mourhâl
Relevant technical choices threatened by difficult conditions
Main route E
IN
AFD projects have focused on two main technical options
A IC
R
F RA
since the pastoral water interventions started: wells and
NT
ponds (see section 1.2 on the history of AFD projects). The
Q
LI
B PU
eight micro-dams for the Irriba Bilia project were peripheral
UE
CE
RE
and have not been monitored, and pumping stations were
Demarcated section Irriba-Bilia area Extension area Project area Zakouma Governorate reserve Gouvernorat National boundary
not retained as an option – partly because the findings on
Source: Almy Bahaïm capitalisation projects.
existing examples were inconclusive about their maintenance, costs, management and ecological footprint, and partly because herders mainly requested wells and
liable to fill up with sand. Day-to-day maintenance of
ponds. The decision to undertake certain works and install particular types of infrastructure (pastoral wells and ponds)
from pastoral water points is free of charge.
to the very high demand for water on livestock routes in
In order to meet the demand from users, some wells had
the three intervention areas. Priority was rightly given to
to be sunk in areas where it is very difficult to access water
rehabilitating existing wells, or creating new ones where
(Guéra, Kanem), which made them very expensive (see
rehabilitation was not possible. These wells are generally much used, with some seasonal variations (as in Salamat), and demand for them is still high despite the large number planning workshops). Some watering holes are not suitable for heavy use, making them more difficult to maintain and
•
Table 6 below). Most ponds were created in areas that were unsuitable for wells. These projects have been praised for making water available in such areas, but this
of installations that have been put in place (see scenario
ExPost exPost
and ponds is dealt with through customary management systems (see sections 2.1.2 and 2.1.3); access to water
was deemed to be a pertinent and appropriate response
AFD 2014
liable to fill up with sand. Day-to-day maintenance of wells
48
achievement is mitigated by uncertainty over the sustainability of these water points.
Pastoral Water Development in Chad
Site selection procedures: A crucial factor for successful installations.
result of this process, many wells have been placed far away from fields and villages to reduce the risk of conflict. Although
Over time, Almy Bahaïm 1, 2 and 3, PHPK Kanem and Almy
some project managers and previous evaluations (CIRAD)
Al Afia 1 and 2 developed and refined comprehensive
have questioned the sites selected in order to maintain
preliminary procedures to be followed before any rehabilitation
peaceful relations, these tools provide an important
or construction works get under way. Members of the
methodological framework for social negotiation and shared
sedentary and transhumant communities concerned (or their
resource management across the country (see the examples
representatives) discuss and negotiate possible sites for the
of site selection procedures for PHPK Kanem and AAA1
water points, which are agreed through consensus. As a
presented in Figure 4 below). They represent an exceptional
Figure 4: Diagram of the PHPK site selection procedure
Inventory of degraded wells
1st survey
(April 2000)
Database of satellite images Field studies (August-September)
New proposals
Acceptable wells
1997 feasibility study
Questionnaire: Environmental, zoo-technical and social criteria (December 1999 to February 2000)
Wells requiring more detailed information
Maintenance guide (June 2000) & project manager survey
2nd survey
Evaluation of natural resources
At-risk wells
Accepted wells
Source: PHPK final report, ANTEA, October 2003.
contribution to the procedure for installing pastoral
be seen from the example of the methodology used by Almy
waterworks, by combining “hard” and “soft” technologies
Al Afia presented in Table 6 below. However, we believe that
(hydrogeology and societal) while reconciling the three pillars
the lack of violent conflict over the water works and installations
of the pastoral system – its societal (herders’ demands, risk
– which represents a considerable achievement – is largely
of conflict), ecological (water and grazing resources) and
due to the effort that the projects invested in these processes.
economic (livestock resources) aspects. This kind of complex
While they may not be perfect, the projects funded by AFD
procedure requires considerable time and expertise, as can
have generated some important lessons in this respect.
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AFD 2014
Evaluation and Capitalisation Series . N°51
Table 6: Summary of the AAA1 methodology for siting wells Activities
Quantifiable elements
Implementation period
Bibliography
• 112 references
Project presentation
• • • •
governor prefects sub-prefects canton chiefs
April 2004
Rapid appraisal
• 3 sub-prefectures • 14 mission days
April 2004
Update inventory of water works
• 5 canton meetings
April 2004
Define operational strategy
• 1 road map
April 2004
Validate survey sheets, interview guides and classification criteria
• 1 well sheet • 1 managers’ maintenance guide • 1 herders’ maintenance guide
May 2004
LRVZ ecological study
• 1 study
June 2004
Develop GIS
• 1 database • 1 GIS
May 2004
Fact-finding tours
• 107 wells visited • 50 mission days
Summarise findings
• 152 wells analysed
Present findings for each canton
• 5 canton meetings with chiefs of Kashimbeyt kébir
October 2004
Specific procedure for “inter-canton” wells
• 5 heads of canton consulted • 2 sub-prefects supported
October 2004
Validation meeting
• 1 validation meeting for the whole department of Batha Ouest • 70 wells retained for repair
1 2 5 9
March 2004
May to November 2004
October and November 2004
November 2004
Source: Almy Al Afia project methodology for selecting wells to be rehabilitated in the pastoral area of western Batha, December 2004, ANTEA IRAM.
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Pastoral Water Development in Chad
Ponds: “The most useful improvement for herders’ daily lives”
Box 6: Ponds
The ponds that the projects have created along the
“Ponds are specifically designed to be used during and after
mourhâls are a traditional rectangular shape with earth
the rainy season. They are crucial for transhumant herders
banks and bottoms. They function during the rainy
travelling south after the rains, who use ponds rather than
season and dry up during the dry season, but need
wells. They are also the only pastoral works possible in
constant cleaning to prevent them from filling up with
hydrogeologically challenging areas on the edge of the
sand and to protect the banks from being damaged as
Central and Ouaddaï massifs (biseau sec) and certain areas of bedrock. Ponds need to be large enough for pastures to
livestock drink from them.
be used reasonably, but not so big that they encourage over-
The herders we spoke to said that each pond serves
exploitation. It seems that the size of the ponds used in this
between 100 and 500 animals per day during the
first phase of the Almy Al Afia programme (between 6,000
transhumance season. [Systematic counts by the
m³ and 10,000 m³) are at the lower end of the range, as some
projects show that the actual number of animals far
were used much more than anticipated” (ANTEA/IRAM,
exceeds these estimates, amounting to thousands of
2008).26
head of cattle per day]. Vegetation around the ponds is not badly degraded, and corresponds with typical levels
The temporary ponds created or deepened by the projects were
in the region concerned. This was one of the objectives
a genuinely innovative and appropriate response to both the
of the programme, and is linked to the relatively short
physical conditions of the area and the demand from herders:
period when these water points are used (3 to 4 months).
meeting the need for surface water, reducing the distances
However, new fields have been observed in the vicinity
between water points and securing north-south transhumance.
of certain ponds created by the AAA1 project.
Transhumant herders were very positive about the ponds,
Source: Adapted from the ERE document, March 2013.
calling them “the most useful improvement to herders’ daily
While the overall response to the ponds has been good,
lives.” 27 They indirectly help sedentary farmers in the south
there are still not enough of them, and they could be better
too, as transhumant herders arrive later, after the fields are
distributed along the transhumance routes and around the
harvested. The ponds thus help slow down and secure the
resting areas (as in Ouaddaï in eastern Chad). There have
passage of humans and livestock towards the south, easing
also been questions about their quality, in terms of their
shortages of extracted water and giving families and their
location, build-ups of sand, the condition of the banks, their
livestock time to rest. The decision to use temporary (shallow)
depth and size, drownings and the length of time they contain
ponds reduces the risk of settlement and over-exploitation of
water. Transhumant herders cannot be solely responsible for
surrounding vegetative and woody resources, helps replenish
major maintenance (cleaning), which is relatively expensive
groundwater, and contributes to the creation of catchpits that
(FCFA 5.1m). In addition to this, the colonisation of spaces
are also used by resident agro-pastoralists. However,
around the ponds by sedentary actors (for gardens, wells)
sedentary herders and small-scale transhumant herders in
could be a potential source of tension with transhumant
the north are less keen on them, as they would like to retain
herders.
exclusive use of these grazing areas. 26
Central Chad Pastoral Water Programme – Almy Al Afia N° A 50701, ANTEA
Personal correspondence, C. Bénard, IRAM, February 2013. Summary Report, 2008. 27
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Constraints and threats to water works: Declining quality and rising costs
this is seriously affecting the quality of the works and damaging
Several sources mentioned this alarming trend, particularly
AAA2 was so late starting work, as selecting a good company
the whole chain of skills concerned. It also helps explain why
project operators and technicians. We were told that the wells
has become a lengthy task that further delays proceedings.
constructed in the 1960s and 1970s are still functional, and that large-diameter cemented wells can be expected to last
This trend is made all the more alarming by the fact that the
several decades. However, this no longer seems to be the
average cost of these works seems to be constantly increasing.
case, and some wells cannot be rehabilitated once they are
In order to provide a clearer picture of the situation, Table 7
over 15 years old. ERE notes that some of the wells constructed
below attempts to summarise the changing costs of water
during Phase 1 of AAA (2004-2007) are beyond repair, and
works in pastoral water projects funded by AFD over the last
one hydrologist we spoke to even raised the idea of “disposable
20 years – while recognising the inherent risks of reducing a
wells”.
very complex situation to a simple table. The cost of a well
Specialists say that it is not easy to measure the rate at which
depends on a large number of factors that vary according to
installations become degraded, especially without a detailed
the geographic area, hydrological constraints, the year that
assessment of pastoral water points in the three regions
the work was done, type of work involved, technologies used,
covered by AFD interventions. Their physical durability is affected by numerous factors, especially the hydrogeological
etc. The parameters retained here have been kept to the
characteristics of the site: a well dug in bedrock may last for
minimum: wells and ponds, projects, period when the work
30 years or more, while one sunk in the loose sands of Kanem
was done, unit cost of works and unit cost per linear metre.
is much more at risk even if it is technically well executed, with
This table does not take account of drilling costs (in themselves
a maximum lifespan of 15 to 20 years. It is also clear that a
and/or to be added to the final work). More technical and
well’s lifespan is largely determined by how it is used (especially
detailed work is needed to investigate and address this issue
over-used) and maintained.
(see section 3, Direction 2).
Conversations with hydrogeological experts in France and Chad suggest that the technical quality of these installations
As things stand, Table 7 confirms that water works have
(which obviously determines their sustainability) has declined
become more expensive over the last 20 years. The cost of
over the last ten years or so, with a marked deterioration in
wells seems to have increased considerably since Almy
the last three years. This problem is by no means particular
Bahaïm 1, rising from FCFA 450,000 per linear metre in 1995
to the projects funded by AFD, which seem to have a better
to FCFA 946,300 per linear metre in 2012, excluding taxes and
grip on it than some other interventions. During an interview
VAT (a good doubling), and to FCFA 1,452,000 when taxes
in March 2013, the Minister for Pastoral Development and
are included, which amounts to a threefold increase. This rise
Animal Production (MDPPA) noted that standards in Chad have declined as the markets have opened up to unreliable
was due to the cumulative effects of the economic situation
companies, and spoke of the need to tighten things up again
(the cost of living and materials rising as Chad became an
by avoiding the use of private contracts and “best bids”. There
oil-producing country) and the consequences of behaviour in
is a worrying tendency for good businesses to be overlooked
the informal economy. The highest costs shown here are those
or even outflanked by bad ones, with the risk that better
of PROHYPA, which intervened in Kanem with funding from
operators will ultimately disappear (one interviewee spoke of
IFAD.
a haemorrhage). Opportunistic businesses use the “lowest bids” and “under the table” offers to mop up the market, and
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Pastoral Water Development in Chad
Table 7: Summary of changes in the cost of waterworks between 1993 and 2012
Project/Year BET 1 1993
Average cost of new wells in millions of FCFA
Average cost of wells per linear metre in FCFA
Cost of ponds in millions of FCFA
20,2 – Tibesti
720 000
14.4 – Ennedi
648 000
BET 2 1995
17,8
536 000
-
Almy Bahaim 1 1995-1999
nd
450 000 (borehole-fed well)
23,9
-
475 000 (Salamat well) PHP Kanem 1999-2003
18,3 (24m) Nord
777 000
14,7 (B. El Ghazal)
592 000
Almy Bahaim 2 2000-2004
18 (22m intrusion zone)
818 000
24,5
16,2 (30 m Salamat)
540 000
27,6
29,2 (35 m Batha)
834 000
Irriba Bilia 2000-2003
34,1 (11m)
-
34,1 Micro-dam: 46,4 MF
Interphase AB2-AB3 2003-2005
23,8 (Extension)
852 000
20 (Salamat)
614 000
Pond cleaning: 5,1
AAA1 *** 2004-2005
27,3 for 37m (2006) *
723 332 WT **
32,6 (real final cost)
828 000 WT
Almy Bahaim 3 2005-2009
81,8 (94 m, Batha)
867 000
18,4 (36 m, Salamat)
504 000
AAA 2 **** 2010-2013
35,2 (37,2 m) WT
946 300 IT
54 IT
1 452 000 IT
AAA 2 **** 2010-2013
40 (30m)
1 330 000 WT
59,2 IT
1 973 000 IT
-
23
21,6
??
Sources: ANTEA, (PHP Kanem and AAA1 and 2), evaluations by IRAM (2004), ERE and CIRAD 2010. 28 * Average sedimentary and bedrock ** DF = duty free (30%) WT = without tax (18%) IT = including taxes + 48% *** AAA 1: A new 65m-deep well on sedimentary rock costs FCFA 37,020,000, or FCFA 569,500 per linear metre. It costs an average of FCFA 20,700,000 + FCFA 22,484,000 = FCFA 43,180, 000, or FCFA 828,000 per linear metre to connect a new well on bedrock to a borehole. **** 2012 costs. We would like to take this opportunity to thank the resource persons who helped us produce Table 7, and the authors who guided us through this delicate task of assessing costs (AFD, ANTEA, IRAM, MDPPA, MHRU…). 28
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AFD is not the only agency affected by rising costs, as
b) Falling standards in tendering and procurement procedures:
IFAD and the EU have also had problems in this respect. The task of estimating costs is further complicated by the fact that customs duties (30 per cent) and VAT (18 per cent) on certain materials have contributed to price increases since AAA2 (2011). The services concerned should reimburse companies for these duties (which they have to
The most striking example of this is the AAA2 project, which had no work in progress on any of its sites in March 2013, some two years after it began (late, because of issues with the way that the operator had been selected). This was due to delays in signing the tender documents, which can
pay upfront), but this does not always happen and they are then reflected in the price. Another contributing factor is the increase in “financial arrangements” (amounting to 30 to 50 per cent of the market price) to get bidding documents through the system more quickly – which raises questions about how much of the subsidies actually go to creating water points and their end users (pastoralists and/or agro-
take over a year to pass through very complicated signing processes. To be blunt, this looks like a vicious spiral of delays and corrupt practices at various levels (such as “drawing down” money), which is stifling businesses whose inability to make a profit is reflected in the quality of their work… One commentator noted that “the whole project chain is shutting down”. Some reproach AFD for not taking
pastoralists). Such practices not only affect the “hard” aspects of this work, as contracts for “soft” works are also delayed and blocked.29 MHRU notes that this situation is not specific to the water sector and it has been recommended that Chad introduce a single window approach, which is something that should be borne in mind for future AFD
a stronger line on procurement procedures, but this is an issue that affects the whole community of technical and financial partners. They need to stop focusing solely on procedures, and make more visible and concerted efforts to get things moving so that the chain starts functioning again.
projects.
c) Insufficient installations to meet demand:
Summary of suggested explanations for the declining quality and rising cost of works
These projects operate on a huge geographic scale, which
a) Lack of capacity in the companies appointed to carry out works:
they need to do in order to serve the vast areas covered by transhumant pastoralists. However, they provide far fewer facilities than are requested or needed. “A drop in the ocean”
Some Chadian companies lack the expertise, materials and/
was how one tribal chief put it at the scenario planning
or cashflow required to do their job properly. There has been
workshop in Abéché; “Spread too thinly”. To compound the
a marked decline in the quality of bids, with dossiers that would
problem, the ever-increasing demand for these facilities is
have been rejected outright 10 or 20 years ago now deemed
shortening their life expectancy (as confirmed by ERE and
acceptable. The quality of materials cannot be guaranteed,
CIRAD): “Conditions for their use are very difficult and
control systems are sometimes questionable, and security
intense, and the technical problems involved in working on
conditions are unreliable. Yet MDPPA maintains that Chad’s
very sandy soils or bedrock reduces the expected lifespan
national corporations are among the most experienced in the
of the installation (10 to 15 years).”
sub-region. It would be interesting to compare the situation in Chad with neighbouring countries such as Niger, and see whether they are experiencing a similar decline in standards.
d) Suitability for available water resources: This is a crucial question for the future, which elicited various responses. Some think that Chad will not have a
The contract for institutional support for the Platform was delayed from November 2011 to November 2012. 29
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54
Pastoral Water Development in Chad
argue that it is becoming scarcer in certain areas, and that
routes that are threatened by cultivation (see section 2.3 of
universal access to water cannot be guaranteed in the
this report). In conjunction with the creation of water points,
medium term (10/15 years) in a context of very high
discontinuous markers were set out along about 2,000 km
demographic growth (population doubling in the next 20
of mourhâls to protect at-risk sections of the ancestral
years) and estimated increases in the size of the national
routes, especially at pinch points and in difficult areas. This
herd. 30 The most recent studies on hydrogeological
was done in various ways, ranging from simple paint marks
resources in Chad date back to the 1960s, although a huge
(joint committee in Abéché with AB1) to solid markers.
study is due to be launched under the auspices of Swiss Cooperation. Ponds, which capture runoff water, can help recharge outlying water tables (and thus facilitate well-
Box 7: Are wells drying out because of sand siltation or falling water tables?
digging). e) Quality of water for human and livestock consumption:
It could be a combination of both, as users do not remove sandy deposits if they cannot access the bottom of the
This was mainly an issue for certain wells in Kanem, which
well safely. If they could, herders would be more likely
were abandoned because the water was too salty or bitter
to start deepening rather than just cleaning less produc-
for either humans or animals to drink. Other projects have
tive wells (possibly using camels to remove the bottom
learned from this lesson and drilled preliminary test holes
slab), which would adversely affect their sustainability.
before digging wells. Although herders seem to regard the cleanliness of water as a secondary consideration, and are
Fluctuations in the level of water tables should have been
still mainly concerned about its general (quantitative)
monitored since the early 1960s (initialised by BRGM).
scarcity, they have highlighted the deplorable water quality
Water levels in wells fall several metres from the top of
in ponds at the end of the cycle and sometimes asked for
the drainage column, but it is impossible to tell from the
wells to be dug nearby. The immediate surroundings of
databases whether this is due to problems with the way
pastoral wells are a source of constant contamination from
that they were installed or to general lowering of the
ropes trailing on the ground or through the mud, especially
water table.
if quagmires develop around their edges. Women would probably have something to say on the subject if they were
Source: Paper by the hydrologist for AAA2, March 2013.
specifically asked about it. Marking out transhumance routes In order to achieve its objective of securing mobility, the Almy Bahaïm project soon linked its use of pastoral waterworks to improve water availability with activities to secure sections of the main north-south transhumance
Numbers are estimated each year by extrapolating from the figures obtained from the last census (1976), using a multiplying factor corresponding to an estimated natural growth rate in the animal population concerned (Bonnet et al., 2004). Preparations are under way for a new national livestock census. 30
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Transhumance routes (such as the Mongo-Koundjourou axis)
Map 3: Overview of the works done in phases 1, 2 and 3 of the Almy Bahaïm project
sometimes follow roads for a while, and are particularly vulnerable when sections of the road are tarmacked. The decision to make the markers discontinuous is pertinent for various reasons, partly because of the need to develop pastoral areas (see sections 2.4 and 2.5), and partly because it would have been completely unaffordable to install continuous markers along thousands of kilometres of mourhâls. The project used complementary and consistent consultative methodologies to install both the discontinuous markers and the water points, although it has to be said that the process of securing these routes has not done enough to protect the resting areas along them. When we visited Abéché, tensions were running high because various resting areas and sections of the routes had been blocked. This triggered the mass resignation from the joint committee by the heads of nomadic tribes in June 2012, and is threatening the peaceful management of these facilities – which has been one of the key achievements of these AFD projects.
2.1.2. Management and lifespan of the works Main locations Wells Ponds Micro-dams
Demarcated sections Zakouma reserve
An AB3 follow-up document states that “The lifespan of the
Irriba-Bilia area
Main routes Mourhâls
Project extension area
works installed by the projects is undoubtedly linked to the way
Project
that they are managed.” In this respect, the projects are to be commended for promoting customary management systems and free pastoral water, an innovative approach that ran counter
Source: March 2009: Almy Bahaïm-Abéché projects.
to the practices and policies prevalent in the mid-1990s. The
Some types of marker are less hardwearing than others, and
dominant system for managing pastoral waterworks – the so-
some have been deliberately damaged or stolen for the
called “World Bank system” – was based on village waterworks
reinforced concrete. Cut stone seems to be the most durable
managed by “modern” committees, and payment for water.
and popular material: “69 per cent of respondents think the
Box 8: Should herders contribute to some of the costs of constructing pastoral wells?
stone and reinforced concrete markers are hardwearing and appropriate; all the markers made from galvanised tubes have disappeared now” […] 13 per cent of respondents thought that the markers were unsuitable for local conditions: many have Opinion is divided over who is responsible for their destruction, with some blaming “sedentary people who don’t want the markers” and others “transhumant herders who don’t like the way things have been done” (Ouadjonné, 2006).
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force them to stay in the vicinity and adversely affect their output. They would be reluctant to leave facilities
been destroyed,” although things did seem to stabilise in 2004.
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“Making pastoralists pay for one or more wells would
that they had paid for, and would also have to pay to use wells that others had funded. In short, making people pay to use wells would limit the scope and timing of their movements.” Source: MONNIER, before 1995.
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The approach developed by AFD-funded pastoral water
titles vary according to the area) are chosen by their community
projects differs radically from that of the World Bank in that i)
on account of their personal qualities, and their “nomination”
it is firmly committed to promoting the traditional/customary
is endorsed by the customary and/or canton chiefs. The
forms of managing water points used in the intervention areas,
plurality and complexity of these customary modes of
and ii) it upholds the principle of free use of pastoral water.
management have been studied in depth and followed up in
This is in order to avoid water points being appropriated by
various project intervention zones (with socio-land and
committee members (who are necessarily mainly sedentary)
historical studies, etc.). In central Chad, for example, the rules
and pastoralists being discriminated against or even excluded,
change radically according to whether one is east or west of
as this could ultimately create conflict. It is worth noting that
Bokoro: to the west, village committees control water and only
the AFD and World Bank approaches are opposed to and
herders pay for water; to the east there are no committees and
incompatible with each other.
water is free of charge.
The decision to work through customary management
Box 9: Customary management systems supported by AFD projects
systems rather than create “modern” committees to manage the water points has proved an appropriate and effective way of preventing conflicts over the last 20 years. Wherever we
• The joint committee in Abéché
went, we were told that there had been no violent disputes
• Joint well management bodies (Salamat)
(involving human death or serious injury) over the works
• Conflict prevention and management committees (joint)
associated with AFD interventions. Looking back over 20 years, it is clear that this is no coincidence, but a huge
• Person responsible for the well (various titles and rules), no committee (Kanem, Batha, BET)
achievement that can be ascribed to the approach adopted for these projects.
Source: Monnier, before 1995.
The AFD projects supported three types of management body: In all three intervention zones this approach was • The joint committee in Abéché, which was created in 1993
underpinned by a strategy of avoiding conflicts caused by
after the national conference, and which collaborated with the
people having to pay for water or management committees
Almy Bahaïm project from its first phase;
appropriating water works. It is particularly striking in the context of the PHP Kanem project, which was supposed to
• Joint well management bodies composed of equal numbers
create as many modern committees as new wells (90). While
of sedentary and transhumant members. This was an
recognising that this greatly contributed to the peaceful
experimental procedure that experienced some setbacks,
management of the works, previous evaluations, follow-up
partly because the wells were a long way away from the
work and numerous respondents have raised questions
villages concerned (20-30 km);
about the consequences (financial and otherwise) for the maintenance and physical durability of these facilities. The
• Joint conflict management and prevention committees:
status of individual water point managers is also somewhat
Mangalmé (AB + AAA) and other management bodies (the
problematic (see IRAM sociological report on Kanem): they
one in Goz Beida is thought to have fallen apart as it was given
are legitimate because they are appointed in line with the
too much money by humanitarian agencies).
canton chief and recognised by the local community, but are not legally recognised because they have no legal
Apart from these management bodies, the projects largely relied on customary well managers. These managers (whose
status.
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Box 10: Minor and major maintenance works
The two main concerns raised by IRAM, CIRAD and ERE regarding the sustainability of AFD water project
Small-scale rehabilitation
infrastructure are the general lack of maintenance and the
- In the north, in Batha, works are managed under the
link between durability and security. The CIRAD evaluation
customary management system, with a well manager
(2010) highlights the lack of general maintenance, and notes that outside PHPK “other projects have not put in place mechanisms to support or train actors in maintaining these
who functions independently and gets people to organise themselves (works, subscriptions, etc.) without any external intervention;
works. This means that herders are entirely dependent on the administration to maintain these public works.” This
- In the south, the same system applies to both wells and
raises several questions. It seems that despite the training
ponds; management rules are revised annually because
that was delivered, the wells in Kanem have not lasted any
wells are not used by the same groups every year.
longer than those in other intervention areas. Minor ongoing maintenance is undertaken and funded by well users,
Major rehabilitation work
through customary management systems. The problem lies
- NOTHING!
with major maintenance works, in terms of funding,
- No strategy for pastoral water in Chad
resources and know-how, especially because heavy-handed interventions can damage or even destroy installations. There is also the question of their public status: should (private) users of these public works be responsible for maintaining them, and if so, what kind of maintenance should they undertake? AFD projects (especially through
- No finance or funds used - No AFD strategy for rehabilitation Source: Interview with technical assistant for the pastoral resource management support component of AAA2, February 2013.
the AGRP components) and IRAM are unequivocal on this
three years following the closure of Almy Bahaïm 3 in early
point: the state is responsible for maintaining these public
2010, and its members, led by the Sultan, stressed that its
works and users are generally responsible for minor ongoing
ability to function had been severely impaired by a lack of
maintenance. The fact that transhumant herders are
logistical and financial resources.
sometimes in the vicinity of the works for just a few days or
Moving from cyclical problems to structural concerns, one
weeks makes it difficult for them to either fund or undertake
might wonder at the lack of alarm over the mass resignation
major maintenance operations.
of the transhumant herders’ representatives (9 of the 22
Questions about the sustainability of management
of Abéché and growing competition between pastoral and
bodies: We know that the joint committee in Abéché is in crisis (see section 2.2) – the question is whether this is an economic or a structural crisis. It is worth noting that although this committee was not put in place by Almy Bahaïm (it was created in 1993), it did receive support during different phases of the project. It was also approached by emergency intervention agencies (Darfur crisis) and
2013, the committee had been left to its own devices for
•
model is being called into question. A system that worked in 1993 will not necessarily function in 2013. Relations between sedentary and transhumant actors are changing, as are their centres of interest (especially as the notion of territoriality gains strength), and the committee can no longer ensure that the land use rules agreed between
The letter of resignation written in June 2012 was
logistical assistance. When we visited Abéché in February
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peri-urban land use could explain why the joint management
sedentary and transhumant actors are respected.
offered different kinds of support, such as per diems and
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members) in June 2012 – although the galloping urbanisation
accompanied by a list of the problems facing nomads in the
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Pastoral Water Development in Chad
sub-prefecture of Abougoudam (development assistance,
AAA2 told us that “we’re still skating over the problem 20
sedentarisation, land claims and the closure of resting
years down the line. The canton chiefs are closely involved
areas, transhumance routes and water points). On 13 July
in requesting and monitoring new wells, and are fostering
2012, this was followed by a list of the sites that had been
a growing sense of territoriality around them. There are still
closed in each canton, and a reminder that “We resigned
unresolved problems with the way that new wells at resting
because it became apparent during our time on the
areas in sedentary areas are managed, which is something
committee that it is incapable of managing conflicts i)
that AAA2 will need to think about soon with regard to the
because certain committee members lack impartiality and
new works.” The administration (and especially MDPPA in
ii) because decisions taken by the committee were not
this case) should do more to fulfil its statutory role in land
executed.” Given that the customary and state authorities
services, and something needs to be done about getting
had still not resolved the matter in March 2013, it would be
legal recognition for these bodies as their decisions do not
useful to think about the future of the joint committee in
have the force of law. In order to secure pastoral routes
Abéché and suitable modes of support in the context of the
and facilities and move forward with decentralisation and
forthcoming project in eastern Chad.
a national system of local government, it is important to
While some conflict prevention and management
ensure that the customary structures promoted by AFD
committees (like the one in Mangalmé) complain about “not
projects are properly represented, and think about
having the resources to carry out their duties”, the joint
promoting consultative frameworks at the canton level and
bodies established by Almy Bahaïm in eastern Chad
above, based on the inter-communal model currently being
stopped functioning for very different reasons. Committees
tested in West Africa (Billital Maroobe sub-regional
composed of equal numbers of sedentary and transhumant
pastoralists’ network).
members were set up to ensure that pastoral wells were
Questions about exactly what the well management
managed in a peaceful manner. Most of these wells were
bodies are responsible for and how they will be funded also
located about 20 to 30 km away from the villages, and the
still need to be resolved – especially with regard to
committees did not meet because they had no reason to
monitoring wells and preventing conflicts in post-project
do so – there were no conflicts. They were therefore
situations (Kanem, Almy Bahaïm). They need to be able to
abandoned in the second phase of the project, and can be
travel, organise visits to check on installations and raise
viewed as a mistake or a success, depending on one’s
awareness about respecting pastoral spaces before the
viewpoint. There were many calls upon the joint committees
start of the cropping season. It would be worth considering
and similar bodies during emergency (humanitarian)
how the deconcentrated technical services for water and
interventions to assist refugees in Darfur, although some
livestock could participate in these monitoring exercises.
sources felt that this “spoiled” the way they worked because they got used to all the extra advantages that came with
Section 3 of this report (strategic directions) discusses
these interventions (per diems, vehicles).
possible future directions for work in this field. The
Setting aside their individual performance, the fact that
interviews conducted during this evaluation do not give
these management bodies are not financially (or even
much cause for optimism about the financial viability of
institutionally) viable is a cause for concern, because this
these commissions and committees, as they still rely on
undermines the sustainability of both the water points and
the projects to function and seem to have few alternative
the projects’ efforts to secure mobility. The manager of the
sources of funding to draw on (taxation, taxes from livestock
pastoral resource management support component for
markets).
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2.1.3. Investment and maintenance funding for pastoral water works
use and free water from these installations, the question of funding for pastoral water works still needs to be addressed at two levels: large-scale maintenance, and investment in new
Another much-debated issue is who will pay to maintain these water works. While MHRU confirmed that the approach adopted by AFD’s pastoral water projects supports the principle
works such as deep wells and ponds. Herders lack the technical and financial capacity to assume responsibility for either domain.
of free pastoral water promoted by the government,31 this does sometimes seem to have been subverted as certain water
In principle, the state should be responsible for maintaining
point management committees ask users to pay subscriptions.32
national water points (as it is for roads). Chad now generates
The situation is complex: certain canton chiefs control the fork
sufficient oil revenues to take it out of the poorest group of
and pulley systems used to draw water, which people have to
countries in the world, but does not seem to use them to fund
pay to use, and the committees sometimes, but not always,
its pastoral water points. The National Livestock Fund (FNE),
ask residents and non-residents (nomads and other actors)
which is fed by fees for veterinary procedures, amounts to
for “contributions”. Sometimes only non-residents are asked,
FCFA 400 million for the whole of Chad – a derisory figure
and sometimes they are only asked after they have been in
given how much this sector contributes to the national
the area for a certain time. The distinction between “paying for
economy. In addition to FNE, there is also the Water Fund,
water” and making financial contributions towards the
which has taken a long time to come on stream and could be
maintenance of wells is not always clear or well understood.
seen as a simple position of principle within the Master Plan
Paying for water is a controversial issue, especially in
for Agriculture. The creation of the National Livestock
intervention areas that are covered by several projects (such
Development Fund (FONADEL) should address this issue,
as Batha). This is something that needs to be addressed in a
providing its remit, sources of supply and governance are
much more coherent and coordinated manner.
clarified.
In the absence of an overall strategy for pastoral water in
The overall impact of the projects has been positive, and
Chad, some areas have adopted the rules used by village
work on pastoral water should definitely continue. However,
water and sanitation initiatives. Users are expected to make
the crucial question of funding to rehabilitate and invest in
contributions, and committees are set up to manage water
Chad’s pastoral water points remains unresolved, along with
point finances. Such practices not only fail to reflect the public
that of funding for their management bodies. This is not
status of the works and private management of water extraction
something that can be resolved by simply changing procedures
by herders,33 but also run the risk of water points being
or looking at the problem in terms of “hard” and “soft” issues.
undermined by poor financial governance or appropriated by
It needs to be viewed holistically, through wide-ranging thought
more powerful interest groups. While the Consultant supports
processes involving multiple partners (the Chadian state, civil
the AFD project approach in terms of guaranteeing pastoral
society, technical and financial partners, NGOs, etc.).
31
Comments on the provisional evaluation report produced by IIED, April 2013.
Especially in Kanem, for PROHYPA and SDC wells. See meeting on Kanem held in N’Djamena, 5 March 2013. 32
33
The system is different for mains water supply, pumps and pumping stations.
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Pastoral Water Development in Chad
2.2. Impacts on the complementarity of production systems and regional integration
In environments that are characterised by unpredictable
production between crop-livestock systems in the south
variability, agriculture and livestock rearing can be integrated
Sahel and pastoral systems in the north Sahel also require
at a higher level than the family farm. Pastoral mobility enables
political action to set up the appropriate institutions that
distinct and specialist groups of farmers and herders to interact
can ensure livestock mobility” (Hiernaux and Turner,
at trans-national and trans-regional levels, helping strengthen
2002:146).
the productivity, sustainability and resilience of both production
This increase in scale also helps avoid some of the known
systems. While the projects recognised the importance of
problems associated with integration at the farm level: the
operating on a large scale, their contribution to this critical level
poor nutritional value of crop residues (which cannot
of integration has been ambiguous, sometimes encouraging
provide a balanced diet for sedentary animals); loss of
complementarity and interaction, and sometimes formalising separation.
nutrients following intensive recycling (which makes the
2.2.1. Adding value by operating on a large scale
degradation as plants are overgrazed during the rainy
“closed circuit” ecologically unviable in the long term); land season – when they are more vulnerable – due to pressure
Agricultural development circles have recently shown a
on land: land for livestock expands during the dry season
renewed interest in the value of crop-livestock integration.
as fields are opened after the harvest, but contracts during
However, “integration” is usually seen in opposition to
the rainy season when cropping resumes (IFAD, 2010;
specialisation and regarded as a “closed circuit” at the (mixed) farm level.
34
Hiernaux and Turner, 2002).36
The possibilities of integration at
different levels are also attracting increasing attention.35
We have already seen (section 1.1) that mobile pastoralism
Pastoral mobility has much to offer in this respect, because
is closely associated with the large scale: ecologically (in
integration does not preclude specialisation if livestock are
time and space), socially (large networks) and economically
mobile: when harvested fields are manured by transhumant
(for example, the transnational circuits of on-the-hoof
livestock as they feed on crop residues, specialist herders
livestock trade).
are interacting with specialist farmers in a form of large-
Production systems that use environments characterised
scale integration that spans several regions.
by variability perform best on a large scale, and the same
This interaction is particularly valuable in arid and semi-
logic applies when agriculture and livestock rearing are
arid areas of the Sahel, where the quality of pastures
integrated across several regions. Separate systems
usually declines from north to south, with less, higher
benefit from interaction at different times of the year, without
quality biomass in the north and more, lower quality
losing their specialised ability to exploit different and
biomass in the south (Breman and De Wit, 1983). Large-
far-flung resources (rather than producing crops and
scale integration is needed to capture the whole range of
livestock products in the same ecological space). The ability
benefits across this gradient: “Better integration of livestock
of this integrated super-system to function across different
34
ILRI, 2010; IFAD, 2010; FAO, 1997.
Vis-à-vis the policies that advocate replacing pastoralism with mixed farming, Hiernaux and Turner (2002: 135) conclude that “risks of environmental degradation are moderate and mainly climate-driven in pastoral systems at the drier edge, while they are serious and mainly management-driven in the crop-livestock systems of the southern Sahel.” 36
One of the objectives of the 2012 International Symposium on integrated crop-livestock systems (ICLS) in Porto Alegre was to “analyse how crop and livestock systems could become associated or integrated at different scales, i.e. field, farm, landscape, region, etc.” (http://www4.inra.fr). 35
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and distant geo-ecological spaces flows from pastoral
the same environment, but use it at different times and in
mobility, which is therefore the key to making productive
different ways. This not only means that they do not
use of the heterogeneous ecosystems in arid areas.
necessarily compete over the same resources, but also that they can interact in complementary and mutually beneficial ways.
2.2.2. Mutual benefits for herders and farmers
Demographic growth has added weight to the argument about the scarcity of resources, but here too there is a need
Producers are well aware of the value that can be added through large-scale integration (above the farm level). Participants at all the scenario planning workshops
for more subtle analysis. Demographic growth is occurring in parallel with mass urbanisation, meaning that it is not necessarily a measure of a future lack of land in rural areas,
emphasised the importance of integrating local crop farming
especially in the relatively less attractive drylands.
and transhumant livestock rearing as a single system (often
Furthermore, while demographic growth in an agricultural
referring to it as “the lifeblood of Chad”) and the “need and
context may correspond directly to an increase in land under
desire to live alongside each other”. Some talked of integration as a matter of fact (Mongo, Yao-Fitri), while others described it as a process that has been distorted and
cultivation (where this is possible), demographic growth in a pastoral context has a much less clear-cut relationship with livestock numbers and herd size.
somehow put on hold, and which needs to be restarted as While the argument about land scarcity is more credible
soon as possible (Abéché, where the integrated system is
in areas closer to towns and cities, where people now prefer
in crisis).
to invest in land (as in Abéché), the phenomenon of We were also told that “herders and farmers seek each
cultivation encroaching onto pastoral lands is much older
other out”: the former attracted by the services on offer in
and more widespread. In reality, the fields on transhumance
urban centres, the latter by the prospect of large numbers
routes and resting areas that we saw during the evaluation
of livestock improving their soil fertility, and both by the
were not the expanding front of cultivation, but rather
commercial and social opportunities offered by this
isolated clusters in the middle of open rangeland.
interaction. While such proximity inevitably carries the risk
Transhumance routes and resting areas are not being tilled
of conflict, segregation has never been an option. As one
not because there is no other land available, but because
farmer in Yao-Fitri put it: “If they [the herders] don’t come
there is no better land available. As far as farmers are
to us, we’ll go to them!”
concerned, pastoral land use increases the value of land.
The encroachment of fields onto transhumance routes and
However, the newly established fields soon lose their
resting areas is often understood from the assumption
relative advantage. This means that the real challenge in
(embedded in the theory) that farmers and herders compete
land management is not so much keeping different
over the same resources (see section 1.1.4), and that
production systems on different bits of land, but organising
encroachment is a response to scarcity of land for cultivation.
the inevitable (and sometimes even desirable) overlap in
This model is persuasive but fails to account for much of
temporary uses without losing the flexibility that makes the
the complex and sophisticated interplay observed amongst
system work. For example, in southern Maradi in Niger,
specialist crop-farming and livestock groups in arid and
where there is considerable pressure on land, an initiative
semi-arid areas, where different production systems share
has been launched to “exchange” sections of transhumance
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Box 11: The operational scale
Sedentary communities now own large numbers of livestock.
In arid or semi-arid areas where resources for animal
Most of these animals are kept on the move by transhumant
production become available in unpredictable
herders,37 in arrangements that numerous actors told us help
concentrations, the threshold between scarcity and
stimulate trade and social exchanges, improve sustainable
abundance often depends on the operational scale.
livestock and soil productivity, and better enable both systems
This is one of the reasons why “drought emergency”
to cope with crises (resilience). We are therefore dealing with
indicators based on (sedentary) crops – or even on
an economic reality of “trans-regional” crop-livestock
pastoral production at a small administrative scale –
integration. In the specialised pastoralism and crop-farming
register droughts much more often than indicators
systems involved, this generates added value in terms of
based on specialised pastoral production (mobile,
productivity, sustainability and resilience (see, for example,
large-scale). One argument recently presented with
Bonnet et al., 1989; Sougnabé, 2005; Ouadjonné, 2011).
regard to the emergency drought policy in Uganda states that “As humanitarian intervention in the region
What we wish to emphasise here is that there is a higher
has been hooked to agricultural indicators, for decades
order of organisation above the crop-farming and livestock
Karamoja has received significant quantities of food
systems in Chad (as in most other regions where nomadic
aid whenever the rains have not been good enough
pastoralism is practiced): a “system of systems” (or a macro
to support a viable crop harvest – which now appears
system) whose existence rests on successful livestock
to happen almost one year in two, and even for two
mobility. Although production takes place at a lower level
or three years in succession. Yet for decades,
(within each specialised system), it is this higher level of
Karamoja has not suffered the kind of prolonged
organisation that makes it possible to increase the productivity,
drought that causes ‘actual lack’ of water or pasture
sustainability and resilience of both systems in arid and semi-
(as different from ‘lack of access’)” (Levine, 2010:
arid environments.
147). Having access to a higher order of organisation allows producers to seize advantages that can only
When mobility is restricted, this higher-order organisation
be obtained at a large scale, and which are therefore
falls apart and both categories of producer try to maintain a
inaccessible in other circumstances. It is crucial that
form of integration by scaling down to the household level:
development interventions (and policies) recognise
herders take up farming and farmers start raising livestock.
the existence and functioning of this higher order of
The “equilibrium” model of pastoral development interprets
organisation in agriculture (or the possibility for it to
this process deterministically, as a necessary “evolution”
exist) and work with it in a productive way.
towards agro-pastoralism and mixed farming (see section 1.1.4), but it is usually nothing of the sort. The benefits of
Source: Levine, 2010.
centuries of complex co-evolution are lost, specialisation is
routes with portions of neighbouring fields that have become
weakened, and sophisticated complementary arrangements
infertile, for a limited period to be determined in consultation
give way to competition. One can expect both systems to
with stakeholders (farmers and herders). Local decentralised
become less resilient, sustainable and productive.
institutions and herder and farmer organisations are involved in what should be a “win-win” process for all concerned.
37
See Marty et al., 2010, and all three scenario planning workshops.
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2.2.3. AFD projects and support for large-scale integration
tools based on the orthodox ecological model of pastoral development. For example, the traditional geo-ecological
AFD projects have been credited with supporting the complementarity between these production systems, and considering both the positive and negative relationships between pastoralism and agriculture (manure contracts and
zoning by different fodder potentials – which serves a pastoral development logic centred on carrying capacity and controlled grazing – survived throughout the entire Almy Bahaïm project.
grain transport; cultivated land encroaching onto pastoral
Similarly, pastoral mobility has been supported as a
resources; disputes over crops damaged by livestock).
necessary coping strategy associated with managing risk,
This is apparent in the decision to create ponds along transhumance routes in order to slow down the herds’ journey south at the end of the rainy season (once the harvest is over), and the effort to promote peaceful cohabitation around water points by supporting the institutional framework for their management. It is also apparent in the commitment to work on a large temporal and spatial scale: over the last two decades AFD has funded support for pastoral mobility through the Almy Bahaïm project, which covered 215,000 km2 and lasted for 15 years; PKHP, with an intervention area of 124,500 km2, and Almy Al Afia, which covers 123,000 km2 and has now been going for 10 years. The large spatial scale of these projects is entirely appropriate to the nature of the issues with which
rather than a production strategy that generates value (see ANTEA, 2003, for example). In dealing with transhumance, the focus of the projects has tended to be on north-south movement (mobility as a means of coping with the dry season) rather than south-north movement (mobility to exploit better pastures). 38 Instead of a socio-economic perspective centred on pastoral production, this emphasis on the “north-south axis” reflects the administrative viewpoint that fixes nomadic pastoralists in a “home territory” in the north and sees transhumance as “starting” by going south. In reality, pastoral herds spend most of the year in the south or along transhumance routes, and the “game” of livestock production in the drylands is played out and won in the northern pastures. This weighting of the transhumance cycle is apparent in the pastoral calendar, which starts at the
they have engaged, and their continuity over a long period has been a determining factor in their success (for example, in maintaining access to areas such as Salamat).
beginning of the rainy season, when the herds begin their journey to the north (see Bernard and Guibert, 2009, for example).
Nevertheless, it has to be said that the impact of the
It is interesting to note the way that different actors look
projects in this respect has at times seemed rather
at solutions such as slowing the herds’ movement south.
ambiguous. It was not always clear whether they have
Pastoralists and livestock traders at the scenario planning
promoted peaceful cohabitation between farmers and
exercises emphasised the impact on production (animals
pastoralists based on reciprocal agreements between the
have more time to feed), while project staff and documents
two groups, or by maintaining a certain distance between them and whether these interventions were supposed to act as “bridges” in promoting integration and complementarity,
the moment when they arrive in the south. The demarcation
As we saw in section 1.1, since Almy Bahaïm, these projects have broken new ground and often forged ahead Inevitably, their innovative elements were combined with
•
of transhumance routes raises similar questions. This began With the notable exception of efforts to address problems in crossing the River Batha and other wadis, which clearly reflect the economic pertinence of spending the rainy season in the north (Mannany and Aubague, 2007; Aubague et al., 2011). 38
in advance of developments in the theoretical field.
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in the south. One group focuses on livestock producers having more time during the journey, the other on delaying
or as “borders” by encouraging or formalising segregation.
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with the AB1 project, as part of its support for ongoing
contributing to Chad’s development as a successful modern
activities by the joint committee in Abéché, and was then
state.
included in the portfolio of interventions by subsequent
There is still no clear long-term vision for multi-regional
projects. While one of the primary goals of this kind of
integrated agriculture and livestock rearing as the basis for
intervention has been to build local consensus and involve
rural development in Chad. There are certainly numerous
customary institutions in efforts to demarcate and secure
national strategy and sectoral policy documents (NPRS,
transhumance corridors, the process of demarcation, as
PMTRA, PNDE, SDA, SDEA, etc.), but some need to be
such, responds more to a logic of segregation than one of
updated (such as the national herd census, which is
complementarity between crop and livestock systems (see
essential for a coherent and viable strategy), and there is
section 2.3.6).
little coordination between public policies on development.
These projects have succeeded in preventing conflicts (or
In general terms, the National Livestock Development
at least violent conflicts over water points), but they have
Programme (PNDE) combines two visions: helping “secure”
not halted the general erosion of pastoral resources. The
pastoral systems through a model of combined crop farming
current crisis in the joint committee in Abéché, two years
and livestock keeping at the family level, sedentary or limited
after the end Almy Bahaïm, seems to suggest that peace
to very small-scale mobility, and investing in the kind of
has yet to take real root, and that the projects’ success may
agro-industrial livestock rearing seen in Latin America,
be based more on politics than economics, and more on
geared towards export and highly dependent on the transfer
persuasion and diplomacy (necessary but insufficient) than
of technology.
on the effective strengthening and expansion of common
With regard to the first vision, Chad’s comparative
interests between the parties.
advantage in developing the livestock sector certainly lies in securing pastoral systems (see section 2.5), but the line of action taken to pursue this vision (reducing mobility and
2.2.4. Support policies and cross-border issues
the scale of integration with agriculture) still seems to reflect
Security is often an issue in cross-border zones to the east
the old view of pastoral development.
and north of Chad. The lack of a strong state presence
The most recent findings on pastoral production systems
leaves these areas open to various forms of insecurity when
indicate that a decrease in livestock mobility or in the
the social fabric is damaged or seriously weakened and
operational scale of the pastoral system is correlated with
people’s sense of citizenship is challenged. These tracts of
lower productivity and – above all – reduced resilience
land are too large, remote and inhospitable to be controlled
(greater vulnerability to drought, for example). In Chad’s
by a sedentary population. This can only be done effectively
case, where the large-scale integration of crop farming and
by a dynamic and flourishing network of mobile pastoralists
livestock rearing has particularly strong historical roots and
who are closely linked into the national economy and
economic importance, this could be expected to have a
national institutions. A viable, extensive and prosperous
negative impact on both systems. Every group that
pastoral economy that covers all these regions, but is
participated in the scenario planning exercises (producers
closely integrated with the south, would be the first line of
from both specialisations, livestock traders, local dignitaries
defence against the propagation of new forms of insecurity.
and technicians) was adamant that allowing this complex
Such an economy could provide economic and political
system based on livestock mobility to “evolve” towards
stability not just as a fall-back activity, but as an effective
small-scale sedentary mixed farming would undermine it
and productive modern livelihood system capable of
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and slowly kill it off. The best way of securing pastoral
but so is investment to strengthen and modernise the well-
systems (and with them a significant part of agricultural
established production systems that account for most
production) would be to encourage mobility and promote
agricultural GDP. Therefore, it is crucial that investment in
large-scale integration, not as a way of preserving the past
the traditional model of modernisation (the kind of agro-
but as a path towards the future in a world dominated by
industrial livestock rearing found in Latin America) meets
climate change. The aim should be to better understand
two basic conditions: i) it does not divert resources away
and ultimately support these systems through scientific and
from the much needed, innovative model of modernisation
technological development (see section 1.1.4).
long awaited by pastoral producers and ii) more generally, it does not divert resources away from the production
The rapid pace of urbanisation in Chad and neighbouring
systems (or “system of systems”, see section 2.2.2) that
countries should create an important niche for the second
secure most rural livelihoods in Chad. If these important
agro-industrial vision in the PNDE, although not all the new opportunities in this direction automatically overlap with the public interest. Opening up Chad’s livestock sector to new
conditions are not met, investment in the agro-industrial vision of development seems unlikely to deliver the expected returns for the country as a whole.
economic players and new forms of production is important,
2.3. Has the development of pastoral lands helped pastoral livestock rearing systems?
2.3.1. Potential economic value in a relative lack of water
Water is the key entry point for developing pastoral areas. In fact, it is the key to controlling land, enabling spaces that would otherwise not be put to any economic use to become productive, and linking vast geographically marginalised areas to the global economy. In this case, as in the one
Access to water (use rights and physical distribution in time and space) determines how an area can be used and by whom. Both the presence and the absence of water can
discussed in the previous section, a model that is sensitive to complex dynamics – capable of recognising temporal and spatial variability as a potential advantage rather than something to be overcome while concentrating on increasing uniformity and stability – has wide-ranging implications. A radically different way of using the environment for food production needs a correspondingly new approach to land management: one capable of recognising the special characteristics of the production system in question and
provide the opportunity that opens up land to specialist producers. For example, mobile pastoral production systems are better able to exploit the relative absence of water than agricultural systems, and certain groups within pastoral systems specialise in exploiting pastures that are particularly far from water. These niches may have been left vacant by stronger or less specialised users. Most cattle- and sheep-rearing systems can exploit
embracing the relevant scale of exploitation.
pastures located up to 10 km from water, some can stretch to 25 km or 30 km, and camels can cope with being 60 km
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from the nearest water source. This kind of stratification is
different production systems and temporary and partially
not cumulative. Users that specialise in exploiting the most
overlapping rights on which it is based.
distant pastures do not necessarily enjoy access to pastures
This not only applies to the “production areas”. The
nearer water points. Specialist strategies are costly in terms
strategic availability of water along transhumance routes,
of expert labour, livestock selection and social organisation,
or the routes used by traders moving livestock to markets
and usually involve living in difficult conditions for much of
on the hoof, allows for a more selective diet along the way,
the year. Yet it is precisely these costs that create the
thus making the journey (time and space) part of the
window of opportunity for those who are willing and able to
production process (Corniaux et al., 2012).
face them. Consequently, reducing the physical and temporal gaps in water availability may help specialist users
In using pastoral water as their entry point, these projects
by reproducing the conditions of their niche in newly opened
intervened at the keystone of the whole macro system.
areas, but may also exclude them altogether from access
However, they also had to work with a legacy of pastoral
by eliminating their niche.
development interventions that had tampered with the macro system since the late 1950s, encouraging pastoral communities
In order to safeguard the greatest stratification of use (i.e.
to settle in northern Chad by introducing permanent water
increase diversity, complementarity, overall productivity and
points and services for sedentary populations in those regions
resilience) when planning water development interventions,
(Barraud, 2001; Aubague and Grimaud, 2011).40
the minimum gap in the availability of water (in terms of both time and space) should be defined in relation to the highest
AFD’s early work coincided with a resurgence in the
level of specialisation. In practice, the opposite usually
importance of transhumant livestock rearing, which partly
happens, as the most powerful and least specialised users
prompted the launch of Almy Bahaïm in 1994 and has informed
tend to live nearer urban areas and exert more influence
its subsequent support for mobile pastoralism.
over decision-making processes.
The decision to keep the number of new wells in the north to 2.3.2. Ephemeral concentrations of water and pastures
the minimum, and invest in temporary ponds instead (the innovative strategy in Almy Bahaïm) was consistent with this
The relative lack of rainfall in the northern Sahel results in
approach. On the other hand, the projects also invested
ephemeral pastures with exceptionally high nutritional value
significantly in rehabilitating old water points in the north41 at
(see section 2.2.1). Within Chad, the ecological differences between the north and south are so marked that the country
The Almy Al Afia projects regard “the north” as the area north of the River Batha (Batha region) and Guéra, while Almy Bahaïm always divided the country into three distinct zones: “the north” where livestock spend the rainy season (Batha and northern Biltine), the “intermediate” or crossing zone, which is more densely populated and dotted with fields and their attendant problems, and “the dry season zone”, which includes southern Quaddaï and Salamat (comments by C. Bernard, May 2013). 39
is often described as two agro-ecological zones divided by the 13th parallel north.39 These differences have shaped its main transhumance systems (see Banzhaf, 2005) and led to the large-scale integration of agriculture and livestock
Sinclair and Fryxell (see section 1.1) found that the ecological sustainability of mobile livestock rearing in the Sahel had been “disrupted in the 1950s and 1960s by i) the settlement of pastoralists around wells, and ii) the expansion of agriculture north into the pastoralists’ grazing lands» (1985: 987). 40
rearing discussed in the previous section. It is important to recognise the complexity and value of
Almy Bahaïm 1 and 2 sank new wells north of Batha. Almy Bahaïm 3 and the two Almy Al Afia projects have not opened any more new sites in Batha, but have dug “replacement wells” several hundred metres away from degraded old wells, some of which were sunk in the 1950s and 1960s. Most date back to the 1970s and 1980s, and were constructed by projects such as Sawa, GTZ/Saudi Fund and, more recently, BADEA (comments by C. Bernard, May 2013). 41
this “pendular” use of the environment by pastoral systems – which exploits the social, economic and ecological benefits of moving livestock north for the rainy season and south for the dry season – and the levels of organisation between
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a time (the 1990s) when their progressive deterioration was
a simple commodity, and treated accordingly. Both the
one of the factors persuading sedentarised herders to resume
presence and the absence of water, and any change that
transhumance. These included permanent water points created
affects rights of access to water, should be expected to have
in the 1950s-1980s to serve the policies of sedentarisation.
an impact on the way that land is used (who, what, when and
While the projects used participatory decision-making
how), the configuration of users and their power relations, and
processes with local users to decide which wells to rehabilitate,
the ecological sustainability of the production systems involved.
it should be remembered that these “local users” were in the
The projects engaged with these issues by choosing to
area as a result of 50 years of sedentarisation policies, and were therefore not necessarily engaged in the pastoral mobility that the project aimed to support (Bellot, 1994).
institutionalise the new or rehabilitated water points within a “heritage” model, as common assets, and protecting them from the “ownership” model promoted by other actors (mainly the World Bank), sometimes just a few kilometres away. This “heritage” approach is particularly interesting when the water
2.3.3. “Heritage” and “ownership” models
points are designed for pastoral use (especially by transhumant
The question of access to and charges for pastoral water should be understood not so much in relation to the management of the water points, but more in terms of its direct
herders) in territories under the jurisdiction of cantons and sedentary villages, and was very helpful in strengthening and consolidating the spirit and logic of mobility based on secular relations of solidarity and mutual aid. Rather than allocating
and profound implications for the development of pastoral lands. Water creates access to land, hence the comparison between water and road networks, sometimes used to argue
water points to a particular category of user, the projects made the different users concerned responsible for them. Of the three studies funded by AFD in 2013 as part of its support for
its status as a public good for which the state is responsible. This is more than a simple analogy, as the network of access rights to water (in time and space) does indeed shape the
the Platform,42 one considered the question of “territorial development” and another focused on the “sustainability of public works systems”.
socio-political, economic and ecological configuration of arid and semi-arid lands. In Chad, where the large-scale integration of crop farming and livestock rearing is based on livestock mobility (see section 2.2), pastoral water policies affect the entire macro system on both sides of the 13th parallel.
2.3.4. Decentralisation and pastoralism Decentralisation has provided fertile new ground for the
Being the key to developing pastoral lands, water should be
legacy of the old ecological model of pastoral development
regarded as a de facto instrument of governance rather than
and its compartmentalised vision of rural production systems (see Hesse and Trench, 2000; IIED, 2006). Decentralisation should come with the warning “To be taken in moderation”
Committee responsible for following up the recommendations of the national conference on pastoralism (CCSRCNP), see section 2.7.4. 42
in a country like Chad, which is composed of cantons (apart
For example, pastoralists have to pay local governments and Sudanese localities every time they cross the border with their herds (Krätli et al., 2013). A paper on “Pastoralism and Decentralisation” presented at the 2005 seminar summarised the issue in these terms: “The creation of decentralised territorial constituencies seems to add yet another difficulty to the problems that pastoralists and agro-pastoralists experience with mobility in extensive pastoral livestock rearing systems […] nomads and other categories of herder may find themselves automatically excluded from the process of reshaping the role that local communities play in managing their territories …” (Neldita, 2005: 155). 43
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from Arada) and where mobile livestock rearing is closely linked with the economy, the ecology and the socio-political situation. Analysts have talked of territorial “subdivision” and “fragmentation” and the risk of multiplying the number of points at which mobile livestock are taxed (see Neldita 2005,43 among others).
Pastoral Water Development in Chad
Conversely, the interventions by AFD-funded projects have
unexploited pastures has been applied in the north as well
been consistent with a large-scale perspective. Coupled
as in the south, implying that there was not only a need for
with the experience and knowledge of Chadian pastoral
“better herd distribution” when these areas were used by
systems acquired over the last 20 years, this could help
transhumant herds (to support pastoral mobility and the
address aspects of decentralisation policies (such as
macro system of crop-livestock integration), but also
territorial subdivision) that do not sit well with pastoralist
between the north and south on a permanent basis (to
land use strategies, which assume that specific modes of
support sedentary livestock keeping, undermining the macro
management based on intercommunality and the free
system of integration).
circulation (non-taxation) of mobile livestock will be in place.
When Almy Bahaïm conducted a follow-up exercise to
Building on customary structures (mechanisms for managing
evaluate the risk of degradation in pastures that would be
water works, preventing conflict and safeguarding mobility)
affected by the new installations, it used theoretical
also provides an opportunity to test local approaches to
calculations based on the principle of equilibrium between
managing pastoral mobility and promote effective
the water network and carrying capacity vis-à-vis estimated
mechanisms run by local actors (see section 3.3.1).
fodder resources. This approach was entirely based on the old ecological model, which subsequent critical analysis has found to have significant gaps (see, for example, Bonnet et
2.3.5. Environmental impacts
al., 2004). This study also concluded that the ecologicalimpact hypotheses for Almy Bahaïm and PHPK (knowing
In order to limit the problems often associated with water
whether the projects helped regenerate plant cover or avoid
development in pastoral areas, the projects followed an
its degradation) “could not be confirmed or refuted by either
“ecologically cautious” approach. This resulted in some
project’s impact monitoring and evaluation system” (Bonnet
innovative and even brave technical choices, such as only
et al., 2004: 91).
using structures with low discharge rates to minimise the risk of overgrazing; designing water points that can only be used on a temporary basis to avoid sedentarisation in the
2.3.6. The paradox of demarcation
surrounding areas; intervening in the south as well as the north; opening up unexploited pastures (by introducing new
As well as working on pastoral water installations, the
water points) to facilitate better distribution of the pastoral
projects also marked out at-risk sections along thousands
herds spending the dry season there.
of kilometres of transhumance routes (mourhâls). As there
Almy Bahaïm and PHPK also put a lot of effort into
were no plans to do this in 1994, the markers or beacons
ecological monitoring – most notably with the study on the
were initially put in place by the Almy Bahaïm project
potential of rangelands, which involved a major exercise to
“outside the programme”, following a request for assistance
map out the pastoral resources in the Almy Bahaïm area in
from the joint committee in Abéché. Demarcation
1996-1997 (VSF-BURGEAP, 1999), and several studies
subsequently became an integral element of the projects’
analysing the dynamics of degradation in the area covered
portfolio, as an important tool for safeguarding pastoral
by PHPK.
mobility.
We have already noted that the projects have often mixed
Demarcation affects and changes pastoral-land use, as is
old and new approaches to pastoral development. The
inevitable when dynamic and variable practices are
strategy of using permanent water points to open up as yet
formalised. This has had two recognised “perverse effects”.
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Firstly, it transforms well-established but constantly adapting
Africa also use strategic mobility as part of the production
transhumance itineraries into fixed “roads”: “A transhumance
process, to fatten their stock on the move while taking them
route is not a water course and even less a tarmacked road.
to market during the rainy season (Corniaux et al., 2012;
These routes emerge or disappear in response to the
Krätli et al., 2013a).
opening of markets or spread of disease. The two main characteristics of pastoral systems are mobility and flexibility, so what are pastoralists supposed to do if they have to follow
If pastoralism is a system for fattening livestock “on the move” (more effectively and reliably than by keeping them in one place), territorial development should consider
a set route and discover that there’s a foot-and-mouth
“pastoral routes” or transhumance corridors as an integral
epidemic ahead and there’s no other way to go …” (Pabamé
element of pastoral production. Reducing them to simple
Sougnabe, May 2013). Secondly, while marking a limit to the expansion of fields, demarcation also limits the “pastoral space”, protecting relatively modest areas of pastoral land
axes that allow livestock to move between different production zones reflects a sedentary outlook that cannot help focussing on what happens before and after
deemed to be particularly at risk, but at the price of formalising the rest of the space as “non-pastoral”. This could be called the “paradox of demarcation”.
displacement, thus failing to grasp the underlying logic of mobile pastoralism. Although used with the overall objective of supporting pastoral mobility, this reductive (if common)
The irony is that the lack of legal recognition for markers
notion of transhumance routes frames pastoral production
means that demarcation in itself does little to protect
as a sedentary activity (undertaken between periods of
transhumance routes. In northern Abéché, “trap fields” have
movement), and in doing so makes the overall objective
appeared in the middle of the transhumance route just at
vulnerable to the forces that limit pastoralism’s capacity to
the end of the demarcated sections, in order to generate
function. While pragmatically recognising that certain areas
fines from the damage done by “trespassing” livestock.
along the routes are more densely populated, the zoning
Although the markers are intended to protect key pastoral
adopted by Almy Bahaïm, which includes an intermediary
resources from the general spread of cultivated fields,
“transit” zone between “the north” and “the south”, is still
farmers actually target transhumance routes and resting
straitjacketed by this “sedentary vision of mobility”.
areas precisely because they have been used by livestock
Apart from rare exceptions, the deliberately discontinuous
and are therefore more fertile (see section 2.2).
demarcation of the mourhâls does not include resting
The notion of “transhumance” is also rooted in the
areas, whose occupation and “encroachment” now seem
European (sedentary) tradition that sees “displacement” as
to be the main concern for transhumant herders seeking
a switch between moments of production (rural workers
to safeguard their mobility. Some mourhâls in eastern Chad
move from one field to another, office workers travel between
have been blocked and even closed, mainly as a result of
different branches of their company…). In these contexts
competition for peri-urban land. Pastoralists in eastern and
“transhumance corridors” are effectively routes that link one
central Chad and Fitri have complained about the complicity
moment of production to another. But this view does not
or laxity of canton chiefs, which may extend to selling these
really fit with pastoralism in drylands. Once pastoral systems
spaces to external investors. In Abéché, transhumant
are understood as being based on mobility (see section
herders no longer go near the town. The situation has
1.1), animal production and strategic mobility should not be
recently been exacerbated by canton chiefs using pastoral
treated as distinct activities but as one. In pastoral systems,
lands to absorb demographic growth in agricultural areas
mobility along pastoral routes is not an interlude between
and accommodate migrants returning from Libya and
periods of production. Livestock traders in East and West
Sudan, or transhumant households that have turned to
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2.3.7. The legislative gap and “legal tourism”
sedentary lifestyles in order to secure land and access to basic services only available in villages, or who have been
The continued lack of legislation on demarcation is
driven to do so by poverty.
symptomatic of the general situation regarding the development of rural land, and pastoral areas in particular.
These practices sparked a major crisis in the joint committee in Abéché, spontaneously set up in 1993 and
One of the key issues here is confusion over the respective
for years the flagship for peaceful resource management
roles of legislation and customary and formal institutions. 44
in eastern Chad. In June 2012, the nine tribal chiefs
Although the transhumance routes were demarcated
representing transhumant herders resigned in mass protest
according to customary norms, the overall effect of
over repeated failure to act on their reports of farmland
demarcation has been to contribute to the reduction of
encroaching onto pastoral spaces (both demarcated and
pastoral space. Resting areas are still encroached upon at
undemarcated). They compiled a long list of routes and
a rapid rate despite customary rights, mobility (a customary
resting areas that had been closed or occupied, which was
strategy) is both promoted and discouraged, and sedentary
copied to us. Having rumbled on for several years, the
chiefs are allocating land to external investors. It should be
crisis had been finally taken before the Governor of
remembered that it is not only farmers and land investors
Ouaddaï, but was still unresolved when this report was
who are benefiting from this confusion between customary
written in March 2013. This issue was widely debated with
and formal institutions: absent landowners, investors in
the evaluation team in Abougoudam, at a meeting attended
livestock (who exploit the shared transhumance routes,
by about 30 very concerned representatives of transhumant
knowledge and pastoral networks), and even impoverished
herders.
pastoralists who settle to work the land, also use this confusion to their advantage.
Finally, it should be remembered that demarcation was undertaken by the projects in response to pressing demands
The worst outcome is when the two systems neutralise
from both nomadic tribal chiefs and sedentary cantons
each other and activities are allowed to develop in a legislative and regulatory void, which is what has happened
chiefs, and instigated by the joint committee in Abéché.
where mourhâls and resting areas have been used to grow
Some wells had become inaccessible because the mourhâls
crops (in the Salamat area, people are even using ponds
were blocked, creating a potentially conflictual situation that
to grow rice). The key here is to discourage “legal tourism”,
seems to be being repeated today. This is where theoretical
where actors exploit the existence of parallel institutions
analysis collides with practical reality, raising a number of
and authorities, strategically choosing only the norms that
questions. What concrete action can be taken at the local
favour their claims (Lund, 1998; Toulmin, 2009).
level when mobility is threatened? How does the theory of variability fit with the desire for peace? How can large-scale
On a more general level, the issues associated with
complementarity be reconciled with local realities? What is
pastoral land and efforts to formulate a Pastoral Code also
clear is that 20 years on, we need a detailed study on the
need to be considered. While it is now understood that the
impacts of demarcation (intended or otherwise) that reflects
discontinuous use of space characteristic of pastoral
the theoretical developments in our understanding of
systems is best able to maximise the use of resources that
pastoral systems.
become available in unpredictable and ephemeral concentrations, the concept of “productive land use” remains
We prefer to use the terms “customary” and “formal” rather than “traditional” and “modern”. 44
rooted in regular and prolonged occupation of space by communities. Although one of the objectives of the PNDE
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is to “recognise pastoralism as an equally productive activity
pastoral land in particular. The evaluation team discussed
as agriculture and forestry” (Republic of Chad 2008: 43),
this issue during the meeting with MDPPA.
five years after the plan was launched, productive land use
Our field interviews revealed that tensions over land and
was still defined by the law of 1967.45 In the absence of a
resources have increased due to the growing sedentary
clearly defined category of pastoral “productive land use”,
population (including settled pastoralists who have turned
the notion of “productive use” is synonymous with land-use
to farming) and rising number of livestock (not as a linear
conversion where pastoral land is concerned. Pastoral land
consequence of demographic growth among pastoralists,
loses its pastoral status when “used productively” for
but due to greater concentration of wealth and the arrival
agricultural or forestry activities, and even when it is pastoral activities that generate added value, for example, by increasing soil fertility along transhumance routes and in resting areas (see section 2.2.2). Like pastoralism itself, pastoral resources are defined by subtraction: just an empty category waiting to be filled.
of external investors). The progressive colonisation of pastoral land assets is a clear illustration of how traditional alliances weaken in these conditions. AFD’s projects have focused on marking out transhumance routes, and have not always taken adequate measures to
Local people increasingly regard pastoral areas as agrarian land reserves, a short-term view that can sometimes lead
protect pastoralists’ access to natural resources and key grazing reserves – not only pastures along the mourhâls where animals can rest and feed, but also strategic water
to contradictions between different development
and grazing reserves around ponds and lakes in wetlands
programmes. In the race “to identify needs and resolve
and floodplains, which are increasingly used for commercial
problems”, development work can easily disrupt local interdependencies and complementarities that may have
gardening or to grow sorghum. The immediate and individual
taken decades to refine. This is particularly true when
gains associated with these supplementary crops will
development is left to operate in a self-regulating market
probably be eclipsed by the costs to the integrated crop-
model (an equilibrium model), without being framed by a
livestock system as a whole in terms of productivity,
systemic vision and well-coordinated planning, and without
sustainability and resilience, and the loss of resources which
a proper understanding of existing production systems or
are essential to pastoralism.
close dialogue with their stakeholders.
Fallow land is affected by a similar lack of legislation and
Farmers are now being encouraged to think that they no
planning. The poor organisation and/or regulation of crops
longer need pastoralists. This mindset creates a potentially
grown by both sedentary and transhumant producers create
uncontrollable social dynamic, undermines the conditions
avoidable costs. In principle, fallow fields are pastoral
for large-scale integration of specialist crop-farming and
resources, but they often go unused because they are
livestock systems (above the farm level), and impairs the
surrounded by cultivated fields and are therefore inaccessible
productivity, sustainability and resilience of both production
by livestock.
systems (see section 2.2). The gravity of the situation in Abéché highlights the medium- and long-term need for a legal and legislative framework on rural land in general, and Law n° 24 of 1967 (Article 17) states that “at the very least, productive use should entail a permanent and visible presence on the land that may include crop rotation or analagous procedures.”
2.3.8. Crossing the Batha and wadis
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The coherence of the works undertaken along the main routes is another issue that needs to be considered. Mobility is the key to livestock productivity, but the seasonal wadis and
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Pastoral Water Development in Chad
rivers that travel from east to west impede south-north
(geological or logistical opportunities, economies of scale at
movement due to lack of bridges and crossing points, the
the programme level).
occupation of shores and wetlands by cultivations, and the
The most visible impact of pastoral water projects funded by
Bahr Azoum becoming clogged up. The crossing of the River
AFD in Chad is their positive contribution to peace. The
Batha is crucial in allowing herds, especially camels, to travel
projects have not entirely eliminated conflicts, but have
north at the beginning of the rainy season (July), and there
certainly reduced their incidence and gravity and are widely
have been reports of problems crossing other wadis.
praised for their role in helping create political and institutional
In January 2007, a study by Almy Al Afia (Mannany and
spaces to manage conflict. It is surely no coincidence that
Aubague, 2007) recommended the construction of “a secure
there have been no violent conflicts (involving death or serious
pastoral crossing in Koundjourou” – a livestock crossing with no
injury to humans) over the water points and markers installed
provision for vehicles – to supplement the Oum Hadjer bridge
by these projects: the approach adopted over the last 20 years
200 km upstream (a bridge funded by AFD in the early 2000s
is universally acclaimed as a success by previous evaluations,
and the only crossing over the Batha at the time of this evaluation).
diverse interviewees and subsequent developments.
In March 2013, the project for the pastoral crossing in Koundjourou
The Almy Bahaïm, Almy Al Afia and Kanem projects also
had vanished, replaced by more ambitious plans for a large road
developed processes that aim to recognise shared heritage
bridge that is more likely to compete with pastoralists’ needs rather
and a vision of common space in order to counter the erosion
than meet them. Pastoralists are still blocked in the south by the
of bygone understanding and solidarity. They put a lot of effort
arrival of the waters, suffering great losses.
into supporting local institutions at a time when three sets of
In terms of lost productivity in the camel system alone, the
overlapping rights (customary, religious and formal) were
estimated cost of not having a crossing at Koundjourou stands
undermining the ancient edifice of traditional chiefdoms –
at around FCFA 1.88 billion per annum (EUR 2.74 million).
something that could be exacerbated by the new sub-
According to this estimate, the losses since January 2007
prefectures and land registration that territorial division will
(again for the camel system alone) amount to FCFA 11.28
bring. The provision of free water, a core principle of the
billion (EUR 17.19 million), which is more than three times the
projects’ approach, has played an important role in limiting the
estimated cost of resolving the problem in 2007. In the
risks of appropriation and exclusion associated with payment
meantime, the prospect of a road bridge has set off a wave of
for water. Overall, priority pastoral use has been respected.
land speculation around Koundjourou, as people secure plots
Another key feature of these projects was the decision to
of land to build houses “along the road” or in expectation of
prioritise traditional management of water points, rather than
handsome profits to be made from compensation.
follow the common practice of creating new management committees. The study on conflicts conducted in 2010 indicates that the traditional management system used by the PHPK
2.3.9. Developing water for peace and security
project (Kanem) has proved effective in maintaining peace around the wells and still works: “Abandoning the idea of
Water, peace and physical security are closely inter-related.
setting up management groups for each facility allowed existing
However, as we have seen with regard to the pastoral economy
management systems to function satisfactorily” (Marty et al.,
(2.3.1), water can be an ambiguous asset. Creating water
2012).
points can reduce conflict, but may also increase it – especially when logics that are foreign to pastoral production are used
Another important factor in peaceful resource management
to justify the installation of water discharge installations
has been securing the mourhâls (see 2.3.6), especially with
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durable markers: “There have not been any [violent] conflicts
to lack of logistical support. At a committee meeting the very
over the closure of livestock routes or stray livestock since the
next day, we learned that it had long stopped operating
permanent markers were installed [by Almy Bahaïm] between
altogether following the resignation of all the nomadic tribal
March 2001 and May 2003. However, there are still conflicts
chiefs (see section 2.1.2), which was largely prompted by
over access to resources (water points, grazing, crop residues)
failure to respect the transhumance routes.46 The trouble had
in undemarcated areas” (Ouadjonne, 2006: 33).
started in Abougoudam, and a meeting there with about 30 nomadic chiefs on 24 February 2013 confirmed that things
Previous evaluations of AFD interventions are unanimous
were “hotting up”. They acknowledged that “the Almy Bahaïm
about the positive role the projects played in improving peace
project has put a lot of effort into this, and the mourhâls that
and security through two vectors: installing wells, ponds and
were closed have re-opened; but the situation started to
markers along the mourhâls, and organising the management
deteriorate again, especially in 2011” as a result of unhelpful
of these facilities. The IRAM evaluation (2004) notes that “The
policies and sedentary canton chiefs who break their promises
goal of the AFD projects was to prevent social conflicts over
and are losing their authority. The future looks grim, with the
land. This required upstream actions with considered decisions
expectation that there will be “war”. The chiefs called upon the
about where to install the water points, and downstream sup-
authorities (prefects and governors) to resolve the problem,
port establishing equitable and sustainable systems for ma-
and had been waiting impatiently for nearly a year when this
naging the pastoral water points”. The CIRAD evaluation
report was written.
(2010) confirms this hypothesis in its crosscutting summary: “Adopting approaches based on preliminary studies of socio-ecosystems, using participatory procedures before the
2.3.10. Retaining a sense of scale
facilities were installed, and choosing modes of management based on traditional practices, helped to reduce the incidence of serious conflict almost completely despite the high-risk conditions, especially in the AB2 and PHPK projects.”
made a correlation between water works and securing transhumance routes, they followed a dynamic (odographic)
However, these positive observations on peace and security
approach to spatial planning and often operated on a very
matters are qualified by an important proviso: “It has to be said that in the absence of sufficiently refined observatories of conflicts associated with pastoral mobility and their qualitative and quantitative evolution over time, it is difficult and dangerous to make hard and fast judgements about whether they have increased or diminished” (comments by André Marty, April 2013).
large scale. This decision was entirely consistent with the projects’ objectives (see section 2.3), but it did mean that their substantial resources were severely stretched. For example, about EUR 20 million were invested in the three successive phases of the Almy Bahaïm projects. Over a period of 15 years (1995-2010) they delivered 160 ponds (new or
When we went to Abéché at the end of February 2013, we had an interview with the Sultan of Ouddai, who mentioned
The evaluation team received a copy of a document of complaints, dated 13 July 2012, including the updated list of resting areas, transhumance corridors and water points that had been closed due to encroachment.
•
and identified and marked out about 1,000 km of transhumance Bahaïm covered around 215,000 km² for most of its life-cycle
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deepened), 120 wells (53 of them rehabilitated), 7 micro-dams, routes (on the sections at risk from encroachment). Almy
that the joint committee was finding it difficult to function due
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– almost the surface area of the United Kingdom or a little less than a third of France. If we look at all the water points installed by the Almy Bahaïm projects (287, including those that were
Pastoral Water Development in Chad
rehabilitated and deepened) in relation to the size of their
economic terms), and the water points might seem to be
intervention area, it amounts to about one installation every
“spread too thinly” given the scale of the projects, it has to be
750 km². This issue was raised in Abéché, where the three
said that they were strategically sited in consultation with
Almy Bahaïm projects were accused of being little more than
stakeholders, and have had more impact at both the local level
“a drop in the ocean”. While these figures certainly help us put
and over all the routes concerned than one would suppose
the question of impact into context (in both environmental and
from this abstract calculation.
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2.4. How best to support social dynamics? The Consultant sought to investigate three issues in
(which was broadcast on television), and everyone who has
answering this question. Firstly, the extent to which the
read the studies… If these “beneficiaries” had to be counted,
approaches used by AFD’s pastoral water projects took
there would be tens or even hundreds of thousands of them,
account of the diversity of the actors involved and the
given the scale of the interventions.
dynamics of change in gender and generational relations.
The projects have been prudent and honest in not setting
Secondly, how they dealt with access to basic social services
quantitative objectives for their expected beneficiaries. The
(education, health) for mobile populations – an issue that
sociologists and pastoral experts who actively collaborated
sectoral approach pastoral water projects have sometimes been accused of failing to address. And thirdly, the increasing importance of new information and communication
in this approach know that counting “nomads” is a very tricky business. Although they are often lumped together as “Arabs”, these groups are in fact extremely diverse and
technologies (NICTs) such as mobile phones, the Internet and motorbikes, and their possible implications for pastoral support projects, given their widespread use among pastoralists.
complex (see Map 4 below showing the distribution of social groups in Kanem). In addition to this, the projects affected many other categories of actor apart from “herders”. The quality, scope and consistency of the sociological studies (in the very broad sense of the term) that have been
2.4.1. The difficulty of accounting for large numbers of very diverse actors
produced since Almy Bahaïm began in 1995 is to be commended, including the most recent study on Lake Fitri and its environs. They constitute an unprecedented body
The “beneficiaries” or stakeholders of the 11 projects
of knowledge on pastoral and rural societies in the three
funded by AFD over the last 20 years are extremely diverse
intervention areas, which cover almost half of Chad. It
and have been affected by activities at various levels. They
should be noted that the national and international
include mobile pastoralists and their families (water points,
researchers that worked on these projects have produced
mobility, way of life, production systems, revenues, security),
a set of detailed and sophisticated knowledge about the
sedentary agro-pastoralists and farmers (peaceful
societies with which they worked that represents an
management of facilities, some access to water points),
exceptionally valuable resource for all future pastoral
local customary institutions and local administrative
interventions – not just in Chad, but in the whole sub-region.
authorities (especially the joint committees and conflict
The projects’ success in reducing conflicts is in large part
prevention and management committees), livestock traders
due to the insights these researchers provided into their
and the private sector (businesses). On a broader level,
ethno-political roots in the history of Chad and across the
there are all the actors involved in capacity building – in the
whole Sahelian belt.
ministries (MHUR and MDPPA), civil society (especially the Platform), senior staff in projects supported by AFD, and other donors, researchers and teachers (LRVZ, universities, and so on). Outside Chad, at the international level, we have the community of experts and researchers involved in
website, the book and film “Au Coeur de la transhumance”
•
intervention areas include Introduction à l’histoire du Kanem – des origines à nos jours (Marty, 2003), which comes with studies such as the Etude agro-sociologique (Descotes,
well as the wider audience reached by the Platform’s
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and historical studies undertaken in the various project
a comprehensive bibliography and complements other
pastoral and rural development in sub-Saharan Africa, as
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The most notable examples of the numerous sociological
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2002) and the Etude sociogéographique (Donnat et al.,
Pastoral Water Development in Chad
Map 4: Geographical distribution of the major social groups in Kanem
Social groups
Arabes du Kanem, Arabes Fezzan Goranes du BET Goranes du Sultanat Goranes Kercheda Goranes Kreda Goranes Nord Kanem Kanembous Well managers
Arabes du Kanem Arabes Fezzanais Goranes du BET Goranes du Sultanat Goranes Kecherda Goranes Kreda Goranes Nord Kanem Kanembous Mixte
Source: ANTEA PHPK final summary report.
2001-2002). Almy Bahaïm features particularly prominently
ongoing processes of cohabitation and dialogue that persist
in L’Elevage transhumant au Tchad oriental (Barraud et al.,
to this day” (Marty et al., 2010: summary). This builds on
2001), and the projects in central Chad produced several
the work of Chapelle, Le Rouvreur and Tubiana, to cite just
series of studies and references (see Box 12 below) that
a few authors. Finally, Almy Al Afia used numerous
are brought together in the follow-up document. Most
documents (see below) as the basis for the major publication
recently (2012), the huge study on Lake Fitri and its
Au cœur de la transhumance (Marty et al., 2009). It is
surroundings commissioned by AFD dedicates a long
extremely rare for sectoral “pastoral water” projects to
chapter (50 pages) to social questions: “The analysis of
produce so much research and information about the
social parameters allows us to retrace the long history of Fitri and the traditional organisation of the Sultanate and
societies with which they work. The fact that they have done
relations between transhumant and sedentary actors, before
so is further illustration of the advantages of the systemic
showing the progressive deregulation of access to natural
approach, which were repeatedly affirmed during the course
resources, the rise in conflicts between different users, and
of this evaluation exercise.
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Box 12: Sociological documents that build on Almy Al Afia 1
The 2011 conference on pastoralism (and its proceedings), the creation of the Platform, high quality, national-level
SETTLEMENT HISTORY AND CURRENT POPULATION
thematic studies, and the transfer of full-time international technical assistance to a Chadian university testify to the
• List of tribes in the canton of Batha (PHPTC, 2006)
emergence of solid national expertise in pastoral matters.
• Traditional sedentary settlements in Fitri (Hagenbucher, 1968)
However, it is clear that the main beneficiaries of the
• Languages in the intervention area (Chapelle, 1986;
capacity building delivered by these projects were men, and
SIL, 2006)
among herders, predominantly mature or even elderly men.
• Between Ouaddaï and Baguirmi: The history of the
It is these actors – the tribal, canton and encampment
Guéra and Fitri (Carbou, 1912; Chapelle, 1986; Devallée,
chiefs, and members of the customary and administrative
1925; Doungouss, 1994; Fuchs, 1997; Hagenbucher,
authorities – who constitute the front line in social negotiation,
1968; Vandame, 1975)
hold the knowledge, and wield the power in socio-land
• History of settlement and religion in Guéra and Fitri
matters. While it was certainly appropriate and effective to
(Fuchs, 1997; Vincent; Vandame, 1975)
prioritise working with this category of actor, it is regrettable
• Traditional political organisation of the Bilala (Hagen-
that these interventions and the literature they have
bucher, 1968)
generated over the last 20 years are deafeningly silent about gender and generational issues. The only commendable exception in this respect is the magnificent publication and
Source: AAA2 hydrologic document, March 2013.
eponymous film Au cœur de la transhumance, which shows (by default) that youth and women are major actors. It should
The Consultant was struck by the scope of the national
be noted that all the current project staff are (and almost
capacity building delivered by the project teams in Chad,
always have been) male (national and expatriate staff alike).
and through certified training courses and participation in
Project staff have contributed widely to the works and
studies (which included students at regional universities like
studies, and have received solid training in return, but little
Abéché). Ministries such as MDPPA and other pastoral
specific attention seems to have been paid to groups such
water and support projects (PROHYPA, PAFIB) will greatly
as young herders, and even less to women.
benefit from the knowledge about pastoralism that has been
It is not a case of advocating a relentless focus on “gender”
developed through this support. The quality of the analysis
or “youth”, but of recognising that a new generation has
and level of commitment shown by participants at the three
come through in the last 20 years, and that little is known
scenario planning workshops was also striking, especially among herders, deconcentrated state services and committee members. This may not be captured by the counting systems and numerical indicators used to monitor
about how this generation differs from its predecessors, its visions for the future (within or outside pastoralism), aspirations for “modernity” (the big issue!) or its role in the
the projects, but it represents a very substantial achievement.
adoption and application of new technologies that have the
From 2009 onwards, the capacity building and institutional
need to promote the argument that women play a key role
support for the Ministry of Livestock (2009-2011) underlined
in livestock rearing and mobility: it is a fact. It is women who
the methodological shift in AFD’s approach, supplementing
bear the heavy burden of dismantling and re-erecting their
and complementing the use of pastoral water as an entry
homes every time they move, women who master the art of
point for efforts to secure pastoral mobility in the region.
loading the animals efficiently, and women who are
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capacity to revolutionise nomads’ daily lives. There is no
Pastoral Water Development in Chad
responsible for ensuring that young humans and livestock
devastating effects that the exodus of rural women had on
travel safely. And as men at the Mongo scenario planning
French farming several decades ago.
workshop pointed out, it is they who run the risk of giving
Without fundamentally challenging the methodological
birth on camels because the group cannot stop moving
approach that pastoral experts have developed in diverse
without endangering everyone. The strain of living under
projects, it has to be said that it needs to adapt to a more
such harsh and iniquitous conditions could eventually deter
detailed scale of analysis, shifting from an “intercommunity”
them from continuing to lead mobile lives, and thus threaten
level with its own dynamics to that of the family unit, which
the whole pastoral system. It is worth remembering the Box 13: Au cœur de la transhumance
“Since their arrival in Chad in 1995, the pastoral water programmes have constantly striven to find out more about the actors concerned, the circuits used, the distances covered (often several hundreds of kilometres), results achieved and difficulties encountered, using multiple interviews and visual observations to do so…” In order to obtain a fairly general overview of the routes used during the annual cycles, they had to use meso- and macro-geographic scales capable of covering trans-regional movements. The micro-level, observable at the level of an encampment through prolonged observation, was still missing. This could only be studied through total immersion in the transhumant herders’ environment, which was exactly what this study attempted to do for the very first time … It was decided to start by following an encampment from the end of the rainy season in the north to the start of their cold season stay in the south. The encampment that the project identified for the study, that of Khalil Hamid, was mainly composed of camel herding families from the Arab canton of Salamat Siféra… Two students (one Chadian and one expatriate) were chosen on the basis of their disciplines (geography and sociology), knowledge of the country (and Arabic language), and above all their motivation. The study began at the end of August 2006 and ended eight months later.”
Source : Marty et al., 2009 : Introduction.
has other dynamics – including gender and generation. Au
from their counterparts in 1993, as they live in a country
coeur de la transhumance opened the way for this, but
whose population has doubled, which is starting to generate
nothing seems to be have done to follow it up.
oil revenues and which aspires to modernity. The challenge for new generations will be knowing how to reconcile their
Some of the people we spoke to said that AFD’s approach
realities and legitimate hopes for change, and to build
would have favoured large-scale livestock owners over small
modernity and mobility.
producers. Although we have no means of verifying this, we do not believe that this was the case – but it is worth mentioning
Given that Chad has one of the highest demographic
because it highlights the need to monitor the beneficiaries of
growth rates in the world, it would also have been interesting
these interventions in more detail (disaggregated by gender,
to consider the links between urban and rural communities.
generation, wealth, pastoral production system), and for a
The population looks set to double over the next 20 years,
qualitative study to supplement previous studies on pastoral
and it is unlikely that all young pastoralists will be willing or
societies. The men and women of today are bound to differ
able to stay in rural areas. The dynamics between “bushmen”
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and city dwellers are changing as new information and
had multiple components and followed a procedure similar
communication technologies (NICTs) narrow the gap
to the integrated rural development projects that were in
between them, enabling people running businesses in the
vogue in the 1980s, did not influence the new approaches
city to facilitate mutually beneficial exchanges with relatives
to support for social dynamics, and for various reasons did
in rural areas. The economic analysis of the evaluation
not have the same continuity as AFD’s other pastoral water
undertaken in 2004 concluded that “the best option for
projects. The key question is whether they take account of
Chad’s nomadic pastoralists is to keep going for the next
nomadic herders’ new demands for access to health and
two or three decades”. The lack of studies and data that can
education services that are compatible with their mobile
be used to evaluate the impacts of AFD’s pastoral water
lifestyles. This demand was clearly articulated at the three
projects on social capital and professional structures for
scenario planning workshops, even though Abéché was the
various categories of actor were noted back in 2004,
only scenario planning workshop to retain social services
demonstrating the need for future action-research in this
as the second priority theme for change in the scenario
field.
planning exercises. While greater priority was ultimately given to water and mobility – confirming the relevance of “pastoral water as an entry point” – this does open up an important field for future consideration.
2.4.2. Pastoral water, education and health
AFD’s past and present (AAA2) projects have not
Previous evaluations have noted the lack of inter-sectorality in the approaches adopted by AFD’s pastoral water projects (with the exception of PHPK Kanem). In its crosscutting
intervened directly in education and health in nomadic settings. The teams have developed skills and excellence in pastoralism in order to respond to fixed priority objectives,
analysis, CIRAD (2010) states that the projects were “clearly technically and financially effective and efficient, but lacked an inter-sectoral approach” and consequently failed to
but do not have the same levels of competence in education or health, and it was only later that specialists/experts were commissioned to conduct studies in these fields (see studies
address certain social components that are important for
undertaken in the context of institutional support to the
the stability of pastoral systems. According to CIRAD, “this
Ministry of Livestock and the Platform). While this was a
leads to an overly technical and ‘water-based’ output that
wise decision given the dangers of “tinkering” in areas that
does not allow the projects to deal with more social concerns
one is not qualified to work in, things could and should
(human development) […] The PHPK project was the only
change for the new generation of projects.
one that initially offered a broader range of activities covering most herders’ needs (animal health and nutrition, food
Health issues arise at two levels: the quality of the water
security for families, training, maintaining water points).
that is made available, and demand for access to health
Even though pastoral water works constitute social hubs,
services, especially for reproductive health. Much more
none of the projects dealt with questions relating to human
thought and action-research should be devoted to designing
health, education, economic activities or even human
accessible health services for mobile populations (which do
drinking water supplies. These are all strategic issues in
not involve sedentarisation).
these contexts, which one would have expected the projects
Water quality at pastoral water points is a more direct
to have specifically addressed.”
concern for pastoral water projects. Previous evaluations
We believe that the key question is not inter-sectorality.
have questioned the differences in the quality of water for
To the best of our knowledge, the PHP Kanem project, which
livestock and for humans. CIRAD emphasised the fact that
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Almy Bahaïm 2 took no account of the health risks posed
would have been interesting to work with women and youth
by ponds: “While the works have made it easier to meet the
on the question of conflicts. One woman at the Yao scenario
animals’ need to drink (the newly available water reduces
planning workshop noted that women sometimes play a very
the time spent watering livestock and extends their grazing
negative role in conflicts, but they are rarely (as in
time), there is a problem with the way that human needs
Mangalmé), if ever, involved in conflict prevention and
have been addressed.” There is no denying that work needs
management bodies. Despite our requests and the efforts
to be done on the quality of water for human consumption,
of our support teams, no women attended the strategy
but we should also remember that the main priority for
planning workshop in Abéché, one went to the workshop in
transhumant herders is still being able to access enough
Yao, and five to the one in Mongo. Women’s and mixed
water on extremely long stretches of routes where people
herder organisations are gradually starting to make their
(and animals) may die of dehydration if there are no water
voices heard, but they have little space to do so on the
points. Ponds generate more health problems (dysentery,
Platform, and more needs to be done to open up this area
digestive haemorrhages) than traditional wells, which are
for the future. This is an opportunity for AFD to synergise
hardly models of water hygiene themselves.
the excellent studies it has funded (on demography, education and so on) with health practices in future projects
But we need to be careful here, and remember that strict
in both rural areas and N’Djamena.
application of WHO standards for drinking water (such as zero faecal coliforms) would result in the closure of all village and pastoral wells. While it is important to endeavour to
2.4.3. NICTs: The key to modernity and mobility
improve water quality and ultimately aim to provide potable water, this will not solve every problem. Upstream, there is
The approaches adopted by these projects seem to take
the familiar issue of hygiene in the water chain: drawing,
little account of major changes, either the anticipated
transporting and storing water in clean conditions, which is
galloping demographic growth in Chad, or the less expected
usually “women’s work”. Future projects need to take
but equally spectacular changes in information and
account of the fact that herders receive little health support
communication (NICTs, mobile phones, the Internet, social
– not only in their work with women, but also with young
networks) and transport (motorbikes, including the so-called
men, those responsible for managing the forks and pulleys
“clandestine taxis” mentioned by women (yes!) at the Mongo
on wells, and children. When the women who participated
scenario planning workshop). Yet NICTs are changing the
in the Mongo scenario planning workshop were asked about
given order of things before our very eyes, especially in
their needs during an interview, they listed clean water and
gender and generational relations. They will also have a
contraception. If pastoral societies are to be able to move
huge effect on education and health in mobile settings, and
forward as a whole, it is not a “gender kit” that is needed,
on economic exchanges (with phones used as “mobile
but female insights into these issues. Given the danger that
wallets”, according to the current slogan for money
the strain of living under such harsh conditions could
transfers).
ultimately lead women to push for sedentarisation if it is the only way they can access services, the answer is surely to
These technologies are too recent to have been taken into
see how the services can go to them.
account by the interventions featured in this evaluation, but they are crucial nonetheless – for example for the political
We believe that it is better not to deal with gender issues
mobilisation of pastoralists (see interview with CASSET).
at all than to do so badly. In addition to addressing the urgent
They also have huge potential for innovative approaches to
need for water and secure mobility for all pastoralists, it
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improving access to basic health and education services in
between herders and between herders and farmers in areas
mobile settings (Chadian telephone networks regularly
at risk from overgrazing.” (Comments by J. Laurent, April
broadcast health messages). The fact that mobile phones
2013). It will also affect the prestige value of herds, and help
can now be used to transfer money (Tigo) represents an
address the lack of knowledge about the economic value
economic and financial revolution for pastoralists and
of pastoralism, which is discussed in the next chapter.
livestock dealers, and changes the way that pastoralists can
NICTs can also come into play at other levels, providing
save money: “If the savings function is transferred from the
economic information on market movements, the weather
herd to the telephone this will have consequences in terms of rationalising herd sizes, which will impact on relations
and security. The speed with which phones have been
Box 14: Herders in northern Kenya use Google Earth
Boran herders in northern Kenya use Google Earth to map the pastoral resources they rely on for their production strategies – dry and rainy season grazing areas, reserve areas in times of drought, livestock itineraries and salt cures. These maps are made with the aid of local government planning staff and used to put in place local agreements based on customary rules, to protect and manage pastoral resources, and to plan investments in public goods likely to support pastoral societies and economies. Google Earth provides a highly interactive and spatially precise tool that allows pastoral communities to articulate their detailed knowledge of their environment. This can then be processed quickly and cheaply through a medium that is easily accessible to technical government staff – “bridging” the gap between customary and formal knowledge and thus facilitating dialogue, understanding and joint planning to support pastoralism. For more information see: http://www.iied.org/community-maps-reveal-rich-resources-land-policymakers-think-empty
adopted in mobile pastoral areas is astonishing (as we saw
Thinking about modernity and mobility, one cannot help
in the scenario planning workshops, which were punctuated
being struck by the contrast between the very high value
by various ringtones). The mobile phone is changing social
placed on mobility in communication and at work (phones,
relations, access to information, and relations between men
computers, professional flexibility, travel and movement,
and women in Chad, Niger and everywhere else in the
clandestine taxis, ATVs, etc.), and its almost systematic
sub-region. The smart phone no longer belongs to another
devaluation where pastoralism is concerned. The
world, and will soon be mastered by the young.
possibilities offered by modernity and mobility could be a
Applications like Google Earth can be used in training exercises to raise awareness about decentralisation and
hygienic process.
These technologies did not exist 20 years ago, but are now part of herders’ daily lives and could be a lever for future projects.
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small pumps that can be transported on camels’ backs and used to make drawing water from wells an easier and more
territorial development issues (as in Kenya, for example).
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2.5. The total economic value of pastoral livestock rearing
A growing number of international studies on livestock rearing
Box 15: The economic value of pastoral production
systems in arid and semi-arid zones of West and East Africa show a positive correlation between livestock mobility and
NIGER: The livestock sector is the second largest source
productivity, and demonstrate the importance of pastoral
of export revenues after uranium (Republic of Niger, 2011),
production systems for their respective national economies.
with pastoral/agro-pastoral systems estimated to represent
Much of this knowledge has been incorporated into the
over 80% of production (Rass, 2006). Transhumant herds
literature generated by the projects covered by this evaluation
score 25 per cent higher than those for sedentary livestock
– for example, the study on taxation undertaken in the context
for all parameters of productivity (Colin de Verdière, 1995).
of research for the Platform. This study is a valuable contribution
CHAD: With nearly 80% of the national herd estimated
to national and international efforts to fill the gaps in knowledge
as belonging to pastoral systems, livestock contributed over
about the economic value of pastoral systems.47.
18 per cent of national GDP, 53 per cent of GDP from the primary sector and 30 per cent of official exports in 2004, with a value of FCFA 134.7 billion – although only 35 per cent of exported livestock were declared (Saleh, 2011).
2.5.1. What is the total economic value of pastoralism and why do we need to know it?
SUDAN: The livestock rearing sector generated USD 3.7 billion in 2009, with most livestock believed to come from
The fundamental reframing, during the 1990s, of the approach
pastoral/agropastoral systems (Behnke and Osman, 2011).
used to study pastoral systems, and its subsequent redefinition
ETHIOPIA: It is estimated that 80 per cent of exports come
of the theoretical categories and methodological tools used to
from pastoral systems. Working camels provide transport
analyse them, also raised questions about the way that the
services worth USD 46 million per annum. The collective
economic value of pastoral production systems was assessed
insurance value of pastoral herds is estimated at USD
compared with other food production systems. The wave of
340 million, and the return on investment at 25 per cent
specialist research that followed this path shows that we know
to 30 per cent per annum (Behnke and Metaferia, 2011;
much less about pastoral systems than we thought we did a
Behnke, 2010).
few years ago.
KENYA: About 70 per cent of the national herd live on arid and semi-arid lands. Its estimated value stands at USD
This lack of knowledge is particularly serious when it comes
800 million, with an annual return of about USD 70 million
to the economic contribution made by pastoral systems, which
(Republic of Kenya, 2012; Davies, 2007). Over 80 per
is largely ignored by standard analytical tools and economic
cent of the beef consumed in Kenya is produced in
appraisal mechanisms. These tools and mechanisms are
pastoral systems (Behnke and Muthami, 2011).
designed to be receptive to market-based values (which are
UGANDA: The per-hectare return on land in pastoral
often hidden in aggregated data where pastoral production is
systems is estimated to be 6.8 times higher than that of
concerned), but are insensitive to a whole series of values
ranching systems in the south-west of the county (Ocaido
expected to be important within pastoral systems. These
et al., 2009).
include the use of livestock products as a means of subsistence
Source: Authors.
There are very few studies on taxation and pastoral production. A similar study is being undertaken in Sudan in the context of a programme of collaboration between IIED and Tufts University. 47
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(animals born in the pastoral system have already provided
countries: namely, a lack of disaggregated data on pastoral
years of economic services by the time they are taken to
production, and data on livestock numbers extrapolated from
market) and the scale of the informal market, and indirect
a herd census conducted several decades ago (in 1976, in
values such as environmental services or contributions to other
Chad’s case). The literature produced in the context of AFD
aspects of the economy – starting with agriculture and including
interventions could go some way towards resolving this lack
meaningful employment outside primary livestock production
of knowledge, thanks to the much-used estimate of the
(Krätli et al., 2013b). Official figures are often based on flawed
proportion of the national herd raised in pastoral systems
methodologies, hiding more than they reveal, and most aspects
calculated by Barraud et al. (2001); a detailed discussion of
of the economic contribution made by pastoralism are left
the contribution that pastoralism makes to the Chadian
outside the general political equation because they are not
economy, in Bonnet et al. (2004); papers on the economy
captured by national statistics or official surveys. Research on
and pastoralism presented at the seminar of 2005 and
the “total economic value” (TEV) of pastoralism undertaken
conference of 2011;
since the mid-2000s has tried to highlight these values, and
Guibert et al. (2009); the recent study on the economy and
in doing so avoid the danger of leaving it out of policy
taxation of pastoralism produced as part of the studies for
formulation: “There are clearly hidden values to pastoralism
the Platform, which also includes important information on
that may not be noticed as they go, but will be missed when
the marketing of livestock products (Mian and Aubague,
they are gone. It is prudent to make the public and the
2010).
48
appropriate government ministries aware of these values whilst they still exist” (Davies 2007: 22).
49
an analysis of livestock marketing in
In this type of approach, the costs of failing strategic mobility have been measured for camel herds stopped by
Some of these values have already started to emerge from the
the River Batha at the start of their northern migration (see
mass of research documents, which suggest that the real economic
section 2.3.8). Herds that are obliged to spend the rainy
contribution made by pastoralism could be much greater than was
season south of the Batha are only half as productive as
previously thought (IIED and SOS Sahel, 2010).
those that manage to cross it and reach the northern pastures. This affects around 100,000 head of livestock every year, and hundreds of cattle and small ruminants die trying to swim across the river (Aubague et al., 2011).
2.5.2. Has AFD influenced our understanding of the total economic value of pastoralism in Chad?
We found that senior MDPPA staff in all the areas we visited are well aware of the crucial economic importance of mobility
Information on the economic value of pastoral systems in
in pastoral systems. General comments by MDPPA
Chad suffers from similar structural problems as that of other
technicians, project staff, and producers and livestock dealers in eastern and central Chad and Kanem confirm that
Current work on the total economic value of pastoralism began with a number of studies by IIED and the IUCN World Initiative for Sustainable Pastoralism (WISP) (http://data.iucn.org/wisp/wisp-publications.html; also http://www.iucn. org/fr/wisp/), which includes a flagship document by IIED proposing the TEV framework as a strategic means of moving forward (Hesse and MacGregor, 2006). More recently, the IGAD livestock policy initiative produced five studies under the stewardship of R. Behnke. These look at the contribution that livestock rearing makes to economies in IGAD member countries, and contain important information and methodological reflection that is equally relevant for pastoral systems. For a recent overview, see Krätli, 2013. 48
slowing the pace of transhumance (thanks to the installations) has a positive impact on production: the animals can gain weight while they are on the move. The comment “Hats off to Almy Al Afia!” made during the scenario planning workshop in Mongo acknowledges AFD’s contribution in this respect, but we can only observe its effects at the local level, because
The national seminar on the issues and challenges for pastoral development in Chad, held in N’Djamena, 28 June – 1 July 2005, and the national conference on the direction of the sectoral policy for pastoralism in Chad, held in N’Djamena, 1-3 March 2011. 49
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it intervenes on a relatively small scale compared with the scale of pastoral systems in Chad.
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We were also told that transhumance has a stimulating effect
women, based on drying and selling beef. In order to maximise
on local economies along livestock corridors. Everywhere we
the returns from this activity, every year the project waits for
went, the arrival of transhumant herders corresponded with a
the transhumants to buy its meat.
significant fall in the price of livestock on local markets. This biennial fluctuation in prices provides opportunities for local
Conversely, not being able to profit from the passage of
meat sellers, gives people who cannot afford to eat meat for
transhumant herders has direct negative impacts on the local
the rest of the year a chance to vary their diets, and facilitates
economy. The progressive distancing of transhumant herders
a series of related activities. For example, the PADL-GRN
from the town of Abéché, due to the obstruction of nearby
project in Mongo runs an income-generating programme for
mourhâls and resting areas, has led to a permanent increase in meat and milk prices on the local market (milk rising to FCFA 2,000 per litre). The women who participated in the scenario
Box 16: The economic value of pastoralism in Chad
planning workshop in Mongo told us that poor mobility and lack of water on the mourhâls reduce the quantity and quality of available milk, which is no longer fatty enough to make
“All the macro-economic parameters of livestock rearing
butter. In Abéché, we were told that a camel reared by transhu-
(number of herders and livestock, production and added
mant herders could sell for FCFA 600,000 to FCFA 700,000,
value, exports, price) are only estimated within ranges
while one reared in a sedentary system would only fetch FCFA
of 1 to 1.5 or even 1 to 2. The zootechnical parameters
300,000 to FCFA 350,000. There was a similar price differen-
of the herds [and] micro-economy of herders’ families
tial with cattle.
(income from different sources, types of expenditure, livestock-rearing strategies) are all very approximate,
The farmers that we met at the scenario planning workshops
and average figures do not differentiate between different
in Mongo and Yao-Fitri told us that although nearly all farmers
livestock rearing practices” (Bonnet et al., 2004:10).
in their area raise livestock, agricultural production is dependent on the manure from transhumant herds. They emphasised that
Analysis of the official statistics indicates that “in theory,
farmers do not own and could never keep enough livestock to
the resources generated by the livestock rearing chain
manure their fields properly (due to lack of space and grazing
in 2003 were equivalent to oil revenues of FCFA 349.1
in the area), and even with existing livestock, those who have
billion [...] put on the international market by the oil
a significant number of animals rely on transhumant herders
consortium, and over three times that of the cotton
to take them north during the rainy season.
sector” (Danna, 2005: 105).
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2.6. Influence on national and regional policies
AFD programmes have not really had any influence on
technical assistance. Officials in this ministry seemed
local policies in Chad. The Ministry of Water is responsible
particularly aware of pastoral issues and more receptive to
for managing these programmes, and is represented in the
them than their counterparts in Niger and Burkina Faso.
field by its deconcentrated services – in this case the regional delegations created by Decree N° 833/PR/PM/ME 2011. The Ministry of Pastoral Development and Animal Production (MDPPA) also has regional delegations. It is worth noting that including a budget line to support the two
2.6.2. Restructuring and better adapting the ministry to pastoral concerns
ministries’ deconcentrated services could have alleviated
The ministry was not only renamed, but also radically
this limitation in the AFD approach, especially in terms of
restructured, with specific functions that reflect a real desire
securing investments and sustaining actions after the
to address pastoral concerns. This can be seen in the
projects ended. In the event, each ministry is responsible
creation of a General Directorate for Pastoral Development
for fulfilling its regulatory prerogatives on the ground: MHRU
and Animal Production, a technical structure within the
for implementing and monitoring water works, and MDPPA
ministry that is responsible for coordinating, running,
for selecting sites and managing facilities. At the national
designing and monitoring the ministry’s policy on pastoral
level, the projects generated results and had a direct and
development and animal production.
indirect influence on policies by providing close ongoing The main influence of AFD’s support can be seen in the
technical support for the Ministry of Livestock. This section
creation within this general directorate of a department
will concentrate on the national level.
responsible for securing pastoral systems. It oversees the implementation of initiatives to secure pastoral mobility, which are clearly laid out in the national livestock 2.6.1. Changing the name of the ministry
development programme (PNDE) for 2010-2017. In other
Changing the name of the Ministry of Livestock to the Ministry of Pastoral Development and Animal Production (MDPPA) represented a political advance and marked a positive shift in the perception of pastoral issues among senior staff within the ministry. This was particularly noteworthy because the Ministry of Livestock has always
words, this is the “technical arm” responsible for thinking about the coherence and pertinence of the ministry’s policy for securing pastoral mobility. In addition to this notable step forward, a department has also been created to train herders and organise professionals in the livestock sector. 2.6.3. Policy choices that reflect pastoral issues
had an interest in animal health issues. The pastoral water projects helped establish institutions that are sensitive to
The National Livestock Development Strategy provides
pastoral issues (such as the Direction de l’Education
the frame of reference for policy orientations in the livestock
Nomade – the Centre for Nomadic Education), contributed
sector, through the PNDE validated by the Ministry of
to the emergence of a core group of officials who have
Livestock in 2008. The influence of AFD projects can be
received training on pastoralism, and provided close
seen in the fact that implementation of this plan has evolved
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to take account of a specific element to secure pastoral
assistance to the Ministry of Livestock, which helped dispel
mobility, in accordance with the ministry’s new structure.
unfavourable stereotypes and prejudices against
This development can partly be ascribed to the interventions
pastoralism. Participants also adopted a road map and an
by AFD’s pastoral water projects, and especially its technical
action plan that helped them define future strategic
assistance to this ministry.
directions.
Influence of AFD projects on the regulatory framework
Putting in place a Platform for actors: During the extended
for water resources
conclusion of the national conference on pastoralism, a committee was established to follow up the conference
The Water Code is the only law that regulates water,
recommendations (CCSRCNP). This committee has now
although not all of its enforcement orders have been
become a platform for exchange and meetings, bringing
promulgated. The 2003-2020 Master Plan for Water and
together technical directorates for rural development from
Sanitation (SDEA), which was adopted in 2002, defines the
different ministries, technical and financial partners (AFD,
water policy and medium- and long-term actions in this
EU, FAO, Swiss Cooperation, UNDP, etc.) and
domain. It is also used as a framework document to guide
representatives of herder organisations and socio-
the design of ongoing and planned assistance and
professional associations. The Platform can be credited with
international public aid programmes.
the following results, achieved with support from AFD:
The SDEA consists of a main document and six thematic
• Creating the Directorate for Nomadic Education (Direction
dossiers (one for each sub-sector, including pastoral water).
de l’Education Nomade);
The influence of AFD projects can be seen in the way that this thematic document was formulated, describing the
• Questioning the government about the worrying lack of
characteristics of pastoral systems, listing pastoral
education for children in pastoral areas;
infrastructure and identifying the types of conflict encountered.
• Undertaking three thematic studies relating to pastoralism
This thematic dossier also highlights the need for actions to
(conflicts, education in pastoral areas and taxation).
improve knowledge about mobility in relation to herd size and pasture carrying capacity before commencing major
Members of the Platform that we spoke to say that it is
works to construct pastoral water points. It estimates that a
now recognised as a legitimate interlocutor in Chad’s
total of about FCFA 32 billion will be needed for the period
institutional and organisational landscape, although few of
2011 to 2020, or FCFA 3.2 billion per year.
its recommendations have been implemented, especially those of a political nature. This can be explained by the fact that its main mission is closely linked with following up and implementing the recommendations of the conference. As
2.6.4. Influence of instruments (studies, conferences)
a result, it has tended to focus on the technical work of
Conference on the future direction of Chad’s sectoral
generating knowledge (studies on conflicts, tax) and quality
pastoral policy, held in N’Djamena in March 2011: This was
outputs to feed reflection and discussion, but has not helped
a pivotal and extremely successful event in terms of the
facilitate the emergence and development of pastoral
diversity and quality of the presentations and the level of
organisations or promote their leaders’ proposals. It needs
representation by participants. AFD presented papers on a
to become more visible and affirm its status as the
series of studies undertaken as part of its technical
mouthpiece for actors and state institutions on matters
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Box 17: Support for mobile pastoral citizenship
The label “pastoralist” includes groups of producers and specific cultural communities, and encompasses diverse realities. These groups have amassed a substantial body of knowledge about pastoral resources, herd management and social organisation within and between communities. Some have also acquired huge social capital by developing alliances and solidarity during pastoral crises or livestock-related conflicts.
Many livestock support projects have tended to regard “pastoralists” as the standard-bearers for a community or a link in the production system, and had little regard for the social dimensions of pastoralism. This ignores their status as citizens of a geographical space where they have right rights and responsibilities, whether they occupy it on a temporary or permanent basis.
Although all citizens are supposed to be treated equally, the reality is that farmers occupy a position in the national political arena that gives them access to decision-making and control over issues related to natural resource management. Pastoralism is tolerated but given little recognition, and because of the lack of sustainable instruments to ensure that the rules established through community consensus are enforced, social agreements are challenged. Their particular value system exposes pastoralists to increasingly intense and frequent physical or moral violence, despite the rule of law.
There is an urgent need to develop an approach that combines a vision of peaceful cohabitation based on complementary production systems with recognition of mobile herders as full citizens with rights and responsibilities identified within the concept of “mobile citizenship”.
The entry point could be to develop instruments to aid policy decision-making that automatically incorporate mobility and issues like home territory/mobile habitat, foster a shared perception of transhumant livestock rearing as a common heritage, and promote social services that are adapted to pastoral mobility – all of which will require a strong pastoral civil society. Source: B. Jallo,Billital Maroobe Network.
pertaining to pastoralism. This issue is discussed in the
effective, but as Almy Bahaïm 1 got under way (see section
recommendations presented in section 3 of this report.
2.4), the focus shifted to improving the understanding and characterisation of pastoral systems, and defining and calibrating the scope of mobility so that an effective water network that reflected pastoral realities could be put in
2.6.5. Influence of the outputs and studies produced with AFD support
place. Anthropological and social research revealed more about current customary practices and local structures and how they function, environmental studies helped better
AFD has produced an enormous amount of information on
identify the types of work needed to protect the environment,
pastoral issues in Chad over the past 20 years. The first generation of projects (such as BET) were mainly concerned with ensuring that pastoral water interventions were
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and exploratory wells were used for a detailed evaluation of the number of livestock that can use an area at given
Pastoral Water Development in Chad
times. These studies also had unexpected effects, as they
network put in place by the pastoral systems support project
fed into discussions and policy consultations, especially the
(PSSP), which served as a framework for exchange and
Master Plan for Water and Sanitation (SDEA) and the draft
has helped define the different principles of the current draft
Pastoral Code.
Pastoral Code.
A second generation of studies was undertaken within the
The current process of drafting the Pastoral Code is led
framework of policy dialogue and debate. These were driven
by the main donor, FAO – which brings us to the issue of
by the need to feed reflection on forums and consultative
broader and more systematic collaboration between partners
frameworks where decision-makers are involved in debates
(and the length of time it is taking to get off the ground).
and discussions, and intended to help dispel prejudices and
Learning from experiences in Niger and Mali, this process
answer certain questions, especially about the relationship
aims to find a strategy for codifying herders’ rights to access
between pastoralism and the economy, pastoralism and
and use natural resources. It has helped identify and explore
access to basic services, and pastoralism and peace.
alternative ways of securing pastoral areas developed by AFD projects (common good approach) in order to protect
The political actors and development practitioners we
them from future privatisation and usurpation by mining and
spoke to were very positive about the quality of the outputs
oil companies and major development projects.
intended to aid decision-making. For example, participants at the conference were individually and collectively struck
The database and knowledge generated by AFD and other
by the economic study showing the extent to which livestock
partners played an invaluable role in this process, which
rearing contributes to GDP and the amount the state loses
had to be completed within a very short timeframe (it was
due to the illegal treatment of herders. However, much more
supposed to take two years, but some of the work had to
still needs to be done to make help for decision-making
be done without the international expert). The work on
more effective and visible, and ensure that it is appropriated
pastoral dynamics done by AFD projects fed into thinking
and politically backed by Chadian civil society.
on: i) securing pastoral mobility by recognising and safeguarding the movement of herds across large areas; ii) identifying ways of resolving conflicts over the use of pastoral resources, and promoting the use of local bodies
2.6.6. Influences on the formulation and content of the draft Pastoral Code
whose intervention helps restore peaceful relations between different parties to the conflict; iii) outlining the rather timid recognition of pastoralism as a productive land use.
Although the projects had little direct involvement in the process of formulating the Pastoral Code through the technical assistance to the Ministry of Livestock, their work promoting consultative frameworks on pastoralism has
2.6.7. Continuity and the learning approach in AFD experiences and interventions
better enabled stakeholders to influence this process. Participants at the national seminar on the issues and challenges of pastoral development in Chad (11-14 October
Although various institutional and procedural problems still
2005) rejected the draft law of 2002 regulating nomadic
make it difficult to put the principle of joint initiatives into
practices, transhumance and livestock keeping in Chad.
practice, the field mission did find forms of implicit
The national workshop to amend and validate this draft law
collaboration between partners that reflect the innovative
also criticised its proposed content, and it was ultimately
aspects of AFD’s approach, procedure and instruments.
rejected by civil society groups. This was thanks to the
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The PROHYPA pastoral water project is the best example
associations, which reflect the philosophy behind broader
of the continuity and development of the AFD approach,
efforts by AFD projects to secure mobility. This overall
especially in exploring and adapting new forms of local
dynamic, and PAFIB’s specific focus on the pyramidal
governance in order to manage and maintain water works.
structuring of actors in the sector (herders, livestock dealers
PROHYPA looked at the lessons learned from PHPK, and
and other players), is an appropriate response to a problem
focused on two key issues: whether to allow motorised
that AFD projects could have done more to address.
access to water resources, and the sustainability and financial autonomy of local management structures and mechanisms. It is now piloting new forms of management
Other partners are trying to combine humanitarian aspects of their work with AFD initiatives. In the Mongo area, Oxfam gives members of the Mangalmé committee cash for work
and access to water resources, which will be discussed with
to deepen ponds created by Almy Bahaïm 1. This is a real
partners at workshops. This initiative underlines the need
example of the possibilities for synergy between different
for broad stakeholder consultation on the sustainability of
actors working in the same area. The challenge will be
local management structures, the long-term future of water
devising a permanent strategy of simultaneous support that
works, and the thorny issue of paying to use pastoral water
meets the needs of local communities, rather than one-off
points.
initiatives. Greater consultation and collaboration between
The legacy of AFD’s learning approach can be seen in the
technical and financial partners and actors is needed, and
model used by the PAFIB cattle sector support programme,
it is to be hoped that Swiss Cooperation’s request for IRAM
especially its work installing water points along trade routes
to think about the next generation of projects to be
to enable transhumant herders to walk to different markets,
implemented over the coming decade bodes well in this
and in moves to organise actors through interprofessional
respect.
2.7 Conclusions on the characteristics and limitations of the AFD approach
AFD started implementing its pioneering approach in 1994. Its objective was to combine the installation of sorely-needed pastoral water structures with efforts to secure the strategies for mobility developed by different categories of pastoralist, and to link water works with initiatives to secure transhumance routes (demarcating mourhâls and transhumance routes).
Francophone areas at the time). In concluding the retrospective analysis of 20 years of intervention, this section will consider the following key issues with regard to AFD’s work: i) the nature of the approach used by AFD: sectoral or systemic?; ii) reconciling technical and social imperatives and contribution to peace
This positive recognition of mobile pastoralism as a relevant
and security; iii) institutional setup; iv) knowledge generation
and effective mode of production, way of life, and form of
and capacity building; v) innovation, added value and
land occupancy was entirely innovative (especially in
relevance for the future.
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The BET project is a case in point. Its objective “to help
2.7.1. Sectoral or systemic approach?
meet rural populations’ water needs” (Felix, 1993b: 1) was
AFD pastoral support projects in Chad have been described
a direct expression of the government’s water policy. The
as “sectoral”. In such analysis, a “sectoral approach” is
project sought to achieve this in accordance with the national
understood as one that does not cover the whole range of
policy on rural water, which “determines the priorities
needs: “A broader view of the development of these
according to the population and existing facilities, based on
livestock-rearing systems and the social groups associated
the equivalent of one water point for every 500 inhabitants”
with them shows that the sectoral approach taken by these
(Felix, 1993b: 2). This sectoral slant is evident in the first
projects was too limited […] Only the PHPK project offered
evaluation of BET, where
a broader range of initial activities that took account of most
setting” and “other elements of the regional context” are
herders’ needs (animal health and nutrition, household food
allocated only three out of 51 pages (Felix, 1993a).
questions about the “human
security, training, maintaining water points).” (Ickowicz et The feasibility study for Almy Bahaïm conducted in 1993
al., 2010c: 9).
describes it as a “pastoral water project” like BET. However, A sectoral approach follows a reductive logic, and its main
there was a subtle but profound difference between the two
operational motive is simplification. Development deals with
projects. The ex ante evaluation of Almy Bahaïm by Jean
complex systems where all the components are linked by
Marc Bellot (who also designed the project) based the
interdependent relationships that are neither linear nor
programme logic on protecting herders’ mobility. Rather than
predictable, and which are also influenced by factors outside
being an end in itself (as in the “water sector” approach),
the system. The choice of a sectoral approach often follows
the provision of water became a means to an end: “The
from an awareness of this paralysing complexity rather than
project intends […] to help promote efforts to secure the
a failure to take it into account. On the other hand, while
dynamics of mobility among transhumant herders in the
simplification can facilitate action, excessive simplification
regions of eastern Chad […] with the construction of wells,
leads to actions that have little to do with reality and, insofar
ponds and surface water points and accompany support for
as they are blind to it, can be useless and even damaging.
local livestock rearing” (Bellot, 1994: 5).
There are no rules for determining the extent to which Working simultaneously on several sectors (such as water,
complexity can be externalised without running the risk of
health and education) is no guarantee against falling into
losing touch with reality – it all depends on the context.
the sectoral trap. Public administrations have shown that The danger of sectoral approaches is not so much in being
even the broadest multi-sectoral approaches are not immune
based on simplification, but in forgetting that this is the case.
to this danger, which is easily replicated in each of the
This is easily done, especially when sectoral simplification
sectors concerned.
(water, health, environment, education) is masked by operational mechanisms and enshrined in the institutional
It is important to recognise that the approach that AFD
framework of central administrations or international
adopted in the projects covered by this evaluation
development actors. The danger then is that the concerns
(essentially post-BET) differed from previous approaches.
associated with a specific category of needs (the “sector”)
It may be that it was not fully translated into practice (we
become an end in themselves. In the interests of brevity,
have seen that it was not entirely reflected in the institutional
we will call this “the sectoral trap”.
setup), and that the details of its design were perhaps not always correct (there was room for improvement in
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understanding of the links between different elements of the
can itself be seen as a major achievement, and one that
systems, capacity to grasp the processes of change, and
must be safeguarded as long as this trap remains in
recognition of the ways that pastoral systems interact with
place, no matter what direction AFD interventions in
the whole of society and are influenced by national and
Chad take over the next decade. Whatever its limitations,
global processes). Nevertheless, the decision to treat
it would be a shame to abandon the current systemic entry
pastoral production as a system and avoid the sectoral trap
point offered by pastoral water in the name of integration,
Box 18: Ponds: The idea of temporary water resources
The Almy Bahaïm project diverges most clearly from a “water sector approach” in its introduction of “ponds” along transhumance routes. Unlike wells, ponds are temporary water resources where the presence of water does not really depend on the season and is only partly linked to how they are used. Ponds fill up at the beginning of the rainy season and dry out when or even before it ends, depending on their capacity and how much they are used. For a given capacity, the “lifecycle” of a pond is determined by the rains and by users’ strategies.
By controlling capacity, the project created “time-regulated ponds” that could serve the needs of transhumant herders and dry up soon after they had moved on. This would avoid settlement around ponds and discourage non-seasonal use of pastures. As “temporary” water resources, artifical ponds are highly systemic by design – although this does not necessarily mean that they are always good. There is still a wide margin for error, as understanding of the pastoral system or estimated calendar may be flawed, and changes in the system could make their timing all wrong.
The important point is what these choices tell us about the project approach: while a sectoral approach would have tried to create permanent water points, Almy Bahaïm used water works as the entry point to pastoral water and as a means of supporting pastoral systems rather than an end in itself. In this respect, we think that it would be preferable to describe this approach – and by extension the approach used by other projects based on this model – as a “systemic” rather than a “sectoral” approach.
only to fall into the sectoral trap of health or education (i.e.
resources (water, space), society (families, chiefdoms,
treat health or education as ends in themselves). This would
institutions), and the economy (livestock). While this
be tantamount to disregarding the last 20 years of experience
approach may not be perfect, its ability to reconcile the
and turning the clock back to the BET era, but turning our
projects’ technical and social imperatives is an important
attention to a new sector.
factor in its overall success. The main drivers of change identified during the three
2.7.2. Reconciling technical and social imperatives
scenario planning workshops show that water and mobility
The approach that has been developed using pastoral
are still key concerns for herders. Given the huge need for
water and infrastructure as an entry point is based on
water, the use of pastoral water works as an entry point to
respect for the pastoral system and its three pillars:
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support mobile pastoral systems was highly relevant.
weaker? It might be worth considering an approach that not
Installing new water points (especially surface water points
only targets producer and user organisations, but also
and ponds) along the main transhumance routes (mourhâls)
focuses on citizenship (regarding Chad’s mobile population
has helped create a coherent water network across
as full citizens), and involves beneficiaries more closely in
thousands of kilometres of land, with each water point
decision-making processes. ERE highlighted the lack of
managed according to its location and use. These
mechanisms to ensure that the projects and their legacy
installations have helped slow the descent of transhumant
are sustainable, noting that “consultative bodies are ill-
herds at the end of the rainy season, benefiting herders,
prepared to take over when projects end”, the lack of local-
their livestock and sedentary farmers further south, and
level involvement in project implementation by the technical
reducing the risk of damage to fields and thus the incidence
livestock services, the absence of training for beneficiaries
of conflicts.
on how to maintain water points, and the need for more
50
activities to protect the environment around water points.
AFD’s approach also offers an alternative to the economic interest group/inter-village group (EIG/GIV) approach. This is adapted to sedentary communities and can work against
2.7.3 Institutional setup/tendering and procurement procedures
pastoral communities as it encourages actors around water points to organise and appropriate them, often leading to limited access for nomads and the obstruction of
Some thought also needs to be given to the institutional
transhumance routes.
setup, which has hardly changed since 1994. The Ministry of Water still has overall responsibility for the projects, which
By prioritising support for customary modes of management,
are managed by an expatriate operator from a hydraulic
AFD’s approach has helped strengthen priority use rights
company. The Ministry of Livestock (now MDPPA) is still the
over the right of appropriation (the heritage model versus
“poor relation”, despite its upstream and downstream
the ownership model), maintain the spirit of reciprocity
interest in water works and close involvement in marking
between users, and provide free access to water for
out the transhumance routes. Each ministry retains control
livestock. All these factors have contributed to more peaceful
over areas determined by the government when the projects
management of shared resources – although the situation
first started, but there are bound to be overlaps and grey
does seem to be deteriorating in high pressure areas such
areas. This setup has worked for the projects that use
as the outskirts of Abéché. As a result of this approach,
pastoral water as an entry point, but it could certainly be
water is coming to be seen as an instrument of governance
reviewed for the next generation of interventions.
rather than a commodity. This is surely the reason why there have not been any violent conflicts over these facilities in
The pastoral resource management support component
the last 20 years, despite the huge areas involved. This is
(AGRP) for Almy Al Afia 2 now receives intermittent technical
a remarkable contribution to peace and security, and has
assistance from expatriate consultancies (component
been recognised as such.
operators), and the pastoral water component has had continuous technical support throughout the project (despite
Nevertheless, serious consideration needs to be given to
the works being delayed due to the contracts not being
the sustainability and long-term future of these facilities.
signed). Given the increasing national expertise in Chad, it
How will they be monitored, maintained and managed in Herders also benefit from sorghum crop residues, which are very rich and can help cows that failed to conceive in the north come into season again (PIRT). 50
years to come? And why is it that certain management bodies and committees (Abéché) seem to have become
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would seem appropriate to think about technical assistance
approach. These problems are not new, but they have yet
to support the process (as with the support for the Platform).
to be addressed effectively by AFD or by Chadian agencies. Even though (and perhaps especially because) this is an
Tendering and procurement procedures are by far the
issue that affects all the other technical and financial
weakest link in the project chain. There are lengthy delays
partners and the whole procurement chain, not just AFD
in the tendering procedures, and some contracts sit in the
and water interventions, we believe that it constitutes the
same ministry for up to five months waiting to be signed. There are also questions about the transparency of the companies’ financial procedures and quality of their work.
most serious threat to the future of these water projects and to “hard” and “soft” support for the sector.
All these issues need to be addressed – and soon, as they undermine the preliminary procedure to build social 2.7.4 Knowledge generation and capacity building
consensus around the works, damage the credibility of the projects and their staff, and pose a risk to social harmony
Having noted various concerns about a lack of interest in
and peace.
capacity building during the literature review, we were
ERE Développement noted that the companies hired to
pleasantly surprised to find that Chad does have a
deliver the infrastructure for the Almy Bahaïm project lacked
substantial core of national staff with proven experience in
the necessary material, human and logistical capacity to do
pastoralism. The experience and knowledge that they have
this work, which was therefore delayed. In 2008, the
amassed has had a significant influence on pastoral
company BURGEAP also observed this problem in the first
livestock projects and programmes across the country.
phase of Almy Bahaïm, noting that “the works did not present
People who learned at the “school” of Almy Bahaïm or PHPK
any particular technical problems, but there were
Kanem have been redeployed in various ministries, pastoral
complications and delays in their execution due to
development projects, civil society (the Platform) and
irresponsible behaviour by the directors of the contracted
research organisations (university, LRVZ). While it is still
companies.” CIRAD points to over-dependence on the
hard to say how much influence they will have on future
Ministry of Water: “The organisation of these projects is too
policy orientations, this still represents a considerable and
dependent on the Ministry of Water, which is both the
lasting achievement.
contracting authority and executing organisation. While this is technically and financially more efficient and effective, it
We found that local institutions are now better able to
has not allowed these projects to develop a satisfactory
manage pastoral water works and prevent and manage
inter-sectoral approach.”
conflicts. Greater inter-community dialogue has been a major factor in helping keep the peace, despite ongoing
We have seen that tendering and procurement procedures
tensions within and around the country (Central African
will be more of a concern for future AFD pastoral water
Republic, Libya, Niger, Nigeria, Sudan). It is also heartening
interventions in Chad.
The lack of transparent financial
to see that the Ministry of Livestock has been renamed the
governance represents a very serious challenge for AFD’s
Ministry of Pastoral Development and Animal Production
use of pastoral water infrastructure as an entry point to
(MDPPA), and to note the emergence of institutions that are
pastoral support, despite the continued relevance of this
sensitive to pastoralism, such as the General Directorate
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systems, and the Centre for Nomadic Education (although
projects in eastern Chad, Kanem and central Chad, but also
this is still very under-resourced).
informed projects such as PAFIB-EU, PROHYPA-IFAD, SDC and Oxfam, not to mention others that are still coming on
The exceptional output of high quality knowledge generated
stream. This is an outstanding and remarkable achievement.
through continuous and complementary processes and intense efforts to build on what has been learned should
The AFD approach developed out of opportunistic and
also be noted. The huge bibliography and wealth of
intelligent use of the funding that was available in early
information now available on the Platform website and in
1994. Its success can mainly be attributed to a combination
the follow-up work are testimony to progressive efforts to
of committed actors in the North and South, flexibility and
produce knowledge that reflects the needs of the target
exceptional continuity (20 years of almost uninterrupted
audience and is designed to maximise the effectiveness of
“classic” projects lasting four years or less), rather than any
the interventions. The institutional support to the Ministry of
long-term strategy. Having built on the commitment of its
Livestock and the Platform intensified and targeted this
“founding fathers” in AFD, Chad and IRAM, adapted to
output with thematic and prospective studies. These should
diverse contexts and drawn on the lessons learned from
feed into political advocacy in support of pastoralism and
each intervention,52 it now needs to be consolidated through
help dismantle persistent negative clichés about this
sound planning and policies.
particular way of life and production system, showing that
The most visible methodological change occurred after
it is neither contemplative nor archaic, but modern, efficient
the crucial evaluation of 1994, when AFD shifted from the
and mobile. However, while there is no denying the
“straight” pastoral water approach used in the BET projects
excellence of these studies and documents, it is worth
(which grew out of village water projects in Koros) to a new
noting that they are still too “expert” for general consumption,
way of securing pastoral mobility in Almy Bahaïm 1. The
and need to be made more accessible (in every sense of
second major shift also involved the projects in eastern
the word) in order to reach a wider audience and be put to
Chad, where the focus switched from installing water points
more concrete use.
in particular areas to providing them along transhumance routes and marking out these routes. Even though it came from the same design stable and was implemented by the
2.7.5 Innovation and recognised added value: The passport to the future
same family of operators, the PHP Kanem project seems set apart from the others by its (admittedly innovative) multisectoral procedure. It was the only project that did not lead
The support provided by AFD has helped put pastoral
to a second phase in direct conjunction with AFD, although
issues at the heart of development strategies, and thus
it could be argued that IFAD’s PROHYPA project worked on
opened the way for pastoral livestock rearing to be
its launch. The institutional support to the Ministry of
recognised and supported in Chad. Everyone has been very
Livestock in 2009 and subsequent support for the Platform
positive about this initiative (“Hats off to Almy Bahaïm!”,
represent another major shift, using human resources and
exclaimed one participant at the Abéché scenario planning
studies to inform and guide new generations of actors,
workshop). All the technical and financial partners that we
interventions and events (such as the regional conference
contacted said that they have followed the path set by AFD,
in 2013).
which has not only provided a fertile seedbed for AFD’s own 52
We also need to consider the impacts that these projects
Except where the institutional setup is concerned.
have had in relation to their scale of intervention. AFD has
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supported the complementarity of different production
pastures in the north, where fodder is more diverse, also
systems by working on a large scale (Almy Bahaïm covered
deserves more consideration. Nothing has been done to
around 200,000 km²) and helping secure mobility in the vast
ease the crossing of the bahrs and wadis that flow east to
areas of eastern Chad served by the north/south
west and whose high-water levels have a profound impact
transhumance routes. However, working on such a huge
on the herds’ movements north. The file on the bridge over
scale actually dilutes the impacts of its interventions, and
Koundjourou, which was advocated by AAA1 and is partially
only provides intermittent solutions to problems with water,
funded by AFD, still languishes in a drawer despite the
free movement and peaceful transhumance. It would seem
number of livestock that drown every year. However, the
desirable to gather together a group of interested technical
innovative feasibility study for the project in eastern Chad
and financial partners – after thinking about the lessons to
does give some indication of the new direction that work on
be learned from the failure to conclude the “marriage”
the intersection of north-south transhumance routes and
between PROHYPA (IFAD) and Almy Al Afia 2 (AFD), which
east-west livestock marketing routes could take (especially
raises questions about the compatibility of their procedures and even their leadership.
in the wake of PAFIB). The system for monitoring and evaluating these projects
This kind of alliance is being sought for projects in eastern Chad (with the World Bank and EU), and is a strategy worth considering at a time of economic crisis and restricted public funding for development – although certain actors and intervening agencies will need to better coordinate their efforts (see the experiences with AAA2, PROHYPA, SDC/ ADRB and Oxfam in Batha and Guera). Without wishing to
has attracted a lot of criticism, including accusations that little or nothing has been done in this respect. In fact, project activities have been monitored and evaluated, but not in a classic quantitative way that is easy for external evaluators to read, particularly once the projects have ended. There have been studies, surveys and some remarkable follow-up activities, but there are no numerical indicators or information
overdo the consultation process, it would seem a good point
on clearly established “pre-project” situations that would
to bring the relevant actors together at the regional level to harmonise their approaches, while ensuring that such initiatives include local institutions (joint committees, conflict management and prevention committees, deconcentrated
allow the projects’ effects and impacts to be measured when they come to an end. Attempts were made to put in place sophisticated monitoring and evaluation systems, especially for the projects’ ecological impacts (Almy Bahaïm 1 used
services and actors in N’Djamena).
coordinated observation sites with CIRAD and LVRZ), but
Much attention has been paid to the main north-south
they did not produce the expected results. IRAM’s
transhumance routes, and north-south mobility. Less thought
operational evaluation raised questions about monitoring
seems to have been given to the pressures created by larger
and evaluation in 2004, which were echoed in ERE’s
numbers of livestock spending longer periods in the south,
crosscutting evaluation of 2012. But the harshest criticism
or to their subsequent journey north. “Southern Chad” is not
came from CIRAD’s crosscutting evaluation of 2010, which
a homogenous zone, and the challenges associated with
was particularly negative about the monitoring and
accommodating growing numbers of livestock vary from
evaluation system in PHPK Kanem and other projects.
place to place, intensifying as their stay extends and
Nevertheless, all three evaluations recognise that the overall
increasing the risk of conflicts over water and grazing. When
impact of these projects has been positive, and the study
they do head north again, their passage may be impeded
by Genay (2006) did provide reassurances that the principle
by early floodwaters or fields that have appeared on the
of ecological prudence was taken into account with regard
transhumance routes. The comparative attractiveness of
to the water works’ ecological impacts on the environment.
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AFD will certainly need to think about logical frameworks
sectoral approach that uses pastoral water as a simple (but
and indicators, and future projects could perhaps incorporate
far from simplistic) entry point adds real value to project
new technologies for monitoring and evaluating impacts, such
interventions. While the approach does have shortcomings
as satellite technologies and drones to assess herds and
that need to be addressed, it deserves to be promoted and
changes in grazing. But it is worth remembering that
pursued across sub-Saharan Africa, extending and
evaluation systems are not the only basis for a fair and
deepening different fields of knowledge and continuing to
detailed assessment of a project’s high-level impacts, and
innovate with perseverance and intelligence. At a time when
that a good monitoring and evaluation system does not make
whole swathes of the Sahelian belt are descending into
a good project. In any case, existing monitoring and evaluation
chaos (and requiring military interventions that cost far more
systems are not appropriate for pastoral support projects that
than development actions), the vitality of mobile pastoralism
work with mobile actors, variability and large scales. We need
in Chad makes it an invigorating example of a modern
to innovate for future projects – and work with IFAD, which
production system. There are still many challenges to tackle
has already started thinking about this issue.
in the coming years, not least in policy formulation and
53
dispelling negative images of transhumant pastoralism. It
In concluding our findings, we can report that we found
will be interesting to see how Chad reconciles its new status
widespread evidence that AFD has led the way in Chad with
as a “modern” oil-producing country with perceptions of
its innovative, intelligent and positive approach to support
modernity and mobility in its pastoral livestock production
for mobile pastoralism. Adopting a systemic rather than a
systems.
During an interview in March 2013, the IFAD project officer for Chad said that it would be difficult to justify further funding for pastoral water because it had not been possible to determine PROHYPA’s impacts with the kind of monitoring and evaluation system used in other projects. Looking beyond IFAD, this raises serious concerns about the need to measure impacts being seen as more important than the actions that are measured. However, according to the latest information received in June 2013, it seems that a request for an extension might be favourably received following an improvement in PROHYPA’s results and their documentation. 53
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3. Strategic directions and recommendations
3.1 Main contextual factors
In the last 30 years, scientific research has recognised
Scientific research shows that these difficulties are not so
that pastoral systems are both ecologically and economically
much due to the failure of pastoral systems to adapt, but to
effective. Yet there are still some who regard pastoralism
poor public policies (on land, water, livestock, health,
as an archaic and unviable mode of production, and point
education) that have tended to undermine rather than
to the problems that pastoral societies have experienced in
support pastoralism. The context in Chad and the sub-region
recent decades to argue that it should be replaced by
offers a broader opportunity to redress this situation and seize on the potential that pastoral production systems have
intensive â&#x20AC;&#x153;modernâ&#x20AC;? livestock rearing in order to meet the
to contribute to economic development in the country and
growing demand for livestock products in local and regional
the sub-region.
markets.
Demographic growth and increased purchasing power
Difficulties certainly exist, not just in Chad but in every
have created a large and growing market for livestock
pastoral area of Africa and Asia. Their causes are diverse,
products in Chad, especially in urban areas. Chad has one
complex and mutually reinforcing, creating a vicious circle
of the highest population growth rates in the world, standing
that is difficult to break. These problems are ably described
at 3.4 per cent per annum. At current rates, the overall
and analysed in the many documents that have been
population is expected to double and the urban population
produced in conjunction with pastoral water projects in Chad
to treble in the next 20 years.55 While feeding, employing
and in the general literature on pastoralism. They are 54
and providing health and education services for all these
described as economic when increasing numbers of families
people will certainly be a huge challenge, it also constitutes
have herds that are too small to be viable, as social when
a huge opportunity for pastoralism.
relations among herders and between herders and sedentary producers deteriorate over land use issues, or when
On the one hand, demand for livestock products is
pastoralists cannot access social and educational services,
expected to increase by 250 per cent in sub-Saharan Africa,
and as ecological when certain sections of transhumance
and especially West Africa, between now and 2020.56 On the other hand, although there is no scientific consensus
routes become more degraded, usually as a result of
on the scope and trajectory of climate change in the Sahel,
agricultural clearance and forestry rather than pastoral
different models agree that temperatures will rise and rainfall
activities.
will become increasingly variable. 57 As its production strategies are based on the exploitation of ecological
Including Reounodji et al., 2005; Banzhaf, 2005; Alfaroukh et al., 2011; Catley et al., 2012; IIED and SOS Sahel, 2009. 54
55 56 57
variability, pastoralism is better placed to meet this growing
Guengant and Guealbaye, 2012.
urban demand and provide livelihoods for a growing rural
Club du Sahel/OECD, 1998; Delgado et al., 2001.
population than other less mobile livestock production
Christensen et al., 2007.
systems that are more dependent on external inputs.
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Scientific studies confirm that pastoralism is more profitable
ranching systems, where there is real economic
per hectare than ranching and sedentary livestock rearing
complementarity) or different agricultural systems, but of
systems in similar ecological contexts. In addition to being
developing a vision and policy for livestock rearing that is
efficient, it is also recognised as being better adapted to
better able to embrace the large-scale integration of different
climate change and producing fewer greenhouse gas
livestock and farming systems. This vision should use
emissions than intensive livestock rearing (see section 1.1).
territorial development to build on the advantages that these differences offer in the production base and across the
Despite notable political and legislative advances in
supply chain, while seizing on the investment opportunities
several countries, and in Africa and the sub-region as a
and demands of an economy in the throes of modernisation.
whole,58 it will be hard to build on these opportunities in the
Modernity and pastoralism are neither contradictory nor
current institutional context because little has changed in Chad. When the political authorities eventually adopt the
mutually exclusive (see section 1.1.4). Visions of the future identified by actors on the ground
draft Pastoral Code (which has already been two years in
at the three scenario planning workshops
the making), they will still need to prepare its enforcement orders and formulate a Land Code to secure land tenure,
The future for pastoralism is neither certain nor clear. The
in order to stimulate private investment in the livestock
evaluation team conducted three scenario planning
sectors.
exercises with diverse actors from the field in order to
Pastoral systems in Chad are at a crossroads, facing
explore with them potential future directions for pastoralism
numerous constraints on the one hand and strong prospects
in Chad. Having described the methodology at the beginning
for change on the other. It is not a question of choosing
of this paper, we will now concentrate on the content of the
between pastoralism and an oil-based economy, other types
workshops, in terms of identifying drivers of change and
of livestock rearing (including intensive peri-urban and
different scenarios based on a combination of trends.
Such as the African Union policy framework for pastoralism in Africa, a policy to support cross-border mobility between ECOWAS member states; the Pastoral Law in Niger (2009), Pastoral Charter in Mali (2001) and Pastoral Law in Burkina Faso (2003). 58
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Table 7: Summary of drivers of change identified during the three scenario planning workshops DRIVERS OF CHANGE Abéché
1. Mobility
Mongo
Yao-Fitri
1. Availability of water along transhumance and trade routes
1. Conflict/mobility (transhumance routes and access to water from Lake Fitri).
2. Increased need for education and animal and human health services.
2. Mobility.
2. Increased agricultural production.
• Separation of interests/reduced complementarity
• Education for nomadic herders’ children
• Education for children in nomadic communities
• Changing relations between producer groups
• Climate change/drought
• Demographic growth
• Secure routes across River Batha and Wadis
• Clandestine taxis, mobile phones
• Clandestine taxis, mobile phones
• Management of fishing resources (fishermen converting to agriculture) • Increased livestock productivity and prices • Clandestine taxis, mobile phones
Source: IIED 2013 evaluation.
This table shows that mobility and water were repeatedly
The discussion in Abéché was dominated by concern that
classified as the most important drivers of change. In Yao-
the separation of interests and declining complementarity
Fitri, secure transhumance routes and access to the lake
between producer groups is affecting relations between
were associated with reduced conflict, while participants in
them. In trying to identify the processes behind this driver
Abéché emphasised the importance of mobility and access
of change, participants pointed to various factors: the
to basic services, especially education and health. It is worth
practice of dividing agricultural and pastoral production in
noting that no one discussing the implications of this abstract
development and administrative work, the promotion of
scenario regarded the combination of guaranteed mobility
sedentarisation and agriculture (and lack of support for
and services for transhumant herders as intrinsically
those who wish to remain in the pastoral system), frantic
impossible. On the contrary, participants agreed that this
land speculation around the city, and the appearance of
scenario – which we called “Peace and prosperity” – would
powerful new actors in the livestock sector who keep their
be best for everyone.
animals in the transhumant system, but do not depend upon customary arrangements and are able to function without
Participants at every workshop emphasised that if basic
any complementarity. The same observations were made
services (especially education) are to be genuinely useful
in Mongo, where participants reported that the transhumance
for mobile communities, they need to offer more than the
system has been distorted over the last decade by the
current options and become “mobile” themselves, or at least
appearance of huge herds belonging to external investors
not be restricted to modes of delivery designed for sedentary
(mainly camels), some of which include several thousand
communities.
“undisciplined” but “untouchable” animals.
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Figure 5: The scenarios in Abéché
The scenarios in Abéché
STRONG
guaranteed access to social services)
Mobility assured
Peace & Prosperity
Peace and prosperity (guaranteed mobility and Peaceful atmosphere. Intense exchanges between
No change
farmers and herders, and dynamic local and national economies. Secure land tenure. Well-integrated education and pastoral activities. Reduced maternal mortality.
Basic services (education, health) for nomadic communities
Educated pastoralists invest profits from livestock rearing
WEAK
No change
Mobility assured
STRONG
elsewhere. Young doctors and vets (male and female) remain in pastoral areas. Pastoralists engage in political decision-making circles.
Back to the wall
Back to the wall (mobility not guaranteed, lack of access to social services)
WEAK
Widespread poverty and food insecurity across the country. State revenues reduced. Mass emigration by
Source: IIED 2013 evaluation.
pastoralists and/or explosion of conflicts and violence. Fragile benefits from complementary production systems.
Figure 6: The scenarios in Mongo
Loss of specialisation and reduced productivity in livestock rearing and agriculture: all pastoralists have fields and all
Full speed ahead
Mobility assured
STRONG
farmers have livestock.
No change (either access to social services assured
Scénario 2
but mobility not guaranteed, or mobility guaranteed but little access to social services) The combination of these two scenarios is already a
Water available on transhumance & marketing routes
reality: those who are mobile have little or no access to
WEAK
Full tank but no wheels
Mobility assured
STRONG
basic social services, and access to social services involves a loss of mobility (with an overall negative impact on herders’ social and economic status, leading to a
Running on empty
breakdown of the system).
WEAK
Source: IIED 2013 evaluation
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Figure 7: The scenarios in Yao-Fitri
The scenarios in Mongo
STONG
Full speed ahead (plenty of water on routes and high Herders stay on transhumance routes and do not go near
Mobility assured, conflicts managed
mobility) Enough food, plus complementarity
villages. Fewer conflicts. Livestock benefit from slower movement south, with fewer illnesses and greater productivity. Safe passage across the Batha and other wadis. Less competition with sedentary producers over resources; better herd distribution across pastures, with
STRONG
Agricultural production
Mobility assured, conflicts managed
no concentration of herds. Livestock rearing is easier, reducing the need for child labour and creating Enough food, but no complementarity
opportunities for education.
Famine & segregation
Running on empty (lack of water on routes, lack of
WEAK
Famine & conflict
mobility) WEAK
If there is no water, there is no mobility and herders spend the dry season here (in Guera). Sedentary herders enjoy
Source: IIED 2013 evaluation.
more advantages than transhumant herders, including access to basic services and education for their children. Pastures become degraded, livestock lose their appetite
The scenarios in Yao-Fitri
and productivity declines. Animals stray onto fields causing conflict with farmers. Milk and butter production decline.
Enough food, plus complementarity (mobility
Camel rearing disappears (and herders?).
assured/conflicts well managed – strong agricultural production)
Full tank but no wheels (plenty of water but lack of
Livestock are highly productive because mobility
mobility)
is guaranteed. More animals are available for
Livestock for export are blocked, leading to widespread
export. Free movement for all, but known routes are
economic losses. If pastures in the north are inaccessible,
respected and livestock no longer stray into fields.
camels die and cattle will also have problems. If
Conflict management and prevention committees
transhumance declines the situation for sedentary herders
are in place, monitoring the situation. Peace reigns:
will improve but there will be more conflicts.
no human deaths. Travel on foot is also peaceful.
Scenario 2: Impossible (little water, high mobility)
Herders now ask permission to enter the lake and no longer allow their livestock unsupervised access to islands during the dry season. Rains are good, state tractors are used and there are “more fields for everyone, even the Arabs”, but far from the lake.
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...
...
Famine and segregation (mobility assured/
Enough food but no complementarity (mobility
conflicts well managed – poor agricultural
assured/poor conflict management – strong
production)
agricultural production)
Virtually impossible. As there is famine one would
A full belly is not enough. Transhumant herders will
expect tension between groups to be higher, since
not come if they hear of conflicts in the area, which
social links and dialogue are strengthened by a full
has a very negative impact on economic and social
belly. Herders come to Fitri for the aquatic grasses,
life in Fitri. Herders buy our cereals, sell us animals
but there are none due to poor rainfall and low water
and their products, and manage our livestock: “If they
levels in the lake. Herders do not come to Fitri any
won’t come to us, we’ll go to them!” Animals cannot
more because they have water points in their home
always live outside of Fitri. Women stir up conflicts
territories. Agricultural production is low, and farmers
between sedentary and transhumant producers at the
migrate towards N’Djamena. Villages are empty.
markets and water points.
The poorest people are also worst affected by the agricultural deficit. Extrapolation: two extreme scenarios
Famine and conflicts (lack of mobility/conflicts – poor agricultural production)
The evaluation team used the analysis produced by
The tributaries of the lake (Batha) come from far
participants during the scenario planning workshops to
away but the lake will not fill up if rainfall is poor.
develop the two scenarios presented below. Both incorporate
Combining rainfed and flood-recession crops (rice,
general drivers of change that form the backdrop for the
sorghum) has not resolved the lack of agricultural
whole pastoral system in the Sahel, which therefore need
production. There is no training on using irrigated
to be taken into account in the Chadian context. To keep it
lands (rice and wheat) and no coherent strategy for
simple, the exercise was limited to two extreme scenarios
supplying them with water. They are not used due to
(shown in the upper left- and lower right-hand quadrants of
lack of seed. Children who look after livestock are
the scenario planning workshop diagrams): one is good for
less attentive, which causes conflict and complaints
the country, the other not.
to the chief and Sultan. If fields are damaged In accordance with the scenario planning approach, these
the children are beaten, aggravating conflicts. Malnourished children cannot go to school. Falling
scenarios are not predictions but “possible futures”
incomes reduce the use of “clandestine” taxis and
constructed using logical analysis based on a mechanical
phones.
(cold) combination of a given set of drivers of change.
...
Therefore, they do not attempt to predict the future accurately. Using them as part of long-term planning simply recognises the fact that while the distant future is irreducibly unpredictable, planning can help make this uncertainty less paralysing by delineating it and drawing the landscape with logical constructions based on what we know. The reality will probably fall somewhere between these two extremes, reflecting some of the characteristics of each
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scenario. It is not so much the scenarios themselves as the
livestock prices and household incomes triggers a food
way they evolve that is important. Poor policies or a lack of
crisis in many areas. People migrate in search of work or
imaginative/innovative solutions will push reality towards
aid, with growing numbers moving to Nâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;Djamena or cities
the negative Scenario 1, while good policies and judicious
along the West African coast.
interventions will make the positive Scenario 2 more likely. The downturn in mobile pastoralism increasingly leaves Scenario 1. Continuing degradation
huge swathes of arid land devoid of human presence. These
Climate change continues and increases. Episodes of drought and flooding become more extreme, with more frequent runs of good years followed by bad ones. The cumulative effects of bad years force large numbers of people to abandon pastoralism. As resilience declines and vulnerability increases, small incidents can have very farreaching impacts.
depopulated areas are taken over by Jihadist and other dissident groups, which quickly establish bases there. The national army makes periodic incursions into these areas, but is poorly trained and equipped for operations on the edge of the desert and easy prey for dissident units. Dissidents initially avoid confrontation with the national army, but having spent some time observing its tactics, they attack and overwhelmingly defeat it. France intervenes at
Pastures are insufficient and always seem over-grazed; dry season reserves are soon whittled away and exhausted. Herd productivity falls to the point where livestock no longer reproduce and herd growth slows. There are increasing disturbances and conflicts between herders over access to grazing and water resources, and between herders and farmers over crop damage by livestock that have left the transhumance routes. Livestock rearing becomes a less and less attractive occupation, especially for the next generation of youth; herders emigrate in search of other forms of employment. Pastoral productivity declines. The economic advantages of combining livestock rearing and agriculture diminish. There is less specialisation: farmers keep more livestock and herders start cultivating fields. The economy gradually slides into subsistence production, and economic potential dwindles as trade and economic specialisation decline. National livestock product prices increase, especially in large urban centres, becoming unaffordable for the less wealthy and requiring recourse to imports. The country and its citizens lose out in various ways.
the last moment to prevent the insurgents from taking the capital city. Scenario 2. Life becomes easier Climate change is less serious than expected. Several years of good rainfall enable pastoral and agro-pastoral economies to regroup and invest in measures to increase their resilience. The availability of well-planned and wellmanaged new water sources along the mourhâls and trade routes, and judiciously sited facilities in dry season pastures enables households to move at opportune moments without the risk of conflict with agro-pastoral communities over land use. Because their rights are not threatened, transhumant herders move more slowly. This helps fatten their livestock, and also means that households can plan and coordinate their movements in order to make the most of the scattered rains and extensive grazing. This reduces the prevalence of disease and increases productivity (also helped by the new mobile veterinary programme). The workload of women who are responsible for watering livestock lessens, allowing them to spend more time with their children and helping reduce infant morbidity and mortality. After several years,
Basic food items become expensive and hard to find.
better childhood survival rates translate into a modest but
Dealers and better-off households stockpile cereals. The
measurable reduction in the final number of offspring and
combination of increasing food insecurity and falling
pastoral population growth.
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A creative mixture of fixed facilities and use of the radio
Few areas remain completely uninhabited for long periods
allow over 90 per cent of school-age children in pastoral
as pastoral mobility is increased by older family members
families to follow the primary school programme and pass
and some children going to small dry season camps.
exams, achieving better annual exam results than children
Unknown groups passing through or attempting to set up
in sedentary households. Various radio learning programmes
camp are noted, and rapid border intervention teams
for adults also encourage some parents to start studying
(composed of young men from the same ethnic group as
again, even if their results are not as good as those of their
local residents) soon arrive on the scene. If they cannot deal
children.
with the situation, national army units based in the region’s
New technologies are rapidly adopted: use of mobile phones, rugged tablets and other electronic devices
main town are called in. This indigenous security system makes it difficult for terrorists to use drylands to hide kidnap victims or traffic illegal substances.
becomes more widespread with the development of more robust models and appropriate applications. Many herders’
Renewed peace in the north of the country encourages
encampments have small solar-powered televisions and
more intrepid tourists to visit, with direct flights from France
video players, enabling them to keep up with national and
using landing strips in the north previously reserved for the
international news and affairs. Boys and girls increasingly
army. Northern Chad soon becomes a well-known tourist
use motorbikes to look after their herds, and their parents
destination, with the economic impact amplified by numerous
travel to market on them.
small businesses springing up to serve the influx of tourists (tour guides, mechanics, hotels, restaurants and bars).
The new drought warning system can accurately predict the arrival and potential impacts of drought. This enables
Current debates about the future of pastoralism lurch
households to sell livestock while they still fetch a reasonable
between these two extremes. Some see pastoralism as an
price, giving them enough money to buy basic foodstuffs
archaic and unviable sector that should be replaced by
released onto the market by the authorities in order to
modern intensive livestock rearing geared towards trade, if
control prices. NGOs run a rapid response livestock
it is to make an effective contribution to greater food security
purchasing programme to keep livestock prices within a
and meet the growing demand for livestock products in local
normal range despite the larger numbers of animals coming
and regional markets. They maintain that pastoralism is
onto the market. At the beginning of the drought, the
unable to deal with drought and climate change, and
livestock bought by this programme are marketed in the
therefore needs to change
south, then processed into dried meat that is distributed to
This is countered by the argument that pastoralism is the
local institutions such as schools, hospitals and prisons. These market interventions enable herders to sell their livestock at stable and reasonable prices, and pay stable and reasonable prices for the foodstuffs and other products they need to buy.
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best land use system for arid lands when it is allowed to function according to its basic principles and follow its own management strategies. The key elements of this argument are presented below.
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3.2 Arguments in favour of pastoralism
Pastoralism as a form of land use
In some countries (mainly developed countries or
Pastoralism is not a primitive form of land use that preceded and was replaced by agriculture. It evolved in most places as a specialised ramification of agriculture capable of producing relatively high returns from resources with low or zero opportunity costs for crop farming. It still fulfils this function.
economies that are dependent on tourism, such as Kenya and, more recently, Chad), pastoralism fulfils an essential function in maintaining the savannah landscapes that are important to both tourists and most of the local population. It would seem perfectly legitimate to provide subsidies for rural people to create and maintain the landscape, like those received by European farmers. Although there is little
In Chad, pastoralism is the backbone of the rural economy, the common language that makes interdependence between different production systems possible. Pastoral livestock link different land uses, making them more important and
chance of such payments being approved and made in Africa, the extent to which pastoralism helps create this landscape should be included in any detailed economic calculation of the value of pastoral production systems.
more productive. In fact, recent analysis shows that they make a considerable contribution to national economic activity. But above all, pastoralism brings the land alive. An area occupied by pastoralist encampments is a living entity, unlike the landscapes blighted by ranching.
Pastoralists are not opposed to modernity or globalisation Pastoralists have accepted a number of changes in recent
Economic value of pastoralism
decades, often with great enthusiasm, giving pastoralism a Pastoralism is a complex economy composed of multiple
modern dimension not found in other rural subsistence
inputs and outputs. Because most of these inputs and
systems. This is due to pastoralists’ dependence on markets,
outputs are not mobilised through a market mechanism, it
their level of specialisation, the scientific basis for their
is hard to put a price on them, meaning that they are rarely
livestock-rearing strategies, the way they take account of
fully recognised and are often purely and simply ignored.
unpredictability and risk, and their approach to innovation.
When they are estimated correctly and given a virtual price,
They make their own innovations and are quick to adopt
it is clear that pastoralism generates a good deal of hugely
external ones such as mobile phones (the most recently
profitable economic activity.
adopted innovation in Chad).
The economic value ascribed to pastoralism largely
Their mobility is often regarded as proof of pastoralists’
depends upon what is measured and how this is done. It is
rejection of modernity. This is quite simply wrong: pastoral
not easy to estimate the value of this widespread and multi-
mobility is not the product of an atavistic longing for freedom,
dimensional production system. Transactions that are already covered by economic records or which are easily measured can provide minimum estimates, but much of its value is far more difficult to estimate – such as milk and meat produced for domestic consumption, or the draught
but the result of logical and scientifically proven thinking about the relative productivity of different ways of using pastures, and an intrinsic element of an effective strategy for fattening livestock (see section 1.1).
power of carts in home fields.
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Pastoralists and “ungoverned” space
so we have a situation where expanses of northern pastoral lands are not so much “ungoverned” as governed by ad hoc
It is increasingly recognised that the problem of terrorism
alliances of criminal and corrupt national elites. In certain
in Sahelian countries is closely linked to the existence of
respects, as with natural resource ownership, customary
“ungoverned areas” – tracts of land that the government is
rules apply, which makes it very difficult to take action
unable to control. They are regarded as being outside the
against them.
governance process whereby rules are negotiated, formulated and agreed. As such, the remedy is clear: extend
The solution could lie in the survival of a viable nomadic
the authority of the national government to include these
pastoral economy. Vast stretches of unoccupied land are
areas.
certainly attractive to groups that wish to pursue illegal activities, and the Sahara is so huge that it is impossible for
The problem here lies in the diagnosis, for in reality very
national security services to patrol them closely. But the
little land is genuinely ungoverned. Smugglers, hostage-
presence of nomadic pastoral camps that move unpredictably
takers and traffickers operate in pastoral areas in the north
around the edges of the desert would be a very effective
of most Sahelian countries. So far Chad seems to have
deterrent to this type of group. If the military drones that will
escaped this trend, but it is unlikely to do so completely and
inevitably be used in this type of operation could be
there is a high risk that oil production will accelerate this
reprogrammed to identify islands of greenery in the desert,
process. The signs from other Sahelian countries seem to
they would serve the dual purpose of dealing with illegal
suggest that the urban elites have colluded with this traffic,
incursions and identifying viable pastures.
3.3 Proposed strategic directions
There are many reasons why AFD should continue to
N’Djamena galloping ahead as the flagship metropolis) and
support the development of pastoral livestock rearing in
rural development in this huge country. Chad also represents
Chad: because its support for pastoralism in this country
a crossroads between the changing faces of West, North,
over the last 20 years has been appropriate, innovative and
East and Central Africa, which have much to learn from the
generally well run; because the social, economic and
advances it has made in terms of mobile pastoralism. This
environmental risks will increase if this support stops (a
section will consider how AFD can use the increasingly
point made very forcefully at the scenario planning
closely counted funding for French public aid to help Chad
workshops); because Chad is at a major crossroads in its
seize new opportunities, engage with new actors (such as
history where oil revenues, the government’s decision to
China), and move towards a desirable future for the nation
promote rural development, and exceptionally favourable
and its pastoralists.59
market trends are opening up unparalleled opportunities. This support is one of a number of challenges that the country needs to address, including the new complementarities between urban development (with
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Cf. CIRAD prospective paper, Magrin et al., 2011.and Pastoral Law in Burkina Faso (2003).
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A major achievement that needs to be secured
that will need to harmonise third generation pastoral support
In taking pastoral water as the single, simple entry point to its interventions, AFD aimed to move from a sectoral to a systemic approach and do much more than simply provide water: the intention was nothing less than to secure pastoral mobility. This approach constitutes a crucial innovation that is appropriate to both the logic and the operational scale of
projects in the region (future projects in eastern Chad and the Lake Fitri area) with national-level projects (institutional support to the Platform and Ministry of Pastoral Development) and possible innovative thematic projects (education in nomadic settings, health or financial services for mobile communities).
pastoralism. It could and should be continued, whether or
These projects tie in with AFD’s main objectives in fragile
not AFD decides to invest in other aspects of pastoral
states: i) support the emergence of non-governmental
development, such as delivering education and other basic
development actors; ii) support the elaboration of public
services. It would be extremely regrettable if this pioneering
policies; iii) take action to prevent conflicts and crises. Work
approach to pastoral water were not used as an alternative
on the third objective includes long-term support for
to the sectoral approach in education and health.
pastoralism, the 2013 conference in N’Djamena on the
General strategic directions: Persevere and innovate with the third generation of projects
extent to which pastoral livestock rearing contributes to peace and sustainable development in the Sahel, and support for the Platform. In early 2013, the rural/pastoral
Having established and consolidated some very solid achievements over the last two decades, AFD is now in a position to deepen its interventions to support mobile pastoral systems over the next 10 to 20 years, in a country whose population looks set to reach 25 million by 2035. The combination of pastoral water works and efforts to secure pastoral resources is still a relevant entry point for a systemic approach (particularly in a highly strategic region like eastern Chad), but it must remain open to innovations at different levels (institutional, technical and financial). Other entry points also need to be envisaged (see section 3.3.1). As part of its support for rural development in Chad, AFD is continuing its interventions to secure mobile pastoral systems, which are the backbone of rural development and
development sector accounted for 30 per cent of sectoral funding allocated to each sector (compared with 42 per cent for N’Djamena and its region, 14 per cent for support for SMEs, and 14 per cent for various interventions on health, education and other areas). The six proposed strategic directions developed in this section are broken down into recommendations. These should be part of a flexible process that can be adapted to different timescales, spatial scales and levels at which resources can be mobilised for their implementation. They are all based on our observations, and are not intended to challenge an approach that has so far been largely successful, but which nonetheless requires some major methodological changes.
the second largest sector of the national economy after oil. Pastoral water will remain a valid entry point, at least in the medium term, as water is still a pressing and priority need for rural actors (pastoralists and agro-pastoralists alike).
3.3.1 Direction 1: Renewed portfolio with 3rd generation projects
In order to help achieve this objective, six main strategic
The retrospective section and argument developed in the
directions are proposed, and separated into highly interactive
introduction to this prospective section both confirm the
recommendations. If adopted, they should be implemented
relevance and consistency of continuing AFD interventions
as part of a revised strategic approach to rural development
through pastoral support projects.
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General recommendation:
scenario from the scenario planning workshop in Yao). A very thorough study on Lake Fitri has already been
The next step is to design third generation projects, with
completed and validated by local people (2012), and a study
four types of interrelated project that: i) use pastoral water as an entry point (eastern Chad); ii) incorporate pastoral production systems into rural development (Lake Fitri); iii)
on the effects of climate change is being finalised. The project is scheduled to start at the beginning of 2015 to ensure continuity with Almy Al Afia 2 (human resources,
provide institutional support for state and non-state actors
including local conflict management and prevention bodies,
involved in pastoral development (MDPPA and the Platform); iv) conduct action-research projects/initiatives on education and/or health and/or financial services for nomadic
the end of PROHYPA, an area with high potential for agropastoral development, but also conflict).
communities. These could include:
• Capacity building for state and non-state actors: design a third generation project to follow up two phases of
• A project to support pastoral development in eastern
innovative institutional support for MDPPA and the Platform
Chad. A pre-feasibility study for this was completed at the
(see section 3.3.3). This project will be an accompaniment
end of 2011. It will use pastoral water as an entry point and
to other projects, and form part of the support for public
incorporate all the lessons learned from Almy Bahaïm, PHPK, Almy Al Afia and PAFIB (the “cousin project” supported by the EU that combined elements of the
policy formulation. It should run continuously from 2014 to 2019, in two-year phases.
procedure with its own innovations in the livestock supply
• One or more action-research projects/initiatives on social
chain). The current situation in eastern Chad and
services adapted to nomadic societies, starting with
neighbouring countries (CAR, Darfur, Libya) and the crisis
education but not excluding possible initiatives on health or
in the joint committee in Abéché fully justify the rapid
microfinance (see section 3.3.5).
implementation of this kind of project, whose main themes are already clearly defined, pertinent and innovative (urbanrural dynamics, local planning [CAR], markets, education).
Specific recommendations
It should also be possible to incorporate some of the recommendations proposed in this report without any radical
Scale of intervention: Ensure that the geographic scale
procedural changes. This project should aim to start at the
of interventions reflects the scope of north-south
end of 2013/beginning of 2014 and last for four years
transhumance and synergy with east-west trade routes
(ending in 2017).
(see follow-up work on PAFIB, the pre-feasibility study on
• Fund a national-level study on the sustainability of water works, using a combination of hydrogeological, economic/ financial and sociological expertise to consider issues such as changing costs, quality of works and responsibility for
eastern Chad and the study on Lake Fitri). Interventions should tie in with territorial development and progress on decentralisation, urban-rural relations and land issues, as competition over resources between mobile pastoralists and sedentary agro-pastoralists is growing (peri-urban land,
maintenance.
Lake Fitri, occupation of wetlands and the banks of wadis).
• In anticipation of the end of Almy Al Afia 2, launch a rural development project in central Chad (Lake Fitri region) that clearly targets i) the integration of mobile pastoral systems
interventions lies in the creation of a pool of national and
and ii) territorial development that incorporates support for pastoralism and agricultural production systems (see
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anticipating the dispersal of teams before projects are
Ex ante and pre-feasibility studies should consider
scheduled to end and recruiting members for future projects
innovative institutional setups for projects such as the one
(see prospects for eastern Chad and Lake Fitri versus Almy
in Lake Fitri. Their entry point need not necessarily be
Al Afia 2), maintaining focal points in parent ministries,
pastoral water, and they could involve new partners working
reappointing effective operators and providing technical
on land use planning, decentralisation, agriculture, and so
assistance. Team skills could also be broadened to include
on. The thorny issue of tendering procedures, which is not
experienced hydrologists, pastoral experts and new profiles
only limited to infrastructure, is discussed in point 3.3.2.
to work on gender and generational issues, NICT skills and so on. The new projects will need senior staff who are able to facilitate dialogue with other specialist agencies intervening in sectors such as education, health and new technologies, and who are open to new approaches that pay more attention to gender and generational issues, in order to help bring about changes in behaviour/lifestyle values in pastoral systems (young couples). This is a potentially productive field for innovation.
Anticipate links/bridges with innovative actionresearch projects in social sectors (such as education, health and microfinance) and avoid the multi-sectoral project approach. This evaluation has already clearly stated the need to resist the temptation of multi-sectoral projects and the attendant risks of the multi-sectoral approach, a trap that has so far been avoided. The provisional logical framework for the project in eastern Chad avoids these pitfalls (see result 4). Specific recommendations
Ensure that project teams are professionally and institutionally viable. This will require some thought and support from the project design stage onwards, and involve rethinking the process of transforming teams into national consultancy firms or NGOs (thereby strengthening civil society in accordance and conjunction with Direction 3 – strengthening civil society and pastoral expertise). The experience initiated by Swiss Cooperation and ADRB should be studied with the actors concerned.
for these initiatives are developed in section 3.3.5. Monitoring and evaluation system: Broader participatory reflection on all future projects is needed, making a concrete start with the feasibility/ex ante evaluation phase of the project in eastern Chad. Questions about the monitoring and evaluation system itself have yet to be satisfactorily addressed (like the issue of funding to maintain pastoral water installations and their management bodies). Despite being raised at the start of the process and
Institutional setup: Consider appropriate setups for new types of project. Combine an AGRP component with
mentioned in numerous studies and follow-up works, information on this issue is still patchy.
a substantial water works component to support pastoral
We also know that existing monitoring and evaluation tools
resource management in projects that use pastoral water
are not suitable for pastoral support projects, especially in
as an entry point (such as the one in eastern Chad). Review
terms of quantitative indicators, establishing “pre-project”
the proposed setup combining MHRU and MDPPA (each
situations, “counting” beneficiaries, etc. IFAD has started a
retaining the attributions determined by the government at
major investigation into this area, and the time has come
the beginning of the project) and the operator (ANTEA-
for AFD to review its approach to monitoring and evaluating
IRAM) according to the proposals set out in the pre-feasibility
pastoral projects. It needs to consider how to adapt tools
study. Study the possibility of periodic or variable support
to monitor a system that functions on a large scale in
on pastoral water and pastoral resource management during
unpredictably variable conditions, and how to identify
peak periods of project activity (see AGRP in AAA2) in order
new indicators and monitoring measures that are relevant
to help broaden the skill base.
and appropriate to the scale and variability of the intervention
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zones covered by future projects. The provisional logical
provisions, evaluating tenders, protecting actors and their
framework for the future project in eastern Chad offers some
means of production, improving staff skills. This not only
interesting fields of measurement, but they need to be
concerns AFD, but also different technical and financial
supplemented and diversified to include ecological,
partners, ministries, project operators and the private sector.
economic, social, gender and generational impacts. With
National- and regional-level consultations between partners
support from AFD, the Comité Scientifique Français de la
and stakeholders need to be organised.
Désertification (CSFD) recently (February 2013) produced
Research/development to initiate new technical
a set of indicators for ecological impacts as part of a broader
responses to sets of constraints that need more work or
request by AFD to improve the monitoring and evaluation
have yet to be addressed (depending on the already
of all its projects.60 This opportunity should be seized and
considerable achievements with pastoral water, especially
used in interventions to support pastoralism in Chad and the Sahel, opening up another field for innovation where
PHPK, Almy Bahaïm and Almy Al Afia). Monitor prototypes
AFD has much to offer.
and feedback, look into diversifying pastoral water works
3.3.2 Direction 2: Improve the sustainability of pastoral infrastructure: Funding, maintenance, management bodies, governance
consider solar or thermal pumping stations (see PAFIB and
and new technologies. In addition to wells and ponds, livestock markets, eastern Chad), micro-dams, mobile tanks, bladders (see Kenya, Sudan) 62 and small portable pumps, which are already used by pastoralists and which
Pastoralists’ primary need is still water – for both livestock and humans. Therefore, pastoral water is still a relevant entry point for projects such as the one in eastern Chad. Access to water in the Lake Fitri region is an issue in terms of both pastoral water infrastructure and developing pastoral and agricultural land use: water in the lake, areas where
help provide better quality water for domestic use. The issue here is using the possibilities offered by new technologies to combine access to water with pastoral production strategies. Can water be made available in the right place at the right time?
sorghum grows, wadis, wetlands and irrigated areas (see
Strengthen the technical capacities of national
national food security programme). Work on infrastructure includes marking out transhumance routes and resting areas, and working on bridges and passages across bahrs
companies by reviewing quality/cost assessments and mobilising sufficient funding to support the best bids and technical resources. This will help rebuild companies
and wadis. Other types of initiative will be needed to enable
undermined by a decade of low bids. Optimise works (over-
new projects to tackle livestock marketing (markets) and social services. This will require a greater focus on improving the quality and sustainability of works and
investment) to simplify maintenance and reduce maintenance costs. Strengthen quality control by companies and users:
establishing good financial governance. Specific recommendations
Introduce self-monitoring quality assurance while the 61
Improve cost management and the quality of works by reviewing the entire chain with the actors concerned, from orchestrating concomitant and complementary projects, funding, reviewing the provisions of agreements and contractual procedures, applying tax and customs
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Bladders are made from the same material as inflatable boats, and come in different sizes, the largest holding enough water to supply 300 sheep for a month in the dry season. They are often used in north Kordofan (see Krätli et al., 2013b). 62
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technical teams are still working on projects, as with the
agencies, especially at the regional level (see recent and
system introduced by Almy Al Afia 2. Involve users in
ongoing initiatives by IFAD, the World Bank and EU, and
monitoring construction works – provide information on the
support for the decentralisation process).
nature of the works, estimated quantities, observations on their execution and so on. Continue to consider and test sources of funding for bodies that will manage the works, without challenging the principle of free pastoral water (the institutional viability of these bodies is discussed in point 3.3.3 below).
3.3.3 Direction 3: Increase AFD involvement in shaping national/sub-regional policies through greater interaction between pastoral water projects and institutional support for state and non-state actors
This is linked with using taxes on livestock markets or other
AFD interventions over the last 20 years have helped
funds to mobilise financial resources for pastoral
change perceptions of pastoralism in Chad, influenced the
infrastructure. Responses will need to be adapted as
approaches used by other donors, and contributed to the
decentralisation progresses (local taxes, etc.).
emergence of state and non-state structures that are
Reflect on the financial resources allocated by AFD and the Chadian government to fund pastoral infrastructure (investment and maintenance). A roundtable with other technical and financial partners might be useful in order to consider using oil revenues to support pastoralism in Chad and redress historical state neglect for
favourable to pastoralism. The institutional support to the Ministry of Livestock, the Platform, and the regional conference on Security and Pastoralism (May 2013) are evidence of more visible AFD support for national policies. Possible areas for this kind of action are outlined below. Specific recommendations
this sector. The evaluation does not recommend that AFD suddenly stops funding pastoral infrastructure, but that it
Strengthen influence on the policy environment and
provides support for better governance of “hard” and “soft”
regulatory and legislative framework for Chad’s
resources, with civil society closely involved in governance
livestock rearing sector: Prioritise implementation of
processes. Look at the mobilisation and governance of
the Pastoral Code. Facilitate the adoption of the Pastoral
funds such as the Water Fund, National Livestock
Code and subsequent formulation and application of its
Development Fund, etc.
implementing decrees. AFD’s role is not to substitute for local actors, but to help pastoral civil society organisations
Build arguments supporting the redistribution of oil revenues to develop the pastoral sector. Chad could
contribute meaningfully to the process:
position itself as a modern leader in the sub-region by
• Support a joint procedure to build the policy formulation
supporting a particularly dynamic and sustainable sector of
process, by establishing a platform for herders and other
its economy with revenues from a non-renewable resource.
actors in the rural world to discuss and formulate consensual
Strengthen consultations between technical and financial partners to promote co-funding and partnerships in order to be able to continue to intervene on a large scale, but with more resources to achieve more
proposals for different aspects of the implementing decrees. These could draw on the wealth of knowledge accumulated during previous phases of work to secure pastoral livestock systems;
visible impacts, especially in establishing networks of water
• Put in place a range of pedagogical tools in national
points (eastern Chad). These consultations could also help
languages to ensure that agents can keep up to date with
harmonise the approaches used by different intervening
developments, using preparatory documents in local
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languages and working closely with herder organisations
critical mass of capacities in prospective analysis and
and the Directorate for professionals in the livestock sector;
forward thinking, preparing proposals, negotiations, and lobbying and advocacy;
• Help civil society organisations understand the process of producing legislation, with information and
• Assistance in structuring pastoral civil society.
training on the different stages involved in formulating and
Producer organisations have little influence on policymaking
implementing a lobbying and advocacy plan.
or in debates and consultative frameworks because there
Ensure that this work on pastoralism is incorporated into the overall policy for rural development in Chad. This includes helping develop scenarios that combine mobilising water resources for rural modernisation and development (implementing the Master Plan for Water and
is little articulation between their local- and national-level organisations. The pyramidal structuring procedure started by PAFIB should be continued and strengthened, with a national confederation of herders, traders, butchers and tanners. It is also important to ensure that women who make a living from rearing livestock are represented and can make
Sanitation) with regional planning for territorial development
their voices heard, through joint bodies or women’s
(see the work done by SIDRAT) and links with urban
organisations;
markets. The design of the future project for eastern Chad ties in closely with this recommendation and will constitute
• Increasing the weight and autonomy of local bodies
a field for immediate experimentation, while the project in
responsible for managing resources and preventing
the Lake Fitri region should contribute to progress on these
conflicts. Help create bridges between customary and
issues in another key region of Chad. The continuity of
formal institutions (such as the joint committee in Abéché).
institutional support for the Ministry of Livestock (MDPPA)
This is important, as the implementation of plans for
and the Platform has created an interesting synergy that
territorial development, administrative reorganisation and
builds on the different forms of support delivered by AFD,
decentralisation could strengthen or undermine the bodies
while opening up new opportunities to argue for the
responsible for managing works and preventing conflicts
modernity of mobile livestock rearing.
that AFD projects have supported, and which have proved very effective in preventing conflicts;
Strengthen civil society capacities at the national and local levels: Platform for actors, pastoral organisations,
• Helping increase the financial and technical autonomy
conflict prevention and works management bodies, etc.
of CSOs. In the short- and medium-term, it would be useful
Ensure that national actors take the lead in influencing
to develop alliances and partnerships with actors that have
policies and in lobbying and advocacy activities. This will
proven expertise in specific areas, such as Oxfam (capacity
ultimately strengthen social capital and create a critical
building on advocacy) and the Swiss Agency for Development
mass of knowledgeable and trained staff in state institutions
and Cooperation (phased withdrawal and helping set up
(ministries, deconcentrated services). More specifically, this
local NGOs such as ADRB). Project teams supported by
could involve:
AFD could follow this route, changing their status to become
• Developing a coaching programme for leaders of producer organisations so that they can fully engage in policy dialogue with decision-makers. Technical assistance could develop a process based on “coaching advice” and “coaching training” for herders’ leaders on the
BETs or NGOs. Finally, promote greater openness and collaboration between producer organisations that have gone through similar experiences in Chad and other African countries, such as AREN (Niger), RECOPA (Burkina Faso) and Billital Maroobe (at the regional level); • Training on the concept of mobile citizenship:
Platform. Particular attention should be given to creating a
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Knowledge of laws, rights and responsibilities, a concept of
• Reorganise and prioritise knowledge and outputs
“mobile citizenship” that is both accountable (responsibilities)
(with key points for each theme, for example). It can be
and respected (rights), participation in informed debates …
difficult to find one’s way through the mass of material on
Develop a training module on mobile citizenship for policy-
the Platform website (and 20 years’ worth of documentation!).
makers and development practitioners (like the one on
A clear database for national and international researchers
pastoralism in the Sahel delivered by partners such as
and experts would be helpful. This would require periodic
ARED and IIED). The active nucleus of resource persons
specialist expertise delivered through institutional support
trained over the last 20 years with support from AFD (which
(FERC);
included some certified courses) should form the basis of a training of trainers network.
• Develop attractive and accessible new materials that link in with NICTs and contribute to academic and school curricula (see nomadic schools) and training (see work with the film and book Au cœur de la transhumance). This will
3.3.4 Direction 4: Optimise knowledge generation and sharing through innovative action-research and the practical application of what has been learned and achieved
also require periodic specialist expertise (via field projects and institutional support). It would be interesting to work on photo stories and short videos with young people and women (see IIED website for examples of this type of work
This direction is concerned with developing and sharing
in India, Peru and sub-Saharan Africa). This is something
AFD’s considerable achievements and innovations in
that can be done in the field and through projects (Almy Al
pastoral interventions over the last 20 years. Little is
Afia 2, eastern Chad, Lake Fitri), with the outputs
known about them outside Chad, which is increasingly
disseminated via NICTs and used in training (see Direction
seen as leading the way in support for pastoralism.
3). Other materials to raise awareness about policies such
Activities in this field should aim to make it easier to
as the Pastoral Code could include newsletters, teaching
access the exceptionally rich and abundant material that
materials, information sheets, “prompts” and messages for
is now available, but which is difficult to use in its
informed debate. There is enormous potential to generate
present, scattered form on the Platform website and in
huge returns at very little cost, and to reach illiterate
dense follow-up documents. The form and content of
audiences (especially women).
these outputs need to be adapted to their target audience (readers and users) so that they can be used for capacity building (civil society) and to influence decision-makers (particularly in conjunction with Direction 3).
Theme 2: Develop action-research on modernising pastoral modes of production At the moment, there is little or no investment in research that specifically supports pastoral modes of production.
Specific recommendations
Much is invested in developing genetically improved
The specific recommendations presented below are divided into two themes:
livestock, but very little in research on pastoral livestock selection systems, or ways of supporting and improving their capacity to respond to the demands of pastoral production.
Theme 1: Better share, develop and disseminate
Here too, Chad has plenty of potential that could be explored
existing knowledge in Chad and across the Sahelian
by teachers and researchers, the Laboratoire de Farcha
belt. In East and West Africa, use bilingual publications
and LRVZ. Research and/or action-research is needed in
(such as Nomadic Peoples) in order to:
the following fields:
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• Taxation and fiscal matters: Pastoralists would have
3.3.5 Direction 5: Incorporate innovative approaches in the education/health/finance sectors into the systemic approach to pastoralism, without falling into the trap of the sectoral approach
to pay extra taxes for any additional resources or services they receive from the state (as a result of reallocating oil revenues, for example). Will this be done through taxes on access to grazing, per head of livestock, sales or exports?
This does not mean replicating the setup for integrated
Research in this field should determine the possible impacts
rural development projects or pastoral water projects like
of these different options and examine other possibilities;
PHPK Kanem. Tackling issues such as access to social
• Technological innovations adapted to mobility: Mobile pumps or water points, water quality, tanks, communication and information (mobile phones, messages about human and animal health), access to different kinds of data (weather, security, resource conditions, market prices);
services, which are still largely inaccessible to mobile groups, should not involve planning one component for education, one for health and so on, but linking up with specialists in these fields, as outlined in the 2011 prefeasibility study on eastern Chad (education sector). Specific recommendations
• Processing livestock products: Dried meat, milk products, skins. This should be considered in conjunction
Finance pilot projects or action-research type
with other projects and with the Association pour le
education and health initiatives that are adapted to
Développement de la Région du Batha (ADRB), as it could
nomadic ways of life. AFD is already committed to
be an entry point for work with women and youth (gender
supporting studies on nomadic schools (Swift, 2011; Dos
and generational issues);
Santos, 2013), and could build on this by funding small innovative independent projects, or initiatives within pastoral
• Ecological impacts: Initial evaluations of the pastoral
projects working on access to social services. A link needs
projects’ impact on resources suggested that this was one
to be established with AFD’s Chad portfolio (14 per cent)
of their weak points (see coordinated observation sites for
for these sectors, and with actions in N’Djamena (on
Almy Bahaïm), until PhD research by G. Geney identified
reproductive health, for example).
the impacts of the principle of ecological prudence rightly advocated by these projects. This important field should be
Partners could include:
reviewed through research into the impact of permanent • The Ministry of Education, Department for Nomadic
water points in the north (see comment on monitoring and
Education, and the Ministry of Health for general health
evaluation indicators, and section 2.2.2 of this report);
issues and reproductive health in nomadic communities (see • Detailed evaluation of the impacts of demarcation in
Guengant and Guealbaye, 2012). Male and female staff will
various intervention zones. As discussed in section 2.3.6
be needed to act as interfaces in field projects and with civil
of this report, the demarcation of pastoral spaces (mourhâls,
society groups (such as women’s organisations). This
resting areas, grazing areas) raises complex questions and
should also link into efforts to improve water quality in
has ambiguous effects. A detailed study needs to be made
pastoral areas, work on infrastructure and education on
of the impacts of demarcation (or non-demarcation) in
water hygiene.
different project intervention zones.
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Pilot support for mobile financial services in pastoral
changing weather conditions and rainfall patterns will affect
areas through current efforts to develop new technologies
grazing areas, increase the risks for animal health and
(possibly in conjunction with mobile phone networks).
probably lead to changes in cross-border movements. This
Monitor money transfers and the impact on savings, social
will affect Chad as the crossroads between North, West,
relations (including gender and generational) and mobilising
Central and East Africa, but is also a broader sub-regional
organisations (possibly through a PhD researcher). This is
issue;
a highly innovative field.
• Promote and secure cross-border economic trade:
Use these NICTs to generate useful and accessible
Strengthen the chain by focusing on the total economic
information on markets, weather, human and animal health,
value of pastoral livestock rearing in order to respond to the
the condition of pastures and water points, flood water levels
growing demand for livestock products in urban markets
(Batha, etc.), security conditions and so on, in conjunction
(projected demographic and urban growth over the next 20
with action-research (Direction 4).
years in N’Djamena and African megalopolises like Lagos).
Training/education/ literacy training through NICTs…
The future project in eastern Chad will include actions to develop services along caravan/trade routes towards Libya (north), taking account of the intersections between north-
3.3.6 Direction 6: Incorporate the whole AFD procedure into support for pastoralism in order to promote longterm cross-border peace and security for pastoralism and fragile states
south transhumance routes and east-west marketing/export routes. These should be encouraged and monitored elsewhere (to supplement existing studies);
AFD projects operate on a large spatial scale, but have so
• Help improve security in the sub-region: The
far reflected the logic of national mobility within country
conference on this theme held in N’Djamena in May 2013
borders. The size of the intervention area for the future
generated some very interesting responses based on
project in eastern Chad is entirely appropriate to these
experiences in various countries. Funding will be needed
cross-border logics (Central African Republic, Libya, Sudan).
for studies and cross-border analysis of the development
Cross-border mobility is a sensitive political issue,
and
and impacts of water points on each side of the border (with
initiatives that take account of cross-border mobility should
Niger and Sudan, for example) to avoid creating infrastructure
incorporate the three following activities:
that might generate conflict over cross-border movements
63
under normal conditions, and particularly in times of crisis • Consider climate change and its possible impacts on
(for example, Central African Republic, Darfur, Libya).
herd productivity (see NAPAs): It is anticipated that
63
See government policy programme of 25 January 2013.
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Abbreviations and acronyms AAA
Almy Al Afia
AB
Almy Bahaïm
AFD
Agence Française de Développement
ADRB
Association pour le Développement de la Région du Batha (Association for the
Development of the Batha Region)
AGRP
Appui à la gestion des ressources pastorales (Support for pastoral resource manage
ment) ARED
Associés en Recherche et Education pour le Développement (Associates for Research
and Education for Development)
AU-IBAR
African Union Inter-African Bureau for Animal Resources
BET
Borkou-Ennedi-Tibesti
BRGM
Bureau de Recherche Géologique et Minière (Geological Research Mining Bureau)
BURGEAP Bureau de Recherche Géologique Appliquée (Applied Geological Research Mining Bureau) CAFOD
Catholic Agency for Overseas Development
CASSET
Collectif des Associations d’Éleveurs du Tchad (Collective of Stockbreeders
Associations of Chad)
CIRAD
Centre International de Recherche Agronomique pour le Développement (Centre for
International Research on Environment and Development)
COPIL
Comité de pilotage (Steering committee)
CSFD
Comité Scientifique Français de la Désertification (French Scientific Committee on
Desertification) DEN ERE
Directorate for Nomadic Education
Development Ltd
EU
European Union
FAO
Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations
FNE
Fonds National Elevage (National Livestock Fund)
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FONADEL
Fonds National de Développement de l’Elevage (National Livestock Development Fund)
HVA
Hydraulique villageoise et assainissement (Village water and sanitation)
IFAD
International Fund for Agricultural Development
IGAD
Inter-Governmental Authority for Development
ILRI
International Livestock Research Institute
IRAM
Institut de Recherche et d’Applications des Méthodes de Développement (Institute for Research and Application of Development Methods)
ISD
Integrated Security Detachment
LRVZ
Laboratoire de Recherche Vétérinaire et Zootechnique (Veterinary and Zootechnical Research Laboratory)
MDPPA
Ministère du Développement pastoral et des productions animales (Ministry of Pastoral Development and Livestock Production)
MHUR
Ministère de l’Hydraulique urbaine et rurale (Ministry of Urban and Rural Water)
ME
Ministère de l’Élevage (Ministry of Livestock)
NAPA
National Adaptation Plan of Action
NICT
New Information and Communication Technologies
NSPR
National Strategy for Poverty Reduction
PADL-GRN Programme d’appui au développement local et à la gestion des ressources naturelles (Local development and natural resource management support programme) PAFIB
Programme d’appui à la filière bovine (Beef sector support programme)
PMTRA Plan à moyen terme de la recherche agronomique (Medium-term agricultural research plan) PNDE Programme national du développement de l’élevage (National livestock development programme) PROHYPA Projet d’hydraulique pastorale (Pastoral Water Project) PW
Pastoral water
SCBF
Study and Capacity Building Fund
SDA
Schéma directeur de l’agriculture (Master Plan for Agriculture)
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SDC
Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation
SDEA Schéma directeur de l’eau et de l’assainissement (Master Plan for Water and Sanitation) SIDRAT
Système d’Information Développement Rural et Aménagement du Territoire (Information System for Rural Development and Land Planning)
SP
Scenario Planning
TFP
Technical and Financial Partners
UNDP
United Nations Development Programme
USAID
United States Agency for International Development
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Réhabilitation des marchés centraux – Les leçons tirées des projets de Ouagadougou, Mahajanga et Phnom Penh Bilan des évaluations décentralisées réalisées par l’AFD en 2010 et 2011 Étude sur la facilité d’innovation sectorielle pour les ONG (FISONG) Cartographie des prêts budgétaires climat de l’AFD Méta-évaluation des projets « lignes de crédit » Bilan des évaluations de projets réalisées par l’AFD entre 2007 et 2009 Impacts des projets menés dans le secteur de la pêche artisanale au Sénégal L’assistance technique résidente – Enseignements tirés d’un appui au secteurde l’éducation en Mauritanie Évaluation partenariale des projets d’appui à la gestion des parcs nationauxau Maroc AFD Municipal Development Project in the Palestinian Territories Évaluation ex post de 15 projets ONG à Madagascar Analyse croisée de vingt-huit évaluations décentraliséessur le thème transversal du renforcement des capacités Étude des interventions post-catastrophe de l’AFD La coopération française dans le secteur forestier du Bassin du Congosur la période 1990-2010 Suivi de la réalisation des objectifs des projets de l’AFD : état des lieux Cartographie des engagements de l’AFD dans les fonds fiduciairessur la période 2004-2010 Addressing Development Challenges in Emerging Asia:A Strategic Review of the AFD-ADB Partnership Final Report, Period covered: 1997-2009 Capitalisation des démarches pour la mise en oeuvre des projets de formation professionnelle : cas de la Tunisie et du Maroc Bilan de l’assistance technique à la Fédération des paysans du Fouta Djallon(FPFD) en Guinée : 15 ans d’accompagnement Adapter les pratiques opérationnelles des bailleurs dans les États fragiles Cartographie de portefeuille des projets biodiversité Analyse sur la période 1996-2008Cartography of the AFD Biodiversity Project Portfolio:Analysis of the Period 1996-2008 Microfinance dans les États fragiles : quelques enseignements de l’expérience de l’AFD Un exemple d’amélioration de la gouvernance locale à travers le partenariat AFD / coopération décentralisée : capitalisation du projet de réhabilitation des marchés de Mahajanga Pratique de l’aide sectorielle : enseignements et perspectives pour l’AFD Sector Program Support in Practice: Lessons and Perspectives for AFD L’appui à l’hévéaculture familiale : capitalisation sur l’expérience AFD Developing Smallholder Rubber Production : Lessons from AFD’s Experience Évaluation rétrospective du projet FFEM d’efficacité énergétique dans la construction en Afghanistan Ex-post Évaluation of the FGEF Energy Efficiency Project in the Construction Sector in Afghanistan Évaluation des “Cadres d’Intervention Pays” (CIP) Études d’évaluation de la société immobilière de Nouvelle-Calédonie Les collaborations opérationnelles entre l’AFD et les ONG 2010 2010 Évaluation prospective • Projet Urban IV • Cartographie des projets d’efficacité énergétiques et d’énergies renouvelables AFD et FFEM Évaluation de l’usage de la concessionnalité dans les interventions de l’AFD en Afrique du Sud (1995/2005)