Supporting Young Children's Oral Language and Vocabulary Development Through High-Quality Language Environments

Rae Ross

Supporting Young Children’s Oral Language and Vocabulary Development Through High-Quality Language Rich Environments

Language is more than the currency of communication, it is also critical to comprehension and the expression of thoughts and ideas (Silverman & Hartranft, 2015). Vocabulary development includes both receptive and expressive skills and is linked to oral language which encompasses processes related to comprehension. Both oral language and vocabulary influence the stages of reading and general academic success (Silverman & Hartranft, 2015). Research continues to document the importance of developing young children’s oral language and vocabulary skills from an early age through high-quality language rich environments (Kim & Kwon, 2015; Query, Ceglowski, Clark, & Li, 2011; Whorrall & Cabell, 2016).

Explicit vocabulary instruction is necessary, but alone it is insufficient for supporting children’s vocabulary development (Silverman & Hartranft, 2015). In the classroom environment, educators have the opportunity to foster children’s word and language development. Rich conversations as well as high quality linguistic environments support children’s vocabulary development (Query et al., 2011). Okyay & Kandir (2017) explored the impact of interactive story reading on children’s oral language and vocabulary development. The study also focused on creating an environment supportive of children’s language development through rich conversation. They found that meaningful conversations coupled with high-quality linguistic environments had a significant and positive impact on children’s expressive and receptive language. Studies from Olaussen (2016), Pollard-Durodola et al. (2011), and Wilson, Fang, Rollins, and Valdez (2016) also found a positive relationship between the environment and student’s language development.

Overall, the research supports the importance of creating an environment supportive of oral language and vocabulary development. Depending on the goal for instruction, approaches may vary. Instruction can be intensive and explicit, multimodal, interactive, or independent. Using Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory as the theoretical perspective, the following aims to provide implications for educators in creating high-quality environments supportive of children’s oral language and vocabulary development.

Theoretical Perspective

Constructivism is a broad term used to define a method of teaching and learning. In a cognitive constructivist classroom, knowledge is constructed individually, rather than socially. Individuals are separate from their social and physical environment. This belief was challenged

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by many theorists including Lev Vygotsky. He did agree children construct knowledge for themselves and are active participants in the learning process (Pinter, 2006). However, he emphasized the larger role the social environment plays on children’s learning and development. Vygotsky further explored how social and cultural interactions impacted learning (Miller, 2016). He found a strong connection between the two which influenced his development of the sociocultural view of constructivism.

At the center of social constructivism is collaboration and social and cultural interactions (Panhwar, Ansari, & Ansari, 2016; Powell & Kalina, 2009). Vygotsky’s (1978) sociocultural theory embeds humans in a sociocultural matrix and human behavior is not separate from this matrix (Miller, 2016). He believed social interactions were an integral part of the learning process. Furthermore, Vygotsky believed language was the most important psychological tool for development as it transforms the process of thinking (Miller, 2016).

From Vygotsky’s perspective, language development is based on the interaction between the child and more knowledgeable peers (Vygotsky, 1962). The child internalizes the information and knowledge gained from the interaction and communication with others (Panhwar et al., 2016; Vygotsky, 1978). Vygotsky’s concept of Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) was developed to describe the difference or “zone” between a child’s current knowledge and potential knowledge with the support from a more knowledgeable child or adult.

The interactions that take place (child to child or teacher to child) create the pathway through which learning and understanding take place (Pinter, 2006). Language allows children to make messages accessible, ask questions, clarify thoughts, and express ideas. According to Vygotsky, all learning happens in these social interactions with others (Vygotsky, 1978). Magnan (2008) supports Vygotsky’s theory and argues that the social environment of the learner is the very foundation for language development regardless of first or second language acquisition. Therefore, teachers should evaluate their instruction and classroom environment in order to provide children with rich language experiences through supportive and social interactions (Silverman & Hartanft, 2016).

Creating a Language Rich Classroom

Research continues to document the relationship between oral language and vocabulary development in kindergarten and later academic success in fourth grade (Dickinson & Porchse, 2011; Whorrall & Cabell, 2016). However, research also shows teachers do not engage children in enough natural, high-quality conversation to foster language and vocabulary development (Winton & Buysse, 2005). By creating language rich classrooms, teachers can better support the development of these skills. A language rich environment moves beyond the physical structure of the classroom and focuses on the quality of interactions between the child and teacher. It is also one that is safe and supportive and involves children as active participants in the learning experience through positive and productive dialogic interactions.

There are several explicit and teacher directed settings that involve students in rich conversation (Whorrall & Cabell, 2016). However, non-teacher directed settings may elicit greater oral language and vocabulary development (Gest, Holland-Coviello, Welsh, Eicher-Catt, & Gill, 2006; Whorrall & Cabell, 2016). It is important to remember regardless of a child’s home language, the characteristics of language rich classrooms also benefit children who have a first language other than English (Kim & Kwon, 2015).

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Creating a positive classroom environment

A positive effect, an encouragement for communication, and respect for children are just a few characteristics of a positive classroom environment (Jozwik & Douglas, 2017). Teachers can support children’s participation in the classroom through extended conversation, feedback and responsiveness, and acknowledgement of their contributions (Silverman & Hartranft, 2016). Girolametto, Weitzman, van Lieshout, and Duff (2000) found that when teachers engaged students in individual conversations, the children talked more, used more complex sentences, and were engaged longer in conversation. The researchers suggest this finding might be due to the classroom environment and basing the topic of conversations on children’s interest. Teachers can also guide children in an exploration of language through materials that promote use of specialized vocabulary, but again, based on children’s interest (The Access Center, 2007). Such strategies help children feel safe and secure, which in turn increases their willingness to share thoughts and ideas with teachers and peers.

The kind of environment children and adults interact in can affect the development of oral language and vocabulary skills (Goodson, Layzer, & National Institute for Literacy, 2009). Goodson et al. (2009) looked at developing children’s ability to use words through meaningful and intentional conversations with adults. They found that taking time to talk and share experiences was related to children’s language development and later reading comprehension ability. Goodson et al. (2009) suggest the following activities foster a positive and language rich environment: � Engage with children individually in extended and contextualized conversations � Read books children are interested in with rich concepts and vocabulary � Guide children in discussion through questioning about texts � Model the use of complete sentences when asking questions or responding to statements � Provide children with opportunities to engage in conversation about past, present, and imaginary experiences A positive classroom environment also encompasses one that is organized and well managed (Silverman & Hartranft, 2016). For children to have the freedom to engage in meaningful conversations, teachers need to provide children with expectations and routines for how and when to do so. For example, during a large group lesson, if the teacher does not have expectations and procedures in place for sharing thoughts or questions, children may interrupt or talk over one another, creating an environment full of redirection instead of rich language. During small group instruction, if a teacher is trying to provide children with additional language support, the other children in the class need to know what to do and how to do it (Silverman & Hartranft, 2016). Research has found explicit procedures and expectations in the classroom have a positive effect on children’s emergent literacy skills, language development, and task orientation (Dobbs-Oates, Kaderavek, Guo & Justice, 2011).

Creating Word Consciousness

Graves (2000) identified word consciousness as one of the key components of vocabulary instruction in middle school students and how this is fostered at a young age. Word consciousness promotes an interest and awareness of words and their meanings (Graves & Watts-taffe, 2002), and creates an ability to recognize new and unfamiliar words (Manzo & Manzo, 2008). When children are word conscious, they are motivated to learn and apply new words across contexts (Lane & Allen, 2010). They are also aware of when they hear an unknown

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word and are motivated to find out its meaning (Silverman & Hartranft, 2016). This positive disposition supports reading and listening development (Graves & Watts-taffee, 2002).

Teachers can support children’s word consciousness by modeling an awareness for new words, encouraging excitement for new words, and providing opportunities to demonstrate word consciousness (Silverman & Hartranft, 2016). When children encounter words for the first time, teachers can support children’s discovery and exploration of those words. Through multiple exposures, children begin to develop vocabulary breadth. Their brain begins to organize words in a web and this web becomes tighter as the number of words children know grows as well as their understanding of the word (Whorrall & Cabell, 2016). Although word consciousness is typically associated with new words, it is important to remember word consciousness also revolves around words children already know (Silverman & Hartranft, 2016). For words children already know, teachers can help children develop an awareness of how, when, and why to use those words in contrast to other words. Focusing on word consciousness with words children are knowledgeable about develops vocabulary depth.

A word conscious teacher links new words to concepts children are familiar with and applies new words in ways that are meaningful (Lane & Allen, 2010). The more children are aware of the words in their environment, the more likely they are to seek out opportunities to learn words independently and add to their existing word web (Graves, 2000). Therefore, researchers argue word consciousness is one, if not the most important foundational principles to supporting language and vocabulary development in children (Graves ,2000; Silverman & Hartranft, 2016).

Implicit Modeling of Sophisticated Vocabulary

Children are sensitive to the language they hear, and the language directed towards them. Therefore, it is important for teachers to increase children’s exposure to sophisticated vocabulary in the classroom environment (Whorrall & Cabell, 2016). Sophisticated vocabulary includes words used by “mature language users” (Graves & Watts-Taffe, 2002, p. 16), words such as: impressive, courteous, exemplary, superior (Lane & Allen, 2010). In order for children to develop their own vocabulary repertoire, they need multiple exposures to this rich language. Beck, McKeown, and Kucan (2008) found frequent encounters to new words and their meanings had a significant impact on reading. They found children were better able to comprehend text because more cognitive resources (words and their meanings) were available.

Teachers have the opportunity to serve as a catalyst for language development by modeling the use of sophisticated vocabulary and complex language (Silverman & Hartranft, 2016). In addition to multiple exposures to words and their meanings, children need the opportunity to draw connections between new vocabulary and prior knowledge and experiences (Lane & Allen, 2010). As teachers expose children to rich vocabulary, they begin to internalize and file these words and language structures. Over time, the use of sophisticated vocabulary supports children’s receptive language development (Silverman & Hartranft, 2016).

Several strategies support sophisticated language acquisition. However, a simple and powerful strategy is frequent modeling of vocabulary use through familiar concepts (Lane & Allen, 2010). This strategy not only draws on children’s prior and existing knowledge, but also gives children a platform to connect and internalize their new learning. The following examples model a teacher’s use of sophisticated language in a deliberate but natural approach through feedback.

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Teacher: The illustration of your dog is quite impressive! You used an abundant amount of detail. Teacher: You were very precise and accurate when counting your unifix cubes! Teacher: I appreciate how pleasant and courteous you all were to our guest speaker. These examples not only draw upon children’s prior and existing knowledge through familiar contexts, but also embed the new sophisticated vocabulary in a natural way.

Another approach to embed and model rich vocabulary in the classroom is through classroom routines and procedures. Instead of stating, “let’s work together” the teacher would say, “let’s collaborate.” The teacher would draw children’s attention to the connection between work together and collaborate to strengthen the association by creating a connection between the two words. Although the learning of these words may be implicit and incidental, the teacher’s use is explicit and purposeful. Studies have found incidental learning from context has a positive effect on children’s vocabulary growth (Graves, 2000; Wilson et al., 2016). Table 1 (see Appendix A), developed by Lane and Allen (2010), contains a list of sophisticated vocabulary words focused on classroom routines.

Stimulating Oral Language in the Classroom

A classroom devoted to the development and support of oral language and vocabulary begins with the teacher creating opportunities for students to listen to and use language. A classroom supportive of conversation engages individuals in meaningful exchanges with others following rules of turn taking, listening, and responding (Glaser & Moats, 2008). The goal of conversation is to encourage peer interactions, more student talk, and longer utterances. This task is often easier said than done. Teachers find children respond in conversation minimally or not at all, and often, teachers end up doing all of the talking. There are several activities and routines teachers can implement daily to support conversation and the development of language. The purpose of the activities described below is not to add more to the already existing structure of the classroom. Rather, the purpose is to enhance daily routines and activities already in place to foster oral language and vocabulary development throughout the school day.

Whole-Class Activities

Teachers can use whole-class activities to introduce themes and concepts children will explore together (Silverman & Hartranft, 2016). Through whole-class activities, children develop a common language and can practice using that language in a supportive group. Kriete (2003) used morning meeting as an opportunity to practice greeting, sharing, and class cooperation. During greeting time, students were prompted to greet each other by name. Sharing involved students articulating their thoughts, feelings, ideas, and feedback was given in a positive manner. This group activity was used to foster class cohesion through active participation.

Dialogic reading, developed by Zevenbergen and Whitehurst (2003), is another wholeclass activity supportive of children’s general language development. Children become active participants in the reading experience through dialogue and language use. Teachers scaffold children’s talk during the book reading to support language use through prompting and expansion. Zevenbergen and Whitehurst (2003) suggest teachers provide children with multiple readings of the same text because it increases children’s understanding of the text, and further develops their expressive language skills.

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Peer-to-Peer Activities

In addition to whole-class activities, teachers can encourage students to interact and collaborate with their peers. Language-rich classrooms provide students with opportunities to work in pairs or in small groups, and emphasis is placed on communication and cooperation. Buddy Reading, between older or big buddies and younger or little buddies, is one activity supportive of language development. The activity typically follows a whole-class lesson on vocabulary so students have the background knowledge to bring to the discussion when they work together. The big buddy typically reads the text exploring, pronouncing, and trying out vocabulary words in the text (Silverman & Hartranft, 2016). Big buddies also provide cognitive and linguistic support to little buddies as they attempt to use language and experience the new vocabulary. Overall, the goal of buddy reading is to foster rich conversations about new information with big buddies serving as models of language use, and little buddies practicing their language use in a supportive environment (Saenz, Fuchs, & Fuchs, 2005).

Literature circles support a variety of skills including language development through reading comprehension and vocabulary (Elhess & Egbert, 2015). A literature circle brings children together to discuss and respond to a text of choice. When the group meets, each child has a specific role in order to facilitate the discussion (Silverman & Hartranft, 2016). The teacher remains in the background, and only “intervenes to provide basic control functions” (Elhess & Egbert, 2015, p. 13). Literature circles also expose children to responses and perspectives other than their own which influences their collaborative and conversational skills. Elhess and Egbert (2015) found literature circles have a positive impact on language learning including: enhanced responsibility and motivation, expanded collaborative discussion, increased student participation, and developed oral proficiency. Their research also shows literature circles have the potential to create a positive and language-rich environment because of the interactive discussions and collaborative tasks.

Conclusion

The language environment has the potential to develop children’s oral language and vocabulary development (Dickinson & Porchse, 2011; Whorrall & Cabell, 2016; Winton & Buysse, 2005). Educators have the opportunity to create a language-rich environment through positive interactions and a respect for children’s attempts at language use (Jozwik & Douglas, 2017). Children need to develop word consciousness in order to create an interest, excitement, and awareness of words and their meanings (Graves & Watts-taffe, 2002). Word consciousness motivates children to learn new words and apply those words in different settings. The teacher also influences word consciousness through her own modeling of word awareness and sophisticated vocabulary. When a classroom supports oral language and vocabulary development, children are engaged in opportunities to listen to and use language through meaningful conversation, whole-class activities, and peer-to-peer interactions. Looking back at Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory, one can see how influential the environment and interactions are in the context of learning. Therefore, teachers should continue to reflect on their instructional practices in order to create an environment rich in language use and conducive of social interactions.

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Rae Ross is a Reading Specialist at Jenks Public Schools. She is a doctoral student at University of Oklahoma. Rae may be reached at rae.ross@ou.edu

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Appendix A

Table 1

Sophisticated Vocabulary Words for Classroom Routines

Classroom Supplies

Walking in Line

Group Time

Accumulate

Adjacent

Articulate

Allocate

Approach

Ascertain

Allot

Disorderly

Assemble

Arrange

Efficiently

Coherent

Collect

File

Contribute

Deplete

Halt

Converse

Distribute

Linger

Convey

Gather

Orderly

Cooperate

Hoard

Parallel

Deliberate

Issue

Perpendicular

Determine

Replenish

Proceed

Disperse

Reserve

Proximity

Elaborate

Retrieve

Queue

Oblige

Stockpile

Swiftly

Portray

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