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Modelling with think-alouds practices of proficient readers or writers

Explicit instruction involves teachers modelling how proficient readers and writers use skills or cognitive strategies as part of reading or writing situations. Thinking aloud during this modelling is critical since it makes physical actions and thought processes explicit, rather than being hidden from students (Rosenshine, 2001). As stated by Rupley et al. (2009), ‘think-alouds are intended to help students get inside the teacher’s mind and begin to understand what strategies they can use when doing similar tasks’ (p. 129). Hughes et al. (2017) stressed that modelling is more effective when teachers consistently use words that are understood by students during lessons. Students can learn new ideas without clear modelling, but this will make it more challenging for them to apply their learning in practical ways, such as engaging in deep readings of texts or making particular language choices in their writing.

Scaffolding and supporting students as they develop the target skill or strategy

Scaffolding is an essential feature of explicit instruction. Building on Lev Vygotsky’s seminal theory of learning (i.e., social constructivism), Jerome Bruner (1978) coined the term scaffolding to describe the process of offering students most support when they first develop a new understanding and gradually reducing this support as students become more autonomous. In explicit instruction, the teacher gradually releases responsibility for the students to use a target skill or strategy, providing affirmative feedback to guide their practice (Reutzel et al., 2014). Like the scaffolding around a new building, this support helps bridge the gap between students’ existing skills and the intended practice modelled by the teacher (Rosenshine & Meister, 1992). Typically, explicit instruction begins with a teacherfocused modelling stage, followed by a joint practice stage between the teacher and students, and an independent practice stage where students work without the teacher’s direct guidance. While students are supported throughout these stages, most scaffolding occurs in the joint practice stage. More detailed explanation about these stages is provided in the reading and writing overview chapters (i.e., Chapters 2 and 10).