Biomimicry and Parametricism in Architecture - A Dissertation by Palak Verma, SPA New Delhi

School of Planning and Architecture, New Delhi

DISSERTATION 2020

Biomimicry and Parametricism in Architecture "How can architecture draw inspiration from the symbiosis between computational design and the biological world?"

Date: 02/12/2020

Palak Verma | A/2958/2016 | Yr - 5, Sec - A Guide: Abhishek Sorampuri | Coordinator: Prabhjot Sugga Word count: 12,500 words

Cover Image –'Catacylsm' by University of Bologna, Italy Source: http://www.evolo.us/catalclysm-investigating-fatal-scenarios/ Dissertation by Palak Verma Fifth Year B. Arch. – 2020 School of Planning and Architecture, New Delhi ii

Declaration The research work embodied in this dissertation titled Biomimicry and Parametricism in Architecture has been carried out by the undersigned as part of the undergraduate Dissertation programme in the Department of Architecture, School of Planning and Architecture, New Delhi, under the supervision of Ar. Abhishek Sorampuri (name of guide).

The undersigned hereby declares that this is his/her original work and has not been plagiarised in part or full form from any source.

PALAK VERMA (Signature of Student)

Name of student: Palak Verma Roll No.: A/2958/2016 Year and Section: 5-A Date: 02-12-2020

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Certificate This dissertation, titled ‘Biomimicry and Parametricism in Architecture’ (Title of Dissertation) by Palak Verma (name of student), roll no. A/2958/2016, was carried out during the Fifth Year, Ninth Semester (2020) B. Arch. Program in the Department of Architecture, under our guidance during September - December 2020. On completion of the report in all aspects and based on the declaration by the candidate above, we provisionally accept this dissertation report and forward the same to the Department of Architecture, School of Planning and Architecture, New Delhi, India.

AR. ABHISHEK SORAMPURI (signature and name of guide)

PROF. PRABHJOT SUGGA (signature and name of coordinator)

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Acknowledgements There are many who helped me along the way on this journey. I want to take a moment to thank them all.

I would first like to express my sincere gratitude to my knowledgeable and understanding guide, Ar. Abhishek Sorampuri, who has given me valuable guidance and supported me throughout this research project. I am extremely grateful for the way he guided me in a friendly and amicable manner, which made conducting a dissertation in this online semester a much easier task. Additionally, I would like to acknowledge my coordinator Prof. Prabhjot Sugga for his constant help and support.

I would also like to thank my teachers, Prof. Dr Jaya Kumar and Prof. Arpita Dayal, for their lectures and doubt sessions throughout the semester. Their knowledge and sensitivity have provided unique insights and a constant frame of reference which helped immensely in creating this work.

In addition, I would like to extend my appreciation to my friends, with special mention to Vibhuti Kathpalia and Gargi Gambhir, who provided stimulating discussions and feedback as well as happy distractions to rest my mind outside of my research.

Finally, I would like to thank my parents, my brother, and my didi for their love and wise counsel.

Their insights and reinforcement at each step enabled me to progress and successfully conclude my dissertation. I am forever grateful for their patience and understanding.

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Abstract Biomimicry is an applied science that derives inspiration for solutions to human problems through the study of natural designs, systems and processes. From centuries, architects and designers have been searching for answers from nature to their complex questions about different kinds of structures, and they have mimicked a lot of forms from nature to create better and more efficient structures for different architectural purposes. Computers have long been developing as a very sophisticated and accurate tool for simulation and computing. Without computers, these various complex ways and forms of structures could not be mimicked. Thus using computers has risen as the way of mimicking and taking inspiration from nature by which designers can imitate different nature’s models despite its complexity.

This dissertation represents an investigation into biomimicry and includes analyses of case studies wherein the development of a design method based on biomimetic principles has been done by using various parametric tools and computational strategies.

The findings and conclusions reiterate the hypothesis that combining biomimicry with parametricism reduces the complexity of both design and construction in a manner that reduces the number of instructions, documentation, and visualisation necessary to produce architectural works.

Keywords: Biomimicry, parametricism, inspiration, efficiency, innovation

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Chapterisation — Chapter 1 —

I N T RO D U CT I O N The introduction outlines the need for the study of the chosen chapter and the research question and the objectives. It defines the scope of the study while also listing the imitations predicted to be faced.

Additionally, it also contains the research framework, which breaks down and visualises the entire research.

— Chapter 2 —

U N D E R STA N D I N G ' B I O M I M I CRY ' & ' PA R A M ET R I CI S M ' The first part of the literature review covers the main concepts of the dissertation, which are biomimicry and parametricism. It gives a deeper understanding of the definition of each of the concepts and also establishes their history and connection to the field of architecture. Finally, it describes patterns, a phenomenon which has existed in both, nature as well as the computational/mathematical world for years.

— Chapter 3 —

A P P L I C AT I O N S I N A RCH I T ECT U R E - C A SE E X A M P L E S The second part of the literature review covers three case examples which individually embody one aspect of design or architecture, such as material, technology, and structure. These three case examples show how biomimicry and parametricism have come together to make the particular aspect work efficiently.

— Chapter 4 —

D E SI G N A P P RO A CH This chapter is the basis of the research methodology for this dissertation. It first describes the Oxman framework, which forms a relationship between the four modalities of human imagination. It then talks about the two approaches to biomimicry, which is a precursor to the five potential dimensions in biomimicry.

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— Chapter 5 —

R E SE A RCH M ET H O D O LO G Y The research methodology outlines the criteria for selecting the case studies and builds on the fourth chapter to give a sequential break-up of the stages followed while analysing the case studies to reach the conclusion.

— Chapter 6 —

C A SE ST U D I E S & A N A LY SI S The following case studies based on the three levels of biomimicry i.e. organism, behavioural, and ecosystem are selected and analysed, as outlined in chapter 5: Organism level

— Rosenstein Pavilion, Stuttgart

Behavioural level — The Eastgate Centre, Harare Ecosystem level

Zira Island Masterplan, Baku —

The analysis is then done in two levels, with the first part of the analysis being on the basis of the Oxman Framework (The Krebs Cycle of Creativity, while the second part of the analysis being on the basis of the approach adopted in the design process and the five potential dimensions to biomimicry (form, material, construction, process, function).

— Chapter 7 —

F I N D I N G S & CO N CLU SI O N The final chapter in the dissertation elaborates on the various findings achieved from the research process, and then gives the conclusion and the way forward in the field of study. The findings and conclusions reiterate the hypothesis that combining biomimicry with parametricism reduces the complexity of both design and construction in a manner that reduces the number of instructions, documentation, and visualisation necessary to produce architectural works.

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Contents Declaration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iii Certificate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iv Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v Abstract . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vi Chapterisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v ii List of Illustrations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . x ii List of Tables & Figures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xv — Chapter 1 —

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1.1 Need for Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1.2 Research Question . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1.3 Aim . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1.4 Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1.5 Scope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 1.6 Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 1.7 Research Framework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 — Chapter 2 —

Understanding 'Biomimicry' & 'Parametricism' . . . . . . . . . . 3 2.1 Introduction to Biomimicr y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 2.2 Histor y of Biomimicr y in Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 2.3 Introduction to Parametricism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 2.4 Histor y of Parametricism in Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 2.5 Patterns - Parametric vs. Biomimetic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 2.5.1 The Fibonacci Sequence and the Golden Ratio (τ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 2.5.2 Fractals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 ix

— Chapter 3 —

Applications in Architecture - Case Examples . . . . . . . . . . 15 3.1 Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 3.1.1 Aguahoja by Neri Oxman (Mediated Media Group) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 3.2 Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 3.2.1 National Taichung Theatre by Toyo Ito . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 3.3 Technolog y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 3.3.1 Silk Pavilion II by Neri Oxman (Mediated Media Group) . . . . . . . 23 — Chapter 4 —

Design Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 4.1 The Oxman Framework (Krebs Cycle of Creativ ity) . . . . . . . . 27 4.2 Approaches to Biomimicr y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 4.2.1 Problem-driven Design Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 4.2.2 Solution-driven Design Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 — Chapter 5 —

Research Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 5.1 Sequential Break-up of Stages of Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 5.1.1 Criteria for selection of case studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 5.1.2 Defining the design brief . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 5.1.3 Analysis of case studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 5.1.4 Findings from case studies, leading to conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 — Chapter 6 —

Case Studies & Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 6.1 — Organism Level — Rosenstein Pavilion Rosenstein Pal ace, Stuttgart

By Daria Kovaleva et al. (ILEK , University of Stuttgart) . . . . 32 6.1.1 Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 6.1.2 Abstraction of the principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 6.1.3 Work progress from design to production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 6.1.4 Integrated Design Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 6.1.5 Production and Assembly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

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6.2 — Behaviour Level — Eastgate Centre Harare, Zimbabwe

By Mick Pearce . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 6.2.1 Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 6.2.2 Abstraction of the principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 6.2.3 Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 6.2.4 Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 6.2.5 Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 6.3 — Ecosystem Level — Zira Island Master Plan Baku, A zerbaijan

By BIG Architects (Proposed) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 6.3.1 Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 6.3.2 Abstraction of the principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 6.3.3 Design approach to natural elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 6.4 — Analysis Par t 1 — Analysing Through the Oxman Framework (KCC) . . . . . . . . . 48 6.5 — Analysis Par t 2 — Analysing Through the Potential Dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 — Chapter 7 —

Findings & Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 7.1 Sustainability, Biomimicr y, & Parametricism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 7.1.1 Material & Resource Efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 7.1.2 Structural/Design Innovation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 7.1.3 Form-Structure-Function Correlation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 7.2 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 7.3 Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 7.4 Way For ward . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 — Chapter 8 —

Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54

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List of Illustrations Illustration 1

left: Los Manatiales by Candela; right: diagram of hypar forms.

Source: www.archdaily.com.

5

Illustration 2

Gaudí’s hanging model and inverted photographs used to render forms.

Source: Maher and Burry, 2003.

8

Illustration 3

Frei Otto's soap bubble experiment.

Source: Yunis, 2105.

8

Illustration 4

Spiral Patterns based on the "nearly golden angles" (a) 137.3o; (b) 137.5o; (c) 137.6o.

Source: Przemyslaw Prusinkiewicz and Aristid Lindenmayer, 1996.

11

Illustration 5

Fractals are inherent to the structures of ice and snowflakes.

Source: Ivan Turkouvski, Flickr.

14

Illustration 6

Aguahoja I by Mediated Matter Group.

Source: www.dezeen.com.

15

Illustration 7

Layers of the skin of the pavilion.

Source: oxman.com.

16

Illustration 8

How structural, environmental, and hydration forces act on the skin of the pavilion.

Source: www.creativeapplications.net.

17

Illustration 9

Behaviour of the skin at different scales.

Source: www.creativeapplications.net.

18

Illustration 10

Detail of a structural member (mm) showing the air bubbles formed inside, used to house micro-organisms.

Source: oxman.com.

18

Illustration 11

Process of formation of skin of pavilion based on various factors via computational design.

Source: oxman.com + Author.

19

Illustration 12

Elevations. L-R: southwest, east, southeast.

Source: oxman.com.

19

Structural diagram of National Taichung Theatre by Toyo Ito.

20

A series of connected 'catenoidal' spaces.

21

Illustration 13 Illustration 14

Source: www.metalocus.es.

Source: www.indesignlive.com.

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Illustration 15

National Taichung Theatre. left: aerial view; right: 3D physical model.

Source: www.architecturalrecord.com.

22

Illustration 16

Silk Pavilion II. left: conceptual; right: as part of the exhibition Neri Oxman: Material Ecology at The Museum of Modern Art, New York.

Source: left: behance.com; right: Denis Doorly.

23

Illustration 17

Detailed view of the silkworms on the structure. Holes were intentionally placed on the textile to allow silkworms to navigate the interior and exterior surface.

Source: MIT Media Lab, 2020.

24

Illustration 18

left: 17,532 silkworms were placed on the Silk Pavilion; right: detailed view of partially dissolved textile tensioned to cable wires.

Source: MIT Media Lab, 2020.

24

Illustration 19

The structure from inside during construction with intentionally placed holes.

Source: Denis Doorly.

25

Illustration 20

Paper sheets with Bombyx mori eggs.

Source: MIT Media Lab, 2020.

25

Illustration 21

Overall view of the production jig and structure.

Source: The Mediated Matter Group.

25

Illustration 22

Concentrated silk deposition at point connections between knit and suspension cables.

Source: Oxman, 2020.

26

Illustration 23

Initial experiments in robotic silk deposition.

Source: MIT Media Lab, 2020.

26

Illustration 24

3D Point-cloud scan data of the pavilion during silk spinning employing infrared laser rangefinders.

Source: MIT Media Lab, 2020.

26

Illustration 25

View of Rosenstein Pavilion in the exhibition room of Rosenstein Museum, Stuttgart, 2017 Source: Kovaleva et al., 2019a.

32

Illustration 26

Photograph of a sea urchin H. mammillatus species (A); the cross-section of its spine (B); a close-up of the stereom structure (C).

Source: AMIN, University of Tuebingen.

33

Illustration 27

Axonometric of the exhibition space with pavilion.

Source: Kovaleva et al., 2019a.

35

Illustration 28

Materialisation of stress field of the shell. (A) Initial quad mesh; (B) population of cells by size & orientation to principal stress vectors; (C) modelling of required cross-sections.

Source: Kovaleva et al., 2019a.

36

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Illustration 29

Segmentation layout of the shell.

Source: Kovaleva et al., 2019a.

37

Illustration 30

Formwork methods for geometrically complex concrete structures. (a) Milling of formwork part; (b) assembly of 2-sided formwork for casting; (c) view of thin-walled concrete segment.

Source: Kovaleva et al., 2019a.

38

Illustration 31

Eastgate Centre in Harare, Zimbabwe.

Source: www.livinspaces.net.

39

Illustration 32

Two models of termite mound air flow.

Source: Jacobson, 2014.

40

Illustration 33

Schematic of the natural ventilation of the building.

Source: wikipedia.org.

41

Illustration 34

Temperatures in termite mounds.

Source: parametrichouse.com.

42

Illustration 35

Eastgate Centre conceptual drawings, (A) materials with high thermal capacity; (B) prickly exterior of the building.

Source: youtube.com.

43

Illustration 36

Diagram showing the flow of air in the Eastgate Centre.

Source: youtube.com + Author.

43

Illustration 37

Zira Island big ramboll aerial view of the seven peaks of Azerbaijan.

Source: www.archdaily.com.

44

Illustration 38

Wind study.

46

Plan and program of the Island.

Source: www.archdaily.com.

47

Illustration 39

Source: www.archdaily.com.

xiv

List of Tables & Figures L I ST O F TA B L E S Table 1

Comparative analysis of case studies based on the Oxman framework (KCC).

Source: Author.

48

Table 2

Comparative analysis of case studies based on the five potential dimensions.

Source: Author.

49

L I ST O F F I G U R E S 2

Figure 1

Research Framework.

Source: Author.

Figure 2

The Krebs Cycle of Creativity by Neri Oxman.

Source: spectrum.mit.edu.

27

Figure 3

Problem-driven design approach.

Source: Harris, 2016.

29

Figure 4

Solution-driven design approach.

Source: Harris, 2016.

29

Figure 5

Levels & parameters of biomimicry.

Source: Harris, 2016.

30

Figure 6

Framework.

34

Section displaying sustainable technologies.

Source: www.archdaily.com.

45

Figure 7

Source: Knippers, Schmid and Speck, 2019, pp. 95 + Author.

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— Chapter 1 —

Introduction 1 .1 N E E D F O R ST U DY What do we need to achieve true sustainability? Arguably, biomimicry – design inspired by the way functional challenges have been solved in biology – is one of the best sources of solutions that will allow us to "create a positive future and make the shift from the industrial age to the ecological age of humankind" (Pawlyn, 2016, p. 1).

At the same time, parametric technology is a tool with the potential to aid biomimetic architecture and sustainable design. Yet a lot of architects fail to recognise the power of using parametric design tools and mathematical methods in form-finding and achieving results which are more aesthetic, efficient, responsive, and controllable.

Thus there is a need to unify these two schools of study such that the biomimetic principles of design start relating to the process of digital and parametric design. This, in turn, reduces the complexity of both design and construction in a manner that reduces the number of instructions, documentation, and visualisation necessary to produce architectural works.

1 .2 R E SE A RCH Q U E ST I O N How can architecture draw inspiration from the symbiosis between computational design and the biological world?

1.3 AIM The aim of this work is to understand the impact of the confluence of biomimicry and parametricism on the efficiency of the process and outcome of design.

1 .4 O B J ECT I V E S i. To understand the concepts of biomimicry and parametricism individually and examine their history in architecture. ii. To establish the relation of biomimicry with parametricism. iii. To understand the varied applications of biomimicry and parametricism in architecture. iv. To analyse relevant examples and understand the use and impact of the concepts.

Page 1

Dissertation 2020 | Introduction

Page 2

v. To understand the implications of the study and explore potential applications.

1 . 5 S CO P E The scope of the study is limited to architecture and design, and shall not be covering aspects out of this domain of implementation of biomimicry and parametricism. It shall talk about the past and current examples of biomimicry and parametricism individually as well as together, as existing in different parts of the world. Also, it shall not be covering aesthetically inspired bio-structures.

1 .6 L I M I TAT I O N S Given the pandemic (COVID-19), the lack of examples within the Indian context, as well as the given time constraint of the dissertation, it is beyond the scope of this study to draw any conclusions based on primary data, and thus the research will only be limited to analysis of secondary data.

1 .7 R E SE A RCH F R A M E W O R K Background Study Research Topic & Question

Concept

Identification of Research Tools

History Defining Assessment Criteria

Confluence

Research Methodology

Objective 1 & 2

Literature Review

Materials

Qualitative Analysis

Technology Structure

Figure 1. Research Framework.

Source: Author.

Inferences and Conclusion Future Scope

Objective 4

Identification of Case Studies

Objective 5

Objective 3

Applications

— Chapter 2 —

Understanding 'Biomimicry' & 'Parametricism' 2 .1 I N T RO D U CT I O N TO B I O M I M I CRY Biomimicry (from the Greek bios, meaning life, and mimesis, meaning imitation) is a discipline that studies nature's best ideas and then imitates these designs to solve human problems (Benyus, 1997; 2009, pp. 3,4). Since a very long time, architects all over the world have looked to nature for inspiration for building various structural forms: nature has been used as an aesthetic source-book.

Biomimicry, in turn, is concerned with functional solutions, not necessarily for aesthetic purposes.

The term ‘biomimicry’ first was used in 1962 as a generic term, including both cybernetics and bionics (Bernard and Morley Richard Kare, 1962, pp.393–397). Before that, the term ‘biomimetics’ was coined by Otto Schmitt in 1957 (Harkness, 2001), followed by the term ‘bionics’, coined by Jack Steele of the US Air Force in 1960 (Vincent et al., 2006). The only major difference between 'biomimetics' and 'biomimicry' is that many of the latter's users aim to concentrate primarily on the production of ecological solutions, whereas the former is mostly used in fields of operation such as military technology (Pawlyn, 2016, p. 2) Although the early incarnations are often credited to Buckminster Fuller, Janine Benyus, a science writer and environmental lecturer, is responsible for the recent codification of biomimicry as an area of research and study(Panchuk, 2006, p. 5). Her 1997 book titled Biomimicry: Innovation Inspired

by Nature brought together the recent discoveries in a multitude of disciplines, from engineering to agriculture, that can be traced to research and investigations into the designs and processes found in nature. A number of propositions are put forth in the book that effectively illustrate the current trends and principles of Biomimetic investigation.

1. Nature as model – Biomimicry is a science that studies the models of nature and then imitates or takes inspiration from these designs and processes, e.g. a leaf-inspired solar cell, to solve human problems (Benyus, 1997; 2009).

2. Nature as measure – In order to determine the "rightness" of our inventions, biomimicry utilises an ecological standard. Nature has discovered, after 3.8 billion years of evolution, what works. What is suitable. What lasts (Benyus, 1997; 2009).

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3. Nature as mentor – A modern way of seeing and valuing nature is biomimicry. It creates an age based on what we can learn from it, not on what we can take and manipulate from the natural environment (Benyus, 1997; 2009).

2 .2 H I STO RY O F B I O M I M I CRY I N A RCH I T ECT U R E Structures have taken inspiration from nature from a very long time. Some very early examples include the old temples of the ancient Egyptian civilization in which, for example, the columns of the temples influenced by the lotus plant, the holy plant for the Egyptians. In the Greek and Roman ages, trees and plants were traditionally used as a source of inspiration for the classical order's ornamented structural columns. Two of the capitals of these columns were influenced by the Acanthus plant (the Corinthian and Composite order), where these columns appeared extensively in architectural forms of the Greek and Roman. (Aziz and El Sherif, 2016). During this whole period of time, it was clear that the use of figurines and ornaments was influenced by the commonly seen trees and plants in architectural decoration.

After many years, at the beginning of the mediaeval era, it was the age of the mighty Catholic church, where the most important buildings were the cathedrals. Inspired by the form of the tree, the ornamented fan vault originated in the church of Sainte-Chapelle in Paris, made in 1248 (Aziz and El Sherif, 2016).

With the beginning of Art Nouveau from the late 19th century to the beginning of the 20th century, beautiful, mesmerising and very influencing structural forms were found in the work of Antonio Gaudi, who is renowned for his architectural forms influenced by his nature. This 19th century architect closely observed natural forms and was a bold innovator of advanced structural systems.

He designed 'equilibrated' structures with catenary, hyperbolic, and parabolic arches and vaults, and inclined columns and helical (spiral cone) piers (which stand like a tree, requiring no extra supports like internal bracing or external buttressing), first cleverly predicting complex structural forces through string models hanging with weights (his findings are now verified by computer analysis) (Pearson 2001, cited in Panchuk, 2006, p. 30).

At the beginning of the 20th century, the world saw the invention of reinforced concrete, which one can say was the most significant aspect in the architecture of this century. Felix Candela was one of the architects who used reinforced concrete to fulfil his design ideas which were inspired by nature.

Based on his study of shell structures in Germany, the Spanish architect took a geometrical approach

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to the architectural forms along with using reinforced concrete. For building his structure, Candela used the geometric hyperbolic paraboloid as a source of inspiration. Los Manantiales restaurant in Xochimilco, founded in Mexico in 1958, is Candela's most popular building. Eight separate hyperbolic forms linked to each other along the shared valley joint form are created from the form(Aziz and El Sherif, 2016).

Illustr. 1. left: Los Manatiales by Candela; right: diagram of hypar forms.

Source: www.archdaily.com.

2 .3 I N T RO D U CT I O N TO PA R A M ET R I CI S M It was stated that Together with manufacturing advancements already achieved in the automobile, aerospace and shipbuilding sectors, the generative and innovative potential of digital technology is opening up new dimensions of architectural design. The advances in computer-aided design (CAD) and computer-aided manufacturing (CAM) technology have only started to have an impact on building design and construction activities in the last few years. (Kolarevic, 2003, pp.117–123).

Originating in other fields like animation, product design, aerospace industry, marine engineering etc., parametric methods are gaining popularity in the field of architectural design. But in architecture, wide adoption is still hindered by the lack of knowledge about how to apply parametric thinking to different building types and among multiple disciplines. More formal case studies are needed to help establish the benefits and drawbacks of parametric methods in the architectural field (Gane and Haymaker, 2007).

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Woodbury defines parametric modelling in his book Elements of Parametric Design. He says that a fundamental change is implemented by parametric modelling (also known as constraint modelling).

These are 'marks', that is, parts of a design, in a coordinated way, relate and change together.

Designers may not just add and delete anymore. They can now add, erase, relate, and restore. The act of relating involves clear consideration about the form of relationship: is this point on or close to the line? Repairing happens after an erasure, where the parts that depend on an erased portion are again connected to the remaining parts. Relating and repairing require fundamental modifications to systems and the work performed with them (Woodbury et al., 2010).

Contemporary architects, such as Patrik Schumacher, partner at Zaha Hadid Architects, have gone as far as coining parametricism as the name of a new movement in architecture following modernism ( Jabi, 2013). He writes: All the way through, we must follow the parametric design model, entering all corners of the discipline. All architectural design tasks, from urbanism to the level of tectonic detail, are concerned with structural, adaptive variation and continuous differentiation (rather than mere variety). This means full fluidity on all scales (Schumacher, 2009).

In parametric design and modelling, we come across the term computation. This term differs from, but is often confused with, computerisation. While computation is the measurement process, i.e. the determination of something by mathematical or logical means, computerization is the act of entering, processing or storing information in a computer. Automation, mechanisation, digitisation, and conversion are all a part of computerisation. Generally, it includes the digitisation of entities or processes that are preconceived, predetermined, and well established. Computation, on the other hand, is about investigating indeterminate, ambiguous, uncertain and sometimes illdefined processes; computation is aimed at emulating or expanding the human intellect because of its exploratory existence. Rationalisation, reasoning, intuition, algorithm, inference, induction, extrapolation, discovery, and estimation are all involved. It includes problem-solving, conceptual constructs, perception, simulation, and rule-based knowledge in its various consequences, to name a few. (Terzidis, 2009).

With a parametric digital design system, an issue arises between bottom-up and top-down design styles. • The bottom-up method contains within it some vision of the overall project design and seeks to resolve this design through gradual development and integration of building elements into

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a larger whole (Panchuk, 2006, p. 68).

• The top-down method approaches the design in a different light where there is an initial development of the whole scheme with subsequent subdivision into its appropriate subcomponents (Panchuk, 2006, p. 68).

A composite approach to design would most likely be required in that to effectively establish a set of hierarchical component relationships it is necessary to have an idea of the final product. However, it is difficult to model an approximate final form without first defining the parameters that allow for sequential variation and the building of components from the bottom up. The usefulness of a parametric design system quickly becomes apparent when it is realized that both the final form and the subcomponents are variable (Panchuk, 2006).

2 .4 H I STO RY O F PA R A M ET R I CI S M I N A RCH I T ECT U R E For architects, parametric architecture is no new terrain. Buildings were built and engineered in relation to a variety of shifting factors, from ancient pyramids to contemporary institutions, including climate, technology, use, character, atmosphere, culture and mood. The computer has not invented parametric design, nor has it redefined architecture or profession; it has provided a powerful tool that has allowed architects to design and construct creative structures with more challenging qualitative and quantitative conditions since.

By the time of a conference held by the Boston Architectural Center in 1964, it had become clear that the electronic era would leave a massive impact on building design. The aerospace industries were using computers to "calculate complex warped surfaces and animated flight path simulations", which fascinated architects (Phillips, 2019).

As UCLA student Raphael Roig predicted in his unpublished master’s thesis, It would only be a matter of time before computational technology could reduce the inherent intricacies of forms similar to Kiesler's multiple-warped surfaces to comprehensible and constructible terms (Roig, 1965).

Stepping back from the aerospace industry, at the end of the nineteenth century, the Spanish architect Antoni Gaudí began designing architecture with parametric catenary curves and parametric hyperbolic paraboloids. In several aspects of Gaudí 's architecture, the use of parametric equations can be seen, but through his use of his hanging chain model, it is best shown. To build the Colònia

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Illustr. 2. Gaudí’s hanging model and inverted photographs used to render forms.

Source: Maher and Burry, 2003.

Güell chapel, Gaudí used this idea, making an upside-down model of the chapel using ropes loaded with weights. So, the ropes will often be arranged in a way that results in pure compression due to "Hooke's law". Thus, Gaudí could build other models of the Colònia Güell chapel by adjusting the parameters in the parametric model and be sure that the resulting structure will be under pure compressive stress (Makert and Alves, 2016). Davis states that “this method of analogue computing was enlarged by Frei Otto to include, among other things, minimum surfaces derived from soap films and minimal paths found in wool dipped in liquid” (Davis, 2013).

Illustr. 3. Frei Otto's soap bubble experiment. Source: Yunis, 2105.

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Antoni Gaudí, as well as Frei Otto, found a simple way of using the catenary phenomenon in experimental models (Gruber, 2011). The method of computing the process that Antoni Gaudí and Frei Otto used in their experiments is known as “Analog Computing” (Kolarevic and Malkawi, 2005) or “Material computation” (Leach, 2009). Both the “optimised path systems” of Frei Otto and his team, as the modelling technique used by Gaudí for the Sagrada Família Church, experienced a material system for the calculation of the form (or form-finding) (Kolarevic and Malkavi, 2005).

It was not, however, until the 1980s that breakthroughs in parametric design became useful to architects. Nature has long developed structural systems of intricate complexity that have been implemented by architects and designers to make building shapes and organisational trends in urban areas.

As stated, Louis Sullivan, Mies van der Rohe, Lazlo Moholy-Nagy, Sir Patrick Geddes, and others, were influenced by the morphological writings of Goethe (Metamorphosis of Plants, 1790), E.S. Russell (Form and Function, 1916), and R.H. Francé (Plants as Inventors, 1920). Yet, despite important analytical advances made in D’Arcy Thompson’s On Growth and Form of 1917 (revised 1942), alongside subsequent mathematical models for forming biological patterns developed by Alan Turing in 1952 and Aristid Lindenmayer in 1968, throughout the mid-twentieth-century, morphology was a sleepy study. As with the flowing forms of Kiesler, the changing structures and complex patterns of organic life have proved too difficult to calculate and draw with thorough accuracy (Phillips, 2019).

But between Benoit Mandelbrot’s study in The Fractal Geometry of Nature in 1982 and K. J. Falconer’s 1990 developments in fractal theory, computational technology emerged as a tool for simulating the generation of biological forms (morphogenesis). Using computer parametric models, the production and performance of coral, sponges and other primitive marine and plant life could be analysed and reconstructed in response to a limited set of observable parameters such as light, ocean current, nutrition, etc. In the late 1980s to mid-1990s, designers started using the technology alongside software developed for aerospace and the moving image industry to 'animate form' with the application of similar morphological simulations in architecture (Phillips, 2019).

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2 .5 PAT T E R N S - PA R A M ET R I C V S. B I O M I M ET I C 2.5.1 The Fibonacci Sequence and the Golden Ratio (τ) a) Parametric Although originally considered by Fibonacci of Pisa in 1202 in connection with (idealized) rabbit population growth, the infinite set of numbers 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89, 144,... has a wonderful variety of properties and applications (Adam, 2006, p.2 13). Here, by the word “idealized”, Adam means that the rabbits were supposed to reproduce according to strict rules concerning their numbers and frequency of producing offspring, and they were assumed to be immortal! While these assumptions left something to be desired, they did result in a fascinating and almost ubiquitous sequence of numbers (at least in nature).

Adam (2006) stated that With the exception of the first two terms in the above sequence, each term is the sum of the two immediately preceding terms, that is, if fn represents the nth term in the sequence (n = 1,2,3,...), then for n > 3 fn = fn-1 + fn-2 As will be seen below, it can be shown that

This number is called the golden ratio (or golden number, golden mean, divine proportion) and we denote it by the Greek letter τ. There are various geometric representations of this fascinating number.

b) Biomimetic Phyllotaxis is the 'distribution or arrangement of leaves on a stem and the mechanisms that govern it' (Adam, 2006, p. 216). Botanists and mathematicians use the term to describe the repeated arrangement of more than just leaves; (sometimes) petals, seeds, florets and branches also qualify (Adam, 2006, p. 216). These arrangements are closely related to the Fibonacci numbers 1 , 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89, the well-known and previously described series and the related golden number or ratio τ ≈1.618034 (sometimes, the reciprocal of τ, τ-1 ≈ 0.618034 is referred to as the golden ratio).

Numerical and geometric patterns based on these numbers abound in nature and have been studied for hundreds of years, and for that reason alone the basic features of phyllotaxis can be found in many elementary texts (Adam, 2006, p. 216).

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H.S.M. Coxeter, in his book Introduction to Geometry, says that "phyllotaxis is really not a universal law, but only a fascinatingly prevalent tendency� (cited in Adam, 2006, p. 217). Plants generally face similar problems like humans, such as occupying space, receiving sunlight etc. Leaves grow on branches in an upward fashion at regular intervals, but if these intervals were to be exact multiples of 360o, then the leaves would grow exactly on top of one another, and the leaf on top would block the sunlight and moisture for the leaves below. In practice, plants seem to choose rational approximations to the "most irrational" number in order to optimise leaf arrangement (Adam, 2006, p. 217).

The most striking example of phyllotaxis can possibly be found in the seed arrangement on a large sunflower head. They are distributed in two spiral families, perhaps 34 winding clockwise and 55 counter-clockwise, or in the same order (55,89) or even in particularly large specimens (89, 144).

In daisies, identical patterns also exist, but they are more compact than in sunflowers, of course. A thorough analysis of such spirals, especially in pine cones, was carried out by Brousseau. Again, two sets of parallel bract spirals are normally present, a steep one from the lower right to the upper left, and a shallower one from the lower left to the upper right, maybe 8 from the former and 5 from the latter, or (3,5) or (8, 13). At least 95 per cent of the spiral numbers in pine cones are from the Fibonacci series, according to Brousseau. In the petals of artichokes and the "scales" of pineapples, such spirals also occur. In the above case, since the hexagonal-shaped scales have three pairs on opposite sides, three sets on spirals usually occur. The three parallel spiral sets are typically Fibonacci numbers (e.g., 8,13,21) and are shallow, medium and steep. (Adam, 2006, p. 217).

Illustr. 4. Spiral Patterns based on the "nearly golden angles" (a) 137.3o; (b) 137.5o; (c) 137.6o.

Source: Przemyslaw Prusinkiewicz and Aristid Lindenmayer, 1996.

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2.5.2 Fractals Fractal geometry will make you see everything differently. There is danger in reading further. You risk the loss of your childhood vision of clouds, forests, galaxies, leaves, feathers, flowers, rocks, mountains, torrents of water, carpets, bricks, and much else besides. Never again will your interpretation of these things be quite the same (Barnsley, 2012).

The person most often associated with the discovery of fractals is the mathematician Benoit B. Mandelbrot (the Mandelbrot set is named after him). The underlying mathematics, however (geometric measure theory), had been developed long before the “computer revolution� made possible the visualization of such complicated mathematical objects (Adam, 2006, p. 337). In his paper How Long Is the Coastline of Britain?, Mandelbrot pointed out some interesting but very surprising results. Mandelbrot (1967) noted that the estimated length of Britain's west coast was heavily dependent on the map scale used to make these measurements: a map with a scale of 1:10,000,000 (1 cm being 100 km equivalent) has less detail than a map with a scale of 1:100,000 (1 cm being 1 km equivalent). The more complex map with more "nooks and crannies" gives the coastline greater importance. Alternatively, one might imagine measuring a given map with smaller and smaller units of measurement or even walking along the shoreline with smaller and smaller graduations on a metre ruler. Of course, this means that we can greatly describe the coastline on such small scales, but this method can not be continued indefinitely because of the atomic structure of matter, unlike the mathematical 'continuum' models to which we have referred, and in which there is no smallest size. (Adam, 2006).

a) Parametric The English meteorologist Lewis Fry Richardson also investigated the behaviour with scale for other geographical regions: the Australian coast, the South African coast, the German Land Frontier (1900), and the Portuguese Land Frontier. For the west coast of Britain in particular, he found the following relationship between the total length s in km and the numerical value a of the measuring unit (in km, so a is dimensionless):

where s1 is the length when a = 1. Clearly, as a is reduced, s increases. As this concept seems to be a rather unstable one, so Mandelbrot showed a better way of describing it, connecting it with our concept of "dimension".

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Consider the measurement of a continuous curve by a “measuring rod� of length a. Suppose that it fits N times along the length of the curve, so that the measured length L = Na. Obviously, then, N = L/a is a function of a, that is, N = N(a). Thus if a = 1, N(1) = L. Similarly, if a = 1/2, N(1/2) = 2L, N(1/3) = 3L, and so on. For fractal curves, N = La–D, where D > 1 in general, and it is called the fractal dimension. This means that making the scale three times as large (or a one-third of the size) as before may lead to the measuring rod fitting around the curve more than three times the previous amount (Adam, 2006, p. 338). This is because, if N(1) = L as before,

if D > 1. Without losing generality we can use unit lengths L = 1 and a = 1.

Given that

It follows that

More precisely, Mandelbrot (1967) used the definition of the fractal dimension as

This definition can further be applied to a lot of places, arriving at definitions such as the Koch snowflake curve etc.

b) Biomimetic If one was to look at a tree when it is bare, it would be visible how the trunk leads up to a branch that splits off into more branches, then smaller branches, smaller branches, and finally branches so small that they appear scratches in the sky. This, again, is the self-repeating, slightly imperfect pattern of a fractal. (If your trees have leaves, then one would notice the same patterns in the veins.)

The Mandelbrot set, a visual self-repeating pattern which zooms in on itself to the infinite, is the most accessible demonstration of Mandelbrot 's geometry. It's hypnotic, as relaxing and ruminating as looking into the dark night sky. Or in a storm of lightning. Or the waves and coastlines, the cascading waterfalls, the view of the infinite mountains, the distribution of galaxies, the lines and the veins of a human hand's palm. These are all the self-repeating, non-linear patterns of fractals.

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Additionally, jazz and some other types of music also have fractal-like patterns in their compositions (Su and Wu, 2007).

Illustr. 5. Fractals are inherent to the structures of ice and snowflakes.

Source: Ivan Turkouvski, Flickr.

— Chapter 3 —

Applications in Architecture - Case Examples 3 . 1 M AT E R I A L S 3.1.1 Aguahoja by Neri Oxman (Mediated Media Group)

Illustr. 6. Aguahoja I by Mediated Matter Group. Source: www.dezeen.com.

Derived from the sea and returned to the soil, we utilize decay as a design feature (Oxman, 2014).

Aguahoja is an exploration of the design space of nature. This innocative structure, which uses the most simple compounds found in tree branches, insect exoskeletons and human bones, has been digitally engineered and robotically manufactured by Neri Oxman's Mediated Matter Group.

Aguahoja I examines how even the materials that we consider waste can inform design.

Standing five meters tall, the structure's skin is composed of cellulose, chitosan, and pectin – the planet's most abundant materials (The Mediated Matter Group, 2014).

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Principle According to the United Nations Environmental Program (UNEP), human activities produce more than 300 million tonnes of plastic every year, and out of this, less than 10% gets recycled, leaving harmful imprints on the environment. Employing the use of organic materials proves to be more sustainable than using human-made ones, and leaves no impact on the environment. Materials such as cellulose, chitin, and pectin—the very same materials found in trees, crustaceans and apple skins— can be used to create unique, efficient, and biodegradable structures (Oxman, 2014).

For example, chitin manifests in the form of small, translucent dragonfly wings, as well as in fungal soft tissue. More than half of the plant matter on earth is made up of cellulose. Not only through their variety of roles, but also through their durability, longevity and adaptability, these materials, and the living organisms they make up, outperform human engineering. The Aguahoja range provides a material alternative to plastic by producing bio-polymer composites that exhibit tunable properties with 'various mechanical, optical, olfactory and even gustatory properties' (Oxman, 2014), subverting the toxic waste loop. For the purposes of fuelling new growth, these sustainable and bio-compatible polymers harness the power of natural resource cycles and can be materially 'programmed' to degrade as they return to the earth.

Description of the product

The mechanical deposition of cellulose, chitosan and pectin enables the development of a generative surface pattern that changes the stiffness and colour of the panels in response to environmental parameters such as heat and moisture content.

Illustr. 7. Layers of the skin of the pavilion. Source: oxman.com.

The Aguahoja I is an architectural pavilion with a layered structure, known as a 'bio-composite', which is designed using a hierarchy network of patterns for structural stability, versatility and visual communication. The overall stiffness and strength of the pavilion, incorporating shell-like and skin-like components, is built to withstand the changes in the environmental properties like the surrounding heat and moisture content while maintaining its versatility (Oxman, 2014).

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With the evaporation of water, the skin-and-shell composite of the pavilion transforms over time from a flexible and relatively weak framework to a rigid one that can react to heat and moisture. The skin and shell of the pavilion will programmatically degrade upon exposure to rain water, restoring their constituent materials to the environment, and continuing the cycles of natural resources that allowed their synthesis.

Illustr. 8. How structural, environmental, and hydration forces act on the skin of the pavilion.

Source: www.creativeapplications.net.

Process In Aguahoja, the focus was on creating a robotic 3D printing platform for bio-materials. Through this pavilion, Neri Oxman and her team showed that the form and composition can be created solely based on physical properties (stiffness and transparency), environmental conditions (load, temperature, and relative moisture content), and manufacturing constraints (degrees of freedom, arm speed, and nozzle pressure). Every structure in the collection includes a specific combination of organic materials whose allocation, texture and distribution within the final object is computerdriven and manufactured in high-resolution in an additive fashion. This allows for control over particular physical properties and adaptation of the climate to changing weather conditions (The Mediated Matter Group, 2014). The collection promotes close alignment between shape, function, and scales that is very similar to the way the biological world functions.

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A by-product of the printing process was air bubbles. These air bubbles were in turn used to house some very primitive yet highly functional photosynthetic

micro-organisms.

Oxman and the team, along with collaborators

at

Harvard

and

MIT, implanted bacteria that were modified on a genetic level to rapidly absorb and turn the carbon from

Illustr. 9. Detail of a structural member (mm) showing the air

the atmosphere into sugar (Oxman, bubbles formed inside, used to house micro-organisms.

2015).

Source: oxman.com.

In comparison to other synthetic materials, structures used in the Aguahoja collection can respond to their environment over their lifetime, adapting their geometry, physical behaviour and colour in response to changes in heat, humidity, and sunlight. This behaviour, which responds to the passing time, is used as a design feature, one that is able to sense and respond to changing environmental conditions as well as inform the user of these changes. The robotic manufacturing platform is designed to turn cellulose, chitosan, pectin, and other widely available bio-polymers into high-performance, renewable hydrogels that can be 3D printed into objects of any scale (Oxman, 2014).

Illustr. 10. Behaviour of the skin at different scales.

Source: www.creativeapplications.net.

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strain

humidity

+

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light

+

Illustr. 11. Process of formation of skin of pavilion based on various factors via computational design.

Source: oxman.com + Author.

Illustr. 12. Elevations. L-R: southwest, east, southeast. Source: oxman.com.

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3 . 2 ST RU CT U R E 3.2.1 National Taichung Theatre by Toyo Ito

Illustr. 13. Structural diagram of National Taichung Theatre by Toyo Ito. Source: www.metalocus.es.

Mathematicians and architects have been studying soap films in nature extensively, and mimicking them to create geometric forms such as 'minimal surfaces'. These surfaces are named minimal because the form is such that it tends to minimise its total surface area, as seen in soap films stretched between four points.

National Taichung Theatre (NTT), designed by the artist Toyo Ito, is a perfect example of the architectural understanding of minimal surfaces. Continuous, smooth and curved walls form the dominant (exterior and interior) structure of the opera house. It consists of 58 curved wall units covered by concrete which has been sprayed over it, and the structure was built using steel reinforcement and trusses. The construction system used in this project is quite radical and unique, something that has never been used in Taiwan or any other place before, which is why this project could not be designed by the local construction companies (Aziz and El Sherif, 2016).

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Principle The National Taichung Theatre is an integrated spatial-structural system that provides a sense of the dynamism of nature. Via an ever-growing network of openings, it draws people, transporting them upwards with the curving currents of stairs, and transferring them to a rooftop landscape of abstract peaks and valleys. The continuous route that links the ground-level city garden to the rooftop is perceived by Ito as "a pleasant walking trail in the park." Also referred to as the "Sound Cave," the beamless structure of curved walls, merging into floors and ceilings, creates spaces where "light and sound travel, creating a unique and extraordinary experience", by Ito 's account (Yabuka, 2018).

The composition is essentially a series of interconnected 'catenoidal' spaces. A catenoid is a kind of curved surface formed by rotating an axis around a catenary curve. In simpler terms, it is similar to a tube that seems to have been softly pinched around the centre with a curving wall (Yabuka, 2018).

A catenoid is an example of a minimal surface. If you take a given boundary curve, the definition of a minimal surface is that there is a surface with the least area around the edge that has the boundary curve. Mathematicians and physicists especially love to use soap bubbles as an example. Usually, the soap will assume a shape that minimises the wire boundary film area if you start with a wire frame for the bubble (Lamb, 2018).

Illustr. 14. A series of connected 'catenoidal' spaces. Source: www.indesignlive.com.

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Process For the NTT's structure, Ito proposed a labyrinth of caves, influenced by the texture of that mediaeval Belgian region, consisting of a continuum of spaces, both horizontal and vertical. Ito and his team used a malleable matrix of metal mesh tubes to formulate a study model using complex software. To integrate the spatial requirements of the software, they manipulated these tubular forms by hand.

The final outcome of this research was a composition of 58 irregularly formed tubes, which Ito calls catenoids, which gradually became the curvy volumes of the house. Ito's team built what the architect calls an "emerging grid" to convert these catenoid shapes into a quantifiable form, consisting of five two-dimensional grids superimposed on each other, each slightly changed. This allowed 423 control points to be established by the team. Then these points were used to formulate a 3-D matrix that defined for each catenoid a planar shape and a position, breaking them down into connected flat planes. The architects then rounded the flat sides of the hollow shapes and mixed together the entire confluence. Digital and analogue processes were needed for the construction of the catenoidal house, eventually actualised with a complicated 'truss-wall' construction method — a more cost-effective alternative to traditional concrete shaping (Pollock, 2016).

To provide the reinforcement, the construction team began to create the catenoids using a truss wall system, built in Japan by the Asahi Building Wall Company. They first developed two-dimensional trusses, each of which bent differently. These ribs were upended, spaced 8 inches apart, and bound together into units of three dimensions that were joined together. Between layers of steel mesh, which replaced the traditional concrete formwork, the assemblies were then sandwiched. After a time of partial curing, to eliminate surface irregularities, the mesh types were removed. Tiny layers of mortar and textured white paint were also used to cover defects in order to finish the 18-inch-thick walls on either side. The walls are a complete synthesis of design and structure, acting as both the building's support and space-articulation structures (Pollock, 2016).

Illustr. 15. National Taichung Theatre. left: aerial view; right: 3D physical model.

Source: www.architecturalrecord.com.

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3 .3 T ECH N O LO G Y 3.3.1 Silk Pavilion II by Neri Oxman (Mediated Media Group)

Illustr. 16. Silk Pavilion II. left: conceptual; right: as part of the exhibition Neri Oxman: Material Ecology at The Museum of Modern Art, New York. Source: left: behance.com; right: Denis Doorly.

How might we invent technologies to enable co-design, co-manufacturing and cohabitation across species? (Oxman, 2020) Silk Pavilion II, standing five metres high and five metres wide, provides insights into radically sustainable methods of knitting and means of cooperation between humans and other species for the production of objects, items and even houses. The pavilion was developed by combining biological construction with kinetic development, uniting the built and grown, fusing technology and biology (MIT Media Lab, 2020).

The Pavilion comprises of three layers which are interrelated in form and function. Its innermost layer is made of one-dimensional, braided steel-wire cords. Next is a two-dimensional cloth on which the silkworms are placed. The last, tertiary layer is a three-dimensional structure, which has been biologically spun at one of the most extensive silkworm rearing facilities in Europe, using 17,532 silkworms which were brought in from Teolo, Italy. The tradition of sericulture and silk production thrived in this area of the Veneto during the Renaissance of the 12th century (Antonelli and Burckhardt, 2014).

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Illustr. 18. Detailed view of the silkworms on the structure. Holes were intentionally placed on the textile to allow silkworms to navigate the interior and exterior surface.

Source: MIT Media Lab, 2020.

Principle As the conventional method of extracting silk from the cocoon ends up killing the larva, sericulture has been criticised by animal welfare and rights activists. Silkworms today are killed while they are still in their cocoon, dissolving the adhesive that glues one strand of silk to the layers below. While this method to get out the silk allows the unrolling of a single silk strand from the cocoon, it is a highly destructive mechanism of silk extraction, disrupting the organism's life cycle and growth. Thus, there is a need for a new technique of silk production. Structures may influence silkworms to spin into sheets instead of cocoons, as the Silk Pavilion shows. This project shows how, in collaboration with a man-made structure that directs its movement and deposition of silk to create an enhanced shape, this tiny but remarkable insect can act not only as a construction worker but also end up creating unique designs in symbiosis (Oxman, 2020).

Illustr. 17. left: 17,532 silkworms were placed on the Silk Pavilion; right: detailed view of partially dissolved textile tensioned to cable wires. Source: MIT Media Lab, 2020.

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Illustr. 19. The structure from inside during construction with intentionally placed holes.

Source: Denis Doorly.

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Illustr. 20. Overall view of the production jig and structure.

Source: The Mediated Matter Group.

Process The Pavilion is constructed with "mechanical top-down kinetic manipulation enabling constant clockwise rotation of a mandrel that facilitates the silkworms’ upward spinning motion" (Antonelli and Burckhardt, 2014). Fibre density across the surface area of the structure varies as a function of local environmental factors such as heat and light, as well as the topology of the kinetic hyperboloid, which is designed to guide the motion of the silkworms. These variables can affect the movement and spinning of the silkworms and thus the resulting thickness of the silk layer produced. Through a cable system , the primary framework of the Pavilion is extended along with the soluble knit scaffold.

The intermediate knit yarn layer serves as help for the silkworms, provided its physical properties.

The holes that release some of the tensile stress in the structure result from chemical reactions between the excretions of the silkworms and the yarn layer underlying them. Such systemic forces are biochemically motivated, drawing a metabolic canvas of the excretions of silkworms (Antonelli and Burckhardt, 2014).

Illustr. 21. Paper sheets with Bombyx mori eggs. Source: MIT Media Lab, 2020.

Dissertation 2020 | Applications in Architecture - Case Examples

Illustr. 22. Concentrated silk deposition at point connections between knit and suspension cables. Source: Oxman, 2020.

Illustr. 23. Initial experiments in robotic silk deposition. Source: MIT Media Lab, 2020.

Illustr. 24. 3D Point-cloud scan data of the pavilion during silk spinning employing infrared laser rangefinders. Source: MIT Media Lab, 2020.

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— Chapter 4 —

Design Approach 4 .1 T H E OX M A N F R A M E W O R K (K R E B S C YCL E O F CR E AT I V I T Y )

Figure 2. The Krebs Cycle of Creativity by Neri Oxman.

Source: spectrum.mit.edu.

The Krebs Creativity Cycle is a process or a framework created by Neri Oxman that takes into account the domain of art, science, engineering, and design as synergistic ways of thought and creation in which one's input becomes the output of the other. The framework has been inspired by and named after the Krebs cycle, which explains the chemical reactions used by species that occupy oxygenated environments. In Oxman's version, the carbon compounds are substituted with the four modalities of human imagination.

In 2007, John Maeda proposed a diagram with four quadrants representing the four domains, wherein Science represents exploration, Engineering represents invention, Design represents communication, and Art represents expression (Oxman, 2016).

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To unite the world of biology with the parametric world of architecture, the Krebs Cycle of Creativity is an ideal framework for understanding the process. As Oxman (2016) states, The role of Science is to explain and predict the world around us; it ‘converts’ information into knowledge. The role of Engineering is to apply scientific knowledge to the development of solutions for empirical problems; it ‘converts’ knowledge into utility. The role of Design is to produce embodiments of solutions that maximize function and augment human experience; it ‘converts’ utility into behaviour. The role of Art is to question human behaviour and create awareness of the world around us; it ‘converts’ behaviour into new perceptions of information, re-presenting the data that initiated the KCC in Science (Oxman, 2016).

At the point where Art meets Science— the 'Cinderella moment' at midnight in the KCC—is where creation happens, where "new perception inspires new scientific exploration".

Like the Krebs Cycle itself, the KCC can be read as a clock. But the CreATP pathway, unlike the Krebs Cycle, is bidirectional. Direction can be inverted in this clock. Time can also stand still (by staying on the circle in the same location), it can 'bend' (by introducing geometric changes, such as from a circle to an ellipse), or it can be foreshortened (by introducing topological changes, such as from a circle to a figure eight or a spiral). In addition, you can skip domains from science to design, bypass engineering and thus 'time travel' if you produce excess energy. There can be CreATP boosts for good work, when integration is successful (Oxman, 2016).

The KCC can also be read as a compass rose. The north-to-south axis leads from the sky to the earth: from 'information' generated by Science and Art in the hemisphere of 'perception' to 'utility' produced by Design and Engineering in the hemisphere of 'production'. The further north, the more theoretical (or philosophical) the regime. The further south, the more the regime is implemented (or economically used). The north represents human exploration's culmination into the unknown. The south labels the goods and findings associated with modern exploration-based innovative solutions and deployments. The east-to-west axis leads from nature to culture: from 'knowledge' produced in the hemisphere of 'nature by Science and Engineering,' to 'behaviours' produced in the hemisphere of 'culture by Art and Design.' Along this axis, one moves from understanding to developing new ways of using and experiencing phenomena within the physical world (Oxman, 2016).

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4 .2 A P P RO A CH E S TO B I O M I M I CRY 4.2.1 Problem-driven Design Approach The problem-driven design approach is the approach where designers search for solutions to the biological world. Designers must define issues and biologists must then align them with species that have solved similar problems. This strategy is effectively driven by designers who define initial design priorities and parameters. The potential consequences of architectural design where biological analogues are matched with human defined design issues are that the fundamental approach to solving a given problem and the question of how buildings relate to each other and

Figure 3. Problem-driven design approach. Source: Harris, 2016.

the ecosystems they are part of is not explored. The underlying causes of a non-sustainable or even degenerative built environment are not therefore generally addressed with such an approach Despite these drawbacks, such an approach may be a way to start changing the built environment from an inefficient model to an efficient one. (Zari, 2007).

4.2.2 Solution-driven Design Approach When biological knowledge affects human design, the process of collaborative design is initially based on individuals with knowledge of relevant biological or ecological science rather than on established problems of human design. Therefore, one benefit of this approach is that biology can impact people in ways that may be outside of a predetermined design issue, resulting in previously not thought of technologies or processes or even approaches to design solutions. A downside to this approach from a design point of view is that biological research must be undertaken and then

Figure 4. Solution-driven design approach. Source: Harris, 2016.

defined as applicable to the context of a design. The potential of their research in the development of novel applications must therefore be recognised by biologists and ecologists (Zari, 2007).

— Chapter 5 —

Research Methodology 5 .1 SEQ U E N T I A L B R E A K-U P O F STA G E S O F A N A LY SI S 5.1.1 Criteria for selection of case studies It is clear that there are three stages of imitation from an analysis of current biomimetic technologies: the organism, the behavioural and the ecosystem. The first level refers to a particular organism, such as a plant or animal, which may include mimicking part or all of the organism. The second level refers to mimicking the behaviour, which can involve translating an element of how an organism acts or applies to a broader context. The third level is the imitation of entire ecosystems and the common values that allow them to work effectively (Zari, 2007).

There are a further five potential dimensions to the biomimicry within each of these levels. For example, in terms of what it looks like (form), what it is made of (material), how it is made (construction), how it works (process) or what it can do (function), the design can be biomimetic (Zari, 2007).

Figure 5. Levels & parameters of biomimicry. Source: Harris, 2016.

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Based on the three levels of biomimicry i.e. organism level, behaviour level, and ecosystem level, the case studies of different bio-inspired parametric structures have been selected.

• Organism level: Rosenstein Pavilion, Stuttgart • Behaviour level: Eastgate Center, Harare • Ecosystem level: Zira Island Master Plan, Baku

5.1.2 Defining the design brief For conducting an analysis of the chosen structures, the principle applied and the design process will be explained. Additionally, specific requirements for the various case studies shall be outlined.

5.1.3 Analysis of case studies A qualitative analysis of the case studies is done in two parts.

The first part of the analysis is done on the basis of the Oxman Framework (The Krebs Cycle of Creativity, wherein the case studies are critically analysed based on the framework as explained in chapter 4. This helps establish the relation of Science, Engineering, Design, and Art with biomimicry and parametricism with respect to the selected case studies.

The second part of the analysis is done on the basis of the approach adopted in the design process and the five potential dimensions to biomimicry (form, material, construction, process, function).

This is done through observation & data. This analysis is conducted to study the incorporation of biomimicry and parametricism in architecture through observation of the design and the process and its environmental response.

Each requirement of the design brief is thus taken up and analysed with respect to the application of biomimicry and parametricism—to study whether the incorporation of the concepts solves the purpose of making the design more efficient and sustainable.

5.1.4 Findings from case studies, leading to conclusion The inferences drawn from the findings of the case studies then lead to the conclusion.

— Chapter 6 —

Case Studies & Analysis 6 . 1 — O rgani sm Level — R O S E N ST E I N PAV I L I O N R o se nst e i n Pal ace , St u t tg art

By Dar ia K ov ale v a e t al . (ILEK , Un iver s it y o f Stu ttgar t)

Illustr. 25. View of Rosenstein Pavilion in the exhibition room of Rosenstein Museum, Stuttgart, 2017 Source: Kovaleva et al., 2019a.

The Rosenstein Pavilion was designed as a lightweight concrete shell that sets a prime example of how to use design methods effectively for construction in order to improve the efficiency of the resource. The pavilion was designed and built by Daria Kovaleva, an ILEK research associate and one of several researchers at the Transregio (TRR) 141 Collaborative Research Center, and was then built for an exhibition in the Rosenstein Palace building in Stuttgart. The pavilion was intended to show how interdisciplinary research would sweep away the design limits of previous architectural and construction styles. It provides a link between material consumption reduction research and bionics-based design concepts designed to construct buildings that are both technically effective and aesthetically attractive (Völpel, 2014).

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6.1.1 Principle Under the motto "structure versus mass," several exhibits in the Lightweight Versatility exhibition space of the Baubionik—Biologie beflügelt Architektur exhibition that took place from October 2017 to May 2018 at the Natural History Museum in Stuttgart demonstrated how biological organisms can efficiently fulfil certain functions with the use of as few resources as possible by adapting the characteristics of their tissue to functional requirements.

One of these functions is the ability to withstand mechanical impact; with the intention of making optimum use of material, structural tissues may, for example, have a variable density and orientation that correspond to the magnitude and direction of prevailing loads. This idea of 'functional gradation' can be found in many living organisms whose cells grow into various structures depending on the type of load, the components of the material and the processes of creation. (Knippers, Schmid and Speck, 2019, pp. 92).

In the creation of efficient building materials and systems, understanding the relationships between structure and function can help. The principles of highly mineralized biological structures , especially the skeleton tissue of sea urchins and their spines, have been used for the creation of structures which are primarily subject to compressive stresses. The inner porous structure—the stereom—of the spines of the Heterocentrotus mammillatus sea urchin species demonstrates how, via a visually organised gradation, the porosity decreases from the middle to the outside face of the spine. It is worth noting that the large difference in porosity from 0 percent to 90 percent is only accomplished by combining two vector parameters: the diameter of the mineral struts and the size of the pores.

In general, there are smaller pores and thicker struts in the denser regions, and vice versa. It was abstracted using scientific methods to explore the potential of this design theory for resourceefficient concrete structures and then applied to the design of a weight-optimized concrete shell with functionally graded porosity (Kovaleva et al., 2019b).

A

B

C

Illustr. 26. Photograph of a sea urchin H. mammillatus species (A); the cross-section of its spine (B); a close-up of the stereom structure (C). Source: AMIN, University of Tuebingen.

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6.1.2 Abstraction of the principle In order to make the principle of functional gradation suitable for technical purposes, it is important to be able to define or determine the dependency between structural characteristics and functional requirements.

In the design of structural systems, it is possible to define the relationship between the density of a structure (porosity) and the amount of the forces acting on the structure. In a first step, the information on the structural behaviour is established by simulation using given material properties and load cases. Thereafter, the established stress values are converted into material properties (density) or also geometric characteristics (shape) of cross-section. As in the case with various 1iving organisms the structure is essentially influenced by specific material properties, production methods, and all of the functional requirements.

When this principle was applied to the structural system of the concrete shell, the key influencing factors were: the properties of the concrete, the production technology used, and the functional requirements of the exhibition object (Knippers, Schmid and Speck, 2019, pp. 94).

6.1.3 Work progress from design to production Integrated design process Functional requirements

a)

Production and assembly

Architectural context

Production

Form-finding & development Structural boundary conditions

b) Evaluation of structural behaviour

c)

Porosity distribution

d)

Segmentation

Production restrictions

Figure 6. Framework. Source: Knippers, Schmid and Speck, 2019, pp. 95 + Author.

Assembly

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6.1.4 Integrated Design Process a) Architectural Context In order to emphasise the architectural relevance of resource-efficient building, the pavilion was designed as a new kind of spatial object in the context of the exhibition space.

The structure was integrated into the neoclassical surroundings of the museum by positioning the columns in the rhythm of the main architectural elements of the room and by defining the height of the structure to correspond to the tops of the doors and windows (Kovaleva et al., 2019b).

The typology of a shell was selected in order to emphasize the contrast between the old post-and-beam system of the neoclassical museum and the lightweight character of future architecture (Kovaleva et al., 2019b).

The area on the ground was kept as open as possible in order to allow the arrangement of other exhibits and permit better circulation of visitors (Kovaleva et al., 2019b).

These design criteria led to the form and structure of the pavilion as a new interpretation of vaulted construction. As a result, the pavilion was designed as a shell that is open towards the ceiling in the shape of funnels and is supported by four columns (Knippers, Schmid and Speck, 2019, pp. 96).

Illustr. 27. Axonometric of the exhibition space with pavilion. Source: Kovaleva et al., 2019a.

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b) Design process The intention was to create a combination of structural and aesthetic aspects with as strong an expression as possible, which is represented by the convergence of form and structural behaviour based on graded material distribution. Following the definition of spatial and functional boundary conditions, an outline design of the shell geometry was developed; this was then analysed in terms of its load-bearing behaviour for the given material parameters and load cases. Owing to the poor loadbearing capacity of the concrete when exposed to tensile stress, a tension cable was placed all around the upper edge of the shell. In this way it was possible to achieve a membrane stress condition in the structure with mainly compression forces. The structural behaviour was analysed and graphically visualized in order to anticipate the required material distribution. Then the calculated stress field was used as input for the modelling of the functionally graded porosity (Kovaleva et al., 2019b).

c) Porosity distribution Thereafter,

the

material

was

specified with graded porosity to reflect the stress conditions in the structure across the entire surface

A

of the shell. Based on the stress values, the surface was subdivided into areas (cells) whose size and orientation correlated with those of the stress field.

B

Then the centre of each cell was defined as the centre of a pore, and the edges as concrete struts.

Finally, the thickness of the individual struts was determined in order to arrive at the required

C

cross-sectional areas in each case (Kovaleva et al., 2019b).

Illustr. 28. Materialisation of stress field of the shell. (A) Initial quad mesh with stress vectors; (B) population of cells by size & orientation to principal stress vectors; (C) modelling of required cross-sections according to respective principal stresses. Source: Kovaleva et al., 2019a.

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c) Segmentation The exhibition was limited to a period of six months. Furthermore, the size of the building components was restricted due to the limitations of production, transport, and construction. For this reason the pavilion was made up of 69 individual segments, of which only 18 were unique owing to the fourfold symmetry of the shell. The loads were to be transferred via continuous contact joints between the segments. The joints were located in the dense areas of the segments rather than in the highly porous areas in order to harmonize the porosity distribution with the segmentation layout (Kovaleva et al., 2019b).

Illustr. 29. Segmentation layout of the shell. Source: Kovaleva et al., 2019a.

6.1.5 Production and Assembly a) Production All 69 shell segments were produced using just 18 different formwork units, each of which was reused up to four times. In order to guard against unexpected load cases, all segments were also reinforced with carbon fibers. In addition, a system of connectors was integrated in the edge of each segment in order to ensure that adjacent segments were positioned correctly during assembly and remained fixed in place until the peripheral cable was tensioned.

In order to integrate all of these production requirements, a two-part formwork unit with a double curvature was produced on a CNC milling machine, including a system of channels and cavities for

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casting, reinforcing, and positioning, for each of the 18 segments. In parallel, precision positioners were produced as fit-in parts using a 3D printing method. In the next step, resin- impregnated carbon fiber rovings were laid along each concrete strut, held in the center with spacers, and attached to the positioners. The fitting of the rovings created integrated textile reinforcement. Once the resin network had been completed, the formwork was coated with release agent, assembled, and filled with concrete. Owing to the concrete 's good early compressive strength of 40 MPa after 24 hours, it was possible to remove the segments from the formwork as early as one day after the casting . Thereafter, the formwork could be reused for the production of other segments of the same type (Knippers, Schmid and Speck, 2019, pp. 98).

b) Assembly Prior to assembly, the segments were transported in a space-saving manner to the Rosenstein Museum, where the shell was assembled directly on-site. For that purpose, scaffolding was used that consisted of four timber members on steel scaffolding and positioning aids for the columns. First of all, the segments forming the inner vault were placed starting from the columns upwards. Then, the adjoining segments were positioned and fixed. As soon as the central segment had been assembled, the cantilevering areas were fitted. Finally, the tension cable was inserted along the outside top edge and then pre-stressed to ensure that the intended structural behaviour of the shell—primarily subjected to compression—would be achieved. The tension of the cable was also regularly checked during the exhibition (Kovaleva et al., 2019b).

Illustr. 30. Formwork methods for geometrically complex concrete structures. (a) Milling of formwork part; (b) assembly of 2-sided formwork for casting; (c) view of thin-walled concrete segment. Source: Kovaleva et al., 2019a.

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6 . 2 — B ehav iour Level — E A STG AT E C E N T R E H ar ar e , Z i mb abw e

By Mic k Pearce

Illustr. 31. Eastgate Centre in Harare, Zimbabwe.

Source: www.livinspaces.net.

Without undermining the opportunities of future generations, sustainable design must meet the needs of present users. In its natural and social climate, it must also be rooted. In Harare, Eastgate is an expression of two architectures: the modern brick and rebuilt stone order and the old steel and glass order. The new order changes away from the foreign glamour of the archetype of the pristine glass tower to a regionalised design that responds to the biosphere, Great Zimbabwe 's ancient traditional stone architecture, and local human capital (Pearce, 2016).

Located in central Harare, Zimbabwe, the Eastgate Centre is a shopping centre and office block. Built to be ventilated and cooled by fully natural means, to this degree of complexity, it was probably the first building in the world to use natural cooling. Opened in 1996, it offers 5,600 m2 of retail space, 26,000 m2 of office space and parking space for 450 vehicles (Wikipedia Contributors, 2020).

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6.2.1 Principle The building was commissioned by the property company of Old Mutual, the largest pension fund in Zimbabwe, in 1991, who requested that the building be “appropriate for the climate” and exhibit “appropriate” maintenance requirements and operating costs. Modern office buildings in southern Africa are usually air­‐conditioned—a cost that tends to be volatile, can account for 15-­20% of the construction budget, and adds significant expense in operating the building over time. Furthermore, HVAC systems are difficult to repair or replace because parts are difficult to source (ARUP, 2019).

Knowing that Harare’s climate was tropical, with an eight-­month dry season with cool nights and hot days, the client suggested using passive ventilation (Pearce, 2016).

For inspiration, Mick Pearce turned to African termite mounds. Termites, specifically from the genus M. michaelseni, cultivate fungi in their subterranean nests in order to turn wood into digestible nutrients (Ball, 2010; Cotesia, 2013). In order to do so, it was understood that the nest had to be kept at a constant temperature (87 degrees Fahrenheit), achieved by an elaborate ventilation system of air ducts in the self‐cooling, climate­‐controlled mound (Cotesia, 2013).

6.2.2 Abstraction of the principle Two Ventilation Models Mound ventilation was thought to operate through two distinct processes. For mounds that are capped, or closed at the top, the air moves cyclically in what is known as the Martin Luscher model of thermosiphon flow. Heat generated by the nest causes the air to rise to the top of the mound, where it is supplemented by water vapour entering through the porous mound walls. Now denser, the air descends to the nest again where the process is repeated. If the mounds are open at the top, air travels unidirectionally, driven by the stack effect. It was commonly understood that the top of the mounds— which have been recorded to be up to thirty feet tall—break the surface boundary layer and are exposed to greater wind speeds. The wind current induces air flow, pulling air into channels near the bottom of the mound, and out the top of the mound like a chimney (Cotesia, 2013; Turner & Soar, 2008).

1. Thermosiphon flow

2. Stack effect (induced flow)

Illustr. 32. Two models of termite mound air flow. Source: Jacobson, 2014.

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6.2.3 Design The building is composed of two massive but narrow office blocks nine stories tall, running from east to west. The city street runs down the middle of the two buildings, as does a second story concourse “skywalk,” and a glass umbrella roof bridges the gap across the top. The building’s concrete frame is clad in brick and precast concrete, which has a high capacity to store heat within its thermal mass (Maglic 2014, cited in Jacobson, 2014).

Impressively, Pearce in collaboration with Arup engineers incorporated both models—which in some cases have the potential to work against each other—simultaneously into the Eastgate Centre’s design (Cotesia, 2013; Turner & Soar, 2008). The buildings incorporate thirty‐two vertical air ducts that open into voluminous air spaces, which permeate the building. Heat generated within the building, from the occupants, machinery, and lighting, as well as the heat stored in the building’s thermal mass drives the thermosiphon effect from the interior offices up to the roof. Large chimney stacks on the roof release the hot air, creating the induced flow that drives the stack effect (Cotesia, 2013; Turner & Soar, 2008).

Illustr. 33. Schematic of the natural ventilation of the building.

Source: wikipedia.org.

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6.2.4 Performance At first, the non-traditional construction style confused the public; some shop tenants had to be convinced not to install local air-conditioning units. Yet quite soon, as a core element of Harare's urban fabric, the building became accepted, valued, and welcomed (Cotesia, 2013). However, passive ventilation alone was not efficient enough to avoid air stagnation, if one was to consider the efficiency of the ventilation technique. To help flush the hot air collected during the day with cool air during the night, low and high capacity fans are worked during the day and night, respectively. In this sense, the construction violates the terms of biomimicry—termites do not need fans to ventilate their mounds ( Jacobson, 2014).

Nevertheless, the Eastgate Centre's ventilation system performs exceptionally well in terms of calibrating the building's temperature. On any given floor, the temperature swings just two degrees between day and night, where outside temperatures fluctuate up to 10 degrees. In addition, the ventilation system uses one-tenth of standard air-conditioning systems 35 percent less energy than comparable buildings (Parr, 2012; M. Pearce, n.d.; “Termite-Inspired Air Conditioning,” 2014, cited in Jacobson 2014). The design saved over $3.5 million in its first five years because of the energy savings, along with having a lower environmental impact as well.

The

irony,

however,

is

that

thermosiphon or induced air flows are not actually used to ventilate termite mounds (Turner & Soar, 2008). In fact, besides a dampening effect, there is no proof that temperatures are even controlled by a termite mound. New Illustr. 34. Temperatures in termite mounds.

Source: parametrichouse.com.

studies reported in 2008 by Turner and Soar show that the nest temperature

closely matches the soil temperature instead, fluctuating fifteen degrees depending on the time of the year. In addition, for induced airflow to be in place, most termite mounds are not tall enough; the gradient of the boundary layer between the bottom and top of the mound is not high enough.

Finally, the injection of a tracer gas into the mound clarified that air never circulates into the nest in the mound; thus, ventilation does not allow the exchange of respiratory gas for the nest.

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6.2.5 Structure The building’s construction materials, precast concrete, brushed to expose the granite aggregate and brick, have a high thermal capacity, which enables it to store and release heat gained from the surrounding environment, similar to the soil in a termite mound.

The exterior of the building is prickly—like a cactus.

A

By increasing the surface area, heat loss is improved at night, while heat gain is reduced during the day.

Additionally, the small windows minimise heat absorption while the extended overhangs provide extra shade.

Illustr. 35. Eastgate Centre conceptual drawings, (A) materials with high thermal capacity; (B) prickly exterior of the building.

Source: youtube.com.

B

Inside the building, low-power fans pull in cool night air from the fans outside and disperse it throughout the seven floors. The concrete blocks absorb the cold, insulating the building and chilling the circulating air. When the morning comes and temperatures rise, warm air is vented up through the ceiling and released by the chimneys. Because of this innovative design strategy, the temperatures stay at a comfortable 82ºF during the day and 57ºF at night.

Illustr. 36. Diagram showing the flow of air in the Eastgate Centre.

Source: youtube.com + Author.

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6 . 3 — Ec o sy stem Level — Z I R A I S L A N D M A ST E R P L A N Baku, A ze r b ai j an

By BIG A rch i te c ts (Prop ose d)

Illustr. 37. Zira Island big ramboll aerial view of the seven peaks of Azerbaijan.

Source: www.archdaily.com.

Biomimicry at the level of the ecosystem means that a structure imitates how environmental components work together to operate successfully. The Zira Island Carbon Neutral Master Plan, a project by the Bjarke Ingels Group (BIG) of Danish architects, was planned to transform Boyuk Zira Island in the Caspian Sea into a carbon-neutral eco-resort and leisure centre. The goal of the projects is to establish an independent ecosystem through the use of sustainable technology, such as powering wind desalination plants and extracting the salt from the seawater and turning it into fresh drinking water. The water would also be used to heat and cool the houses, with the landscape using the surplus waste water, which would provide vegetation in turn (Veronica, 2016).

6.3.1 Principle A minister from Azerbaijan, who was influenced by a previous project that BIG architects had suggested, took the project to BIG architects. The Minister was inspired by the manner in which "mountains" can be recreated by architecture, since the Alps of Central Asia are recognised as Azerbaijan. The minister asked BIG architects with this in mind if they could build a resort and entertainment city that would

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recreate the silhouette of Azerbaijan's seven most important mountains. This is how the shapes of the building were derived. Not only does each structure represent one of Azerbaijan's seven most famous mountains, but they are all inhabitable as well. What is special about this site is that there is absolutely no vegetation, no water or facilities on Zira Island. It is identified by Bjarke Ingels as being a desert. As a result , the overall master plan of BIG architects was planned to be an autonomous ecosystem of its own (Maglic, 2012). Using a number of innovative ecological technology to generate enough energy to power the entire island, they were able to do this.

6.3.2 Abstraction of the principle The general theme of the design is to create an independent ecosystem capable of meeting its own needs while maintaining harmony with its environment. In general, the overall form of the project has been shaped based on the elements of wind, water and sun.

Wind energy produced by turbines installed on the coast of the Caspian Sea power a number of desalination units that filter the salt from sea water and turn it into fresh water ready for human consumption. This water is then used for heating and cooling the buildings. All the wastewater returns to the environment to provide the island’s plant water requirements. In addition to wastewater, storm water is also collected and used for watering the plant life around the island. When extracting the water suitable for human use, the waste materials are filtered and collected, and then crushed and used as nutrients for plants. Solar heaters and photovoltaic panels installed on the façade and roofs of the buildings are used for energy production. Using all of these elements together makes the island an easily habitable, independent, and sustainable ecosystem (Abaeian, Madani & Bahramian, 2016).

The process considered in this design is illustrated in the figure below.

Figure 7. Section displaying sustainable technologies.

Source: www.archdaily.com.

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6.3.3 Design approach to natural elements a) Wind One of the island’s main features is its windy location. During the design, the element of wind has been approached from two angles: 1) the use of wind turbines installed along the coast to provide the island’s required energy; 2) the simulation of wind flow within the island and around the seven artificial mountains. By identifying the micro-climates created by the 7 artificial mountains, this simulation provides a suitable background for placement of spaces. Thus, the required spaces have been located based on the wind speed obtained from the simulated model. In areas where wind speed is undesirably high, compact patches of green spaces and trees have been designed to reduce the wind speed; and in areas where wind speed is desirable, residential and recreational spaces have been predicted.

Illustr. 38. Wind study. Source: www.archdaily.com.

b) Water In this design, sea water treated by desalination systems is used to meet the island’s water requirements.

Also all water used on the island is collected and recycled along with the rainwater. After treatment, the water is reused for watering the trees and green spaces. Also, the salts and residues obtained from treatment are returned to the soil to fertilize the island.

c) Sun Buildings of the Island can be heated and cooled by the pipes crossing the shores of the Caspian Sea. Solar panels and photovoltaic systems installed on façades and roofs of the buildings are used to provide a big portion of warm water and also power the swimming pools and water parks.

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Illustr. 39. Plan and program of the Island. Source: www.archdaily.com.

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6 . 4 — A naly si s Par t 1 — A N A LY SI N G T H RO U G H T H E OX M A N F R A M E W O R K (KCC) Name

Role of Science

Engineering

Design

Art Art questions the conventional methods of constructing with concrete, and creates awareness about new ways of sustainable design, opening the human mind to new possibilities.

Art coerces and convinces people to adopt a new and sustainable method of cooling, that is passive ventilation, something which was widely unheard of in the time of the construction of the structure.

1.

Rosenstein Pavilion

Science observes sea urchins of the H. mammillatus species and understand the potential applications of taking inspiration from its shell structure.

Using the concepts and principles realised by Science (such as functional graded porosity and segmentation) to create a lightweight concrete structure.

Creating a structure which responds to the context and has a fourfold symmetry which supports the work of Engineering.

2.

Eastgate Centre

Science observes the two ventilation models and materials used existing in termite mounds, and finds means to inculcate these to create a successful method of passive cooling and ventilation.

Design takes the solutions given

by Engineering and works them into an adequate human experience, such as the materials resembling the lichencovered rocks in Zimbabwe’s wild landscape.

3.

Zira Island

Science understands the nature and working of an ecosystem, and works out the functioning by adapting the concept into the structure and the uses of the basic elements of nature such as wind, water, and the sun.

Engineering takes the observations of Science and finds means to apply them in the structure, such as the thermosiphon and the stack effect, and also a system of fans and ducts and materials with high thermal capacity to successfully cool the building.

Engineering takes the concepts laid out by Science and applies them to make the ecosystem work successfully, such as harnessing wind and solar energy and recycling water etc.

Design includes a symbolic level of imitation from the context by mimicking the silhouette of the seven most significant mountains in Azerbaijan, thus creating another level of connection with the human mind.

Art explores the possibility of biomimicry and parametricism on such a scale, thus questioning all the previous beliefs that have existed in the field.

Table 1. Comparative analysis of case studies based on the Oxman framework (KCC).

Source: Author.

Dissertation 2020 | Case Studies & Analysis

Page 49

6 . 5 — A naly si s Par t 2 — A N A LY SI N G T H RO U G H T H E P OT E N T I A L D I M E N SI O N S Key

— Biomimetic aspect Name

— Parametric aspect Form

Material

— Both aspects Construction

— No aspect

Process

Function Demonstrates the relevance & potential of bio-inspired design strategies using optimisation strategies in resourceefficient building.

The internal conditions are regulated to be optimal and thermally stable, similar to that in a termite mound.

1.

Rosenstein Pavilion

Shell typology based on the spatial and functional considerations and architectural context.

Weightoptimised concrete shell with functional graded porosity based on sea urchin species.

69 shell segments produced using 18 different formworks, followed by assembly onsite

Pavilion exhibits segmentation in terms of porosity distribution similar to sea urchin species and fourfold symmetry of the shell.

2.

Eastgate Centre

Exterior of the building is prickly, like a cactus.

Facade composing of small windows and extended overhangs of calculated dimensions to provide shade and minimise heat gain.

Works on the natural ventilation model used in termite mounds.

3.

Zira Island

Mimics the silhouette of the seven most significant mountains in Azerbaijan.

Elements made of precast concrete, brushed to expose the granite aggregate that matches the lichencovered rocks in Zimbabwe’s wild landscape, materials selected to match thermal capacity of soil in termite mound.

Not known.

Design of the Island is assembled in a way to create a self-sustaining ecosystem

Captures and converts energy from the wind and the sun and collects and recycles water

Forms part of a complex system by utilising the relationships between processes.

Table 2. Comparative analysis of case studies based on the five potential dimensions.

Source: Author.

— Chapter 7 —

Findings & Conclusion 7 .1 SU STA I N A B I L I T Y, B I O M I M I CRY, & PA R A M ET R I CI S M Going back to the initial hypothesis proposed at the beginning of the research, that biomimicry helps make the process and outcome of design an efficient and sustainable one, while parametricism is a tool which helps realise the vision set by biomimicry, the study has helped in understanding how the hypothesis gets applied to architecture as we know it today.

On applying the Oxman framework to the case studies, it is understood that how the four modalities of human imagination—Science, Engineering, Design, and Art—work in synergy to create something new and unconventional, which brings about a positive change in the world of architecture and design.

The second part of analysis gives an in-depth understanding of how biomimicry and parametricism combined together lead to a sustainable design process, as explained in the following aspects-

7.1.1 Material & Resource Efficiency A confluence of biomimicry and parametricism helps make optimum usage of materials and resources.

As observed in the Rosenstein Pavilion, biomimicry inspired the construction of a light-weight concrete structure by understanding the functional gradation in the skin of a sea urchin, while parametricism helped realise the structure by producing 69 shell segments using 18 different formworks.

The Eastgate Centre in turn is one of the most efficient buildings, a feat which was achieved by various small factors such as the facade being inspired by a cactus or the materials having similar properties as of those in a termite mound.

7.1.2 Structural/Design Innovation Biomimicry inspires a unique structural solution, specific to the design and function, and parametricism helps build the structure in the most efficient way possible.

As seen in the case studies as well as the case example National Taichung Theatre, biomimicry helped in finding a way to make minimal surfaces using soap bubbles, and then by using parametric technology, the structure was built to reflect the concept. Additionally, in the Aguahoja series, inspiration was Page 50

Dissertation 2020 | Findings & Conclusion

Page 51

taken from nature to build a structure from the most basic compounds found, and then robotic manufacturing techniques were used to help make the structure respond to the surroundings.

7.1.3 Form-Structure-Function Correlation Biomimicry and parametricism enhance the relationship between a function, its form, and the structure.

In all three case studies, it is observed that the design brief forms the starting point for inspiration.

Form and structure are integrated together in nature, and are determined by the function—biomimicry inspires the same in architectural design while parametric technology helps realise it.

7 . 2 CO N CLU SI O N The biological world has many levels from which man can take inspiration. One interpretation could be a simple execution of a form or a phenomenon found in nature, such as studying the functional gradation of porosity in the skin of a seashell to make lightweight concrete structures. Another way could be to take a material found in nature and use it how nature intended to use, such as making a skin out of chitosan and pectin, which responds to the environment and eventually returns to it by biodegradation. And these too, are just a few of the many ways of how biomimicry works.

But what does parametricism have to do with this? Indeed, biomimicry does not have to take the support of a parametric tool to be incorporated into a design. But can nature exist without rules?

From the branching of a tree to the functioning of an atom, the biological world works on set rules and patterns, which are discernible amongst the seemingly chaotic world.

Thus, to truly take inspiration from nature for sustainable and efficient design, parametricism is the way. Be it a ventilation model seen in a termite mound or an entire ecosystem of natural processes parametricism is the tool which helps in translating these concepts into a design on a human scale in a manner which retains the original sustainability and efficiency while also introducing innovation.

Biomimicry

Parametricism

A discipline that studies nature’s best ideas and then imitates these designs to solve human problems.

An architectural style based on computer technology and algorithms, and designed on rules.

Research Question

Levels of biomimicry

Case Studies

“How can architecture draw inspiration from the symbiosis between computational design and the biological world?”

Organism level

1. Rosenstein Pavilion

Imitating a particular part of an organism such as a plant or an animal, or mimicking the entire organism, in terms of its form.

A lightweight concrete shell pavilion inspired by the idea of ‘functional gradation’ found in the skeleton tissue of sea urchins.

Behaviour level

2. Eastgate Center

Imitating the behaviour, which can involve translating an element of how an organism acts or applies to a broader context.

A building ventilated and cooled by natural means by imitating the ventilation models and the using materials with similar properties as observed in termite mounds.

Oxman Framework

A Dissertation by Palak Verma

Culture <

> Nature

nc

e

Information

Ar

(A/2958/2016)

ie

Where biology meets computation...

Understanding concepts

Biomimicry

(Tool)

NA

Philosophy A

A

NA

NA

Behaviour

Knowledge

A

A

D es ig Key A Applied NA Non-Applied

Form-finding and achieving results which are more aesthetic, efficient, responsive, and controllable.

g in

Utility

r ee

Co-ordinated by Prof. Prabhjot Sugga

n gi

Guided by Ar. Abhishek Sorampuri

Ecosystem level

En

Unifying the two schools of study

Findings Four domains work in synergy to create something new and unconventional Parametricism reduces complexity of design and construction Both concepts increase material and resource efficiency Both concepts produce structural and design innovation Both concepts create formstructure-function correlation

Conclusion

Economy

n

(Vision)

Parametricism

NA

Production <

Why combine the two?

> Perception

t

Sc

Biomimicry & Parametricism in Architecture

Forms a relationship between the four modalities of human imagination.

Imitation of entire ecosystems and the common values that allow them to work effectively in natural conditions.

3. Zira Island A carbon neutral master plan established as an independent ecosystem through the use of sustainable technology, inspired by natural elements.

Utilising the confluence of biomimicry with parametricism is a need in the field of architecture.

Biomimicry helps make the design an efficient and sustainable one, while parametricism as a tool helps realise the vision set by biomimicry, along with adding innovation.

Dissertation 2020 | Findings & Conclusion

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7 .3 L I M I TAT I O N S When researching about a topic like biomimicry and parametricism, it is essential to stay realistic, as it is quite easy to ignore the shortcomings and paint a rosy picture. Although parametric designs inspired by nature appear to be functional solutions on an individual level, how the designs work in a collective manner, in an ecosystem, is often neglected. The reason why understanding the way networked systems communicate within an ecosystem is so important is that the responses can be catastrophic when this network becomes unbalanced. A failed biomimetic architectural system could endanger the humans for whom it was designed, just as a failing ecosystem could endanger the lives of organisms or a whole species.

It is no new discovery that humans have flaws and can not always build or design perfect objects, systems, and architecture. Therefore, human error must be taken into account with biomimicryâ&#x20AC;&#x201D; especially since like with the ecosystem, if one piece of the system is unbalanced the whole larger system can in turn, collapse.

7 . 4 WAY F O RWA R D To better understand the implications of these results, future studies could practically test out the impact of using parametricism as a tool in visualising the concepts proposed by biomimicry. Further research is needed to determine the negative consequences of biomimicry and parametricism, especially the repercussions of human error and inaccurate biomimicry.

— Chapter 8 —

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Palak Verma Dissertation Originality Report

Originality report COURSE NAME

DISS GROUP A STUDENT NAME

PALAK VERMA FILE NAME

Palak Verma Dissertation Originality Report REPORT CREATED

Dec 07, 2020

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Web matches

1 of 34 passages

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Arguably, biomimicry – design inspired by the way functional challenges have been solved in biology – is one of the best sources of solutions that will allow us to Top web match What I will argue in this book is that biomimicry – design inspired by the way functional challenges have been solved in biology – is one of the best sources of solutions that will allow us to create…

Biomimicry in Architecture https://books.google.com/books? id=xbKoDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP8&lpg=PP8&dq=%22create+a+positive+future+and+make+the+shift+from+the+industrial+age+to+the+ecological+age+of+hum

2 of 34 passages

Student passage

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…best sources of solutions that will allow us to "create a positive future and make the shift from the industrial age to the ecological age of humankind" (Pawlyn, 2016, p. 1).

https://classroom.google.com/u/1/g/sr/MjIxMzM2MzI5ODU1/MjIyODcwNDMzMjEy/15sWP0_AJHNIxgewUamTAjWN9AMxzwv3i1i1ikW6zDoY

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