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Eye, robot: the power of an AI's gaze
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Eve Kirman
Sadly, the 21st century has turned out to be far from as technologically advanced as was once perceived by our ancestors who envisaged weather controlling machines, life underwater, and nursing homes on the moon. However, there are a few futuristic aspects to our modern lives that were successfully predicted – two of which being the use of artificial intelligence (AI) and robots. In fact, AI is so seamlessly integrated into our lives that its use has become quotidian – demonstrated by well-known voice assistants such as Siri, Cortana and Alexa.
Scientists have developed AI systems by essentially training computer systems to ‘think’ in the same ways that humans do through machine learning and the development of neural pathways. Characteristics that were once exclusive to humans such as creativity and logic are now being imitated by technology. More recently, these qualities, distinctive of AI, are being used in healthcare, banking and smart cars. It’s clear to see how the use of AI has had an auspicious impact on society and consequently altered human behaviour. But can the same behaviour changing attribute be argued for the field of robotics?
Unbeknownst to many, including myself previously, AI and robotics are not really the same thing. Both fields have a slight commonality when considering ‘Artificially Intelligent Robots’, however robotics is more defined by physicality and autonomy. To put it simply, robots follow pre-set instructions whereas AI programs imitate human thought pathways. humanoid robots; machines specifically built to resemble a human body. These types of robots are hoped to be used in many contexts including research, caregiving, education, manufacturing and even in exploring outer space. Yet there is a peculiar obstacle in the use of human robots...
A feeling known as the ‘uncanny valley’ can occur when people look at objects that resemble human beings such as dolls, animations and, of course, humanoid robots. This phenomenon is said to illicit an eerie and uncomfortable feeling in the observer. There are numerous theories as to why this cognitive response is evoked, one of which being that viewing a humanlike robot elicits an inherent fear of death as the onlooker is replaceable by said robot. Recently, scientists have uncovered that the uncanny valley is more than just an emotion.
Crucially, the physical nature of robots has led to recent breakthroughs in the study of human behaviour. These studies u s e
Recent research from the Istituto Italiano Di Tecnologia in Italy has revealed that making eye contact with a robot can alter our decision-making capability. During the study, participants were required to play a simple video game, basically deciding whether to allow a car to crash or not. Yet, the game was played against a humanoid robot sat opposite. The robot’s presence allowed researchers to recognise that we respond through similar neural mechanisms to if we were (Rosie Bromiley) making eye contact with a robot or with another human.
Gaze is an extremely important social signal
In this experiment mutual eye contact represents a simplified version of the ‘gaze’, a psychoanalytic theory which postulates an anxious state of self-awareness in realising that one can be looked at by others. Professor Agnieszka Wykowska, principal author of the study, told Science Robotics that the "gaze is an extremely important social signal that we employ on a dayto-day basis when interacting with others."
A robots gaze can trick the brain...
Throughout the game, the robot would either look towards or away from volunteers, who were having their cephalic nervous activity measured by an EEG. Wykowska concluded that “the human brain processes the robot gaze as a social signal,” consequently affecting the participants “decisions by delaying them, so humans were much slower in making the decisions in the game." Therefore, a robot’s gaze can trick the brain into thinking that it is partaking in social interaction.
A robot in a caregiving role ... may be very effective
These findings hold significance in how we will implement humanoid robot technology in the future. Wykowska argues that we need to investigate further into the specifics of when robots elicit this response in order to “decide in which sort of context [humanoid robotics] is desirable and beneficial for humans and in which context this should not occur.” For example, a robot in a caregiving role; reminding an elderly person to take medication, may be very effective due to the social behaviours it displays, causing the patient to be more likely to conform. Thus, when looking to the future it’s fair to say that it’ll be a while before nursing homes make it to the moon, but perhaps not too long until robots are working in them.
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Caitlin Painter, Cameron McAllister and Elise Garcon Science & Technology Editors, 2021-22
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SciTech The prejudices of climate change
Eleni Mann
Climate change affects everyone – but some more than others. Its reach is far-spreading, its actions deadly, and although climate change itself isn’t discriminatory, the systems it exploits are. Exacerbating pre-existing prejudices, climate change targets the defenceless, capitalising on years of inequality to harm the most vulnerable groups in our society.
Many may argue that past and present societal structures have failed the most vulnerable. Now with the growing concerns surrounding climate change, these groups are disproportionately at risk. Historically, women, minority ethnic groups, and members of the LGBTQ+ community have been marginalised by the dominant ruling majority, and as a result of this, the climate vulnerability of these groups is escalating.
Vulnerability entails many different types of threat. For indigenous peoples, climate change imperils their traditional practices and knowledge. Many indigenous populations hold a unique relationship with the natural environment. For the Shuar people in Ecuador, waterfalls act as places of worship, and in Taiwan, people of the Paiwan community refuse to speak negatively in mountain valleys, as the words are echoed across the environment.
Climate change attacks the dwelling places of indigenous ancestors, such as in Hawaii, where many communities bury their dead by the sea, believing that their forefathers are watching over them as they fish. The rise in sea levels desecrates these burial sites, and spiritually disunites communities from their ancestors, disrupting indigenous traditions.
LGBTQ+ people are vulnerable to discrimination as a result of the social stigmas surrounding their community, often experiencing reduced social mobility, increased risk of homelessness, and inaccessible infrastructure due to a lack of acceptance. One in five LGBTQ+ Americans live in poverty, and this proportion is expected to increase with the growing risks of climate change. In countries where same-sex couples are not recognised as legitimate, relief support after climate disasters is often limited, intensifying the high levels of deprivation the community is often subjected to.
Overt discrimination in this way has also resulted in the neglect of minorities. After Hurricane Katrina hit New Orleans in 2005, tests were undertaken to show how housing complexes responded to different prospective home seekers.
The results? White home seekers were more likely to be told about apartment availability, rent, and discounts, compared to their African American counterparts, highlighting a disturbing bias in this system that furthers the economic vulnerability of minorities.
Economic vulnerability is a common result of marginalisation, experienced both by LGBTQ+ communities, and minority and indigenous communities. Environmental deprivation theory explains that increased exposure to environmental hazards results in greater concern about environmental issues. In 2014, national probability surveys showed that 71% of Hispanic Americans and 57% of Black Americans were concerned about climate change, compared to 43% of White Americans. Hispanic and Black Americans are more likely to live near hazardous and highly-polluting industrial sites – it therefore follows that these communities are more aware and concerned by climate change.
Studies into the gendered impacts of climate change have shown how societal standards and hierarchical structures have intensified the impact of climate change on women. 65% of excess deaths in the 2003 European heatwaves were women, and, as a result of the 2007 Indian floods, women experienced higher psychosocial effects as their social networks were disconnected and lost.
Access is a huge issue differentiating between the male and female ability to cope with climate disasters. After Cyclone Idai in 2019, nearly 75,000 pregnant women were left without access to clean water and reproductive health care, and experienced sexual assault and harassment in rescue and support camps.
The ‘gendered’ nature of early warning information, where access to such information is almost entirely exclusive to men, also increases female vulnerability.
Climate change also threatens established gender roles and responsibilities. The Mary Robinson Foundation for Climate Justice found that in Ugandan households, where predominantly the women grow crops for the men to sell, tensions develop around crop prioritisation. Irregular rainfall affects the reliability of crop production, reducing the ability to sell produce and maintain a steady household income. These tensions can boil over and result in domestic violence – the devastating impact of climate change behind closed doors.
As the consequences of climate change become more severe, climate vulnerability grows; for everyone, but especially minority groups. The intersections between these vulnerabilities – between access, social stigmas, and lack of representation to name but a few – worsen the isolation of these groups, and unless liberation becomes at the forefront of climate activism, inequalities will escalate.
So, what’s the solution? Events like Durham University’s ‘Women, Climate and Conflict: Towards Meaningful Global Commitments’ provoke significant conversations between academics, policy makers, and practitioners about how nonpartisan identities and climate change are interconnected. Ultimately, the education, awareness, and liberation of women and minority groups needs to be prioritised, or else the exacerbation of inequalities will continue to endure as climate change intensifies.
(Verity Laycock)
Durham University to attend COP26
Cameron McAllister
Science & Technology Editor
Durham University has been granted provisional observer status for the COP26 climate summit scheduled to take place later this year in Glasgow. This means the University will be able to send representatives to attend United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) meetings, negotiations and sessions at the summit. It would also allow the University to attend future UNFCCC conferences.
To achieve formal observer status the University had to demonstrate that it met ten criteria, including a commitment to climate change research and the UN’s Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Recently, the University entered the world top 100 for sustainability for the first time in the Times Higher Education Global Impact Rankings, which judges universities based on their contribution to the SDGs. However, the University has so far resisted calls to declare a climate emergency.
The final decision on whether the University should be granted formal status will be made at COP26 itself. If accepted, the University would join a list of fewer than 30 UK universities with formal COP26 observer status. It is hoped that giving academics a first-hand view of the high-level negotiations in Glasgow will lead to new research and be an opportunity for increased collaboration.
What is COP26?
COP26 is the latest United Nations climate change conference. It will be hosted in November by the UK, in partnership with Italy. COP itself means ‘Conference of the Parties’, referring to counties that signed the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) that will all be attending the summit. The ‘26’ simply indicates that this will be the 26th meeting, originally due to take place in 2020.
It was at COP21 in 2015 that the Paris Agreement, a legally binding agreement between the 195 countries attending to try to limit the global temperature increase to below 1.5C, was negotiated. The US left the Paris Agreement in 2020 but re-joined in 2021 under the new Biden administration.
COP25 in Madrid in 2019 was the longest annual UN climate conference but was considered disappointing by most due to its lack of meaningful resolutions. At COP25 the aim was to agree a “rulebook” to implement the Paris Agreement. Instead, the parties agreed to delay the decisions about this rulebook until the next COP, hence why COP26 is considered so important. The official COP26 website describes it as “the world’s best last chance to get runaway climate change under control”.
SciTech Durham professor finds missing link in carbon cycle
Elise Garcon
Science & Technology Editor
The carbon cycle is a biogeochemical event where carbon is exchanged across the biosphere. In this process, carbon is ferried in different forms, from CO2 to plant biomass in photosynthesis, to carbohydrates in animals after consumption, and released back into gaseous CO2 by microbial decomposition of these animals after death. This is a description well-known to all of us, studied by children in Geography classes at school.
The carbon cycle is a biogeochemical event
However, a new link in this cycle has been defined by Professor Robert Hilton, and Guillaume Soulet, from Durham University’s Geography Department. This was done through the study of sedimentary rocks, which contain vast stores of organic carbon, 130,000 times that of the preindustrial atmosphere. Oxidative weathering processes of these rocks release CO2 into the air. This gas can also enter rivers in an aqueous form, as a bicarbonate, and enter the ocean. This is a carbon sink and delays the release to the atmosphere by 104 years. Professor Hilton and his team aimed to research the fluctuations of the gaseous release of CO2 through different climate conditions, which has never been documented before. Global fluxes of CO2 emissions are natural and important, but the sensitivity of CO2 release from sedimentary rocks under our new changing climate is unknown and unconstrained.
The research group monitored the CO2 emissions from these rocks over a period of two years, working closely with onsite experts to ensure the wildlife and environment would be preserved, while sampling five areas.
This consisted of drilling small holes into the rock samples and inserting a gas cylinder and tube, allowing extraction. Prof. Hilton said, “It was quite a complex process, and it would take hours to make just one of the measurements. Once the gas sample was obtained, we would take it back to the labs to analyse the different isotopes and split them into carbon 12, which makes up 99% of the carbon on earth, and carbon 14, which is also known as radiocarbon. Where the relative amount of radiocarbon is low, this tells us the carbon in the sample collected derives from the rock.” He described the process as “as if the rocks were breathing”. The study revealed that, during the summer months, the rocks gave off five times more the amount of CO2 released in the winter months. This rings alarm bells when we think about the results
(Robert Hilton) in the context of climate change: the warming acts as a feedback loop. Prof. Hilton explained, “The hotter weather will mean more CO2 being released into the atmosphere, which will in turn increase the temperature even more.”
He continued: “This study has increased our knowledge of carbon dioxide being released from rocks and, when further research in different climates is conducted, we would expect the findings of higher temperature causing more CO2 to still be the case.”
This comes as another warning to the wide-reaching effects of climate change: it influences this fundamental biogeochemical cycle, essential to life.
Durham on the way to being a leading centre for women in computer science
Caitlin Painter
Science & Technology Editor
Last year, Durham University made headlines by doubling its number of female computer science students within a year. Now, as a member of the N8 Centre of Excellence in Computationally Intensive Research (N8 CIR), it has been recognised as a chapter of Women in High Performance Computing (WHPC), an organisation at the forefront of promoting women in the High Performance Computing (HPC) community across academia and industry.
HPCis the practice of combining computing power to deliver a much higher performance than is typical from a desktop computer. HPC is used to solve large problems in science, engineering and business. In particular, WHPC “strives to bring together women in HPC and technical computing while encouraging women to engage in outreach activities and improve the visibility of inspirational role models.”
As part of the application process, the N8, a collaboration between the eight most researchintensive universities in the North of England, has committed itself to addressing the issue of gender imbalance within N8 CIR and its workshops, and by identifying barriers that women face when applying for places. They will also challenge the reasons why there (Anna Kuptsova)
are so few women in senior roles in HPC, and raise the profile of people from underrepresented groups.
[The N8 CIR] will challenge why there are so few women in senior roles in HPC
The N8 CIR will also address wider diversity concerns and support people from minority communities, and those with disabilities, to work and contribute to the HPC community.
Durham University’s Dr Marion Weinzierl, the N8 CIR Research Software Engineer theme leader, has been included in the list of trailblazing women in HPC. “Thrilled” at this recent news, Weinzierl said, “Our group is open to everyone and welcomes contributions and support from all genders and gender identities. Strong allyship will be key to the success of the group.”
In recent years, the University has worked hard to increase diversity in computer science. The Durham University Women in Tech society are “working hard to make Durham the number one destination for women Computer Science undergraduates”.
The University is also heavily involved in TechUP, a programme that focuses on training individuals from minority groups for tech careers. Their most recent programme, TechUPWomen, took 100 women from the Midlands and North of England, retraining them in technology and providing interview opportunities at technology companies.
The University’s Computer Science Department is championed by Professor Sue Black OBE, a well-known advocate for women in technology, having set up the UK’s first online network for women in tech in 1998, as well as TechUPWomen.
Durham also offers the AMI scholarship for female Computer Science undergraduates. The scholarship is named after AnneMarie Imafidon, head Stemette and co-founder of Stemettes, a social enterprise that inspires the next generation of females into STEM careers. Imafidon joined the University’s Department External Advisory Board in 2016 and has been pivotal in the launch of the Computer Science Department’s core diversity programmes.
The start of the 2021/22 academic year will see teaching begin in the new Mathematical Sciences and Computer Science building, which was completed in January this year. The University plans to more than double the number of students in these subjects by 2026, hopefully helping Durham become the forefront for women in computer science.
