Culpeper, English Language by Macmillan International Higher Education

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Contents Preface to the Second Edition

viii ix

Acknowledgements

Introduction 1 1 Studying the English Language Jonathan Culpeper, Ruth Wodak and Paul Kerswill

Part 1 English: Structure Edited by Jonathan Culpeper

2 Phonetics Kevin Watson

3 Phonology Sam Kirkham and Claire Nance

4 Morphology: Word Structure Francis Katamba

5 Grammar: Words (and Phrases) Geoffrey Leech

6 Grammar: Phrases (and Clauses) Geoffrey Leech

7 Grammar: Clauses (and Sentences) Geoffrey Leech

101

8 Text Linguistics Paul Chilton and Christopher Hart

119

9 Semantics Daniël Van Olmen and Panos Athanasopoulos

134

10 Pragmatics Jonathan Culpeper and Gila A. Schauer

146

Part 2 English: History Edited by Jonathan Culpeper

165

11 Standard English and Standardization Paul Kerswill and Jonathan Culpeper

167

12 The History of English Spelling Jonathan Culpeper and Dawn Archer

186

13 Phonological Change Francis Katamba and Paul Kerswill

200

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14 Lexical Change Sebastian Hoffmann

225

15 Semantic Change Willem B. Hollmann

238

16 Grammatical Change Willem B. Hollmann

250

Part 3 English Speech: Regional and Social Variation Edited by Paul Kerswill

269

17 Regional Variation in English Accents and Dialects Kevin Watson

271

18 Language and Social Class Paul Kerswill

291

19 Language and Ethnicity Arfaan Khan

305

20 Pidgins and Creole Englishes Mark Sebba

319

21 World Englishes and English as a Lingua Franca Mark Sebba and Luke Harding

334

22 Discourse on Language: Attitudes to Diversity Johann W. Unger

351

Part 4 English Writing: Style, Genre and Practice Edited by Jonathan Culpeper

363

23 Speech, Writing and Discourse Type Andrew Wilson

365

24 Language in Newspapers Elena Semino

378

25 Language in Advertisements Greg Myers

392

26 Language in Literature: Stylistics Mick Short

401

27 Literacy Practices David Barton and Karin Tusting

413

28 New Technologies: Literacies in Cyberspace Uta Papen

423

Part 5 English: Style, Communication and Interaction Edited by Ruth Wodak

435

29 Structures of Conversation Greg Myers

437

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30 Language, Reality and Power Norman Fairclough

447

31 Politeness in Interaction Jonathan Culpeper and Claire Hardaker

457

32 Gender and Language Jane Sunderland

469

33 Language and Sexuality Paul Baker

482

34 Bad Language Tony McEnery and Robbie Love

495

35 Language and Politics Ruth Wodak

508

36 Business Communication Veronika Koller

526

Part 6 English: Learning and Teaching Edited by Jonathan Culpeper

539

37 First Language Acquisition Andrew Hardie and Silke Brandt

541

38 Languages and Literacies in Education Roz Ivanič and Diane Potts

560

39 TESOL and Linguistics Martin Bygate

579

Part 7 English: Investigating Edited by Jonathan Culpeper

593

40 The Corpus Method Vaclav Brezina and Dana Gablasova

595

41 Methods for Researching English language Tineke Brunfaut and Alison Sealey

610

Appendix: The IPA Chart

626

Bibliography

627

Index

674

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Chapter 1

Studying the English Language Jonathan Culpeper, Ruth Wodak and Paul Kerswill

What does the study of the English language involve? Any book on the English language must address this question, as the answer will determine its contents. This, however, is a very tricky question to answer. A glance at the contents lists of other books on the English language will find variation, and sometimes quite dramatic variation. Perhaps it may seem self-evident and unproblematic to you that studying the English language is simply that – studying any aspect of the English language. However, ‘the English language’ is not in itself a neatly identifiable entity: what counts as English is not straightforward. Consider the view, ‘English is the language of England’. As we shall see in this book, the roots of English are not in England at all, but in the old dialects of what is now north-western Germany. Once it became established in Britain, it was relatively restricted geographically: in the sixteenth century there were approximately 3 million speakers of English, nearly all indeed based in England. However, today there are well over 300 million native speakers of English, not to mention a further 300 million regularly speaking it as a second language (i.e., in addition to their native language), and the huge number of people learning it as a foreign language, mainly to communicate with other non-native speakers of English (there are more Chinese people learning English than there are native speakers of English in the United States!). Thus, most English is produced, heard and read outside England. Take the example of the Egyptian airline pilot landing at Frankfurt airport in Germany, and talking to air traffic control in English. For that pilot, English is the language used for communication in that context – it has nothing to do with England (except for its distant historical connection). English has emerged as a global lingua franca, that is, a language used throughout the world as a means of facilitating communication between speakers of different languages. Consider the view, ‘English has a common core of words and structures that are recognized as being English’. In fact, not everybody would recognize the same things as being English, something which we will discuss and illustrate in Chapter 11. One might appeal to some notion such as Standard English, claiming it represents the common core. However, most English is spoken: accents vary and, in a global perspective, they vary widely. At best we can say that certain groups of English accents tend to share certain features. And there is the issue of what is meant by ‘standard’. Appeals to such notions frequently slide from talk of a uniform set of features to talk of a set of features which a particular group considers best. For example, while it may indeed be possible to identify a set of standard grammatical and spelling features for British written English, that set would not be the same for American written English. So, which Standard English should we follow? Answers to that

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question typically involve the social evaluation of language (e.g., British people tend to think that the British ‘standard’ is ‘best’). To study anything requires that there be an object to study. If we cannot agree about what constitutes English, how can we study it? The answer is simply to accept that there are various views as to what counts as English. Although there is often considerable agreement within these views, flowing from them are different conceptions as to the boundaries of English, how the language is constituted, and also how we might study it. These views fall into three groups, the second of which contains a number of notable subgroups (our use of the word ‘English’ below denotes a language that might be labelled as such by a community of people): 1 The folk view. In fact, we have already touched on folk views about English in our first paragraph. There, we expressed beliefs about English in quotation marks. Many such beliefs have a prescriptive quality – they are beliefs about how English should be. For example, people tend to believe that English pronunciation, or at least the best English pronunciation, should reflect spelling. As we shall see in Chapters 2 and 12, nobody speaks English in a way which corresponds with spelling in a simple manner: even Queen Elizabeth II herself would not pronounce the <d> of the word and in the phrase ‘fish and chips’, and it is in fact speakers of less prestigious regional accents (in England, at least) who would pronounce the <r> in words like sort. Studying English from the point of view of folk beliefs and ‘correctness’ not only involves examining the truth of a particular belief (i.e., whether it is a myth), but also considers the real effects that having that belief in the first place can have on the language, its social contexts and the people who speak it. We will do this at various points in this book. 2 The academic views. These can be considered under four headings: • The comparative view. In this perspective, any study that reveals similarities or differences between English and another language can contribute to an understanding of how it is constituted (i.e., its distinctive nature). Many studies focus on formal structures (e.g., the grammar, semantics and phonology) of English in comparison with those of other languages, but it is also possible to study the use of language in English-speaking countries or cultures and contrast it with the use of language elsewhere (contrasting, for example, how people are ‘polite’ in different languages and cultures). • The variational view. In this perspective, any study that considers the nature of the varieties of English can contribute to an understanding of how it is constituted. Such varieties can be distinguished synchronically (i.e., how they vary at one point in time – for example, how they make up different accents or written genres) or diachronically (how they vary over time, thus feeding into the history of English). It is worth noting here that English, as with other languages, is made up of its own distinctive varieties, especially spoken varieties (e.g., accents), and has its own distinctive history. • The structural view. In this perspective, any study that considers the nature of the specific structures (e.g., words, sounds) of English can contribute to an understanding of how it is constituted. This view is a relatively weak view of the study of English in the sense that some of the phenomena discussed may also be characteristics of other languages. Thus, for example, a

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study of nouns using English data (perhaps for reasons of convenience) may reveal certain characteristics of English nouns, but it may well be the case that at least some of those characteristics are shared with other languages. In this respect, this view differs from the comparative view. • The social (context) view. In this perspective, any study that considers the nature of the specific social contexts in which English occurs (and with which it interacts) can contribute to an understanding of how English is constituted. Here, the focus is on the use of English and its associated social contexts, including both how English is shaped by the social contexts and how English shapes social contexts. For example, there are linguistic differences which relate to the formality of a situation (a job interview vs. family chat) and the roles speakers have (the defendant vs. the judge). As speakers, we can completely change the context through our choice of words – for example, the decision to swear could reduce formality (and have other farreaching consequences). This view is also a relatively weak view of the study of English in the sense that some of the social and interactive p henomena discussed may also be the same for other languages. 3 The educational view. For millions of people around the world, studying English does not mean enhancing one’s abstract understanding of English, as with academic views, but enhancing one’s ability to put it into practice – to speak it, write it and understand it. ‘It’ here, as propagated in textbooks and educational materials, is usually a standard written English and a prestigious accent (e.g., received pronunciation). Enhancing readers’ abilities in this way is not the prime focus of this book. However, it is important to note that a further academic perspective pertains here, namely, studying the teaching and learning of English, particularly, but not exclusively, in educational contexts. We will address this area in the final section of this book. All the above views overlap. Note, for example, that the academic study of folk views could be considered a subcategory of the social (context) view. Our book does not espouse one particular view, but embraces all of them. That way, we hope that our understanding of English is enriched. Where does English language study take place? Addressing this question can help reveal other things about the subject. In the UK, North America, Australia and New Zealand, it typically takes place in departments of English, English literature, linguistics, or linguistics and English language; in other countries, it also appears in departments of English linguistics or English philology. These labels reflect two pertinent issues. The first issue concerns a terminological problem: does the word ‘English’ encompass English literature, English l anguage or both? Some departments labelled ‘English’ are relatively little concerned with language, focusing mainly on English literature in terms of literary theory. This does not mean simply analysing a certain body of texts, but considering who wrote them, who they are written for, the social and political contexts in which they were written, and so on. There is no denying that English literature is worth studying, if only on the grounds that the works studied are generally considered to have cultural value. However, English literature accounts for only a relatively small proportion of the language that people consider to be English – it can hardly represent the English language as a whole. The language of English literature is represented in this volume (see Chapter 26), as are the many other varieties that comprise the English language.

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The second issue concerns the relationship between English and linguistics. Linguistics, in its broadest definition, is the study of language or languages, along with phenomena pertinent to language(s). So, linguistics as a discipline is clearly broader than the study of English language. Most obviously, it is not primarily focused on language that people would label English. Moreover, it is focused on the fundamental – and in some cases perhaps even universal – mechanisms of language, often drawing theoretical backing from cognitive or social sciences. Consider, for example, the fact that research has revealed that bilinguals store the lexical inventories of the languages they speak in different parts of the brain. This runs counter to what one might imagine to be a more efficient arrangement, whereby particular concepts (e.g., a ‘table’) are straightforwardly ‘hot-wired’ to one ‘lexicon’ (or dictionary) containing all the possible words (in the languages known to the particular speaker) for each concept. This fact in itself has no particular bearing on the nature of English, or indeed any other specific language: it is an insight into a general linguistic mechanism. Having said that, to study the English language is also to study a language. In our view, it is impossible to study the English language without also doing linguistics. We need to be aware of how language works in general, and we need to be able to evaluate our frameworks and tools for language analysis in particular, if we are going to investigate a language and in particular to address the issue of why it is as it is. We should stress that we are not attempting to cover all of linguistics as a discipline, but rather we emphasize areas of linguistics pertinent to the study of the English language.

The upcoming chapters The chapters are organized under seven major headings. The first group appears under ‘English: Structure’. This section includes many of the t raditional areas of linguistics relating to, for example, English phonology, grammar and semantics. One of the functions of these chapters in Part 1 is to provide you with a basis in language description, which will set you up for later chapters in the book that draw upon aspects of that description. The second group, Part 2 under ‘English: History’, addresses diachronic variation in English; in other words, the history of English. This is organized according to linguistic area, rather than periods in the history of English, for the reason that this better suits the focus of this book. The following two groups of chapters appear under ‘English Speech: Regional and Social Variation’ in Part 3 and ‘English Writing: Style, Genre and Practice’ in Part 4. These focus on synchronic variation in English. The chapters dealing with genre and practice pave the way for a transition to Part 5 and the next group of chapters, which appear under ‘English: Style, Communication and Interaction’. Here, the focus is on the use of English in social context(s). The penultimate group of chapters, in Part 6 under ‘English: Learning and Teaching’, considers the learning and teaching of English, both outside and inside educational contexts. The final group of chapters, in Part 7 under ‘English: Investigating’, focuses on the methods we need to research English. The chapters are written so that they should be understandable by a first year undergraduate, but there is plenty of potential for the content of the chapters to support courses pitched at more senior undergraduates, or even as preliminary steps for postgraduates, to whom the research-led nature of the chapters should appeal. With a few exceptions, each chapter has the same structure. In

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particular, chapters typically conclude on a more research-oriented note. Each chapter contains one or more boxes, which may be of two kinds. Advances Boxes are like an aside. If you decided to skip them, the rest of the text would still make perfect sense. They are pitched at a somewhat higher-level r eadership, or at least contain a particularly close focus that you would not expect in an introductory text. They are designed to give readers a sense of controversies and debates, complications and problems, further research, and so on. Illustration Boxes contain extended examples (or a set of shorter examples), additional examples (plus, optionally, some analysis of them), and sometimes further elaboration on an issue. Each chapter ends with some recommendations for further readings. Regarding terminology, technical terms are emboldened at their first mention, where you will also find a definition, description or discussion of the term. All these terms are included in the index.

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Index abbreviations, see word formation academic writing, see genre(s) accent(s) attitudes to working-class, 298–9 contemporary, 220–3 dialect and class, 173–5, 291–304 differences distributional, 285–7 systemic and realizational, 284–6 features, 287 maintenance, 314 regional, 220–3, 271–90 see also British dialect(s); dialect(s); Received Pronunciation; regional variation accusative, 253, 255–7 acquisition, language, 541–59 babbling, 543 child-based theory, 263, 265–6 child-directed speech, 554 first words, 543–4 syntax, 545–9 see also argument from poverty of the stimulus; behaviourism; questions; negatives acrolect, 346–7 acronyms, see word formation actors, 128, 533–6 acts of identity, 314–5, 347–8 adjacency pairs, see Conversation Analysis adjective(s) 71–3 comparative, 72–3 demonstrative, 293 emphatic, 500, 504–6 empty, 486 evaluative, 521 head, 71–2 meanings, 72 modifiers, 71–2 negative, 503–6 phrases, 71–2 superlative, 72–3 unisex, 61 adjuncts, 90–1 adverbs, 74–5 adverb phrases, 69–70, 74–5, 82–3, 90–1, 96 prepositional phrases, 77, 83–6, 91–2, 129–30 adverb(s) attitude, 75 circumstantial, 74 comparative, 75, 139 connecting, 75 degree, 74

linking, 374 sentence, 74–5, 91 superlative, 72, 75 types, 75 see also intensification advertisements, see genre(s) affix, see morphology affixation, see word formation affordances, 419–20, 425–6, 429–30 affricates, 19, 22, 36, 204, 207, 210, 542 agency, 480 agent(s) 103–4 deletion, 521–2 phrase, 104 agreement, 47–8 airstream, egressive pulmonic, 15 alliteration, 383, 403, 408 allomorph(s)/-y, 46, 50–1 allophones, 30–3, 39–40, 46, 208–9, 218, 282 allusion, 395 alphabet(s), Roman, Runic, 34, 189–90, 192, 198, 424, 600 see also spelling, thorn, wynn alveolar ridge, 12–3, 17–9, 21, 23, 27, 32, 39, 223 tap, trill, 20, 271, 295 analysis/synthesis technique, 357 anaphora, 123–4, 523 see also cohesion and coherence annotation, see corpora anthropology, 312, 512 antonym(s)/-y, 128, 131, 139, 408 approximants, 21–3, 28 approximation, close, open, 19 arbitrariness, 403 argument from poverty of the stimulus, 550–2 argumentation, 455, 515–7 fallacies, 522 topos/-oi, 517, 524 article(s) definite, 76, 117, 124, 324, 383, 405, 524, 547 indefinite, 76, 124, 46, 128, 324, 383, 405 articulation, 17–21, 23–5, 27, 33, 39, 210, 217, 542 approximations, 19–21, 27 retroflex, 27 taps, 20, 22, 271 see also alveolar; approximants; articulators; aspiration; consonants; labials; vowels articulators, 13, 17–21, 221 aspect, 95 attrition, 208, 252, 261, 265 audio-lingualism, 580–1

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Copyrighted material – 9781137571823 Index • 675 see also TESOL Austin, J. L., 152–3 auxiliary verbs, auxiliaries, 77, 94–6, 107, 280, 383, 549 contraction, 169, 280 dummy, 107–8 inversion, 105–7 modal, 77–8, 95–6, 138 negative, 107–8 ordering, 549 primary, 77–8 babbling, see acquisition, language backformation, see word formation bad language, 495–507 types, 499–501 see also swearing; taboo basilects, 273, 346–7; behaviourism, 549–50 Bernstein, Basil, 303–4 bilabial(s), see articulation; labials bilingualism, 228, 345 see also code-switching; creole binary conceptualization, 514–5 blending, 43, 61, 235 chunks, 33–42, 60–1, 64 portmanteaux, 235 blogs, 186, 235, 353, 428–32, 509, 528, 606, 610 BNC, see British National Corpus body language, 369–70 borrowing (into English), 37, 193, 209, 214–35, 255, 258, 376, 486, 616 Celtic and early influences, 227 Early Modern to Present-day, 230–2 French, 180, 188, 192–3, 199, 204, 209, 214, 229–33, 245–6, 260–2 Latin, 59, 180, 188–90, 193, 199, 202–3, 214–5, 227–9, 230–3, 241 loanwords, 202, 211, 214, 219, 226, 228, 232–3 nativization of, 202, 233 Norse, 141, 228–9 quantifying, 231 borrowing (within English), south-north, 221 Bourdieu, Pierre, 358–9 brand(s), commercial, see genre(s) British dialect(s) Belfast, 38, 281, 472 Birmingham, 38, 312–4, 316–7 Bristol and Somerset, 223, 273–4, 276, 278–9, 292 Cockney, 183, 221, 291–3, 354; diphthong shift, 221 East Midlands, 177, 223, 274 Estuary English, 174–5, 183–4 Glasgow, 38, 223, 258, 281, 284, 298 Lancashire, 149, 220, 223, 272, 274, 289 Liverpool, 27, 38, 258, 272–5, 280–1, 284–6, 290, 352, 356–7, 359

London, 272–5, 288 Manchester, 223, 272–5, 284 Middlesbrough, 281–2, 289 Milton Keynes, 184, 222, 284, 289, 301–3 Multicultural London English, 222, 354–5 Newcastle, 218, 220–1 Norwich and Norfolk, 223, 276, 278, 292, 300–1 Northern English, 169, 177–9, 220–1, 223, 271–2, 283–7, 289 Northern and Southern English 272, 283–7, 289 Scots, 168–72, 220, 223, 358–61 Scottish English, 204, 218–9, 223, 273, 342, 347, 354–5, 359 Southern English, 223, 272–6, 283–7, 342 Standard English, 3–4, 167–184, 225, 247, 258, 277–282, 296, 327–32, 335–8, 342–50, 356; Northern influence on, 178–9 Standard Southern British English, 30, 39–40 Welsh English, 27, 174, 285–6, 618 Yorkshire, 39–41, 149, 220–1, 223, 272, 276, 284, 289, 357 see also accents; dialects; h-dropping intrusive-r; <r> (pronunciation of); regional variation; rhotacization; social variation; sociolects British National Corpus (BNC), see corpora Brown, Penelope, and Levinson, Stephen, 461–5 business communication, 526–37 capital, symbolic, 358 capitalization, 371 cardinal numbers, 76 case, see accusative; dative; genitive; nominative; objective; subjective cataphora, 123 see also cohesion and coherence CDA, see Critical Discourse Analysis Chancery English, standard 177, 194 change (language) catastrophic, 264 causes of, 203–4 child-based theory of, 263–5 grammatical, 250–67 internal, 50–1 language, 505 lexical, 225–237 lexical semantic, 238–49 phonological, 200–24; explanations for phonological, 204 structural, 252 therapeutic, 258 see also borrowing; conversationalization; diachronic variation; glottalization; persistence (principle of); semantic change; spelling; word-formation CHILDES, see corpora Chomsky, Noam, 254, 263–5, 452–3, 549–55 CLAN, see corpora

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Copyrighted material – 9781137571823 676 • Index class, social, 220, 291–304, 338, 372, 378, 494, 501, 504–6, 575 and discourse, 303–4 and gender, 220, 297 hierarchical model, 220, 295, 297–9, 300–3 and mobility, 183, 294 intergenerational, intragenerational, 297–8 status, 294, 300 stratification, 291, 294–8 see also social variation; swearing classroom interaction, 450, 569–74 feedback, 576–7 see also discourse analysis, IRF (or IRE) structures clause(s), 68–70, 89–91 adjunct, 90–1 adverbial, 109–10 complement, 109–10 complexes, 115 declarative, 105, 155 embedded, 87–8, 108–11 exclamatory, 105–6 finite, non-finite, 94, 112–3 imperative, 105, 155 interrogative, 105, 155 –7 main, 87, 107–10, 113–4, 126–7, 212–3, 367, 410–1 nominal, 110, 118 passive, 103–4; agentless, 104, 116 relative, 109–10 structure, 90–1, 99, 101–2, 106, 115 subordinate, 108–11 types, 104–5 zero option, 110 see also objects; subjects; syntax clipping, see word formation code-switching, 309–11, 348, 569 see also bilingualism cognitive, 204, 356, 520–2, 547, 552–7, 568, 619 cognition, 246, 551 see also conceptual frames; mental models; metaphors; Rosch Eleanor cohesion and coherence, 119, 121–3, 127–33, 374, 536 cohesion, grammatical and lexical, 129–130 incoherence, 137 see also anaphora; cataphora coinage, see word formation collocation, 123, 131, 407, 600–2 communication, 156 communicative language teaching (CLT) 584–7 communicative modes, see semiotic modes communicative practices, in education, 565–7 communities, imagined, 485 community of practice, 475 complement predicative, 101–2, 105 see also clauses (complement) componential analysis, see semantics compositional approach, see semantics compositionality, see morphology compound words, see words

computer-mediated communication, 235, 427, 423–33 conceptual frames, 125, 131, 133, 521 see also text linguistics; cohesion and coherence concordance, 501, 596, 599–600 conjunctions coordinating, 77–8, 99, 111 subordinating, 77–8, 109–10, 125–129 temporal, 126–7 see also coordination connected speech, see weak forms; assimilation; elision consonants 17–23, 223 articulating, 17–21 clusters, 204 coda-r, see rhotacization Early Modern English, 217–9 geminate, 207 lengthening, pre-homorganic, 210–1 Old English, 207 post-vocalic-r, see rhotacization retroflex, 28 see also affricates; approximants; fricatives; nasals; obstruents; phonemes; plosives; sonorants construals, 447–8, 450–4 constructions, see grammar, construction grammar constructivism, 306–7 context, social, 5, 147, 203–4, 463 discourse, 119 text, 517–22 conversation(al), 437–46, 530 mediated, 444–6 meaning, see semantics; pragmatics Conversation Analysis (CA), 437–46, 530 adjacency pairs, 439–40, dispreferred, preferred, 440 formulation, 442 structures, 437–46 mundane, 437 pre-sequences, 441 repair, 441 story-telling, 443 talk-in-interaction, 437 transcription, 446 turns, 115, 154, 375, 438–41, 607 turn-taking, 438–41, 530, 611 conversationalization, 455 conversion, see word formation cooperative principle, 155–9, 460 implicature, conversational, 156–9 conventional, 163n. see also maxims coordination, 111–2 copula, see verb corpora, 374, 606–8 analysis, 605–6 annotation, 603–5 British National Corpus (BNC), 376–7, 406–7, 501–6 CHILDES, 556–9

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Copyrighted material – 9781137571823 Index • 677 CLAN, 557 for EModE, 195–7 corpus linguistics, 277, 530–1, 556, 595–609; tools, desktop and web-based, 596–8 see also collocation; keywords cranberry words, see words creole(s), 319–33, 337–8, 345–8, 550 attitudes towards, 330 continuum, 346–7 Jamaica, case study, 330–2, 346–7 layers of lexical development, 326–7 London Jamaican, 347–8 origins, 324–9, 550 substrate, superstrate, 327–9 see also Sranan, Tok Pisin creolization, 322–3, 337–8 see also hybridization critical discourse analysis, 451–6, 510–1, 527, 533– 6 see also politics cyberspace, 423–33 Danelaw, 228–9, 258, 276 data, 115–6, 160, 197, 231, 235 analysis, 530, 556, 622–24 coding, 622–3 collection, 615–21 triangulation, 621–2 see also methodology; transcription dative, 253 DCT, see Discourse Completion Tasks declension, 255 deixis, 147–9, 407–8 deictic centre or anchor, 132 distal, proximal, 407–8 expressions, 148–9 demonstrative(s) 48, 93, 136, 148, 150, 293 denotata, see semantics dental(s), see articulation derivation, see word formation descriptive linguistics, 171, 470 determiners, 46–8, 65, 70, 76–8, 92–4, 97, 106, 233, 253, 374 possessive, 94 pronouns, 76, 93–4 wh-, 93 see also articles diachronic variation, 4, 6, 195, 247–9, 493, 622 see also English (history of) dialect(s) and class, 173–5, 291–304 contemporary, 277–82 dialectology, 177–8, 272 perceptual, 356 ethnolects, 311–3 features, 281 levelling, 184, 289–90, 354 ‘double negative’ (multiple negation), 168, 182, 279–81, 293 regional variation, 167–8, 177–9, 271–90, 300

social, 294 see also accents; basilects; h-dropping; intrusive-r; isogloss; <r> (pronunciation of); regional; rhotics; rhotacization; social variation; sociolects dictionary/ies, 45, 141, 180, 191, 193–4, 218. 231, 470–1 and corpora, 599–600, 607 gender, 470–1 rhyming, 201 urban, 281 diminutives, 61, 470; see word formation diphthongization, 211–2 diphthongs, 25, 212, 222 shift, 221 discourse analysis, 395, 438, 475–7, 512–3, 527, 591 IRF (or IRE) structures, 571–3 political, 510–4 see also critical discourse analysis Discourse Completion Tasks (DCTs), 617 discourse/discursive markers, 65, 78, 341, 353 and power, 450–1, 518 strategies, 517, 524 see also nomination; perspectivization; predication topics, 518 type(s), 372–5 analysis, 373–4 discourse on language, 351–2 discourses, gendered, 476 distal, 408, see also deixis distribution, of allophones, complementary and contrastive, 32–3 distributional analysis, 555 diversity, 351–61 drills, 580, 583–4, 591 Early Modern English, see English, history of educational settings, 561–2, 565, 569, 571–8 EFL, see English as foreign language eliciting knowledge, 563–9 elision, sounds for letters, 233 ellipsis, see text linguistics embedding, of clauses, 87–8 of phrases, 83–6 see also subordination enactment, 410–1 endocentric, exocentric compounds, 53 English definition of, 170–2 views of, folk and academic 4–5, 356 Englishes African-American Vernacular, 170, 173, 224, 310–2, 350, 486 American English, 22, 168, 170, 246, 276, 280–2, 284, 287, 496 General American, 283 Cajun, 315

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Copyrighted material – 9781137571823 678 • Index Englishes – continued Australian, 61, 223, 288, 292, 300, 335, 340–2, 496 creoles, 319–33, 335–8, 345–50 expanding circle, 335–6, 348–9 as foreign/second language, 3, 335–6, 338, 345, 348, 470 Ghanaian, 343–4 Indian, 27, 343 inner circle, 335–6, 339–44, 349 as lingua franca (ELF), 3, 322, 328, 334, 337, 343, 348–9 as native language (ENL), 335 Native American, 310, 471 New Zealand, 223, 271, 281, 288, 300, 335, 340–2 outer circle, 335–6, 342–5 World, 334–50 see also American; British dialects; Standard English English, history of Early Modern, 176, 192–5, 195–7, 215–9, 230–3 Late Modern, 176–7 Middle English, 176, 192, 213–5, 229–30 Old English, 176–7, 190, 200–13, 225–30, 233–7, 250–2, 256, 280 Present Day, 176, 220–4, 252–4, 256–60, 262–4 see also borrowing; Chancery English; change; Great Vowel Shift; spelling; standardization; standard English; word-formation English Literature, language of, 5 see also stylistics ENL, see English as native language enregisterment, 353 eponyms/-y see word formation essentialism, 306–7 ethnicity, 305–18 ethnography, 427, 438, 530, 616 ethnolect, 311–3 ethnolinguistic differences/variation, 308–9, 313, 317 euphemization, 521 evaluation, 576–7 exclamations, 104, 106, 162 exponence, cumulative, simple, 51 eye-rhymes, 201 face, 461–2 negative, positive, 461 saving, 461–3 threatening acts (FTAs), 461–2 Facebook, 426–30 facework, 461 aggressive, 466–8 feminism, 469–70, 472, 479–80 finite clauses and phrases, 94–6, 112–3 verb forms, 60, 95–6, 253 fonts, 371–2

foot, trochaic, 50 force, see speech acts, illocutionary foregrounding, see stylistics foreigner talk, 325–6 formality, 5, 301, 365–7, 372–3, 383, 527 frame(s) conceptual, cognitive 131–3, 520–2 grammatical, 70–2 semantic, 125, see also semantics French influence (on English), see borrowing frequency, fundamental, 35 list, 598–9 of usage, 204 fricatives, 19, 21–2, 27, 31–6, 191, 274, 285, 542 in OE, 204, 207–10, 217 lateral, 27 see also glottal, obstruents futhorc, see alphabet, Runic Gaelic, 358–61 gay language, 482–5, 487 lexicon, 483–4 voice, 482, 484 gender and class, 220, 297 and discourse, 475–6 dominance and difference paradigms, 472–3 and language use, 471–5 and the English language, 255, 469–71 performativity, 486–8 speaker, 160, 502 stereotype, 471, 478 and swearing, 501–3 see also feminism; sexism; genre, parenting magazines generalization, see syllable division generative, see grammars genitive, 48, 52, 92, 94, 150, 253, 255–6, 259 genre(s) academic writing, 116–7 advertisements, 392–400; viral, 399–400 brands, 394, 533 in business communication, 527–8 classifying texts, 373 and context, 517–23 and discourse type, 373 and grammar, 116–7 newspapers/news reports, 378–91 parenting magazines, 476–9 poems, 401–12 politics, 518 and power, 449, 518 press briefing, 445 speeches, commemorative, 518–24 political, 518–24 spoken language, 114–6

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Copyrighted material – 9781137571823 Index • 679 text messages, 60, 167, 415, 423 see also stylistics geolinguistics, 272 gerund, 52, 60 glides, see approximants, sonorants globalization, 451, 493 glottal, 19 stop, 20, 284–5; see also fricatives glottis, see vocal tract Goffman, Ernst, 461–2 Gothic, 255 gradience and phonology, 40 grammar(s) books, gender issues in, 470 communicative approach, 584, 589 construction grammar, 143, 261, 555 descriptive, 171, 180–1, 470 equivalence, 121 generative, 121, 254 and genre, 116–7 innate, 549–52 prescriptive, 180–1 social class differences in, 293 spoken language, 114–6 standard, 174–5 translation, 262, 579–80, 583, 587, 591, 620 Universal Grammar (UG), 549–52 principles and parameters, 552 ‘wars’, 96–100 see dialect, multiple negation grammatical units, 69–70 grammaticalization, 234, 251, 263–6 and deixis, 149 theory, 251, 263–7 see also subjectification Graves, Robert, Flying Crooked, 404–11 Great Vowel Shift (GVS), 215–7, 224 aftermath, 220–1 drag or push chain, 216–7 phases of, 217–8 Grice, H.P., 155–9; see also maxims GVS, see Great Vowel Shift haplology, 52 Harris, Zellig S., 121 h-dropping, 223, 292–3, 354 head(s) 47–8, 56, 69–72, 74–6, 82–3, 87–94 headlines(e), 117, 379, 381–4 hegemony, 490 heteronormativity, 489 heterosexual matrix, 487 holonyms, 139 holophrase, 546 homonyms, 139 homophobia, 489–90 homophones, 33, 141 hybridization, 323; see also creolization; pidgin hyperonyms, 139; see also superordinate hypocorisms, see word formation; diminutives hyponyms, 122, 128, 139

iconicity, 133, 204, 403–4, 410–1 identity/-ies, 480, 575–7 acts of, 314–5, 347–8 sexual, 490–1 marketization of, 492–3 ideology analysis of, 515 see also language; standard ideology idiolect, 273 idioms, 344, 370, 461, 495, 500, 503–6 imperative(s), 155, 225, 260, 282, 457, 500, 554 clauses, 105 implicature, see cooperative principle impoliteness, 458–9, 463, 466–8 insult(s), 461, 495–501, 504 see also face, politeness indexicality, 353, 514 infinitive (verb form), see verbs infix, see morphology inflection(s), 47–50, 52, 54, 58, 67–8, 73, 178–9, 191, 193, 212, 234, 251, 253, 255–9, 261, 266, 278–9; simplification of, 256 intensification, 515, 524 interactionism, 552–4 interdental(s), see articulation, dentals interdiscursivity, 375–6 International Phonetics Association/Alphabet (IPA) 11, 14–5, 22, 25–8, 32, 37, 626 interpellation, 476 intertextuality, 376, see allusion intonation, see prosody isogloss, 272–5 iteration, see embedding; coordination junctions, 125–7; contrajunctive/contrastive, 125 Kachru, Braj, 335–7 keywords, 602–3 labials, 18–9, 21–2, 207, 543 labiodental(s), 18–9, 22, 27–8, 207, 287; see also articulation, labials Labov, William 220, 276, 295, 300–1, 304, 311–2, 463, 574, 611 Lancashire, see British dialects language acquisition, see acquisition analysis, critical approach to, 447, 451–5 attitudes, 356–8 autochthonous, 358 change, 354–5, 505 contact, 203–4, 319–20 ideologies, 354–6 prescriptivism, 355 learning, imperfect second language, 324–5 model, 338 theory, 549–52 restructured, 338 sexist, 469–70 spoken, grammar of, 114–6

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Copyrighted material – 9781137571823 680 • Index language – continued transmission; indirect, 338; interrupted, normal, 337 types, analytic/periphrastic, synthetic, 261–2 variation, see ethnolinguistic, regional, social languagehood, 172 langue, 469 larynx, see vocal tract lateral(s), 23, 28, 39–41 Latin influence on English, 214–5 learner talk, 581–9 lemma, 406–7 lesbian language, 485, see gay; sexuality lexeme, 45 lexical change, very recent, 235–6 choices, 392–3 distribution, 286 morphemes, 46 sets, 282–4 see also words; change lexicalization, 234 lexicon, English, composition of, 231 lexifier, 319–20, 324–5 lingua franca, see Englishes linguistic expressions, 238 habitus, 359 market(place), 358 relativity theory, see semantics universals, 326–7 variables, 272 linguistics, 5 of contact, 486 folk, 356, 471 lavender, 485 political, 512 lips, see articulation; vocal tract liquids, see approximants; sonorants literacy/-ies cyberspace, 423–33 digital, 423–5, 431–2 researching, 427 and education, 560–78 events, 414–6 everyday, 413–5 and materiality, 420 practices, 415–7 situated, 419–21 workplace, 418–9 loanwords, see borrowing l-vocalization, 223 Martha’s Vineyard, 220, 276–7 masculinity, hegemonic, 490–1 matched guise technique, 357 maxim(s) 155–9 flouts, 157–8 infringements, 159

non-observance, 159 suspension of, 159 violations, 157 see also cooperative principle meaning descriptive, 134–5 -making, see semiosis pragmatic, 156, 369 semantic, 239–40 speaker-, 156 style and choice, 401 medium, 11, 168, 170, 235, 365– 8, 372–3, 375–7, 430, 526–7 speech, 365–7, 369 primacy of, 368 writing, 366–7, 369–72, cross-linguistic variation in, 371–2 see also literacy/-ies mental models, 125 meronyms/-y, 122, 139 mesolect, 346–8 metaphor(s), 142, 241–2, 514 scenarios, 521–2 metapragmatic comment, 369 methodology experimental, 620–1 multidimensional, 374 questionnaires, 357, 463, 590, 615–9, 621–2, 624 research methods, 611, 614, 616, 623–4 interviews, 618–20 key components, 611–2 Likert scale, 618 piloting, 623 protocols, 620–1 questions, 613 qualitative, quantitative, 614–5 triangulation, 621–2 see also data; ethnography metonymic shifts, 243–4 metonymy, 142, 241–2 pars pro toto, 242 totum pro parte, 242 Middle English, see English, history of minimal pairs, 30–1, 34, 209, see phonemes mitigation, see politeness modal auxiliaries, see auxiliaries modality, 95, 138, 514, 524, 533–4, 608 deontic, 138 dynamic, 138 epistemic, 138 modifiers, 82, 88–9, 92–3 monophthongization, 212 monophthongs, 25–6, 206, 221, 287, 293, 317 mood imperative, 260 indicative, 260 subjunctive, 260 moral panic, 353 morpheme(s), 44–52, 56, 58–9, 62 bound, 45–6, 58

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Copyrighted material – 9781137571823 Index • 681 free, 45–6 functional, 46; see also function words grammatical, order of acquisition, 517 lexical, 46, see content words morph, 46 allomorphs, 46, 50–1 zero, 50–1 morphology, 42–63, 80–1, 392 affix, 46, 49–50, 54–6 apophony, see morphology, internal change base, 46 compositionality, 56–9, 143 derivational, 49, 52, 54–62, 65, 324 head, 47–8, 56 infix, 49–50 inflectional, 52, 67 internal change, 50–1 morphosyntax, 500 prefix, 46, 49, 55 right-hand head rule, 56, 58 root, 46, 49–50, 52, 58–62 shm-reduplication, 53–4 stem, 49, suffix, 46, 49, 52, 54–5, 67, 71 derivational, 52, 55, 67; inflectional, 52, 67; verbal, 259–60 see also exponence; hypocorisms; morph; morphemes; suppletion Morris, Charles, 146 mother tongue, 579–81 mouth, see vocal tract multidimensional analysis, 374 multilingualism, 568–9 multimodality, 476, 565 in advertising, 397 in literacy, 419 mutation, 209–10 narrative, in news report, 384–5 nasal(s) 13, 19, 22, 33, 36 cavities, 13 consonants, 21–3, 207–8, 210 sounds, see sonorants see also phonemes nativism, 549 nativization, see borrowing, loanwords necessary and sufficient conditions, 140 negation, 107, 150; see also dialect, ‘double negative’ negatives, acquisition of, 549 neologisms 44; see also word formation netnography, 427 newspapers, 354, 358, 360–1, 372–3, 378–91, 623 and homosexuality, 489–90 and corpora, 603, 605, 608, 616 see also headlinese nominalization(s), 121, 385–6 nomination, 515, 524 nominative, 253, 255–7

non-finite, see clauses; verbs non-verbal communication, 369, 513, 622 gesture, 397 norm(s), 336 prescriptive social, 458–9, 466 Northern English (NE), see British dialects noun(s), 70–1 abstract, 67, 71, 247, 544, 562 bias, 544 collective, 71, 102, 385 common, 61, 71, 79, 92, 253–4, 259 concrete, 66, 71 count, 71, 76, 344 head, 69–70 in OE, 256 non-count, 71 phrases, 47–8, 52, 69–72, 76, 88–92, 91–4, 96, 102, 110, 112–3, 123, 129–30, 136, 143, 250, 264, 280, 383, 385, 402, 405, 408, 476, 478 plural formation, 48, 71 proper, 71 typical, 80 see also nominalizations numbers/numerals, 65, 76–8, 92–3 cardinal, ordinal, 76–7 objective, 144, 171, 239. 245–6, 355, 382, 524, 563–4, 573 case, 255, 281 objects defining of, 89–90, 103–4 direct, 104, 129–31, 137, 143, 253, 255, 264 indirect, 104, 131, 253, 255 observer’s viewpoint, 171–2 obstruction, see stricture obstruents, 32, 204, 210; see also affricates Old English, see English, history of onomatopoeia, 403, 410–1, 204 onset(s), see syllable opposites, complementary, converse, directional, 139 orthoepists, 202 othering, 514–5 overlexicalization, 470 palatal, 19, 22 palatalization, 209 palate, hard, soft, 13, 19 palato-alveolar, see palatal paradigm(atic), see semantics, sense relations parallelism, see stylistics, foregrounding parole, 469 pars pro toto, 242, see metonymy participles past, 45, 48, 50–2, 95, 112 present, 45, 95, 112 see also verbs passive, see phrases; verbs; voice; clauses passivization, 521

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Copyrighted material – 9781137571823 682 • Index PDE, see Present-day English Peirce, Charles Sanders, 146 performative utterances, verbs, 152–5 see also speech acts performativity, 486–8 persistence, principle of, 251 perspectivation, 515, 524 persuasion, 514 pharynx, see vocal tract phonemes, 29–34 split, 33, 204, 208–9, 218–9 test for, 30–1 vowel, 30 Old English, 205–6 Middle English, 213 see also allophones phones, 30–34, see segments phonetic(s), 11–28 alphabet, see International Phonetic articulatory, 11 symbols, 11, 14–5, 25, 27–8 see also International Phonetics transcription, 33 see also articulation; attrition; consonants; diphthongs; transcription; voiced/ voiceless sounds; vowels phonology, 29–41 change (phonological), 200–24; in Old English, 204–13 conditioning, 209 segmental, 30–4, 208–13 smoothing, 212; see also monophthongization stress rules, see stress suprasegmental, 34–8 trisyllabic shortening, 211 see also assimilation; attrition; elision; glottalization; intonation; palatalization; phonemes; phonotactics; sonority; stress; velarization phonotactic(s), 20 constraints, 209 distribution, 287 phrase(s), grammatical, 68–70 adjective, 82–3 classes, 82 embedded, 83–6 noun, see noun, phrase prepositional, 77, 83–6, 91–2, 121, 129–30, 408, 439 verb (VP), 82–3, 94–100; passive, 116–7 pidgin(s), 319–33 -ization, 337 layers of lexical development, 326–7 origins, 322 substrate, superstrate, 327–9 pitch, 35, 37 making noise, 12 see also prosody plosives, 19–22, 27, 542 see also obstruents

polari, 484 politeness appropriateness, 459 conversational-maxim view, 460 mitigation, 515 negative, 464–5 output strategies, 462, 464 positive, 464–5 pragmatic views, 459–65 social-discursive approach, 466 social-norm view, 458–9 see also face; impoliteness politics definitions, 511 language and, 453, 455, 508–15, 518, 524–5 speeches, 512, 516–24 see also critical discourse analysis (CDA) polysemy, 142 polysyndetic linking, 408, 410 post-alveolar, see alveolar post-structuralism, 480 power, 448–52 communicative, 449 hard, soft, 451–2 hegemonic, 449, 490–1 relations, 173 pragmatic(s), 146–163, 393 Anglo-American view, 146–7 Continental European view, 147 cross-cultural, 159–63 intercultural, 159–63 interface, semantic-pragmatic, 148–51 interlanguage, 160–1 meaning, 156, 369 pragmatism, 146 strategies, 459–67 see also cooperative principle; deixis; politeness; presupposition; relevance; theory; speech acts predicate, 97, 100, 403, 517 predication, 515, 524 predicative complement, 101–2 prefix(es), see morphology prepositional phrases, see phrases prepositions, 46, 77–83, 148, 180–1, 234, 251, 261, 266, 324, 408 prescriptive linguistics, 165–8, 171, 180–1, 194, 470 see also standard ideology present-day English, see English, history of presupposition(s), 149–151 articles, 124 assumed common ground, 151 existential, 150 factive, 150 projection problem, 151 triggers, 150–1 preterite, 264 persistence, principle of, see change (language) progressive form of verb, 45 pronoun(s), 93–4 demonstrative, 93–4 exophoric, 123

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Copyrighted material – 9781137571823 Index • 683 in OE, 256 personal, 93–4 136, 148, 227, 247, 254, 258, 280, 532 possessive, 93–4 quantifier, 93–4 third-person, 48, 50, 123, 178–9, 247, 255, 264, 278, 469, 523, 547 wh-, 93–4, 106 pronunciation social class differences in, 292–3 see also Received Pronunciation propaganda, 452–3, 512, 518 proposition(s), 125, 153, 517 propositional meaning, see semantics prosody, 34–41, 369 intonation, 34–5, 38, 104, 367, 369, 486, 554, 580, 607 tone; 35–8, languages, register and contour, 37 rising, 38, 154, 549 see also phonology; stress; suprasegmental proto-language, 255 prototype(s), 78–80, 240 theory, 78–80, 141–2 psycholinguistics, 620 punctuation, 368–370 creative, 370 puns, 201–2 Pygmalion, 178, 291 qualitative and quantitative analysis 531, 614–5 quantifiers, 93, 257, 564, 623 as determiners or pronouns, 93 Queen’s English, see Received Pronunciation queer theory, 488 question(s) acquisition of, 549 wh-, 106 yes-no, 107 quotations, embedded, 390 <r>, pronunciation of, 4, 22 Received Pronunciation (RP), 173–5, 182–4, 283, 291 see also Southern Standard British English recontextualization, 420 reduction, 319–20, 323–4; see also creole, pidgin reference, 123, 135–6, definite, 135–6, 405–6 designating expressions, 137 generic, 136 indefinite, 136, 405–6 individuative, 136 referent, 135 referring expressions, 135 regional variation, varieties, 167–8, 177–8, 271–90 register, see discourse type, genre(s) relative clauses, see clauses relevance theory, 156 reported speech, see speech presentation research methods, 610–25; see also methodology rhetoric, 367, 383, 409, 508–25

rhotacization, rhotic, in EME, 217–8, 287; see also dialects rhyme(s), 201 dictionaries, 201, 470–1 Rosch, Eleanor, 79–80, 141, 239–40 RP, see Received Pronunciation scaffolding, 553–4 scenarios, see mental model script, see mental model Searle, J. R., 153–5 segments, 33; see also phones self- and other-presentation, 514–7 semantic(s), 134–145 componential analysis, 140–1 compositional approach, 143 definitions, 134–41 denotata, 140 family resemblances, 141 frames, 122 linguistic relativity theory, 143–5 meaning descriptive, 134–5 referential, objectivism, 239–40 prototype-theoretical, 141–2, 240 sense relations, 128, 137–9 paradigmatic, 137 syntagmatic, 137 superordinate, 139 simplicity/transparency, 324; see also creole, pidgin truth conditions, 152, 239 value, 151 vagueness, 141 see also antonyms; semantic change; collocation; homonyms; hyperonyms; hyponyms; idioms; meronyms; propositional meaning; propositions; polysemy; puns; semantic-pragmatic interface; synonyms semantic change bleaching, 252 broadening, generalization, widening, 241 diachronic, 247–8 innovation, 248 melioration, 240–2 narrowing, specialization, 241 nonce-formations, 248 pejoration, 240 propagation, 248 synchronic, 248; see also grammaticalization; metaphor; metonymy; subjectification semiosis, multimodal, 419 semiotic modes, 424 sense relations, see semantics sentence(s), 108–17, 368 adverbs, 74–5, 91 types, complex, compound, simple, 113–4 and speech acts, 155

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Copyrighted material – 9781137571823 684 • Index sentence(s) – continued see also clauses; exclamations; questions; syntax serif (sans), see typeface sexism, 469–70, 479–80; see also gender; language use sexuality, 482–94 silent ‘h’, see fricatives simplification, 319–20, 323–4; see also creole, pidgin slang, 44, 61, 167, 330, 483–4 smoothing, see monophthongization social actors, 533–6 social psychology, 313–5 social variation class, see class, social network, 203, 222, 312–5, 420 sociolects, 294 social networking, 426–9, 467 sociohistorical approach, 337 sociolinguistic approach, 173 interactional, 463 variationism, 304, 472 sonorants, 208–9 sonority, 36 sound(s), see articulation, phones, phonemics, phonetics, voicing laws, 209 speech (as spoken language), see Chapter 2; see also language, spoken features of; medium speech (as genre), see genre(s) speech act(s) 151–5 assertion, 152 constitutive rules, 153 felicity conditions, 152–5 force, 154, 369, 387, 464, 517, 521 gratitude, expressions of, 162–3, 456 IFIDs, 154–5 illocutionary, 153–5 locutionary, 153 perlocutionary, 153 refusal, 533 see also performative verbs speech presentation categories, 387 direct/indirect speech, 110–28, 370, 387–90, 443, 530 in news reports, 386–91 reported speech, 110, 360 see also quotations (embedded) spelling(s), 14 apparent chaos in, 186, 197–9 bad, 186 before standardization, 191correspondence, letter-sound, 187–8, 198 diachronic perspective on, 195 etymological sets, 199 French influence on, 192 history of, 186–99 inverse, 201

letter distribution, 198 lexical sets, 199 naïve, 201 parts of speech, 198 reformers, 194, 202 Simplified Spelling Society, 186–7 sound-letter correspondences, 187–8, 198 standardization, 193–4 variability across time, 193–5 see also alphabet, corpora, history of English Sranan, 320, 324, 329 SSBE, see British dialects, Standard Southern British English Standard English, 3, 47–8, 167–184, 194 and class, 170, 173–5, 280, 300 and Jamaican Creole, 327, 329–30, 332, 345–8 defining, 181–2 spoken, 182–4 views of, 170–1, 356–7 and World Englishes, 335–9, 342–3, 345–50 standard ideology, 172–84 standardization, 168–170, 193–4 see also Standard English; standard ideology statistics, 623 stops, 19, 36, 207, 315 see also plosives story, see conversation analysis, text linguistics strategies, communicative, in ELF contexts, 349 see also pragmatics stratification, see social variation stress compound stress rule, 213, 224 fixed, 37–8 ME: competing French and Latin stress rules, 214–5 OE: 212–3 placement, 37–8, 53 primary, secondary, 37–8, 45, 58, 212–3 trisyllabic shortening, 211 variable, 37–8 stricture, 19–21 structuralist approach, 121 student talk and gender, 475 style, 375, 401 stylistic(s), 401–12 appropriateness, 401–4 choices, 392–3, 401–12 deviation, foregrounding, 402, 407–8 see also English Literature; iconicity subject positioning, 476 subjectification, 245–7 subjective, 239, 245–7, 356, 563–4, 573, 606 case, 255 subjects, definition of, 89–90, 102–3 subjunctive, see mood sublanguage, 375 subordinate clauses, see clauses subordinating conjunctions, see conjunctions subordination, 84, 87, 108, 110, 113, 449

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Copyrighted material – 9781137571823 Index • 685 substitution, see text linguistics substrate, see creoles; pidgins suffixes, see morphology superordinate, see text linguistics superstrate, see creoles; pidgins superstructure, see text linguistics suppletion, 51 SVO language, see syntax swearing, 501–6 age, 503–4 gender, 501–3 social class, 504–6 see also bad language; taboo syllables, 34–6 coda, 34–5 heavy, light, 214–5 nucleus, 34–6, onset, 34–6, 39–40, 44, 53–4, 203, 209, 219, 285 rhyme, 34–5 tree, 34–5 weight, 214–5 synchronic variation, 4, 6, 247–9 syncretism, see text linguistics synonyms/-y, 122, 128, 138, 230, 407 syntactic(s), 146 choices, 393 development, 548 syntagm(atic), see semantics, sense relations syntax, 80–1, 146 constituent order, OV in OE, 250–1, 252–9 SVO, 101–2, 151–5, 159, 317–8 inversion, 105–7, 549 modifiers, 71–2, 74, 82, 84, 88–9, 92–4, 407 tree diagram, 84–9, 94, 97, 99, 108 see also agents; complements; conjunctions; objective; patient; predicate; predication; predicative complement; questions; subjects (definition of); subjective; subordination synthetic personalization, 455 taboo, 496–500 tap, see articulation; rhotics teacher talk and gender, 473–4 teaching, 571–8 speaking in a second language, 579–85 teeth, see dentals, vocal tract tense, past 45 TESOL, 579–92 language research, 591–2 linguistics, 579–92 see also audio-lingualism tests for adjectives, 72 for nouns, 70–1 passive, for objects, 103–4 for phonemes, 30–1 for presupposition, constancy under negation, 150

substitution, 52 for verbs, 74 text linguistics, 119–133 classifying texts, 372–3 defining text, 119 ellipsis, 121–2 grammar of, 121 hyponyms, 122, 128, 139 reiteration, 128 repetition, 122–3 story vs plot, 132 substitution, 121–2 superordinate, 139 superstructure, 131–2 syncretism, 51–2 types, 373 worlds, 126–7 see also cohesion and coherence textual mediation, 566–7 theory of mind, 555–6 thorn, see alphabet, Runic thought presentation in news report, 390 Tok Pisin, 320, 324–5, 327–9, 345 tone, see prosody tongue, 13–14, 18–19, 23–5, 39 apex, tip; blade; dorsum, root see also articulation; vocal tract totum pro parte, see metonymy transcription, 20, 25, 27–8, 31, 37, 622 phonemic/phonetic, broad and narrow, 33 writing down speech, 13–4, 115, 438, 446 Traugott, Elizabeth, 245, 249 tree diagram, see syntax trill, see articulation, rhotics Trudgill, Peter, 181–4, 223, 273, 280, 295, 300–1, 342, 472, 619 turn(s), see Conversation Analysis Twitter, 429–31 typefaces, 370–1 uber, 235–6 unidirectionality, 246, 251 utterances, first, 546 two-word, 547 performative, 152–5 uvula/r, 12, 19 vagueness, see semantics VARD, 195–7 variables, linguistic, 272 variation, see diachronic; ethnolinguistic; medium, writing; regional; social variationism see sociolinguistics velar, 19 velarization, 39 velum, 12–3, 17 verb(s) action, 67, 562 copula, 72, 324, 332, 547 -en and -ing forms, 112–3

Copyrighted material – 9781137571823

Copyrighted material – 9781137571823 686 • Index verb(s) – continued finite, 94–6, 112–3, 250, 253, 370 forms, 73, 94–6 infinitive, 95–6, 112–3 inflections, 73, 259–60 irregular, 73, 77, 259 main, 73, 94–6 modal, 77–8, 95–6, 138, 263–4 non-finite, 95–6, 112–3 perfect form, 95–7 phrases, 69–70, 73, 77, 94–100, 103–4 plain form, 73, 95–6 primary, 77, 95 progressive form, 45, 95–6 regular, 73, 259–60 state, stative, 67, 344, 562 strong, 210, 259 tense, 73 typical, 80 weak, 259–60, 266 see also active; auxiliaries; gerund; participles; passive; preterite; speech acts (performative); voice vernacular(s), 172, 273, 294, 316, 347, 420, 472, 504, 567 multi-cultural, 316–8, 354 vocabulary item, see lexeme vocal cords, folds, 13, 16, 35 gestures, 39–40, 543 tract, human, 12–14 see also alveolar voice(s) active, 95–6, 103–4 passive, 95–6, 103–4, 116–7, 385–6 voice quality, breathy, creaky, 16 voicing, 16–7, 27, 33, 48, 208, 353 voiced/voiceless sounds, 15–21, 27, 33, 51, 204, 208 vowel(s), 23–6, 28 ablaut, 210 breaking, see diphthongization gradation, 210 lengthening, 210–1 long, 25, 28, 193, 206, 210–1, 213–7 mergers, 212 Middle English, 213–4 Old English, 205–6 Present Day English, 220–2 schwa, 212 short, 25, 202, 206, 210, 213–5, 352 shortening, 211 space, 23–4 trapezium, 24 types of, 24–5 umlaut, I-umlaut, 209–10 unrounding, 212 see also diphthongs; Great Vowel Shift; monophthongs Vygotsky, Lev, 553, 561

waffle phenomenon, 160 Weber, Max, 294 Wessex Gospels, 225 whisper, 16 word(s), 44 classes, 64–81 closed, open, 46–7 defining, 67 wh-words, 106 complex, 45, 49, 55 compound, 55–8 content, 46, 64–5, 71–5, 78 cranberry, 58–9 defining, 42–4, 62, 67–75, 368 form, 45, 67–8, 70–5 function, 46, 65, 67–75, 75–8, 80 grammatical, 45 learning, 544–5 linking, 77, 374 list, 598–9 meaning, 67–75 monosyllabic, 25, 34, 53, 61, 243, 383 NAVA, 64–9; orthographic, 45, 392 phonological, 45 simple, 45, 58 wh-words, 106 see also stress; word formation word formation abbreviations, 62 acronyms, 62, 234 affix(ation), 46, 49–50, 54–5 backformation, 59–60, 234 blending, 61, 235 clipping, 61, 234 coinage, 59, 62, 469 compounding, 55–9, 233 conversion, 49, 54–5, 234 derivation, 47, 49, 52, 54–5, 234 diminutives, 61–2 eponyms, 59 inflection, 47–8, 52 initialisms, 234 neologisms, 44 parts of, see morphology processes, 59–62, 226, 233–5 reduplication, 53–4 sources of, 59–62 see also change (lexical) World Wide Web, 431–2 writing, features of, see medium wynn, see alphabet, Runic Yorkshire, see British dialects zero-derivation, 49, 234 zero article, 136 morph, 50–1 option clauses, 110 Zone of Proximal Development, 553