Nutrition

Journal of Oil Palm Research (Special Issue - April 2006), EVALUATION p. 81-86 OF STORAGE STABILITY OF YELLOW CAKE MADE WITH RED PALM FAT

EVALUATION OF STORAGE STABILITY OF YELLOW CAKE MADE WITH RED PALM FAT SEIZA AHMED ALYAS*; AMINAH ABDULAH*; NOR AINI IDRIS** and AB GAPOR MD TOP** ABSTRACT Yellow cakes were prepared using red palm shortening, red palm margarine and a commercial margarine at ratio of 26:15:59 respectively. The cakes were stored at freezer (-18ºC±3) or refrigerator (7ºC ±3), for three months and three weeks, respectively. Cakes were analysed at day 0 and after one, two, three weeks and months for their storage and oxidative stabilities. Analyses include peroxide value (PV), free fatty acid (FFA), para anisidine value (AV), conjugated diene and vitamin E content. Results showed that cakes stored in the refrigerator, formulated and control, had high initial PV value of 4.65 and 4.04 respectively. The PV of formulated cake increased slightly until week three while for the control cake PV increased until week 2 and started decreasing. The FFA, AV and conjugated diene were higher in the formulated sample. In frozen storage, the control cake had higher PV and conjugated diene value until the first month of storage and started to decrease thereafter. The FFA and AV increased with the increase of storage period. For the formulated cake, all values measured, except for FFA, increased until month three. Vitamin E content was higher in the formulated cake than the control cake for both type of storage, and it started to decrease with increasing storage period.

Keywords: cake, red palm fat, vitamin E, storage stability.

Date received: 8 December 2005; Sent for revision: 5 January 2006; Received in final form: 10 February 2006; Accepted: 13 February 2006.

because of the worldwide trend to avoid or minimize synthetic food additives (Krings and Berger, 2001).

Oxidative stability of natural antioxidant in baked goods has seldom been investigated. Turmeric, betel leaves and clove effectively retarded rancidity in butter cake and extended its shelf life (Lean and Mohamed, 1999). Ranhotra et al. (1995) reported that antioxidant increased beta-carotene stability during baking of whole wheat bread and crackers. In soda crackers biscuit, extracts of marjoram, spearmint and peppermint showed a good antioxidant effect (Bassiouny et al., 1990). This study was carried out to evaluate the use of red palm fat, rich in carotenes and vitamin E, as a source of natural antioxidant on the oxidative stability of yellow cake.

INTRODUCTION Fats contribute to the appearance, taste, mouth feel, lubricity and flavour of most food products (Mauhngu et al., 1999) and the amount and type of fat determine the characteristic and the consumer acceptance of that food. During food processing and storage, numerous changes take place due to the food exposure to wide range of processing conditions.

One of the most important changes that occur to food is lipid oxidation. Lipid oxidation lowers the quality and nutritional value of the food (Suja et al., 2004).

Addition of antioxidant is effective in delaying the oxidation and extending the shelf life of food (Jadhav et al., 1996; Decker, 1998). Recently, special attention has been given to the use of natural antioxidant

EXPERIMENTAL

* School of Chemical Studies and Food Technology, Faculty of Science and Technology, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia 43600 Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia.

E-mail: krondais@hotmail.com ** Malaysian Palm Oil Board, P. O. Box 10620, 50720 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.

Cake Preparation and Storage Yellow cake was made using blend of Carotino shortening, Carotino margarine (red palm fat) and commercial margarine (Planta) at ratio of 26:15:59, respectively. The control cake was prepared using 81

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100% commercial margarine. The cakes were prepared by creaming the fat blends (100 g) and sugar (200 g) until light and fluffy. Two eggs were beaten and slowly added, the mixing bowl was scraped. The dry ingredients were sifted together (200 g flour, 7.5 g baking powder, 5 g vanilla and 2 g salt) and added alternatively with the milk (150 ml) into the mixture. The batters were baked for 50 min at 175°C. The cakes were cooled, packed in polypropylene film and stored in either refrigerator (7±3°C) or freezer (-18±3°C) and were analysed at weekly or monthly intervals for three weeks or three months, respectively.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION PV is the most widely used indicator of the fat oxidation, it measures lipid peroxide and hydroperoxides formed during the initial stages of oxidation and values are reported as milli-equivalent of peroxide per kg of fat (Hamilton and Kristein, 2003). Changes occurred in PV, FFA, AV and conjugated diene of cakes during refrigerator storage are given in Figure 1. Initially the formulated and control cake had high PV value. The PV of the formulated cake increased gradually from 4.65 meq kg -1 in week 0 to 5.95 meq kg -1 in week three.

Meanwhile the control cake had high PV in week 0 and two, and start decreasing to 2.74 meq kg-1 by week three. This could be attributed to the breakdown of hydroperoxides to volatile and nonvolatile compounds. As explained by Aidos et al.

(2001) the PV increase with time to a maximum level after which it decomposes rapidly to secondary products leading to a subsequent decrease in the PV. The result indicated that the decomposition of peroxides in the control cake occur at higher rate than the formulated cake.

An increase in FFA value was observed in both cake samples. However, by week three the control sample had considerably higher FFA content than the formulated cake. Similar trend was noticed for the AV of the control cake that had higher AV throughout the storage period, except for week 0.

This might be due to the formation of secondary oxidative products resulting from the breakdown of hydroperoxide (Lean and Mohamed, 1999). The conjugated diene increased with the progress of storage time until it reached it maximum at week three. However, the value decreased slightly for the control cake.

The vitamin E content of the fat extracted from the stored cakes is shown in Figure 2. The total tocopherol and tocotrienol contents were significantly higher in the formulated cake than the control cake and that was due to the higher amount of vitamin E in the red palm fat (Benade, 2001) compared to the commercial fat. The total vitamin E content of the formulated cake in the third week was higher than its amount in the control cake including the content at week zero. No significant differences were observed for tocopherol content during the second and third week of storage. In control cake, a significant reduction of tocopherols was observed only during the third week of refrigerated storage.

Whereas, the tocotrienol content drops significantly in both cakes with progress of storage period.

Oil Extraction The oil was extracted from the cakes as described in Bassiouny et al. (1990).

Peroxide Value (PV) The PV was determined according to the AOCS method Cd 8b-90 (1989).

Free Fatty Acids (FFA) FFA content was measured according to MPOB test method (2005).

Anisidine Value (AV) The AV of the fat samples was measured as described in MPOB test method (2005).

Conjugated Diene The fat solution from the AV was used to measure the conjugated diene according to MPOB test method (2005).

Vitamin E Content The vitamin E content of the samples was measured according to the AOCS method C-8-89 (1989), by high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) using a Hewlett Packard HP 1100 system with fluorescence detector (excitation 259 nm, emission 325 nm) with a YMC 150 x 6.0 mm column.

Statistical Analysis Statistical analysis was carried out using SAS program. Mean values for the tested parameters were analysed using analysis of variance procedure followed by Duncan’s multiple range test to determine significant differences.

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Figure 1. Peroxide value, free fatty acids, anisidine value and conjugated diene of the refrigerated yellow cake.

FC- formulated cake, CC- control cake.

Figure 2. Vitamin E content of the refrigerated yellow cake. FC- formulated cake, CC- control cake.

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storage period. The initial AV of control cake was high and increased gradually to 28.85 in month three.

In contrast, the AV of formulated cake was significantly (p<0.05) low in week 0 and it increased rapidly during the first and second month, which indicates the rapid rate of secondary products formation. However the value declined at month three, which could be attributed to the formation of dimmers (Lean and Mohamed, 1999).

The conjugated diene of formulated frozen cake had similar behaviour with PV. However, in the third month the conjugated diene was slightly lower than the value in month two. As with the PV, the conjugated diene will reach a maximum during the progress of oxidation and decreases when the rate of decomposition of hydroperoxides exceeded the rate of their formation (Frankel, 2005). On the other hand, the conjugated diene of the control cake was fluctuating; the value was higher during the initial and first month and declined during the last two months of storage, which could be attributed to the decomposition of the primary oxidation products.

The storage stability of frozen cake (Figure 3), was similar to those stored in the refrigerator. PV of the formulated cake increased slightly up to three months of storage. However, for the control cake, the PV started to decrease at second month and thereafter. The hydroperoxides that quickly formed during the first month of storage were rapidly degraded to secondary products. This result indicated that the oxidation rate of control cake was higher than the formulated cake. The decline in PV with storage was noticed in butter cakes containing black pepper leaf extract (Lean and Mohamed, 1999).

Chapman et al. (1996) reported a reduction in both PV and total oxidation, totox value, for cookies and crackers prepared using menhaden oil base shortening. The PV of all cakes were below the critical values given by Robards et al. (1988), who reported that edible oils with PV of 7.5 meq kg-1 were deemed unacceptable from sensory point of view.

The FFA of both cakes increased gradually until month three, except for the FFA of formulated cake that showed a slight decrease by the end of the

Figure 3. Peroxide value, free fatty acids, anisidine value and conjugated diene of frozen yellow cakes. FC- formulated cake, CC- control cake.

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menhaden oil shortening blends in cookies, crakers and snacks. J. Amer. Oil Chem. Soc. Vol. 73 No. 2: 167172.

The pattern of tocopherol and tocotrienol found in frozen yellow cake were similar to those found in the refrigerated cakes. In all fat extracted form the cakes stored in the freezer, the tocopherols and tocotrienols were higher in the formulated cake, and the tocotrienols was higher than their corresponding tocopherols in both cakes (Figure 4). The vitamin E content of formulated and control cakes decreased with frozen storage. Losses of vitamin E in control cake stored in refrigerator or freezer were 14% or 21%, while in the formulated cake the losses were 25.8% and 19%, respectively. For both type of storage, the amount of tocotrienols was higher than their corresponding tocopherol isomers.

DECKER, A F (1998). Antioxidant mechanisms. Food Lipids: Chemistry, Nutrition and Biotechnology (Akoh, C C and Min, D B eds.). Marcel Dekker Inc., New York. p. 397-472.

FRANKEL, E N (2005). Methods to determine extent of lipid oxidation. Lipid Oxidation. Second edition.

The Oily Press, Bridgewater, England. p. 99-127.

Figure 4. Vitamin E content of frozen yellow cakes. FC- formulated cake, CC- control cake.

HAMILTON, C R and KIRSTEIN, D (2003). Does rancidity, as measured by peroxide value effect animal performance. www.darlingii.com/pdffile/ pveffectanimalspro.pdf (22/6/20059: 48 am).

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT The authors are thankful to Carotino Company for providing Carotino shortening and margarine. We also would like to thank Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia and Malaysian Palm Oil Board for permission to publish this paper.

JADHAV, S J; NIMBALKAR, S S; KULKARNI, A D and MADHAVI, D L (1996). Lipid oxidation in biological and food system. Food Antioxidant Technological, Toxicological and Health Perspectives (Madhavi, D L; Deshpande, S S and Salunkhe, D K eds.). Marcel Dekker, New York. p. 5-63.

REFERENCES AOCS. (1990). Official and Tentative Methods of the American Oil Chemistsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; Society. Fourth edition.

American Oil Chemist Society, Champaign.

KRINGS, U and BERGER, R G (2001). Antioxidant activity of some roasted foods. Food Chemistry Vol. 72: 223-229.

BASSIOUNY, S S; HASSANIEN, F R; ABD-ELRAZIK, A F and EL- KAYATI, M (1990). Efficiency of antioxidants from natural sources in bakery products. Food Chemistry Vol. 37 No. 4: 297-305.

LEAN, L P and MOHAMED, S (1999). Antioxidative and antimycotic effects of turmeric, lemon-grass, betel leaves, clove, black pepper leaves and Garcinia atriviridis on butter cake. J. Science of Food and Agriculture Vol. 79: 1817-1822.

BENADE, A J S (2001). The potential of red palm oil-based shortening as a food fortification for vitamin A in the baking industry. Food and Nutrition Bulletin Vol. 22 No. 4: 416-418.

MAHUNGU, S M; ARTZ, W E and PERKINS, E G (1999). Oxidation products and metabolic process.

Frying of Foods: Oxidation, Nutrition and Non-Nutrient Antioxidant, Biologically Active Compounds and High Temperatures (Boskou, D and Elmadfa, I eds.).

Technomic Publishing Co. Inc, Pennsylvania. p. 25-45.

CHAPMAN, K W; SAGI, I; REGENSTEIN, J M; BOMBO, T; CROWTHER, J B and STAUFFER, C E (1996). Oxidation stability of hydrogenated 85

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MPOB (2005). MPOB Test Method. MPOB, Bangi. 395 pp.

ROBARDS, K; KERR, A F and PATSALIDES, E (1988). Rancidity and its measurement in edible oils and snack foods. Analyst Vol. 113: 213-222.

RANHOTRA, G S; GELROTH, J A; LANGEMEIER, J and ROGER, D E (1995). Stability and contribution of beta carotene added to whole wheat bread and crackers. Cereal Chemistry Vol. 72: 139-141.

SUJA, K P; ABRAHAM, J T; THAMIZAH, S N; JAYALEKSHMY, A and ARUMUGHAN, C (2004).

Antioxidant efficacy of sesame cake extract in vegetable oil production. Food Chemistry Vol. 84: 393400.

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PALM VITAMIN E FOR AQUACULTURE FEEDS

PALM VITAMIN E FOR AQUACULTURE FEEDS WING-KEONG NG*; YAN WANG* and KAH-HAY YUEN** ABSTRACT In this overview, our current research on the use of palm oil-based vitamin E in aquaculture feeds will be highlighted. While most vegetable oils contain almost exclusively tocopherols, palm oil is notable because tocotrienols represent about 80% of the vitamin E content. Almost all vitamin E research in fish nutrition has focused on α-tocopherol, usually supplied as the synthetic all-rac-α-tocopherol acetate, as it is deemed the most potent of all the isoforms. Several feeding trials were carried out to investigate the deposition of vitamin E and their antioxidant activity in various tissues of tilapia and catfish fed various palm oil products and vitamin E sources. We were the first group of researchers to show that (1) the tocotrienol-rich fraction (TRF) extracted from palm oil is more potent than all-rac-α-tocopherol acetate as an antioxidant when used in tilapia diets; (2) fish tissues varied in their ability to accumulate tocotrienols with the highest concentrations being found in perivisceral adipose tissues, followed by liver, skin and muscle; (3) tissue concentrations of

α-tocopherol, α-tocotrienol and γ-tocotrienol increased linearly in response to increasing dietary concentrations originating from added TRF. As a potent in vivo antioxidant in fish tissues, palm vitamin E will have positive impacts on seafood quality such as prolonging shelf-life, maintaining colouration of pigmented seafood and enhancing the nutritional value of seafood.

Keywords: palm oil, vitamin E, tocotrienols, aquafeeds, seafood quality.

Date received: 14 March 2008; Sent for revision: 21 March 2008; Received in final form: 29 May 2008; Accepted: 2 July 2008.

INTRODUCTION

in growth and feed utilization efficiency have been reported in fish due to the protein-sparing effect of dietary lipid (De Silva et al., 1991). However, feeding high levels of dietary fish oils, which contain a high proportion of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) which are highly susceptible to oxidation, can lead to increased oxidative stress for the fish that can result in pathological conditions (Sakai et al., 1998) and deterioration of fillet quality (Scaife et al., 2000).

Farmed fish quality deteriorates rapidly after slaughter and affects the shelf-life, storage properties and quality of fish and surimi-based products.

Increases in the lipid content of commercial fish feeds are usually not followed by appropriate antioxidant supplementation in order to maintain normal antioxidant status, and this further exacerbates the deleterious effects of lipid peroxidation, especially in cellular biomembranes which contain high amounts of PUFA. Vitamin E is a potent antioxidant that inhibits lipid peroxidation in cell membranes. Vitamin E is the generic name given to a group of lipid-soluble compounds, which include four tocopherols, α-, β-, γ- and δ-T, and four tocotrienols, α-, β-, γ- and δ-T3,

The aquaculture industry is currently the fastest growing food production sector in the world. World aquaculture produces about 60 million tonnes of seafood worth more than USD 70 billion annually (FAO, 2006). Farmed fish accounts for about 50% of all consumed fish in the world, and this percentage is expected to continue to increase due to dwindling catches from capture fisheries. In recent years, technological advances in the aquafeed manufacturing industry have made possible the incorporation of high levels of dietary oils in fish feeds to produce energy-dense diets. Improvements

* Fish Nutrition Laboratory, School of Biological Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 11800 Pulau Pinang, Malaysia.

E-mail: wkng@usm.my ** School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 11800 Pulau Pinang, Malaysia.

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isoforms. Among them, α-T has the highest vitamin E activity (NRC, 1993). For dietary purposes, vitamin E activity is expressed as the α-tocopherol equivalent (α-TE) which is the activity of 1 mg RRR-αtocopherol (Papas, 1999). On this basis, each of the natural vitamin E isoforms is assigned a biopotency factor (α-T, 1.0; β-T, 0.5; γ-T, 0.1; δ-T, 0.03; α-T3, 0.3; β-T3, 0.05; γ-T3, 0.01) according to the amount of vitamin E necessary to prevent fetal resorption in pregnant and vitamin E-deficient rats (Sheppard and Pennington, 1993; Drotleff and Ternes, 1999). The biopotency factor for δ-T3 is presently unknown. It is therefore not surprising that almost all vitamin E research in fish nutrition has focused on α-T, commonly supplied as the synthetic all-rac-αtocopheryl acetate, as it is believed to be the most potent of all the isoforms (Frigg et al., 1990; Gatta et al., 2000; Huang et al., 2003). The synthetic all-rac-αtocopheryl acetate is used worldwide in commercial fish feeds, and is a multi-million dollar industry located mainly in Europe. About 70% of all synthetic vitamin E produced globally ends up in vitamin premixes of animal feeds, including aquafeeds.

Recent in vitro research with isolated rat cells seems to indicate that the antioxidant activities among the various vitamin E isoforms are not necessarily correlated with their assigned biological activities. Serbinova et al. (1991) reported that in vitro α-T3 possesses 40-60 times higher antioxidant activity against lipid peroxidation and provides 6.5 times better protection of cytochrome P450 against oxidative damage than α-T in rat liver microsomal membranes. Ikeda et al. (2003) reported that in some tissues in rats fed equivalent dietary levels of α-T or α-T3, both isoforms provided equal protection against lipid peroxidation. The protective ability of tocotrienols from the tocotrienols-rich fraction (TRF) extracted from palm oil was reported to be significantly higher compared to α-T as effective inhibitors of protein oxidation and lipid peroxidation in rat liver microsomes (Kamat et al., 1997), with γ-T3 being the most effective.

The Fish Nutrition Laboratory at Universiti Sains Malaysia has successfully introduced palm oil as an alternative source of lipid and energy in aquaculture feeds for both cold-water and tropical fish species (Ng, 2006; Bahurmiz and Ng, 2007; Ng et al., 2007).

Crude palm oil (CPO) is also one of the richest sources of natural vitamin E (600-1000 mg kg-1), namely a unique mixture of tocopherols (18%-22%) and tocotrienols (78%-82%). Therefore, we conducted a series of feeding trials to investigate the use of palm vitamin E as a novel source of antioxidants for farmed fish.

PALM VITAMIN E FOR AQUACULTURE FEED Tocotrienol Deposition in Fish Tissues We first reported a linear increase in total vitamin E concentrations in the muscle of African catfish fed practical diets with increasing levels of palm fatty acid distillate (PFAD) at the expense of fish oil (Ng et al., 2004a). As far as we know, this represents the first reported data on the deposition of dietary palm tocotrienols in fish tissue. Muscle tocotrienol concentrations of African catfish were observed to increase significantly concomitant with increasing dietary PFAD. However, when tocotrienol concentrations were expressed as a percentage of total vitamin E, it was interesting to note that despite an increasing percentage of tocotrienols in the diet (1.8 % to 58.2%), tocotrienols constituted only 13.4% to 26.7% of the total vitamin E deposited in catfish muscle (Figure 1). In catfish fed PFAD-supplemented diets, an equilibrium in T:T3 ratio of about 7.5:2.5 in the muscle was reached in eight weeks irrespective of dietary vitamin E composition. In the catfish muscle, 68.5% to 80.2% of the total vitamin E deposited was present as α-T. Similar high ratios of α-T to the sum of other vitamin E isoforms in tissues have been reported also for laboratory mammals (Ikeda et al., 2003). Depending on the level of PFAD inclusion (0% to 100% added oil) in the catfish diet, total tocopherols and tocotrienols deposited in muscle ranged from 6.48 to 14.26 µg g-1 and 1.0 to 5.0 µg g-1, respectively (Figure 1).

When we fed red hybrid tilapia with diets supplemented with a TRF extracted from CPO, α-T, together with α- and γ-T3 were found to be deposited into tilapia tissues, and their concentrations were observed to increase linearly in association with increasing levels of dietary TRF (Wang et al., 2006).

Figure 2 shows this linear response in the adipose tissues and the actual amounts of the various vitamin E isoforms deposited. The α-T was the predominant isoform which accumulated in all tissues and plasma. Results from this study indicate that palm tocotrienols supplementation in tilapia diets could markedly enhance the tocotrienol concentration in various tissues, but the deposition is very tissuespecific. Tocotrienols constituted equilibriums of 46.7%-48.9%, 24.7%-33.1%, 21.6%-26.0%, 19.2%22.2% and 8.0%-9.7% of the total vitamin E in adipose, liver, skin, muscle and plasma, respectively, of tilapia fed TRF-supplemented diets (E30 to E240), in spite of their high dietary compositions of about 80%. Thus, the adipose tissue of tilapia had the largest capacity to take up palm tocotrienols, followed by liver, skin, muscle and plasma.

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Vitamin E concentration (ug g-1)

18 16 14 12 10 Total tocotrienols Total tocopherols

8 6 4 2 0 0

25

50

75

100

% Replacement of fish oil with PFAD

Figure 1. Deposition of palm tocopherols and tocotrienols in the muscle tissue (ug g-1) of African catfish fed palm fatty acid distillate (PFAD)-based diets (modified from Ng et al., 2004a).

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Vitamin E conc. (ug g-1 tissue)

Adipose tissue

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dcba e

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Figure 2. Vitamin E concentrations in the adipose tissue of red hybrid tilapia fed a diet without added vitamin E (E0) or with diets supplemented with 30 to 240 (E30, E60, E120 or E240) mg kg-1 total vitamin E derived from a tocotrienol-rich fraction (TRF) extracted from crude palm oil (CPO) (adapted from Wang et al., 2006). Bars having different alphabets within the same vitamin E isoform are significantly different (P<0.05).

1996). All of these studies on the role of vitamin E in protecting membrane lipids from free radical attacks in fish tissues had relied on the application of synthetic all-rac-α-tocopheryl acetate as the sole dietary source of vitamin E. We were able to show that vitamin E concentrations in fish fillets increased in response to increasing dietary vitamin E originating from CPO (Lim et al., 2001), PFAD (Ng

Oxidative Stability of Fish Fillets The role of elevated levels of dietary α-T in improving fish flesh quality by maintaining oxidative stability has been well recognized in tilapia (Huang et al., 2003), rainbow trout (Frigg et al., 1990), Atlantic salmon (Scaife et al., 2000), sea bass (Gatta et al., 2000) and African catfish (Baker and Davies, 3

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et al., 2004a) or palm TRF (Wang et al., 2006), and there was evidence to support the role of the accumulated palm vitamin E in enhancing oxidative stability of fish fillets. Lipid peroxidation (measured as TBARS) in muscle and liver of red hybrid tilapia fed low dietary TRF diets (E0 and E30) was significantly higher than those of fish fed high dietary TRF diets (E60 to E240) (Figure 3).

conducted in tilapia. Our research showed that there was no significant decrease in lipid peroxidation products beyond 50 mg all-rac-α-tocopheryl acetate/ kg diet, but the addition of dietary TRF at about 100 mg kg-1 diet caused a further decrease in lipid peroxidation as indicated by the concentrations of MDA in Figure 4 (Ng et al., 2004b). This shows that TRF extracted from CPO is a more potent antioxidant compared to the conventional synthetic vitamin E when used in red hybrid tilapia feeds. For synthetic vitamin E esters such as acetates, they are chemically not an antioxidant until the animal hydrolyses it to α-T during the digestion process. Dietary vitamin E

A Potent Antioxidant A comparative study on the antioxidant potency of synthetic tocopheryl acetate compared to TRF was

250

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Muscle Liver

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Figure 3. Effects of graded levels of total vitamin E derived from palm tocotrienol-rich fraction (TRF) on lipid peroxidation in red hybrid tilapia fillets. Bars not sharing a common letter are significantly different, P<0.05.

MDA: malondialdehyde (adapted from Wang et al., 2006).

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Figure 4. Effects of graded levels of all-rac-α-tocopheryl acetate (TAC) at 0 to 100 mg kg-1 diet compared to palm TRF on thiobarbituric acid-reactive substances from iron-vitamin C induced lipid peroxidation in muscle of red hybrid tilapia (modified from Ng et al. 2004b).

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isoforms are then taken up from the small intestine and re-assembled into chylomicrons by the Golgi body of the mucosa cells. Once the chylomicrons are carried to the liver, α- T will be selectively recognized by the α-tocopherol transfer protein (α-TTP), which has been identified in humans and rats. The high affinity of α-TTP for α-T basically ensures that this vitamin E isoform is the preferred form being transported to various tissues. Our results appear to imply that a similar α-T binding protein may exist in tilapia liver, although the isolation of such a protein has not been reported in fish. Based on the results obtained from our previous work (Ng et al., 2004; Wang et al., 2006), we assumed the existence of an α-TTP which expresses different relative affinities for the three tocotrienols with the relative affinity of α-T3 for α-TTP is the highest, followed by γ-T3 and then δ-T3. Despite the lower deposition of T3 in fish tissues, the lower levels of lipid peroxidation products measured compared to tissues from fish fed equivalent dietary concentrations of synthetic vitamin E esters, led us to conclude that tocotrienols has greater antioxidant potential when used in tilapia feeds.

Concentrations of tocotrienols in the final seafood product can be pre-determined by dietary manipulations of the diet fed to farmed fish.

Japanese restaurants are mushrooming in most large cities of the world, and many urbanites are drawn to nicely-packaged ready-to-eat foods such as sushi and sashimi sold in major supermarkets. The full health benefits of tocotrienols to the human consumer will be obtained when seafood products are consumed raw as sashimi. Seafood products are already known for their health benefits, and reputable organizations such as the American Heart Association strongly endorse the use of omega-3 fatty acids (found in fatty fish) for cardiovascular disease prevention. Combined with the health benefits of tocotrienols found in farmed fish which are fed diets supplemented with palm TRF, the image of fish and seafood as healthy meat products will be further enhanced in the public’s perception.

Fish Offal Oil The perivisceral adipose tissue of tilapia was the major depot for vitamin E among the various tissues examined (Wang et al., 2006). At all dietary inclusion levels of TRF, total vitamin E concentrations found in the adipose tissue were the highest. Unlike other tissues, the adipose tissue of tilapia fed with palm TRF was rich in tocotrienols which made up almost 50% of the total vitamin E deposited. This makes fish offal oil a very useful by-product from the processing factories of farmed fish, and can be marketed as a tocotrienol-enriched fish oil targeting the health food sector. The concentrations of tocotrienols deposited in the perivisceral adipose tissue is dependent on dietary concentrations and have been shown to respond linearly (Wang et al., 2006).

POTENTIAL APPLICATION OF RESEARCH RESULTS Longer Shelf-life and Quality of Fish Products Elevated dietary levels of TRF resulted in marked increases in the deposition of vitamin E in fish tissues, improving oxidative stability which in turn can effectively prolong the storage duration or shelflife of fresh and frozen fish fillets and surimi-based products. This will lead to increased profits for fish processors. As a potent natural antioxidant, palm vitamin E may enhance the deposition of carotenoids in pigmented seafood such as salmon and shrimp; thus, enhancing flesh quality, consumer acceptance and marketability. The accumulated palm vitamin E in these seafood products would slow down the oxidation of the natural pigments thereby maintaining a desirable colour for longer periods.

The reddish colour in seafood products is often used as a quality parameter, and may increase the market value.

Commercial Potential Plans are currently undertaken to conduct further pre-commercialization research on the use of a feedgrade TRF extracted and concentrated from CPO for use as a natural additive in aquaculture finishing feeds, especially for farmed fish with a high fat content. The product being all natural, the TRF can also be used as an antioxidant in organic aquaculture production. This is a novel concept of delivering tocotrienols to a wider variety of consumer products.

It is anticipated that such tocotrienol-enriched fish and seafood products can be sold to niche markets, especially in developed countries and in large cities where health-conscious consumers are willing to pay a premium price for such products. A feed-grade TRF is currently not commercially available for the animal feed industry. Commercially available pharmaceutical grade TRF in the market is not price

Human Health Benefits The deposition of tocotrienols (and other non-αT isoforms) in fish fillets also adds value to the product as the potential health benefits of tocotrienols in the human diet may include such beneficial effects as the prevention of cardiovascular diseases, cancer and stroke, among other degenerative diseases (Watkins et al., 1999).

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JOURNAL OF OIL PALM RESEARCH (SPECIAL ISSUE - OCTOBER 2008)

competitive compared to synthetic vitamin E currently used in the livestock and aquaculture feed industry.

FRIGG, M; PRABUCKI, A L and RUHDEL, E U (1990). Effect of dietary vitamin E levels on oxidant stability of trout fillets. Aquaculture, 84: 145-158.

GATTA, P P; PIRINI, M; TESTI, S; VIGNOLA, G and MOENTTI, P G (2000). The influence of different levels of dietary vitamin E on sea bass, Dicentrarchus labrax flesh quality. Aquacult. Nutr., 6: 47-52.

CONCLUSION The ever expanding oil palm cultivation in Malaysia and other tropical countries offers the possibility of a growing, cost-effective and sustainable alternative to synthetic vitamin E in fish feeds. Results from our research show that supplementation of TRF from CPO can result in significant deposition of palm tocopherols and tocotrienols into various fish tissues, which in turn can inhibit or slow down lipid peroxidation within these tissues. This is the first reported study on the deposition of tocotrienols in tilapia and catfish tissues. Naturally-occurring vitamin E found in vegetable oils such as palm oil can be an excellent alternative for synthetic all-rac-α-tocopheryl acetate as a dietary vitamin E source for fish. Further laboratory and commercial-scale studies are planned to fully exploit palm tocotrienols as a dietary vitamin E in aquafeeds.

HUANG, C H; CHANG, R J; HUANG, S L and CHEN, W L (2003). Dietary vitamin E supplementation affects tissue lipid peroxidation of hybrid tilapia, Oreochromis niloticus x O. aureus.

Comp. Biochem. Physiol., 134B: 265-270.

IKEDA, S; TOHYAMA, T; YOSHIMURA, H; HAMAMURA, K; ABE, K and YAMASHITA (2003).

Dietary α-tocopherol decreases α-tocotrienol but not γ-tocotrienol concentration in rats. J. Nutr., 133: 428434.

KAMAT, J P; SARMA, H D; DEVASAGAYAM, T P A; NESARETNAM, K and BASIRON, Y (1997).

Tocotrienols from palm oil as effective inhibitors of protein oxidation and lipid peroxidation in rat liver microsomes. Mol. Cell. Biochem., 170: 131-138.

LIM, P K; BOEY, P L and NG, W K (2001). Dietary palm oil level affects growth performance, protein retention and tissue vitamin E concentration of African catfish, Clarias gariepinus. Aquaculture, 202: 101-112.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT The first author would like to thank the Malaysian Palm Oil Board for the invitation to present the paper at the International Palm Oil Congress (PIPOC 2007).

NG, W K (2006). Palm oil: Malaysia’s gift to the global aquafeed industry. Asian Aquafeeds: Current Developments in the Aquaculture Feed Industry (Ng, W K and Ng, C K, eds.). Malaysian Fisheries Society Occasional Publication No. 13. Kuala Lumpur. p. 4054.

REFERENCES BAHURMIZ, O M and NG, W K (2007). Effects of dietary palm oil source on growth, tissue fatty acid composition and nutrient digestibility of red hybrid tilapia, Oreochromis sp., raised from stocking to marketable size. Aquaculture, 262: 382-392.

NG, W K; WANG, Y; KETCHMENIN, P and YUEN, K H (2004a). Replacement of dietary fish oil with palm fatty acid distillate elevates tocopherol and tocotrienol concentrations and increases muscle oxidative stability in the muscle of African catfish, Clarias gairepinus. Aquaculture, 233: 423-437.

BAKER, R T M and DAVIES, S J (1996). Changes in tissue α-tocopherol status and degree of lipid peroxidation with varying α-tocopheryl acetate inclusion in diets for the African catfish. Aquacult.

Nutr., 2: 71-79.

NG, W K; WANG, Y and YUEN, K H (2004b).

Tocotrienols from palm oil are more potent antioxidants than dietary α-tocopherol acetate or α-tocopherol succinate for red hybrid tilapia. Proc. of the Sixth International Symposium on Nutrition and Feeding in Fish. Phuket, Thailand.

DE SILVA, S S; GUNASEKERA, R M and SHIM, K F (1991). Interaction of varying protein and lipid levels in young red tilapia: evidence of protein sparing.

Aquaculture, 95: 305-318.

DROTLEFF, A M and TERNES, W (1999). Cis/trans isomers of tocotrienols: occurrence and bioavailability. Euro. Food Res. Tech., 210: 1-8.

NG, W K; TOCHER, D R and BELL, J G (2007). The use of palm oil in aquaculture feeds for salmonid species. European J. Lipid Science and Tech., 109: 394399.

FAO (2006). State of World Aquaculture 2006. FAO Fisheries Technical Paper No. 500. FAO Rome. 134 pp.

6

PALM VITAMIN E FOR AQUACULTURE FEEDS

SERBINOVA, E; KAGAN, V; HAN, D and PACKER, L (1991). Free radical recycling and intramembrane mobility in the antioxidant properties of α-tocopherol and α-tocotrienol. Free Radic. Biol. Med., 10: 263-275.

NRC (NATIONAL RESEARCH COUNCIL) (1993).

Nutrient Requirement of Fish. National Academy Press, Washington, DC. 114 pp.

PAPAS, A M (1999). Vitamin E: tocopherols and tocotrienols. Antioxidant Status, Diet, Nutrition and Health (Papas, A M ed.). CRC Press LLC Florida, p. 189-210.

SHEPPARD, A J and PENNINGTON, J A T (1993).

Analyses and distribution of vitamin E in vegetable oils and foods. Vitamin E in Health and Disease (Packer, L and Fuchs, J eds.). Marcel Dekker, New York, p. 931.

SAKAI, T; MURATA, H; ENDO, M; SHIMOMURA, T; YAMAUCHI, K; ITO, T; YAMAGUCHI, T; NAKAJIMA, H and FUKUDOME, M (1998). Severe oxidative stress is thought to be a principle cause of jaundice of yellowtail Seriola quinqueradiata.

Aquaculture, 160: 205-214.

WANG, Y; YUEN, K H and NG, W K (2006).

Deposition of tocotrienols and tocopherols in the tissues of red hybrid tilapia, Oreochromis sp., fed a tocotrienol-rich fraction extracted from crude palm oil and its effect on lipid peroxidation. Aquaculture, 253: 583-591.

SCAIFE, J R; ONIBI, G E; MURRAY, I; FLETCHER, T C and HOULIHAN, D F (2000). Influence of α-tocopherol acetate on the short- and long-term storage properties of fillets from Atlantic salmon Salmo salar fed a high lipid diet. Aquacult. Nutr., 6: 65-71.

WATKINS, T R; BIERENBAUM, M L and GIAMPAOLO, A (1999). Tocotrienols: biological and health effects. Antioxidant Status, Diet, Nutrition and Health (Papas, A M, ed.). CRC Press LLC. p. 479496.

7

Journal of Oil Palm Research FATTY Vol. 14 1, June 2002, p. 1-8OILS IN THE MALAYSIAN MARKET, WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO TRANS -FATTY ACIDS ACIDNo.COMPOSITION OF EDIBLE

FA TTY ACID COMPOSITION OF FATTY EDIBLE OILS IN THE MALA YSIAN MARKET MALAY MARKET,, WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO TRANS -F ATTY ACIDS -FA TANG, T S* ABSTRACT

A total of 113 samples of various types of palm and palm kernel oil products, their fractions, palm-based and non-palm-based cooking oils obtained from local manufacturers and the retail market were analysed for their trans-fatty acid compositions and contents by capillary gas chromatography. Trans-fatty acids were generally

absent in crude palm and palm kernel oils. However, they were present at 0.01%-0.06% in refined palm kernel products and 0%-0.61% in refined palm products, all well below the 1.0% level stipulated by some importers. These trans-fatty acids were formed from their natural cis-isomers as a result of the high temperature used during deodorization.

In cooking oil, the trans-fatty acid contents of palm-based products were 0.25%-0.67%, again well below 1%. However, in the non-palm-based cooking oils, the contents of the 14 samples ranged from 0.43%-3.83%. The higher contents in the non-palm-based oils were expected as they had high contents of unsaturated fatty acids, which are more prone to isomerization at elevated temperatures.

Keywords: trans-fatty acids, fatty acid composition, edible oils, palm-based cooking oils, non-palm-based cooking oils.

In natural vegetable oils, the unsaturated acids are present in the cis- form. However, highly unsaturated vegetable oils are not suitable for many food applications such as margarines, shortenings, confectionery fats and vanaspati, where solid fats are required. They are thus hardened by catalytic hydrogenation during which the naturally occurring cis-unsaturated fatty acids are partly converted to the unnatural trans-isomer (Figure 1). Small amounts of trans- fatty acids are also formed from heatinduced isomerization during deodorization under high temperature (Kovari et al., 1997; Bertoli et al., 1997). The extent of isomerization is more serious in polyunsaturated oils. Depending on the type of unsaturated acids, different trans- isomers can be formed from the original cis-unsaturated fatty acids.

Figure 2 illustrates the possible trans-isomers that can be derived from linoleic and linolenic acids.

As a result of the many suspected undesirable effects of trans- acids, scientists have been

INTRODUCTION The nutritional attributes of trans-fatty acids have been a subject of concern among food scientists, nutritionists and consumers. A report by Mensink and Katan showed that trans- fatty acids affect cholesterol levels in much the same ways as saturated fatty acids (INFORM, 1990). Other animal studies have also revealed many adverse nutritional effects of trans-acids. They have been implicated as detrimental to health in terms of the metabolism of essential fatty acids, coronary heart and cardiovascular diseases (Sundram and Chang, 2000), foetal and infant development, and in the treatment of hypercholesterolemia (Simopoulos, 1996; Ong and Chee, 1994; Sundram, 1993).

* Malaysian Palm Oil Board, P.O. Box 10620, 50720 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.

1

JOURNAL OF OIL PALM RESEARCH 14 (1)

Oleic acid (cis-9-Octadecadienoic acid) CH3—— (CH2)7

per reference amount customarily consumed and per labelled serving of the food. Generally, a serving is about 14 g for edible oil. The FDA is currently seeking comments on its proposals (FDA, 1999).

Since the early controversy in the eighties, many surveys on the content of trans-fatty acids in fatty foods, such as margarines, bakery fats and fried products, in several countries have been published.

Amongst them are those for America (Enig et al., 1983; Slover et al., 1985; Postmus et al., 1989), Canada (Ratnayake, 1991; Postmus et al., 1989), France (Bayard and Wolff, 1995), Austria (Henninger and Ulberth, 1996), Belgium (De Greyt et al., 1996), Denmark (Oveson et al., 1996), Germany (Fritsche and Steinhart, 1997a, b) and the United Kingdom (Kohiyama et al., 1991; Anon., 1997b). Several other similar surveys for Greece, Italy, New Zealand,

(CH2)7— COOH C=C

H

H

Elaidic acid (trans-9-Octadecadienoic acid) CH3 — (CH2)7

H C=C (CH2)7—— COOH

H

Figure 1. Cis-trans -isomers of 9-Octadecadienoic acid.

Isomerization pathway of linoleic acid (cis, cis-9,12-Octadecadienoic acid)

cis, cis

cis, trans

trans, cis

trans, trans

Isomerization pathway of linolenic acid (cis-, cis-, cis-9,12,15-Octadecatrienoic acid)

cis, cis, cis

cis, cis trans

trans, cis, trans

trans, cis, cis

cis, trans, cis

cis, trans, trans

trans, trans, cis

trans, trans, trans Figure 2. Isomerization of polyunsaturated fatty acids.

campaigning for the avoidance of hydrogenation in the processing of oils and fats for edible use (Anon., 1991; 1997a; Schwarz, 2000) and also for mandatory labelling of the content of trans- fatty acids as a separate category in food items (Simopolous, 1996).

The United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) proposed in November 1999 its rules for transfatty acids in nutrition labelling, nutrient content claims and health claims (Thiagarajan, 2000). The proposals recommended that the trans-fat free claim be permitted for foods that contain less than 0.5 g trans-fatty acids and less than 0.5 g saturated fats

Spain, Australia and Finland were mentioned in the report by Henninger and Ulberth (l996). A summary of the data from these reports is given in Table 1.

Of late, some European importers are preferentially sourcing palm oil products with a maximum trans-fatty acid content of 1.0% (Pantzaris, 1997). A short survey of palm oil products and cooking oils from refineries and available in the local market was therefore carried out to ascertain the levels of trans-fatty acids.

The determination of trans-fatty acids content in oils and fats is normally carried out by either infrared 2

FATTY ACID COMPOSITION OF EDIBLE OILS IN THE MALAYSIAN MARKET, WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO TRANS -FATTY ACIDS

TABLE 1. TRANS–FATTY ACID CONTENTS (%) IN F ATTY FA FOODS IN SOME COUNTRIES Food Country America Austria Belgium Canada Denmark France Germany Malaysia United Kingdom

Margarine and shortening

Cooking and frying oil

21.61 - 40.65 <1 - 50 n.d.* - 18.8 10.0 - 49.9 1.4 - 22.3 0 - 62.5 0.15 - 4.88 0.6 - 10.2 0.5 - 19.7

1.5 - 34.1

Fries and snacks 4.6 - 35.1 0.44 - 22.01 2.2 - 21.8

Note: * n.d. – not detected.

then shaken vigorously in a vortex mixer. The clear, separated methyl ester layer was dried with anhydrous sodium sulphate prior to injection into the gas chromatograph for analysis.

spectroscopy (IR) or capillary gas chromatography.

In this survey, all the samples were analysed by gas chromatography as the IR method lacks sensitivity and is not reliable if the total trans-fatty acids content is below 5% (Duchateau et al., 1996; Ulberth and Henninger, 1996). Capillary gas chromatography can detect down to 0.01%. It can also separate the different trans- isomers in polyunsaturated oils, provided a column of suitable length and coated with a higher polar stationary phase is used.

Gas-liquid Chromatography Analysis of the FAME was then carried out with a Hewlett Packard 6980 series chromatograph equipped with a flame ionisation detector and split injector. A fused silica capillary column coated with a highly polar stationary phase, Supelco SP2340 [100% poly(bis-cyanopropylsiloxane) – 60 m x 0.25 mm id x 0.2 µm], was used with He as the carrier gas. The oven temperature programmes for palm kernel oil products and non-lauric oils (palm oil products and other cooking oils) were:

MA TERIALS AND METHODS MATERIALS Samples A total of 113 different types of palm oil, palm kernel oil, their fractionated products (which were all unhydrogenated) and cooking oils were obtained from palm oil refineries throughout Malaysia and local retailers.

Palm kernel oil products - 120 oC to 185 oC at 3oC min-1 Palm oil and other non-lauric oils - 185 o C isothermal

Chemicals

The injector and detector temperatures were both set at 240oC while the split ratio was 1:l00.

The fatty acid standards used were from Sigma Chemicals. They included lauric, myristic, palmitic, stearic, oleic and elaidic acids. The standard fatty acid mixture for calibration was obtained from Supelco, USA (RM-6 for palm products, RM-5 for palm kernel oil products and RM-1 for non-palm-based cooking oils). All the reagents and solvents used were of AR grade.

Quantitative Analysis The identities of the fatty acids were established by comparing their retention times with either those of authentic standards from Supelco, or those reported in the AOCS method using a similar column (AOCS, 1997). A typical chromatogram showing the peaks and retention times of the fatty acids (including the trans-isomers) of palm olein is shown in Figure 3 . Calibration was established with standard mixtures of methyl esters from Supelco and the quantitative results obtained from the Hewlett Packard Chemstation.

Pr ation of F atty Acid Meth yl Ester AME) Preepar para Fa Methyl Esterss (F (FAME) FAMEs of the samples were prepared according to PORIM Test Method p3.4. About 0.05 g of the oil was dissolved in 0.95 ml hexane and 0.5 ml sodium methoxide. The reaction mixture (in a 2 ml vial) was 3

JOURNAL OF OIL PALM RESEARCH 14 (1)

13.062 - C18-1

11.592 C18-0

35

9.350 C16-0

7.305- C14-0

pA

2.5

5

7.5

10

12.5

17.5

20

23.236

19.830

15.939

15

16.713 } 18:3trans 17.324 17.669 - C18-3

14.332 } 18:2-trans 14.520

12.510 } 18:1-trans

15

8.435

6.136 6.438

20

11.272

25

9.955 10. 065 - C16-1 10.325

6.949

30

22.5 min

Figure 3. An enlarged GC chromatogram of fatty acid methyl esters from palm olein sample showing the retention times of various peak.

vacuum. This is supported by the observation by Kochhar et al. (1982) that in the refining of crude soyabean oil (a highly unsaturated oil), trans-fatty acids were not detected in the neutralized and bleached oil, but only in the final product after deodorization.

RESUL TS AND DISCUSSION RESULTS One hundred and thirteen samples of various kinds of palm and palm kernel oils, their fractions, palmbased cooking oils and non-palm-based cooking oils were analysed. Table 2 summarizes the contents of trans-fatty acids obtained. Some comments can be made on the presence of trans- fatty acids in the samples analysed.

Red Palm Olein Red palm olein is a specialty cooking oil with a high carotene content. The two samples from the local retail market showed only 0.0% - 0.2% transfatty acids. These low levels can be attributed to the special refining process which uses a low deodorization temperature to preserve the carotenes from thermal degradation.

Crude Palm Oil No trans-acid was detected in all the 12 samples.

RBD/NBD Palm Oil, Palm Olein, Palm Stearin and Superolein

Crude Palm Kernel Oil

These products are discussed together as they had similar ranges of trans- fatty acids. Overall, their mean contents were 0.22% - 0.32%. If the individual samples are considered, then the range is wider at between 0.0% - 0.61%.

Only four NBD oils were analysed - two palm oleins, one palm superolein and one palm stearin.

Their trans-fatty acid contents ranged from 0.29% 0.27%. Although the range was narrower than that in RBD palm oil (0.07% - 0.60%), the number of NBD samples was too small to establish any definite difference between the physically and alkaline refined oils.

As trans-fatty acids were not detected in the crude samples, their presence in the refined products must be due to isomerization during deodorization which is normally carried out at 250 oC - 260 o C under

The oils were mechanically extracted using a screw-press. No trans-fatty acids were found in all the eight samples.

RBD/NBD Palm Kernel Oil, Olein and Palm Kernel Stearin The mean trans- fatty acid contents of the RBD/NBD palm kernel oils and their fractions ranged from 0.0% - 0.06%. Overall, the minimum and maximum for the individual samples were 0% and 0.11%, respectively, considerably lower than those observed in the palm oil products. Again, it is quite obvious that the presence of trans-fatty acids was due to isomerization during deodorization. No 4

FATTY ACID COMPOSITION OF EDIBLE OILS IN THE MALAYSIAN MARKET, WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO TRANS -FATTY ACIDS

TABLE 2. TRANS-F ATTY ACID COMPOSITIONS AND CONTENTS OF 113 SAMPLES -FA ALM OIL AND P ALM KERNEL OIL PR ODUCTS PALM PALM PRODUCTS ODUCTS,, AND DIFFERENT COOKING OILS OF P Trans-fatty acid No. of Sample

C18:1 t

C18:2 tc, ct, tt

Crude palm oil RBD palm oil

12 12

0.0 0.0-0.25

0.0-0.02 0.07-0.35

RBD palm olein NBD palm olein

17 2

0.0-0.11 0.02-0.03

RBD superolein NBD superolein

4 1

ans-acid Total tr transStandard deviation

Mean (%)

Ranges of values

0.0 0.0-0.09

0.0 0.32

0.0-0.02 0.07-0.60

0.0 0.155

0.0-0.51 0.09-0.26

0.0-0.10 0.0-0.04

0.30 0.22

0.0-0.61 0.11-0.33

0.170 0.15

0.0-0.04 0.03

0.08-0.36 0.19

0.0-0.05 0.0

0.22 0.23

0.08-0.45 -

0.143 -

12 1

0.0-0.12 0.04

0.0-0.40 0.21

0.0-0.03 0.02

0.26 0.27

0.08-0.40 -

0.132 -

Red palm olein

2

0.0

0.0-0.2

0.0

0.1

0.0-0.2

0.14

Crude palm kernel oil

8

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

-

-

RBD palm kernel oil NBD palm kernel oil

7 1

0.0-0.07 0.0

0.0 0.0

0.0 0.0

0.01 0.0

0.0-0.07 -

0.021 -

RBD palm kernel stearin

6

0.0-0.11

0.0

0.0

0.06

0.0-0.11

0.051

RBD palm kernel olein NBD palm kernel olein

3 2

0.0-0.03 0.0

0.0-0.06 0.0

0.0 0.0

0.03 -

0.0-0.06 -

0.031 -

9 14

0.0-0.09 0.0-0.08

0.09-0.63 0.39-2.69

0.0-0.13 0.0-2.67

0.46 2.03

0.25-0.67 0.46-3.83

0.190 1.370

Sample

RBD palm stearin NBD palm stearin

Cooking oil, palm-based Cooking oil, non-palm-based Total

C18:3t

113

trans- fatty acid was detected in the two NBD products. The low contents were expected as palm kernel oil and its fractions are much less unsaturated than palm oil products.

Corn Oil Four brands were analysed. The total trans-acids ranged from 1.13% - 1.96% with a mean of 1.64%.

The main trans-isomers were those of linoleic acid and linolenic acid.

Palm-based Cooking Oils These were either pure palm olein or blends with peanut oil and sesame oil. However, the iodine values and fatty acid compositions suggested that these blends were mainly palm olein. Trans-fatty acids were found in every product at 0.25% - 0.67% with an average of 0.46%.

Sunflower Oil

Non-palm-based Cooking Oils

Saf wer Oil Safff lo low

These are consumed by only a small section of the population and are generally more expensive.

Their detailed trans- fatty acid compositions and contents are given in Table 3.

This is not a common cooking oil in the local market and only one brand was found. Though it was very high in diunsaturated acids, the trans-acids content was only 0.85%.

Three brands were analysed. The trans-fatty acids ranged from 0.63% - 2.99% with a mean of 1.42%.

The major trans-isomers were those of linoleic acid as the linolenic acid content of sunflower oil is low.

5

JOURNAL OF OIL PALM RESEARCH 14 (1)

ATTY ACID COMPOSITIONS AND CONTENTS OF TABLE 3. TRANS-F -FA NON-P ALM-B ASED COOKING OILS NON-PALM-B ALM-BASED

Tr ans-fatty acid

ans-acid Total tr trans-

Cooking oil

No. of sample

C18:1 t

C18:2 tc, ct, tt

C18:3t

Corn oil Sunflower oil Safflower oil Soyabean oil Peanut oil Rapeseed oil (low erucic)

4 3 1 4 1 1

0.03-0.05 0.0-0.08 0.03 0.01-0.05 0.0 0.04

0.75-1.50 0.55-2.69 0.67 0.43-1.54 0.46 0.39

Overall non-palm-based cooking oil

14

0.0-0.08

0.39-2.69

Soyabean Oil

Mean (%)

Ranges of values

0.18-0.43 0.0-0.24 0.15 1.15-2.67 0.0 2.35

1.64 1.42 0.85 2.94 0.46 2.78

1.13-1.96 0.63-2.99 1.63-3.83 -

0.356 1.360 0.993 -

0.0-2.67

2.03

0.46-3.83

1.370

Standard deviation

Malaysia. All the refined products contained only very small amounts of trans-fatty acids, generally below 0.7%. Thus, they would easily satisfy the requirement for a maximum of 1.0% total trans-acids.

As the refining conditions, especially the temperature of deodorization, are the causes of isomerization, care should be taken to optimize the refining conditions to minimize such changes (Siew, 1989).

In palm kernel oil and its fractions, the level of trans-isomers is not an issue as they are relatively low in unsaturation and the deodorization temperature used is often milder at 240oC or below.

Many of the non-palm-based cooking oils contained more than 1% trans-fatty acids as they were more unsaturated and, therefore, more susceptible to isomerization during deodorization.

All in all, this survey provided further evidence that palm and palm kernel oil products are excellent hard-stocks for trans-free formulation of texturized fatty products such as margarines, shortenings, confectionery fats and vanaspati. These products can advantageously replace hydrogenated fats which contain not only trans-fatty acids, but also possibly a host of other unnatural and polymerized fatty acids formed during hydrogenation to reduce their unsaturation (Hoffman, 1989).

Four brands were obtained. They contained 1.63% to 3.83% trans-acids and the mean was 2.94%. They had quite similar fatty acid compositions considering only the distribution of fatty acid chain lengths and not the geometric isomers. Thus, the wide range in trans-acids content could be attributed to variation in the processing method. The influence of different refining and deodorization treatments on the chemical changes in soyabean oil has been thoroughly investigated by Kochhar et al. (l982). As soyabean oil is well known for its high (about 8%) linolenic acid content, it was not unexpected that the samples had higher contents of the trans-isomers of linolenic acid than the other common polyunsaturated oils.

Peanut Oil Only one brand was analysed. It had high contents of arachidic acid (C20:0, 1.34%), behenic acid (C22:0, 3.54%) and lignoceric acid (C24:0, 0.16%) but the trans-acids were only 0.46%.

Rapeseed Oil The only sample analysed was a low erucic acid type. The trans- fatty acid content was 2.78%, comprising mainly the trans-isomers of linolenic acid. It was reported by Denecke (1995) that natural rapeseed oil contains only traces of trans-fatty acids, but during deodorization the level can rise to as high as 9%, depending on the temperature and time of heating used.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The author thanks the Director-General of MPOB for permission to publish this paper and all the palm oil refineries for their cooperation in providing the oil samples. The technical assistance provided by the staff of the AOTC Analytical Laboratory is also deeply appreciated.

CONCL USION AND RECOMMEND ATIONS CONCLUSION RECOMMENDA REFERENCES The palm and palm kernel oil products sampled in this survey were quite exhaustive, as attempts were made to obtain samples from refineries throughout

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FATTY ACID COMPOSITION OF EDIBLE OILS IN THE MALAYSIAN MARKET, WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO TRANS -FATTY ACIDS

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KOVARI, K; DENISE, J; ZWOBODA, F; KEMENY, Z S; RECSEG, K and HENON, G (1997). Kinetics of trans-isomers fatty acids formation during heating.

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DE GREYT, W; KELLEN, M and HUYGHEBAERT, A (1996). Trans and polyunsaturated fatty acid content of some bakery fats. Fette/Lipid, 98: 4, 141144.

ONG, A S H and CHEE, S S (1994). Trans-fatty acids: nutritional significance in the diet. Paper presented at the First National Symposium on Clinical Nutrition. 28-30 March 1994. Kuala Lumpur.

DENECKE, P (1995). About the formation of transfatty acids during deodorization of rapeseed oil. Eur. J. of Med. Res.,, (1995/1996):1, 109.

OVESON, L; LETH, T and AHANSEN, K (1996).

Fatty acid composition of Danish margarines and shortenings, with special emphasis on trans- fatty acids. J. Amer. Oil Chem. Soc., 31: 971-975.

DUCHATEAU, G S M J E; VAN OOSTEN, H J and VASCONCELLOS, M A (1996). Analysis of cis- and trans -fatty acids isomers in hydrogenated and refined vegetable oils by capillary gas-liquid chromatography. J. Amer. Oil Chem. Soc., 73: 275-282.

PANTZARIS, T P (1997). Private communication.

MPOB. POSTMUS, E; deMAN, L and deMAN, J M (1989).

Composition and physical properties of North American stick margarines. Can. Inst. Sci. Tech. J., 22(5): 481-486.

ENIG, M G; PALLANSCH, L A; SANPUGNA, J and KEENEY, M (1983). Fatty acid composition of the fats in selected food items with special emphasis on trans components. J. Amer. Oil Chem. Soc., 60: 17881793.

RATNAYAKE, W M N; HOLLYWOOD, R and Oâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;GRADY, E (1991). Fatty acids in Canadian margarines. Can. Inst. Sci. Tech. J., 24(1/2): 81-85.

FDA (1999). Food labelling: trans-fatty acids in nutritional labelling, nutrient content claims and health claims. Special Filing Docket No. 94P-0036, CFSAN 9727. 17 November 1999.

SCHWARZ, W (2000). Trans unsaturated fatty acids in European nutrition. Eur. J. Lipid Sci. Technol., 102: 633-635.

FRITSCHE, J and HANS STEINHART (1997a). Transfatty acids in German margarines. Fette/Lipid 99, Nr. 6: 214-217.

SIEW, S L (1989). Effects of refining on chemical and physical properties of palm oil products. J. Amer. Oil Chem. Soc., 66: 116-119.

FRITSCHE, J and HANS STEINHART (1997b).

Contents of trans-fatty acids (TFA) in German foods and estimation of daily intake. Fette/Lipid 99, Nr.9: 314-318.

SIMOPOULOUS, A P (1996). Trans- fatty acids.

Handbook of Lipids in Human Nutrition. CRC Press Inc. p. 91-99.

HENNINGER, M and ULBERTH, F (1996). Transfatty acids in margarine and shortenings marketed in Austria. Z Lebensm Unters Forsch, 203: 210-215.

SLOVER, H T; THOMPSON, J R; DAVIS, C S and MEROLA, G V (1985). Lipids in margarines and margarine-like foods. J. Amer. Oil Chem. Soc., 62: 775779.

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JOURNAL OF OIL PALM RESEARCH 14 (1)

SUNDRAM, K (1993). Trans-fatty acids: their dietary and health implications. Palm Oil Developments No. 19: 22-25.

THIAGARAJAN, T (2000). Proposed US FDA rules for trans-fatty acids in nutritional labelling, nutrient claims and health claims. Palm Oil Technical Bulletin Vol. 6(1): 4.

SUNDRAM, K and CHANG, K C (2000). Trans-fatty acids and coronary heart disease. Palm Oil Technical Bulletin Vol. 6(1): 2-4.

ULBERTH, F and HENNINGER, M (1996).

Estimation of trans-fatty acids content of edible oils and fats: an overview of analytical methods. Eur. J. Med. Res., (1995/96): 1, 94-99.

ERRA TA ERRAT Please note the typographical errors in the structures of phthalic anhydride and N-methyl-2,2â&#x20AC;&#x2122;-iminodiethanol (MDEA) on pages 8 and 12 of Journal of Oil Palm Research Vol.13 No. 2. The errors are regretted.

The correct structures are: O

CH2CH2OH H3CN

O

CH2CH2OH O Phthalic anhydride

MDEA

Ethacure 100: CH3

CH3 H

H2N

NH2

H3CH2C

NH 2

H3CH2C

CH2CH3

CH2CH3

NH 2

H

97.5%

2.5%

2,4-diethyltoluene-1,3-diamine

2,4-diethyltoluene-1,5-diamine

Ethacure 300: NH 2

NH2 H3 CS

SCH3

H

NH2

H3CS

CH3

H

NH2

CH3

SCH3

80%

20%

1,3-benzenediamine-4-methyl-2,6-bis(methylthio)-

1,3-benzenediamine-2-methyl-1-4,6-(methylthio)O

O ArN

ArNCO + O

+ O

O Phthalic anhydride

Imide group

8

CO2

APPLICATIONS OF PALM OIL IN ANIMAL NUTRITION

Journal of Oil Palm Research Vol. 22 December 2010 p. 835-845

APPLICATIONS OF PALM OIL IN ANIMAL NUTRITION TREVOR TOMKINS* and JAMES K DRACKLEY**

ABSTRACT Palm oil and its derivatives play a significant role in animal nutrition, and the opportunity to increase usage in this sector is large. Fats and oils are used as energy sources, to supply dietary essential fatty acids (linoleic and linolenic acids) that cannot be synthesized by the animal, to aid in the absorption of fat-soluble vitamins, and to provide specific bio-active fatty acids. The amount of fat or oil that can be used in animal diets varies depending on the species and its digestive physiology. The digestive systems of cattle, pigs and poultry differ with respect to the way in which fats/oils are broken down, absorbed and utilized. Cattle are ruminants in which the fermentation of carbohydrates in the rumen provides energy for the animal. Dietary triglycerides are largely hydrolyzed in the rumen by the resident microbial population, while the unsaturated fatty acids are hydrogenated to saturated fatty acids. Feeding large amounts of triglycerides (>3% of the diet), particularly those which are unsaturated, inhibits rumen microorganisms and makes biohydrogenation incomplete. If biohydrogenation does not occur fully, a flow of unsaturated or partially unsaturated fats/oils with trans-double bonds into the small intestine can decrease feed intake and depress milk fat production, as well as alter milk fat profiles. To overcome this problem, fats/oils for ruminant feeding need to be in a form that makes them inert in the rumen, such as in the form of a calcium salt or soap of palm fatty acid distillates (CaPFAD), or after crystallizing the saturated fatty acids by beading or flaking. Pigs and poultry are nonruminants (monogastrics) and rely on their own enzymes for the breakdown of dietary triglycerides. Fatty acids are then absorbed in the small intestine along with mono- or diglycerides. Pigs and poultry can utilize relatively saturated as well as unsaturated fats in their diet, but the inclusion of unsaturated fats/oils results in more unsaturated fatty acids in their body fat, which makes the carcass fat softer and this can reduce carcass quality. Increased energy levels in the diet of dairy cows can benefit the production of milk and milk components, improve reproductive efficiency, reduce heat stress, and improve general health and well-being.

Increasing fat/oil levels in pig diets improve growth rates, reproduction and lactation. Hard (more saturated) dietary lipids help produce firmer carcass fat. Increasing fat/oil levels in poultry diets improves feed efficiency and growth rates. Medium-chain triglycerides (MCTs) are also of interest, particularly in young animals where their rapid absorption can help provide a readily available energy supply. Palm oil and palm kernel oil can be used to replace butterfat in milk replacers for feeding young animals to substitute their motherâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s milk.

Fats are also used in the diets of companion animals (dogs and cats) and horses. Worldwide animal production is increasing rapidly. As standards of living increase, more animal products are being consumed in the diet, including meat, milk and eggs. Livestock consume approximately 33% of global cereal grain production, and the animal nutrition industry consumes between 8 and 10 million tonnes of fats and oils per annum. This use will increase significantly in the next 15 years as more animal products are consumed. In addition, there is greater focus on finding ways to replace cereal energy in animal nutrition as cereals are increasingly being * Milk Specialties Global, Carpentersville, Illinois, USA. E-mail: ttomkins@milkspecialties.com ** Department of Animal Sciences, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, Illinois, USA.

835

Journal of Oil Palm Research 22 (december 2010)

diverted to human foods or biofuel production. Fat/oil levels in feed are generally lower than the levels that can be utilized by the animal based on its digestive and metabolic processes. More calories could be supplied by fats/oils but there are limitations based on the physical characteristics of the fats and oils and their interactions with the target animal’s physiology.

Keywords: animal nutrition, palm oil, livestock production, digestive processes, ruminants.

Date received: 8 December 2009; Sent for revision: 9 December 2009; Received in final form: 15 June 2010; Accepted: 6 September 2010.

INTRODUCTION

GLOBAL LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION

A significant amount of palm oil and its derivatives is used in animal nutrition, and the opportunity to increase usage in this sector is large. Fats and oils serve a variety of applications in animal diets. Fats and oils are used as energy sources that supply approximately 2.25 to 2.5 times the equivalent energy of carbohydrates. Fats and oils supply the ‘dietary essential’ fatty acids (linoleic and linolenic acids) that cannot be synthesized by the animal, but which are necessary for the formation of cell membranes and various signaling molecules such as prostaglandins and leukotrienes. Dietary fats and oils aid in the absorption of the fat-soluble vitamins A, D, E and K. In recent years, focus has been on the individual fatty acids provided by dietary fats, including various specific bioactive fatty acids such as eicosapentaenoic acid and conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) that exert effects on metabolism and health.

Fats and oils are digested, absorbed and utilized differently, depending on the target animal species and its own unique physiology. This article examines the application and opportunities for lipid components derived from palm oil processing in the major production animal species, what the benefits are for the animals, and what will be the economic benefits derived from these applications.

Livestock continue to play a vital role in the nutrition of humans worldwide. The major species furnishing food for humans are cattle (both dairy and beef), pigs, poultry, sheep and goats. Worldwide distribution of these animals by region is shown in Table 1. Animal products contribute about 16% of human food energy and 33% of human food protein (FAO, 2009). Ruminant species such as cattle, sheep, goats and water buffalo provide this human food value while consuming in a large portion of their diet those materials that are unusable directly by humans, such as forages, roughages, cellulosic food-processing by-products, and browse plants.

Non-ruminant livestock such as pigs and poultry consume mostly cereals and oilseed products that potentially are usable by humans, although they too can consume some by-product feedstuffs that are not directly utilized by humans. Worldwide it is estimated that animals consume about 33% of the global cereal grain production (FAO, 2009).

Although the rate of growth in the world population has slowed somewhat in recent years, current estimates put the world population at more than 7.7 billion people by 2020. Economic advancement in the developing countries has lifted millions of people out of poverty; yet predictions are that over 1 billion people will remain

TABLE 1. ESTIMATED WORLD ANIMAL PRODUCTION BY REGION, 2007

Region

Dairy cattle (m)

Beef cattle (m)

Sheep and goats (m)

Africa Americas Asia Europe Oceania

55 51 90 41 6

30 113 96 48 13

160 36 609 99 64

17 210 859 295 8

3 000 20 000 22 000 8 000 1 000

Total

243

300

968

1 389

54 000

Source: FAO (2009).

836

Pigs (m)

Poultry (m)

APPLICATIONS OF PALM OIL IN ANIMAL NUTRITION Table 2. Change in world dairy cow population, 1991-2006

TABLE 3. MAJOR FEEDSTUFFS USED AS SOURCES OF PROTEIN, LIPIDS AND CARBOHYDRATES IN LIVESTOCK DIETS

Number of milk cows (1 000)

1991

2006

Protein

North America South America Europe Asia Oceania

17 676 17 500 31 699 62 175 4 352

17 006 17 440 24 944 60 191 5 970

133 402

125 551

Soyabean Cottonseed Canola Flax/linseed Fish Animal by-products

Total

Fats/oils

Carbohydrates

Palm Soyabean Cottonseed Tallow Lard Fish

Corn/maize Barley Wheat Rice Millet Cassava

Source: USDA-NAHMS (2007).

undernourished by 2020 (FAO, 2009). As disposable incomes increase in most developing countries, the demand for animal products in the diet also increases. Taking into account these dynamics, it is estimated that animal product consumption will double by 2020, just over 10 years from now.

This unprecedented growth in demand for high-quality animal products will place incredible demands on feedstock supplies and availability.

Gains in efficiency of nutrient use will likely continue, as observed over the last half-century.

For example, the number of milk cows in the world has actually decreased over the last two decades (Table 2), yet milk production has continued to grow as individual animals and herds become more productive.

Total feed utilization will have to grow substantially to provide the increased demand for animal products by 2020, which means new sources of feeds and new feedstocks must be identified, and innovative ways must be pursued to increase the nutritive use of more widely available materials by the animals. The major feedstuffs used in animal nutrition (other than the forages and roughages used in ruminant feeding) are shown in Table 3.

Replacing some of the dietary energy in livestock diets now provided by cereals with fats and oils represents one strategy to meet the growing demand for feed energy. Currently, global use of fats and oils in animal nutrition is estimated to be 8 to 10 million tonnes annually. Feed use represents the second largest category of utilization of inedible fats,

coming behind their conversion to methyl esters, at approximately 1.4 million tonnes annually, or more than 28% of the total. Of this amount, about 90% originates from animal fats (tallow and grease) with only 10% from edible fats and vegetable oils.

While fats and oils currently are widely used in animal nutrition programmes, the opportunity exists for even greater utilization, perhaps within new paradigms in animal nutrition. As shown in Table 4, even a modest market penetration with additional fats has the potential to account for 5.7 million tonnes of fats annually. Clearly, there is a substantial upside for the palm oil industry when animal nutrition applications are contemplated.

Considerations of the potential increased role for palm products in animal nutrition must be in the context of the challenges facing the livestock industries globally. Growing populations and increasing use (at least in the short-term) of cereals for the production of biofuels place livestock feeding in direct competition with humans for their use. The intensity of livestock production continues to increase, with specialized operations that are in many cases uncoupled from the local production of feeds. Nutrient management and environmental degradation are key concerns in many countries, with the need to improve the efficiency of nutrient capture into the final animal products and to limit the excretion of wastes. Carbon balance, methane reduction and climate change will alter the way in which feeds are grown and fed, and the location where they are grown. Food safety

TABLE 4. POTENTIAL MARKET FOR FATS AND OILS IN ANIMAL NUTRITION WORLDWIDE

Dairy cattle

Beef cattle

Sheep and goats

Pigs

Concentrate feed per head/year (kg)

2 000

100

30

200

4

Added fat in diet (%) Total fat (t) (× ’000) (25% market)

2.0 2 430

0.2 5

1.0 72.6

3.0 2 083

2.0 1 086

837

Poultry

Total 5 677

Journal of Oil Palm Research 22 (december 2010)

issues worldwide will likely bring about increasing scrutiny of feedstock production and utilization in animal nutrition. Consumers in developed countries are becoming ever more focused on the role of diet in health and in prevention of chronic diseases. Animal products have many positive roles to play here, in terms of protein quality, bioactive fatty acids such as CLA, calcium, vitamins such as B 12, and many minerals. Finally, continued genetic progress for highly productive and efficient animals places concurrent demands on nutritionists to meet the nutrient requirements of these animals for production and health, while minimizing the environmental impact from animal production.

which enables them to be packed into bags and handled easily in animal rations. Softer fractions can be hardened or hydrogenated by the addition of hydrogen in the presence of a catalyst. Liquid fats can also be used directly in animal rations. These products are fed to dairy cattle, beef cattle and to poultry.

Fatty acids split from triglycerides by hydrolysis leaves glycerol as a by-product. Saturated fatty acids (particularly C16 and C18) are used in ruminant rations. Fatty acids are blended in different ratios depending on the desired melting point and iodine value for the specific application. Blends with melting points above 55째C are frequently flaked or beaded for ease of handling and addition to rations.

PKO can be subjected to similar fractionation processes to produce different chain-length triglycerides, including medium-chain triglycerides (MCT) which are sometimes used in the diets for young animals due to their rapid absorption and utilization as an energy source.

Residue streams from the industrial oleochemical industry can also be used in animal nutrition. Generally, the criteria that must be applied to test suitability for use in animal nutrition include fatty acid profile, melting point, ratio of saturated to unsaturated fatty acids, and levels of nickel if the streams come from a hydrogenation process. These criteria then must be matched to the particular nutrition application. Residue streams must also be relentlessly checked to ensure that they are free of adulterants, pesticides and other toxic materials.

Nutrition applications are discussed in detail below. Saturated long-chain fatty acids such as palmitic and stearic are generally considered better for ruminant animals, whereas unsaturated fatty acids and triglycerides are generally considered preferable for monogastric animals.

PALM OIL PRODUCTS FOR ANIMAL NUTRITION The manufacturing processes that result in products available to the feed industry are shown in Figure 1.

Palm oil products used in animal nutrition derive from either the refining process of crude palm oil (CPO), or the crushing of palm kernels to produce palm kernel oil (PKO). Palm fatty acid distillate (PFAD) is the distillate left after refining of palm oil. This product is used extensively in animal feed, frequently reacted with calcium to produce the calcium salt or soap (CaPFAD) which is a hard granular product. This process enables PFAD to be handled easily and also renders the fatty acids semi-inert in the rumen of the cow, which thus helps to prevent inhibition of the fermentation process occurring in the rumen.

Palm oil after refining can be fractionated to produce different melting point fractions. These specific fractions can be tailored to different applications in animal nutrition. Higher melting point fractions (>55째C) can be beaded or flaked,

Fresh Fruit Processing Kernels

Palm Kernel Meal

Palm Kernel Oil

MCTs

Oleo Chemical Processing Co-Products/ Residues

Fruit Products

Crude Palm Oil

Refining

Crushing/Extraction

RDB Palm Oil

Splitting

Fatty Acids

Beading/Flaking Free Fatty Acids/Cattle

Palm Fatty Acid Distillate

Fractionation

Reaction Calcium Soaps/Cattle

Glycerol

Low IV Stearin High IV Oleins

Beading/Flaking Triglycerides Swine/Cattle

Figure 1. Scheme for palm oil processing and products for animal nutrition.

838

APPLICATIONS OF PALM OIL IN ANIMAL NUTRITION TABLE 5. COMPOSITION AND PROVISION OF ENERGY AS FAT IN THE FIRST FEEDS OF NEONATAL ANIMALS

Fat (%) Protein (%) Carbohydrate (%) % energy from fat

Cow (milk)

Pig (milk)

Chicken (egg)

Sheep (milk)

Goat (milk)

3.6 3.1 4.8 50.6

5.7 5.2 5.4 53.4

10 11 0 67

6.8 5.6 4.6 60

4.2 3.5 4.6 53.8

UTILIZATION OF FATS AND OILS BY KEY PRODUCTION SPECIES

Ruminants Ruminants consume diets containing the vegetative portions of plants (forages) as well as various cereals or oilseed products. The carbohydrate portion of these materials is extensively fermented by the incredibly robust and diverse microbial population that lives within the rumen, the first compartment of the fourchambered ruminant stomach. The end-products of this fermentation are the volatile fatty acids (VFA) or short-chain fatty acids, principally acetate, propionate and butyrate, which serve as the major energy fuels for ruminant tissues. The microbial cells produced in the rumen serve as the major protein source for the animal after they are washed out of the rumen and flow into the small intestine.

The main types of lipid in ruminant diets are the glycolipids found in forage stems and leaves, as well as triglycerides found in cereals and oilseeds.

Glycolipids are similar to triglycerides except that they have two or more sugars linked to one position of the glycerol backbone instead of the third fatty acid. The most common are galactolipids, which have galactose (a component sugar of milk lactose) linked to the glycerol. The two fatty acids that make up the glycolipids are generally unsaturated, with a high proportion of linolenic acid. Glycolipids are structural components of plant tissues. In most forages, whether fresh, dry or ensiled, glycolipids are extensively hydrolyzed in the rumen.

The microbial population within the rumen contains a number of bacterial species that actively hydrolyze the glycolipids and triglycerides found in feeds. The glycerol released is largely fermented to propionate and butyrate. The unsaturated fatty acids that are released by bacterial hydrolysis are extensively biohydrogenated to saturated fatty acids of the same chain-length by other species of rumen bacteria. This process accounts for the fact that ruminant fats (in milk or beef) are generally more saturated than the feeds the animals consume and are more saturated than the body or milk fats of non-ruminants. Bacterial biohydrogenation appears to be a defense mechanism for the microbes because the polyunsaturated fatty acids are toxic to the fibre-digesting microbial population within the rumen.

Energy Levels from Fat in First Feeds With the exception of poultry, the first feeds of young production livestock are milk or milk substitutes (milk replacers). For poultry, the first feed is the egg yolk. The composition of mother’s milk and egg from these species is shown in Table 5. Of note here is that fat makes up a larger portion of the total dietary solids than in most growing or production diets. Indeed, fat constitutes more than 50% of the feed energy in the first feeds, and typically more than 15% in growing and production diets.

The reasons for the much larger use of fats in the first feeds compared with that in diets for older animals are not well understood. A large portion is likely due to the emulsified nature of the first feeds compared with dry diets for older animals. The fat in milk or egg yolk is highly emulsified, with extremely fine droplet size and optimal biological emulsifying agents. In ruminant diets, higher fat levels interfere with microbial fermentation in the rumen. Finally, the fatty acid profile of the feed fats is typically quite different from that of milk fat or egg yolk lipids.

Differences in Digestive Processes in Ruminants, Pigs and Poultry Fats and oils are digested very differently between ruminant animals (cattle, sheep, goats) and non-ruminants (pigs, poultry). The primary differences are a consequence of the activities of anaerobic bacteria in the rumen on dietary lipids in ruminants which are lacking in nonruminants. Several bacterial species in the rumen possess lipase activity that can hydrolyze dietary lipids in ruminants, whereas the animal’s lipase enzymes carry out this function in non-ruminants.

Another difference is the nature of the products of lipid digestion that are available for absorption: primarily saturated free fatty acids in ruminants and primarily 2-monoglycerides and fatty acids in non-ruminants.

839

Journal of Oil Palm Research 22 (december 2010)

Non-ruminants

Under normal basal feeding conditions, the unsaturated fatty acids are extensively biohydrogenated by the microbial population without detriment to the rumen, but when the supply of unsaturated fatty acids in the rumen is increased by supplementation, the amount of unsaturated fatty acids may overwhelm the hydrogenating capacity of the microbial population.

The resultant accumulation of unsaturated fatty acids and intermediates with trans-double bonds (particularly trans-10 in 18-carbon fatty acids) can decrease digestion of fibre (cellulose and hemicellulose) within the rumen, decrease feed intake by the animal, and decrease overall conversion of the feed to milk or meat. To prevent the negative effects of fat on the microbial population, and to prevent formation of these detrimental trans-isomers, a number of commercial fat supplements have been developed. Most important among these are calcium soaps of fatty acids and mixtures of mostly saturated fatty acids crystallized by beading or flaking. Palm oil is a major starting material for these products worldwide.

Fatty acids are not absorbed in the rumen, but rather pass into the lower digestive tract where they are absorbed from the small intestine. In contrast to non-ruminants, most of the lipid reaches the small intestine as highly saturated free fatty acids rather than the mostly unsaturated dietary triglycerides that reach the intestine in non-ruminants.

Ruminants have evolved highly efficient systems of emulsification and micelle formation in the intestine to efficiently absorb the large quantities of saturated free fatty acids that reach the intestine daily. This occurs predominantly via the lysolecithin-bile salt system, in which lysolecithin is produced as a result of the action of pancreatic phospholipase enzyme acting on lecithin (phosphatidylcholine) coming into the intestine either as a component of microbial cell membranes or as a component of pancreatic juice and bile. Within the intestinal cells, fatty acids are esterified to Îą-glycerol-phosphate, produced from glucose metabolism, to form triglycerides.

In turn, triglycerides are packaged with specific apolipoproteins, phospholipids and cholesterol to form a lipoprotein particle called a very-low-density lipoprotein (VLDL). VLDL carries triglycerides in blood to such tissues as the muscle, heart, adipose and mammary, where the enzyme lipoprotein lipase hydrolyzes the triglycerides to free fatty acids that can be taken up by the tissues. Fatty acids delivered from the diet in this way are major sources of milk fat and body fat, as well as an immediate energy source for muscle and heart.

Non-ruminants such as pigs and poultry consume mostly triglycerides in the cereals and oilseeds that make up most of their diet. Additional fats and oils often supplement the diet, mainly as triglycerides because free fatty acids (particularly saturated free fatty acids) are not well absorbed in non-ruminants.

Dietary fats are released from the feed matrix as the feed is chewed and then further mixed in the stomach. The mechanical action of contractions in the stomach and the shear forces of expulsion of the digesta into the intestine result in the formation of a coarse emulsion of fat in the intestinal contents.

Bile, which is produced in the liver, stored in the gall bladder, and secreted into the upper small intestine, contributes bile salts and phospholipids that are important emulsifying agents for fat digestion. Emulsification of dietary fats increases greatly as the digesta mixes with these substances.

Pancreatic juice secreted into the upper small intestine contributes the fat-digesting enzyme lipase, which acts on the surface of lipid droplets in the intestinal lumen to hydrolyze fatty acids from the 1 and 3 positions of the glycerol backbone.

Pancreatic lipase is inhibited by bile salts, and the pancreas also secretes a protein called colipase, which acts to disperse bile salts from the surface of the lipid droplet and anchors lipase to the droplet.

The products of lipase activity on triglycerides, 2-monoglycerides and free fatty acids, spontaneously form mixed micelles in the presence of the bile salts. Micelle formation is necessary to allow for the absorption of fatty acids and monoglycerides into the intestinal epithelial cells.

Within the intestinal cells, the monoglycerides are re-acylated to form triglycerides, which are packaged along with specific apoproteins, cholesterol and phospholipids to form a lipoprotein called a chylomicron, which is analogous to the intestinal VLDL formed in ruminants. The chylomicra are secreted from the cells, enter the lymphatic system, and then enter the venous blood. Like VLDL in ruminants, the triglycerides are hydrolyzed by lipoprotein lipase in peripheral tissues.

In poultry, lipid digestion follows a similar process to that in non-ruminant mammals, with the exception of the route of absorption of the chylomicron particles into the blood. In contrast to non-ruminant mammals, chylomicra in poultry are able to be absorbed directly into the portal blood system rather than the lymph. Owing to

840

APPLICATIONS OF PALM OIL IN ANIMAL NUTRITION

this process, these chylomicra are often called portomicrons in birds. Absorption into the portal blood means that the dietary lipoprotein particles reach the liver before the rest of the animal.

3. Free fatty acids Free fatty acids are the most energy-dense form of dry fat. They can either be in the form of saturated or unsaturated fatty acids. Saturated fatty acids are preferred over unsaturated fatty acids. Cows are especially well-equipped to digest and absorb saturated free fatty acids, so this type of fat requires no modification before digestion. In addition, unsaturated fatty acids have been shown to depress dry matter intake, while saturated fatty acids do not affect dry matter intake.

USE OF PALM PRODUCTS AND OTHER FATS OR OILS BY PRODUCTION ANIMALS Neonatal Ruminants The neonatal ruminant is born with a digestive tract similar to that of a monogastric animal, and relies on a milk diet during its early stages of development. A major industry has grown worldwide to produce milk replacers for the young bovine to replace the dam’s milk so that the highvalue milk can go to market rather than be fed to the calves. Calf milk replacers typically contain levels of fats/oils ranging between 15% and 20% of the dry matter (DM), with the remaining dry matter being protein and lactose.

Commercial calf milk replacers are manufactured using oils and fats of animal or vegetable origin to replace butterfat. Palm oil and PKO are frequently used in these applications. The digestibility of the fat and DM is improved in the very young calf when a blend of PKO is added to the palm oil (typically up to 20% of the total fat level).

Data from experiments relating to the performance of cows fed with supplemental fat.

1. Dry matter intake The addition of certain supplemental fats to the diet causes changes in dry matter intake.

Dr Mike Allen of Michigan State University examined this issue extensively in a review (Allen, 2000). There is no significant effect of feeding saturated free fatty acids on dry matter intake. However, there are significant decreases in dry matter intake when feeding with CaPFAD (-5.0% and -3.3% relative to nonfat controls). These decreases in dry matter intake can have a substantial effect on cows in early lactation when dry matter intake is already lagging behind milk production. CaPFAD are slightly more digestible than hydrogenated PFAD (Elliott et al., 1996) or hydrogenated palm oil (Weiss and Wyatt, 2004) in dairy cattle.

2. Milk production The addition of supplemental fat results in increased milk production because more energy is being supplied to the dairy cow. In a recent review, milk production increased by 0.9 kg per day for cows fed CaPFAD and by 1.8 kg per day for cows fed saturated free fatty acids relative to controls fed no supplemental fat (Loften and Cornelius, 2004). These data show that feeding saturated free fatty acids leads to an increase in milk production.

3. Milk composition In a recent experiment, supplementation with saturated free fatty acids increased the amount of milk fat by 0.19 kg per day relative to cows fed no supplemental fat, and by 0.26 kg per day relative to cows fed CaPFAD (Relling and Reynolds, 2007). Milk protein was increased slightly for cows fed no supplemental fat and saturated free fatty acids, producing 0.05 and 0.06 kg per day more milk protein, respectively, than those fed Ca-soaps (Relling and Reynolds, 2007). Similar results have been documented on US commercial dairy farms that switched from feeding with CaPFAD to feeding with saturated free fatty acids. Over a two-month period, milk fat increased from 3.87% to 4.25% (+0.38%),

Dairy Cattle Comparison of supplemental fat sources. There are three main forms of supplemental fat sources from palm oil which are fed to dairy cattle: triglycerides, free fatty acids and calcium salts of palm fatty acids (made by the saponification of PFAD). The latter are commonly referred to as calcium soaps.

1. Triglycerides Triglycerides of palm oil origin fed to dairy cattle are generally produced by the fractionation of refined, bleached and deodorized (RBD) palm oil, and have generally a melting point above 125°F (>51.5°C). These fats are then flaked or beaded to produce a product which is easy to handle by the dairy producer, and can be mixed into a feed ration.

2. Ca soaps (CaPFAD) CaPFAD are a popular form of supplemental fat. They consist of approximately 82% fat, which is approximately 50% saturated and 50% unsaturated, while the remainder is ionic calcium. The fatty acids are dissociated from the calcium in the abomasum, releasing the fatty acids for absorption. The unsaturated fatty acids are extensively dissociated from calcium in the rumen and are biohydrogenated in the rumen to saturated fatty acids.

841

Journal of Oil Palm Research 22 (december 2010)

while milk protein increased from 3.09% to 3.34% (+0.23%). These data confirm that feeding with saturated free fatty acids has a positive effect on milk composition.

4. Reproduction Two studies have looked at the effect of supplementation with saturated free fatty acids on subsequent reproductive performance.

Transition cows were fed saturated free fatty acids for the last 21 days of gestation. In the subsequent lactation, more of these cows were confirmed pregnant (86% vs. 58% for nonfat controls) (Frajblat and Butler, 2003). In addition, cows supplemented with saturated free fatty acids had fewer days open (i.e., being non-pregnant) compared with non-fat controls (110 vs. 148 days) (Frajblat and Butler, 2003). Supplementation of lactating cows with saturated free fatty acids resulted in improved first service conception rate as well as overall conception rate relative to a non-fat control (59.1% vs. 42.6% and 59.3% vs. 40.7%) (Ferguson et al., 1990). Cows supplemented with saturated free fatty acids also had fewer services per conception relative to a non-fat control (1.57 vs. 1.96) (Ferguson et al., 1990). While supplementation with a saturated free fatty acid source in both of these studies resulted in improved reproductive efficiency, it remains unclear if this was the result of an improvement in energy status, or an effect of a specific fat or type of fat. However, regardless of the mechanism, supplementation with saturated free fatty acids appears to result in improved reproductive efficiency.

5. Heat stress Studies conducted in Shanghai during the height of summer have shown that feeding saturated free fatty acids to dairy cows had a significant impact on mitigating the impact of heat stress.

This resulted in increased milk production, milk fat production and milk protein production.

The cows with added fat in their diet had significantly lower body temperatures during the heat stress periods.

fat percentages (Zinn and Jorquera, 2007). There is considerable potential to increase the use of fats in high-concentrate beef rations (Hess et al., 2008).

Owing to the negative effects on the fibre-digesting and methane-producing microorganisms in the rumen, supplemental fats such as yellow grease or vegetable oils can improve feed efficiency in cattle (Zinn, 1989). Addition of palm oil at 10.7% of dietary DM increased carcass fat content without affecting carcass quality grade in fattening lambs (Lough et al., 1993).

Research has demonstrated that vegetable oils and oilseeds that furnish linoleic acid may improve reproductive success in beef cows and heifers as they often do in dairy cattle (Santos et al., 2008).

However, in beef cows, these responses have been inconsistent (Funston, 2004). There is considerable opportunity for understanding the influences of fat supplementation on reproduction in beef cattle.

Swine There is a growing opportunity for feeding milk replacer to baby pigs to supplement sowâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s milk. Piglets with free access to milk replacer have greater gains in body weight and lean mass than their suckled littermates (Zijlstra et al., 1996). This represents a new opportunity for increased use of palm oils. In addition, MCT show benefits in improving piglet survival, weight gain and body fat (Wieland et al., 1993).

The use of fats and oils in the diets for growing pigs is common because of the high-energy value of fats and oils. Animal fats have been the most common fat sources used, primarily because of their lower cost. Typical inclusion rates are about 5% added fat. Lauridsen et al. (2007) showed that several vegetable fat sources (palm oil mix, palm oil, coconut oil, rapeseed oil) could be used as alternatives to animal fat in diets for weaning and growing pigs.

Supplemental fat also may be useful during pregnancy and lactation in sows. Supplemental fat during gestation and lactation improved sow body condition and improved suckling pig performance without affecting energy intake during lactation, which implies that the efficiency of energy utilization by sows was improved (Gatlin et al., 2002).

A consequence of feeding more unsaturated fat sources, such as vegetable oils or yellow grease, is that carcass fat becomes softer due to the lower melting point of these dietary fats. A solution is to feed more saturated fatty acid supplements, such as hydrogenated palm oil. More higher-melting point fat sources make the body fat firmer, without sacrificing animal growth performance (Gatlin et al., 2003).

Beef Cattle Much research has focused on the use of fats in diets for growing and fattening beef cattle, as well as for cows and heifers to aid in re-breeding. As an energy source, gains in performance for cattle fed fat have not been large enough to be justified economically in most cases. Feedlot diets may contain small additions of liquid fat to control dust and to hold the ration together, particularly in drier climates where large amounts of wet or ensiled feeds are not fed. Fats typically increase dressing percentage and kidney, pelvic and heart

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APPLICATIONS OF PALM OIL IN ANIMAL NUTRITION

Poultry

in the form of beaded palm triglycerides (iodine value 12-15) to high forage diets has been a very successful process for increasing energy levels without the detrimental effects caused by extra starch addition (Tomkins, 2009).

Digestibility of fats in poultry is lower in the young animal than in mature birds. There is evidence in poultry that the bile salt system is undeveloped in the young, and that emulsifiers improve the digestion of dietary lipids in poultry (Krogdahl, 1985). Digestibility of more highly unsaturated oils such as soyabean oil is higher than that of more saturated fats such as tallow or lard.

Saturated fatty acids such as palmitic are absorbed very poorly in poultry unless they are in the form of 2-monoglycerides. However, animal fats are wellutilized and usually cheaper on an absorbed energy basis than vegetable oils.

Dietary fats are used in poultry to increase the energy density of the diet and to lower heat production by the birds in hot climates. Dietary fats produce an ‘extra caloric effect’ in poultry, in which the net energy value for maintenance and production is greater than would be predicted by apparent metabolizable energy (ME) measurements.

Fats also improve the ME value of other dietary ingredients by slowing down the rate of passage of the feed through the digestive tract.

Palm oil was shown to increase egg size and improve the performance of pullets when fed up to 5% of the diet (Isika et al., 2006). Addition of vegetable oils to the diets of layer hens increases egg size. To provide adequate energy for high egg production, most layer diets contain 1%-3% supplemental fat. For broilers, diets typically contain 2%-4% added fat, resulting in as much as an 8% increase in feed conversion efficiency. Increased use of palm oil by poultry seems to hold a great deal of promise (Preston, 1992).

Dogs and Cats Fats and oils are important components in the diets for dogs and cats. Fats and oils provide a concentrated source of energy for growth and energy storage, as well as providing a source of essential fatty acids (linoleic and linolenic acids) that cannot be made within the animal body. Fats also contribute to palatability and an acceptable texture of the foods. As in other species, fats are important as carriers for absorption of the fat-soluble vitamins. Young dogs are typically fed diets that contain about 8%-10% fat, but can tolerate a wide range of fat contents (up to 40% of diet) and sources as long as the essential fatty acid requirements are met. Recommendations for older dogs are somewhat lower (5%-6% fat; NRC, 2006).

The current recommendation for the fat content of cat diets is 9% of DM (19% of energy) but cats can effectively utilize diets that contain fat as high as 67% of energy (NRC, 2006). Diets with 20%-25% fat (on a DM basis) are usually more palatable than lower-fat diets for cats (NRC, 2006).

Apparent digestibility of fats in dogs fed mixed triglycerides ranges from 85% to 95% of intake, with the digestibility of dry extruded fats reported to be somewhat lower (70%-90%; NRC, 2006).

Digestibilities are lower for fats that contain less than 40% unsaturated fatty acids compared with fats providing more than 50% unsaturated fatty acids (NRC, 2006). In cats, digestibilities of fat are more than 90%, and are higher in young cats than in aged cats (NRC, 2006). Digestibility is generally greater for more unsaturated fats than for saturated fats.

While palm oil has been used in formulating experimental diets, the authors are not aware of any large-scale studies comparing the use of palm oil in the diets of dogs and cats. Given the increasing numbers of pets worldwide, this may be a fruitful market to pursue.

USE OF PALM PRODUCTS AND OTHER FATS OR OILS BY HORSES AND COMPANION ANIMALS Horses Within the last 10 years, there has been considerable interest in the addition of fats into the feeds of horses, including those used for racing, draft and pleasure. Horses during periods of ‘work’ require high energy levels, but attempts to increase dietary energy by the addition of higher starch levels through cereal inclusion in the ration have sometimes been counterproductive. It is now understood that the digestion of starch leading to high blood glucose levels can create adverse responses, and sometimes makes the animals excitable and unworkable. Higher blood glucose levels also cause insulin responses, and in some cases leads to insulin resistance. The addition of fat

FUTURE OPPORTUNITIES The animal nutrition industry represents considerable current markets for palm oil products, but the potential for future growth is even more substantial. Nearly all sectors could use more palm oil or palm products as fat supplements. Growth in this demand would be hastened by careful research in several areas.

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Journal of Oil Palm Research 22 (december 2010)

First, the factors that limit the use of fat in mature animals to a greater extent than when the same species is young need to be determined. With the identification of the changes that occur, perhaps due to suboptimal emulsification or to changes in metabolism, the amount of fat that can be fed efficiently could be increased. This could become even more important and beneficial as the demand for cereal grains continue to increase in food and non-food industrial uses.

The roles of fats and oils in reproduction, gestation, body condition maintenance and lactation need to be more clearly defined and better understood. If the use of specific fatty acids can improve reproductive success, prospects for increased dietary use of those fats will be improved tremendously.

The potential opportunities afforded by the ability to produce MCT for animal nutrition applications are large. There is a growing body of evidence that MCT will play an increasingly important role in animal nutrition, particularly in the nutrition of the neonatal animal where rapidly available energy can make the difference between high and low mortality.

Finally, systems research to document the benefits of integrated fats/oils production and livestock enterprises needs to be conducted.

Outcomes of interest here include both the economic benefits as well as the implications on carbon balance and nutrient management in the environment.

Coupled with research on animal utilization, there is the need for continual improvement in the way fats are incorporated into animal diets. Methods for making fats easier to handle by the end-user are of great importance. Very few production systems, other than those with very large numbers of animals in close proximity, have the ability to handle large quantities of liquid fats at the farm level. Much of production animal agriculture is dependant on compounded feed or feeds in a dry form that can be easily added to rations. It is frequently difficult to do this when fats are in a liquid form. Technologies such as saponification of fatty acids and beading of high-melting point fats will certainly improve the production opportunities.

FAO (2009). FAO Statistical Yearbook 2009. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy.

FERGUSON, J D; SKLAN, D; CHALUPA, W V and KRONFELD, D S (1990). Effects of hard fats on in vitro and in vivo rumen fermentation, milk production and reproduction in dairy cows. J. Dairy Science, 73: 2864-2879.

FRAJBLAT, M and BUTLER, W R (2003). Effect of dietary fat prepartum on first ovulation and reproductive performance in lactating dairy cows.

J. Dairy Science, 86 (Suppl. 1): 110 (Abstract).

FUNSTON, R N (2004). Fat supplementation and reproduction in beef females. J. Animal Science, 82 (E-Suppl): E154-E161.

GATLIN, L A; ODLE, J; SOEDE, J and HANSEN, J A (2002). Dietary medium- or long-chain triglycerides improve body condition of lean-genotype sows and increase suckling pig growth. J. Animal Science, 80: 38-44.

GATLIN, L A; SEE, M T; HANSEN, J A and ODLE, J (2003). Hydrogenated dietary fat improves pork quality of pigs from two lean genotypes. J. Animal Science, 81: 1989-1997.

HESS, B W; MOSS, G E and RULE, D C (2008).

A decade of developments in the area of fat supplementation research with beef cattle and sheep. J. Animal Science, 86(14 Suppl): E188-E204.

ISIKA, M A; AGIANG, E A and OKON, B I (2006).

Palm oil and animal fats for increasing dietary energy in rearing pullets. International Journal of Poultry Science, 5: 43-46.

KROGDAHL, A (1985). Digestion and absorption of lipids in poultry. J. Nutrition, 115: 675-685.

LAURIDSEN, C; CHRISTENSEN, T C; HALEKOH, U and JENSEN, S K (2007). Alternative fat sources to animal fat for pigs. Lipid Technology, 19: 156-159.

LOFTEN, J R and CORNELIUS, S G (2004). Review: responses of supplementary dry, rumen-inert fat sources in lactating dairy cow diets. The Professional Animal Scientist, 20: 461-469.

REFERENCES ALLEN, M S (2000). Effects of diet on short-term regulation of feed intake by lactating dairy cattle.

J. Dairy Science, 83: 1598-1624.

LOUGH, D S; SOLOMON, M B; RUMSEY, T S; KAHL, S and SLYTER, L L (1993). Effects of highforage diets with added palm oil on performance, plasma lipids, and carcass characteristics of ram and ewe lambs. J. Animal Science, 71: 1171-1178.

ELLIOTT, J P; DRACKLEY, J K and WEIGEL, D J (1996). Digestibility and effects of hydrogenated palm fatty acid distillate in lactating dairy cows.

J. Dairy Science, 79: 1031-1039.

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APPLICATIONS OF PALM OIL IN ANIMAL NUTRITION

WIELAND, T M; LIN, X and ODLE, J (1993).

Utilization of medium-chain triglycerides by neonatal pigs: effects of emulsification and dose delivered. J. Animal Science, 71: 1863-1968.

NRC (NATIONAL RESEARCH COUNCIL) (2006).

Nutrient Requirements of Dogs and Cats. National Academies Press, Washington, DC. PRESTON, T R (1992). Alternative non-cereal diets for poultry. Livestock Research for Rural Development, 4: 31-35.

WEISS, W P and WYATT, D J (2004). Digestible energy values of diets with different fat supplements when fed to lactating dairy cows.

J. Dairy Science, 87: 1446-1454.

RELLING, A E and REYNOLDS, C K (2007).

Feeding rumen-inert fats differing in their degree of saturation decreases intake and increases plasma concentrations of gut peptides in lactating dairy cows. J. Dairy Science, 90: 1506-1515.

ZIJLSTRA, R T; WHANG, K Y; EASTER, R A and ODLE, J (1996). Effect of feeding a milk replacer to early-weaned pigs on growth, body composition, and small intestinal morphology, compared with suckled littermates. J. Animal Science, 74: 2948-2959.

SANTOS, J E; BILBY, T R; THATCHER, W W; STAPLES, C R and SILVESTRE, F T (2008). Long chain fatty acids of diet as factors influencing reproduction in cattle. Reproduction in Domestic Animals, 43 (Suppl 2): 23-30.

ZINN, R A (1989). Influence of level and source of dietary fat on its comparative feeding value in finishing diets for feedlot steers: metabolism. J. Animal Science, 67: 1038-1049.

USDA-NAHMS (2007). Dairy 2007, Part I: Reference of Dairy Cattle Health and Management Practices in the United States, 2007. USDA-APHIS-VS, CEAH, Fort Collins, Colorado, USA.

ZINN, R A and JORQUERA, A P (2007). Feed value of supplemental fats used in feedlot cattle diets.

Veterinary Clinics of North America Food Animal Practice, 23: 247-268.

845

INTERESTERIFIED PALM PRODUCTS AS HARD STOCK FOR SOLID FAT FORMULATIONS by: NOOR LIDA HABI MAT DIAN; KALYANA SUNDRAM and AZMAN ISMAIL MPOB INFORMATION SERIES • ISSN 1511-7871 • JUNE 2006

330

MPOB TT No. 323

Other European countries have yet to impose such rules, but pressure is mounting from consumer-led organizations (FoodQuality news.com, 2005). In the USA, the Food and Drug Administration has mandated the inclusion of trans FAs content on food labels starting 1 January 2006.

I

nteresterification (IE) is a powerful tool for modification of the physical and chemical properties of oils and fats. IE involves redistribution and interchange of fatty acids (FAs) within and between the triacylglycerol molecules, which make up all oils and fats. The result is a significantly changed melting and crystallization behaviour. No changes occur to the FA composition.

Therefore, IE does not result in the formation of either trans or geometrical isomers of FAs. However, IE has not been given due attention in the food industry since hydrogenation was the preferred process especially for the production of solid fats such as margarine and shortening.

Partially hydrogenated vegetable oils containing trans FAs are a near-perfect ingredient because they can be tailored for specific applications. But, trans FAs resulting from partial hydrogenation have been proven to raise the low-density lipoprotein (bad) cholesterol level, causing the arteries to become hardened and clogged, and increase the risk for cardiovascular disease (Reddy and Jeyarani, 2001).

It has therefore been recommended that trans FAs be removed from food systems.

Due to the health implications of the trans FAs and increased consumer awareness of trans fats in their diet, the food industry is gradually phasing out the use of hydrogenated fats in their products. In 2003, Denmark became the first country to introduce restrictions on the use of industrially produced trans FAs. Oils and fats are now forbidden on the Danish market if they contain trans FAs exceeding 2%, a move which effectively bans partially hydrogenated oils.

IE provides an alternative for food manufacturers looking for reduced trans fats in their products. For instance, there has been a great increase in the use of interesterified fats (especially in Europe) as hard stocks in solid fat formulations, as replacements for trans fats.

This technology offers several trans-free fats suitable as fat blend or hard stock for the manufacture of low or zero trans solid fats such as margarine, shortening and spread. Using these trans-free fats, post-hardening – a problem in solid fats formulated with a high percentage of palm oil products - can also be eliminated.

IE PROCESS IE modifies the physical properties of the oil by interchange of FAs between and within the different triglycerides. The reaction is catalyst driven at about 100°C under vacuum.

The process involves the following steps: 1. Neutral feedstock is pumped batch-wise into the IE vessel.

2. The oil is heated under vacuum and dried.

3. Catalyst is added and the reaction started.

4. After the reaction is complete, the catalyst is deactivated by addition of a dilute aqueous citric acid solution.

5. The interesterified oil is washed with water to remove soap by-products and then dried under vacuum.

6. A light post-bleaching step is carried out to remove residual soaps, trace metals and oxidized bodies.

7. The interesterified oil is deodorized to remove free FAs and other volatile impurities.

Malaysian Palm Oil Board, Ministry of Plantation Industries and Commodities, Malaysia P. O. Box 10620, 50720 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. Tel: 03-89259155, 89259775, Website: http://mpob.gov.my Telefax: 03-89259446

MPOB PALM-BASED INTERESTERIFIED FATS The MPOB palm-based interesterified fats (MPOB IEFATs) were produced using a 70kg capacity batch IE pilot plant. When blended with other oils and fats, they gave the right melting properties for certain applications. The solid fat content (SFC) profiles of some of the MPOB IE-FATs suitable as hard stock for plastic fat formulations are shown in Figure 1.

Figure 2. SFC profiles of oil blend formulations for various types of solid fat products using MPOB IE-FATs as hard stock.

NOVELTY OF MPOB IE-FATs HARD STOCK • Free of trans FAs. • A more healthy fat formulation.

• Rapid crystallization rate compared to non-IE palm-based hard stock.

Figure 1. Solid fat content profiles of MPOB IE-FATs hard stock for solid fat formulations.

• Provides the right melting properties and good plasticity.

APPLICATIONS • Can be used as fat blend/hard stock for the manufacture of low SAFA solid fats.

The palm-based trans-free MPOB IE-FATs can be used as fat blend or hard stock for the manufacture of low or zero trans FAs solid fats such as margarine, shortening, spread and pastry fat. At the same time, the MPOB IE-FATs help to reduce the saturated FA (SAFA) level in the solid fat formulations. For instance, the trans-free MPOB IE-FATs can be used to produce tub and block type table margarine/spread with desirable mouth feel, good spreadability at refrigeration temperature and low SAFA content.

Examples of SFC profiles of oil blend formulations for such table margarines/spread are shown in Figure 2.

The SAFA contents of the oil blend formulations for block (coded A) and tub (coded B) type table margarine/spread are 25.1% and 17.3%, respectively. Post-hardening, which usually occurs in table margarine/spread formulated with palm products, especially those stored at refrigeration temperature, may also be averted.

The MPOB IE-FATs are also suitable in the formulation of bakery margarine/shortening low in SAFA. An example of a trans-free bakery shortening blends having good plasticity over a broad temperature range (similar to USA commercial products) is blend C in Figure 2. It contains 29.5% SAFAs, much lower than the contents in most of the popular US brands. Bakery fats having a balance saturated, monounsaturated and polyunsaturated FA content can also be produced using the MPOB IE-FATs as hard stock.

• Helps eliminate/reduce the post-hardening problem in palm-based solid fats.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The technical assistance of Abd Aziz Abd Rahman, Mohd Adrina Malek, Che Maimon Che’ Ha and Nasoikhieddinah Md Purdi is gratefully acknowledged.

REFERENCES REDDY, S Y and JEYARANI, T (2001). Trans-free bakery shortenings from mango kernel and mahua fats by fractionation and blending. J. Amer. Oil Chem. Soc. Vol. 78: 635-640.

FoodQuality news.com. 28/06/2004. Guidance for new trans fat rules. http://www.foodqualitynews.com/

For more information kindly contact: Director-General MPOB P. O. Box 10620 50720 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.

Tel: 03-89259155, 89259775 Website: http://mpob.gov.my Telefax: 03-89259446

TRANS-FREE SOFT SPREAD (TF Soft Spread) MISKANDAR MAT SAHRI; NOR AINI IDRIS and ZALIHA OMAR

A

412 MPOB TT No. 387

MPOB INFORMATION SERIES • ISSN 1511-7871 • JUNE 2008

trans-free Soft Spread (TF Soft Spread) has been formulated (Figure 1). The margarine is consistent, yet soft and readily spreadable on bread from the refrigerator at 5°C-10°C. It also maintains its consistency even when left at room temperature (23°C-25°C) for up to 4 hr.

to the structure or body of the margarine by affecting its solid fat content (SFC) which can be measured by nuclear magnetic resonance.

Reducing SAFA will weaken the structure. Soft margarines with low SFC packed in tubs would also suffer from oil separation, graininess and greasiness. When a margarine is produced, it should be allowed sufficient crystal formation for the desired consistency during filling. This can be achieved by setting the crystallization temperature at 30% SFC. The storage temperature is another important parameter to manage for stability and spreada-bility of the margarine over time.

MPOB has, however, managed to produce a transfree soft spread with low SAFA and high linoleic acid using a novel processing method.

PRODUCT NOVELTY

Figure 1. TF Soft Spread.

There has been increasing demand for margarines with low saturates and trans by health conscious consumers. The saturated fatty acid (SAFA) content recommended is < 33% and trans fatty acids <1%.

Reducing SAFA to <33% will normally compromise the physical product as SAFA contributes

Like any other normal soft margarine and butter, TF Soft Spread is for spreading on bread. Its reduced fat content (65%) gives it a lower calorific value. It is also carefully formulated as a healthy product free from trans fatty acids and containing <30% saturates and >50% linoleic (C18:2, ω6) (Figure 2).

It is readily spreadable from the refrigerator, and maintains its spreadability and consistency for over 4 hr at room temperature (Figure 3).

Figure 2. Fatty acid composition of TF Soft Spread 996.

Note: The blue portion of the pie chart indicates the linoleic acid part of the formulation.

Malaysian Palm Oil Board, Ministry of Plantation Industries and Commodities, Malaysia P. O. Box 10620, 50720 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. Tel: 03-87694400 Website: www.mpob.gov.my

Telefax: 03-89259446

Figure 3. Spreadability of TF Soft Spread 996 and three commercial samples.

Note: Spreadability was measured as soon as the product was taken out of the refrigerator (time = 0 min), measurement was taken every 15 min to 330 min at room temperature of 23ºC.

PRODUCT CHARACTERISTICS As per the normal crystallization behaviour of margarines during storage (Faur, 1996; Miskandar et al., 2002a, b), the product was unstable in the first week at 5°C to 15°C. However, it then stabilized with no significant (P<0.05) post-crystallization from the second week onwards. Storage at 5°C, 10°C, 15°C and 20°C did not cause any significant changes in the product hardness as measured by its yield value after the second week of storage (Figure 4). According to Haighton (1965), the yield

value of a good margarine with good spreadability should be 200 - 1000 g cm-2. Figure 5 shows that the product has a stable and smooth texture without significant melting even after deformation. This is supported by the stable crystal development as shown in the photomicrograph in Figure 6. Crystals of the product were homogeneous in size and distribution, indicating that our novel processing method, MN996, had promoted effective nucleation that contained the crystal size to < 4 μm even after 25 days of storage.

Figure 4. Penetration yield values (g cm-2) after 25 days’ storage at 5°C, 10°C, 15°C and 20°C.

Figure 5. Texture of TF Soft Spread 996.

INVESTMENT RETURN

Figure 6. Photomicrograph of TF Soft Spread 996 after storage for 25 days at 15째C (magnification 10x10).

The product is usable straight from the refrigerator (5째C-10째C), spreads with a smooth texture and no oiling-off, making it highly acceptable by the 18 sensory panellists it was tested on (Figure 7).

The sensory results show TF Soft Spread MN996 to be better than most of the well-known local commercial margarines.

Yearly production Production volume (t) Sales @ RM 2.80 per 250 g tub Production cost Profit a year

Investment Fixed investment Operating cost Total investment

NPV Break-even IRR

2 496 RM 27 955 200 RM 17 980 319 RM 9 974 880 RM 6 150 000 RM 8 990 160 RM 15 140 160 RM 19 207 507 3 years 23%

REFERENCES FAUR, L (1996). Margarine technology. Oils and Fats Manual (Karleskind, A ed.). Vol. 2, Lovoisier Publishing, Paris. p. 951-962.

MISKANDAR, M S; Y B CHE MAN; M S A, YUSOFF and R ABDUL RAHMAN (2002a). Effect of emulsion temperature on physical properties of palm oil-based margarine. J. Amer. Oil Chem. Soc. Vol., 79: 1163-1168.

MISKANDAR, M S; Y B, CHE MAN; M S A YUSOFF and R ABDUL RAHMAN (2002b), Effect of scraped-surface tube cooler temperature on physical properties of palm oil margarine.

J. Amer. Oil Chem. Soc. Vol., 79: 931-936.

Figure 7. Sensory evaluation results for TF Soft Spread 996 and a commercial spread.

HAIGHTON, A J (1965). The measurement of the hardness of margarine fats with cone penetrometer, J. Amer. Oil Chem. Soc. Vol., 36: 345-348.

For more information kindly contact: Director-General MPOB P. O. Box 10620 50720 Kuala Lumpur. Malaysia.

Tel: 03-87694400 Website: www.mpob.gov.my Telefax: 03-89259446

PALM-BASED TRANS-FREE RECONSTITUTED FILLED MILK by: WAN ROSNANI AWG ISA; NOR AINI IDRIS; ABDUL RAHMAN IBRAHIM and AZMAN ISMAIL

F

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MPOB INFORMATION SERIES â&#x20AC;˘ ISSN 1511-7871 â&#x20AC;˘ JUNE 2008

illed milk is a milk substitute made by combining non-dairy fats or oils with milk solids. It is used to replace fresh milk products in regions where there is inadequate storage facilities or where milk is little or not produced. The properties of reconstituted milk more closely resemble those of homogenized milk than whole milk. Much of the filled milk in the market contains coconut oil, which is inexpensive and more resistant to oxidation than milk fat. In addition, its melting characteristics mimic that of milk fat.

Figure 2. Palm-based reconstituted filled milk. vessel. The mixture is homogenized, then pasteurized at 72oC for 30 min. The palm-based reconstituted filled milk is packed in suitable containers.

The product should be shaken well before use.

PRODUCT CHARACTERISTICS

Figure 1. Palm oil.

INGREDIENTS AND PROCESSING The major ingredients in palm-based reconstituted filled milk (palm-based RFM) are palm-based oil, milk protein and water (Figure 2). A food emulsifier is added to make the emulsion homogenous.

The dry and liquid ingredients are reconstituted with water and heated to 40oC in the processing

The physical properties of palm-based RFM are shown in Table 1 and Figure 3. The viscosity ranged from 43 to 53.2 mPas vs. 43 mPas for the control.

The viscosity of Formulation 2 (F2) was comparable to that of the control, while the viscosities of Formulations 1 (F1) and 3 (F3) were higher. The pH of palm-based RFM was 6.6 to 6.8, and for the control, 6.7. Brix was 12.9% to 17.5%, while for the control 13.2%. The F1 had pH and brix comparable to those of the control. The sensory evaluation scores (Figure 4) indicated that palm-based RFM prepared from milk powder (MP1) was preferred over MP2 or MP3. Palm-based RFM prepared from MP1 and palm-based oil scored higher for appearance and creaming property than the other experimental samples (Figure 5). Palm blend 1 was comparable to palm-based oil 3 in terms of appearance and suitable to be produced as palm-based RFM.

Malaysian Palm Oil Board, Ministry of Plantation Industries and Commodities, Malaysia P. O. Box 10620, 50720 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. Tel: 03-87694400 Website: www.mpob.gov.my

Telefax: 03-89259446

TABLE1. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF PALMBASED RECONSTITUTED FILLED MILK

Note:

Product

pH

Brix (%)

F1

6.6

12.9

F2

6.8

16.3

F3

6.6

17.5

F4

6.7

13.7

Control Palm blend 1 Palm-based oil 1 Palm-based oil 2 Palm-based oil 3

Figure 5. Sensory scores for palm-based reconstituted filled milk made from different fats.

F1 = Milk powder 1 F2 = Milk powder 2 F3 = Milk powder 3 F4 = Commercial sample

NOVELTY Palm-based RFM is an alternative to milk. It is in liquid form and is always ready for use.

60

ECONOMIC EVALUATION

50 40 30

Viscosity (mPas)

20 10 0

F1

F2

F3

F4

Figure 3. Viscosity of palm-based reconstituted filled milk.

Note:

F1 = Milk powder 1 F2 = Milk powder 2 F3 = Milk powder 3 F4 = Commercial sample

The commercial production of palm-based RFM is expected to require an investment of RM 286 000. Producing 48 000 kg yr-1 at a longterm price of RM 5.5 kg-1 will earn a pre-tax income of RM 84 955. The unit cost of production is estimated to be about RM 4.23 kg-1. Using a 10% discount factor and a product price of RM 5 kg-1, the investment is attractive with a payback period of 5.3 years. The venture is expected to yield a B:C ratio of 1.17, NPV of RM 237 287 and IRR of 30.23%. As the B:C is greater than unity, NPV positive and IRR higher than the opportunity cost of capital; the investment is financially viable.

MARKET POTENTIAL

4.5 4 3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0

The users of palm-based RFM are fast food restaurants, catering services and retailers.

Scores

For more information kindly contact: F1

F2

F3

F4

Figure 4. Sensory scores for palm-based reconstituted filled milk.

Note:

F1 = Milk powder 1 F2 = Milk powder 2 F3 = Milk powder 3 F4 = Commercial sample

Director-General MPOB P. O. Box 10620 50720 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.

Tel: 03-87694400 Website: www.mpob.gov.my Telefax: 03-89259446

PALM-BASED TRANS-FREE BRICK SPREAD FOR SHALLOW FRYING

SIVARUBY KANAGARATNAM; ISA MANSOR; MISKANDAR MAT SAHRI; NOR AINI IDRIS and MOHAMAD FAIRUS MOHD HIDZIR

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rick spread is widely used in the catering and retail sectors (Figure 1).

The applications of this product are for spreading on bread and to stir fry vegetables, rice, seafood, meat and eggs. Brick spread replaces the function of butter in shallow frying application. Brick spread in shallow frying will act to transfer the buttery aroma into the shallow fried foods. The oils and fats used in the formulation must play the role of preserving the butter flavour during the shallow frying process. Despite this, the spread must also be able to tolerate high frying temperatures without scorching the frying pan or spattering.

Specially selected palm-based oils and fats are able to support this application as palm-based products are able to withstand high frying temperatures and are resistant to oxidation. Palmbased oils and fats also contain very low levels of phospholipids (2 to 4 ppm). Hence, the use of palm-based products will be able to minimize the staining of the frying pans from the formation of gummy residual during the shallow frying process.

Common commercial brick spreads are formulated with hydrogenated fats for their property of

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fast crystallization required for block formation during the processing. However, hydrogenation produces trans fatty acids which are nutritionally undesirable as a pre-disposing factor to cardiovascular diseases. Hence, the global trend is towards trans-free formulations. Palm oil, with its natural solid portion devoid of trans fatty acids, would be a very good substitute for hydrogenated fats. MPOB BS 1 Brick Spread was formulated with specially selected palm-based oils and fats to match the solid fat profiles of several commercial brick spreads from Eastern Europe (Figure 2). The palm-based oils and fats were blended to satisfy the crucial requirement of easy block formation during processing (Figure 3). Normally, this product is marketed in paper-wrapped bricks of 250 g/500 g for retail, or 2.5 kg/5 kg blocks for catering. Hence, the formulation must be able to form into blocks during processing to facilitate packaging.

As much as 30% water is incorporated into MPOB BS1 Brick Spread. Suitable emulsifiers are used to strengthen the binding of water to the oil in the emulsion so that the emulsion can withstand the high heating in shallow frying. The binding strength of water to oil is able to reduce the spattering during shallow frying. The gentle

Figure 1. Commercial brick spread display in hypermarket in Turkey.

Malaysian Palm Oil Board, Ministry of Plantation Industries and Commodities, Malaysia P. O. Box 10620, 50720 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. Tel: 03-87694400 Website: www.mpob.gov.my

Telefax: 03-89259446

Solid fat content (%)

Figure 2. Solid fat content profiles of commercial brick spreads from Eastern Europe and MPOB BS1 Brick Spread.

Figure 3. Production of MPOB BS1 in the MPOB perfector pilot plant.

release of water during frying is important to prevent the hot oil from spurting onto the user.

Figures 4 to 8 show the evaluation of spattering of MPOB BS1 Brick Spread. The 10 g MPOB BS1 was placed in a wok to a depth of 8 cm, and a wire mesh placed over it to support a sheet of graph paper.

The graph paper was weighed down by the glass cover of the wok. The oil was then heated to 150째C for 2 min. The degree of spattering was taken as the number of oil stains on the graph paper, of which a minimal number was found, indicating the low spattering potential of the spread. There was also minimal spattering on the walls of the

wok. Hence, MPOB BS 1 is an excellent medium for shallow frying.

Figure 4. The 10 g of MPOB BS 1 Brick Spread was placed in the wok.

CHARACTERISTICS OF PALM-BASED BRICK SPREAD FOR SHALLOW FRYING

Figure 5. Wire mesh place on the wok to hold the graph paper.

• The product has as high as 30% water content, substantially reducing the calorie intake; • Suitable for shallow frying as specially selected emulsifiers are able to reduce the spattering during frying; • A healthier replacement for hydrogenated fats, free from trans fatty acids; • The product is also cholesterol-free; and • The product does not leave a waxy or greasy after-taste.

CONCLUSION Palm-based fractions are able to replace hydrogenated fats in the formulation of brick spread and incorporate as much as 30% water. The selection of the palm-based oils and fats successfully fulfils the crucial requirement for block formation during processing.

Figure 6. The brick spread was heated to 150°C for 2 min.

Figure 7. Minimum spattering was observed.

Figure 8. Minimum oil stains on graph paper.

Note: Brick spreads are not recommended for deep frying.

MPOB BS1 can easily be added to the range of products of companies producing shortening and margarine without undue extra cost.

For more information kindly contact: Director-General MPOB P. O. Box 10620 50720 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.

Tel: 03-87694400 Website: www.mpob.gov.my

PRODUCTION OF TOCOTRIENOL-ENRICHED EGGS

OSMAN ATIL; MARDHATI MOHAMMAD; FARAH NURSHAHIDA MOHD SUBAKIR; AHMAD RUSDAN AHMAD ZOHDI and JUMARDI ROSLAN

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ocotrienol-enriched egg was developed at the Energy Protein Centre (EPC), MPOB in Keratong, Pahang. It was technically feasible to produce tocotrienol-enriched chicken eggs through feeding formulated feed with tocotrienolrich fraction (TRF) and/or MPOB-HIE. Tocotrienol and vitamin E enhanced oxidative stability and prevented off-flavour in the eggs (Ajuyah et al., 1993). Vitamin E was demonstrated to reduce heat stress in laying hens (Whitehead et al., 1998; Bollengier-Lee et al., 1998). MPOB-HIE was developed from a palm oil product very rich in natural tocotrienols and vitamin E. It was technically and economically feasible to substitute crude palm oil (CPO) and part of the corn in layer chicken feed.

MATERIALS AND METHOD Seventeen-week-old 7200 H&N pullets were assigned to six treatment rations: commercial ration (T1), ration formulated with 5% MPOB-HIE (T2), ration formulated with an improved MPOBHIE at 5% with 50 ppm tocotrienol (T3), 100 ppm tocotrienol (T4), 150 ppm tocotrienol (T5) and 200 ppm tocotrienol (T6). The tocotrienols came from TRF bought from a local manufacturer. All of the rations were isonitrogenous and isocaloric.

Water was available ad libitum. The tocotrienol and fatty acid analyses were carried out using the techniques described by Sundram and Rosnah (2000). Egg quality analysis on shell thickness and

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Haugh units was adopted. The sensory test was carried out using half-boiled and scrambled eggs.

The Haugh unit is a measurement of the albumen quality.

Formula: HU = 100 log10 (h – 1.7w0.37 + 7.6) where, HU = Haugh unit h = observed height of the albumen in millimeters w = weight of egg in grammes

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ON TOCOTRIENOLS, VITAMIN E AND FATTY ACIDS The rates of tocotrienol accumulation in the eggs are presented in Figure 1. Accumulation of tocotrienols in the eggs was positive and directly related to the amount of tocotrienols in the rations.

Ingested tocotrienols tended to accumulate in the egg yolk (Lanari et al., 2004).

The result showed higher tocotrienols in the eggs as the bird grew older. This was a clear indication that the ingested tocotrienol tended to be deposited in the egg yolk throughout the feeding period. The feeding period and concentration of tocotrienol in the feed directly influenced the tocotrienol concentration of the egg.

Malaysian Palm Oil Board, Ministry of Plantation Industries and Commodities, Malaysia P. O. Box 10620, 50720 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. Tel: 03-87694400 Website: www.mpob.gov.my

Telefax: 03-89259446

Figure 1. Tocotrienol content in eggs.

TABLE 1. FATTY ACIDS COMPOSITION OF EGG YOLK FROM HENS FED RATIONS FORMULATED WITH MPOB-HIE Feed

F1 F2 F3 F4 F5 F6

Fatty acid composition (%) C14:0

C16:0

C18:0

C18:1

C18:2

C18:3

C20:0

C20:1

3.14 3.27 3.09 3.62 4.21 3.56

14.47 13.58 12.73 13.46 14.61 13.14

6.17 6.40 5.68 7.19 8.74 7.11

47.00 47.01 50.10 43.64 34.23 43.63

26.71 28.89 27.53 31.39 37.39 29.52

0.25 0.41 0.40 0.50 0.68 0.63

0.52 0.65 0.34 0.38 0.37 0.37

0.20 0.32 0.28 0.27 0.19 0.31

The predominant fatty acids in the egg yolk are tabulated in Table 1. They are oleic (C18:1), linoleic (C18:2), palmitic (16:0), stearic (C18:0) and myristic (C14:0).

The egg albumen quality is routinely measured in Haugh units. Haugh unit is determined by a micrometer which measures the albumen height.

Haugh units of the eggs from rations formulated with MPOB-HIE were higher than the commercial ration.

The shell was thicker from the eggs of hens fed on rations formulated with MPOB-HIE (Table 2).

Figures 2 and 3 show the sensory attributes of boiled and scrambled eggs. The sensory attributes of boiled and scrambled eggs of hens fed rations formulated with MPOB-HIE tended to be superior to the commercial ration. As such, MPOB-HIE imparted superior sensory atributes. Therefore, inclusion of MPOB-HIE and palm tocols in the ration of hens produce good quality eggs and good taste. The eggs were readily accepted by consumers.

TABLE 2. AVERAGE SHELL THICKNESS AND HAUGH UNITS OF EGGS FROM HENS FED RATIONS FORMULATED WITH MPOB-HIE Feed F1 F2 F3 F4 F5 F6

Shell thickness (mm)

Haugh unit

0.385 0.390 0.388 0.383 0.399 0.396

79.519 79.594 81.028 80.460 81.313 80.559

Figure 2. Sensory evaluation on half-boiled egg.

Figure 3. Sensory evaluation on scrambled egg.

CONCLUSION • It was technically feasible to use 5% MPOBHIE in the formulation of layer rations.

• It was technically feasible to produce tocotrienol-enriched eggs through feeding.

• MPOB-HIE tended to improve the quality of eggs.

• MPOB-HIE impart superior eating quality to the eggs.

REFERENCES AJUYAH, A O; HARDIN, R T and SIM, J S (1993).

Effect of dietary full-fat flaxseed with and without antioxidant on the fatty acid composition of major lipid classes of chicken meats. Poult. Sci., 72:125136.

BOLLENGIER-LEE, S; MITCHELL, M A; UTOMO, D B; WILLIAMS, P E V and HITEHEAD,

C C (1998). Influence of high dietary vitamin E supplementation on egg production and plasma characteristics in hens subjected to heat stress. Br. Poult. Sci., 39: 106-112.

LANARI, M C; HEWAVITHARANA, A K; BECU, C and DE JONG, S (2004). Effect of dietary tocopherols and tocotrienols on the antioxidant status and lipid stability of chicken. Meat Science, 68: 155-162.

SUNDRAM, K and ROSNAH, M N (2000). Analysis of tocotrienols in different sample matrixes by HPLC. Methods in Molecular Biology, 186: 221-232.

WHITEHEAD, C C; BOLLENGIER-LEE, S; MITCHELL, M A and WILLIAMS, P E V (1998) Vitamin E can alleviate the depression in egg production in heat stressed laying hens. Proc. of Spring Meeting. Wpsauk Branch, Scarborough. p.

55–56.

For more information kindly contact: Director-General MPOB P. O. Box 10620 50720 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.

Tel: 03-87694400 Website: www.mpob.gov.my

NON-LAURIC FATS FOR CREAM FILLING SALMI YATI SHAMSUDIN

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andwich cookies occupy a significant place in the world market for biscuits.

Soft filling creams are widely used for filling sandwich cookies. The cream is either sandwiched between the cookies or between the wafer sheets. Multiple layers of cream can also be sandwiched between wafers. Cream biscuits may also be enrobed with chocolate or other coatings. Cream fillings will enhance the palatability of biscuits and wafers.

Some applications of cream fillings are shown in Figure 1. Amongst the popular product brands are Oreo which is produced by Nabisco Biscuit Company and Tim Tam produced by Arnott’s Biscuits Holdings.

such as vanilla, chocolate and hazelnut to fruity flavours.

DESCRIPTION OF THE PRODUCT Filling fat was formulated through a blending and interesterification process using different fractions of palm oil to obtain the required characteristics.

The cream filling was produced using 40% fats, sugar, emulsifier and flavour. The MPOB fats for cream fillings have several advantages: • they have reduced saturated fatty acids; • being non-lauric-based, they are not susceptible to hydrolytic rancidity; • non-hydrogenated fats are used; • they do not contain trans fatty acids; • they have a fast rate of solidification (Figure 2); and • they are bland in flavour, facilitating the addition of any flavouring agent.

Figure 1. Commercial applications of cream fillings.

The creams principally contain sugar, fat and flavouring. The fat content in the filling cream usually falls in the range of 25%-40%. The fat is carefully selected to give the cream some specific characteristics such as quick setting, firm at usage temperature and no leakages out from the sandwich. The cream should also have good melting properties in the mouth to avoid waxiness.

The flavour can vary from indulgent flavours

Figure 2. Rate of solidification of MPOB and control fats at 20oC.

CHARACTERISTICS OF CREAM FILLING MADE FROM MPOB FATS As the MPOB fats have enough solid fat, they will solidify at a faster rate to give good characteristics for cream fillings. Good quality cream fillings can be produced using MPOB fats as they are able to

Malaysian Palm Oil Board, Ministry of Plantation Industries and Commodities, Malaysia P. O. Box 10620, 50720 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. Tel: 03-87694400 Website: www.mpob.gov.my

Telefax: 03-89259446

satisfy the following criteria: • the cream is smooth and creamy (Figure 3 and Table 1); • the cream solidifies sufficiently rapidly after spreading, and the two biscuit shells are held together firmly to prevent possible damage during transportation and packaging (Figure 4);

• the cream gives a firm bite yet melts quickly in the mouth to give a cool sensation to the palate and release the sugar and added flavouring (Table 1); and • the cream melts readily leaving no waxy aftertaste.

melting property and creaminess (Table 1). The scores also showed that the non-lauric- based filling fats (MPOB 1, MPOB 2 and Comm. 2) were as well received as the lauric-based filling fat (Comm.1).

The creaming power of the product was 1.1-1.2 g cm-3 as compared to the control which was 1.1-1.5 g cm-3. The required creaming power is 0.75-1.15 g cm-3. The graphs for hardness during storage at 20ºC and 30ºC are shown in Figure 6. There was no significant increase in hardness during storage, indicating that the occurrence of post-hardening was minimal.

Biscuits are one of the main high-end processed foods. In USA, the total value of shipments of cookies and the cracker manufacturing industry amounted to USD 10.3 billion in 2000. The leader in the industry is Nabisco Biscuit Company which sold the top 10 cookies worldwide with the sales amounting to USD 1.8 billion for the first half of 1999. Its products include Oreo chocolate sandwich cookies, which is the world’s largest selling cookie brand.

TABLE 1. SENSORY SCORES FOR MPOB AND COMMERCIAL CREAM FILLINGS Figure 3. Smooth and creamy cream filling.

Sample Smoothness

a

5.5

a

5.3

MPOB 1

5.4

MPOB 2

5.2

6.7

b

5.6

5.1

a

7.1

5.9

Comm 2

5.1

Creaminess

b

a

Comm 1

Notes:

Melting property

a

ab

b

ab

5.9

a

4.9

b

Comm = commercial sample.

Means within a column with the sample which are not significantly different from one another (p. < 0.05).

Figure 4. The cream is stable when sandwiched in between biscuit shells.

• the cream is firm enough (Figure 5) at ambient temperatures to hold the two biscuit shells together and yet avoid being squeezed out of the sandwich;

Figure 6. Hardness of cream filling made with MPOB fats and commercial samples during storage at 20oC and 30oC.

SENSORY PROFILE OF CREAM FILLING Figure 5. The peak of the cream does not collapse showing that the cream is stable at 30oC and at room temperatures.

Sensory scores for cream fillings made with MPOB fats were not significantly different (p<0.05) from commercial cream fillings in terms of smoothness,

MARKET POTENTIAL

China is the third largest market for biscuits after USA and India. The highest product share was held by sandwich biscuits at 20% share in 2005. The popular types of biscuits include butter cookies and sandwich type cookies with chocolate, vanilla or strawberry fillings.

In Malaysia, biscuit production was 107 017 t valued at USD 109.3 million in 1997. The industry continues to grow in line with upgrading the

product image in order to compete in local and overseas markets. Local biscuit production includes cream crackers, oatmeal and digestive biscuits, chocolate-coated cream sandwich biscuits and other assorted biscuits. The industry is dominated by four major brand-driven companies, namely Britannia Brands, Hwa Tai Food Industries, Perfect Food Industries and Khong Guan Biscuit Factory. Besides catering for local consumption, they also export their biscuits to West Asia, Australia, Canada, UK, Southeast Asian countries, Russia and Japan. The biscuit industry continues to grow with many local producers producing unbranded biscuits targeted at the low-end market while the high quality branded products are exported. This indirectly reflects the increased use of ingredients for making biscuits, including the cream fillings which are widely used for sandwich biscuits and wafers.

In line with the increased health awareness of the risk of using trans fatty acid fats and high saturated fats, the MPOB fats for cream fillings can be the best choice for our discerning consumers. MPOB fats offer trans fatty acid-free and lower saturated fats for cream fillings unlike the lauric acid-based fats.

satisfy the following criteria: • the cream is smooth and creamy (Figure 3 and Table 1); • the cream solidifies sufficiently rapidly after spreading, and the two biscuit shells are held together firmly to prevent possible damage during transportation and packaging (Figure 4);

• the cream gives a firm bite yet melts quickly in the mouth to give a cool sensation to the palate and release the sugar and added flavouring (Table 1); and • the cream melts readily leaving no waxy aftertaste.

melting property and creaminess (Table 1). The scores also showed that the non-lauric- based filling fats (MPOB 1, MPOB 2 and Comm. 2) were as well received as the lauric-based filling fat (Comm.1).

The creaming power of the product was 1.1-1.2 g cm-3 as compared to the control which was 1.1-1.5 g cm-3. The required creaming power is 0.75-1.15 g cm-3. The graphs for hardness during storage at 20ºC and 30ºC are shown in Figure 6. There was no significant increase in hardness during storage, indicating that the occurrence of post-hardening was minimal.

Biscuits are one of the main high-end processed foods. In USA, the total value of shipments of cookies and the cracker manufacturing industry amounted to USD 10.3 billion in 2000. The leader in the industry is Nabisco Biscuit Company which sold the top 10 cookies worldwide with the sales amounting to USD 1.8 billion for the first half of 1999. Its products include Oreo chocolate sandwich cookies, which is the world’s largest selling cookie brand.

TABLE 1. SENSORY SCORES FOR MPOB AND COMMERCIAL CREAM FILLINGS Figure 3. Smooth and creamy cream filling.

Sample Smoothness

a

5.5

a

5.3

MPOB 1

5.4

MPOB 2

5.2

6.7

b

5.6

5.1

a

7.1

5.9

Comm 2

5.1

Creaminess

b

a

Comm 1

Notes:

Melting property

a

ab

b

ab

5.9

a

4.9

b

Comm = commercial sample.

Means within a column with the sample which are not significantly different from one another (p. < 0.05).

Figure 4. The cream is stable when sandwiched in between biscuit shells.

• the cream is firm enough (Figure 5) at ambient temperatures to hold the two biscuit shells together and yet avoid being squeezed out of the sandwich;

Figure 6. Hardness of cream filling made with MPOB fats and commercial samples during storage at 20oC and 30oC.

SENSORY PROFILE OF CREAM FILLING Figure 5. The peak of the cream does not collapse showing that the cream is stable at 30oC and at room temperatures.

Sensory scores for cream fillings made with MPOB fats were not significantly different (p<0.05) from commercial cream fillings in terms of smoothness,

MARKET POTENTIAL

China is the third largest market for biscuits after USA and India. The highest product share was held by sandwich biscuits at 20% share in 2005. The popular types of biscuits include butter cookies and sandwich type cookies with chocolate, vanilla or strawberry fillings.

In Malaysia, biscuit production was 107 017 t valued at USD 109.3 million in 1997. The industry continues to grow in line with upgrading the

product image in order to compete in local and overseas markets. Local biscuit production includes cream crackers, oatmeal and digestive biscuits, chocolate-coated cream sandwich biscuits and other assorted biscuits. The industry is dominated by four major brand-driven companies, namely Britannia Brands, Hwa Tai Food Industries, Perfect Food Industries and Khong Guan Biscuit Factory. Besides catering for local consumption, they also export their biscuits to West Asia, Australia, Canada, UK, Southeast Asian countries, Russia and Japan. The biscuit industry continues to grow with many local producers producing unbranded biscuits targeted at the low-end market while the high quality branded products are exported. This indirectly reflects the increased use of ingredients for making biscuits, including the cream fillings which are widely used for sandwich biscuits and wafers.

In line with the increased health awareness of the risk of using trans fatty acid fats and high saturated fats, the MPOB fats for cream fillings can be the best choice for our discerning consumers. MPOB fats offer trans fatty acid-free and lower saturated fats for cream fillings unlike the lauric acid-based fats.

For more information kindly contact: Director-General MPOB P. O. Box 10620 50720 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.

Tel: 03-87694400 Website: www.mpob.gov.my Telefax: 03-89259446

PALM-BASED TRANS FATTY ACID-FREE BUTTER OIL SUBSTITUTE SIVARUBY KANAGARATNAM; GOH ENG MENG; MISKANDAR MAT SAHRI; NOR AINI IDRIS and JAYA GOPAL

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utter oil substitute (BOS) is widely used in the bakery industry to replace the expensive dairy-based butter oil. The functionality of BOS is similar to that of shortening, which is to ‘shorten’ or tenderize baked foods (O’Brien, 1996). The unique characteristics of the BOS product compared to shortening are its strong butter flavour and a deep yellow colour.

BOS is formulated mainly from combinations of animal fats (tallow or lard) and hydrogenated oils. Fats of animal origin contain cholesterol as the major sterol, which is normally considered to be of negative value in the diet (Jee, 2002).

Similarly, partially hydrogenated fats contain trans fatty acids (TFA) which are associated with adverse health effects. TFA have an adverse effect on blood lipoproteins (cholesterol) and have been shown to increase the risk of heart disease. TFA increase the risk of elevating LDL-cholesterol (the bad lipoproteins) and reducing HDL-cholesterol (the good lipoprotein). This increases the risk of cardiovascular disease (Mozaffarian et al., 2006).

Currently, food manufacturers and retailers are systematically removing partially hydrogenated fats from their products. Solid fractions from palm oil are free from cholesterol and TFA, hence are suitable choices for the replacement of animal fats and partially hydrogenated fats in the formulation of BOS. PALM-BASED TFA-FREE BUTTER OIL SUBSTITUTE BOS is extensively used in the bakery industry for making a wide range of pastries. A well-known pastry in China (as well as in Malaysia) using BOS is the mooncake, which is made for the Autumn Festival as special gifts for family and friends (Figures 1 and 2). The formulation of BOS using palm-based oils and fats for this project was based on commercial BOS products from China.

Figure 1. BOS from China with deep yellow colour.

Figure 2. The outer layer of the mooncake dough is softened with BOS.

Five commercial BOS products were obtained from China as reference. The fatty acid composition of these products confirmed the presence of animal fats in three of them. The fatty acids such as pentadecanoic acid C15:0, margaric acid C17:0 and margaoleic acid C17:1, which are present only in animal fats, were detected. The level of margaoleic acid C17:1 detected ranged from 0.3% to 0.4%, as shown in Table 1. The remaining two samples were

Malaysian Palm Oil Board, Ministry of Plantation Industries and Commodities, Malaysia P. O. Box 10620, 50720 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. Tel: 03-87694400 Website: www.mpob.gov.my

Telefax: 03-89259446

free of animal fats. TFA were detected in all the commercial products. Higher levels of TFA were detected in the two commercial products which were free of animal fats. The levels detected were 1.0%, 1.7%, 2.3%, 3.5% and 4.7% as shown in Table 2.

TABLE 1. LEVEL OF C17:1 DETECTED IN COMMERCIAL BOS AND BOS 001 Butter oil substitute Com 1 Com 2 Com 3 Com 4 Com 5 BOS 001

C17:1 0.3 0.3 0.3 n.d. n.d. n.d.

n.d. – not detected.

TABLE 2. LEVEL OF TRANS FATTY ACIDS DETECTED IN THE COMMERCIAL BOS AND BOS 001 Butter oil substitute Com 1 Com 2 Com 3 Com 4 Com 5 BOS 001

Trans fatty acids 2.3 1.7 1.0 3.5 4.7 40.2

Healthier palm-based TFA-free oils and fats blends were used to replace the animal fats and the partially hydrogenated oils in the formulation of a BOS. Palm-based raw materials that can be used for the BOS fat blends are shown in Table 3.

Palm-based TFA-free butter oil substitute BOS 001 was formulated. The palm-based blends were formulated to match the solid fat content (SFC) profile of the commercial products, at the working temperature of the product, i.e. with SFC of 24% at 20°C and 10% at 30°C. The SFC at 40°C was maintained below 3% to avoid a greasy mouth feel in the end-product as shown in Figure 3. The final product was produced by processing the fat blend through the perfector pilot plant (Figure 4).

The bakery performance of the BOS was determined by evaluating the creaming ability of the product. The specific volume values obtained from the creaming of a 500-g sample of the product for 12 min ranged from 2.3 to 3.4 cm3 g-1 for the commercial products. The palm-based TFAfree formulation with the addition of a suitable emulsifier was able to give a reading of 3.3 cm3 g-1, as shown in Table 4. Hence, palm-based transfree formulations have been successfully used to replace animal and partially hydrogenated fats in the production of BOS. BENEFITS/ADVANTAGES 1. A healthier replacement for partially hydrogenated fats – free of trans fatty acids.

2. A healthier replacement for animal fats – free of cholesterol.

3. Natural fractions of palm-based oils and fats used without hydrogenation and/or interesterification.

4. Formulated with a specially selected emulsifier to give the required creaming properties.

5. Suitable for vegetarians.

6. Halal and kosher.

TABLE 3. PALM-BASED PRODUCTS FOR THE FORMULATION OF BOS Palm fraction

High melting point fraction

Medium melting point fraction

Moderator or modifier

Function Act as the backbone Provides structure and

structure texture to the product

Used as modifier to achieve the required solid fat content profile to give the required mouth-feel

Suitable palm Palm stearin Palm oil, palm kernel, products IV < 32 palm soft stearin IV < 40

Palm olein, super palm olein, palm kernel olein, soyabean oil, sunflower oil, canola oil

Suitable level in blend

30% to 50%

10% to 20%

40% to 50%

Percentage of Solids

Figure 3. Solid fat content of commercial BOS samples and BOS 001.

TABLE 4. CREAMING ABILITY OF COMMERCIAL BOS AND BOS 001 Butter oil substitute (Specific volume) Com 1 Com 2 Com 3 Com 4 Com 5 BOS 001

Creaming value (cm3 g-1) 3.3 cm3 g-1 2.3 cm3 g-1 2.9 cm3 g-1 3.0 cm3 g-1 3.4 cm3 g-1 3.3 cm3 g-1

CONCLUSION The palm-based BOS produced was able to match the physical properties and functionalities of the commercial BOS from China. Hence, natural palm-based fractions can successfully replace animal and partially hydrogenated fats in the production of BOS and thus provide a healthier fat ingredient for the bakery industry.

REFERENCES MOZAFFARIAN, D; KATAN, M B; ASCHERIO, A; STAMPFER, M J and WILLETT, W C (2006).

Trans fatty acids and cardiovascular disease. New England Journal of Medicine, 354: 1601-1613.

O’BRIEN, R D (1996). Shortening type and formulations. Bailey’s Industrial Oil and Fats Products Volume 3. Edible Oils and Fat Products and Application Technology (Hui, Y H ed.).

JEE, M (2002). Milk fats and other animal fats.

Oils and Fats Authentication (Jee, M ed.). Blackwell Publishing. p. 115-142.

For more information kindly contact: Director-General MPOB P. O. Box 10620 50720 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.

Tel: 03-87694400 Website: www.mpob.gov.my Telefax: 03-89259446

PALM-BASED TRANS FATTY ACID-FREE BISCUIT CREAM FAT SIVARUBY KANAGARATNAM; ISA MANSOR; MISKANDAR MAT SAHRI; NOR AINI IDRIS and JAYA GOPAL

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MPOB INFORMATION SERIES • ISSN 1511-7871 • JUNE 2009

ream sandwich cookies and crackers are popular snack biscuits in many parts of the world. In this category of biscuits, two identical pieces contain a layer of sweet or savoury cream filling, as shown in Figures 1 and 2. A fat component is used in producing this biscuit cream and its content varies from 25% to 35% of the total cream.

Figure 1. Palm-based trans fatty acid-free biscuit cream fat.

Figure 2. Biscuit cream sandwiched between the biscuits shells.

The fat component affects the processing and the stability of the biscuit cream as well as the taste and eating quality of the biscuits. The most important factors determining the good qualities of the biscuit and the right type of fat to be used in

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the making of the biscuit cream are as follows: • the fat type used in making the biscuit cream must be quick setting when placed between the shell biscuits. The cream must also resist misalignment, smearing and decapping during processing and storage.

• during storage and handling, the biscuit cream should be firm at ambient temperature to maintain product shape and not be squeezed out on handling or when bitten.

• the cream, although firm at ambient temperature, must have organoleptic properties allowing rapid melting in the mouth to release ingredients giving maximum flavour sensation without greasiness.

Partially hydrogenated fats were developed to replace the highly saturated solid animal fats, such as butter, tallow and lard, and were extensively used in the edible fat segment.

Previously, the partially hydrogenated fats were thought to provide a healthier alternative to animal fats because they contain no cholesterol and have less cholesterol-raising saturated fatty acids. However, this opinion has changed with evidence from nutrition research indicating that trans fatty acids (TFA), formed during the hydrogenation process, raise blood cholesterol levels and promote arteriosclerosis to a greater extent than saturated fatty acids. In view of these findings, healthier palm-based TFA-free oil and fat blends are being increasingly used to replace the partially hydrogenated oils in the formulation of biscuit cream fat.

PALM-BASED TFA-FREE BISCUIT CREAM FAT MPOB has undertaken extensive research and found that palm-based oils and fats can be blended to give the required application and functional qualities of biscuit cream fat. Palm-based raw materials that can be used for these fat blends are shown in Table 1. A palm-based TFA-free biscuit

Malaysian Palm Oil Board, Ministry of Plantation Industries and Commodities, Malaysia P. O. Box 10620, 50720 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. Tel: 03-87694400 Website: www.mpob.gov.my

Telefax: 03-89259446

TABLE 1. SUGGESTED OILS AND FATS FOR USE IN THE FORMULATION OF PALM-BASED TRANS FATTY ACID-FREE BISCUIT CREAM Fraction

High melting point fraction

Medium melting point fraction

Moderator or modifier

Function Promotes fast Promotes texture and

crystallization at structure formation at

temperatures below temperatures below 30°C.

30°C.

Should melt down at

Acts as the backbone temperatures above 35°C

structure. to avoid greasy or waxy

after-taste.

Used for obtaining the desirable solid fat content profile to suit the requirements of the intended product.

Suitable palm Premium palm Palm oil, palm kernel oil, products stearin (IV < 20). palm kernel stearin,

interesterified fats (palm

oil and palm kernel

oil-based).

Suitable level 10% to 15% 60% to 70% in blend

Palm olein (IV 56-62), palm kernel olein, soyabean oil, sunflower oil, canola oil.

Figure 4. BC 001 was processed through the MPOB perfector pilot plant.

Percentage of Solids

cream, BC 001, was formulated based on the solid fat profile (SFC) of the commercial product, as shown in Figure 3. The SFC at the processing/ mixing temperature of 20ºC was maintained at 54% to facilitate the incorporation of sugar and other ingredients, and to retain the firmness of the cream. The sharp drop in SFC between 20ºC and 40ºC gives a quick meltdown of the cream that assists the flavour release from the cream, improving the organoleptic quality of the cream. The SFC at 40°C was reduced in BC001 to 3% as compared to the commercial product, Com 1, with 9% solids. The drop in the SFC at 40ºC improved the mouth-feel of the end-product as the greasiness was reduced. The final product was produced by processing the fat blend through the perfector plant, as shown in Figure 4.

15% to 20%

Figure 3. Solid fat content profile of commercial biscuit cream fat and BC 001.

BENEFITS AND ADVANTAGES OF PALM-BASED BISCUIT CREAM FAT • A healthier replacement for partially hydrogenated fats, the palm-based fat blend is free of trans fatty acids.

• Natural fractions of palm-based oils and fats do not involve hydrogenation and/or interesterification.

• The blend is based on 100% vegetable fats; hence, the product is also cholesterol-free.

• The blend is formulated from specially selected fractions of palm-based oils to facilitate a higher crystallization rate that aids quick setting of the cream during processing.

• The product is firm yet melts in the mouth, and the product does not leave a waxy or greasy after-taste.

• It is suitable for vegetarians.

• It is halal and kosher.

CONCLUSION Specially selected palm-based fractions can suitably replace partially hydrogenated fats in the formulation of sandwich biscuit cream fat. The biscuit cream based on these palm fractions fulfill the extensive functional qualities required during processing, handling, storage and transport, as well as the eating qualities of the biscuit.

REFERENCES US Patent 5374438 – Quick-setting sandwich biscuit cream fillings.

RATNAYAKE, W M N and ZEHALUK, C (2002).

Trans fatty acids in foods and their labeling regulation. Healthful Lipids (Akoh, C C and Lai, O M, eds.).

For more information kindly contact: Director-General MPOB P. O. Box 10620 50720 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.

Tel: 03-87694400 Website: www.mpob.gov.my Telefax: 03-89259446

PALM-BASED GHEE-LIKE COOKING FAT MISKANDAR MAT SAHRI and NOR AINI IDRIS

T

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MPOB INFORMATION SERIES • ISSN 1511-7871 • JUNE 2009

his low in trans fat ghee-like cooking fat is formulated from palm fractions and other commercial fats (Figure 1).

The ratio of its saturated, monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids is 4.4:3.7:1.0, an improvement to the ratio of natural ghee which is 25:8:1. The processing condition is unique and the product is spoonable in a tropical climate with temperature of >25°C. It retains its consistency of < 500 g cm-2 at a room temperature of 25°C–28°C without significant hardening or separating for more than six months. The product is very similar to natural ghee, both in consistency and appearance, and has a pleasant flavour, making it a very suitable medium for cooking and frying, particularly in countries in the tropics and in West Asia.

gradual to horizontal slopes from 25°C-40°C. The shape of the slope indicates that the products have sharp melting properties from 5°C–20°C but retain their consistency from 25°C–40°C for spoonable property.

Figure 3 indicates that the palm-based gheelike product is consistently soft and spoonable throughout the storage period of 25 days, and it is predicted that there will be no significant increase in hardness during storage for the subsequent six months at 25°C. Fat crystals that make up the overall texture of the product are homogeneous in shape and size as shown in Figure 4.

Figure 2. Solid fat content profile of natural ghee and ghee-like cooking fats.

Figure 1. Palm-based ghee-like cooking fats.

PRODUCT PROPERTIES The selected formulations for the production of ghee-like cooking fat have solid fat content profiles and melting properties similar to those of natural ghee. As shown in Figure 2, natural ghee and the selected formulations for ghee-like cooking fat show steeper slopes from 5°C–20°C, and more

Figure 3. Consistency of the ghee-like cooking fats during storage at 25°C for four weeks.

Malaysian Palm Oil Board, Ministry of Plantation Industries and Commodities, Malaysia P. O. Box 10620, 50720 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. Tel: 03-87694400 Website: www.mpob.gov.my

Telefax: 03-89259446

flow chart in Figure 5 is <RM 600 000. However, no capital investment will be needed for an existing margarine, shortening, vanaspati and ghee producer.

ECONOMIC EVALUATION

Figure 4. Crystal size and distribution of ghee-like cooking fat at 28 days storage at 25째C (magnification 10x10).

CONSUMERS ACCEPTABILITY

Price per kg RM 2.78 (RM 50 in 18 kg HDPE container )*.

Cost of production per kg RM 2.62 (RM 47.12 in 18 kg).

Net present value = RM 100 742.

Internal rate of return = 26% .

Payback = 3 years.

The ghee-like cooking fat was tested for cooking briyani rice. The 20 sensory panellists who tested the cooked rice could not differentiate between the ghee-like cooking fat and natural ghee.

*When price of RBD palm oil = RM 2100 and RBD palm olein = RM 2400.

NOVELTY

Palm-based ghee-like cooking fats will be a healthier alternative for vegetable ghee and, to a certain extent, natural ghee. Local and overseas users of vegetable ghee, wishing to use a cooking fat similar to a natural ghee, can now use the palm-based ghee-like product.

The formulation has succeeded in improving the fatty acid ratio of the cooking fat over that of natural ghee. The ghee-like cooking fat contains more monounsaturated fatty acid (40% oleic acid) compared to natural ghee that contains 72.8% saturated and 23.2% monounsaturated fats. The product also contains very little trans fatty acid (0.04 g/100 g) compared to the normal commercial vegetable ghee (~17 g/100 g) and natural ghee (4.8 g/100 g). However it should be noted that the trans fatty acid present in the natural ghee is neutral.

TARGET MARKET

COMMERCIAL VALUES The expected capital investment of this technology for the basic production as shown in the process

For more information kindly contact: Director-General MPOB P. O. Box 10620 50720 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.

Tel: 03-87694400 Website: www.mpob.gov.my Figure 5. Process flow chart of ghee-like cooking fat.

HI-OLEIC SOFT SPREAD

480

MISKANDAR MAT SAHRI

D

MPOB TT No. 438

MPOB INFORMATION SERIES • ISSN 1511-7871 • JUNE 2009

iets rich in oleic acid (e.g. olive oil, which contains up to 80% oleic acid) are found to be able to reduce blood pressure. Researchers suggested that the reduction of blood pressure is due to the oleic acid’s physical properties, namely, the cis configuration in the 18-carbon fatty acid that leads to significant differences in the fluidity of the membrane (Petkewich, 2008) (Figure 1).

Figure 1. Oleic acid: monounsaturated fat molecule with 18 carbon, cis, 1 double bond.

Hi-Oleic soft spread is a soft spread high in oleic fatty acid (C18:1) content and low in saturated fats (Figure 2). It is formulated from palm oil and a soft vegetable oil which is high in oleic fatty acid.

There is no hydrogenation process involved in formulating the product.

Figure 2. Hi-Oleic soft spread.

The saturated fat content of this spread is as low as 10%-17%, or a maximum of 0.7 g per 5 g serving of the spread. The oleic acid contributes 70% of the total fat content. The saturated fat content is 50% lower than that of the American Heart Association (AHA) recommended formulations while the monounsaturated fatty acid content is 100% higher than the recommendations of AHA. Such a product is achieved by formulating selected oils and fats as well as having the appropriate processing condition to obtain the desired consistency (Miskandar, 2002a, b).

The processing condition is unique in that it is able to produce a spread with the desired spreadability on bread, without significant oiling out or presenting a greasy feeling on the tongue, despite the low saturated fat content and low solid fat profile (Figure 3). As the formulation has a very low saturated fatty acid content, Hi-Oleic soft spread should be kept refrigerated at 5°C-10°C so that the product will remain at a suitable consistency (< 500 g cm-2 ). At this temperature, it will be stable for more than four months with no separation or hardening (Faur, 1996; Haighton, 1965). As the product is very similar to other high-end bread spreads in the market, in terms of consistency, taste and appearance, it is suitable to be marketed under high-end fat spread with healthier properties.

Consistency is a criterion used to determine the product stability during storage, performance and consumer preference. Of the two Hi-Oleic soft spread formulations, 1089 demonstrates a very consistent yield value during storage as shown in Figure 4. The texture graph in Figure 5 shows a smooth line curve during cylinder penetration and retrieval, indicating that the spread is smooth through the entire range of the test (red region) with good spreadability. The consistency of the product is also demonstrated by its stability even after the 25th day of storage as shown in Figure 6.

There is no significant oiling problem as shown by the homogeneous distribution of water droplets during storage at 5°C-20°C. Finally, it is the

Malaysian Palm Oil Board, Ministry of Plantation Industries and Commodities, Malaysia P. O. Box 10620, 50720 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. Tel: 03-87694400 Website: www.mpob.gov.my

Telefax: 03-89259446

SFC, %

SFC, %

Figure 3. Solid fat content profile of commercial and Hi-Oleic soft spreads.

Figure 4. Penetration yield value of 1089, g cm-2 at 5, 10 and 15째C for 25 days storage.

Figure 5. Texture of Hi-Oleic soft spread.

50mm

Figure 6. Water droplets distribution after 25 days at 10oC (1089).

Magnification 10x10.

consumer who judges our product as shown in Figure 7. Twenty-five untrained sensory panellists chose Hi-Oleic soft spread formulation 1089 over a control soft spread sample from a popular brand.

NOVELTY

The product is comparable to other high-end bread spread in the market in terms of consistency, taste and appearance. For a new processor, the expected capital investment of this technology is RM 6.5 million as shown in Table 2. However, no capital investment will be needed for an existing margarine and shortening producer.

Score

The formulation is low in trans fat (0.02 g per serving) and saturated fatty acid (0.61 g per serving), but high in oleic acid content (2.6 g per serving) (Table 1).

COMMERCIAL VALUES

Figure 7. Sensory evaluation score data of commercial and Hi-Oleic spreads.

TABLE 1. FAT COMPOSITION OF COMMERCIAL AND HI-OLEIC SPREADS Commercial

Hi-Oleic spread

100 g

*Per serving

100 g

*Per serving

54

-

72

-

10.6

0.53

12.4

0.61

Poly unsaturated fatty acid

13

0.65

6.5

0.32

Oleic acid

30

1.5

52.7

2.6

Trans

0.4

0.02

0.4

0.02

Total fat Saturated fatty acid

Note: *Per serving = 5 g.

TABLE 2. INVESTMENT OPPORTUNITIES Item Production value @RM 2.80 per 250 g tub

Yearly RM 27 955 200

Production cost

RM 17 980 319.83

Profit per year

RM 9 974 880.17

Investment Capital investment NPV Breakeven IRR

RM 6 150 000 RM 19 207 507 3 years 23%

REFERENCES FAUR, L (1996). Margarine technology. Oils and Fats Manual (Karleskind, A ed.). Vol. 2. Lovoisier Publishing, Paris. p. 951-962.

MISKANDAR, M S; Y B CHE MAN; YUSOFF, M S A and R ABDUL RAHMAN (2002a). Effect of emulsion temperature on physical properties of palm oil-based margarine. J. Amer. Oil Chem. Soc., 79: 1163-1168.

MISKANDAR, M S; Y B CHE MAN; YUSOFF, M S A and R ABDUL RAHMAN (2002b). Effect of scraped-surface tube cooler temperature on physical properties of palm oil margarine. J. Amer.

Oil Chem. Soc., 79: 931-936.

HAIGHTON, A J (1965). The measurement of the hardness of margarine fats with cone penetrometer, J. Amer. Oil Chem. Soc., 36: 345-348.

PETKEWICH, R (2008). Oleic acidâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s hypotensive effect. Chemical and Engineering News, 86: 9.

For more information kindly contact: Director-General MPOB P. O. Box 10620 50720 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.

Tel: 03-87694400 Website: www.mpob.gov.my Telefax: 03-89259446