GENDER MAINSTREAMING IN THE SENEGALESE ARMED FORCES A Case Study of Partners Senegal/Center for Civic Collaboration
November 2014
by Valerie Oliphant Edited by Nike Carstarphen, PhD
Table of Contents Introduction ......................................................................................... 2 Background .......................................................................................... 3 Gender Mainstreaming ..................................................................................... 3 Brief History of Gender Issues in Senegal’s Armed Forces ..................................... 5
Initiative for Gender Mainstreaming in the Armed Forces .................... 8 Purpose ......................................................................................................... 8
Program Description ............................................................................ 9 Key Challenges ............................................................................................. 12 Cultural Attitudes .......................................................................................... 12 Legal Documents/Rules and Regulations .......................................................... 13 Logistical Challenges ...................................................................................... 14 Recruitment.................................................................................................. 15 Training and Beyond ...................................................................................... 15
Contributions towards Democratic Change ........................................ 16 Leadership Buy-in and Champions of Change .................................................... 16 Participatory Process...................................................................................... 18 Role of CSOs................................................................................................. 18 Laws and Supporting Documents..................................................................... 19 Changes in Mentality ..................................................................................... 19
Conclusions ........................................................................................ 19
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GENDER MAINSTREAMING IN THE SENEGALESE ARMED FORCES A Case Study of Partners Senegal/Center for Civic Collaboration1 by Valerie Oliphant2 Edited by Nike Carstarphen, PhD
“We need to have our military mirror our society.” ~Abdoulaye Wade, President of Senegal from 2000-2012
Introduction Senegal has played a prominent role in African politics since it achieved independence in 1960. Despite the low-level separatist insurgency in the Casamance region, Senegal remains one of the most stable democracies in Africa and has a long history of participating in international peacekeeping and regional mediation. Senegal is home to a highly traditional polygamous society in which strict gender roles are maintained. While advances in gender sensitivity and equality have been made in recent years, women remain underrepresented in most sectors of public life and sexual violence remains a pervasive problem. 3 Multiple sectors, including Sengalese government ministries, have begun to address these problems through gender mainstreaming initiatives that seek to increase gender equity across society and institutions. In 2010, Senegals “gender parity law” went into effect, which requires political parties to ensure that at least half their candidates in local and national elections are women. The law has been controversial and criticized, however, its supporters see the law “as a necessary step to force change in a country with complex gender dynamics, influenced by traditional customs and beliefs, Islam and French colonialism.”4 In 2010, Partners Senegal/Center for Civic Collaboration (Partners Senegal or PS) and its Africa Institute for Security Sector Transformation (AISST) began its work to further gender mainstreaming by working with Sengalese security sector leaders the and Ministry of Armed Forces to improve women’s opportunities and conditions in the armed forces. This case study describes Partners Senegal’s initiative, Gender Mainstreaming in the Armed Forces (2010 – 2012), and the efforts to improve gender equity in the military. Field research for the following case study was conducted in April-May 2013 and focused on Partners Senegal’s (PS) initiative to mainstream gender in Senegal’s armed forces. Twenty interviews in Dakar, Senegal with members of the government, military, including male and female officers, CSO leaders, partner organizations, and PS staff, and a review of documents informed the research. 2 Valerie Oliphant earned her MA in Conflict Resolution from Georgetown University, and has studied and worked in Ghana, Nigeria, and Senegal. 3 Partners for Democratic Change. Case Study: Gender Mainstreaming in the Armed Forces (n.d.). 4 Afua Hirsch Afua, “Senegal makes headway on gender equality – but not everyone is happy,” The Guardian August 16, 2012, accessed June 10, 2014, http://www.theguardian.com/globaldevelopment/poverty-matters/2012/aug/16/senegal-headway-gender-equality. 1
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Partners Senegal/Center for Civic Collaboration was founded in 2010 as the first Sub-Saharan African affiliate of the global network Partners for Democratic Change International. The organization’s programming focuses on improving governance, building civil society capacity, security sector reform, and developing women and youth leadership. PS’s mission is to develop civil society organizations “as credible partners in the pursuit of democracy, development and rule of law throughout West Africa [by bringing] together civil society leaders, government actors, academics and private sector representatives to promote dialogue, transparency, good governance and youth engagement in national and local development processes.”5 PS has a broad vision for the improvement of civil-military relations not only in Senegal, but also in the West African region as a whole. To aid in coordination efforts between countries in this regard, PS created the African Institute for Security Sector Transformation (AISST), which focuses on security sector reform (SSR).6
Background Gender Mainstreaming Gender mainstreaming, as a concept, originated from international aid and development in the late 20th and early 21st centuries, when organizations became aware that their programs and projects had an effect on gender issues even if their work was not directly related to gender. This recognition led to a push to include gender considerations in all projects in order to ensure that this effect was positive rather than negative, and ideally was promoting and improving gender equality. “Mainstreaming” was the Gender has preferred approach to ensure that gender considerations transformed from a would be incorporated into an organization’s internal narrow focus on operations, such as hiring and staff capacity, as well as all 7 just women into a stages of external development and programming.
broader concept
Over the past 20 years, gender has transformed from a that includes men narrow focus on just women into a broader concept that includes men and women, girls and boys. It has been widely and women, girls recognized that men and women bring different viewpoints, and boys. experiences, and skills to the same issues, and making sure that processes and decisions are inclusive of all these viewpoints is critical for their success. Moreover, “the incorporation of male allies, especially in patriarchal societies, is integral to success in changing community norms.”8 “About Partners Senegal,” Partners for Democratic Change, accessed June 15, 2013, http://partners-senegal.org/about/. 6 After this research was conducted, Partners Senegal, in May 2014, changed its name to Partners West Africa. 7 Maria Lange, Building Institutional Capacity for Conflict-Sensitive Practice: The Case of 5
International NGOs. (London: International Alert, 2004), accessed April 1, 2013, http://www.international-alert.org/sites/.../building-_institutional_cap.pdf; Rebecca Tiessen, Everywhere/Nowhere Gender Mainstreaming in Development Agencies (CT, US: Kumarian, 2004); Craig Zelizer, Integrated peacebuilding: innovative approaches to transforming conflict. Boulder (CO: Westview Press, 2013). 3
Gender mainstreaming in development work has inspired an integration of gender into other sectors, including peace and security. United Nations Security Council Resolution 1325 (SCR 1325), which was adopted in October 2000, was a landmark resolution for gender equality in peace and security. It explicitly states that all countries should promote equal participation of men and women at every step of conflict and peace. SCR 1325 also calls for security sector reform, the prevention and cessation of gender-based violence, and increased gender equity in leadership and decisionmaking bodies.9 It emphasizes that different gender roles in society influence the way that men and women think about, and are affected by, conflict situations and solutions. Engendered analysis of peace and security will give practitioners a more holistic viewpoint of the situation and will allow them to create solutions that encompass the entire community. One of the major pitfalls with gender mainstreaming is the lack of clear definitions, and with that a lack of clarity on guiding methodology, what it entails in practice, and who should carry it out. In the Senegalese Armed Forces, they have agreed on the following definitions:
“Gender is a socio-cultural concept that refers to the socially constructed roles and relationships that are a result of sexual distinction. It helps to highlight the unique characteristics of men and women in society and the power relations between them.
Thus understood, using a gender approach or lens is a means for identifying and analyzing differences in living conditions, status, function, and social position of men and women in society.
When these differences manifest themselves as disparities, inequities, unequal power relations, and/or discrimination, they are commonly referred to as gender inequality.
A gender approach focuses on turning these gender inequalities into gender equality and equity.
Gender equity is the movement to meet the needs of everyone - men and women - by recognizing and incorporating the varying needs, aspirations, abilities and obstacles they may face in intervention strategies.
Gender equality is the goal sought in terms of equal enjoyment of fundamental human rights for both men and women. Equity is a prerequisite for gender equality.
Gender mainstreaming is a gender approach that takes account of gender inequalities that affect the status and position of men and women, with a view to achieving equity and equality between men and women in terms of capabilities and decision-making in all areas of economic and social life.
Zelizer, Integrated peacebuilding. “What is U.N. Security Council Resolution 1325 and Why is it so Critical Today?” United States Institute of Peace. (n.d.), accessed June 15, 2013, http://www.usip.org/gender_peacebuilding/about_UNSCR_1325. 8 9
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In this context, the inclusion of gender in the actions of the Armed Forces should be considered as an added value to the objectives of defense and security in terms of strategic and operational effectiveness and efficiency.”10
Brief History of Gender Issues in Senegal’s Armed Forces The Armed Forces of Senegal (referred to hereafter as the Armed Forces) are comprised of the military (the army, the air force, the navy, and military schools) and the national police forces (gendarmerie). As in most countries, the Senegalese Military is charged with several tasks, including protecting national territory and the free movement of goods and people and supporting overseas missions (primarily peacekeeping), while the Senegalese National Police Forces are responsible for public safety and law enforcement. However, historically the Armed Forces have also focused on strengthening human security, which includes supporting the development of Senegal in infrastructure, agriculture, and health sectors, among others.11 In 2011, the Armed Forces employed approximately 20,000 personnel.12 In 1984, the Senegalese Armed Forces’ Medical School, which was created to staff the Armed Forces with doctors, as well as offer public services to other Ministries, opened up their enrollment to women. They began with a quota of accepting two women every year for each class of 15 students. By the mid-1990s, affirmative action was no longer needed to ensure that women were equally admitted, especially as the medical school noticed a trend in female students ranking at the top of their classes. The medical school also noticed that women tended to be more dedicated to their studies, more mature, and followed rules and regulations more often than male students. 13 Their lessons learned and experiences with gender mainstreaming can offer some guidance, as outlined in the Lessons Learned section, to the other branches of the Armed Forces, who did not begin their gender mainstreaming process until 24 years later. Indeed, military officials have been in close communication with their counterparts within the medical school, and have incorporated their feedback and advice when formulating a gender mainstreaming strategy.
SSG/FA, page 10-11, translated from French. Strategie Sectorielle Genre des Forces Armees SSG/FA 2012 – 2022. Dakar: République du Sénégal, Ministère des Forces Armees, November, 2011. Pg 5. 12 Strategie Sectorielle Genre des Forces Armees SSG/FA 2012 – 2022. Dakar: République du Sénégal, Ministère des Forces Armees, November, 2011. 13 Source prefers to remain anonymous. 10 11
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Abdoulaye Wade, President of Senegal from 2000-2012, began to prioritize gender issues within the Government of Senegal and formally recognized that the institutionalization of gender equity was a national issue. In 2000, Senegal approved UN Security Council Resolution 1325 on Women, Peace, and Security as one of the non-permanent Security Council members. In 2004, Senegal ratified the Protocol to the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights on the Rights of Women in Africa (Maputo Protocol). In 2005, the Government of Senegal developed the National Strategy for Gender Equity and Equality (SNEEG) to provide a framework that allowed all institutions to put into practice the principles of gender equity and equality through a comprehensive and cohesive gender mainstreaming process.14 At the same time, a parallel women’s rights movement was being led by a group of female lawyers, the Association of Women Jurists. They began lobbying for change after conducting a study in 2005 of the social norms upheld by Senegal’s family and criminal laws that were discriminatory against women and children. They pointed out loopholes between the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) and national laws, came up with propositions to correct them, and presented them in a report to the High Council of the Senegalese State’s Council of Economic, Social, and Environmental Affairs in both French and Wolof. These recommendations are still being championed through the Campaign of Gender Parity in the National Assembly. In 2008, at the request of President Wade that all Ministries undergo a gender mainstreaming process, women began to be integrated into the Armed Forces. Wade and others were influenced by UN Security Resolution 1325, and supporting international movements, 15 regional efforts, 16 and national campaigns for gender equity and equality. Senegalese women who participated in these international and regional events saw examples of empowered women in other countries, and felt they should and could do the same in their own country. 17 Likewise, men who attended these conferences saw the benefits other countries enjoyed by allowing women to enter their Armed Forces, particularly in negotiating peace processes.18 Women were allowed to enter the police forces (gendarmerie) beginning in 2006, two years before they were allowed in the army, but progress with gender mainstreaming
S.N.E.E.G. 2015: stratégie nationale pour l'égalité et l'équité de genre. Dakar: République du Sénégal, Ministère de la famille et de l'entreprenariat féminin, 2009. 15 Influential documents and events cited in interviews include: the United Nations Charter of Human Rights, the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW, adopted in 1979), Security Council Resolution 1325 (adopted on 31 October 2000) and accompaning resolutions 1820, 1888 and 1889, international conferences held in Mexico, Beijing, Dakar, and Copenhagen. 16 The adoption by the African Union (AU) Protocol on the Rights of Women in Africa (11 July 2003), the African Platform for Action and the Dakar Declaration of 1994, the Platform for Action and the Beijing Declaration in 1995, and ECOWAS has developed a gender policy, strategy and action plan. 17 Mariame Coulibaly, Chargee de Programme Regionale, enre d’Etude et de Cooperation Internationale, personal interview with author, Dakar, Senegal, May 8, 2013. 18 Meissa Tamba, Colonel for the Senegalese Armed Forces, personal interview with author, Dakar, Senegal, May 7, 2013. 14
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has been quite slow and only 4% of the police forces are women.19 Senegal has a two year mandatory military service, but receives so many volunteer recruits that they do not need to enforce it. In 2008, the call for volunteer recruits was opened up to men and women, and each year since then they have recruited 150 women (compared with 3000 men). After recruitment and training, 20% of the women and 5% of the men make it past the recruitment and training processes to continue on to military careers. By late 2011, women comprised about 13% of the military.20 As noted earlier, while women had historically been present in other ministries, they had not been present in the Ministry of Armed Forces. Unfortunately, women weren't consulted prior to the integration of women into the armed forces and military leadership, and the organizations weren't equipped to implement the order. The recruitment of women created some logistical problems, such as creating separate female barracks. A lack of funding for creating additional barracks has limited the number of female recruits that can be accepted. Military officials noticed other problems for their new female recruits, which they divided into three broad categories to be addressed: operational issues, administrative issues (human resources, pension, maternity leave), and recruitment. These observations led to an awareness of the need to improve gender equality within the Armed Forces and led to the enlistment of outside expertise through Partners Senegal and other NGOs. In 2010, the Geneva Centre for the Democratic Control of Armed Forces (DCAF), in partnership with the Alliance for Migration, Leadership and Development (AMLD) and the Government of Senegal, published a study assessing the level of gender mainstreaming in the security sector. 21 The study concluded that Senegal had the political will to mainstream gender in human security policies and had made notable Senegal had the political achievements towards this goal, such as legislation will to mainstream gender adopted on human trafficking, rape, female genital in human security policies mutilation, and pedophilia. Senegalese civil society and had made notable was found to be very active on gender issues and over one hundred women’s organizations belonged achievements towards to the Gender Network of the Council of Nonthis goal. Governmental Organisations to Support Development (CONGAD). However, organizations working on gender issues had few connections with those working on security. The study found gaps that needed to be filled, including policies specifically addressing security from a gender perspective, and made several recommendations that laid the foundation for this initiative, including: (1) to review laws and regulations concerning security forces as well as recruitment criteria and (2) to create a framework for interaction between services dealing with security and the Ministry of Family, which may involve civil society organizations.
As told to interviewer by multiple interviewees. Susan Enuogbope Majekodunmi, “Gender mainstreaming in Senegal Army,� Voice of Africa Radio, 2011, accessed June 10, 2014, http://www.voiceofafricaradio.com/news/870-gendermainstreaming-in-senegal-army.html. 21 Fatou Sarr, Gender and Security in Senegal: An Integration to Pursue, Geneva Centre for the Democratic Control of Armed Forces, 2010, accessed September 25, 2014, http://www.dcaf.ch/Publications/Genre-et-securite-au-Senegal. 19 20
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Initiative for Gender Mainstreaming in the Armed Forces Purpose The purpose of the gender mainstreaming initiative was to improve gender equality in all areas of the Senegalese Armed Forces. Once this has been achieved, the vision is to expand the model to other ministries, and then use the Senegalese model to support other West African countries in similar processes. Keeping in mind that women were first incorporated into the Armed Forces relatively recently in 2008, a lot of headway has been made towards designing and implementing a comprehensive gender mainstreaming strategy. Partners Senegal contributed to the process from 2010 to 2012. This process has been inclusive of both men and women and with the support of other organizations, it will continue to progress. According to the Sectoral Gender Strategy of the Armed Forces (SSG/FA), which was a result of the collaborative efforts of Partners Senegal, other prominent NGOs and government Ministries, there are several goals of developing a comprehensive document and strategy for gender mainstreaming:
To consolidate and expand achievements in gender equality in order to effectively include women in building a nation of peace and justice;
To raise challenges to gender mainstreaming which have been clearly identified in the analysis of the gender situation in the Armed Forces; and
To clarify the importance, purpose, and chain of command for all stakeholders of the Armed Forces in order to give military men and women a framework that provides them equal opportunities to develop their potential.22
While Partners Senegal and its partners did explicitly formulate the theory of change underlying the initiative, the implicit idea was that institutionalizing gender equality within the structures of the Senegalese Armed Forces, which are well-respected institutions and part of Senegalese society, will lead to more gender equity in other parts of society through a role model effect. In many countries, the security sector is very durable, functioning even when other institutions break down. In contrast to some of its neighbors, Senegal is a good example of a stable democracy. Senegal is unique in West Africa because it has never seen a military coup or government, and their Armed Forces are viewed positively by civil society. Moreover, Senegalese society and culture is open-minded and forwardlooking. Self-improvement is highly valued, and Senegalese people are known for being hard workers. 23 Interviewees say that this culture of self-improvement is a result of a lack of natural resources: “We only have our minds and tongues. We have to rely on our intellectual resources and have a long history of discussion and dialogue—in the family, in the streets, in the country. In general, we want to laugh, we want to enjoy peace, and we want to eat good fish.”24 The positive nature of civilTranslated from French to English by author from Strategie Sectorielle Genre des Forces Armees SSG/FA 2012 – 2022. Dakar: République du Sénégal, Ministère des Forces Armees, November, 2011. 23 Anonymous interview. 24 Anonymous interview. 22
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military relations in Senegal and their congruent wishes for peace, development, and equality increase the likelihood that gender reform in the Armed Forces will have a spillover effect on civil society. In addition to the above theory of change, PS conducts all their operations and programming based on an implicit theory of change that suggests that using a participatory process that includes all stakeholders will produce results that are accepted by all stakeholders, and are therefore more easily and enthusiastically implemented and sustainable. Army officials who were interviewed stressed the importance of gender mainstreaming and expressed the desire that the Armed Forces continue to be a professional, wellrespected institution that is on the forefront of international and regional efforts at security sector reform. One Colonel interviewed used the example of peacekeeping troops where incidents of sexual misconduct by soldiers decrease when female soldiers are present within the unit, and felt that the presence of women in the army would be a positive influence on troops because “women do not fall prey to the same follies as men.”25 Senegalese civil-military relations are strong, with a high amount of trust and dialogue co-existing between the two, and this includes their interactions with women. However, all interviewees expressed that there is still a need to build the capacity of the Armed Forces in terms of gender parity, despite progress made through the current initiative.
Program Description In 2010, the Director of Partners Senegal (PS), Colonel Birame Diop, 26 who was seconded from the Senegalese Air Force to direct PS, was approached by Lt. General Abdoulaye Fall, then Chief of Defense Staff of the Armed Forces of Senegal, to help develop a gender mainstreaming strategy. The Ministry of Armed Forces recognized that Senegal and the Senegalese Armed Forces could improve their integration of women and gender mainstreaming strategies, but needed outside expertise to do so. Diop developed the idea of creating a platform including government and prominent local NGOs and CSOs to develop a gender mainstreaming strategy. Diop and Abdoulaye met with General Lamine Cisse (former Minister of Interior and Board Chair of PS) and Madame Ndioro Ndiaye, director of the Alliance for Migration, Leadership and Development (AMLD) and former Minister of State for Gender and Relations with African and Foreign Women Associations, about how to move forward. Their agreement to join the initiative was key in enlisting participation of other important organizations and individuals throughout the initiative. Diop also held discussions with other organizations with which he had relationships. This collaboration became known as the “Platform for Gender and the Armed Forces,” and included Partners Senegal and its African Institute of Security Sector Transformation (AISST), the Ministry of Armed Forces, the Ministry for Gender Affairs, the United States Army Africa Command (AFRICOM), the Alliance for Migration, Meissa Tamba, personal interview with author, Dakar, Senegal, May 7, 2013. Since this report, Colonel Birame Diop has returned to active duty in the Senegal Armed Forces, serving as the Deputy Chief of Staff of the Air Force. He continues to collaborate with Partners on security sector reform in Senegal and West Africa. 25 26
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Leadership and Development (AMLD), the National Defense University’s Africa Center for Strategic Studies (ACSS), and the Geneva Centre for the Democratic Control of Armed Forces (DCAF). The platform's secretariat was provided by the Ministry of Armed Forces in conjunction with AMLD. The Department of Design and Control Legislation (DIRCEL), together with the AMLD, formed the Permanent Secretariat of the Steering Committee. The major goal of the Platform for Gender and the Armed Forces was to create “a new framework where all the staff, men and women, will be in a favorable environment that enables them to better serve their nation.” 27 This framework was called the Sectoral Strategy on Gender for the Ministry of the Armed Forces (SSG/FA). The process from the initial idea in Lisbon to the eventual implementation of the SSG/FA and the National Strategy for Equity and Gender Equality (SNEEG) has been multi-faceted and is on-going. Below, the process conducted by the Platform for Gender and the Armed Forces is outlined and PS’s involvement is highlighted. The first step of the process was for the members of the Platform for Gender and the Armed Forces to conduct a gender audit of the armed forces in February of 2011. This audit looked at the current state of gender equality and mainstreaming efforts within the armed forces to identify areas for improvement. After the initial audit, PS and its partners decided that a review of all legal and normative documents from independence in 1960 to 2010 was required. The goal was to revise the language, rules, and regulations to accommodate a gender balanced approach to human resources, recruitment, and other processes in the armed forces. It was felt that there would be no problems with the integration of women if the laws were respected and enacted, but only if they were updated to support and reflect current gender mainstreaming efforts.28
Figure 1: Dakar 2010 - Madame Ndiaye, Presidenty of AMLD, with a conference participant.
and incorporated. A technical where female officers joined the
After reviewing these documents, one and a half months were spent consulting female officers, as well as male officers who worked with them, to glean their opinions on the loopholes identified in the documents during the review process. These consultations were conducted to ensure female officers’ needs and concerns were being accurately addressed workshop was held from 17-20 November 2011, members of the Platform for Gender and the Armed
Partners Senegal. Rapport d’evaluation de l’integration et de la Gestion des Personnels Feminins dans les Armees. 28 Aminata Kebe, Chargee de Programmes for OHCHR, personal interview with author, Dakar, Senegal, May 7, 2013. 27
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Forces in working groups that looked at inequalities in recruitment, training, promotions, and other areas. The goal was to develop a draft gender strategy. After combining this new information into one document, PS hosted another technical workshop to which they invited judges to interpret the law, as well as CSOs with gender experience. This workshop included creating a roadmap, which is outlined in the draft of the SSG/FA, in conjunction with the Ministry for Gender Affairs, for integrating women into all levels of the Armed Forces, starting with training and education. The plan was for gender experts from the Ministry for Gender Affairs to conduct gender sensitivity trainings with the Armed Forces. After the roadmap and sectoral policy were developed, all those involved felt there was more work to be done. PS envisioned garnering buy-in from a larger body and held a 3-day Conference on the Integration of Women in the Armed Forces in December 2011, to present the SSG/FA to AFRICOM, as well as to hear about the experiences of female personnel from the American, Gabon, Gambian, Malian and Nigerian Armed Forces. 29 The conference was followed by a 2-day validation workshop in February 2012, which focused on four major themes: operational issues, administrative issues (HR, pension, maternity leave), recruitment, and best practices. The proceedings of the validation workshop were summarized in a 17-page document. These workshops and meetings included 60 members from civil society, CSOs, NGOs, the Senegalese Armed Forces, other ministries (customs, water and forests, prison services, and the fire brigade), Association of Women Jurists, female officers from foreign countries, female officers in Senegal, AFRICOM, and more. 30 PS used a participatory and interactive approach to promote cooperation and consensus among all stakeholders of the Armed Forces and to ensure the strategy’s ownership by all stakeholders and their effective involvement in its implementation.31 In September 2012, the Ministry of the Armed Forces of Senegal, in partnership with the Ministry of Gender Affairs and with the contribution of numerous international partners, piloted the first training of trainers of 30 instructors (at officer-level, mainly commanders, captains, and lieutenants) of the Armed Forces of Senegal (Army, Navy, Air Force as well as the Gendarmerie).32 Since the election of the current Senegalese president, the implementation process has slowed. However, a second training of trainers was held in early 2014.
Partners Senegal. Rapport de Synthèse des Recommandations de la Conférence sur l’Intégration des Femmes dans les Forces Armées au Sénégal. 30 Partners Senegal. Rapport de Synthèse des Recommandations de la Conférence sur l’Intégration des Femmes dans les Forces Armées au Sénégal. 31 Strategie Sectorielle Genre des Forces Armees SSG/FA 2012 – 2022. Dakar: République du Sénégal, Ministère des Forces Armees, November, 2011. 32 DCAF, accessed June 10, 2014, http://www.dcaf.ch/Event/Pilot-Training-of-Trainers-ToT-ongender-for-the-Armed-Forces-of-Senegal. International partners included DCAF, UNFPA, UNOWA, OHCHR and the ICRC. 29
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Figure 2: PS Involvement in Senegalese Armed Forces' Gender Mainstreaming Process
Platform of Gender & Armed Forces formed Gender Audit Review and Revise Legal Documents Consult Female Officers, Male Officers, and Gender Experts Technical Workhop I and II to align with National, Regional, and International bodies
Key Challenges The process outlined in the section above identified many challenges that the Armed Forces needed to overcome in order to improve gender equality in their Ministry. These challenges fell into five main categories: attitudes, legal and institutional frameworks, logistical challenges, recruitment, and training.
Cultural Attitudes Cultural attitudes in regards to female soldiers have been a significant obstacle, which the Armed Forces are slowly beginning to overcome. Almost all interviewees indicated that the mentality of the general population, male officers, and government officials, among others, could be improved in regards to gender equality. Those working on gender mainstreaming find resistance from others who feel that there are other higher priorities, as well as from those who don’t feel that women should be part of the Armed Forces. There is a similar resistance from the general population. One interviewee told an anecdote about her niece, who had to complete a parachute jump as part of her training to become a cardiologist for the military. Despite being from an open-minded family, the mother told the interviewee, “It’s because you don’t love this child that you’re letting her do this.”33 Another example supporting a need for a change was that female officers must be backed up by their male superiors in order to be listened to by their fellow male officers, even if the female officer is of higher rank. 34 There is also a widely held misconception about women not being able to handle seeing death, which limits their positions and promotions. However, as one interviewee pointed out, female nurses frequently encounter death and nursing is seen as an acceptable position for women. This belief is being challenged as women become a more common presence in the Armed Forces. Another interviewee stated that, “while it’s not easy, things are 33 34
Anonymous interview. Several anonymous interviews. 12
changing step by step,” for example, female officers are more accepted and respected by male soldiers.35 Some of these challenges stem from Senegalese military culture, which for many years has been portrayed as the epitome of masculinity, and even glorified performance by contrasting it with opposing feminine images. For example, the history and spirit of the Senegalese Armed Forces were built on the ‘manly’ and warlike image of Diambar, whose motto is "we kill, we do not disgrace us.”36 Likewise, an interviewee said that the “army was the last frontier of masculinity, so you can see and feel the resistance.”37 In order to change these attitudes, the Armed Forces are promoting the idea that both men and women are integral to their efforts and mandates. This sentiment was first expressed by President Abdoulaye Wade in 2007, who said "the duty of national defense is the responsibility of all genders and women have their place in all sectors of the Nation.” 38 The "The duty of national SSG/FA further notes that “the involvement of women in defense is the the fields of defense and security must not be part of a responsibility of all process of reparation or compensation as to correct an injustice, but rather be part of a development process and genders, and women be seen as ‘value added’ to the capabilities and have their place in all effectiveness of the Armed Forces.”39
sectors of the Nation.”
To support these efforts, PS and others have created - President Abdoulaye forums to dialogue about addressing these attitudes, and Wade, 2007 the Armed Forces are attempting to open the minds of their new recruits by developing training. The Armed Forces have also begun to dialogue with civilian populations in order to change the mentality of society and have seen small improvements in the acceptance of female soldiers. 40 Colonel Tamba stressed the importance of working with Muslim culture and populations to address cultural barriers to the idea of female soldiers.
Legal Documents/Rules and Regulations As discussed earlier, it was important that legal frameworks and documents support gender mainstreaming efforts and reflect gender parity. Revising these texts was a huge undertaking that required collaboration and support from many different Anonymous interview. Strategie Sectorielle Genre des Forces Armees SSG/FA 2012 – 2022. Dakar: République du Sénégal, Ministère des Forces Armees, November, 2011. 37 Anonymous interview. 38 Strategie Sectorielle Genre des Forces Armees SSG/FA 2012 – 2022. Dakar: République du Sénégal, Ministère des Forces Armees, November, 2011. 39 Strategie Sectorielle Genre des Forces Armees SSG/FA 2012 – 2022. Dakar: République du Sénégal, Ministère des Forces Armees, November, 2011. 40 Hamdy Moustapha Marone, Secretaire General de la Grand Chancellerie de l’Order National du Lion, Presidence de la Republique du Senegal, personal interview by author, Dakar, Senegal, May 3, 2013; Meissa Tamba, Meissa, personal interview by author, Dakar, Senegal, May 7, 2013. 35 36
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organizations and individuals. The process began in August 2010 under the Platform for Gender and the Armed Forces. Revisions and resulting discussions with female and male officers indicated that the major concerns in terms of rules and regulations fell into three main areas:
Marriage regulations (both male and female officers must have been in the army for 5 years before they can be married, issues of marrying outside rank);
Maternity regulations (maternity and accommodate pregnancy, day care); and
Head-of-household regulations and pensions (in Senegalese national law, the man is legally defined as the head of the household, which makes it especially complicated to determine who gets a pension in event of death, especially in cases of polygamy—should the husband or children receive the pension?).
paternity
leave,
uniforms
that
As a result of this process, PS and its partners have been able to change the vocabulary and wording in the rules and regulations, change documents to accommodate the recruitment of female soldiers and officers. Maternity uniforms are currently being developed. Changing the wording and vocabulary allows women to function within the military structure as equals, while still taking into consideration gender specific provisions. However, all of these recommendations and changes are still pending approval at the time of this document. This is because the new president has shifted the focus and priorities away from gender mainstreaming and towards micro-financing. Next steps involve plans to tackle several pieces of existing legal frameworks pertaining to disability and widower’s pensions, marriage, general rules on discipline, and definitions of head-of-household and paternal authority in the Family Code. Additionally, there are plans to develop a reporting mechanism for consideration of confidential matters regarding gender-based discrimination, harassment, and violence.
Logistical Challenges Logistical problems, such as creating female barracks and toilets, were oft-cited issues. These issues require increased funding and limit the number of recruits that the Armed Forces can accommodate. Another logistical challenge involved the Ministry of Gender, which is constantly changing names and functions. It was recently combined into the Ministry of Gender and Family Planning. One interviewee said that the ministries, especially this specific ministry, “change as often as I change my clothes, but not the army—they are very stable.” 41 While there is leadership within the Ministry of Gender to work towards change, there is a lack of consistent and persistent leadership. This makes it hard for CSOs and other ministries to know whom to work with, and creates a need for someone outside of the Ministry of Gender to push the gender equality agenda.
41
Mariame Coulibaly, personal interview by author, Dakar, Senegal, May 8, 2013. 14
Recruitment Only 4% of the police forces in Senegal are women,42 and each year about 5% of the accepted military recruits are women (the military recruits 150 women, compared with 3000 men). In 2011, 586 female volunteers were recruited, of which 172 were declared medically qualified. This number is higher than the 150 (25%) who are accepted every year, but as one interviewee noted is still much lower than the 9646 male volunteers, 3217 (33%) of which were selected.43 Issues with recruitment primarily focused on discrimination in the weighing of different tests. Many felt that the aptitude tests are geared for men, which value physical over intellectual portions of tests. However, male officers also felt discriminated against and were frustrated that female counterparts would be given a pass on some physical aptitude tests despite receiving lower scores, while they themselves were not passed. All interviewees recognized that this was a problem, and the Armed Forces are trying to find ways to change this. Recruitment especially needs to be improved in terms of increasing women officers, although some headway is being made on this. In 2013, three women were in training for the Air Force (out of a class of 64 cadets), two of whom will become pilots and one who will be the first female Marine officer. Colonel Tamba felt this could be increased by improving the general education system so that more women qualified, as women currently need at least 3 years of high school to qualify for training and a bachelor’s degree to become an officer. A lack of clear guidelines, targets, and definitions in terms of gender mainstreaming is also hindering recruitment.
Training and Beyond The same training is offered for men and women, and this has helped reduce both real and perceived gaps between the two genders. PS and others felt that there is an opportunity to include gender issues in training, especially in order to change the attitudes and mentality of incoming officers. This could be done by including a training module on sexual harassment and gender as part of the current psychological training curriculum. Statistically, women have a higher chance of they pass out of the two years of training and military career after their two years of initial However, because of perceptions and barriers, posts, and services.
continuing on to military careers once service, and 20% of women go on to a service, in comparison to 5% of men. women are often limited in promotions,
Despite a strong desire to go to the front lines, women are not allowed in the infantry. Many male officers perceive that women do not have the physical force or psychological capacity to handle fighting in direct combat. However, these attitude and regulations limit women from participating in peacekeeping abroad, which would result in a substantial pay increase. One interviewee did note that female officers could be useful in Casamance, where a low-level civil conflict has been ongoing since Anonymous interview. Strategie Sectorielle Genre des Forces Armees SSG/FA 2012 – 2022. Dakar: République du Sénégal, Ministère des Forces Armees, November, 2011; Tamba, Meissa. Interview by author. Personal interview. Dakar, Senegal, May 7, 2013. 42 43
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1982, as negotiators, especially since the women have demonstrated they are more patient and better listeners. While it is recognized that women tend to perform better in military school, this doesn’t translate into promotions. Many were frustrated and felt that they needed to be backed up by male supervisors in order to be listened to. Fortunately, male officers are increasingly supportive of their female counterparts, and largely recognize the need for change. Women also need to be given the same titles and type of work as their male counterparts. Colonel Tamba felt that female leadership needed to be increased, in order to offer more positive role models for other female officers, and Colonel Marone echoed this sentiment, noting that it would encourage women to continue on in the military as a career.
Contributions towards Democratic Change While the gender mainstreaming process is on-going, some tangible contributions towards democratic change have already been seen. There are now females in all units, including the gendarmerie and medical school, female officers have been promoted, and there has been a change in language, and proposed changes to rules and regulations and official documents so they align and support gender mainstreaming. Training of trainers on gender for the Armed Forces has also begun. Several interviewees remarked that they “would never have imagined that the Ministry of Armed Forces would be such a torch bearer in taking into account gender specific considerations,” and that they would have expected them to be last.44 Indeed, the first major success is seen in the recognition of this as an issue and the development of a policy framework for gender mainstreaming in the Armed Forces. While women were already a part of the Armed Forces prior to this initiative, a clear method for integrating them into the Armed Forces had not been outlined. A lack in guidelines and resources had led to a number of challenges, as outlined in this report. This initiative has helped the Armed Forces to evaluate the current status of women in their ranks and to develop ways to ensure that gender parity is supported, both legally in their documents and in practice by all officers regardless of gender by changing attitudes, recruitment, and training.
Leadership Buy-in and Champions of Change Leadership buy-in and finding champions of change in the political and military sphere have been crucial in Senegal’s gender mainstreaming process. Ex-President Wade had a grand vision for Senegal, and gender equality was a central focus. Moreover, support from generals, colonels, and other high-ranking male officials in the Armed Forces has been substantial. They have been pushing the gender mainstreaming process from within and thanks to their influence and dedication, gender equality is slowly continuing to improve. However, there has been some worry that the current President does not share this vision. It was noted that it is up to CSOs to keep the focus on gender issues. A change in leadership has highlighted the importance of
Mariame Coulibaly, personal interview by author, Dakar, Senegal, May 8, 2013; Fatou Drame, Ministry of Gender, personal interview by author, Dakar, Senegal, May 2, 2013. 44
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leadership buy-in, and there is a need to garner the buy-in of Senegal’s new President in order for things to continue moving forward. The relationships that PS Director Diop had with high-ranking members of the Armed Forces, government, and prominent organizations was also important for getting the initiative off the ground. Lt. General Abdoulaye, Chief of Defense of the Ministry of Armed Forces, asked Diop for help. Diop then enlisted the support of General Cisse (former Minster of Interior) and Madam Ndiaye, Director of AMLD (former Minister of State for Gender and Relations with African and Foreign Women Associations). These were prestigious figureheads who were able to recruit the new head of Ministry for Gender Affairs, the lawyers who drafted many of the original policies setting up the Armed Forces in Senegal, and other senior leaders in government and civil society, who were willing to join the platform because they saw this was serious initiative. Diop also credits partnering with AFRICOM and African Center for Strategic Studies who shared best practices from the US and other African countries for successes in his country.45 The initiative’s success has led Partners and the initiative’s partner organizations, including AFRICOM and ACSS, to continue to support gender mainstreaming efforts in Senegal and throughout West Africa. For example, in September 2012 AFRICOM, ACSS and the US Department of State co-hosted a three-day conference, attended by African military and security professionals, including PS Director Diop, in Washington, DC to discuss the role of women in African armed forces.46 In June 2014, AFRICOM and US Army Africa co-sponsored the first ever Regional Gender Mainstreaming Seminar in Namibia hosted by the Namibian Defense Force. Representatives and regional leaders from Namibia, Botswana, Malawi, Mozambique, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Zambia, and the African Union attended the seminar to share lessons and best practices on the role that leadership can play in enhancing gender mainstreaming in the armed forces.47 Senegalese Deputy Chief of Staff Colonel Birame Diop was one of the guest speakers and stressed that gender issues are not a woman’s issue or a man’s issue, but a human issue.48 On August 4, 2014, the White House issued “Fact Sheet: U.S.-African Cooperation in Advancing Gender Equality,” which outlined the United State’s commitment to advancing gender equality, including new assistance to promote gender equality in conflict prevention and security decision-making and other sectors.49 These ongoing efforts will be important to implement gender mainstreaming
Julie M. Lucas, “Barriers break down at African Gender Integration seminar,” AFRICOM, accessed September 28, 2014, http://www.africom.mil/newsroom/article/23286/barriersbreak-down-at-african-gender-integration-seminar. 46 J.R. Warner, “Africa Center, AFRICOM: Empowering Women to be Agents of Peace,” Africa Center for Strategic Studies, September 20, 2012, accessed September 2014, http://www.africom.mil/newsroom/article/9168/africa-center-africom-empowering-women-tobe-agent. 47 Julie M. Lucas, “7 African Countries Participate in Regional Gender Mainstreaming Seminar,” AFRICOM, http://www.africom.mil/newsroom/photo/23287/7-african-countries-participate-inregional-gender-mainstreaming-seminar; “Gender Mainstreaming in African Armed Forces,” Wilson Center, June 23, 2014, accessed September 28, 2014, http://www.wilsoncenter.org/event/gender-mainstreaming-african-armed-forces. 48 Birame Diop, Director of Partners Senegal had returned to active duty in the Armed Forces by this Seminar in 2014. Lucas, “Barriers break down at African Gender Integration seminar.” 49 While the White House initiative is only tangentially related, Teresa Crawford, Director, SubSaharan Africa and Europe, Partners for Democratic Change, who supported Partners Senegal’s 45
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in the armed forces in Senegal and the region, and advancing gender equality and equity in general.
Participatory Process Stakeholders in PS’ gender mainstreaming process feel that the initiative has been successful because it has been inclusive. Interviewees found the input of female officers and female jurists was extremely useful in both highlighting dissatisfaction and coming up with creative solutions. 50 Interviewees particularly enjoyed the conference held with female officers from other countries and wished that more Senegalese women were included. Trust, communication, and dialogue were integral to the process, especially in order to change the mentality and attitudes. Interviewees stressed that dialogue between all stakeholders was important, as everyone has a different viewpoint that is equally important to hear. This idea is central to the PS and Partners for Democratic Change’s model, which focuses on the importance of local ownership and inclusiveness. Each stakeholder felt that the results achieved thus far would not have been possible without the collaborative efforts of all members. In an evaluation of the gender initiative, it was noted that the objectives “could not be achieved without the participation, at all stages of the program, all stakeholders, men and women, politicians, civil and religious, NGOs and civil society organizations.”51
Role of CSOs The role of CSOs has been integral, and the Ministries and officials have found their technical expertise, capacity, and funding essential. Moreover, CSOs brought in to the process the needs and priorities of the general population. For example, many CSOs produce their trainings and materials in both French and local languages in order to accommodate the 90% of the Senegalese population who don’t speak or read French. CSOs have been instrumental for awareness building, especially in explaining women’s rights to civil society in simple language and making legal frameworks and regulations accessible. Overall, gender mainstreaming has been easier to prioritize in the military because the Ministries and officials in the Armed Forces see the problems their female and male officers are facing, and therefore, more concretely feel the value of the process. CSOs are able to sustain this momentum and process by encouraging the Armed Forces to continue to prioritize gender mainstreaming, as well as scale up by reaching out to other Ministries and countries.
initiative, suggests that the success of the Senegal initiative helped increase the White House’s commitment to practical actions to advance gender equality in Africa. 50 Drame, personal interview by author: Feissa Niang, Senegalese Armed Forces, personal interview by author, Dakar, Senegal, May 2, 2013. 51 Partners Senegal. Rapport d’evaluation de l’integration et de la Gestion des Personnels Feminins dans les Armees. 18
Laws and Supporting Documents Laws, rules, and regulations have been changed (pending approval) to accommodate the presence of women and improve recruitment of female officers. The Association of Women Jurists was integral in this process, particularly in launching a campaign of Gender Parity in the National Assembly. As discussed earlier, next steps involve plans to tackle several pieces of existing legal frameworks pertaining to disability and widower’s pensions, marriage, general rules on discipline, and notions of the head-of-household and paternal authority in the Family Code. Clear gender policy is needed, especially in order to avoid abuses of power. This is especially problematic when women are in the lowest ranks. For example, higher-ranking males were dating lower-ranking women who feared retaliation if they resisted.
Changes in Mentality Interviewees have noticed that the mentality of the Armed Forces has changed in regards to female officers. For instance, one interviewee noted that, “at first, men would only salute other male soldiers, but now we see them saluting female soldiers as well.” 52 While it was new to see women in positions of power within the Armed Forces, the “At first, men would only proximity of living near and working with female salute other male officers has had a positive impact on the attitudes of soldiers, but now we see male officers.53
them saluting female soldiers as well.”
These changes have been echoed in the general population. This was first noticed with female doctors, who were noted for keeping facilities more clean and orderly, as well as being more empathetic.” 54 One interviewee said, “it’s been a very good experience for the Army, the nation, and women.” Another interviewee said “the population likes seeing women in the military, it is a respectable job.”
Conclusions Senegal has made significant strides forward and is a great example of gender mainstreaming within a process of security sector reform, especially considering that the process has only been going on since 2008. The most significant achievement so far is a policy framework for moving forward. However, there is still work to be done. The greatest challenge to come will be implementing the guidelines developed, and all interviewees indicated a need for a comprehensive plan to do so. While the Sectoral Strategy has been written, it is still awaiting approval. The recently started training is another important step forward. Many interviewees feel that training is the most important step in the process of gender mainstreaming. 52 53 54
Mariame Coulibaly, personal interview by author, Dakar, Senegal, May 8, 2013. Meissa Tamba personal interview by author, Dakar, Senegal, May 7, 2013. Anonymous Interview.
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The Senegalese have a proverb that says “you can’t bend a dry stick, but rather need to do so when it is wet.” This proverb was used to demonstrate the need to mold soldiers when they first enter the Centers of Excellence—when their attitudes, mindsets, and beliefs are most malleable. In general, people expressed a desire to see more female leadership and promotions, better integration, improved infrastructure, and increased communication with the general population. While there is currently one gender focal point in the General Staff Headquarters (EMGA) and the High Command of the Gendarmerie, high-level military officials indicated a desire to institute a gender focal point at each base, but needed to first decide how these focal points would fit into the chain of command in order to be most effective.55 However, the Armed Forces should avoid the pitfalls of other organizations that have used gender focal points by ensuring that their appointment does not devolve responsibility for gender issues from others in the Armed Forces. Interviewees felt that the Senegalese Armed Forces’ The Senegalese gender mainstreaming process could serve as an Armed Forces’ gender example, both internally and externally. The Gender Ministry would like to see other Ministries follow the mainstreaming Armed Forces’ example, and felt that Army officials could process could serve as help them engage other ministers. Similarly, Senegal an example, both could serve as an example regionally, and is interested in reaching out to neighboring countries, such as Mali, to internally and help with security sector reform. Former PS Director, Col. externally. Birame Diop, felt that the current events in the region indicate both a strong need and an opportune moment in history to start such changes. 56 Officials in Mali and the Ivory Coast have recently asked Senegal for advice and aid with their security sector reform processes. Interviewees noted that in order to scale-up gender mainstreaming efforts, they should meet those doing similar work to exchange experiences and lessons learned. For instance, they felt that hearing positive experiences from female officers from Gabon, Gambia, Mali, Sierra Leone, and the USA during the PS-led conference was beneficial to all participants. They would like to participate in similar international forums, but lack either the invites and/or knowledge of English. In general, the overriding sentiment was that gender mainstreaming efforts were on the right track, but required more time, funding, and a sustained interest and effort. While the issue of gender mainstreaming has been elevated in its priority and there have been some basic changes in policy and attitudes and increased training, there is still a long way to go to see them put into practice and for changes to be widely felt. Nevertheless, the experience in Senegal thus far has increased the focus on gender mainstreaming throughout the region.
55 56
Hamdy Moustapha Marone, personal interview by author, Dakar, Senegal, May 3, 2013. Birame Diop, personal interview by author, Dakar, Senegal, April 30, 2013. 20
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