WHAT MAKES A SUCCESSFUL COURTYARD HOUSE?

WHAT MAKES A SUCCESSFUL COURTYARD HOUSE? HT 30006

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WHAT MAKES A SUCCESSFUL COURTYARD HOUSE?

3 CONTENTS CONTENTS ..............................................................................................................................................................3 INTRODUCTION ..........................................................................................................................................................5 TYPOLOGY ..............................................................................................................................................................7 THE ARAB HOUSE I : URBAN & CULTURAL CONTEXT ......................................................................................................................9 THE ARAB HOUSE II : EXTERNAL ....................................................................................................................................... 11 THE ARAB HOUSE III : INTERNAL ........................................................................................................................................ 13

THE PATIO HOUSE I : URBAN & CULTURAL CONTEXT ................................................................................................................... 15 THE PATIO HOUSE II : EXTERNAL ...................................................................................................................................... 17 THE PATIO HOUSE III : INTERNAL ...................................................................................................................................... 19 MACHIYA I : URBAN & CULTURAL CONTEXT............................................................................................................................. 21 MACHIYA II : EXTERNAL ................................................................................................................................................ 23 MACHIYA III : INTERNAL ................................................................................................................................................ 25 CONCLUSION .......................................................................................................................................................... 27 BIBLIOGRAPHY ........................................................................................................................................................ 29

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“A GARDEN IS THE MOST INTIMATE LANDSCAPE ENSEMBLE I KNOW OF. IT IS CLOSE TO US . THERE WE CULTIVATE THE PLANTS WE NEED . A GARDEN REQUIRES CARE AND PROTECTION . AND SO WE ENCIRCLE IT , WE DEFEND IT AND FEND FOR IT .

WE GIVE IT SHELTER . THE GARDEN TURNS INTO A PLACE.”

(Z UMTHOR , 2011)

WHAT MAKES A SUCCESSFUL COURTYARD HOUSE?

INTRODUCTION Z UMTHOR USED TERMS LIKE “ ENCIRCLE” AND “ DEFEND” WHEN REFERRING TO HIS PAVILION , THUS CREATING AN INTERNALISED SPACE WHICH DIVORCES ITSELF FROM THE INTRUSION OF ITS SURROUNDINGS . THE ONLY REMAINING SHARED FEATURE OF BOTH THE INNER AND OUTER SPACE IS THE VIEW OF THE SKY .

THIS DESIGN PRINCIPLE IS THE SAME ONE THAT PEOPLE HAVE USED SINCE THE BEGINNING OF CIVILISATION AS A MEANS TO PROTECT THEIR EXTERNAL SPACE WITHIN BUILDINGS . IT WAS FOR THIS PURPOSE THAT THE COURTYARD HOUSE WAS CREATED .

THE COURTYARD FORM HAS OCCURRED REPEATEDLY THROUGHOUT HISTORY . THE IDEA OF ENCLOSING AN EXTERNAL SPACE USING THE BUILT FORM AFFORDS MANY BENEFITS BOTH TO THE EXTERNAL AND

INTERNAL ENVIRONMENT . PRIVACY , SECURITY AND A SENSE OF HIERARCHY ARE SOME OF THE SPATIAL ADVANTAGES , WHILST THE ENVIRONMENTAL BENEFITS INCLUDE THE ABILITY TO CONTROL LIGHT , TEMPERATURE AND VENTILATION . O N A LARGER SCALE , ENTIRE TOWNS CAN BE CONSTRUCTED USING THE COURTYARD FORM AS THE MAIN ORGANISING FACTOR OF THE URBAN GRID .

THE QUESTION REMAINS , HOWEVER, OF HOW THIS URBAN TYPE OCCURS IN A VARIETY OF LOCATIONS WITH CONTRASTING SOCIAL ATTITUDES AND DIFFERING CLIMATIC CONDITIONS .

IT IS DIFFICULT TO IMAGINE THAT EVERY POSSIBLE ISSUE ASSOCIATED WITH ANY BUILDING CAN BE RESOLVED SIMPLY BY PUNCHING HOLES INTO THE PLAN . THE COURTYARD HOUSE HAS INSTEAD REMAINED RELEVANT IN

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CERTAIN LOCATIONS AROUND THE WORLD FOR SPECIFIC REASONS .

IN THESE PLACES , THE COURTYARD HOUSE HAS BECOME AN INTEGRAL PART OF THE TRADITIONAL ARCHITECTURE . HAVING BEEN DEVELOPED OVER CENTURIES , CONSIDERATIONS OF THE FORM , MATERIALS , STRUCTURE , PROPORTIONS AND PROGRAMME HAVE BEEN ADDRESSED BY THIS VERNACULAR ARCHITECTURE .

THROUGH CAREFUL COMPARISON OF THE TRADITIONAL HOUSING TYPES IN DIFFERENT LOCATIONS, THE SUBTLETIES OF DESIGN CAN BE HIGHLIGHTED AND THE FACTORS WHICH CONTRIBUTE TO THE SUCCESS OF THE COURTYARD CAN BE REVEALED .

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THE

3 TYPOLOGIES: RURAL [LEFT], P ATIO [MIDDLE], ATRIUM [RIGHT]

WHAT MAKES A SUCCESSFUL COURTYARD HOUSE?

TYPOLOGY IT IS IMPORTANT TO DISTINGUISH THE TYPOLOGIES OF COURTYARD HOUSES BEFORE MOVING ONTO MORE SPECIFIC EXAMPLES .

F OR THE PURPOSES OF THIS ESSAY, THREE MAIN TYPES OF HOUSE HAVE BEEN HIGHLIGHTED , AS OUTLINED IN COURTYARD HOUSES: A HOUSING TYPOLOGY (PFEIFER & BRAUNECK , 2008, PP. 20-21). THESE TYPES ARE THE ATRIUM -TYPE HOUSE , THE PATIO HOUSE AND THE SHARED COURTYARD HOUSE. ALTHOUGH SEVERAL OTHER EXAMPLES OF PLAN DO EXIST , THEY WILL NOT BE REFERENCED IN THIS ESSAY .

THE FIRST TYPE , THE ATRIUM -TYPE HOUSE , IS IN SOME WAYS THE PUREST OF THE THREE . IN IT , THE EXTERNAL SPACE IS THE CENTRAL ORGANISING ELEMENT .

ALL OF THE ROOMS ARE ACCESSED THROUGH THIS SPACE WHICH SITS IN THE CENTRE OF THE PLOT . A LTHOUGH

PFEIFER & BRAUNECK POINT TO THE HOUSE AS A DERIVATION OF THE “ DWELLING TYPE OF THE CLASSICAL GREEK AND ROMAN ANTIQUITY” (P . 21), FOR THIS ESSAY, THIS PLAN WILL BE REPRESENTED BY THE TRADITIONAL A RAB HOUSE OF THE MIDDLE EAST. THE PATIO HOUSE “ UTILISES SEVERAL SMALL COURTYARDS CUT OUT OF THE BUILDING VOLUME” (PFEIFER & BRAUNECK , 2008, P. 21). IT THEREFORE OPPOSES THE IDEA OF THE A TRIUM -TYPE HOUSE , IN WHICH THE ROOMS ARE ARRANGED AROUND THE COURTYARD . THE M OORISH PATIO HOUSE HAS ALSO COME TO REPRESENT AN

BRAUNECK , 2008, P. 20), WHICH ALLOWED FOR THE PROGRAMME TO BE DIVIDED BETWEEN SEPARATE BUILDINGS .

THIS FORM HAS BEEN ADAPTED BY DIFFERENT CULTURES OVER TIME TO SUIT A MORE URBAN CONTEXT . THE SPECIFIC EXAMPLE , AS REFERENCED IN THIS ESSAY , IS THE MACHIYA HOUSES OF THE J APANESE MERCHANT CITY, KYOTO .

THIS ESSAY WILL EXAMINE EACH OF THESE THREE TYPOLOGIES UNDER THE HEADINGS OF PUBLIC [URBAN CONTEXT ] - REPRESENTING CONTEXT OF THE STREET , PRIVATE [EXTERNAL ] – THE PROGRAMME AND QUALITIES OF THE COURTYARD ITSELF AND FINALLY PRIVATE [INTERNAL ] –

IMPORTANT PART OF THE ARCHITECTURAL VERNACULAR OF MOROCCO AND SOUTHERN SPAIN. THE THIRD HOUSE TYPE PLAN, THE SHARED COURTYARD HOUSE “ HAS ITS ORIGINS IN FARMS LOCATED IN A MUNICIPAL AREA ENCLOSED BY CITY WALLS ,” (PFEIFER &

THE ARCHITECTURAL QUALITIES OF INTERNAL SPACES OF THE DWELLING .

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THE

REMAINING

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MASSING STUDY OF

THE ARAB HOUSE

WHAT MAKES A SUCCESSFUL COURTYARD HOUSE?

THE ARAB HOUSE I : URBAN & CULTURAL CONTEXT THE RELIGION OF ISLAM HAS HAD ITS GREATEST INFLUENCE ON THE A RCHITECTURE OF THE M IDDLE EAST .

THE ARAB HOUSE DEMONSTRATES CLEARLY THE EFFECTS OF A BELIEF SYSTEM ON A DWELLING . IT IS DESIGNED AS A MEANS OF CONCEALING AND PROTECTING WOMEN FROM THE VIEW OF THE OUTSIDE WORLD AND OFFERING AN ENCLOSED INTERNAL SPACE TO THOSE WOMEN .

IN ISLAMIC CULTURE , THE PROPHET’S HOME IN MEDINA IS SEEN AS “THE ARCHETYPAL ARAB HOUSE ”, THE PRINCIPLE ELEMENTS OF WHICH ARE THE “ SQUARE COURTYARD OPEN TO THE SKY AND ENCLOSED ON THE PUBLIC SIDE ” (GAZZARD , 1986, P . 16). THIS TEMPLATE HAS BEEN CONTINUALLY REPEATED OVER GENERATIONS AND HAS NOW COME TO FORM THE TEMPLATE FOR THE GRID OF THE A RAB CITY .

WITH THE COURTYARD ACTING AS THE CENTRAL FOCUS POINT OF THE PLOT , THE REMAINDER OF THE SPACE

IS BUILT UP TO ACT AS AN ENCLOSING WALL . B ECAUSE OF THE COURTYARD LOCATED IN THE CENTRE , ALL OF THE ROOMS CAN BE LIT , VENTILATED AND ACCESSED FROM THIS POINT , CREATING INTERNAL SPACES WHICH ARE NOT DEPENDENT ON THE WALLS ON THE EDGE OF THE PLOT .

THE HOUSES CAN THEREFORE BE BUILT CONTIGUOUSLY AS ONLY ONE OF THE FACADES IS REQUIRED TO BE EXTERNALISED IN ORDER TO PROVIDE ACCESS FROM THE STREET . THE REMAINING THREE SIDES ARE FREE “ FROM THE FUNCTIONS OF PROVIDING DAYLIGHT AND NATURAL VENTILATION ” (A L -A ZZAWI , 1986, P. 56) AND CAN THEREFORE BECOME PARTY WALLS TO SURROUNDING DWELLINGS , AS CA BE SEEN IN THE MODEL STUDY [OPPOSITE ].

THE ATRIUM COURTYARD FORM ALLOWS FOR “ EFFICIENT USE OF THE STREETSCAPE ” AND “ VERY HIGH DENSITIES ” TO BE ACHIEVED (Ö ZKAN , 2005, P. XVI ). THIS

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IS BECAUSE THE OUTER WALL IS DEVOID OF DECORATION AND OPENINGS . C ULTURALLY , THIS PROVIDES A LEVEL OF SECURITY AND PRIVACY TO THE DWELLINGS . THE ONLY OPENING TO THE STREET IS THE FRONT DOOR TO THE HOUSE WHICH OPENS DIRECTLY ONTO THE STREET .

THE STREETS OF THE ARAB CITY, KNOWN AS MALHALLAS , ARE NARROW AND THE WALLS OF THE PLOTS REACH UP TO TWO AND THREE STOREYS . THE “ DENSELY CLUSTERED ” NATURE THIS CREATES FACILITATES A “ MINIMUM AMOUNT OF SOLAR EXPOSURE ” (FETHI & ROAF, 1986) ON THE WALLS OF THE BUILDINGS. THIS ENSURES THAT THE MALHALLAS REMAIN COOL AND SHADED .

THE ARAB HOUSE THEREFORE OFFERS NOT ONLY AN INTERNAL ENVIRONMENTAL SOLUTION , BUT AN ENTIRE URBAN STRATEGY FOR MANAGING THE HARSH CLIMATE OF THAT REGION .

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AN INTERNAL [LEFT] AND EXTERNAL [MIDDLE] VIEW OF A COURTYARD IN CAIRO WITH LADIES CARRYING OUT THEIR DUTIES IN A COURTYARD [RIGHT] (LIBRARY, 1996)

WHAT MAKES A SUCCESSFUL COURTYARD HOUSE?

THE ARAB HOUSE II : EXTERNAL THE CONNECTION FROM THE STREET TO THE PRIVACY OF THE COURTYARD IS A VERY IMPORTANT ONE AND IS USUALLY ACHIEVED THROUGH USE OF A “ BENT AXIS ENTRANCE FROM THE STREET , DESIGNED TO AVOID DIRECT VISION BY PASSERS -BY” (F ETHI & ROAF, 1986, P. 41).

DR. MAGDI NOOR ALSO POINTS OUT THAT THE “ TIME FACTOR ” ENABLES “ THE EYE TO ADJUST ITSELF TO THE NEW INTENSITY OF LIGHT ” (1986, P. 69), THUS CREATING A COMPLETE CONTRAST IN ATMOSPHERE IN THIS THRESHOLD BETWEEN THE PUBLIC AND PRIVATE REALM .

THE HOUSES ARE MAINLY “ PRISTYLE ” OR “ HOSH MURABA ”, MEANING PROPORTIONALLY SQUARE WITH DIMENSIONS RANGING FROM “4 M X 4 M TO 12M X 12 M” (FETHI & ROAF, 1986, P. 41). DR SUBHI AL-AZZAWI ALSO NOTES THAT “ THE LENGTH AND WIDTH OF A COURTYARD SHOULD BE SMALLER THAN ITS HEIGHT (A L -

AZZAWI , 1986, P. 54). THIS ENSURES THAT THE MAXIMUM AMOUNT OF SHADING IS ACHIEVED .

SHADING IS ESSENTIAL TO FOR THE PROGRAMME OF THE FEMALE INHABITANTS TO TAKE PLACE . B ECAUSE THEY ARE FORBADE “ TO BE SEEN WITHOUT THEIR VEIL ” (A L AZZAWI , 1986, P. 55), THE COURTYARD IS ONE OF THE FEW OUTDOOR SPACES AVAILABLE TO THEM . THE IMAGE [OPPOSITE , RIGHT] SHOWS MUSLIM WOMEN INHABITING THIS SPACE .

THOUGH THE ARAB HOUSE IS OPEN TO RECEIVING GUESTS , ISLAM RESTRICTS THE DEGREE OF INTERACTION , “ TO ENSURE THE GENDERS DO NOT MIX” AND THAT THE COURTYARD REMAINS AN AREA “ USED ONLY BY MEMBERS OF THE FAMILY ” (Ö ZKAN , 2005, P. XVI ).

MEMARIAN & BROWN WRITE THAT THE IRANIAN HOUSE IS DIVIDED INTO THE “ BIROONI ,” MEANING

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“ OUTSIDE ” WHICH REMAINED EXCLUSIVELY A “ MALE AREA” AND THE “ANDEROONI ,” MEANING INSIDE WHICH WAS “ PREDOMINANTLY FEMALE” (2005, P. 35). THIS PATTERN IS SEEN ACROSS THE A RAB WORLD .

LOCATED “ DEEPER IN THE HOUSE ” (Z AKO, 2005, P. 100), THE ATRIUM , IS THEREFORE A PART OF THE ANDEROONI . IT IS AN EXTERNAL SPACE ENCLOSED BY THE HOUSE , WITHIN WHICH , WOMEN ARE ABLE TO CARRY OUT DOMESTIC TASKS WHILST THEIR HUSBANDS CONDUCT THEIR BUSINESS IN THE “ SHALLOW” (Z AKO, 2005, P. 100) SPACES OFF THE ENTRANCE TO THE HOUSE .

SUCH A PROGRAMME IS DICTATED BY A CULTURE WHICH PRIORITISES RELIGIOUS BELIEFS , PRIVACY AND MODESTY IN THE DESIGN OF THEIR HOUSING .

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ENVIRONMENTAL SECTION OF

ARAB HOUSE

WHAT MAKES A SUCCESSFUL COURTYARD HOUSE?

THE ARAB HOUSE III : INTERNAL

THE PROGRESSION FROM EXTERNAL TO INTERNAL FROM THE COURTYARD IS RARELY A DIRECT ONE AND INSTEAD INVOLVES A SERIES OF THRESHOLDS. ON THE GROUND FLOOR , A SERIES OF COLUMNS CARRYING THE UPPER STOREYS MAY DESIGNATE A “T ALAR” WHICH F ETHI AND ROAF DESCRIBE AS A “ DOORLESS ‘IWAN ’ TYPE OF RECESSED SPACE WHICH OFTEN OCCURS IN PAIRS OPPOSITE EACH OTHER TO THE NORTH AND SOUTH ”. THIS SMALL COLONNADE HELPS CONTROL THE TEMPERATURE OF THE ROOMS BEYOND AND ALSO HELPS “ REDUCE THE AMOUNT OF DUST PENETRATING THE HOUSE ” (A L -A ZZAWI , 1986, P. 56).

ON UPPER STOREYS, GALLERIES AND EAVES CANTILEVER , HELPING “ TO REDUCE THE AREA OF THE FLOOR OF THE COURTYARD” (A L -A ZZAWI , 1986, P. 54).

THIS MINIMISES THE PENETRATION OF DIRECT SOLAR RADIATION INTO THE SECTION AND MAINTAINS A COOL INTERNAL ENVIRONMENT .

TEMPERATURE IS ALSO CONTROLLED BY THE STRUCTURE AND MATERIALS. M OST HOUSES EMPLOY HEAVY

MATERIALS LIKE “ BAKED BRICK ” TO PROVIDE A “ TIME -LAG IN THE REGION OF SEVEN TO TWENTY HOURS ” (F ETHI & ROAF, 1986, P . 48). THIS MEANS THAT THE SOLAR RADIATION IS STORED IN THE THERMAL MASS AND RELEASED LATER WHEN THE TEMPERATURE IS LOWER .

DESPITE THESE EFFORTS , IT IS COMMON IN THE ARAB HOUSE THAT ONLY CERTAIN ROOMS ARE IN USE AT CERTAIN POINTS OF THE YEAR . D R . N OOR WRITES THAT “ SUMMER APARTMENTS FACED THE NORTHERLY DIRECTION ,” (1986, P. 62) THUS SHIELDING THESE ROOMS FROM HARSH SOLAR RADIATION. THESE OBSERVATIONS ARE ECHOED BY M EMARIAN AND BROWN IN THEIR ANALYSIS OF THE IRANIAN C OURTYARD HOUSE (2005, P. 32). A S A RESULT , THE PROGRAMME VARIES FROM ONE SEASON TO THE NEXT .

THE VENTILATION OF THE ARAB HOUSE IS ALSO A COMPLEX SYSTEM , BEGINNING WITH “S IRDABS ”. THESE “ BASEMENTS” OF “4-5 M DEEP” (FETHI & ROAF, 1986, P. 42) WHICH CAN BE SEEN IN THE SECTION [OPPOSITE ] FEED COOL AIR INTO THE COURTYARD THROUGH VENTS .

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ACCORDING TO STUDIES , THIS CAN RESULT IN A “ DIFFERENCE OF TWO TO FOUR DEGREES CENTIGRADE DURING THE DAY ” BETWEEN THE GROUND AND UPPER COURT (F ETHI & ROAF, 1986, P. 42).

THIS EFFECT , COMBINED WITH AN INCREASED ROOM HEIGHT OF “ TWO TO THREE METRES ” (F ETHI & ROAF, 1986) FOR THE UPPER FLOORS ENSURES THAT THE INTERNAL ENVIRONMENT IS AS COOL AS POSSIBLE AND THAT ALL HOT AIR IS ALLOWED TO RISE .

POOLS ARE A COMMON ADDITION TO MANY ARAB HOUSES . MAHER LAFFAH ASSERTS THAT THE “ VERTICAL MIDDAY SUN IN SUMMER ” (1986, P . 224) IS RESPONSIBLE FOR THE CENTRALITY OF THE POOL IN THE COURTYARD , MAXIMISING ITS EXPOSURE TO THE SOLAR RADIATION , CAUSING EVAPORATION . THIS IN TURN HUMIDIFIES THE DRY AIR OF THE HOUSE .

ALL THESE FACTORS CONTRIBUTE TO COMBATING THE HOT , DRY CLIMATE OF THE REGION AND ENSURE A MARKED DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE INSIDE AND OUTSIDE OF THE BUILDING .

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MASSING STUDY OF

THE PATIO HOUSE

WHAT MAKES A SUCCESSFUL COURTYARD HOUSE?

THE PATIO HOUSE I : URBAN & CULTURAL CONTEXT THE PRECISE ORIGINS OF THE MOORISH PATIO HOUSE CAN BE DEBATED . IT CAN BE ARGUED TO BE “ A ROMAN LEGACY ” (BARRUCAND & BEDNORZ, 2002, P. 217) OR TO HAVE BEEN “ TRANSPORTED THROUGH MIGRATION AND TRADE ” (V ERNER , 2008, P . 19) FROM THE MIDDLE EAST. IN EITHER CASE , THE FORM IS ONE WHICH HAS BEEN INTEGRATED INTO AN URBAN FABRIC TO CREATE A VERNACULAR ARCHITECTURE . THIS IS THE MAIN FACTOR WHICH DISTINGUISHES THE PATIO HOUSE FROM THE A RAB HOUSE . INSTEAD OF A CENTRAL ATRIUM , AROUND WHICH THE BUILDINGS ARE ARRANGED LIKE THE A RAB HOUSE , THE PATIO BECOMES A SPACE IN THE PLAN WHICH IS SUBTRACTED FROM THE BUILT FORM . THE BUILDINGS AROUND THIS SUBTRACTED SPACE ARE ALSO OFTEN MANY ELEMENTS WHICH COMBINE TO ENCLOSE THE COURTYARD .

THE MEDINA IS ARRANGED DIFFERENTLY TO THE ARAB CITY. WHILST THE ARAB CITY FOLLOWS THE ARRANGEMENT OF THE GRID AS DICTATED BY THE FORM OF THE CENTRAL COURTYARD , THE MEDINA IS ARRANGED INTO “ SECTORS, SEPARATING THE ECONOMIC LIFE OF THE CITY FROM THE PRIVATE ” (V ERNER, 2008, P . 30). EACH OF THE “ ALLEYWAYS AND CROOKED CULS -DE -SAC ” INDICATE AN EXCLUSIVELY RESIDENTIAL AREA , AGAIN CONTRASTING THE ARAB HOUSE, IN WHICH SOME BUSINESS IS CONDUCTED WITHIN THE MALE AREAS OF THE HOUSE .

THOUGH BOTH ARAB AND MOORISH HOUSE TYPES PROTECT THEIR PRIVACY THROUGH THE USE OF AN “ ENCLOSING WALL ” (VERNER, 2008, P. 10), THE PATIO HOUSE LAYS OUT THE ROOMS AS “ ELEMENTARY CELLS ” (PETRUCCIOLI , 2005, P . 3) AND NOT AS SPACES CARVED OUT OF THE WALL , AS IS THE CASE WITH THE A RAB HOUSE .

THIS AGAIN OCCURS AS A RESULT OF THE URBAN FABRIC OF

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THE MEDINA WHICH DOES NOT FOLLOW A RIGID GRID PATTERN LIKE THE A RAB CITY .

THE PATIO HOUSE, LIKE THE ARAB HOUSE, MUST ALSO ACCOMMODATE THE PROGRAMME OF AN ISLAMIC CULTURE . PETRUCCIOLI EXPLAINS THAT “ THE COURTYARD TYPE , INHERITED FROM B YZANTIUM , ALSO RESPONDED EFFECTIVELY TO THE ESSENTIAL M USLIM REQUIREMENTS OF SECLUDING AND PROTECTING WOMEN ” (2005, P. 15).

THE SECLUSION OF THE PATIO HOUSE IS ACHIEVED , AS IN THE A RAB HOUSE , THROUGH USE OF A BENT ENTRANCE OR SQIFA WHICH ACTS AS A “BUFFER ZONE BETWEEN THE SEMI -PUBLIC SPACES OF THE ALLEYWAY (DRIBA) AND THE PRIVATE SPACE OF THE HOUSE ,” (SIBLEY, 2005, P. 70) THUS ENSURING NO INTERNAL VIEWS MAY BE GAINED FROM THE STREET AND THAT THE WOMEN OF THE HOUSE REMAIN SAFE AND PROTECTED .

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VIEW OF THE MEDINA ALLEY [LEFT] AND INTERNAL VIEWS OF THE COURTYARD [MIDDLE

& RIGHT ] (ÇELIK, 1997)

WHAT MAKES A SUCCESSFUL COURTYARD HOUSE?

THE PATIO HOUSE II : EXTERNAL THE OBJECTIVE OF THE PATIO HOUSE FORM IS NOT TO “ ISOLATE THE HOUSE ”, BUT TO CREATE “ A PEACEFUL , PRIVATE ENVIRONMENT ” (S IBLEY , 2005, P. 80).

IN THE CASE OF A TYPICAL PATIO HOUSE IN FEZ, THIS ENVIRONMENT IS COMPOSED OF A “ TWO-STOREY BUILDING ”, THE COURTYARD OF WHICH IS “ CLOSED ON FOUR SIDES ” BY “MODULAR ROOMS CALLED BAYT” (PETRUCCIOLI , 2005, P . 10).

THOUGH THE ROOMS OF THE PATIO HOUSE DO NOT NECESSARILY OPEN DIRECTLY ONTO THE COURTYARD , THEY DO POSSESS A DIRECTIONALITY LEADING TO THE COURTYARD , FROM WHICH “ RADIATE AN ARRAY OF OTHER ROOMS ” (V ERNER , 2008, P. 19), CONTRASTING THE ORGANISING ATRIUM OF THE A RAB HOUSE .

THE OVERALL EFFECT OF THE MORE INDEPENDENT NATURE OF THE COURTYARD IS ONE OF A PRIVATE SANCTUARY WITHIN THE BUILDING . THIS IS EMPHASISED THROUGH THE USE OF SYMMETRY “ CONTROLLING THE REGULARITY OF THE PATIO ” (PETRUCCIOLI , 2005, P. 3).

THIS SYMMETRY HOWEVER , IS NOT CARRIED THROUGH THE BUILDING AS IS OFTEN THE CASE WITH THE A RAB HOUSE .

ANOTHER IMPORTANT DISTINCTION TO BE MADE IS DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE DAR, “ A COMMON TYPE OF HOME TO BE FOUND IN THE MEDINA” (V ERNER , 2008, P . 41), AND THE RIAD , “AN ENCLOSED GARDEN DIVIDED INTO FOUR VERDANT SECTORS ” (V ERNER, 2008, PP . 46-47). IN ARABIC, A DAR IS ALSO A CIRCLE , SUGGESTING THAT THE “ HOUSES RETAINED THE MEMORY OF A CIRCULAR NOMADIC ENCAMPMENT ” (V ERNER , 2008, P. 41). THIS IDEA

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UPHOLDS THAT OF THE PATIO HOUSE AS BEING CONSTRUCTED OF MODULAR ELEMENTS , LEADING TO AN ENCLOSED EXTERNAL SPACE .

THE RIAD, ON THE OTHER HAND , IS RESERVED FOR LARGER SCALE DWELLINGS AND PALACES . IN THE CASE OF THE PATIO DEL YESO, “ RICH ARCHITECTURAL ORNAMENTATION , FOUNTAINS AND SCENTED ORNAMENTAL SHRUBS ALL COME TOGETHER” CREATING A “ REFINEMENT OF THE PLEASURES OF LIFE ” (B ARRUCAND & B EDNORZ , 2002, P. 163).

THEREFORE, THE RIAD IS AN ATTEMPT TO REPRESENT AN “ IMAGE OF THE HEAVENLY GARDEN ” ON EARTH (VERNER, 2008), DIFFERING FROM THE ARAB HOUSE WHICH IS A FAR MORE HUMBLE DWELLING WHOSE PURPOSE IS TO ALLOW DAILY TASKS TO BE UNDERTAKEN .

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ENVIRONMENTAL SECTION OF A

PATIO HOUSE

WHAT MAKES A SUCCESSFUL COURTYARD HOUSE?

THE PATIO HOUSE III : INTERNAL C ORINNE VERNER WRITES THAT THE INTERIORS OF THE PATIO HOUSE SERVE AS A “ CONTRAST TO THE AUSTERE EXTERIORS ” (2008, P. 6). D ECORATIVE MATERIALS SUCH AS “ CARVED PLASTER , FLOORS OF MARBLE OR MOSAIC , CEILINGS WITH MARQUETRY OR PAINTED MOTIFS” (V ERNER , 2008, P. 6) ARE USED TO REFLECT INDIRECT COLOURFUL LIGHT INTO THE INTERIOR WITHOUT ADMITTING SOLAR RADIATION .

THESE FEATURES DEMONSTRATE AN ALTERNATIVE INTERPRETATION OF ISLAMIC INFLUENCE ON THE DESIGN OF THE INTERIOR SPACE OF THE HOUSE THAN THAT OF THE A RAB HOUSE .

WHERE THE EXTENSIVE USE OF ORNAMENTATION IN THE PATIO HOUSE SIGNIFIES AN ATTEMPT TO EMULATE A HEAVENLY ENVIRONMENT , THE SCARCITY AND SOBRIETY SEEN IN THE A RAB HOUSE CREATES A SENSE OF ABSTINENCE . D ESPITE THESE CULTURAL DIFFERENCES , THE

ARAB

HOUSE AND THE PATIO HOUSE DO SHOW COMMONALITIES IN THEIR AN ENVIRONMENTAL STRATEGY .

IN THE CASE OF THE HOUSES OF MARRAKESH , PATIOS PROVIDE “ HIGH SURFACE TO VOLUME RATIOS” (RATTI & STEEMERS, 2005) IN ORDER TO EXPOSE THE LOAD -BEARING MASONRY , WITH ITS HIGH THERMAL MASS , TO THE MAXIMUM AMOUNT OF SOLAR RADIATION . IN W INTER THE RADIATION IS RELEASED GRADUALLY DURING THE NIGHT WHILST IN S UMMER , THE VERTICAL ANGLE OF THE SUN PREVENTS THE DIRECT ABSORPTION OF RADIATION .

THE SAME OBSERVATIONS HAVE BEEN MADE OF THE ARAB HOUSE BY HANI WADAH WHO WRITES THAT “ SUNLIGHT PROJECTION SHOULD BE TOWARDS THE LONGITUDINAL (I .E . THE SOUTH )” (2005, P . 222) IN ORDER TO MAXIMISE SOLAR GAIN .

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IT IS ALSO NOTED THAT THE THERMAL GAIN OF THE COURTYARD WALLS CAUSES “ DIFFERENCES IN AIR DENSITY ” (WADAH, 2005) WHICH CONSEQUENTLY ENCOURAGES VENTILATION . THIS CAN BE SEEN IN THE ENVIRONMENTAL DIAGRAM [OPPOSITE ].

IN IT, THE WARMTH OF THE WALLS IS ALLOWED TO RADIATE INTO THE AIR . W ARMER AIR RISES , PULLING AIR FROM THE SURROUNDING SPACES INTO THE EMPTY SPACE , CAUSING A FLOW OF AIR FROM AND TO THE INTERNAL ROOMS .

THIS EFFECT IS A WELCOME ONE , BOTH IN THE CASE OF THE A RAB AND THE PATIO HOUSE BECAUSE OF THEIR SHARED CLIMATIC CONDITIONS OF THE REGION .

CONSTANT VENTILATION IS REQUIRED TO MAINTAIN A FLOW OF COOL AIR INTO ROOMS.

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MASSING STUDY OF

MACHIYA

WHAT MAKES A SUCCESSFUL COURTYARD HOUSE?

MACHIYA I: URBAN & CULTURAL CONTEXT F OR A CULTURE OF AN ISLAND PEOPLE LIKE THE JAPANESE , WHICH IS “ ORIENTATED INWARDS AND NOT OUTWARDS ” (N ITSCHKE , 2002, P. 17), THE COURTYARD PROVIDES AN IDEAL SOLUTION FOR ENCLOSING EXTERNAL SPACE . THE PRIMARY CONTRAST BETWEEN THE JAPANESE AND ISLAMIC APPROACH TO COURTYARD HOUSING IS THE NATURE OF THE ENCLOSURE OF THE PLOT . W HERE THE ARAB AND PATIO HOUSE SEEK TO PROVIDE PROTECTION , RELYING ON “THICK WALLS BUILT TO THE EDGE OF THE SITE ” (YAGI , 2002, P. 30), J APANESE HOUSING ELECTS TO USE “ A SOFT ENCLOSURE ” (YAGI , 2002, P. 34) IN THE FORM OF PLANTING AND LEVELS TO DEFINE THE EDGE OF A PLOT .

THE MACHIYA IS A TYPE OF URBAN COURTYARD HOUSE WHICH HAS ITS ORIGINS IN THE RURAL SHARED COURTYARD HOUSE , REFERRED TO AS “ ADAPTED FARM HOUSES ” WHOSE ELEMENTS HAVE BEEN “ REFINED AND ADDED TO ” (TINGEY , 1981, P . 83), WHICH MAKES THEM APPROPRIATE FOR THE TOWN . THE DUALITY AND DIVISION

OF PROGRAMME OF AGRICULTURAL COURTYARD HOUSES IS THE MOST BENEFICIAL FEATURE TO THE M ACHIYA .

BECAUSE MACHIYA ARE TRADITIONALLY MERCHANTS HOUSES , THEIR SHARED NATURE STEMS FROM A DESIRE TO INCORPORATE BOTH PRIVATE AND COMMERCIAL ACTIVITIES INTO THEIR PROGRAMME . THE COURTYARD ACTS AS A DIVISION , WITH THE “ FRONT OF THE BUILDING TAKEN UP BY THE SHOP ” AND THE “ RESIDENTIAL SPACES BEHIND” (LOCHER, 2010, P . 32). THIS DIFFERENTIATES THE MERCHANTS HOUSE FROM THE PATIO AND A RAB HOUSE IN WHICH THE COURTYARD IS USED EXCLUSIVELY TO FACILITATE FAMILY LIFE . THE COMMERCIAL ACTIVITIES IN THESE CITIES EXIST IN ALTERNATE QUARTERS .

IT IS ALSO EVIDENT THAT THE MACHIYA HOUSING TYPE WAS DEVELOPED IN CONJUNCTION WITH THE STREET .

THE “ NARROW, ELONGATED FORM ” (ITOH, 1967, P . 19) ALLOWS FOR THE ROOMS TO “ BECOME MORE PRIVATE THE DEEPER THEY ARE IN THE SITE ” (TINGEY , 1981, P. 88) WHEREAS THE A RAB HOUSE ACHIEVES PRIVACY FROM THE

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STREET THROUGH THE USE OF THE BLANK FAÇADE . THE STREET IS EVEN ALLOWED TO “ FILTER THROUGH INTO THE BUILDING ” ON SPECIAL OCCASIONS WHEN THE SHOP FRONTS BECOME “ PARTIALLY SCREENED OFF THE STREET NICHES ” (TINGEY, 1981, P. 88).

IT WAS OBSERVED BY EDWARD S. MORSE, THAT “ WHILE ONE IS BARTERING AT A SHOP, THE WHOLE FRONT BEING OPEN , HE MAY OFTEN CATCH A GLIMPSE OF THE FAMILY IN THE BACK ROOM AT DINNER , AND MAY LOOK ENTIRELY THROUGH A BUILDING TO A GARDEN BEYOND” (1961 (1886), PP . 53-54).

THIS OBSERVATION HIGHLIGHTS THE DRAMATIC CONTRAST BETWEEN THE JAPANESE CULTURE AND THAT OF THE ISLAMIC WORLD . B OTH UTILISE COURTYARD HOUSING TO ENABLE PRIVATE INTERACTION WITHIN THE FAMILY UNIT , BUT THE M ACHIYA ENCOURAGES INTERACTION BETWEEN THE FAMILY AND THE EXTERNAL ENVIRONMENT OF THE STREET .

- CONTEMPORARY PRACTICE & PRECEDENT ARCHITECTURE & URBANISM DISSERTATION - PATRICK DAVIES

INTERNAL VIEWS OF THE TSUBONIWA [LEFT

& MIDDLE] AND A VIEW OF A COURTYARD FROM ABOVE [RIGHT] (ITOH, 1967)

WHAT MAKES A SUCCESSFUL COURTYARD HOUSE?

MACHIYA II : EXTERNAL THE TERM FOR THE COURTYARD OF THE MACHIYA IS THE “ TSUBONIWA ” (LOCHER , 2010, P. 154), SO CALLED FOR ITS PROPORTIONS WHICH ARE EQUAL TO TWO TATAMI MATS OR ONE TSUBO . THE MINUSCULE DIMENSIONS OF THE TSUBONIWA ARE APPROPRIATE IN COMPARISON TO THE SCALE OF THE SURROUNDING HOUSE WHICH GENERALLY DOES NOT EXCEED ONE STOREY IN HEIGHT . THIS MASSING ALLOWS THE SUN STILL TO PENETRATE THE PLAN AND ALLOWS FOR THE CULTIVATION OF A SMALL GARDEN .

ALTHOUGH SOME OF THE MACHIYA USE THE TSUBONIWA TO CONTAIN FUNCTIONAL FEATURES LIKE WELLS AND DRAINAGE , GENERALLY “THE COURT IS MADE INTO A SMALL GARDEN ” (ITOH , 1967, P . 61) WHICH IS CAREFULLY COMPOSED AND LANDSCAPED .

IN THE CASE OF THE NOBUE HOUSE, “ THE COURT ACTUALLY CONSTITUTES A BREAK IN THE STRETCH OF THE EARTH -FLOORED AREA FROM THE FRONT TO THE REAR OF THE HOUSE , THE KITCHEN LYING BEYOND IT ” (ITOH , 1967, PP. 20-21) WHICH MEANS THAT ACTIVITIES ARE ALLOWED TO BE UNDERTAKEN WITH DIRECT ACCESS TO THE EXTERNAL

AREA , BUT ALSO MEANS THAT THE GARDEN PROVIDES A “ VISTA ” (ITOH, 1967, P. 21), USING BOTH “ BAMBOO” AND “ STONE , IN NATURAL AS WELL AS CARVED FORMS ” TO CREATE AN ARTIFICIAL LANDSCAPE .

THIS SUGGESTS THAT THE MINIATURE LANDSCAPES CREATED WITHIN THE TSUBONIWA ARE NOT AN ACCURATE DEPICTION OF NATURE BUT RATHER “ CAREFULLY DESIGNED LANDSCAPES , FINELY CRAFTED TO CREATE AN IDEALIZED VERSION OF NATURE ” (LOCHER , 2010, P. 34). THE TSUBONIWA THEREFORE HAS MORE IN COMMON WITH THE PATIO , IN PARTICULAR THE RIAD , THAN THE ATRIUM OF THE ARAB HOUSE. IT IS THE OBJECTIVE OF BOTH THE RIAD AND THE TSUBONIWA TO “ COMBINE AESTHETIC PLEASURES WITH THE FEELING OF RELIGIOUS PROFUNDITY ” (LOCHER , 2010, P. 34), RATHER THAN HAVE DAILY TASKS CARRIED OUT IN THE COURTYARD .

THE RESULT IS THE CREATION OF GARDENS WHICH SEEK TO REFLECT IDEAS OF U TOPIA , CONTRASTING THE ARAB HOUSE IN WHICH THE COURTYARD’S MAIN FUNCTION IS TO PROMOTE IDEAS OF FAMILY LIFE .

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THE FUNDAMENTAL DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE RIAD AND THE TSUBONIWA IS HOW THE LANDSCAPING IS INTENDED TO BE ENJOYED. WHERE THE RIAD SHOULD BE ENTERED AND EXPERIENCED DIRECTLY AS SHOWN BY ITS VAST SIZE AND ACCESSIBLE PLATFORMS , THE TSUBONIWA SHOULD MERELY BE “ VIEWED FROM INSIDE THE MACHIYA , WITH ROOMS OPENING DIRECTLY ONTO THE GARDEN ” (LOCHER , 2010, P. 154). THE IMAGE OPPOSITE SHOWS THIS VIEW [LEFT & MIDDLE ].

THIS INTENTION IS MADE APPARENT BY THE ARTIFICIAL REPRESENTATIONS OF NATURE WHICH CAN BE SEEN TO BE “ VIEWS OF THE LANDSCAPE ”, FRAMED BETWEEN THE “ EXTENDED ROOF EAVES AND VERANDAS ” AND THE “ STRUCTURAL COLUMNS AND BEAMS” (LOCHER, 2010, P. 34). THE GARDENS ARE 3D PAINTINGS OF LANDSCAPES. THESE EFFORTS ARE NECESSARY FOR A CULTURE WITHIN A CITY WHOSE ORIGINS ARE RURAL AND AGRICULTURAL . THE TSUBONIWA PROVIDES A MEMORY LINK BACK TO THOSE ANCESTRAL ORIGINS .

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24

ENVIRONMENTAL SECTION OF

MACHIYA

WHAT MAKES A SUCCESSFUL COURTYARD HOUSE?

MACHIYA III : INTERNAL THE JAPANESE CLIMATE HAS IMPACTED GREATLY ON THE DESIGN OF HOUSING. TETSURO YOSHIDA OBSERVES THAT “THICK WALLS AND SMALL WINDOW -OPENINGS ” (1955, P . 14), THOUGH APPROPRIATE TO THE PATIO AND ARAB HOUSE , WOULD NOT SUIT THE JAPANESE CLIMATE WHERE “ HIGH TEMPERATURE IS COMBINED WITH GREAT HUMIDITY ” (YOSHIDA , 1955, P . 14). INSTEAD , “ A CONSTANT CIRCULATION OF AIR ” IS REQUIRED TO ENSURE THAT THE HUMIDITY CREATED NATURALLY BY HUMANS IS NOT ALLOWED TO LINGER IN THE HOUSE . THE COURTYARD PROVIDES A BASIC SOLUTION TO THIS ISSUE , BRINGING “ LIGHT AND AIR INTO THE SURROUNDING ROOMS, EACH OF WHICH HAS A DIFFERENT VIEW OF THE NATURAL BEAUTY OF THE GARDEN ” (LOCHER , 2010, P . 33).

LIGHTING AND VENTILATION IS ALSO IMPROVED BETWEEN ROOMS . THIS IS BECAUSE ROOMS IN A JAPANESE HOUSE FORGO SYMMETRY AND THE “ RIGID PATTERN ” (YOSHIDA , 1955, P . 72) WHICH IS FOUND IN THE CELLULAR STRUCTURE OF THE A RAB AND PATIO HOUSE .

THEY INSTEAD FOLLOW A SEQUENCE , “ CONNECTED IN A NATURAL FASHION ” (YOSHIDA , 1955, P . 72), WHICH LENDS A SENSE OF HIERARCHY TO THEM . THE MATERIALITY ALLOWS FOR THE VENTILATION TO TAKE PLACE AS THE PARTITION WALLS , OR “ SHOJI ” (YAGI , 2002, P. 29), ARE CONSTRUCTED IN BREATHABLE PAPER . THE WHOLE BUILDING IS THEN PROTECTED FROM THE EXTERNAL

ENVIRONMENT BY “ HEAVY WOODEN DOORS ” AND EAVES WHICH “ EXTEND FAR BEYOND THESE DOORS ”, CREATING A “ BUFFER SPACE ” (YAGI , 2002, P. 29) BETWEEN THE INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL .

AS IS THE CASE WITH TRADITIONAL JAPANESE ARCHITECTURE , THE FLOOR OF THE HOUSE IS “ RAISED ABOUT 50-80 CM ” (YOSHIDA , 1955, P. 132) ON POSTS , SEPARATING THE INTERNAL ENVIRONMENT FROM THE EXTERNAL . THIS DIFFERS FROM M OORISH AND A RABIC COURTYARD HOUSING WHERE THE LOAD BEARING WALLS MEET THE GROUND . THIS IS POSSIBLE BECAUSE THE STRUCTURE OF THE A RAB AND PATIO HOUSE IS NOT LIKELY TO BE AFFECTED BY DAMPNESS DUE TO CLIMATE , WHERE THE GAP BETWEEN GROUND AND FLOOR OF THE J APANESE HOUSE ALLOWS FOR VENTILATION AND DRYING OF THE TIMBER POSTS AND BEAMS. IN ORDER TO ADDRESS THIS CHANGE IN LEVEL BETWEEN INSIDE AND OUTSIDE , THE J APANESE INTRODUCE A VERANDA ALONG ONE SIDE OF THE COURTYARD KNOWN AS AN “ ENGAWA ”. THIS COULD BE COMPARED TO THE TALAR OF THE A RAB HOUSE . B OTH SPACES MEDIATE BETWEEN THE INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL , BUT WHERE THE TALAR BECOMES A ROOM TO CONTAIN PROGRAMME , THE ENGAWA BALANCES ITS USE BETWEEN “ CORRIDOR” AND “ ROOM ” (N ISHIHARA , 1968, P. 221). IT ALSO ACTS AS ANOTHER LAYER OF PROTECTION FROM THE DRIVING RAIN OF J APAN .

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ONE OF THE KEY FACTORS OF THE INTERNAL ENVIRONMENT CONTROLLED BY THE COURTYARD IS NATURAL DAYLIGHTING . J UNICHIRŌ TANIZAKI LIKENS THE JAPANESE HOUSE TO A “ PARASOL ” (2001 (1977), P. 28). HE NOTES THAT THE “JAPANESE ROOM DEPENDS ON A VARIATION OF SHADOWS ” AND THE EXTENSION OF EAVES AND THE VERANDA ARE ATTEMPTS TO PUT “ SUNLIGHT AT A STILL GREATER REMOVE ” (TANIZAKI, 2001 (1977), P. 29).

THESE MEASURES CAN BE SEEN IN THE OPPOSITE SECTION , WHERE THE ENGAWA PROJECTS , SHIELDING THE INTERNAL FROM EXPOSURE TO SUNLIGHT THESE OBSERVATIONS HIGHLIGHT THE JAPANESE APPRECIATION OF INDIRECT AND ABSENT LIGHT . THE TSUBONIWA AS A FORM IS THE MOST EFFECTIVE MEANS OF ALLOWING THIS LIGHT INTO A HOUSE .

IT IS EVIDENT THAT THE ARAB AND PATIO HOUSE ALSO DEMONSTRATE THIS ATTITUDE AND COUPLE THEIR COURTYARDS WITH LIGHT FILTERING “ GALLERIES , STOREYS , CANTILEVERED CORNICES” AND “ SCREENS , OFTEN INSET WITH COLOURED GLASS” (F ETHI & ROAF , 1986, P . 47) TO TAME THE HARSH LIGHT .

THIS ATTITUDE TOWARDS LIGHT , WHICH APPEARS TO HAVE BEEN PREVALENT IN THE VERNACULAR ARCHITECTURE FROM ACROSS THE WORLD , APPEARS TO HAVE BEEN LOST AMID TODAY ’S MINIMALIST , CLINICAL AND INTRUSIVE APPROACHES TO DESIGN .

- CONTEMPORARY PRACTICE & PRECEDENT ARCHITECTURE & URBANISM DISSERTATION - PATRICK DAVIES

“A COURTYARD HOUSE CAN BE INTERPRETED AS A CONCEPT OR A TYPE OF HOUSE THAT CAN BE INCORPORATED INTO COUNTLESS CONTEXTS SYMBOLISING ORDER AND MEANING.” (SCHULTZ , 2004, P . 6)

WHAT MAKES A SUCCESSFUL COURTYARD HOUSE?

CONCLUSION SINCE THE VERY BEGINNINGS OF CIVILISATION , IT HAS BENEFITTED MANKIND TO ORIENTATE THEIR BUILDINGS INWARD TO PROVIDE PROTECTION FROM CRIME AND THE EXTERNAL CLIMATE . IT IS ALSO IN OUR NATURE TO EXIST WITHIN A SOCIETY , WORKING TOGETHER IN PACKS AND LATER FORMING DENSE URBAN CENTRES TO ALLOW TRADE AND INTERACTION TO TAKE PLACE IN A SAFE ENVIRONMENT .

THE COURTYARD HAS PROVEN ITSELF TO BE EFFICIENT AS BOTH A MEANS OF PROTECTION AND AN URBAN FORM . IT ACHIEVES A HIGH DENSITY, PRIVATE EXTERNAL SPACE AND A VAST STREET FAÇADE . THIS IS WHY IT IS A FORM WHICH IS STILL USED TODAY .

THE QUOTE FROM OLE SCHULTZ IS TAKEN FROM THE PREFACE TO THE J ØRN UTZON LOGBOOK V OL . I: THE COURTYARD HOUSES, IN WHICH , HE DESCRIBES THE COURTYARD AS SIMPLY A “ CONCEPT” TO BE “ INCORPORATED ” INTO A WIDER URBAN CONTEXT , LIKENING THE FORM TO SIMPLY A LETTER IN AN ALPHABET . THIS SUGGESTS THAT THE COURTYARD GAINS ITS RELEVANCE WHEN USED IN SEQUENCE AS PART OF A WIDER LANGUAGE .

F ROM THE EVIDENCE PRESENTED IN THIS ESSAY , IT IS APPARENT THAT THE COURTYARD IS A FORM WHICH CAN INDEED LEND MEANING TO A VARIETY OF CONTEXTS .

HOWEVER, ITS RELEVANCE TO EACH SPECIFIC SITUATION IS DEPENDENT ON ITS ADAPTABILITY OF THREE MAIN FACTORS :  PROPORTION  THRESHOLD  ARRANGEMENT THE PROPORTIONS OF THE COURTYARD , ALONG WITH ITS MATERIALITY ARE WHAT CONTROLS ITS CLIMATE AND SHOULD BE DESIGNED TAKING INTO ACCOUNT THE EXISTING ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS . IN THE CASE OF THE ARAB AND THE PATIO HOUSE, IT IS THE PROPORTIONS OF THE COURTYARD WHICH LIMITS ITS EXPOSURE TO THE VERTICAL SUN WHILST FAVOURING THE WINTER SUN .

LIKEWISE IN THE M ACHIYA , THE PROPORTIONS PERMIT ENOUGH RADIATION FOR THE CULTIVATION OF A GARDEN AND ONLY A SMALL AMOUNT OF LIGHT TO ENTER THE BUILDING . THIS HELPS TO MAINTAIN THE LEVEL OF SHADOW WHICH IS SO DESIRED IN JAPANESE CULTURE .

THE THRESHOLD CAN BE MANIPULATED IN MANY WAYS. THE A RAB AND PATIO HOUSE MAKE USE OF THRESHOLD TO DENY STRANGERS VIEWS INTO THE COURTYARD FROM OUTSIDE THE HOUSE . M OTIFS LIKE THE BENT ENTRANCE AND COLONNADES HELP TO PROTECT THE PRIVACY OF THE FAMILY MEMBERS WHO MAY USE THE EXTERNAL SPACE . O N THE OTHER HAND , THE TSUBONIWA

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OF THE M ACHIYA EXISTS ON A LOWER LEVEL TO THE RAISED BUILDING . IN ITSELF , THIS COURTYARD IS NOT MEANT TO BE INHABITED BY ANYONE AND SHOULD INSTEAD BE OBSERVED .

THIS HAVING BEEN SAID , THE SPACE DOES HELP TO DEFINE A THRESHOLD BETWEEN THE COMMERCIAL REALM OF THE SHOP AND THE FAMILY HOME .

THIS FACT ALSO POINTS TO THE ISSUE OF ARRANGEMENT OF PLAN AND SECTION , WHICH WILL ULTIMATELY DECIDE THE SUCCESS OF THE COURTYARD AND ALSO THE OVERALL BUILDING. THIS POSITIONING HUGELY AFFECTS THE PROGRAMME OF THE SURROUNDING ROOMS , THE CIRCULATION TO THE ROOMS AND THE ENVIRONMENTAL STATE OF THE BUILDING AND ALSO THE FORM OF THE STREETS WHICH CONTAIN IT . A COURTYARD SHOULD BE ONE ELEMENT WHICH BECOMES INTEGRAL TO ALL THE OTHER ELEMENTS OF A BUILDING. IT CANNOT EXIST MERELY FOR A SUPERFICIAL PURPOSE . IN THIS ESSAY , THIS SMALL EXTERNAL SPACE EVEN INVOLVES ITSELF WITH THE RELIGION , SPIRITUALITY AND FAMILY LIFE OF THE SOCIETY IN WHICH IT HAS BEEN CONCEIVED .

AND SO, LIKE A LETTER IN AN ALPHABET , THE COURTYARD HOUSE IS RELEVANT TO ANY SOCIETY AND CAN BE USED SUCCESSFULLY , AS LONG AS ITS DESIGN IS SPECIFICALLY ADAPTED TO THAT PARTICULAR SOCIETY .

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WHAT MAKES A SUCCESSFUL COURTYARD HOUSE?

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L OCHER, M., 2010. T RADITIONAL J APANESE A RCHITECTURE : A N E XPLORATION OF E LEMENTS AND F ORMS . SINGAPORE : T UTTLE PUBLISHING .

M EMARIAN, G. & B ROWN, F., 2005. 2 T HE SHARED CHARACTERISTICS OF I RANIAN AND A RAB COURTYARD HOUSES . I N: B. E DWARDS , ED. COURTYARD H OUSING : P AST P RESENT & FUTURE . S . L.:SPOON. M ORSE , E. S., 1961 (1886). J APANESE H OMES AND T HEIR SURROUNDINGS . N EW YORK : D OVER PUBLICATIONS .

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N ITSCHKE , G., 2002. A RCHITECTURE AND A ESTHETIC OF AN I SLAND PEOPLE . I N: C. SCHITTICH, ED. I N DETAIL: J APAN: A RCHITECTURE CONSTRUCTIONS A MBIANCES . B ERLIN: B IRKHAUSER. N OOR, D. M., 1986. 8 T HE FUNCTION AND FORM OF THE COURTYARD H OUSE . I N: A. H YLAND & A. A L-SHAHI , EDS . T HE A RAB H OUSE . N EWCASTLE U PON T YNE : T HE UNIVERSITY O F N EWCASTLE UPON T YNE . Ö ZKAN, S., 2005. FOREWORD - C OURTYARD : A TYPOLOGY THAT SYMBOLISES A CULTURE . I N: B. E DWARDS , ED. COURTYARD H OUSING : PAST, P RESENT & FUTURE . S . L.:SPOON. PETRUCCIOLI , A., 2005. T HE COURTYARD HOUSE : TYPOLOGICAL VARIATIONS OVER SPACE AND TIME . I N: B. E DWARDS , ED. C OURTYARD H OUSING : PAST, PRESENT & FUTURE . S . L.:SPOON. PFEIFER, G. & B RAUNECK, P., 2008. COURTYARD H OUSES : A H OUSING T YPOLOGY . B ASEL: B IRKHAUSER .

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YOSHIDA , T., 1955. T HE J APANESE H OUSE AND GARDEN. B ERLIN: T HE A RCHITECTURAL P RESS L ONDON. Z AKO, R., 2005. 6 T HE POWER OF THE VEIL : GENDER INEQUALITY IN THE DOMESTIC SETTING OF TRADITIONAL COURTYARD HOUSES . I N: B. E DWARDS , ED. COURTYARD H OUSING : PAST, P RESENT & F UTURE . S . L.:SPOON. Z UMTHOR, P., 2011.

SERPENTINE G ALLERY PAVILION 2011 BY PETER Z UMTHOR. [ONLINE ] A VAILABLE AT : HTTP :// WWW . SERPENTINEGALLERIES . ORG / EXHIBITIONS - EVENTS / SERPENTINE - GALLERY - PAVILION -2011- PETER - ZUMTHOR [A CCESSED 27 01 2014].

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- CONTEMPORARY PRACTICE & PRECEDENT ARCHITECTURE & URBANISM DISSERTATION - PATRICK DAVIES

WHAT MAKES A SUCCESSFUL COURTYARD HOUSE?