Outlook for st lucia coral reefs report 2014 by Paul Marshall

Outlook for the Pitons and Soufriere Marine Management Areas A REPORT PRODUCED BY THE AUSTRALIA-CARIBBEAN CORAL REEF COLLABORATION THROUGH A PARTNERSHIP WITH THE SOUFRIERE MARINE MANAGEMENT ASSOCIATION AND THE PITONS MANAGEMENT AREA

Report prepared by Peter McGinnity, Luvette Louisy, Paul Marshall and Jeff Maynard

Caribbean Community Climate Change Centre

he Australia–Caribbean Coral Reef Collaboration brings together coral reef managers and policy makers from different sides of the planet to share expertise and knowledge, to explore new ideas and to initiate joint projects that can help improve the outlook for Caribbean coral reefs in the face of climate change. The Australia–Caribbean Coral Reef Collaboration 2012 – 2014 was supported by the Australian Government through the Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade (DFAT) Australian Aid program. Implementation of the program was led by Australia’s Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority (GBRMPA) in partnership with the Caribbean Community Climate Change Centre (CCCCC) under the auspices of the Caribbean Community Secretariat (CARICOM). Further information about the work of the Australia–Caribbean Coral Reef Collaboration can be found at www.climateandreefs.org. Published by Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority, Townsville, Australia on behalf of the Australia–Caribbean Coral Reef Collaboration Copyright © Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority 2014

Reproduction of this publication for educational or other non-commercial purposes is authorised without prior written permission from the copyright holder provided the source is fully acknowledged. Reproduction of this publication for resale or other commercial purposes is prohibited without prior written permission of the copyright holder.

Cataloguing in Publication data Outlook for the Pitons and Soufriere Marine Management Areas / Australia–Caribbean Coral Reef Collaboration. ISBN 978 1 922126 41 2 (eBook) Coral reefs and islands – St Lucia. Marine parks and reserves – St Lucia. Environmental management – St Lucia. Australia–Caribbean Coral Reef Collaboration. 333.7809729843 This publication should be cited as: Australia–Caribbean Coral Reef Collaboration 2014, Outlook for the Pitons and Soufriere Marine Management Areas, Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority, Townsville. Available from: Soufriere Marine Management Association Po Box 305, 3rd Bay Street Soufriere, St Lucia Available online at www.smma.org.lc and www.climateandreefs.org Coordinating editor: Peter McGinnity (peter.c.mgcinnity@gmail.com) Editors: Peter McGinnity, Paul Marshall, Jeffrey Maynard, Anna Dowd Production: Paul Marshall, Anna Dowd, Tali Dunnage-Burke, Dieter Tracey Photography credited as follows: All photography provided by Paul Marshall, excepting: Hazel Oxenford – Page viii, Page 1, Page 26 (boat); Wikimedia Commons – Page ix (urchin); Lisa Carne/Marine Photobank – Page ix (algae); iStock/Getty Images – Page 4, Page 9, Page 30 and cover (boats); Roger Beeden – Page 7 (Grand Piton), Page 21; NOAA – Page 8 (satellite image); George Cathcart/Marine Photobank – Page 12; Link Roberts/Marine Photobank – Page 13; Baird, Inc. – Page 14 (erosion); Peter McGinnity – Page 16, Page 26 (buildings), Page 29 (beach resort), Page 46; Colin Zylka/Marine Photobank – Page 18 (lionfish); Jeff Maynard – Page 26 (title image); James Byrne – Page 30 (fisher); Tyler Smith/Marine Photobank – Page 6 (coral and fish); , Page 9 (fish trap); Emma Doyle – Page 33, Page 36, Page 41.

This is a climate neutral publication. All greenhouse gases generated in the production have been offset by funding clean energy projects. Visit www.climatefriendly.com for further information.

OUTLOOK REPORT FOR THE PITONS AND SOUFRIERE MARINE MANAGEMENT AREAS

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

his project was funded under the Australiaâ&#x20AC;&#x201C;Caribbean Coral Reef Collaboration, which is a program funded by the Australian Government through the Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade (DFAT) Australian Aid program. Implementation of the program is being led by Australiaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority (GBRMPA) in partnership with the Caribbean Community Climate Change Centre (CCCCC) under the auspices of the Caribbean Community Secretariat (CARICOM). The report was prepared for the Board of the Soufriere Marine Management Association and the support and expert comment provided by Directors of the Association have helped greatly with compilation and presentation of the main findings. The report has been prepared with substantial support from the Soufriere Marine Management Area Manager, Mrs Jeannine Compton-Antoine and staff of the Association. Mr Augustine Dominique, Manager of the Pitons Management Area, also provided guidance, support and advice to the project team. An experienced team of coral reef and social science experts conducted a rapid assessment that contributed to the Driver, Pressure, State, Impact and Response (DPSIR) framework and the assessment presented in the report. These experts include: Roger Beeden, Emma Doyle, Patricia Kramer, Melanie McField, Hazel Oxenford, James Byrne, Nellie Catzim, Peter McGinnity, Paul Marshall, Jeffrey Maynard, Margaret Gooch and Roberto Pott. Other experts also provided data, reports, assistance and advice that have been included here. Professor Callum Roberts provided a wealth of reports and information collected in St. Lucia between 1994 and 2002 by his staff from the University of York (UK). Professor Peter Mumby and Professor Nicholas Polunin from FORCE also provided feedback on surveys undertaken in St. Lucia in 2011. Jenny Mihaly, the Program Manager with the Reef Check Foundation, provided Reef Check data for St Lucia freely. Robert Glazer from Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission Fish and Wildlife Research Institute and the Gulf and Caribbean Fisheries Institute lent his experience in scenario development to lead a scenario workshop with SMMA Board members. Lastly, Leigh Grey, a water quality expert with the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority, provided advice on water quality issues.

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Contents ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iii Executive summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .vii ABOUT THIS REPORT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Assessment approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Evidence used . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Ecosystem services – an introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 DPSIR framework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 St. Lucia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Coral reefs in St. Lucia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 Soufriere Marine Management Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 Pitons Marine Management Area and World Heritage Site . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 1. DRIVERS OF CHANGE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 Tropical storms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 Climate change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 The economy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 Assessment of drivers summary table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 2. LOCAL AND REGIONAL PRESSURES ON THE ECOSYSTEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 Pollutants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 Foreshore development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 Over-use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 Regional pressures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 Assessment of pressures summary table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 3. ECOSYSTEM STATE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 Habitats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 Biodiversity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 Ecosystem health and resilience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 Assessment of ecosystem state summary table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 4. IMPACTS ON SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC BENEFITS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 Ecosystem services and impacts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 Fishing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 Tourism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 Waste disposal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 Assessments of social and economic impacts summary table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 5. RESPONSE—MANAGEMENT EFFECTIVENESS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 Context and planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 Adequacy and appropriateness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 Delivery—management outputs and outcomes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 Assessment of management effectiveness summary table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 Assessment of management process summary table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 6. OUTLOOK FOR THE MARINE MANAGEMENT AREAS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 The current outlook . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 Improving the outlook—alternative management scenarios . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 Appendix 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I Appendix 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VIII Appendix 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . X

OUTLOOK REPORT FOR THE PITONS AND SOUFRIERE MARINE MANAGEMENT AREAS

Executive summary

his Outlook Report compiles available scientific, survey and management information to provide an understanding of the state and trend of conditions in the Pitons and Soufriere marine management areas (Marine Management Areas). It synthesises knowledge of the drivers and pressures responsible for changes in the ecosystem, and presents information on the likely impacts of these changes for coastal communities and related industries. It also assesses the management responses that have occurred to date and, based on this information, predicts the likely twenty-year Outlook for the Marine Management Areas under three alternative management scenarios.

support and enhancement if further and potentially irreversible damage to the reef ecosystem â&#x20AC;&#x201C; and the benefits it provides â&#x20AC;&#x201C; is to be avoided.

The Outlook

Drivers are social processes that influence human activities relevant to the marine management areas. They can also include environmental processes that have broad influence on the system. Tropical storms and rising sea temperatures associated with climate change are major environmental drivers for the Soufriere marine management areas, while economic conditions and tourism growth are key social drivers leading to pressures on the areas.

While climate change and increasing human use will inevitably see a continued decline in reef health throughout the Caribbean over the next twenty years, the Pitons and Soufriere marine management areas include reefs that can be expected to be somewhat more resilient than most Caribbean reefs. Deeper reefs that are found within the marine management areas are expected to remain relatively healthy, due to their natural resilience, assuming management arrangements that have been in place for the past two decades are maintained. Unfortunately, the marine management areas also include coral reefs that are highly vulnerable. A number of the shallow reefs fringing the shore have already been significantly degraded through a combination of local and regional/global pressures. This has resulted in a loss in the quality of ecosystem services to local communities, and an erosion of natural resilience that makes them even more vulnerable to pressures in the future. As a result, the shallow coastal fringing reefs in the Pitons and Soufriere marine management areas can be expected to remain degraded or deteriorate further unless additional management effort can be directed to reversing the trend of decreasing resilience. The current management arrangements have proven to be effective in avoiding catastrophic losses of resilience of coral reefs in the Pitons and Soufriere marine management areas until now. However, there are worrying signs of mounting pressures and declining management investment that are concerning when considering the longterm outlook. Recent efforts to address key causes of decreased management effectiveness need

The evidence for this Outlook Report was collected in a Driver, Pressure, State, Impact and Response (DPSIR) framework. This framework enables managers and stakeholders to better understand the interactions between people and the environment, and to examine the causal linkages that could be underlying observed or projected changes in the system. A summary of the evidence collected under each DPSIR element is provided below.

Drivers

Tropical storms have historically been a key driver affecting the development of coral reefs around Soufriere. Apart from the direct physical damage from wind-driven swells, the flooding rains associated with these storms cause land slippage directly onto the fringing reefs and carry excess sediments in the river plumes. Storms will continue to be an important influence in the marine management areas into the future. Rising sea temperatures associated with climate change are an increasingly concerning driver. The narrow shelf, strong currents and proximity to cold upwelling may have lent the Soufriere reefs a degree of relative resilience to coral bleaching historically. However, climate change will increase the frequency and duration of high sea temperature events in the future, increasing the risk of widespread stress to corals, potentially leading to coral death throughout shallow reef areas. Fluctuating economic conditions have been a major driver of the types of activity occurring in the catchments adjacent to the marine management areas. Changes in the amount and intensity of agriculture have translated into important changes in the amount of sediment flowing down the rivers and into the marine management areas, with consequences for the health of the coral reef and fish communities.

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The changing fortunes of the agricultural and tourism employment base have also led to fluctuations in the level of dependence on fishing as a source of income and subsistence in local communities, and therefore in the levels of fishing pressure. Tourism growth has been a major feature of the social and economic environment over the last two decades. Increasing use of the marine management areas by tourism operators and visitors has provided very significant benefits to the St Lucian economy, but it has also added to the pressures on the reef systems.

Pressures Pressures are the specific human activities that impact the environment. The main pressures affecting the Soufriere marine management areas are pollutants, foreshore development, over-use and regional pressures. The land-based sources of pollution placing the greatest pressures on the marine management areas are sediments, which can smother and kill corals and inhibit recovery of reefs after damage. Sediments are entering the marine environment through a combination of land slippage and erosion, the latter caused by catchment clearing and development. Increased levels of nutrients can also put pressures on reef health, although the extent of impacts from these pollutants is hard to ascertain from available information. There is almost certain to be significant inputs of nutrients from sewage and sediment run-off into the marine management areas, and possibly from agricultural chemicals such as fertiliser, herbicides and pesticides. There is also a basis for concern about health risks associated with inflows of untreated sewage.

Foreshore development is placing serious pressure on key sections of the coast within the marine management areas. Although much of the coast is protected from heavy development by its steep profile, some of the most valuable nearshore coral reefs are highly susceptible to lasting impacts from inappropriately sited and poorly managed development. Human uses, including fishing, dive tourism and yachting, can cause significant pressures if not well managed. Within the Soufriere marine management areas the current level of fishing and illegal fishing are exerting high levels of pressure on fish populations both outside and inside the no-fishing reserves. This is evident in the almost complete absence of large predatory fishes (such as groupers and snappers) and changed abundances and reduced sizes of herbivorous fishes (such as parrotfish and surgeonfish). Dive tourism is likely to be causing significant pressures at some sites, notably those most heavily visited for day tourism. The most heavily visited reefs are reportedly receiving up to five times the recommended number of snorkellers/divers per year. Yachting continues to be an important use of the area, but management arrangements put in place as part of the Soufriere Marine Management Area appear to have been effective at minimising pressures from yacht anchoring. The marine management areas are also under pressure from regional threats, such as urchin disease and invasion by lionfish. Urchin populations in the marine management areas are among the healthiest in the Caribbean. However the impacts of disease outbreaks in other areas, and the extensive die-offs around St Lucia in 1983, suggest that the area could be susceptible to future disease events. Loss of urchins would increase the risk that corals and sponges are overgrown by seaweeds, reducing overall reef health. Lionfish were first reported in the marine management areas in 2011, and they are now well established in accord with the pattern of invasion at other sites throughout the Caribbean. Lionfish, which are native to the Indo-Pacific, put pressures on Caribbean reefs by preying upon and competing with native reef fishes.

State State refers to the condition of the environment and ecosystem as a result of exposure to the range of pressures affecting the system. Key indicators of the state of the Marine Management Areas include the health and abundance of hard corals, sponges and sea fans, the size and diversity of fish, and the abundance of charismatic species such as whales, dolphins and turtles. Overall the coral reef ecosystem of the Marine Management Areas is in fair condition and is relatively resilient when compared with other reefs around the Caribbean. This is in part due to the natural resilience of the deeper coral reefs that are sponge dominated and generally well flushed by oceanic waters.

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OUTLOOK REPORT FOR THE PITONS AND SOUFRIERE MARINE MANAGEMENT AREAS

Coral cover is generally higher in the shallower coral reefs, but these tend to be the least resilient and most impacted reefs within the marine management areas. These nearshore reefs are subjected to the greatest use and pressures associated with foreshore development. Run-off and use by coastal resorts and day tourism operations has contributed to coral damage and the subsequent decline in coral cover of some of the more heavily visited shallow reefs, and there is an opportunity for stewardship initiatives to be implemented that will support their restoration and recovery. Sea urchin numbers are high relative to Caribbean standards, and macroalgae (seaweed) abundance has been sustained at uniformly low levels. Urchins are an important control on seaweed growth, and the preservation of grazing pressures is critical to the ongoing health of coral reefs in the marine management areas.

The direct economic benefits currently derived from the marine management areas include at least US$11.74 million per year gross revenue from tourism and yacht visitation and approximately US$470,000 in user fees collected from tourism operations and yachts annually to support management activities. The levels of use also indicate the importance of the areas. The area supports approximately 220 artisanal fishers and receives visits each year from approximately 8000 scuba divers, 18,000 snorkellers and 4000 yachts. Heavily used sites are estimated to receive up to 28,000 dives per year. There are indications of a range of impacts to ecosystem services that could undermine the social and economic benefits derived from the marine management areas. These include reduced aesthetic quality of reefs, decreased fish catches, reduced amenity of coastal waters and beaches, and implications of the lionfish invasion. Average coral cover has declined by approximately 50 per cent between 1995 and 2002, primarily due to sediment run-off, physical impacts of tropical storms, sewage pollution and coral disease. Coral cover is important to the aesthetic appeal of snorkel/dive sites, and also influences the quality of habitat provided to fish and other species targeted by fishers.

Compared to Caribbean averages the Soufriere reefs currently have reduced abundances and sizes of both herbivorous and predatory fish. The largebodied predatory species (sharks, groupers etc.) were essentially fished out many years ago. The trend of increasing fish abundance seen in the late 1990s immediately after the reserves were created has not been sustained. Nevertheless, the marine reserves, notably Coral Gardens (Gros Piton) and the Petit Piton reserve, have the highest fish abundance and fish species richness among all St Lucian reefs surveyed.

Overfishing has resulted in the near complete loss of large-bodied predatory fish, such as groupers and large snappers. This has flow-on implications for the ecosystem, as well as implications for fish catches. Establishment of the fishing reserves initially increased benefits for fishers by increasing fish biomass, which led to increased catch per unit effort. However, in more recent years these benefits have diminished due to illegal fishing and changes to fishing apparatus (e.g. introduction of outboard motors and wire fish traps) and an increased intensity of fishing.

The status of whale, dolphin and turtle populations is not known; however, anecdotally the Marine Management Areas are considered amongst the best locations in St. Lucia for sightings of these animals.

Impact Impacts are the ways in which changes in the ecosystem state influence human wellbeing. The Marine Management Areas are important in the life and economy of St Lucia and changes in the ecosystem can have serious implications for the daily lives of adjacent coastal communities. Community benefits that are dependent on ecosystem services provided by the marine management areas include employment and income associated with fishing and tourism, subsistence fishing, swimming and bathing, and beach recreation.

OUTLOOK REPORT FOR THE PITONS AND SOUFRIERE MARINE MANAGEMENT AREAS

Untreated sewage and other water quality issues are reducing inshore water clarity, creating litter problems after rainfall events and introducing pathogens. This can affect amenity for snorkellers/ divers and beach users, and increase health risks. The invasion of lionfish has significant ecological implications for the Marine Management Areas; however, it might provide some social and economic benefits should lionfish become important components in local fish catches.

Responses Responses are the actions taken to influence drivers or pressures with the aim of addressing negative impacts and improving the state of the ecosystem. Monitoring has demonstrated that management responses have played a significant role in supporting the resilience of the Marine Management Areas, addressing use conflicts and providing very substantial benefits to local communities and the economy of St Lucia. Successful measures employed include community consultation and education, the establishment of marine zoning, the employment of rangers to undertake monitoring and compliance programs, and the establishment of yacht moorings and zone markers. An overview of key responses is provided below, with a summary of issues for future management focus.

is expected to provide some immediate opportunities to redress these issues. However, reviewing and shoring up the recurrent fee collection arrangements is essential to ensure field management is returned to, and maintained at, effective levels.

The closure of the refuse dump site that was located within the Marine Management Areas and the establishment of a refuse collection service have significantly reduced the potential impacts from a wide range of pollutants. Addressing ongoing issues of litter (primarily plastic bottles) carried by river plumes, and abandoned fishing gear, will require innovative solutions.

There is a substantial base of public policy suitable for addressing the key pressures affecting the Marine Management Areas. However, the extent of implementation of those policies is limited. The issues involved are complex and resource-intensive programs will be required to achieve success. A coordinated and strategic approach combined with strong government leadership and stakeholder support will be required to address the priority threats to long-term reef resilience and community wellbeing.

Increasing use of the Marine Management Areas combined with reduced capital funding and a plateauing or decline in recurrent funding has reduced the capacity of the field managers. Anticipated support from various foreign aid sources

The Outlook Report compiles the evidence and detailed assessments that underpin the Outlook Report—In Brief, a separate document that summarises key information and conclusions for policy makers and stakeholders.

Focal issues for future management responses • Sediment run-off from catchment clearing and development • Untreated sewage pollution • Foreshore development • Illegal fishing and overfishing associated with increasing levels of fishing and use of new technologies • Over-use of some sites by divers, snorkellers and day trip tourism operations • Remaining impacts of litter and abandoned fishing apparatus

OUTLOOK REPORT FOR THE PITONS AND SOUFRIERE MARINE MANAGEMENT AREAS

ABOUT THIS REPORT

utlook reporting is emerging as a valuable tool for assessing ecosystem trajectories and anticipating future threats as a basis for strategic, integrated management of coastal and marine systems. In 2013 the Australia–Caribbean Coral Reef Collaboration commenced a collaborative project between the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority, the Soufriere Marine Management Association and the manager of the Pitons Management Area. The intent of the project was to develop an Outlook Report for the Marine Management Areas in the Soufriere area of St Lucia, and an accompanying Outlook Report—In Brief that provides a higher level summary for policy makers and stakeholders.

in the assessment. Assessment grades are based on the approach taken by the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority (GBRMPA 2009), modified where appropriate to suit the current assessment. The grading allocated is a ‘grade of best fit’, based on a qualitative assessment of the available evidence.

Modelled on an approach developed for the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park, the Outlook Report follows a DPSIR (driver, pressure, state, impact and response) framework. The report uses this structure to develop an understanding of current conditions of coral reefs in the management areas, the social and economic linkages to those reefs, and the key drivers and pressures affecting the system. This knowledge is then used to project important changes over the next twenty years to inform strategic management planning and action.

Additional information was collected in September 2013 to provide more recent information on ecosystem state and key pressures. The snapshot update was compiled by a team of experts from the Caribbean, North and Central America and the Great Barrier Reef working in collaboration with staff from the Soufriere Marine Management Association. Information was collected through reef surveys and key informant surveys.

Assessment approach An assessment summary table in each section summarises the outcomes of the assessment for each of the Outlook components considered in that section. A series of grading statements guide the allocation of a grade for each component examined

Evidence used This Outlook Report draws on a wealth of available information, much of which was collected through scientific and monitoring programs undertaken in the Marine Management Areas between 1994 and 2002. A small number of studies and surveys done since that time have helped to contemporise the assessment.

Preliminary findings of the Outlook Report were reviewed at a workshop conducted with members of the Board of Soufriere Marine Management Association (SMMA) and a small group of experts. At that workshop the information on current conditions, pressures and drivers was also used to explore three management scenarios and their implications for the predicted possible future outlooks for the Marine Management Areas.

OUTLOOK REPORT FOR THE PITONS AND SOUFRIERE MARINE MANAGEMENT AREAS

Ecosystem services â&#x20AC;&#x201C; an introduction Ecosystem services are the many and varied benefits that people obtain from ecosystems. In 2005, the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment identified and categorised ecosystems and their resulting services, identified the links between these services and human societies, and characterised the direct and indirect drivers and feedback loops. The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment identified four categories of services derived from ecosystems: (i) provisioning services, which are the products or goods such as fish; (ii) regulating services, which are the ecosystem functions that benefit people such as shoreline protection; (iii) cultural services, which are the non-material benefits such as recreational and aesthetic benefits; and (iv) supporting services, which are the fundamental natural processes that support the other three categories (see figure). This Outlook Report has not attempted a full analysis of the ecosystem services provided by the Marine Management Areas. However, ecosystem services have been used as the framework for linking ecosystem state with human wellbeing, and for analysing risks to benefits from pressures and drivers.

Provisioning services

Regulating services

Cultural services

Products or goods such as fish, shellfish and seaweed

Ecosystem functions such as shoreline protection and waste assimilation

Non-material benefits such as recreational, aesthetic and spiritual benefits

Supporting services Fundamental processes such as nutrient cycling and water exchange that support the other three categories

Figure 1: Ecosystem services from coral reefs

DPSIR framework The Driver, Pressure, State, Impact, Response (DPSIR) framework has been used to provide a structured approach to collecting and presenting information for this Outlook Report. DPSIR provides a conceptual framework as a basis for understanding the impacts of human activities on the environment, and the flow of benefits from the environment to people. Most importantly, the integrated view provided by the DPSIR framework helps managers identify and assess appropriate responses. By applying the DPSIR framework, the Outlook Report generates a high-level understanding of how the Marine Management Areas are functioning, the risks they face, how the system is likely to respond to change, what the priority management responses are and where these actions may need to be targeted.

A conceptual DPSIR framework was developed for the Marine Management Areas during a workshop held in Soufriere, 9â&#x20AC;&#x201C;13 September, 2013. The workshop, which was funded under the AusAid Australiaâ&#x20AC;&#x201C;Caribbean Coral Reef Collaboration, brought together coral reef management expertise from the Caribbean and the Great Barrier Reef. The primary purpose of the workshop was to develop a prototype rapid assessment and monitoring protocol for addressing key information needs of coral reef managers. Field work during the workshop collected contemporary data to inform this Outlook Report. Following the workshop a targeted literature review was undertaken to expand on the conceptual DPSIR framework for the Marine Management Areas and provide further evidence for the assessments presented in this report.

OUTLOOK REPORT FOR THE PITONS AND SOUFRIERE MARINE MANAGEMENT AREAS

The components of the DPSIR framework as applied to the assessment of the Pitons and Soufriere Marine Management Areas Drivers (or driving forces) refer to fundamental social processes, such as regional patterns of tourism, technological change and population growth, which shape the human activities that have a direct impact on the environment. Pressures are both the specific human activities that result from driving forces which impact the environment, such as the fish harvesting that supports local economies, and the natural processes that have a similar impact on the environment, such as major storms or heat waves. State is the condition of the environment, represented by measures such as the amount of coral cover, abundance of fish or levels of

nutrients in coastal waters. This condition is not static, but includes current environmental trends as well. Impacts are the ways in which changes in state influence human wellbeing, such as decreases in coral cover or water clarity that reduce tourism value of a dive site, or decreased fish abundance that reduces household income for fishers. Responses refer to efforts to address impacts. These most often focus on mitigating pressures (usually prioritised on the basis of impacts), but responses can also include measures that aim to affect drivers, or even strategies to reduce the vulnerability of human wellbeing to changes in state.

Figure 2: Conceptual model of DPSIR framework with examples of drivers, pressures, state variables and impacts relevant to coral reef ecosystems.

IMPACTS

DRIVERS

Fish catch

Market

Dive site quality

Technology

Beach amenity

Population

RESPONSE

STATE

PRESSURES

Reef health

Pollution

Fish community

Reef uses

Water quality

Natural events

OUTLOOK REPORT FOR THE PITONS AND SOUFRIERE MARINE MANAGEMENT AREAS

INTRODUCTION

The island of St. Lucia lies within the north-east trade wind belt and is normally under an easterly flow of moist warm air. Ambient sea surface temperatures vary little from 26.7 °C at any time and the island receives an almost constant amount of surface solar radiation through the year. These factors combine to give St. Lucia a tropical maritime climate with a fairly constant high air temperature averaging near 28 °C that rarely rises above 33 °C or falls below 20 °C. The island’s annual rainfall regime can be defined by two seasons, one wet and one dry. The dry season runs from January to May and the wet from June to November (Government of Saint Lucia 2009).

his section provides an overview of the country of St Lucia, the coral reef ecosystems of the area and introduces the Pitons and Soufriere Marine Management Areas.

St. Lucia St. Lucia is a small volcanic island located within the Lesser Antillean Arc of the Caribbean Archipelago (see map). The island is 42 km long and 22 km wide at its widest point. The island’s population is approximately 167,000 residents, with an average density of 1036/km2 (Government of Saint Lucia undated). As is typical of many such islands, St. Lucia is characterised, inter alia, by:

St. Lucia has a mountainous topography, characterised by a central ridge running from north to south, with numerous steep offshoot ridges extending towards the coasts. The coastlines are deeply indented by near-vertical cliffs with a number of narrow sandy beaches.

• Limited mineral resources • Open fragile economy highly vulnerable to external economic factors

Population centres and key economic activities of agriculture, fishing and tourism are largely concentrated along the coast, the latter capitalising on St. Lucia’s clear and relatively calm waters and coral reefs (Government of Saint Lucia 2009).

• Limited human resources • Limited financial and technical resources.

Figure 3: Map of St Lucia and the Caribbean Region 0 United States

5 kilometers Gros Islet

Bermuda

CASTRIES

Anse La Raye

Bahamas

Canaries Cuba

Cayman Is.

Mexico

Haiti

Honduras

El Salvador

Soufriere British Virgin Is. Dominican Rep. Anguilla Puerto Rico

Antigua St Kitts and Nevis and Barbuda Montserrat Guadeloupe Dominica Martinique

Belize Guatemala

St Lucia

Turks and Caicos Is.

St Vincent and the Grenadines Barbados Curaçao Grenada

Nicaragua

Vieux Fort

Costa Rica

Panama

Venezuela Colombia

250

500

Guyana

1,000 Kilometers Brazil

Suriname

French Guiana

OUTLOOK REPORT FOR THE PITONS AND SOUFRIERE MARINE MANAGEMENT AREAS

Coral reefs in St. Lucia A total of 90 km2 of coral reef is found around St. Lucia, comprising narrow fringing reefs lying close to shore and a small number of patch reefs separated from the coastline. Coral reefs form extensive shelves off the south and east coasts, whereas the west coast tends to be characterised by patch reefs and incipient fringing reefs. Despite this, the reef communities of the west coast are more spectacular due to their higher diversity, interesting morphology and greater water clarity. As a result, the reefs around Soufriere are the focus of the majority of marine tourism in St Lucia and support important small-scale fisheries. The coral reefs in the Soufriere area vary in character depending on depth and location. Shallow water areas (less than 5 m deep) tend to be characterised by isolated corals and sponges growing on rocks and boulders scattered over sand. Patches of gorgonian soft corals form wafting forests among the boulders in some locations, while seagrass beds blanket the shallow sandy areas in others. Small fish and other mobile creatures can be plentiful in these shallow reefs, and the long spined sea urchin is a common sight. There is minimal growth of seaweeds, although thin layers of algae coat some areas of reef where there has been extensive coral mortality, such as in a few heavily used sites close to resorts. Deeper reefs close to shore tend to be characterised by steep walls or platforms of rock stepping down to greater depths with emergent outcrops and reef patches. These are often spectacular dive sites with a dense covering of corals, sponges, sea fans and other sessile (attached) organisms. Corals tend to be smaller colonies (less than 1 m) of encrusting and massive growth forms, with few examples of branching or elkhorn species. Sponges can attain large sizes and in many areas they are a visually dominant component of the reefscape. The varied topography and habitat provided by corals and sponges supports a multitude of fish, including schools of colourful planktivores (plankton feeders) and small herbivores (seaweed feeders).

Smaller pelagic species such as jacks and groups of small predators such as snappers are often seen, but larger fish and top end predators such as groupers and sharks are rarely, if ever, sighted.

Soufriere Marine Management Area The Soufriere Marine Management Area is the most closely regulated and well-known marine protected area in St. Lucia. The Area extends 12 km along the west coast (see Figure 4). The Soufriere Marine Management Area was established in 1995. The main purpose for its establishment was to reduce conflict among users including fishers, yacht anchoring, coastal infrastructure development, tourism, and local residents. Environmental problems identified at the time of establishment of the Soufriere Marine Management Area were:

Figure 4: Map of the Soufriere Marine Management Area N

SMMA Zoning Legend Marine Reserve

Multipurpose Area

Fishing Priority Area

Recreational Area

Yachting Area 0

Grand Caille MRA

1 kilometers Gros Piton MRA Petit Piton MRA

Rachette Point MRA

St Lucia Soufriere

OUTLOOK REPORT FOR THE PITONS AND SOUFRIERE MARINE MANAGEMENT AREAS

5 kilometers

Pitons Marine Management Area and World Heritage Site The Pitons Management Area is a 2909 ha site near the town of Soufriere that includes both terrestrial and marine components. The area was listed as a World Heritage Area in 2004. Two criteria were central to the decision by UNESCO to list the Pitons Management Area as World Heritage: • Criterion (viii): The Pitons Management Area contains the greater part of a collapsed stratovolcano contained within the volcanic system, known to geologists as the Soufriere Volcanic Centre. Prominent within the volcanic landscape are two eroded remnants of lava domes, Gros Piton and Petit Piton. The Pitons occur with a variety of other volcanic features including cumulo-domes, explosion craters, pyroclastic deposits (pumice and ash), and lava flows. Collectively, these fully illustrate the volcanic history of an andesitic composite volcano associated with crustal plate subduction. • Degradation of coastal water quality, with direct implications for human health and for the protection of the reef ecosystem • Depletion of nearshore fish resources • Loss of the economic, scientific and recreational potential of coral reefs, particularly in the context of diving tourism • Degradation of landscapes and general environment quality, notably on or near beaches • Pollution generated by solid waste disposal in ravines or directly in the sea • Yacht anchor damage to reefs • Sedimentation of the reefs caused by runoffs from rivers and storm damage (Soufriere Marine Management Association no date). The Soufriere Marine Management Association manages the Soufriere Marine Management Area. The Association is a not-for-profit company with a management board that includes mostly reef stakeholders.

• Criterion (vii): The Pitons Management Area derives its primary visual impact and aesthetic qualities from the Pitons, two adjacent forestclad volcanic lava domes rising abruptly from the sea to heights greater than 700 m. The Pitons predominate over the St. Lucian landscape, being visible from virtually every part of the island and providing a distinctive landmark for seafarers. The combination of the Pitons against the backdrop of green tropical vegetation and a varying topography combined with a marine foreground gives the area its superlative beauty (UNESCO, CLT, WHC no date). The area is managed for multiple use where agriculture, artisanal fishing, human settlement and tourism are allowed (UNESCO, CLT, WHC no date). The marine component of the Pitons Management Area directly overlaps with the Soufriere Marine Management Area and both marine areas are managed as one unit by the Soufriere Marine Management Association. For ease of reference throughout this report, these overlapping areas will be referred to as the ‘Marine Management Areas’.

OUTLOOK REPORT FOR THE PITONS AND SOUFRIERE MARINE MANAGEMENT AREAS

1. DRIVERS OF CHANGE

his chapter presents the evidence obtained from the literature to assess the key drivers affecting the ecosystem of the Marine Management Areas. Drivers refer to fundamental social processes, such as regional patterns of tourism, technological change and population growth, which shape the human activities that have a direct impact on the environment. Understanding drivers can help managers understand the more pervasive social and economic processes that influence their system, and can help managers and stakeholders project largescale trends in pressures that affect ecosystem state and implications for social and economic benefits. For the Pitons and Soufriere marine management areas, the key drivers are tropical storms, climate change and the economy. This section presents the information used to assess the drivers of change; a table provides a summary of the assessment.

Tropical storms Tropical storms have historically been a key driver affecting the Soufriere coral reef development. Apart from the direct physical damage from winddriven swells, the flooding rains associated with these storms cause land slippage directly onto the fringing reefs and carry high loads of sediments in the river plumes. Of the 11 major disaster events to strike St. Lucia in the last 20 years, 55 per cent were related to cyclonic weather events (Ecoisle Consulting Inc. and Pieter de Jong, AICP 2005). These events included: Tropical Storm Debby in 1994, hurricanes Luis and Marilyn in 1995, an un-named storm in

1996, Hurricane Lenny in 1999, Hurricane Omar in 2008 and Hurricane Tomas in 2010. These severe storms have had very significant impacts along the Soufriere coast, and to the reefs of the Marine Management Areas. Smith et al. (1997) reported that the most significant natural disturbances in recent years have been caused by a number of storms and hurricanes in 1994 and 1995. Tropical Storm Debby in 1994 was one of the wettest to hit St. Lucia in the last century and caused landslides and erosion that resulted in heavy siltation from run-off. In 2010 Hurricane Tomas dumped a record 24 inches of rain on the Soufriere area in 19 hours (Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean 2011). A study of three reefs on the south-west coast, undertaken shortly after Tropical Storm Debby, revealed considerable damage, with coral mortality as high as 50 per cent at the most heavily impacted site. Sediment depth and the proportion of bleached corals were highest at sites near river mouths (Nowlis, et al. 1997). In 1995, the heavy seas that accompanied hurricanes Luis and Marilyn reportedly caused severe damage to reefs on the west coast, particularly to shallow stands of Porites porites, but there are no quantitative data available on destruction or recovery. Hurricane Lenny in 1999 also did a great deal of damage, about three per cent of coral losses in shallow water and 19 per cent in deep water could be attributed to storm-borne sediment run-off. In the worst-affected places losses were reportedly much greater than these average figures suggest (Roberts and Mees 2003).

OUTLOOK REPORT FOR THE PITONS AND SOUFRIERE MARINE MANAGEMENT AREAS

Climate change Climate change is an increasingly concerning driver. St. Lucia is already experiencing some of the effects of climate variability and change through damages from severe weather systems and other extreme events, as well as more subtle changes in temperatures and rainfall patterns. Detailed climate modelling projections for St. Lucia predict: Temperature: Regional Climate Models (RCMs) project increases ranging from 2.4 to 3.3 째C by the 2080s for the higher emissions scenarios. Precipitation: General Circulation Models (GCMs) project overall decreases in annual rainfall of -37 to +7 mm by 2080 and RCMs are projecting decreases between -11 and -32 per cent. Sea Surface Temperatures (SST): GCMs project annual mean SST increases of +0.8 to 3 째C by the 2080s. Tropical Storms and Hurricanes: North Atlantic hurricanes and tropical storms have increased in intensity over the last 30 years. Observed and projected increases in sea surface temperatures indicate potential for continuing increases in hurricane activity. Specifically, model projections indicate that storm events may increase in intensity but not frequency. Coral reefs are susceptible to climate change impacts based on a variety of climate change effects. Based on the available climate predictions, modelling (van Hooidonk, et al. 2014) indicates that coral reefs in St. Lucia will experience thermal stress severe enough to cause bleaching every year after 2040. Declines in coral calcification are expected by 2040 due to ocean acidification.

The economy Economic growth presents many challenges for small island developing states. Due to their fragile ecosystems, small islands are very susceptible to environmental damage that is often associated with development activities. Environmental damage can then, in the longer term, lead to economic impacts because of the close link between the environment

and sustainable development objectives (Jules 2005). St Lucia is typical of other small island developing states with a high dependence on agriculture, fishing and tourism. As is often the case, population centres and key economic activities are predominantly concentrated along the coast. The Soufriere District has historically played a critical role in supporting the economy of St Lucia. The importance of the district to the national economy continues today, despite many changes to the types and distribution of activities over the centuries. The township of Soufriere was established in the early 1700s as one of the earliest European settlements on St. Lucia. From those very earliest times Soufriere was renowned for its agricultural production and by the mid-1800s the Soufriere District had the greatest number of sugar, cocoa and coffee plantations for any district (Breen 1844). By the 1890s production of sugar was waning and the planters shifted their focus to coffee and cocoa. Commercial production of bananas, which began in 1922, increased rapidly during the 1960s and 1970s but declined significantly following the decision by the European Economic Community to eliminate preferred access of Windward Islands crops to the United Kingdom in the mid-1990s. Coconut production increased in the 1950s and in 1959 a coconut oil factory was established in Soufriere and became one of the main employers in the region, remaining in operation until 1997 (Margot 2006). These changing patterns of agriculture translate to trends in the impacts on corals and the health of Soufriere reefs. In this case, agriculture was the initial driver of increased sediment affecting the Soufriere coral reefs; however, shifts away from intensive sugar cane and banana cropping can be expected to have reduced the amounts of agricultural-sourced sediments entering the catchment in more recent years. The changing fortunes of the agricultural base have historically also led to fluctuations in dependence on fishing as a source of income and subsistence, and thus to variation in fishing pressures on Soufriere reefs.

OUTLOOK REPORT FOR THE PITONS AND SOUFRIERE MARINE MANAGEMENT AREAS

The coastal area of Soufriere has traditionally been important for artisanal fishers, who commonly use pots/traps, nets, handlines and spears. Fishing remains an important source of sustenance and employment for many of the people of Soufriere. Unlike other communities that depend to a greater extent on offshore fisheries, the fishing industry in Soufriere is highly dependent on coastal fishery resources. Over the past two decades the St. Lucian tourism sector has experienced a boom and it is now the largest generator of economic activity for St. Lucia. These gains have been made despite the setbacks following world-wide tourism downtowns generated by the World Trade Centre bombings of 11 September 2001 and the Global Financial Crisis of 2008. The development of the tourism sector has been a high priority for the government, which committed to providing a favourable investment environment. Incentives were created for building and upgrading tourism facilities and there has been substantial investment in the physical infrastructure of the island.

In the last two decades tourism growth has become the primary economic driver affecting the Marine Management Areas with tourism-related coastal development and increasing use adding significantly to the pressures on the reef systems. Popular marine activities include yachting, snorkelling, SCUBA diving, sport-fishing and fly-fishing. Some of the risks associated with tourism include: damage to coastal ecosystems such as coral reefs, beaches and wetlands; catchment deforestation and erosion; increased pressure on limited energy and freshwater resources; ecological disruption and degradation of biological diversity; pollution and waste generation; resource-use conflict; and threats to local culture and traditions (United Nations 1994). Further information on the benefits and impacts associated with fishing and tourism use of the Marine Management Areas is summarised in the section on Social and Economic Benefits and Impacts.

OUTLOOK REPORT FOR THE PITONS AND SOUFRIERE MARINE MANAGEMENT AREAS

Table 1: Assessment of risk—key drivers Risk Rating

Key Drivers

Low

Med

High

•

Tropical storms

Historically sediment carried in flood plumes has been the key driver affecting the Soufriere coral reef development.

Climate change

Climate models suggest that coral reefs in St. Lucia will experience thermal stress severe enough to cause bleaching every year after 2040. Declines in coral calcification by 2040 due to ocean acidification are projected to be ~10 per cent.

•

Economy

Changes in types of agricultural crops and intensity of cultivation primarily affect sediment run-off. Tourism-related coastal development and increasing use of the Marine Management Areas are adding significantly to the pressures on the reef systems. Ebbs and flows in economic circumstances affect dependence on fishing for income and subsistence.

•

Summary Overall, the coral reefs of the Marine Management Areas are facing medium–high risks from the major drivers of tropical storms, climate change and economic growth.

Risk Assessment Criteria Low Risk

The driver is considered likely or certain to occur but, given current management arrangements, is predicted to have no more than insignificant consequences for the Marine Management Areas.

Medium Risk The driver is considered likely or certain to occur and, given current management arrangements, is predicted to have concerning and long-term consequences for the Marine Management Areas. High Risk

The driver is considered likely or certain to occur and, given current management arrangements, is predicted to have major consequences for the Marine Management Areas.

OUTLOOK REPORT FOR THE PITONS AND SOUFRIERE MARINE MANAGEMENT AREAS

2. LOCAL AND REGIONAL PRESSURES ON THE ECOSYSTEM

ressures are human activities that can affect the state of an ecosystem. Understanding the pressures that affect coral reefs and their relative influence can be crucial for strategic management and optimal allocation of limited management resources. Knowledge about the trends in pressures can help managers anticipate change and implement management measures aimed at preventing unwanted impacts. This chapter presents the evidence obtained from the literature to assess the key pressures affecting the ecosystem of the Marine Management Areas. The main pressures are pollutants, foreshore development, over-use and regional pressures. The assessment of pressures is presented in the summary table.

Pollutants Domestic sewage, effluent from agro-processing industries, agricultural run-off, urban and storm drainage waters, and sewage have all been identified as contributors to pollution of watershed areas in St. Lucia. Coral reef ecosystems are particularly sensitive to pollution, which can stress corals and cause their mortality directly or through light attenuation, disease and coral bleaching. The consequences of pollution can be far reaching for reef-dependent communities, potentially impacting on fish catches, tourism amenity value and other ecosystem services provided by reefs. Impacts associated with pollution have been identified as a significant concern for the Marine Management Areas. The straightening of the Soufriere River in 1994 resulted in the removal of the natural river bends, which acted as sediment traps. This is expected to have exacerbated the problem of sedimentation in the bay. The quality of the coastal waters is also influenced by the discharge of untreated sewage and grey water from residences and commercial establishments in the waterfront area, as well as discharge from the Soufriere River, which is severely contaminated with faecal coliform and enterococci bacteria (ReefFix 2010). Pollution events or sources affecting the Marine Management Areas that have been reported in the literature include: • Severe storms notably compounded by agricultural clearing, coastal development and road construction: Tropical Storm Debby in 1994, an un-named storm in 1996, Hurricane Lenny in 1999, Hurricane

Omar in 2008, and Hurricane Tomas in 2010 (ReefFix 2010). • A reported (accidental) release of harmful industrial waste into the river just 500 metres upstream from the coast in 1998 (ReefFix 2010). • Toxic materials escaping from containers from a sunken ship were reportedly washed into the Marine Management Areas in 2010 (ReefFix 2010). • Pesticides and fertilisers leaching from the agricultural lands upstream contained in runoff from the Soufriere River (Smith-Warner International 2001).

Sediment run-off Poor land management and soil loss through runoff have been identified as critical issues associated with the watershed of the Marine Management Areas (Hyder Consulting (UK) Limited 2008). A range of impacts from sediments have been identified for Soufriere reefs through various studies undertaken by researchers from York University. Their conclusions included the following: • Between 1995 and 2001, reefs lost an average of 47 per cent of their coral cover in shallow water and 48 per cent in deeper water due to a combination of storms and sediment pollution. While Hurricane Lenny in 1999 did a great deal of damage, about three per cent of coral losses in shallow water and 19 per cent in deep water could be attributed to sediment pollution. In the worst-affected places, losses have been much greater than these average figures suggest. • Sedimentation rates were correlated with rainfall, indicating terrestrial origin for much of the inputs. This confirms findings of an earlier study that showed an increasing terrestrial sediment fraction in marine deposits with closer proximity to river mouths. Underwater visibility was also linked to rainfall but less closely; visibility was also affected by wave action re-suspending deposits. Localised spikes of intense sediment input were also related to coastal construction activities. • In two key reef building coral species, rates of partial mortality were significantly higher close to sources of sediment around river mouths than in low sediment sites. Rates of coral cover were closely correlated with rates of partial mortality.

OUTLOOK REPORT FOR THE PITONS AND SOUFRIERE MARINE MANAGEMENT AREAS

• Sediment pollution did not appear to depress levels of coral settlement to artificial settlement plates but did alter species composition of new recruits and settlement behaviour. Monitoring of juvenile corals on the reef gave more cause for concern. Sediment reduced growth rates of juvenile corals and increased rates of partial and total mortality of juveniles. • Marine reserves in the Soufriere Marine Management Area did not prevent reef degradation from sediment pollution. Additional management measures specifically targeting sediment sources need to be undertaken to avoid the potentially severe economic losses associated with sedimentation (Roberts and Mees 2003). More recently, sedimentation was identified as a significant ongoing concern, with high levels of silt and cyanobacteria observed on St. Lucian reefs during surveys by the FORCE program in 2011. The surveys were conducted on the west coast of St. Lucia, including several reefs within the Marine Management Areas. They lead to the conclusion that the sediment was most likely due to land and river runoff in the region and that the reefs may improve if land development and use are regulated (FORCE 2011).

Agricultural chemicals The effects of nutrients from fertiliser and sediment run-off, and chemicals associated with agricultural and other catchment land uses can be devastating to coral reefs, but the extent of the impacts of these pollutants in the Marine Management Areas is not known. A baseline snapshot survey conducted in the Soufriere Marine Management Area found that pesticide levels in all tissue, water and sediment samples were below minimum detectable limits apart from one crab tissue sample (Roberts and Mees 2003). The report authors speculated that possible reasons for these low levels included: • The fact that sampling was conducted after a dry period on the island, which would have reduced the risk of water contamination from run-off.

region. Historically the collapse of sugar cane production led to a shift to increased growth of perennials including coconuts and cocoa, but also coincided with an increase in banana production. Thus the amount and type of pesticides used has varied over the decades, both as a result of changing crop requirements, and more recently as measures have been taken to ban the use of more persistent chemicals. More recently St. Lucia has experienced a decline in banana output, which is believed to have resulted in reduced pesticide usage. However, there has also been a shift by farmers to livestock rearing (mostly pig husbandry) on hillsides and there are growing concerns of nutrients and pathogens associated with faecal contamination of the river systems and downstream coastal waters.

Sewage Eutrophication, diseases, and anoxic conditions created by improper treatment and disposal of sewage have significant impact on corals and reef communities. For example, heavy metals and other pollutants in sewage can affect quality of fish caught for human consumption. Pathogens from sewage can also affect marine biota. For example, work in the US Virgin Islands correlated higher incidence of certain coral diseases with sites exposed to higher levels of sewage run-off, although cause and effect could not be conclusively established (Kacyzmarsky, Draud and Williams 2005). A more recent study found a direct link between a pathogen from human sewage and widespread disease outbreak in Acropora palmata in Florida (Sutherland, et al. 2011). Sewage contamination of the coastal marine environment can lead to significant incidence of human disease. Humans can catch infectious diseases through bathing and swimming in marine coastal waters and from the consumption of seafood harvested in coastal waters. In addition, human exposure to toxins associated with algae blooms imposes significant risks (GESAMP 2001).

• A recent steady decline in the banana industry. • Improved pest and pesticide management practices, therefore resulting in less pesticides being used by farmers. While these findings are in some ways encouraging, corals can be harmed by agricultural chemicals at levels so low as to be practically undetectable. A study by scientists based in Townsville, Australia, on the Great Barrier Reef concluded: “Previous studies have focused only on the adults, which seem more robust to insecticides. Our study looked at fertilization, larval development, survival and metamorphosis and we found that some of these stages were very vulnerable to these chemicals at very low concentrations” (Markey, et al. 2007). Mixed crops produced on small to medium size estates characterise agriculture in the Soufriere

OUTLOOK REPORT FOR THE PITONS AND SOUFRIERE MARINE MANAGEMENT AREAS

Sewage enters the Marine Management Areas in river plumes, from drains and to a lesser extent from moored yachts. The 2010 St. Lucia census identified that approximately 70 per cent of Soufriere households have septic systems, while the remaining 30 per cent of Soufriere District households did not have toilet facilities connected to a sewer or septic system. Of those that are not connected to a septic system, 13 per cent had pit latrines and 17 per cent had no toilet facilities (Central Statistics Office 2011). Unpublished results of water quality sampling conducted by Caribbean EcoHealth Programme (CEHP) in 2010 confirm that a concerning level of sewage pollution is regularly present at all of the sampling sites that were located within the Marine Management Areas (Caribbean EcoHealth Programme 2010). There is also an indication of inputs of organic matter and associated bacteria from other warm-blooded animals, likely reflecting the presence of pigs and other livestock in the catchment. These results indicate levels of pollution well above accepted levels for healthy waters and the potential for pathogens and stress to increase disease in corals and other marine biota. The dissolved oxygen levels reported also reflect the high levels of sewage pollution and at the recorded levels are likely to be causing impacts on corals and other biota and reducing juvenile survivorship.

Foreshore development Foreshore development for urban expansion, and for tourism facilities such as resorts and jetties, can result in serious pressures on coral reefs close to shore. Around Soufriere, steep terrain and lack of foreshore dominate the majority of the coast, and thus much of the coast is free of development. Much of this steeper land is currently characterised by plantation regrowth and natural forest. However, the beaches that occur at Anse Chastanet, Soufriere, Malgretoute, Jalousie and Anse L’Ivrogne have become the focus for foreshore development. Access to these developments often requires the construction of roads close to the coast, extending the area impacted, and opening up new areas for additional commercial and residential development. While the inputs from foreshore development can be greatest during construction, developed sites can

also be persistent sources of pollution throughout their operational life. Important chronic stresses from developments include erosion, floodwater retention, sewage and beach nourishment. The bulk of sediment and nutrients entering the Marine Management Areas are carried by pulse events associated with flood rains that flush sediments and nutrients into streams and out into the Marine Management Areas. A recent report on the Limits of Acceptable Change for the Pitons Marine Management Area World Heritage Site (Landmark Practices, 2013) summarised information about catchment and coastal development. In relation to foreshore development this report identified the following: • The beach at Anse Chastanet has been largely incorporated into the Anse Chastanet resort complex, and includes beachside buildings at the southern end, and a road along the foreshore to a jetty located in the centre of the bay. • The beach at Soufriere is divided by the shallow outflow of the Soufriere River and the beach itself is fringed by urban development including retaining walls and jetties predominantly along the northern half of the bay. • The beach at Jalousie is now integrated with the Sugar Beach Hotel complex and has been landscaped with imported white sand from Trinidad to make the beach more attractive to the hotel’s guests. • The other two beaches are largely currently unspoilt comprising volcanic sand and pebbles and support only a few low-key thatched beach shelters. • Freedom Bay is an approved but not yet constructed villa development with associated facilities located on land in Malgretoute Bay; the Queen’s Chain along the beach has also been leased to the developer for a period of 99 years.

OUTLOOK REPORT FOR THE PITONS AND SOUFRIERE MARINE MANAGEMENT AREAS

Assessment of issues for Malgretoute Bay (extract from the Limits of Acceptable Change Study for the Pitons Management Area World Heritage Site) “The development proposes beach nourish ment, essentially the importation of clean sand to cover over the pebble and rock strewn parts of the beach to provide the beach conditions that some tourists desire. Beach nourishment causes problems if the imported sand is too fine such that it is easily washed off the beach onto the corals where it causes a degradation of the marine environment. This can either be through the continuous but gentle daily action of waves or by a more catastrophic large scale removal associated with a storm surge or hurricane. Malgretoute beach does not support a rich coral ecosystem which is why it is designated a fishing zone and boat mooring area. It is less susceptible to the deposition of sand whereas the marine zone at the base of Petit Piton is very vulnerable to sedimentation and the prevailing current is south - any sand leaving the beach is likely to be carried onto this sensitive marine zone. The developers are aware of this issue and state that they will import sand of sufficiently large grain size such that it is less mobile. This, however, cannot prevent wholesale loss of sand during a major weather event. The master plan includes a jetty with a restaurant and helicopter landing pad, built out into Malgretoute Bay. Although the jetty on the masterplan is shown at 60 m long this would place the seaward end in 10 m depth of water. A shorter jetty 30 m long offering a maximum mooring draft of 5.5 m would be more economic, using an open piled construction which would also minimise any damage to the marine environment (Freedom Bay, Hydraulic Modelling and Beach Sustainability Report, December 2012,

Foreshore development can also impose pressures on turtle populations. Low levels of hawksbill turtle nesting occurs on these beaches, and has reportedly been historically impacted by egg collection and sand mining. Remaining nesting activity may be affected by beach use and hatchlings may be disorientated by lights associated with foreshore development. Some of the potential impacts of foreshore development on the Marine Management Areas are explained by the Landmark Practices in relation to the proposed Freedom Bay development, see the text box above. The range of pressures associated with foreshore development, and the concentration of risks

Edenvale Young). Consideration should also be given to an even shorter jetty offering a draft of 2.5 m. In hurricane conditions the jetty is likely to be subject to unbroken hurricane waves up to 10 m in height forces and any above pile structures, such as a restaurant and the deck could be destroyed (Edenvale Young report). To avoid this possibility, which could lead to the distribution of pollution and debris into the marine environment and the adverse visual effect of a damaged structure awaiting repair, TLP considers it preferable that the jetty does not support any facilities such as a bar or restaurant. The report also recommends moving the jetty away from the mouth of the river to avoid potentially destructive scouring. The bay is less diverse than other parts of the marine park which is why it is designated as a yacht mooring area - a jetty built here is likely to be less damaging than a jetty built elsewhere within the SMMA. Nevertheless it will be necessary to undertake a benthic survey of the marine bed to ensure that no ecologically valuable features will be destroyed by the construction. If a jetty is to be built, then great care will need to be taken during construction to avoid any adverse effects within the marine environment such as siltation of reefs to the south. The jetty will facilitate greater use of the bay for a variety of activities which will inevitably lead to more pressures on the marine environment caused by the adverse effects of more boats, snorkelling, water sports and general human activity; all are well documented.” (The Landmark Practices 2013)

around valuable nearshore coral reef sites, suggests that development activities should be the focus of future management responses. The potential for new coastal developments to put additional pressure on popular dive sites such as Superman’s Flight located at the base of Petit Piton, is an example of how foreshore developments could have disproportionate impacts on the marine management areas despite their relatively small physical footprint. In particular, additional sources of sediments from development activities and subsequent resort operations could directly affect reef health, fish catches and dive tourism, and have lasting impacts on the resilience of the area’s coral reefs.

OUTLOOK REPORT FOR THE PITONS AND SOUFRIERE MARINE MANAGEMENT AREAS

Over-use While many human activities in the marine management areas bring social and economic benefits to St Lucia, they also have the potential to put pressure on the ecosystem and can lead to impacts on social and economic wellbeing. Concern for the impacts of over-use, and the social conflicts associated with interacting users were the main motivation for establishment of the current management regime. Activities within the Soufriere Marine Management Areas that are potential sources of pressure on the reef ecosystem include fishing, snorkelling/diving and vessel anchoring/mooring. Declining fish catches due to overfishing was one of the primary motivations for establishing the SMMA in the mid-1990s. Evidence presented in this report suggests that the creation of the Marine Management Areas, and in particular the no-fishing reserves, has made a significant contribution to maintaining the health of the Soufriere coral reefs and their fish communities. However, it is also apparent that the pressure from fishing has continued to increase. This has meant that even the small coastal population of the Soufriere area is exerting high levels of pressure on local fish communities. Illegal fishing of reserves is also occurring, further increasing the pressure associated with fishing.

There has been a steady increase in the number of fishers using the Soufriere Marine Management Area. The estimated total number of fishers has increased by approximately 15 per cent since the marine management area was established. During the same period, a large portion of the fishing fleet purchased more modern fibreglass vessels and outboard motors, which likely increases their efficiency/catch per unit effort. Gill net fishing no longer occurs and wire-mesh traps have largely replaced the smaller traditional woven cane traps. 16

Seine-netting continues to occur widely and line and spearfishing also occurs. Illegal fishing has also been observed, although the extent of impact is not known. Overfishing can cause large changes to coral reef ecosystems. In the Caribbean, there are numerous examples of fishing pressure altering the entire structure of coral reef food webs (Mumby, et al. 2012). In many locations, overfishing of higher order predators has led to a marked decline in grouper (Serranidae) and snapper (Lutjanidae) abundance. Often, this is followed by a switch to fishing for smaller, less desirable, herbivorous fishes (such as parrotfish), which in turn leads a further shift in fish community structure including a major decline in the large and dominant herbivores such as the stoplight parrotfish (Sparisoma viride). Overfishing can also cause a range of indirect ecological effects (Mumby, et al. 2012). In the Caribbean this has included a dramatic increase in the biomass of mesopredators (smaller predators) associated with removal of key predators (especially large groupers), which would normally consume the smaller fish and limit their foraging. Densities of adult damselfish of the species Stegastes planifrons and S. partitus have also been observed to decrease by up to 45 per cent, probably due to elevated predation by the increased densities of mesopredators. Several studies provide evidence of pressures from overfishing in St Lucia. Hawkins and Roberts (2003) compared the levels of fishing and the impacts of fishing on parrotfish at five locations across the Caribbean, including reefs within the Marine Management Areas. In 1995, at the time the Soufriere Marine Management Area was established, fishing of the reefs adjacent to Soufriere was at relatively high levels in comparison with the other Caribbean reefs (only Jamaica was significantly higher). The high levels of fishing had predictable effects on parrotfish communities: biomass of larger species declined as fishing intensified and smaller species came to constitute a greater proportion of the total assemblage. Adults of two of the largest species, stoplight parrotfish (Sparisoma viride) and queen parrotfish (Scarus vetula), were virtually absent. In all species, fishing pressure also appeared to have reduced the size of fish and decreased the proportion of terminal males in four out of five species. Fish surveys following establishment of the marine management areas showed that the reserves helped rebuild stocks of all parrotfish except uncommon redtail parrotfish (Sparisoma chrysopterum). In the first five years after the reserves were established total parrotfish biomass quadrupled within the marine reserves and nearly doubled within fishing areas. Most species increased in size throughout the study area and there was evidence that, as populations built up, some species were changing into terminal males at larger sizes (Hawkins and Roberts 2003). More recent surveys, conducted in 2011 under the FORCE program, identified a number of character足 istics that are indicative of high fishing pressure

OUTLOOK REPORT FOR THE PITONS AND SOUFRIERE MARINE MANAGEMENT AREAS

occurring in the Marine Management Areas. The biomass of parrotfish on the reefs around Soufriere is comparable to much of the Caribbean. Although generally higher than the very heavily fished reefs of Barbados, the Dominican Republic and Jamaica, parrotfish biomass in St Lucia is generally lower than in Belize, Bonaire and Honduras. Snapper density is lower than Belize, Bonaire and CuraĂ§ao but greater than all of the very heavily fished sites. Larger bodied grouper were not observed in surveys of the marine management areas, with predators mostly small in size. This is generally held to be an indication of strong fishing pressure (Prof. Peter Mumby, pers. comm., November 2013).

Tourism diving and snorkelling Tourism diving and snorkelling are an important economic use of the marine management areas, but they can also be a source of pressure on the ecosystem. Divers touching corals or standing on the reef can cause direct physical damage to reef organisms and increase risk of disease. Studies of diver impacts on coral reefs in Marine Management Areas have found that minor damage and the raising of sediment were widespread (79.8 per cent and 49.0 per cent of contacts, respectively), but corals were only broken in 4.1 per cent of contacts (Barker and Roberts 2004). Minor damage and resuspension of sediment by most divers may seem trivial, but by compounding other reef stresses, these pressures can undermine the resilience of reef ecosystems (Barker and Roberts 2004). A number of dive sites were reported to have substantial mud deposits and diving at these sites resulted in sediments continually being re-suspended into the water column and deposited on coral colonies (Barker and Roberts 2004). Popular sites receive greater than 10,000 divers per year. Corals are likely to be touched frequently at these sites and resultant damage increases susceptibility to disease-causing pathogens and other invading organisms. Diver impacts may also render the reef ecosystem less able to recover from hurricanes and tropical storms. Barker and

Roberts (2004) recommended a threshold limit for sustainable levels of diving at 4000â&#x20AC;&#x201C;6000 dives per year for popular sites in the marine management areas. Beyond these levels coral cover loss and coral colony damage levels may increase rapidly. One site within the Marine Management Areas in particular, Anse Chastanet, was estimated to have received over 28,000 divers per year (Barker and Roberts 2004). Since 2004 diving and snorkelling has also become very popular at the fringing reef immediately in front of Sugar Beach Resort, which is now visited as regularly as Anse Chastanet. Observations from both sites indicated that pressures from intense use may have led to a sustained decline in coral cover over the past two decades. Evidence of ongoing pressures was also found in a recent assessment, which recorded concerning levels of coral disease at a range of popular sites (Beeden, et al. 2013).

Yachting Anchoring by yachts visiting coral reef areas can be a source of intense pressure at heavily used sites. Anchors and anchor chains can damage corals and other reef life by scraping along the seabed while the vessel swings with wind and current, or when anchors are lifted or dragged. Increasing yacht visitation was one of the primary issues raised at the time of establishment of the Soufriere Marine Management Area. Anchor damage was the main concern along with increasing conflicts between yachters and fishers and other users of the area. Yacht visitation has increased since the mid1990s. Currently, 3000 yachts visit the Marine Management Areas per year (2012 figures), but this figure has been as high as 4000 (Soufriere Marine Management Association no date). Peak use is in the period December to May. To a large extent the marine zoning, anchoring restrictions and establishment of moorings have resolved the issues associated with yachting. Relevant information and guidelines relating to yachting in St Lucia is readily available on the web and provides advice to visiting yachts about the rules and appropriate practices when visiting the Marine Management Areas.

OUTLOOK REPORT FOR THE PITONS AND SOUFRIERE MARINE MANAGEMENT AREAS

Litter and abandoned fishing gear Litter and abandoned fishing gear can impact on visual amenity for tourists and divers, and rubbish can have harmful impacts on biota due to entanglement or ingestion. Substantial amounts of litter or rubbish were found on all recent surveys of Soufriere reefs. This rubbish included derelict, lost and abandoned fishing gear and household and consumer waste, especially plastic bottles. Community education, stewardship and incentives (e.g. deposits on plastic bottles) may provide a costeffective means of addressing this situation.

significant increases in populations of herbivores such as parrotfishes and surgeonfishes, the coral reefs in the Marine Management Areas could quickly deteriorate if there was an urchin die-off in the future. The current situation highlights the importance of conserving urchin abundance while increasing populations of herbivorous fishes as a crucial element in any management strategy that aims to build reef resilience.

Introduced pests – lionfish The lionfish (Pterois volitans) is native to the coral reefs of the South Pacific but has invaded the majority of the Caribbean region reefs. Lionfish have proven to be effective invaders of Caribbean reefs, where they cause a range of ecological impacts. Lionfish possess a broad suite of traits that makes them particularly successful invaders with very negative consequences for native fauna. Some of their characteristics include defensive venomous spines; cryptic form, colour and behaviour; habitat generality; high competitive ability; low parasite load; efficient predation; rapid growth; and high reproductive rates (Albins and Hixon 2011). Based on a review of the scientific literature, and studies undertaken of the effects of lionfish predation on reef fish recruitment, Albins and Hixon (2011) concluded that lionfish pose a potential threat to native Caribbean reef fishes as both a predator and a competitor. They also surmise that indirect effects of lionfish predation may be even more severe, given that their prey includes herbivorous fish like parrotfish.

Regional pressures Regional pressures, such as lionfish invasions and disease outbreaks in key species such as urchins, further add to the risks faced by the Marine Management Areas. Both are risks to the ecosystem of the Pitons and Soufriere marine management areas.

Urchin disease The presence of urchins is critical to the balance between corals and seaweeds on Soufriere’s reefs – especially given the decreased abundance of other species that can normally control algae (e.g. parrotfishes and surgeonfishes). Urchins in the Caribbean region have suffered serious die-offs as the result of disease, causing lasting impacts to the resilience of many reef ecosystems. St Lucia has experienced at least one disease outbreak in sea urchins, with extensive mortality of the sea urchin Diadema reported over two weeks in November 1983 (UNEP/IUCN 1988). Surveys since that time have shown extensive recovery of urchin populations with notably high numbers reported in recent surveys conducted in 2011 (FORCE 2011) and 2013 (Beeden, et al. 2013).

Large‐bodied Caribbean groupers have the potential to act as biological control of lionfish. Lionfish biomass has been observed to undergo a seven‐fold and non‐linear reduction in relation to the biomass of grouper, suggesting strongly that chronic overfishing will probably prevent natural biological control of lionfishes in the Caribbean (Mumby, Harborne and Brumbaugh 2011). Lionfish were first reported on St Lucian reefs in 2011 and are now found extensively throughout the Marine Management Areas (M. G. George 2011). There is broad consensus that lionfish are now a permanent addition to the Soufriere reefs, and that they are likely to lead to the same long-term changes to the coral reef ecosystem that are being observed on other Caribbean Reefs. The absence of large-bodied predators on Soufriere reefs due to overfishing reduces the natural predator controls that might otherwise limit the dominance of lionfish.

While the high abundances of urchins in the Marine Management Areas currently is a positive sign for reef health, the high levels of fishing of other herbivores means that the reefs are highly vulnerable. Without

OUTLOOK REPORT FOR THE PITONS AND SOUFRIERE MARINE MANAGEMENT AREAS

Table 2: Assessment of risk—key pressures Risk Rating

Key Pressures

Low

Med

High

•

Sediment run-off

Sediment carried from the land by flooded rivers has had the largest impact on the coral reefs. Direct physical impacts of storms also occur.

Agro-chemicals

The effects of nutrients from fertiliser and piggeries, and sediment run-off from land clearing and cultivation can be devastating to coral reefs. Pesticide levels are below minimum detectable limits.

Sewage

Untreated sewage can have a significant impact on coral reefs and human health concerns. 70% of Soufriere households have septic systems; 30% do not have toilet facilities connected to a sewer or septic system. The results of water quality sampling suggest the potential impacts are of very significant concern.

•

Foreshore development

Sediment associated with coastal resort developments and beach ‘enhancement’ as well as use by resort guests has contributed to the decline of fringing reefs.

•

Fishing

Increasing fishing effort and illegal fishing of reserves has reduced fish size and abundance. Compared to Caribbean averages Soufriere Marine Management Area reefs currently have low abundances and sizes of both herbivorous and predatory fish and few if any large predators.

•

Tourism—snorkelling and diving

A threshold of snorkelling and diving occurs at 4000–6000 dives per year; if exceeded, coral cover loss and coral colony damage levels may increase rapidly. A number of popular dive sites approach this threshold and at least two sites significantly exceed it with historical figures showing they receive around 28,000 dives per year. Inshore, shallow reefs are most vulnerable.

Yachting

Approximately 3000 yachts visit the Marine Management Areas per year. To a large extent the marine zoning, anchoring restrictions and establishment of moorings have resolved the anchor damage and conflict of use concerns associated with yachting. Anti-foulants and sewage disposal are unlikely to have significant ecological impacts at current mooring densities.

•

• •

Litter

Rubbish including abandoned fishing gear and litter can have harmful impacts on biota due to entanglement or ingestion. Abandoned fishing traps or pots can also continue to ghost fish.

•

Disease and introduced species

Regional pressures, such as lionfish invasions and disease outbreaks in key species such as urchins, have been seen to affect the Marine Management Areas. The interconnectivity across the region will inevitably lead to increasing risks.

•

Summary The Marine Management Areas are exposed to a range of pressures, varying from low to high risk. Overall, however, the risk grade is high due to the significant and sustained impacts from key pressures such as sediment run-off, foreshore development and fishing.

Risk Assessment Criteria Low Risk

The pressure is considered likely or certain to occur but, given current management arrangements, is predicted to have no more than insignificant consequences for the Marine Management Areas.

Medium Risk The pressure is considered likely or certain to occur and, given current management arrangements, is predicted to have concerning and long-term consequences for the Marine Management Areas. High Risk

The pressure is considered likely or certain to occur and, given current management arrangements, is predicted to have major consequences for the Marine Management Areas.

OUTLOOK REPORT FOR THE PITONS AND SOUFRIERE MARINE MANAGEMENT AREAS

3. ECOSYSTEM STATE

cosystem state is the condition of the environment, represented by measures such as the amount of coral cover, abundance of fish or levels of nutrients in coastal waters. This condition is not static, and the concept of ecosystem state includes environmental trends as well. The state of the ecosystem has important bearing on the benefits people receive in the form of ecosystem goods and services. Ecosystem state is influenced by the pressures that result from human activities, which are often the focus of management responses. This section presents the evidence, obtained from the scientific literature and recent surveys, which was available to assess the current state of the ecosystems in the Marine Management Areas. The main indicators used to assess ecosystem state are habitats, biodiversity (coral reefs, fish, turtles, whales and dolphins), and ecosystem health and resilience. This section provides a summary of the available information on state of the ecosystem of the Marine Management Areas, and presents key conclusions in the assessment table.

Habitats The rugged landscape associated with the peaks of the Pitons continues underwater creating a steeply sloping coastal topography comprised of granite walls and a very narrow (<150 m) submerged shelf. A marine habitat survey conducted by the Department of Fisheries described the area as comprised of sand and a range of coral reef habitats, including fringing reefs, patch reefs, boulders and walls with coral veneer (Goodridge, et al. 1997). Coral reefs make up almost 60 per cent of the habitat within the Marine Management Areas; the remainder is largely comprised of bare or algalcovered boulders and sandy substrate (Goodridge, et al. 1997). Surveys conducted in the mid-1980s identified a characteristic zonation associated with a shallow plateau, reef edge and reef slope in the Marine Management Areas (UNEP/IUCN 1988). This pattern is consistent with the zonation for coral reefs associated with high wave energy found on the eastern side of St. Lucia (H. H. Roberts 1972). However, there are also major differences between coral reefs on the west coast and those on the east coast. Most notably, this includes the absence of any well-developed Acropora palmata or A. cervicornis zones on the west coast reefs. A. palmata has been recorded as individual colonies at several sites,

and young solitary colonies are present in Anse Chastanet Bay. In the shallow reef areas of the Marine Management Areas (0â&#x20AC;&#x201C;5 m depth range), Millepora and gorgonia zones are present and Pontes pontetes is often dominant (H. H. Roberts 1972). Surveys in 2011 found that diversity in St. Lucia, including the Marine Management Areas, tended to be positively related to reef habitat complexity (FORCE 2011). The more complex reefs typically have more diverse fish communities, and the flatter reef areas have fewer species. Although the structural complexity of the reefs has been affected by the decline in total mean coral cover that has occurred over the past two decades, from a mean of 40 per cent in 1995 (Hawkins, Roberts and Dytham, et al. 2006) to 16 per cent in 2011 (FORCE 2011), the large boulders and high sponge cover and diversity continue to provide habitat complexity (FORCE 2011).

Biodiversity Coral reefs A marine biodiversity survey undertaken to inform the Pitonâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s World Heritage Area nomination identified 60 species of cnidaria (including corals, anemones, hydroids and zoanthids), 8 mollusc species (chiton, squid, clam, octopus, conch, cowrie), 14 sponge, 11 echinoderm (urchin, sea cucumber, basket and brittle star, crinoid), 15 arthropod (barnacle, crab, shrimp, lobster) and 8 annelid (worm) species (De Beauville-Scott 1999). Extremely diverse assemblages of sponges dominate large sections of the Soufriere reefs. The massive sponge Xestospongia muta is common and is more visually dominant than coral in nearly all reef zones. The large sea fan Iciligorgia schrammi is very common on the reef slopes especially on block walls and cliffs where tidal streams are stronger (UNEP/IUCN 1988).

OUTLOOK REPORT FOR THE PITONS AND SOUFRIERE MARINE MANAGEMENT AREAS

The FORCE program surveyed reef communities at 10–15 m depth in eight locations on the west coast of St. Lucia during July 2011 (FORCE, 2011). Currently only a summary report is available that provides average results for all eight survey sites: Vigie Beach, Anse Cochon, Anse Labet, Turtle Beach, Malgretoute, Superman’s Flight, Coral Garden and Blue Hole. The survey team found the diversity of bottom-dwelling organisms overall to be low, with the exception of sponge diversity which was the second highest to that date for countries surveyed under the FORCE program. There were a total of 23 hard coral, 7 soft coral, 59 sponge and 7 sessile invertebrate species, and 15 algal genera identified. The dominant benthic substrates at all sites were algae (28 per cent), sponges (21 per cent), and coral (16 per cent). Overall, mean soft coral and invertebrate cover was low (one per cent each). The highest mean coral cover per site was found at Anse Labet (22 per cent), while the lowest coral cover was observed at Blue Hole (nine per cent) (FORCE 2011). The FORCE surveys found that coral recruitment in St. Lucia (6.1 recruits/m2) was lower than most of the other countries surveyed, with the exception of Dominican Republic, Curaçao and Bonaire, where densities were less than 6.0 recruits/m2. The available substrate was the lowest observed for the surveys they had completed (14 per cent), and it is considered that this could be due to the high abundance of cyanobacteria and silt. The most common recruits at all locations were lettuce leaf corals (Agaricia spp.). Long-spined urchins (Diadema antillarum) were the most abundant species of invertebrates surveyed on reefs in St. Lucia (0.21/m2). This sea urchin plays a critical ecological role consuming algae and maintaining a balance in the competition between algae and corals. FORCE observed that the high densities of Diadema could explain the low algal cover recorded on the reefs (FORCE 2011).

Fish The Marine Management Areas have a rich fauna, with 168 species of finfish recorded on habitats to a depth of 20 metres (De Beauville-Scott 1999). Some areas are especially productive, with an upwelling area off Grand Caille Point recorded as “rich in bait species, Chromis spp., Creole wrasse, sergeant majors, boga herring, and a variety of silversides, and predatory species like king fish, bar jacks, black jacks and snappers” (Wells 1988). Surveys were conducted in 2001 with the primary aim of comparing fish larval supply between a marine reserve (no fishing) and adjacent fished area (Valles, et al. 2001). The surveys were undertaken at a protected site within a no-take marine reserve (Anse Chastanet), which had been protected since August 1995, and an adjacent unprotected site (Grand Caille), which was initially closed to fishing in 1995 but reopened in late 1997. The survey identified 76 species or types from 31 families in the two study sites. The study found that, despite the geographical proximity of the two sites, the fished area received a consistently higher abundance and diversity of larvae than the marine reserve throughout the study period. The authors suggest that local-scale variation in hydrodynamic and/ or biological features is influencing the arrival and hence settlement of larvae at the reef. The study concluded that although the no-take marine reserve had significantly higher reef fish diversity than the site that was open to fishing, there was no significant difference in overall densities of resident fishes between the sites. The most abundant species overall were the stoplight parrotfish Sparisoma viride, the dusky damselfish Stegastes dorsopunicans, the sand diver lizardfish Synodon intermedius and the bicolor damselfish Stegastes partitus (Valles, Sponaugle and Oxenford 2001). Hawkins et al. (2006) examined factors affecting the rate and extent of biomass build-up among commercially important groupers, snappers, grunts, parrotfish and surgeonfish comparing reserves (no fishing) with fishing areas in the Soufriere Marine Management Area between 1995 and 2002. They found that the reserve areas had succeeded in producing significant gains to fish stocks despite coral cover and structural complexity falling steadily over the period of the study. All families increased significantly in biomass over time at nearly all sites, reserves and areas open to fishing. Increases were greater in reserves than fishing grounds, except for grunts, and responses were strongest in parrotfish and surgeonfish. The combined biomass of families more than quadrupled in reserves and tripled in fishing grounds between 1995 and 2002. During this period coral cover declined by 46 per cent in reserves and 35 per cent in fishing grounds. Multiple regression showed that neither habitat characteristics nor habitat deterioration significantly affected rates of biomass build-up. The key factor was protection from fishing, which explained 44 per cent of the variance in biomass growth. A further 28 per cent of the variance was

OUTLOOK REPORT FOR THE PITONS AND SOUFRIERE MARINE MANAGEMENT AREAS

explained by sedimentation, a process known to stress reef invertebrates, significantly reducing the rate of biomass build-up (Hawkins, Roberts and Dytham, et al. 2006). During November 2011 FORCE surveyed approximately two kilometres of reef on the west coast of St. Lucia. In total 108 species of fish were identified, with an average of 23 species found on each transect. Fish communities were characterised by high abundances of graysbys, wrasses (blueheaded, yellowhead and creole), and parrotfish (red band, stoplight, striped and princess). Coral Gardens (Gros Piton) had the highest fish abundance and mean fish species richness was highest in the Petit Piton reserve area (FORCE 2011); both sites are located within the Marine Management Areas.

Turtles Hawksbill turtles (Eretmochelys imbricata) are frequently seen in the Marine Management Areas. They are normally found near reefs rich in the sponges they like to feed on. Hawksbills are omnivorous and will also eat molluscs, marine algae, crustaceans, sea urchins, fish and jellyfish. Low density hawksbill nesting occurs on beaches in the Marine Management Areas. Peak nesting appears to occur between June and August, but some activity may occur year-round (d’Auvergne and Eckert 1993). The green turtle (Chelonia mydas) is sometimes observed in the area. However, green turtles are associated with seagrass – which is not extensive in its seabed coverage along this steep part of the coast – and are generally fairly sparse. The leatherback turtle (Dermochelys coriacea) occurs in St. Lucian waters, particularly on the east coast during the reproductive season (April–July), but it is uncommon for them to be seen in the Marine Management Areas. Historically, turtles from St. Lucia were harvested for domestic use (food and shells) and for the international trade. It has been estimated that 2240 hawksbills were killed for export to Japan between 1970 and 1980. In addition, a total of 434 kg of green turtle shell was exported from St. Lucia in 1979 and 1980 (d’Auvergne and Eckert 1993). A moratorium on the capture of marine turtles entered into effect on 1 March 1996 after having been published in the St. Lucia Gazette 165(59) on 2 December 1995. Cabinet Conclusion No. 748 of 2003 further continued the moratorium until 30 September 2004, at which time it expired and was not renewed (Brautigam and Eckert 2006). The extent of any current take of turtles and turtle egg collection occurring around St Lucia is unknown. The extent of incidental capture in fishing gear is unknown but anecdotal reports suggest it is very low. The information that is available suggests that sea turtles are occasionally caught in beach seines or gill nets set for fish, and there is a report of a green turtle drowning after entanglement in the line of a fish pot (d’Auvergne and Eckert 1993).

Economic development and an increasing human population along the coastline has affected the habitat of sea turtles (d’Auvergne and Eckert 1993). In particular, the establishment of hotels and jetty facilities has affected the suitability of some beaches for nesting. Beachfront lighting may also disorient emerging hatchlings and may dissuade gravid females from coming ashore (d’Auvergne and Eckert 1993). No studies have been carried out to determine the incidence of disease or predation on local sea turtle populations. The level of predation is assumed to be within normal and natural limits (Dow, et al. 2007). The current status of turtle populations in the Marine Management Areas is unknown. Resourceusers (fishers and coastal boaters) have provided anecdotal reports of increased marine turtle sightings, mostly of hawksbill or green turtles (Brautigam and Eckert 2006). There are no data with which to confirm this trend nor to determine whether there is a corresponding trend in nesting activity (Brautigam and Eckert 2006).

Whales and dolphins There are no published scientific surveys of the species of whales and dolphins that occur in the Marine Management Areas. Some information is available from tourism-oriented websites such as MySaintLucia.org. This site presents anecdotal reports of sightings of whales and dolphins in St. Lucian waters, including the Marine Management Areas. Based on that information, the most common cetaceans seen by boats year-round in St. Lucian waters are various dolphins, especially spinner and pantropical spotted, which are sighted from inshore to 2–3 miles offshore (3–5 km). Short-finned pilot whales have also been sighted 3–20 miles (5–32 km) from shore. Sperm whales are also regularly seen off the north-west, west and south-west of the island, as well as false killer whales. Occasionally, Bryde’s whales, as well as humpback whales (several 1999 sightings off the north-east tip of the island), are seen in the period from January to April. The peak period for sightings of pilot whales is November– December, although they have been seen in every month, often travelling in pods of 20 to 100 animals. There are other regular sightings and landings from hunts of rarer cetaceans, including dwarf and/or pygmy sperm whales, and possibly goosebeaked and Antillean beaked whales (My Saint Lucia no date). One of the sites where whales occur commonly and in fairly large numbers is Soufrière Bay, which has deep waters close to shore (My Saint Lucia no date). Hunting of whales and dolphins has historically occurred in St. Lucian waters. Species targeted include short-finned pilot whales, pygmy orcas, false orcas, bottlenose dolphins, Atlantic spotted dolphins, Fraser’s dolphins and common dolphins. The regular hunting of pilot whales has occurred mainly on the south-western and eastern coasts of St. Lucia. Pilot whales and various dolphins have been landed regularly at the following ports:

OUTLOOK REPORT FOR THE PITONS AND SOUFRIERE MARINE MANAGEMENT AREAS

SoufriĂ¨re, Choiseul, Laborie, Vieux Fort, Micoud, Dennery, as well as Castries, but most have been reported at Vieux Fort at the southern tip of St. Lucia in the latter part of the year. Pilot whales can also be seen and are sometimes caught out of the northwest (My Saint Lucia no date). The numbers taken and the extent of hunting that is currently occurring is unknown (D. Sutherland 2001).

Ecosystem health and resilience Coral reefs in the Soufriere Marine Management Area were monitored between1995 and 2002 by a team of researchers from York University. The researchers considered that reef habitat was suffering from the effects of storms, sedimentation (Nowlis, et al. 1997) and coral diseases (Nugues 2002). Between 1995 and 2001 reefs lost an average of 47 per cent of their coral cover in shallow water and 48 per cent in deeper water due to a combination of storms and sediment pollution (Hawkins, Roberts and Dytham, et al. 2006). The percentage algal cover was initially highest in fishing grounds, where it rose by 57 per cent during their study. In contrast, algal cover in reserves did not increase until 2000 when levels rose rapidly after Hurricane Lenny. Algal cover in fishing grounds remained high three years after the storm, whereas in reserves it had fallen. Roberts and Mees (2003) suggested that within the Soufriere Marine Management Area protection of the reserve areas from fishing resulted in larger populations of herbivorous fish, which may have helped in the mitigation of reef degradation by algal overgrowth. The sea urchin Diadema suffered extensive mortality over two weeks in November 1983 (Wells, 1988), although urchins were still in evidence on all the reefs visited (max. five per dive) in April 1985 (UNEP/IUCN 1988). Surveys since that time have shown extensive recovery of urchin populations with notably high numbers reported in 2011 surveys (FORCE 2011) and 2013 (Beeden, et al. 2013). The currently high urchin population may be a reflection of an ecological imbalance associated with the removal of larger predatory fish. Nevertheless, the presence of urchins is critical to the balance between coral and macroalgae on Soufriereâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s reefs, given the lower abundance of alternative herbivores (e.g. parrotfishes and surgeonfishes). However, this situation indicates that the reefs are highly vulnerable to any future urchin die-off and, as such, conserving urchin and grazing fish abundances should be a high priority for management to maintain the necessary grazing pressure on macroalgae. A concerning level of coral disease has been observed on the Soufriere reefs for at least the past fifteen years. A survey in March 1998 revealed an overall disease incidence of 11 per cent. Montastraea faveolata and Colpophyllia natans were the most affected coral species with 19 per cent and 13 per cent of colonies affected, respectively. Of the colonies infected in February 1998, 28 per cent

still showed signs of disease in October 1998. These rates of disease increase could cause complete mortality in large colonies. This would progressively reduce both the abundance and the average size of two of the most important reef frame builders in some of the richest and most visited coral reefs (Nugues 2002). Coral disease was found at all sites surveyed by Beeden et al. in September 2013 at levels that suggest corals are under stress. No single environmental cause of the coral disease was evident. Potential causes include: competition with sponges, predation by fireworms (fireworms were found at every site at high abundances), and sediment, nutrients and sewage from the river plumes, which can all cause coral stress either on their own or as cumulative impacts (Beeden, et al. 2013). Coral bleaching was recorded in St. Lucia during the mass bleaching event that affected most of the Caribbean in 2005. However, in the Marine Management Areas there appears to have been little subsequent mortality and no significant additional reduction in coral cover overall (Wilkinson and Souter 2008). Lionfish were first reported on St. Lucian reefs in 2011 and are now found extensively throughout the Marine Management Areas (M. G. George 2011). Lionfish are a voracious predator when introduced to Caribbean reefs, and the likely longterm impacts on reefs in the Marine Management Areas are unknown. The absence of large-bodied carnivores on reefs within the Marine Management Areas (Beeden, et al. 2013; FORCE, 2011; Mumby pers. comm., 2013) is likely to have facilitated the establishment of the lionfish (Mumby, Harborne and Brumbaugh 2011). Reefs within the Marine Management Areas were surveyed by Reef Check volunteers between 1999 and 2010. The sites surveyed changed in the mid2000s so the results presented here of long-term

OUTLOOK REPORT FOR THE PITONS AND SOUFRIERE MARINE MANAGEMENT AREAS

100

Sand and rubble Sponges

Cover (%)

Gorgonians / sea fans Good bottom

Macroalgae Live coral

40 20 0 Rachette Point

Coral Garden

Anse Chastanet

Supermanâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Flight

Staircase

Figure 5: Composition of benthic community at sites surveyed in 2013

Bleaching Predation

Abundance

(count per 5m radius plot)

Disease Damage

Rubbish 2 1 0

Rachette Point

Coral Garden

Anse Chastanet

Supermanâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Flight

Staircase

Figure 6: Abundance of coral impacts at sites surveyed in 2013 trends in coral cover and Diadema abundance are indicative only. Coral cover varied during the period among sites and, to a lesser extent, through time but no extensive decline in coral cover is evident from this data set. This contrasts with the finding by Roberts et al. in the mid-1990s (Roberts and Mees 2003), suggesting further that the Reef Check data should be interpreted with caution. The Reef Check data on Diadema are in alignment with other survey results, which indicate the population has recovered substantially since the 1980s. The trends for target fish species are also variable between sites and from year to year. Summary graphs of the Reef Check data are presented in Appendix 1.

fish species commonly targeted by fishers are low in abundance and small in size, and there are few if any large-bodied predatory fishes such as groupers and snappers. Evidence of high levels of old coral mortality was apparent at Anse Chastanet, and this is likely the result of the 2005 coral bleaching event. Coral stress and risk of mortality has probably been exacerbated by chronic sediment pollution and continuing high incidence of coral diseases. Beeden et al. (2013) observed lionfish during surveys of three of the five sites, and also noted their presence at a range of other sites throughout the Soufriere Marine Management Area. Notably, there were low levels of macroalgae at all sites surveyed.

The most recent information on the health of ecosystems in the Marine Management Areas is provided by Beeden et al. (2013) based on surveys undertaken in September 2013. Figures 5 and 6 present the survey results for marine benthos composition and observed coral impacts. Beeden et al. (2013) concluded that reefs within the Marine Management Areas have moderate levels of coral cover and high abundances of urchins relative to other Caribbean reefs. Herbivorous and predatory

OUTLOOK REPORT FOR THE PITONS AND SOUFRIERE MARINE MANAGEMENT AREAS

Table 3: Assessment of ecosystem state Assessment Grade

Ecosystem state

Good

Habitats to support species

• Coral reef 60% and sand 40% • Coral cover declined by > 50% since 1995 • Large sponges and boulders provide habitat diversity

Biodiversity

• Coral diversity maintained but cover declined by ~ 50% • Moderate abundances and sizes of fish, but few if any largebodied predatory fish and sharks • Continued presence of turtles, whales and dolphins

Ecosystem condition and resilience

Overall, high abundances of urchins and moderate herbivorous fish abundance is maintaining algal grazing but large predators are absent and lionfish densities are increasing. Resilience levels differ between inshore shallow reefs and deep reefs:

Fair

• •

• Inshore shallow reefs severely impacted by sediment, storms and disease, high use and some bleaching. • Deeper reefs well flushed and more resilient with good coral cover and high abundance of sponges.

Poor

•

Summary Currently, compared to Caribbean averages, reefs in the Marine Management Areas are in fair condition. They have moderate levels of coral cover, high abundances of urchins, low abundances and sizes of both herbivorous and predatory fish but few if any top end predators (such as sharks and groupers).

Assessment Grading Criteria Good Habitat

All major habitats are essentially intact and able to support dependent species.

Biodiversity

Available evidence indicates only a few, if any, populations of a species or group of species have declined.

Condition and No records of diseases above expected natural levels; no introduced species recorded; populations resilience generally within naturally expected levels.

Fair Habitat

Some habitat loss or alteration may have occurred in some areas, but is not causing persistent or substantial effects on populations of dependent species.

Biodiversity

Populations of a number of species have declined significantly.

Condition and Disease occasionally above expected natural levels but recovery prompt; any occurrences of introduced resilience species successfully addressed; populations modified but with limited effects on ecosystem function.

Poor Habitat

Habitat loss or alteration has occurred in a number of areas and is causing declines in populations of many dependent species.

Biodiversity

Populations of a large number of species have declined significantly.

Condition and Unnaturally high levels of disease regularly recorded in some areas; occurrences of introduced species; resilience population shifts affecting ecosystem function.

OUTLOOK REPORT FOR THE PITONS AND SOUFRIERE MARINE MANAGEMENT AREAS

4. IMPACTS ON SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC BENEFITS

cosystems are sources of goods and services (ecosystem services) that provide important social and economic benefits. Impacts are the ways in which changes in ecosystem state influence human wellbeing through altering the availability of ecosystem services to society. The Marine Management Areas provide a range of ecosystem services that are important to the wellbeing of the local Soufriere community. Through a variety of tourism enterprises, the Marine Management Areas are also of great importance to the national economy of St Lucia. However, as described in the previous chapter, the Marine Management Areas are under a range of pressures that are affecting the provision of ecosystem services. This chapter presents the evidence obtained from the literature to assess the role of the Marine Management Areas in the social and economic wellbeing of St Lucia, and summarises available information on the social and economic impacts of changes in the state of the Marine Management Areas ecosystem.

The Marine Management Areas play a central part in the life and economy of St. Lucia and the local community. The largest settlement adjacent to Marine Management Areas is Soufriere, a village of about 8000 people that is characterised by a fragile economy and high levels of unemployment (Soufriere Regional Development Foundation no date). At a national scale, tourism to the Soufriere area is one of the main contributions to St Lucia’s economy. At both local and national scales, the ecosystem of the marine management areas has been utilised for three major types of ecosystem services: fishing, tourism and waste disposal.

Ecosystem services and impacts Ecosystem services are the many and varied benefits that people obtain from ecosystems. Changes in the ecosystem state – such as loss of biodiversity and reduced water quality – directly influence the capacity of an ecosystem to produce and supply essential services or benefits to the community – such as tourism or fisheries productivity.

Fishing Historically, the Soufriere economy was based almost exclusively on agriculture. Artisanal fishing has also been important to the local community, providing a source of employment and food. In more recent times, the commercial contribution of fishing has increased in importance. Soufriere fishers have traditionally engaged in nearshore fishing, including pot and seine fishing, while other St Lucian fishing communities have become focused on offshore fishing for migratory pelagics (e.g. tunas, kingfish and dolphinfish) (Pierre no date). Soufriere has been slow to follow this trend due its location furthest from the migratory routes of the valuable pelagic species (Pierre no date). This means that there continues to be a high dependence by the Soufriere fishers on the traditional nearshore fisheries. The fish catch of Soufriere fishers primarily comprises coastal pelagics such as jacks, balao and sardines, as well as reef species and flying fish. In the order of eighty tons of fish are landed annually (Pierre-Nathoniel 2003), providing an

OUTLOOK REPORT FOR THE PITONS AND SOUFRIERE MARINE MANAGEMENT AREAS

Table 4: Registered vessels and fishers, Soufriere 1996 to 2012 Year

Registered Vessels

Full-time Fishers

Part-time Fishers

Total Fishers

1996

146

1997

105

146

1998

108

149

1999

111

150

2000

122

153

2001

131

154

2002

135

154

2003

107

155

2004

111

154

2005

117

157

2006

116

158

2007

119

159

2008

160

2009

163

2010

165

2011

103

170

2012

103

171

Source: St. Lucia Department of Fisheries annual gross revenue from commercial fishing of ~US$2 million (ReefFix 2010). A substantial proportion of this catch would be associated with the deep water and flying fish fisheries that span the boundary or take place adjacent to the Marine Management Areas. There are currently approximately 80 registered vessels and 171 registered fishers in Soufriere. The vast majority of these spend at least some of their time fishing in the Soufriere Marine Management Area (Table 4). In addition, there is an unknown number of subsistence and recreational fishers who rely heavily on the reefs and waters of the Marine Management Areas for their catch. Based on the most recent official figures, the number of fishers operating in the Soufriere Marine Management Area appears to have been increasing since the late 1990s, with an estimated increase of 15 per cent from 1996 (146 registered fishers) to 2012. ReefFix (2010) provided an assessment of the fishing carried out in the Soufriere Marine Management Area. They estimated that, at the time of their surveys, there were 220 fishers of which 69 were full-time and 151 part-time. ReefFix characterised fishing activity as follows: ‘Full-time fishers fish 6–7 days a week and spend an average of 8–16 hours on the sea. In most cases, fishing is their only form of income. There are also part-time fishermen who go fishing 3–4 days a week. These fishers have full-time jobs and do a lot less fishing when the season is slow. Their main jobs range from water taxi operators, hotel workers and management jobs. Fishermen tend not to stick to one type of fishing. The type of fishing is largely

dependent on the season. December to June is the flying fish season and June to November is coastline fishing, pot and net fishing’. Tables 5 and 6 present information on the number of fishers engaged in different types of fishing, and the number of crew for each type.

Table 5: Average number of fishers employed in Soufriere fishing activities Fishing Type

No. of Fishers

Deep sea fishing

Seine and fillet

Pot fishing

Fishing aggregate device

Small pots

Table 6: Average number of crew employed in Soufriere fishing activities Fishing Type

No. of Crew

Deep sea fishing

3 persons on a big fibreglass pirogue 2 persons on a mediumsized pirogue

Seine

2 boats and 6–8 fishermen

Seine fillet (flying fish) 3–4 fishermen Pot fishing

1 fisherman

Source: ReefFix, 2010

OUTLOOK REPORT FOR THE PITONS AND SOUFRIERE MARINE MANAGEMENT AREAS

(kg fish per hour)

Large fish trap catch

Fish landing and effort data for Soufriere are collected by the St. Lucia Department of Fisheries. The data for the Port of Soufriere, presented at Figures 8 and 9, does not show any clear trends over the period 1991–2012. It should be noted that the data represent all fish landed at Soufriere and therefore does not discriminate between fish caught in the Marine Management Areas and fish caught further afield but landed at Soufriere Port. To the extent that it is possible to assess catch per unit effort for reef-associated fish (shark, snapper and other), the data supports the suggestion that catch per registered fishing vessel increased following the introduction of the reserves in 1995, but since then has generally levelled off with the occasional peaks and troughs which might be explained by seasonal variability or might be an artifact of the data collection method. The available data are not conclusive but do suggest that the rate of increase in reef fish biomass that was reported by monitoring studies between 1995 and 2001 (C. M. Roberts, et al. 2003) subsequently levelled off at the same time that fishing effort increased outside of reserves, and also at a time when there were reports of increased illegal fishing within the reserves. This conclusion is also consistent with other survey data and the observations of very low abundances of herbivorous and predatory fish species commonly targeted by fishers in 2013 (Beeden, et al. 2013).

5 4

Reserves established

3 2 1 1995

1996

1997 1998 Year

1999

2000

Figure 7: Change in catch per unit effort in the Soufriere reef fishery 1995 to 2000 Source: St. Lucia Department of Fisheries data

In addition to resident fishers, there is also a significant sport fishing sector catering to tourists. Sport fishing tours are either a half day or whole day and few fish are kept (1–2 per trip). Any fish weighing less than 300 lbs is generally released; however, fish such as tuna or dolphinfish (“dorado”) are generally kept. Fish caught belong to the boat but are often shared with guests (ReefFix 2010). Trap fishing is an important source of fish for local fishers. There is evidence that this form of fishing has benefited from the establishment of the Marine Management Areas. The biomass of reef fish in reserves and fishing grounds has been measured annually from 1994 to 2002 by scientists from the University of York. Over this period the biomass of fish present in marine reserve zones increased fourfold over the amount present at the outset of protection. In adjacent fishing grounds, fish biomass increased three times over the same period (C. M. Roberts, et al. 2003). An outcome of these increases was that five years after reserve protection, catches per trap per trip had increased by 90 per cent for fishers using small traps and by 46 per cent for those using big traps (Figure 7). As well as improving average weight of catches, landings became more reliable (Pierre-Nathoniel 2003).

Tourism Tourism is the largest generator of economic activity for St. Lucia with a direct contribution to gross domestic product (GDP) of XCD 455.7 million or 13.3 per cent of GDP in 2013. The total contribution (direct + indirect + induced) amounts to XCD 1338.6 million or 39 per cent of GDP (World Travel and Tourism Coucil 2013). Soufriere is a centrepiece of St Lucia’s tourism offerings, and is thus of great importance to the nation’s economy. Soufriere tourism includes a mix of large resorts, hotels, guesthouses and restaurants. Many of the largest resort developments and

200 Lobster Conch Shark Snappers King fish/wahoo

180 160

Tonnes

140 120

Dolphin Flying fish Tuna Other

100 80 60 40 20

Figure 8: Estimated fish landings—Soufriere Source: St. Lucia Department of Fisheries data

OUTLOOK REPORT FOR THE PITONS AND SOUFRIERE MARINE MANAGEMENT AREAS

Year

infrastructure are located near the shore in order to gain direct access to the coral reefs and waters of the Marine Management Areas. Day charter boats and water taxis also bring large numbers of visitors from the northern areas of Castries and Rodney Bay (Pierre-Nathoniel 2003). Direct tourism use of the Marine Management Areas includes yachting, fishing, SCUBA diving, snorkelling, swimming, whale watching and sightseeing (S. George 1996). Overnight tourism visitation to St. Lucia is in the order of 300,000 visitors annually. Cruise ship visitation is a very significant and increasing component of St. Lucia tourism, with 699,306 visitors in 2009. Yachting is the other major component of both St. Lucian and the Marine Management Area tourism. Yachting visitation to St. Lucia has continued to grow with more than 25,000 yachts visiting St. Lucia in 2010 (Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean 2011). An estimated 69 per cent of all visitors to St. Lucia visit Soufriere. Most arrive by sea and disembark

at the port within the Marine Management Areas. Approximately 4000 yachts (Soufriere Marine Management Association no date) visit the Marine Management Areas annually. Ninety per cent of the dives that occur in St. Lucia take place within the Marine Management Areas. In total this involves approximately 8000 scuba divers and 18,000 snorkellers (ReefFix 2010). ReefFix have estimated that the gross revenue generated from diving in the Marine Management Areas is US$10,647,396 per year and from snorkelling and boating gross revenue is estimated at US$1,135,722 (ReefFix 2010).

Waste disposal The Marine Management Areas have also been utilised for waste disposal. For example, prior to the establishment of a refuse collection service and a land-based refuse site, the local Soufriere refuse tip was a dump site located within the SMMA. Use of the ecosystem to provide trash disposal services

Tonnes per registered vessel

1.8 1.6 1.4 1.2 1.0 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2

12 20

11 20

10 20

09 20

08 20

07 20

06 20

04 20

03 20

02 20

01 20

00 20

99 19

98 19

97 19

0 Year

Figure 9: Mean annual reef fish (snappers, shark and other) landings per registered fishing vessel Source: St. Lucia Department of Fisheries data

OUTLOOK REPORT FOR THE PITONS AND SOUFRIERE MARINE MANAGEMENT AREAS

clearly occurred at the expense of other ecosystem services, such as the aesthetics of snorkel and dive sites, and fisheries productivity. The coastal waters of the Marine Management Areas are also utilised for sewage disposal, with untreated sewage routinely discharged via waterways entering the area. While there is some capacity for the Marine Management Areas to assimilate this waste, the ecosystem is unable to provide the full level of service required for safe treatment of the loads of contaminants being discharged. Using the Marine Management Areas to provide a waste treatment service is occurring at the expense of other important ecosystem services, such as clean and safe bathing and clear waters for snorkellers and divers.

economic benefits locally and nationally. Tourism has continued to grow, providing a very substantial contribution to national GDP, as well as employment and indirect benefits to the local community. Fish catches appear to have remained relatively stable. Employment in the Soufriere fishing sector has also remained relatively stable over the past two decades, with apparent increases of up to 15 per cent.

Assessment of social and economic benefits and impacts

Table 7 summarises the assessments of impacts on social and economic benefits, considering the beneficial services that have been maintained or increased, and the negative impacts or declining ecosystem services.

Currently, based on best available data and anecdotal reports, reefs in the Marine Management Areas are critically important sources of social and economic benefits (positive impacts) to Saint Lucia. However, these uses, especially fishing and tourism, are also putting pressure on the natural resources and limiting the quality and quantity of benefits derived from the marine management areas (negative impacts).

A number of supporting ecosystem services have been diminished. This is particularly true of coral cover, but is also apparent in the high incidence of coral disease, declining water quality and the absence of recovery of populations of large, predatory fish.

The creation of the SMMA in the mid-1990s clearly led to increased benefits to local communities and the St Lucia economy at large. By 2002 there had been rapid increases in fish stocks, and this was observed to translate into improved catch per unit effort for local fishers. Anchor damage from increasing numbers of visiting yachts had also been addressed through the establishment of moorings, leading to improvements in the quality of diving experiences that could be provided by the marine management areas. Currently, based on best available data and anecdotal reports, it is apparent that the reefs in the Marine Management Areas are continuing to provide critically important sources of social and

OUTLOOK REPORT FOR THE PITONS AND SOUFRIERE MARINE MANAGEMENT AREAS

Table 7: Assessments of social and economic impacts

Socio-economic impacts

Assessment Grade Good

Fair

Poor

Negative impacts and benefits (positive impacts) to the economy of St. Lucia and the daily lives of the adjacent coastal communities: Fishing

• 220 artisanal fishers • US$2 million p.a. gross revenue from artisanal fishing • Overfishing and illegal fishing is occurring

Tourism

• 26,000 scuba divers and snorkellers annually • US$11.74 million p.a. gross tourism revenue generated • Some site impacts may require management

•

Yachts

• 4000 yacht visits per year • Use conflicts and anchor damage impacts addressed through zoning, anchoring restrictions and moorings

•

Management

• US$470,000 p.a. management fees (tourism and yachts) • Fee collection systems require review

•

Community

• Direct and indirect employment • Cultural practices of subsistence fishing, bathing and beach recreation • Most significant use conflicts addressed by zoning • Untreated sewage remains an issue of concern for users of the Areas and also affecting water clarity and reef health

•

Summary Reefs in the Marine Management Areas are critically important sources of social and economic benefits to Saint Lucia. However, there are indicators that increasing levels of tourism and fishing, and illegal fishing, have the potential to undermine the benefits provided unless further management actions are taken.

Assessment Grade Good

Management outcomes have been achieved. There are no impacts, or at worst the impacts are minor and localised, with no observable effects on overall ecosystem services.

Fair

Management outcomes have been partially achieved. Ecosystem services are noticeably reduced, but only to the extent that limited additional intervention would be required to reverse the decline.

Poor

Management outcomes are not being achieved. A steep and ongoing decline in ecosystem services is apparent. Significant additional intervention would be required or the benefits provided by the Marine Management Areas are likely to be compromised substantially over time.

OUTLOOK REPORT FOR THE PITONS AND SOUFRIERE MARINE MANAGEMENT AREAS

5. RESPONSE— MANAGEMENT EFFECTIVENESS

his chapter reviews the management responses aimed at maintaining and enhancing the coral reef ecosystem and sustaining the contribution to community wellbeing made by the Marine Management Areas. It then provides a high-level assessment of the effectiveness of the management responses. This is an important contribution for determining the major risks that remain for the Marine Management Areas and predicting the outlook. The assessment follows the framework for evaluating management of protected areas developed by the International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) World Commission on Protected Areas described by Hockings et al. (2006). The approach is based on a management cycle in which management is continuously evaluated and refined (Figure 10). Policy and planning information relating to the Marine Management Areas was collated by a St Lucia-based consultant, AGRICO Ltd. The key information is summarised in this chapter and

the detailed reports compiled by AGRICO Ltd are available from the Soufriere Marine Management Association or from http://climateandreefs.org. The assessment was also informed by a small number of key informant interviews (Gooch & Pott, 2013). The preliminary assessment of management responses was reviewed and revised in a workshop with members of the Board of the Soufriere Marine Management Association and other relevant experts in April 2014. Previous sections of this report have analysed drivers and pressures affecting the Marine Management Areas, the state of the ecosystem and the impacts on social and economic benefits. The information provided in those early sections forms the primary evidence for the assessment of management effectiveness in achieving outputs and outcomes. The assessment of management effectiveness is presented at the conclusion of this chapter.

Context and planning The current arrangements for management of the Marine Management Areas had their genesis in the late 1980s and early 1990s. At that time the Soufriere community expressed significant concern in relation to the health of Soufriere reefs and their associated fish stocks. Changing patterns and levels of use had also led to conflicts between reefdependent stakeholders. Issues identified at the time (Pierre-Nathoniel 2003) were: • Degradation of coastal water quality, with direct implications for human health and for the protection of the reef ecosystem. • Depletion of nearshore fish resources. • Loss of the economic, scientific and recreational potential of coral reefs, particularly in the context of diving tourism.

Figure 10. Management cycle. Effective management is a closed loop where issues are considered, plans are made, resources are expended, proper processes are followed and products and services are delivered, all leading to outcomes that address the issues. An assessment of each of the steps in this management cycle provides a comprehensive picture of management effectiveness. For example, assessing only outcomes may indicate that a particular objective has been achieved, but leaves it unclear as to whether this was due to good luck or good management. Conversely, it may be hard to understand why desired outcomes were not achieved unless all management steps are examined. (Adapted from Hockings et al. 2006).

• Degradation of landscapes and general environment quality, notably on or near beaches. • Pollution generated by solid waste disposal in ravines or directly in the sea. • Yacht anchor damage to reefs. • Sedimentation of the reefs caused by run-off from rivers and storm damage. • A range of user conflicts between commercial dive operators, fishers, yachts, the local community and hoteliers over resource depletion, access to beaches and marine areas and the establishment of jetties and other facilities to support use of the area.

OUTLOOK REPORT FOR THE PITONS AND SOUFRIERE MARINE MANAGEMENT AREAS

A planning process was undertaken to address the identified issues. The primary outcome of that process was the development of a marine zoning scheme that acknowledged the needs of the specific user groups, and attempted to separate conflicting uses. Damaging activities, such as yacht mooring were regulated and ‘no-fishing’ reserves were created to provide sanctuary areas and provide a means of improving fish stocks. As a result of that planning process, since 1995 the Marine Management Areas have been subdivided into the following five use zones (Figure 4): • Marine Reserves – areas of high ecological value, set aside for protection of all marine flora and fauna, scientific research, allowing fish stocks to regenerate and for enjoyment by divers and snorkellers. • Fishing Priority Areas – the areas where commercial fishing has priority. • Recreational Areas – identified for public recreation. • Multiple Use Areas – fishing, diving, snorkelling and other uses are provided for as long as general rules of the Soufriere Marine Management Area are followed. • Yacht Mooring Areas – yacht anchoring is not allowed throughout the SMMA and moorings have been established in these areas to cater for visiting yachts. The objectives and arrangements for management of the Soufriere Marine Management Area are set out in an Agreement and Management Plan (Soufriere Marine Management Association no date). The management objectives are: • Conserve the coastal and marine resource base of Soufriere. • Enhance the equitable, economic, social and cultural benefits generated from the sustainable use of the coastal and marine resources of Soufriere at the local and national levels. • Manage the conflicts that may occur among uses and users of the coastal and marine resources in Soufriere.

The Pitons Area Management Plan, and the Pitons Management Area and Soufriere Region Integrated Development Plan, are the key planning instruments that guide the management of the Pitons Management Area. These planning instruments were prepared by Hyder Consulting (UK) Limited and were adopted by the Cabinet of Ministers in 2008. This management framework divides the Pitons Management Area into five Policy Areas with development restriction for the Marine Zone described as follows: “the Marine Zone should be protected absolutely from built development and infrastructure in the marine and coastal zone. The only permissible development would be for enhancing navigation safety, marine research, buoyage and minor signage and interpretation” (The Landmark Practices 2013). A range of national, regional and international policies, conventions and agreements directly, or implicitly, address the various pressures affecting the Marine Management Areas. These interrelated policies are embedded within the national development framework and comprise policies and plans that address issues of physical and socio-economic development and environmental management, under the overarching theme of sustainable development. Integrated watershed and coastal zone management, solid waste management and hazard risk management are also key elements of the environmental management response framework. St Lucia has a Coastal Zone Management (CZM) Policy, approved and adopted by Cabinet in 2004. The Coastal Zone Management Policy is predicated upon the concept of island systems management and recognises a number of fundamental principles and strategies to guide implementation. The Physical Planning and Development Act (2005) provides requisite support for land use planning, development control, formulation and implementation of housing policy and environmental management. While there is no expressed linkage between the Soufriere Marine Management Area Agreement and

OUTLOOK REPORT FOR THE PITONS AND SOUFRIERE MARINE MANAGEMENT AREAS

Management Plan and other national development policies, the Agreement was developed to reflect similar sustainable development agendas to those that are promulgated in the various policies. The linkages are more explicit in relation to fisheries and tourism. Legislated/regulated restrictions under the national legislation, for example with regard to fisheries and tourism activities, are enshrined in the Agreement. The Agreement also goes further to apply restrictions specific to the Soufriere Marine Management Area. Appendix 3 provides a comprehensive list of the pertinent policy instruments.

Management Areas in December 1994; signs were put in place in February 1995; a colour brochure describing the purpose and rules for use of the SMMA and a brochure detailing the mooring buoy system were produced in early 1995. To the largest extent these equipment and products have been maintained but not substantially upgraded in the intervening period.

Adequacy and appropriateness The Soufriere Marine Management Association undertakes day-to-day management of the Marine Management Areas. The Association is a nonprofit organisation that was originally established specifically to implement management of the Soufriere Marine Management Area. The board of directors is drawn from the local community, marine industries and government agencies. The Soufriere Marine Management Association, through a collaborative arrangement, also undertakes the field management of the marine components of the Pitons Management Area. The Association also manages the adjacent Canaries and Anse La Raye Marine Management Area, which is an equivalent sized area with similar management arrangements to the Soufriere Marine Management Area. Field management activity is empowered under the provisions of the Fisheries Act 1984 and conducted by staff of the Association under the auspices of the Fisheries Department. The approach taken to addressing the management issues has been widely recognised as world leading. Planning was undertaken through partnerships with strong government leadership and very strong community engagement and scientific support. Specific measures were identified aimed at addressing the priority management issues, principally involving: delineation of use zones; installation of moorings and boundary markers; establishment of education and compliance; monitoring and initiation of user fees to fund ongoing management. Recurrent management activities are funded by user fees. These are primarily collected from tourism operations and visiting yachts. Fees provide approximately US$470,000 annually, which comprises the vast majority of the operational budget for management of the Marine Management Areas (ReefFix 2010). The staff for management of the Marine Management Areas comprises a manager, five rangers and an administrative support officer. However, the number of staff and the specifics of the positions have varied from time to time. Capital equipment, including patrol boats, has to the greatest extent been funded by foreign aid. Forty-two mooring buoys and 22 demarcation and local dive buoys were first installed in the Marine 34

At the time the SMMA was established, and for the first five years or so, the management resources available were adequate to address immediate priorities. These resources were provided through a combination of: foreign aid for capital equipment; external scientific support (primarily by a team from the University of York); and the collection of fees that met core recurrent costs. However, over the years the management capacity has been significantly diminished, due to: • Increasing use of the Marine Management Areas placing additional demands on the management resources. • Completion of the externally funded science program in 2002. • Significantly reduced capital funding following the completion of the foreign aidfunded establishment program. • A plateauing or decline in recurrent fee base exacerbated by the impacts of global events on tourism visitation and inefficiencies in the systems for fee collection. • Staffing levels not being increased when the area under management roughly doubled with the establishment of the neighbouring Canaries/ Anse La Raye Marine Management Area. Support from various foreign aid sources has recently provided, or is expected to provide, an immediate opportunity to at least partially redress some of the management capacity issues. In particular this includes short-term scientific support, and grants

OUTLOOK REPORT FOR THE PITONS AND SOUFRIERE MARINE MANAGEMENT AREAS

are currently being negotiated to replace and refurbish capital equipment. However, significant shortfalls still exist, particularly with regard to capacity to address illegal fishing, community outreach and the very significant external pressures associated with sediment and sewage entering the Marine Management Areas. A range of government agencies have lead roles and responsibilities for implementing the broader suite of national policy and legislation that are described above, including: • The Pitons Management Area office • Ministry of Sustainable Development, Energy, Science and Technology • Ministry of Physical Development, Housing and Urban Renewal • The Development Control Authority & Crown Lands Section • Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries • Soufriere Regional Development Foundation • St. Lucia National Trust • National Conservation Authority on safety, marine research, buoyage and minor signage and interpretation. The extent of development and implementation of the various national policies is mixed, and is often dependent on foreign aid funding. As a result, notwithstanding the apparently comprehensive range of policy and legislative responses that have been developed, many have only progressed to draft stage and are still awaiting approval while others require supporting legislation and regulations before they can be fully implemented.

Delivery—management outputs and outcomes Following the establishment of the Soufriere Marine Management Area in 1995, early management efforts delivered measurable improvements. For example, fish stocks increased rapidly between 1995 and 2002 within and outside of no-fishing reserves. Benefits were observed to flow through to improved catch per unit effort for local fishers. Anchor damage from the increasing numbers of visiting yachts was successfully addressed through the installation of moorings and banning of anchoring by yachts. Tourism use has continued to grow providing a range of benefits to the community and the marine zoning has reduced the level of conflict between fishers, tourism operators and visiting yachts. The continuing relative health of the reefs of the Marine Management Areas, and the very substantial benefits they are providing to the economy of St Lucia and the Soufriere community, are in many respects a credit to the management arrangements that have been put in place. The establishment of fishing reserves and moorings for yachts are undoubtedly still contributing to the above average condition of many of the reefs and fish communities in the Marine Management Areas. This is particularly the case

where it is supporting the natural resilience of reefs that are associated with the deeper sloping parts of the shelf that are regularly flushed by more oceanic currents. However, illegal fishing and increasing levels of fishing, tourism and yacht visitation are starting to undermine the initial achievements. Local pressures are compromising fringing reef resilience and, in particular, it is apparent that shallower coastal fringing reefs in closer proximity to river outfall and coastal development have not fared so well. Relatively high levels of coral disease continue to be recorded and this appears to be exacerbated for those shallow reefs that are very closely associated with high levels of visitation. The closure of the refuse dump site within the Marine Management Areas and the establishment of refuse collection service have significantly reduced the potential impacts from a wide range of pollutants. Litter washing to the coast, particularly plastic bottles, is an issue that will need innovative solutions. Apart from the impact on visual amenity for tourists and divers, litter can have harmful impacts on biota due to entanglement or ingestion. Lost and discarded fishing gear can also continue to trap fish and other fauna until such time as the apparatus breaks down. Community education, stewardship and incentives (e.g. deposits on plastic bottles, volunteer reef clean-up days etc.), and mandatory requirements for biodegradable fish trap catches may provide cost-effective options to address these situations if introduced. Deforestation, poor agricultural practices, coastal developments, a lack of sewage and grey water treatment facilities, and limited solid waste management practices, have been identified by the government as key issues currently impacting on coastal resources nationally and specifically in the Marine Management Areas (Government of Saint Lucia 2008). These pressures, which are essentially linked to economic growth, are compounded by socio-economic issues such as high levels of poverty and unemployment (Government of Saint Lucia 2005). In combination with the emerging issues of climate change and disaster risks, these conditions exacerbate conflicts and magnify the challenges of effective management of the Marine Management Areas.

Evaluation There is no regular monitoring, reporting and evaluation framework in place for the Marine Management Areas. The Soufriere Marine Management Association undertakes or supports monitoring of coral reefs, water quality and other environmental factors and resources, as well as collaborating in scientific research on the natural resources of the area. However, the capacity to undertake monitoring and research has declined in recent years and there is very limited capacity to compile and evaluate the information collected. Generally, collection and analysis of information is dependent on the ad hoc availability of external expertise and resources.

OUTLOOK REPORT FOR THE PITONS AND SOUFRIERE MARINE MANAGEMENT AREAS

A coral reef monitoring program had been initiated in 1994 prior to the establishment of the current arrangements for managing the Marine Management Areas. The monitoring was undertaken by a team from University of York in the United Kingdom and continued until 2002. Since that time some monitoring has been undertaken by local management staff and visiting Reef Check volunteers and scientists, but not on a regular or consistent basis. The Fisheries Department collects information on fish catch by registered fishers for the St. Lucia coast, including the Soufriere District. Since 1995 the Fisheries Department have also been undertaking the monitoring of the island’s beaches, which involves the measurement of the beach slope and width at regular intervals at numerous sites around the island. Soufriere watershed and marine water quality sampling has also been undertaken in recent years by the Caribbean EcoHealth Programme. At the national level, St. Lucia regularly reports on the state of environmental resources in accordance with its international obligations. Monitoring and review in this regard is largely based on global and regional status reports developed using data generated at the country level. The Ministry of Sustainable Development is the lead coordinating agency for this work in St. Lucia. The diversity in the range of broader policy issues has engendered several and separate approaches for policy monitoring and review, with some spheres, in particular socio-economic impact, having a stronger focus than others. As recognised in the Institutional Capacity Assessment Report (2011), the lack of harmonisation of approaches impedes the cohesive measurement of performance (Ministry of Physical Development 2011).

Assessment of management effectiveness The health of the reefs of the Marine Management Areas, and the very substantial benefits they are providing to the economy of St Lucia and the Soufriere community are a credit to the management arrangements that have been put in place. However, the field management program that implements management of the Marine Management Areas is showing signs of stress. Increasing use of the Marine Management Areas combined with reduced capital funding and a plateauing or decline in recurrent funding has reduced the capacity of the management program. This is evident in the currently ad hoc levels of scientific monitoring and assessment, and community concerns about the capacity to undertake enforcement activities. It is also apparent in the limited scope to maintain, replace and expand the mooring and boundary marker programs. Recent support from various foreign aid sources has provided some immediate opportunities to partially redress these issues. The Soufriere Marine Management Association is focusing substantial effort toward improving the

fee collection arrangements in order to rebuild the funding base required for an effective management program. There is a critical need for a high level strategic and coordinated approach to address key pressures. High priorities for improved management responses include overfishing, illegal fishing, coastal development and sediment and sewage entering the Marine Management Areas. Although a substantial range of policies have been developed by the Government of Saint Lucia that address many of the land-based pressures affecting the Marine Management Areas, implementation is undermined by the lack of a strategic, coordinated approach to setting priorities and targeting critical actions. It is also apparent that funding constraints, as well as competing demands between maintenance of ecosystem services and economic growth, have limited the capacity of the government to implement these policies. These are challenging and costly issues that will require a coordinated strategic approach and a strong commitment by government and from all relevant departments. Previous sections of this report have provided a detailed analysis of these ‘pressures’ and the effect on the ‘state’ of the Marine Management Areas. Table 8 has been compiled based on the previously presented information to provide an understanding of the extent to which management has been able to address the key pressures. Table 9 summarises the assessments of the effectiveness of management based on the full management cycle.

OUTLOOK REPORT FOR THE PITONS AND SOUFRIERE MARINE MANAGEMENT AREAS

Table 8: Effectiveness of management in dealing with key pressures

Management of Key Pressures

Assessment Grade Good

Fair

Poor

•

Catchment clearing and development

• coral decline

Untreated sewage

• • • •

Foreshore development

• coral decline

Overfishing

• • • •

Illegal fishing

• reduced fish abundance in reserves • flow-on consequences for reduced abundance in fished areas

Diving and snorkelling

• site damage and coral decline inshore, shallow reefs • few signs of impact on deeper reefs

Yachts

• user conflicts • anchor damage

Litter and rubbish

• closure of the refuse dump significantly reduced the potential impacts from a wide range of pollutants • ongoing issues of litter (primarily plastic bottles) and abandoned fishing gear

disease (corals, sponges etc.) coral decline reduced survival of juvenile biota human health concerns

• •

loss of large-bodied predatory fish reduced fish size and abundance bycatch concerns (e.g. juvenile fish) flow-on ecosystem effects

• • • • •

Summary Excellent engagement, planning and implementation characterised establishment of the management regime for the Marine Management Areas. This delivered good outcomes in the early years. However, reduced funding has seen decreased effectiveness of the field management program, leading to reduced ability to mitigate escalating pressures. Efforts to increase sustainability of financing and take more strategic and coordinated action, especially in relation to sewage and foreshore developments, will help redress these issues.

Assessment Grade Good

Management outcomes have been achieved. There are no impacts, or at worst the impacts are minor and localised, with no observable effects on overall ecosystem services.

Fair

Management outcomes have been partially achieved. Ecosystem services are noticeably reduced, but only to the extent that limited additional intervention would be required to reverse the decline.

Poor

OUTLOOK REPORT FOR THE PITONS AND SOUFRIERE MARINE MANAGEMENT AREAS

Table 9: Assessment of management process

Management Criteria Design and planning

Assessment Grade Good

Fair

Poor

Understanding of context Understanding of values, threats, national and international influences and stakeholders is strong and based on sound science.

•

Planning Sound zoning and management planning framework built on extensive community consultation and strong government support.

• •

Site planning to address tourism use is lacking. A range of policy and strategies exist that identify key hazards and threats associated with coastal development, tropical storms and cyclones.

• •

There is no coordinated, strategic program to address key external threats, including impacts from sewage and sediment run-off. Adequacy and appropriateness

Inputs (financial, staffing and information) Day-to-day management: • Recurrent activities are self-funded by use fees but funds have not kept up with management demands. • Capital funding remains largely dependent on foreign aid. • Stewardship by tourism operations and particularly by large coastal resorts provides some resources, but is very limited.

• • •

Critical but high cost programs required to manage sewage and sediment run-off are hampered by funding constraints. Substantial research and monitoring were undertaken until 2002 —these programs have not been maintained and the capacity to analyse data is lacking. Management systems and processes

Delivery

Many day-to-day management systems and processes have either not been adequately developed or require upgrading, in particular: • Systems for collection of fees are inadequate. • Enforcement programs would benefit from substantial review.

•

There is no high level strategic approach to coordinate programs to address key external pressures.

•

Outputs Initial output generation was high including: zoning maps, signage, education activities, enforcement, installation of facilities, website maintenance and scientific publications.

• •

Currently outputs are largely limited to field patrols, basic facility maintenance, and ad hoc monitoring. Outcomes

The benefits of the management initiatives were initially clearly identified by robust scientific monitoring, such that by 2002: • rapid increases were observed in fish stocks • increased catch per unit effort for local fishers • anchor damage from visiting yachts addressed through the establishment of moorings • marine zoning reduced use conflicts.

•

Management continues to provide very substantial benefits to the economy of St. Lucia and the Soufriere community: • tourism use had continued to grow • the areas support an increased number of registered fishers.

•

OUTLOOK REPORT FOR THE PITONS AND SOUFRIERE MARINE MANAGEMENT AREAS

Management Criteria Delivery (continued)

Assessment Grade Good

Fair

Poor

Outcomes (continued) Currently: • tropical storms, coastal run-off and increased use have significantly reduced corals and shallow reef communities • initial increases in fish biomass have levelled off and are being impacted by increased fishing pressure and illegal fishing • the invasive lionfish is now well established. Policies and strategies to address key external threats (including impacts from coastal development, sediment from catchment land use and untreated sewage) have not resulted in ecosystem recovery.

• •

Summary There is a substantial base of public policy suitable for addressing the key pressures affecting the Marine Management Areas. However, the extent of implementation of those policies is limited. The issues involved are complex and resource-intensive programs will be required to achieve success. A coordinated and strategic approach combined with strong government leadership and stakeholder support will be required to address the priority threats to longterm reef resilience and community wellbeing.

Assessment Grade Good

Management outcomes have been achieved. There are no impacts, or at worst the impacts are minor and localised, with no observable effects on overall ecosystem services.

Fair

Management outcomes have been partially achieved. Ecosystem services are noticeably reduced, but only to the extent that limited additional intervention would be required to reverse the decline.

Poor

OUTLOOK REPORT FOR THE PITONS AND SOUFRIERE MARINE MANAGEMENT AREAS

6. OUTLOOK FOR THE MARINE MANAGEMENT AREAS The current outlook

hile climate change effects and the impacts of increasing use will inevitably see the continued decline in reef health throughout the Caribbean over the next twenty years, the Marine Management Areas include reefs that can be expected to be somewhat more resilient than most reefs throughout St Lucia and more widely around the Caribbean. Those deeper reefs that are found within the Marine Management Areas are expected to remain relatively healthy, due to their natural resilience, if the management arrangements that have been in place for the past two decades can be continued. Unfortunately, the Marine Management Areas also include coral reefs that are highly vulnerable. Many of the shallow reefs have been impacted by sediment and sewage run-off and high levels of use. A number of these reefs have already been significantly degraded which is evident in declines in coral cover and water quality and changes to fish communities. This has resulted in a decline in the quality of key ecosystem services provided to local communities, and an erosion of natural resilience that makes them even more vulnerable to pressures in the future. As a result, the shallow coastal fringing reefs in the Soufriere area can be expected to deteriorate further unless management efforts are increased to reverse the trend of decreasing resilience. Sediment carried in flood plumes has been the largest single cause of coral cover decline over the past fifteen years. The long-term trend of catchment agriculture, which has continued through recent decades, has seen a shift from high cultivation crops such as sugar cane, to lower cultivation and more perennial crops such as cocoa and coffee. This shift in land use has resulted in increased retention of natural forest and greater coverage of long-standing crops, which in combination is likely to have reduced the amount of agricultural-sourced sediment being washed into the Marine Management Areas. It will be important to consolidate and further increase these improvements in agricultural land use if the pressures from sediments in flood plumes are to be reduced to a level that will allow the trend of decreasing resilience to be reversed. Destabilisation of land as a result of road construction and coastal development has been a significant contributor to sediment run-off during the period since the Marine Management Areas were established. Loss of bridges and cutting of roads during flood events is a major economic impact and it is expected that ongoing efforts to reduce that

damage will also benefit the Marine Management Areas over the longer term. Nevertheless, it is inevitable that over the next twenty years sediments washed from construction sites will continue to put pressure on reefs of the Marine Management Areas without the introduction of best management practices for sediment control. The least resilient and most impacted reefs are the shallow, fringing reefs. Their location immediately adjacent to the shore means that they are also subjected to the greatest use and development pressures. Most are showing unequivocal signs of degradation and evidence of reduced resilience due to chronic pressures. These high value reefs are potential targets for strategic restoration efforts. Focused programs to prevent sediment input from activities on adjacent coastal areas, such as road construction, resort development and beach nourishment, could be complemented with stewardship programs for resort guests and other visitors. These could include best management practices as well as active restoration projects to support and accelerate recovery of the reef habitats. It is clear that the creation of the Marine Management Areas, and in particular the no-fishing reserves, has made a significant contribution to maintaining the health of the Soufriere coral reef fish communities. However, it is also apparent that the pressure from fishing, which was relatively high at the time the reserves were created, has continued to increase. Based on historical trends, and lessons learned from very heavily fished reefs elsewhere in the Caribbean, it is expected that the reef fish abundance and fishing catches will decline over the next twenty years. This will lead to reduced populations of larger, more sought after fish, and a fish community dominated by smaller, algal-feeding fish. If the levels of fishing continue to increase, it is expected that this may also result in declining catches of coastal pelagic fish such as jacks, balao and sardines. Regional and national trends are expected to dominate the outlook for whales, dolphins and turtles, overwhelming the influence of any actions that might be taken on the scale of the Marine Management Areas. Nevertheless, the Marine Management Areas can play an important role in monitoring populations that inhabit or seasonally pass through their waters, and informing and thereby influencing wider Caribbean decisions. The Marine Management Areas can also play an important role in education of visitors and adoption

OUTLOOK REPORT FOR THE PITONS AND SOUFRIERE MARINE MANAGEMENT AREAS

Priority issues for management responses aiming to improve the outlook for the Marine Management Areas • Sediment run-off from catchment clearing and development • Foreshore development and beach ‘enhancement’ • Untreated sewage run-off associated with coastal and catchment development • Illegal fishing and overfishing associated with increasing levels of fishing and use of new technologies • Over-use of some sites by divers and day trip tourism operations • Litter and discarded or abandoned fishing apparatus • Remaining impacts of litter and abandoned fishing apparatus

of best practices within their boundaries; for example, through protection of turtle nests along the coast of the Marine Management Areas. Regional pressures will continue to have a large influence on key ecological processes within the Marine Management Areas. Historically this has been seen in the sea urchin disease and die-off in the mid-1980s, and the recent spread of the introduced lionfish. Urchin populations have recovered from the Caribbean-wide disease outbreak, and they are once more abundant in the Marine Management Areas. The presence of urchins is critical to the balance between coral and macroalgae (seaweeds), particularly in situations where fishing pressure targets species of fish that are also important for algal control (such as parrotfish and surgeonfish). Conserving urchin abundance and consideration of strategies to reduce fishing pressure on herbivorous fishes should be a high priority for management in order to minimise the risk of reefs being overgrown by macroalgae in the future. Based on observations from elsewhere in the Caribbean, lionfish are expected to become increasingly abundant in the Marine Management Areas over coming decades. This is likely to put additional pressure on native fish populations, many of which are prey for lionfish during their juvenile phases. The rate of increase in lionfish populations and their ecological impacts will be influenced by the abundance of larger predatory fish (groupers, moray eels, etc.), which are one of the few sources of natural control of this invasive species. Harvesting of lionfish by local fishers has also been encouraged in many locations in the Caribbean with the aim of retarding their rate of invasion. The full impact of lionfish on the Marine Management Areas over coming decades is difficult to predict, but effective management of nofishing reserves to facilitate return of large predatory fish in concert with culling of lionfish by divers and fishers would be expected to reduce the long-term risks from this invasive species.

The outlook for the businesses and communities that depend on the Marine Management Areas is mixed. The small-scale fisheries that depend on the productivity of habitats within the Marine Management Areas have seen the benefits of establishment of a marine management regime in the form of increased catch rates in the early years, and more reliable catches, at least for the trap fishery. However, there are now trends of reduced catches or reduced quality of catch as a result of increased fishing pressure and increased illegal fishing. This trend has most likely been exacerbated by the sustained decline in reef condition over the last two decades, reducing the suitability of the area to some species of fish. In the short term the adoption of new fishing technologies is expected to offset the impact of declining stocks on catch rates, although not completely and not in a sustainable way. Access to bigger and faster boats is likely to lead to a steady increase in the amount of fishing effort directed to offshore areas in pursuit of flying fish and oceanic pelagic species, which may reduce somewhat the pressure on coastal pelagic and reef species. Overall, changes in fishing practices are likely to have masked some of the impacts of declining fish stocks within the Marine Management Areas. However, the outlook for fishing in the Marine Management Areas and adjacent inshore areas over the longer term is considered to be poor unless measures are taken to address illegal fishing (especially in reserves) and improve reef resilience. It will also be important to closely monitor and adjust total fishing pressure to ensure it is within the limits of sustainability of fish stocks within the Marine Management Areas, given effectiveness of relevant management initiatives. The outlook for tourism is much more optimistic. While there are a number of issues that need to be addressed to ensure strong sustainability of this sector, recent trends of increasing visitation and income from tourism can be expected to continue. Tourism – including day visitation, use by local resort

OUTLOOK REPORT FOR THE PITONS AND SOUFRIERE MARINE MANAGEMENT AREAS

External drivers—Soufriere in 2034 The projections of major external drivers used for the management scenarios reflect trajectories based on historical trends and future predictions obtained from the scientific literature and expert informants.

Economic growth • Steady increase in GDP • Population growth remains steady • Unemployment steady • Fishing remains important for subsistence

Tourism • Tourism increases through day visits • Steady increase in yacht visitation • Tourism accommodation doubles

Agriculture • Perennials remain as major crop • Intensive livestock farming doubles

Climate change • Thermal stress causing regular coral bleaching in shallow areas • Coral calcification decreases • Increase in storm intensity

guests and yachting – has increased steadily since the establishment of the Marine Management Areas. The marine environment around Soufriere is likely to remain crucial natural infrastructure for the tourismdriven economy of St Lucia. However, the potential for the Marine Management Areas to support further increases in tourism activity (and associated revenue) will depend on the effectiveness of management efforts to control the pressures associated with these levels of use. To a large extent the impacts of direct tourism use and yacht-based visitation can and should be managed through basic site management practices. Yachting is already well managed, but day tourism on commercial operations requires additional effort to bring it up to the standards of practice that can ensure sustainability of use. While there appears to be recognition of the implications of current practices, there remains a need to implement necessary management responses if further and long-lasting degradation of the most valuable, shallow reef areas is to be avoided. Since establishment of the Marine Management Areas, management arrangements have made important contributions to protecting the resilience of coral reefs in the Marine Management Areas. However, management effectiveness has declined over the past twenty years and this has led to indications of an emerging trend toward significant and largely irreversible deterioration of the reef ecosystem. Ecosystem services, and the benefits they

provide to businesses and communities in St Lucia, will be put at risk unless the declining management capacity is addressed. In many ways the outlook for the Pitons and Soufriere marine management areas is similar to the trajectory of coral reefs around the world: accelerating pressures operating at the global and regional scale are combining with pressures from local activities to degrade reef condition and undermine reef resilience. However, St Lucia has an enviable opportunity to take actions that can meaningfully improve the outlook for its most important marine ecosystems, and thereby help secure the social and economic wellbeing for the people of St Lucia. Improving the scale, coordination and overall effectiveness of management responses to priority local pressures (see text box) will go a long way to improving the outlook for the important natural assets represented by the Marine Management Areas. While many of the key pressures are the result of activities that occur outside the jurisdiction of the Soufriere Marine Management Association and the Pitons Management Area, actions to build the resilience of coral reefs is in the national interest and should attract the support of all relevant government agencies, non-government organisations, industry sectors and civil society. The following section outlines alternative future management scenarios to highlight the benefits of a more holistic and integrated approach to management of the Pitons and Soufriere marine management areas.

OUTLOOK REPORT FOR THE PITONS AND SOUFRIERE MARINE MANAGEMENT AREAS

Improving the outlookâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;alternative management scenarios There is a range of management actions that can be taken to increase the resilience of coral reefs and to improve the community benefits derived from the Soufriere marine management areas. This final section outlines three alternative scenarios for management responses. It aims to facilitate discussions about management options and priorities for improving the outlook for the areas over the next twenty years.

SCENARIO 1â&#x20AC;&#x201D;BUSINESS AS USUAL

Management response Under this scenario, management is still selffunded through fee collection. The efficiency of fee collection has increased, enabling the SMMA to maintain 2014 levels of activity. However, the total amount of resourcing continues to limit management effectiveness. Compliance, education, community engagement and monitoring activities are maintained, but they are only partially effective and generally ad hoc in implementation. Key pressures, such as water quality and coastal development are recognised, but actions are limited by funding constraints and poor coordination.

Reef health Coral reefs retain some important habitat qualities through growth of sponges and sea fans, but the amount of hard corals has continued to decline, particularly on shallow fringing reefs. The reserve areas are effective at maintaining higher abundances of fish compared to areas outside reserves, but fish populations everywhere are affected by illegal fishing. Fish are generally smaller throughout the area, and predatory fish are almost absent, except for lionfish, which have become the dominant predator. Urchins are not protected, and are at risk of fishing pressure. If fishing of urchins occurs, urchin numbers will decline and reefs face increased risk of being overtaken by seaweeds as sea temperatures rise. Coral bleaching occurs with increasing frequency in shallow sites, leading to

coral death and an overall decline in coral cover. In high use sites, coral cover is reduced through increased disease.

Community benefits Fishing continues to be an important source of income and food for coastal communities, but individual catches are reduced and now comprise mostly lionfish and small algal grazers (parrotfish, surgeonfish, etc.). Tourism has grown significantly, but the industry has had to focus on deeper reefs in reserve areas due to deteriorating state of shallow reefs. Region-wide declines in reef health have meant that Soufriere is still considered a better dive tourism destination than many other Caribbean locations. However, continuing inputs of untreated sewage is causing increasing health issues for swimmers and snorkellers, and litter and discarded fishing gear have reduced the amenity of the reefs and beaches for visitors.

OUTLOOK REPORT FOR THE PITONS AND SOUFRIERE MARINE MANAGEMENT AREAS

SCENARIO 2—BOOSTING LOCAL MANAGEMENT

Management response

Community benefits

Under this scenario, local management activities have received a boost through an increase in user fees of 30 per cent. However, collection of fees remains the primary source of revenue for management of the Soufriere marine management areas. As a result of the modest increase in funding, SMMA has been able to increase compliance, and they have achieved substantial improvements in the effectiveness of education, community outreach and engagement programs. Resorts and tourism operators have taken on much stronger stewardship roles, adopting ‘house reefs’ and implementing best practices. Regular litter cleanups are occurring, and there has been a big decrease in discarded fishing gear. Urchins are protected from harvesting. Key pressures, such as water quality and coastal development are recognised, but actions are limited by funding constraints and inadequate coordination across government agencies.

Fish catches are better under this scenario compared to ‘business as usual’, but the lionfish and small algal grazers are increasingly becoming the mainstay of local fishers. Tourism has grown, and operators are using a combination of shallow and deeper reefs. Reefs are generally free of litter and discarded fishing gear. In combination this has led to Soufriere reefs being considered better than most other Caribbean sites. However, there continues to be human health issues for swimmers and snorkellers as a result of untreated sewage entering the marine management areas.

Reef health As under scenario 1, sponges and sea fans have become the major provider of habitat on the reefs, as hard corals have continued to decline overall under this scenario. However, there are positive signs of recovery of corals at shallow fringing reefs adopted by resorts. Coral bleaching occurs regularly in shallow areas whenever sea temperatures get unusually high. Coral disease is still a problem, but it has reduced in high use sites due to improved site management. Fish are generally small, with very few predatory fish other than lionfish. Urchin numbers have been maintained, helping to prevent overgrowth of the reefs by algae. Reserve areas are showing promise as refugia evident through an increase in the abundance and size of fish; there are also signs of adjacent fished areas getting spillover benefits from the fish reserves.

OUTLOOK REPORT FOR THE PITONS AND SOUFRIERE MARINE MANAGEMENT AREAS

SCENARIO 3â&#x20AC;&#x201D;COORDINATED AND COMPREHENSIVE MANAGEMENT

Management response

Community benefits

This scenario builds on the improvements that would be delivered under scenario 2, but adds some important additional elements. Through strong political support and extra funding for community engagement and adjustment strategies, illegal fishing is substantially reduced, fishers are using best practice methods, and total fishing effort in the marine management areas is reduced by 30 per cent. Government departments have coordinated efforts and invested appropriately to improve practices on land. Road stabilisation, better management of development activities, reduced forest clearing and more efficient use of chemicals in agriculture have significantly reduced the amounts of sediments and chemicals flowing into the marine management areas from the adjacent catchment. Soufriere town has a tertiary treatment sewage plant, and all resorts are treating sewage to tertiary standards.

There are fewer people fishing in the marine management area, but individual catch rates have improved and better quality fish are being sold through local markets. Tourism activity grows, spreading its footprint across a range of sites including shallow and deeper areas. The health and visual appeal of reefs accessible to tourists has increased due to reduced pressures from sediments and pollutants, and there are no amenity impacts from litter or discarded fishing gear. Water clarity has also improved inshore, and there is no health risk to swimmers or snorkellers from untreated sewage. As a result, Soufriere is considered one of the most desirable reef tourism destinations in the Caribbean.

Reef health While sea fans and sponges are still the major habitat provider, coral cover has been maintained, or even slightly improved, overall. Corals are being re-established at shallow fringing reef sites that have been adopted as â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;house reefsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; by resorts. Reserves house high abundances of fish and larger fish, including increasing numbers of predatory fish. Large predators such as groupers are showing signs of recovery inside reserves. Due to spillover effects and reduced fishing pressure overall, the size and abundance of fish has increased throughout the area. Lionfish are still present, but numbers have been reducing inside reserves. Urchin numbers have been maintained, preventing algal overgrowth of corals. While coral bleaching is still occurring in shallow reef areas whenever there is a hot water event, coral disease has significantly decreased due to much improved management of high use tourism sites.

The three broad management scenarios presented above are designed to illustrate the benefits and trade-offs of different levels of investment in management responses over coming years. These scenarios do not consider different trajectories for major external drivers such as climate change or economic development. However, they are built around a single set of realistic projections for economic growth, tourism, agriculture and climate change (see text box Page 42)). Inclusion of different driver trajectories in future scenario planning may allow managers to also prepare for a range of future conditions, even though the drivers themselves may not be amenable to direct intervention. More detailed scenario modelling can also inform future investment decisions, enabling policy makers and community leaders to compare the costs and benefits of various options and balance competing demands for limited resources. The fate of the Marine Management Areas is at a crossroads, and the people of St Lucia have an important opportunity to influence the outlook and ultimate fate of this spectacular and valuable natural resource.

OUTLOOK REPORT FOR THE PITONS AND SOUFRIERE MARINE MANAGEMENT AREAS

BIBLIOGRAPHY Albins, Mark A, and Mark A Hixon. “Worst case scenario: potential long-term effects of invasive predatory lionfish (Pterois volitans) on Atlantic and Caribbean coral-reef communities.” Environmental Biology of Fishes, 2011: DOI: 10.1007/s10641-011-9795-1. Barker, N H L, and C M Roberts. “Scuba diver behaviour and the management of diving impacts on coral reefs.” Biological Conservation, Volume 120, Issue 4, 2004: 481–489. Beeden, R, E Doyle, P E Kramer, M McField, and H A Oxenford. Rapid Reef Health Assessment Report St Lucia – Soufriere September 2013. Report prepared for the Australia–Caribbean Coral Reef Collaboration. Townsville: unpublished, 2013. Brautigam, A., and K. L. Eckert. Turning the Tide. Exploitation, Trade and Management of Marine Turtles in the Lesser Antilles, Central America, Columbia and Venezuela. Cambridge, UK: CITES Secretariat, 2006. Breen, Henry H. St Lucia Historical, Statistical and Descriptive. 291. London: Longman, Brown, Green and Longman, 1844. Caribbean EcoHealth Programme. Unpublished water quality sampling data collected by Caribbean EcoHealth Programme (CEHP). Soufriere: unpublished, 2010. Central Statistics Office. 2010 population and housing census preliminary report (updated April 2011). Castries: Government of St Lucia, 2011. d’Auvergne, C., and K. L. Eckert. WIDECAST Sea Turtle Recovery Action Plan for St. Lucia (Karen L. Eckert, Editor). Kingston, Jamaica: UNEP, 1993. De Beauville-Scott, S., Moore, P., Mortley, K. Baseline Biodiversity Study of the Marine Area Adjacent to Gros Piton and Petit Piton: Anse L’Ivrogne to Malgretoute - report to the Saint Lucia Heritage Committee. unpublished, 1999. Dow, W., K. Eckert, M. Palmer, and P. Kramer. An Atlas of Sea Turtle Nesting - WIDECAST Technical Report No. 6. Beaufort, North Carolina: The Wider Caribbean Sea Turtle Conservation Network and The Nature Conservancy, 2007. Ecoisle Consulting Inc. and Pieter de Jong, AICP. Final country report, legislative review and institutional capability assessment for hazard mitigation, St Lucia. The Caribbean Disaster Emergency Response Agency (CDERA), 2005. Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean. St Lucia Macro socio-economic and environmental assessment of the damages and losses caused by Hurricane Thomas: A geo-environment disaster, towards resilience. ECLAC, 2011. FORCE. Summary of St. Lucia Ecological Surveys July 2011. November 2011. http://www.ncl.ac.uk/marine/ research/science/ecology/reports/eu09_FORCE_reports_country_Final_StLucia_.pdf (accessed October 12, 2013). GBRMPA. Great Barrier Reef Outlook Report 2009. Townsville, Australia: Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority, 2009. George, Micah G. Invasion of the lionfish. 2011. http://www.thevoiceslu.com/let_and_op/2011/ november/05_11_11/Invasion.htm (accessed February 28, 2014). George, S. A review of the creation, implementation and initial operation of the Soufriere Marine Management Area. 1996. GESAMP. Protecting the oceans from land-based activities — Land-based sources and activities affecting the quality and uses of the marine, coastal and associated freshwater environment. United Nations Environment Programme, 2001. Gooch, Margaret, and Roberto Pott. Prototype for the social and economic dimensions of a rapid assessment monitoring ‘multi tool’: Soufriere, St Lucia, September 9-13, 2013. Townsville, Australia: unpublished report to the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority, 2013.

OUTLOOK REPORT FOR THE PITONS AND SOUFRIERE MARINE MANAGEMENT AREAS

Goodridge, R, H A Oxenford, B G Hatcher, and F Narcisse. “Changes in the Shallow Reef Fishery Associated With Implementation of a System of Fishing Priority and Marine Reserve Areas in Soufriere, St Lucia.” Proceedings of the 49th Gulf and Caribbean Fisheries Institute. Fort Pierce, FL: Gulf and Caribbean Fisheries Institute, 1997. 316-339. Government of Saint Lucia. State of the Environment Report (draft). Castries: Ministry of Physical Planning, 2005. Government of Saint Lucia. Draft Strategic Plan of the Department of Fisheries. Castries: Government of Saint Lucia, 2008. Government of Saint Lucia. Saint Lucia’s 4th National Report on Biological Diversity. 2009. http://www.cbd.int/ doc/world/lc/lc-nr-04-en.pdf (accessed November 14, 2013). Government of Saint Lucia. Saint Lucia’s First National Communication on Climate Change — In Response To Its Commitments Under The United Nations Framework Convention On Climate Change. Castries, Saint Lucia: Government of Saint Lucia, undated. Haffey, D. A Systems Plan for Protected Areas in Saint Lucia. 2009. Hawkins, J P, and C M Roberts. “Effects of fishing on sex-changing Caribbean parrotfishes.” Biological Conservation 115, 2003: 213–226. Hawkins, J P, C M Roberts, C Dytham, C Scheltenc, and M M Nugues. “Effects of habitat characteristics and sedimentation.” Biological Conservation 127, 2006: 487-499. Hockings, M., S. Stolton, F. Levrington, N. Dudley, and J. Courrau. Evaluating effectiveness: a framework for assessing management effectiveness of protected areas. Gland, Switzerland: IUCN, 2006. Hyder Consulting (UK) Limited. Pitons Management Area and Soufriere Region Integrated Development Plan. Castries, Saint Lucia: Ministry of Physical Development, Housing, Urban Renewal and Local Government, Saint Lucia, 2008. Jules, Sharman. Sustainable Tourism in St. Lucia: A Sustainability Assessment of Trade and Liberalization in Tourism-services. Winnipeg, Canada: International Institute for Sustainable Development, 2005. Kacyzmarsky, Longin T, Mathew Draud, and Ernest H Williams. “Is There a Relationship between Proximity to Sewage Effluent and the Prevalence of Coral Disease?” Caribbean Journal of Science 41, 2005: 124-137. Margot, Thomas. From Slavery to Freedom: Some aspects of the impact of slavery on St Lucia. 36. Saint Lucia National Commission for UNESCO, 2006. Markey, Kathryn M, Andrew H Baird, Craig Humphrey, and Andrew P Negri. “Insecticides and a fungicide affect multiple coral life stages.” Marine Ecology Progress Series 330, 2007: 127-137. Ministry of Physical Development. Capacity Building and Mainstreaming of Sustainable Land Management Project in Saint Lucia: Report on Sustainable Land Management Capacity Assessment in Saint Lucia. Prepared by Agrico Ltd, Ministry of Physical Development, 2011. Mumby, P J, A J Steneck, R Ferrari, R Coleman, A R Harbone, and J P Gibson. “Fishing down a Caribbean food web relaxes trophic cascades.” Marine Ecology Progress Series 445, 2012: 13-24. Mumby, P J, A R Harborne, and D R Brumbaugh. “Grouper as a natural biocontrol of invasive lionfish.” PloS One 6(6), 2011: e21510. DOI:10.1371/journal.pone.0021510. My Saint Lucia. My Saint Lucia Whales and Dolphins. no date. http://www.mystlucia.org/info_htm/whale_ stlucia.htm (accessed November 20, 2013). Nowlis, J.S., C.M. Roberts, A.H. Smith, and E. Siirila. “Human-enhanced impacts of a tropical storm on coral reefs.” Ambio vol. 26, 1997: 515-521. Nugues, M. “Impact of a coral disease outbreak on coral communities in St. Lucia: What and how much has been lost?” Marine Ecology Progress Series, 2002: 61-71. OECS. St George’s Declaration of Principles for Environmental Sustainability in the OECS. Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States, 2006. Pierre, Dawn D. Adjusting to a new way of life — marine management areas and fishers. no date. http://www. cbd.int/doc/case-studies/inc/cs-inc-lc-02-en.pdf (accessed December 10, 2013). Pierre-Nathoniel, Dawn. Towards the strengthening of the association: The case of the Soufriere Marine Management Area, Saint Lucia. Prepared for the Second International Tropical Marine Ecosystems Management Symposium, Manila, Philippines, 2003. ReefFix. Saint Lucia ReefFix Exercise: Economic Valuation of Goods and Services Derived from Reefs in the Soufriere Marine Management Area (SMMA), Saint Lucia. Organization of American States, Inter-American Biodiversity Information Network (IABIN), 2010. Roberts, C M; Barker, N H. L; Clarke, A J; Gell, F R.G.; Hawkins, J P; Nugues, M M; Schelten, C K. Policy and Management brief 2: Value of the Soufriere reef fishery. Report to the Natural Resources Management Programme, project R7668. York, UK: Environment Department, University of York and London: MRAG Ltd., 2003.

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Roberts, C., and C Mees. Impact and amelioration of sediments and agro-chemical pollution in Caribbean coastal waters. UK: unpublished report to the Department of International Development, Natural Resources Systems Programme, 2003. Roberts, C.M.; Barker, N.L.H.; Clarke, A.J.; Gell, F.R.G.; Hawkins, J.P.; Nugues, M.M.; Schelten, C.K. Policy and management brief 2: Value of the Soufriere reef fishery. Annex A2, Appendix 2, of the Final Technical Report of project R7668. York, UK: unpublished Natural Resources Systems Programme report, 2003. Roberts, H H. “Coral reefs of St. Lucia. West Indies.” Caribbean Journal of Science, Dec 1972, 1972: 179-190. Smith, A.F., C.S. Rogers, and C. Bouchon. “Status Of Western Atlantic Coral Reefs In The Lesser Antilles.” Proceedings of the 8th International Coral Reef Syrnposium 1. Panama: Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, 1997. 351-356. Smith-Warner International. Environmental Impact Assessment: Gros Islet and Soufriere Hurricane Lenny Recovery in the Caribbean. Smith Warner International, 2001. Soufriere Marine Management Association. Context. no date. http://www.smma.org.lc/index. php?title=Context&page=context (accessed November 14, 2013). Soufriere Marine Management Association. Yachting. no date. http://www.smma.org.lc/index. php?title=Yachting&page=yachting (accessed February 28, 2014). Soufriere Regional Development Foundation. Economy of Soufriere. no date. http://soufrierefoundation.org/ about-soufriere/economy (accessed February 28, 2014). Sutherland, D. Whaling in the Caribbean. 2001. http://www.earthisland.org/journal/index.php/eij/article/ whaling_in_the_caribbean/ (accessed November 20, 2013). Sutherland, K.P., S. Shaban, J.L. Joyner, J.W Porter, and E.K. Lipp. “Human Pathogen Shown to Cause Disease in the Threatened Elkhorn Coral Acropora palmata.” PLoS ONE 6(8): 2011. The Landmark Practices. Limits of Acceptable Change Study for the Pitons Management Area World Heritage Site. Draft Report, Ministry of Sustainable Development, Energy, Science and Technology (for GOSL), 2013. UNEP/IUCN. Coral Reefs of the World. Volume 1: Atlantic and Eastern Pacific. Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge UK/UNEP, Nairobi, Kenya: IUCN, 1988. UNESCO, CLT, WHC. Pitons Management Area. no date. http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1161/ (accessed November 14, 2013). United Nations. Report of the Global Conference on the Sustainable Development of Small Island Developing States Bridgetown, Barbados, 26 April-6 May 1994. New York: United Nations, 1994. Valles, H., S. Sponaugle, and H.A. Oxenford. “Larval supply to a marine reserve and adjacent fished area.” Journal of Fish Biology 59 (Supplement A), 2001: 152-177. van Hooidonk, R, J A Maynard, D Manzello, and S Planes. “Opposite latitudinal gradients in projected ocean acidiﬁcation and bleaching impacts on coral reefs.” Global Change Biology, 2014: 103–112. Wells, Susan M. Coral Reefs of the World Vol. 1 Atlantic and Eastern Pacific. Cambridge, UK: IUCN Conservation Monitoring Centre, UNEP and IUCN, 1988. Wilkinson, Clive, and David Souter. Staus of Caribbean coral reefs after bleaching and hurricanes in 2005. Townsville, Australia: Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network, and Reef and Rainforest Research Centre, 2008. World Travel and Tourism Coucil. Travel and tourism economic impact 2013 St Lucia. London: World Travel and Tourism Council, 2013.

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Appendix 1 ANALYSIS OF REEF CHECK SURVEY DATA 1999 TO 2010 FOR THE PITONS AND SOUFRIERE MARINE MANAGEMENT AREAS Notes: depth range of data is stated in title. No depth in title means data are combined across depths. Note also that some average/total plots can look like there might be trends, but this is more than likely an artifact of a shift in the location of some of the sites surveyed mid-way through the time series.

Long spined urchin (Diadema) 600

1999 2000 2001 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010

Abundance

500 400 300 200 100 0

Anse Chastanet Reef

Coral Gardens

Rachette Point

Superman’s Flight

Turtle Reef

AVERAGE

TOTAL

Target finfish (Combined) 140

1999 2000 2001 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010

120

Abundance

100 80 60 40 20 0

Anse Chastanet Reef

Coral Gardens

Rachette Point

Superman’s Flight

Turtle Reef

AVERAGE

TOTAL

OUTLOOK REPORT FOR THE PITONS AND SOUFRIERE MARINE MANAGEMENT AREAS

Grouper (Serranidae) 2-5m 3.5

1999 2000 2001 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010

3.0

Abundance

2.5 2.0 1.5 1.0 0.5 0

Anse Chastanet Reef

Coral Gardens

Rachette Point

Superman’s Flight

Turtle Reef

AVERAGE

TOTAL

Grouper (Serranidae) 10m 10

1999 2000 2001 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010

Abundance

8 6 4 2 0

Anse Chastanet Reef

Coral Gardens

Rachette Point

Superman’s Flight

Turtle Reef

AVERAGE

TOTAL

Grouper (Serranidae) 12

1999 2000 2001 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010

Abundance

10 8 6 4 2 0

Anse Chastanet Reef

Coral Gardens

Rachette Point

Superman’s Flight

Turtle Reef

OUTLOOK REPORT FOR THE PITONS AND SOUFRIERE MARINE MANAGEMENT AREAS

AVERAGE

TOTAL

Grunts (Haemulidae) 2-5m 16

1999 2000 2001 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010

Abundance

12 10 8 6 4 2 0

Anse Chastanet Reef

Coral Gardens

Rachette Point

Superman’s Flight

Turtle Reef

AVERAGE

TOTAL

Grunts (Haemulidae) 10m 35

1999 2000 2001 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010

Abundance

25 20 15 10 5 0

Anse Chastanet Reef

Coral Gardens

Rachette Point

Superman’s Flight

Turtle Reef

AVERAGE

TOTAL

Grunts (Haemulidae) 45

1999 2000 2001 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010

Abundance

35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0

Anse Chastanet Reef

Coral Gardens

Rachette Point

Superman’s Flight

Turtle Reef

AVERAGE

TOTAL

OUTLOOK REPORT FOR THE PITONS AND SOUFRIERE MARINE MANAGEMENT AREAS

III

Parrotfish (Scaridae) 2-5m 30

1999 2000 2001 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010

Abundance

25 20 15 10 5 0

Anse Chastanet Reef

Coral Gardens

Rachette Point

Superman’s Flight

Turtle Reef

AVERAGE

TOTAL

Parrotfish (Scaridae) 10m 40

1999 2000 2001 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010

Abundance

30 25 20 15 10 5 0

Anse Chastanet Reef

Coral Gardens

Rachette Point

Superman’s Flight

Turtle Reef

AVERAGE

TOTAL

Parrotfish (Scaridae) 60

1999 2000 2001 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010

Abundance

50 40 30 20 10 0

Anse Chastanet Reef

Coral Gardens

Rachette Point

Superman’s Flight

Turtle Reef

OUTLOOK REPORT FOR THE PITONS AND SOUFRIERE MARINE MANAGEMENT AREAS

AVERAGE

TOTAL

Snapper (Lutjanidae) 2-5m 7

1999 2000 2001 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010

Abundance

5 4 3 2 1 0

Anse Chastanet Reef

Coral Gardens

Rachette Point

Superman’s Flight

Turtle Reef

AVERAGE

TOTAL

Snapper (Lutjanidae) 10m 50

1999 2000 2001 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010

Abundance

40 30 20 10 0

Anse Chastanet Reef

Coral Gardens

Rachette Point

Superman’s Flight

Turtle Reef

AVERAGE

TOTAL

Snapper (Lutjanidae) 60

1999 2000 2001 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010

Abundance

50 40 30 20 10 0

Anse Chastanet Reef

Coral Gardens

Rachette Point

Superman’s Flight

Turtle Reef

AVERAGE

TOTAL

OUTLOOK REPORT FOR THE PITONS AND SOUFRIERE MARINE MANAGEMENT AREAS

Hard coral cover 2-5m 0.40

1999 2000 2001 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010

Benthic cover (proportion)

0.35 0.30 0.25 0.20 0.15 0.10 0.05 0

Anse Chastanet Reef

Coral Gardens

Rachette Point

Superman’s Flight

Turtle Reef

AVERAGE

Hard coral cover 10m

Benthic cover (proportion)

0.6

1999 2000 2001 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010

0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0

Anse Chastanet Reef

Coral Gardens

Rachette Point

Superman’s Flight

Turtle Reef

AVERAGE

Hard coral cover

Benthic cover (proportion)

0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0

1999 2000 2001 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010

Anse Chastanet Reef

Coral Gardens

Rachette Point

Superman’s Flight

OUTLOOK REPORT FOR THE PITONS AND SOUFRIERE MARINE MANAGEMENT AREAS

Turtle Reef

AVERAGE

Algae (nitrogen indicators)

Benthic cover (proportion)

0.6

2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010

0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0

Anse Chastanet Reef

Coral Gardens

Rachette Point

Superman’s Flight

Turtle Reef

AVERAGE

Soft corals 0.14

1999 2000 2001 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010

Benthic cover (proportion)

0.12 0.10 0.08 0.06 0.04 0.02 0

Anse Chastanet Reef

Coral Gardens

Rachette Point

Superman’s Flight

Turtle Reef

AVERAGE

Sponges

Benthic cover (proportion)

0.30

1999 2000 2001 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010

0.25 0.20 0.15 0.10 0.05 0

Anse Chastanet Reef

Coral Gardens

Rachette Point

Superman’s Flight

Turtle Reef

AVERAGE

OUTLOOK REPORT FOR THE PITONS AND SOUFRIERE MARINE MANAGEMENT AREAS

VII

Appendix 2 HISTORICAL DESCRIPTION OF SOUFRIERE CORAL REEFS

ver most of the area, the 60 m bathymetric contour lies within 200 m of the coast. In certain areas, for example off Petit Piton, the seabed profile is very steep, often with substantial cliff faces. There are several sea level caves at Grand Caille Point. Anse Chastanet Bay has a rather unusual seabed topography, perhaps due to the hydrodynamic regime created by Grand Caille Point. Although the shallow sandy plateau extends some 100–150 m from the beach at Anse Chastanet, there is a large, amphitheatre-like pit at the southern comer of the bay, which comes to within 30 m of the shore and cliff. Anse Chastanet is subject to heavy wave swells on occasion. Reef structure and coral reefs extend north to 300 m beyond Grand Caille Point, but as far as Bonhomme Point, they are only found in localised small patches associated with shallow nearshore rock outcrops. To the south, reefs extend to the northern end of Soufriere Bay and then start again just to the north of Petit Piton, and extend around the Piton as far as Jalousie Beach and Anse L’lvrogne. There is no reef development directly out from Jalousie Beach. Smaller scattered patches of reef are found below the Gros Piton and extend along the coast to Gros Piton Point. The extent of reefs in this section of coast is as follows: Anse Chastanet (Turtle Reef ) Soufrifere: 2.3 km; Petit Piton Reef: 2.0 km; Gros Piton Reef: 2.8 km (reef extending to depths of 30 m). A shallow plateau, usually not exceeding 10 m in depth, extends along much of the coast, varying in width from 150 m at Anse Chastanet Bay to 10–20 m at the Petit Piton. There is usually a distinct reef edge with characteristic coral species, beyond which the slope steepens. From Grand Caille Point to Rachette Point, especially at Rachette Point, large blocks of rock lie on the plateau as a result of cliff erosion, and lead to an increased species diversity in this area. The plateau around Petit Piton is narrow and the drop-offs relatively steep probably due to periodic landslides from the steep slopes of the mountain. At Grand Caille Point there is a distinct “upwelling” effect due to strengthening of the water current as it moves over the submerged seaward extension of the point which is at a right angle to the current. This results in a particularly interesting and diverse assemblage of corals and sponge species and to large shoals of bait and predatory fish which are unrivalled in abundance on this section of coast. Coral reefs flank the northern and southern seaward boundaries of the amphitheatre-like pit in the Anse Chastanet Bay. The central (eastern) slope of the pit is predominantly sandy with small patches of coral and sponge and extends to 50 m. The bay has been mapped by Clifton and Clifton (1984). There is a luxuriant patch reef on the southern border of the bay on a steep slope which drops to more than 40 m within 200 m of the shore. Coral growth is reported to at least 40 m depth. There is a characteristic zonation of corals associated with the shallow plateau, reef edge and reef slope. Although there are some similarities with the zonation described by Roberts (1972) for Anse Gallete, there are also major differences, notably the absence of any well-developed Acropora palmata or A. cervicornis zones. In the 0–5 m depth range, the Millepora (a flat encrusting species) and M. squarrosa and Gorgonia zones (Roberts, 1972) are present; Pontes pontetes is often dominant. A. palmata was recorded as individual colonies at several sites, and young solitary colonies were present in Anse Chastanet Bay.

VIII

OUTLOOK REPORT FOR THE PITONS AND SOUFRIERE MARINE MANAGEMENT AREAS

Bedrock, large boulders and block slabs interspersed with sandy areas characterise the shallow plateau and a wide variety of other coral species commonly occur overlying the rock (i.e. not forming reef as such) including P. astreoides, Montastraea annularis, Meandrina meandrites, Dichocoenia stokesi, Stephanocoenia michelini, Diploria strigosa, Siderastrea radians, S. siderea and Colpophyllia natans. There are also a few isolated large colonies of the pillar coral, Dendrogyra cylindricus. It would appear that it is only at the reef edge (8â&#x20AC;&#x201C;11 m) that any thickness of coral occurs and there is a notable shallowing of the reef edge at some sites. The principal reef edge species include P. pontes, Montastraea annularis, Madracis mirabilis and P. astreoides. M. annularis colonies often grow in a columnar form of up to 2 m in length, the spaces between the heads being filled characteristically by the grey zoanthid Palythoa caribbea. The reef slope varies in steepness and many of the species already mentioned figure prominently. There are varying degrees of coral cover with some of the shallower slopes having a markedly lower cover of corals (less than 50 per cent) than the steeper slopes. Species which are found mainly on the reef slopes include A. cervicornis (rare to occasional), Agaricia sp. (probably A. agaricites which is particularly dominant in the vicinity of Anse Chastanet but was not recorded elsewhere as abundantly at 20â&#x20AC;&#x201C;40 m), Helioseris cucullata, Madracis mirabilis, Montastraea cavernosa, Mussa angulosa, Scolymia lacera, Mycetophyllia spp., Eusmilia fastigiata, and Isophyllia spp. Some 40 species of coral (including Millepores) have been recorded from the south-east and west coasts of St. Lucia (Clifton and Clifton, 1984; Goodwin, 1984; Price, 1982; Roberts, 1972), and virtually all the species mentioned occur within the section of coast described here. An extremely diverse and visually dominant assemblage of sponges are found here often dominating large sections of the reef. The massive sponge Xestospongia muta is extremely common and is often more visually dominant than coral in all reef zones, apparently acting as a nucleus around which other species, including corals, settle. The large sea fan Iciligorgia schrammi is very common on the reef slopes especially on block walls and cliffs where tidal streams are stronger. Clifton and Clifton (1984) completed a species listing from Anse Chastanet Bay of all the larger flora and fauna; their fish list for the bay (149 species) illustrates the richness of this small area. There is a large colony of garden eels Nystactichthys halis on the sandy slopes of the pit in Anse Chastanet Bay. The upwelling area off Grand Caille Point is rich in bait species, Chromis spp., Creole wrasse, sergeant majors, boga herring, and a variety of silversides, and predatory species like king fish, bar jacks, black jacks and snappers. Turtles are often seen on the aptly named Turtle Reef; green turtles Chelonia mydas and hawksbill turtles Eretmochelys imbricata nest on the beach at Anse Chastanet (Bacon, et al. 1984). Dr. R. Earll in Wells (1988)

OUTLOOK REPORT FOR THE PITONS AND SOUFRIERE MARINE MANAGEMENT AREAS

Appendix 3 INFORMATION USED TO ASSESS MANAGEMENT RESPONSES TO PRESSURE AREAS IN PITON AND SOUFRIERE MARINE MANAGEMENT AREAS Item No. Pressure Area Development

Issue National Development Planning

Policy Response The Appropriations Bill/Budget Statement 2012– 2013 commits to starting the process to create the institutional framework to guide the development of high growth segments of the tourism industry and modernising the legislative framework for tourism: first and second priority job creation and construction stimulus. Budget 2012–2013 speaks to the development of a National Development Plan that will serve as a national blueprint as part of a strategy to achieve sustainable economic growth, providing a comprehensive development road map and agenda for the country for the next 30 years and provide strategic guidance plans that are to be developed and integrated, for example a Public Sector Investment Plan (PSIP), a National Investment Strategy, a National Physical Plan and local area plans. The Draft Medium Term Development Strategy Paper (MTDSP) is a five year medium term development and strategic plan for the Government of Saint Lucia. The MTDSP is guided by a broad vision, goals and targets and an action plan. The vision includes inter alia addressing topics such as: stabilisation and the macro-economy, diversification of the productive sectors, through private sector development, poverty reduction, environmental sustainability and human development. It seeks to promote optimal usage and stewardship of land and environmental resources supporting the social and economic needs of the population. It also seeks to address the haphazard development of land, resulting from the absence of a plan framework, poor planning enforcement and squatting, has led to inefficient and degraded settlements that are difficult to regularise. The Economic Affairs Department within the Ministry of Finance is responsible for overseeing the implementation of the MTDSP. The document is still in draft as it has not yet been endorsed by the Cabinet of Ministers. The National Development Plan is expected to review the country’s economic and macroeconomic development and provide a blueprint

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Item No. Pressure Area Development

Issue

Policy Response

National Development Planning

for national development. This will look at inter alia, issues of: environmental sustainability and management, progressive settlement development, physical and infrastructural development and land use planning and management. A consultant from the Commonwealth Fund for Technical Cooperation (CFTC) has been contracted to prepare the National Development Plan and the process is ongoing. The aim of the National Vision Plan was to serve as a blueprint for development in Saint Lucia. Also, the Plan was supposed to be used to attract investment to fund the various initiatives that have been outlined in it. These initiatives include: (i) Community development initiatives that include residential development plans for Fond Cacao. (ii) Tourism initiatives that included the creation of a berth to accommodate small scale cruise vessels. (iii) Initiatives for surrounding communities based on needs assessments. In sum, as the document is essentially a broad vision, elements of it have been used to develop the MTDSP and in the ongoing preparation of the National Development Plan1. The NVP proposes development in the Soufriere region with a sensitive approach in order to preserve historic sites and nature reserves, assets that are both culturally significant and crucial in maintaining attractions for the growing tourism industry. It seeks to address issues of tourist traffic, water and sewerage issues, lack of adequate facilities for the local population, relocation of squatter housing area and the fact that the PMA is under pressure for development. It therefore proposes exploring the expansion of the boutique tourism development, but in keeping with existing elements of heritage and eco-tourism. It also recognises the need for increased residential development, but maintains that the focus in the area must be on low density expansion. Although there is no clear decision on the future of the Vision Plan, the National Reconstruction Unit that was set up for the implementation of the Vision Plan still exists and was key in the implementation of Post Hurricane Tomas reconstruction initiatives. The objects and purposes of the Physical Planning Act (2005) are to: • Ensure the appropriate and sustainable use of all publicly-owned and privately-owned land in St. Lucia is in the public interest. • Maintain and improve the quality of the physical environment in St. Lucia, including its amenity. • Provide for the orderly sub-division of land and the provision of infrastructure and services. • Maintain and improve the standard of building construction so as to secure human health and safety. 1 Personal communication with the staff of the Economic Planning and National Development Units.

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Item No. Pressure Area Development

Issue National Development Planning

Policy Response • Protect and conserve the natural and cultural heritage of St. Lucia. • More specifically the Act speaks to: • Authorising works within the protected area that is for the protection or rehabilitation of the environment in the area. • Requiring that environmental impact assessments be carried out for every application for development within the area. • Restricting or prohibiting development, or development of any class, within the area. • Providing controls over the use of land within the area for the purposes of agriculture, forestry or fisheries; or restrict the entry of persons into the area or the movement of persons or the carrying out of activities by persons within the area. EC Country Strategy Paper 2008–2013 (10th EDF) provides a framework for EU assistance programmes in St. Lucia under the 10th EDF. The EC programme is a coordinated agenda of strategic interventions to improve medium-term growth and investment prospects so as to expand and diversify employment opportunities and sustainable income generation. Relevant indicators of achievement of policy reforms involved progress of measures to ensure rights of women, children and other disadvantaged groups are taken into consideration and that the environment is adequately protected. Multilateral Environment Agreements (MEAs) and other applicable agreements including Convention on Biodiversity (CBD), United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (land degradation) – UNCCD, United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCC), Cartegena Protocol, International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL) 73/78 for Management of Shipborne Waste, United Nations Convention on Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) and Basel Conventions have also been enshrined in law or related national policies and strategies to promote sustainable development.

Marine/Reefal

Ecosystem condition/ Endangered Species

The Second National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan (2nd NBSAP) has as a vision “Biodiversity management is an integral part of the overall framework of environmental management, for ensuring sustainable social, cultural and economic development in St. Lucia; and that there is collective responsibility for, and sharing in the benefits derived from the conservation and sustainable use of biological resources.” It identifies in particular conversion of agricultural lands, loss of forests and soil erosion among the root causes for some of the threats to biodiversity. One of the key strategies proposed for effective biodiversity management is the mainstreaming of biodiversity issues into sectoral and development policies, plans and regulations through the integration of environmental management concepts, the incorporation of risk mitigation strategies and the integration of emerging issues of climate change

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Item No. Pressure Area

Issue

Policy Response and variability, invasive alien species, and water and air pollution into development and sector policies. The 2nd NBSAP is currently undergoing revision.

Fish and Fisheries

The Caribbean Community Common Fisheries Policy (CFP) highlights the need for effective cooperation and collaboration in sustainable utilisation of Caribbean fisheries resources and related ecosystems and the establishment of appropriate measures for their conservation, management, sustainable utilisation and development. Related to this Policy are objectives including the importance of sustainable development, the improved welfare and livelihoods of fishers and fishing communities; eliminating illegal, unreported and unregulated (IUU) fishing, building institutional capabilities and integrating environmental, coastal and marine management considerations into fisheries policy and to mitigate the impacts of climate change and natural disasters. Key factors are the use of fishersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; traditional knowledge in the fishery and habitat management and a precautionary approach with fishing effort not exceeding sustainable potential. Also important is stakeholder participation in the decision making process, good governance, accountability and transparency. St. Lucia National Fisheries Plan (2013) seeks to respond to the challenge of ensuring the sustainable use of its natural resources in the context of ecosystem protection and support of the long-term interests of fishery dependent people through the development of actions that maximise sustainable economic, financial and social benefits. The Plan comprises a National Fisheries Policy and National Fisheries Strategy. The policy goal speaks to fostering medium- to longterm economic prosperity in the fisheries sector through the promotion of sustainable fisheries and effective fishing techniques to enhance profitability for the fishers while preserving the economic value of the resource. The Strategy focuses on the measures for conservation and sustainable utilisation of the countryâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s fishery resources which will in the long term deliver recognisable benefits to the people of St. Lucia and future generations. The Fisheries Management Plan (FMP) of 2006 encompasses both conservation and development issues and identifies a number of options, in terms of actions for the management of various fisheries. Its goals and objectives are consistent with enhancing the social and economic welfare of fishers and their families as well as improving the nutrition of the nation.

Tourism Activities

The OECS Common Tourism Policy (2011) seeks to promote the development of a tourism industry that is viable, internationally competitive, resilient and sustainable via collaboration and synergies whilst improving the quality of life of its citizens. Two of the key targets are value added through synergy

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Item No. Pressure Area Marine/Reefal

Issue Tourism Activities

Policy Response and the development of a sustainable framework for self-sufficiency, and a priority agenda for environmental and cultural sustainability. The Policy calls for the development of an OECS sustainability strategy/programme that aims to protect valuable tourism assets, improve resilience and resources efficiency, and that supports the priorities of the OECS Common Tourism Policy. The Preliminary Strategy and Best Practices (2013) for the St. Lucia Tourism sector promotes a Sustainable Tourism development agenda which ensures economic feasibility for host communities, socio-cultural equity, ecological quality and tourist satisfaction. One of the key tenets is to “make optimal use of environmental resources that constitute a key element in tourism development, maintaining essential ecological processes and helping to conserve natural resources and biodiversity”. The Preliminary Strategy further speaks to the development of a sustainable funding structure for the collection and allocation of funds for tourism development and enhancement. The earlier St. Lucia Tourism Strategy and Action Plan (2005) provided a road map for the way forward for tourism in St. Lucia that ensures the achievement of sustainable economic development and is consistent with tourism development in the Caribbean and OECS sub-region. • Endorse and implement a comprehensive tourism strategy for the tourism sector. • Develop and promote physical plans for tourism development areas which help to drive investment promotion, infrastructure development, air access etc. The Action Plan makes specific recommendations for the Ministry of Tourism to establish a small but high calibre special management unit charged with the responsibility of implementing key components of the Tourism Strategy and Action Plan. Community level initiatives include: the establishment of a fund to be financed by tourism private sector interests that will be matched by government. The Plan requires that the Ministry responsible for physical planning prepare a physical plan for tourism development aimed at assisting and encouraging investor confidence. The National Eco-tourism Strategy (NETS) regards eco-tourism as a viable subsector of the national economy as a strategic planning and development tool for the success of a sustainable tourism agenda. The strategic objectives for eco-tourism planning and development outlined in the NETS with anticipated results over a 10-year period are: a. Conservation and Preservation of Natural and Cultural Heritage b. Eco-tourism Business Development c. Community Development d. National Policy, Management and Administration of the Strategy

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Item No. Pressure Area Marine/Reefal

Issue

Policy Response

Tourism Activities

The NETS calls for the development of Protected Area Management Plans (PAMP) corresponding to modern nature conservation concepts and Cultural Heritage Conservation Plans (CHCP), to create the necessary conditions for the development of Eco-tourism and its links with Cultural Tourism. It further seeks to develop a private voluntary system for Eco-tourism Product Certification in accordance with global and international certification programmes/ schemes. It also seeks to analyse and improve financial arrangements to support protected area conservation and eco-tourism development. The nation, including the use of the existing National Trust Eco Fund and Protected Areas Fund, to channel state and donor funds. The draft Cultural Tourism Development Strategy identifies cultural heritage preservation as an important part of cultural tourism. The cooperation between eco-tourism and cultural tourism is expected to create the type of synergies to attain the necessary integrated approach of conserving and preserving biodiversity, complemented by the St. Lucian people and their history, traditions, practices, and cultural monuments.

Yachting

Yachting Sector Development Studyâ&#x20AC;&#x201D; Strategic Plan seeks to establish a yachting sector that meets the needs of various niches, offering quality service in a secure and sustainable environment, providing maximum economic benefits to the local population. Issues to be addressed, inter alia include sustainable growth in the yachting sector while protecting key natural resources; infrastructure with appropriate monitoring and enforcement mechanisms to ensure that the development of the yachting sector does not result in environmental degradation; managing user conflicts; environmental protection - revision and implementation of the proposed Marine Pollution Management Act; development of environmentally friendly standards or best management practices for marinas, boatyards and anchorages; investigation of the possibility of having St. Lucian businesses participate in the Blue Flag Program; monitoring of water quality in the ports; and ensuring that marinas have appropriate waste disposal systems in place. Yachting Sector Legislative and Regulatory Reform establishes a legislative framework that will affect the institutionalisation of the management of the yachting sector in St. Lucia into a restructured, responsive industry agency focusing on policy, planning, standards, and the monitoring of a decentralised service delivery system.

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Item No. Pressure Area Reserve Management

Issue Protected Areas (PMA IDP defines Policy Areas that divide the entire PMA into zones, and indicates the areas where various types of developments may be permitted, as well as areas where there should be absolutely no developments.)

Policy Response The Pitons Management Area (PMA) established in 2002 under the Planning and Development Act (2001) is a 2909 acre site near Soufriere including Pitons, link of Piton Mitan ridge, Sulphur Springs and marine area with coral reefs. PMA and Soufriere Region Integrated Development Plan identifies issues and components of Integrated Development Plan (IDP) for the Soufriere region1. The Guidelines defined in the IDP for the PMA, also known as the Hyder Report2, have been accepted by GOSL. Policy scenarios are presented, that are evaluated against environment, local economy, local interests, community interests and, importantly, the risk to World Heritage status and shows that a balanced approach to development and conservation is the best approach for achieving objectives and conforming to the ‘limits of acceptable change’ 3. GOSL established a management regime that involved the management of the marine and terrestrial areas within the site, particularly those of greatest importance: The Soufriere Marine Management Association has responsibility for the SMMA and the Piton Management Area Advisory Committee has responsibility for the PMA. Further advancement of the PMA – IDP is to be supported by the Limits of Acceptable Change (LAC) Study (2013) undertaken in 2013, in response to the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization’s threats to categorise the PMA as endangered. The Agreement to Manage the Soufriere Marine Management Area (SMMA) has as its mission to contribute to national and local development, particularly in the fisheries and tourism sectors, through the management of the coastal zone of Soufriere, based on the principles of sustainable use, cooperation among resource users, institutional collaboration, active and enlightened local participation, and equitable sharing of benefits and responsibilities among stakeholders. This agreement was established as the guide to the management of the SMMA as an appropriate institutional arrangement for the management of marine and coastal resources in the Soufriere region, and as the mechanism to govern the relationship among the governmental and non-governmental organisations involved. This agreement is still in use and the management of the SMMA is guided by its principles.

1 Ministry of Physical Development, Housing, Urban Renewal and Local Government. (2008). Pitons Management Area and Soufriere Region Integrated Development Plan. <http://www.slunatruSt.org/assets/ content/documents/Hyder_Report_PMA.pdf> 2 ibid. 3 ibid.

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Item No. Pressure Area Reserve Management

Issue

Policy Response

Protected Areas

The revised Systems Plan for Protected Areas (SPPA 2)4 is being driven by the St. Lucia National Trust and is aimed at creating a framework for the designation, protection and effective management of a network of protected areas that play a major role in securing a sustainable environmental, social and economic future for St. Lucia. The SPPA examines the current status of protected areas, both existing and proposed, and also recommends categories for protected areas. The Draft SPPA notes that processes to implement effective management are strong in the SMMA, but weak in the PMA. The Systems Plan highlights the potential funding available under the Sustainable Financing and Management of Eastern Caribbean Marine Ecosystems Project through the establishment of a National Protected Areas Trust Fund. It notes however that this fund will be set up as an incentive fund and that other funding mechanisms should be identified. Potential funding mechanisms to generate financing for protected areas include (i) Protected areas user fees, (ii) Hypothecated tourism taxes and levies and (iii) Direct fund raising. The SPPA is still in draft and has not been endorsed by Cabinet (to be submitted during SLNT 2013–2014 financial year).

Coastal and Watershed Management

Population and Urban

Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), in particular Goal 7, seek to ensure environmental sustainability, by “integrating the principles of sustainable development into country policies and programmes and reverse the loss of environmental resources”. Actions called for under this target include immediate action to contain rising greenhouse gas emissions and limiting the use of ozone-depleting substances. The Barbados Programme of Action (BPoA) adopted at the first Global Conference on Sustainable Development of Small Island Developing States held in Barbados in 1994, sets forth specific actions and measures to be taken at the national, regional and international levels to support the sustainable development of Small Island Developing States (SIDS). The Mauritius Strategy was adopted at the International Meeting to Review the Implementation of the SIDS Programme of Action in Mauritius in 2005. Both documents underscore the particular vulnerability of SIDS in the face of climate change and outline specific response measures to be taken at national, regional and global levels. National Housing Policy5 in the policy statement expresses the commitment of the government to the provision of adequate, desirable and affordable housing, while pursuing the principles of environmental sustainability. 4 Haffey, D. (2009). A Systems Plan for Protected Areas in Saint Lucia. 105pp. <http://tiny.cc/sl3wix> 5 Government of Saint Lucia. 2009. National Housing Policy. Prepared by ECMC for the Ministry of Housing, Urban Renewal and Local Government.

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Item No. Pressure Area Coastal and Watershed Management

Issue Coastal and Marine Management

Policy Response Coastal Zone Management (CZM) Policy1 has as its objectives to maintain the integrity and productivity of the coastal zone and resources therein; optimise the contribution of the coastal zone to social and economic development through the sustainable use of resources and the equitable sharing of benefits; and harmonise uses of the coastal zone and provide a framework for the management and resolution of resource use conflicts. The Policy framework outlines strategies and action towards policy implementation, as well as strategies and actions for regionspecific development and management plans which speaks specifically to habitat restoration and rehabilitation in the coastal zone. The CZM Policy finds authority under national legislation and regulations, namely, Physical Planning and Development Act (No. 29, 2001). The Draft Coastal Zone Management Strategy and Action Plan seeks to address issues of poor land use, the vulnerability of coastal resources to global warming and climate change, which contribute to the deterioration of the islandâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s coastal and marine resources, through the adoption and implementation of institutional arrangements that address varying components of coastal zone management, including conflicts over marine resources.

Integrated Watershed management

The primary objective for the development of a Soufriere Watershed Plan2 (Sustainable Development Matrix), 2008, was the formulation and implementation of a comprehensive plan for the conservation and management of critical watersheds, including the design and use of marketbased instruments for watershed management. The Plan makes recommendations for a threepronged approach to watershed management, (i) rehabilitate degraded (physical and ecosystem) areas in watershed as a result of damage caused by unplanned development, flooding, landslides; (ii) a medium-term plan to (redesign) hydraulic infrastructure (rivers and drainage) to minimise damage and disruption from future/potential storm events; and (iii) a longer term plan to fully integrate land and water management into the framework of the draft National Environmental Action Plan. The SDM recommends that development planning for the watershed should use the concept of the watershed as the point of entry and as a unit of analysis, thereby establishing the base for integrated development planning, through the use of zonal, sectoral and local area development plans.

1 Government of Saint Lucia. (2004). Coastal Zone Management in Saint Lucia: Policy, Guidelines and Selected Projects. 39 pp. 2 Chase, V.C., L. Louisy and M. Satney. 2008. Watershed Plan for Soufriere Watershed, Saint Lucia.

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Item No. Pressure Area Coastal and Watershed Management

Issue

Policy Response

Water Resources Management

National Water Policy (2004)3 has as its goal “to sustain economic growth, human development and environmental sustainability by promoting and facilitating the use and management of freshwater resources in an efficient sustainable and equitable manner that is consistent with the social, economic and environmental needs of current and future generations as well as with the country’s international obligations”. One of the main objectives is to foster the adoption of an integrated approach to the management of water resources. The key issues related to watershed management which the policy aimed to address were “poor land use planning and soil management especially in and around watersheds is severely reducing freshwater capturing capacity, and is also affecting coastal water quality and aquatic biodiversity. Sedimentation and overutilisation of chemicals for agriculture and industrial use, are deteriorating water quality and are posing significant risks to public health”.

Environmental Sustainability

The St. George’s Declaration of Principles for Environmental Sustainability in the OECS4 is a policy statement and a framework that will continue to evolve as progress is being realised, as new issues come to the fore and as new lessons are being learned. The SGD under goal 3 recognises that controlling the impact of land-based activities, including inappropriate forms of waste disposal, on freshwater resources, coastal water quality and marine environments is of particular importance for small island states. The SGD also speaks to the implementation of programmes and commitment of financial resources to build national capacity to monitor environmental practices and natural resource use; and the development of comprehensive and appropriately networked data bases on the environment, in forms that can be easily shared among government agencies and their partners and made accessible to the public. The National Environment Policy and National Environmental Management Strategy (NEP/ NEMS)5 are aimed at arresting and reversing trends of environmental degradation and ensuring that sound environmental management is fully integrated into national development policy. The Policy and Strategy are the key mechanisms for the implementation of the SGD at the national level and thus provide the broad framework for environmental management and establishing links with policies and programmes of all sectors. The NEP/NEMS also seeks to promote effective management in this particular pressure area with the formulation and adoption of guidelines for landscape management, for use in development planning and control; and comprehensive and effective application of regulations governing environmental impact assessment in development planning processes and procedures. 3 Government of Saint Lucia. 2004. National Water Policy. 4 Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States. (Rev. 2006). St. George’s Declaration of Principles for Environmental Sustainability in the OECS. 30pp. <http://www.iadb.org/ intal/intalcdi/PE/2009/03209.pdf> 5 Government of Saint Lucia. (2004). National Environment Policy (NEP) and National Environmental Management Strategy (NEMS). 40pp.

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Item No. Pressure Area Coastal and Watershed Management

Issue Sustainable Land Management

Policy Response The National Land Policy (2007) is intended to provide policy guidance for the use, management, development and administration of the land resources in St. Lucia presently and in the future as it is limited and priceless, in order to optimise the contribution of land to sustainable development. Among the strategic objectives of the Policy are: • Establish and maintain patterns of land use and development that are responsible and sustainable, and that maintain options for future uses. • Encourage the development and functioning of efficient land markets. • Conserve the country’s biological diversity. • Support the rehabilitation, restoration and management of degraded lands. • Maximise the effectiveness and efficiency of land management institutions, systems and procedures. • Provide a framework for the management, resolution or avoidance of conflicts related to land and its uses. The NLP was approved in 2007 and is currently scheduled to be revised based on the OECS Land Policy guidelines and improve Land Records under the OECS “Supporting the Eastern Caribbean States to Improve Land Policies and Management” project. The Ministry of Physical Development, Housing and Urban Renewal is responsible for overseeing the implementation of the National Land Policy. The Policy is not backed up by a national Land Use Plan or Development Plan which presents, in far greater detail, a zonation of different types of land use and identifies where development will be permitted and what form such development should take, for example in relation to type, location, size, design, environmental safeguards etc. It is also not fully supported by the regulatory framework and guidelines needed to guide development in a manner that takes into account a broad range of sometimes critical ecosystem services and important biodiversity. National Land Use Plan: Still pending; budgetary constraints have precluded this from being included in the national 2012–2013 budget. National Action Plan and Strategy (NAPSAP) to combat land degradation outlines priorities of rehabilitation and restoration of degraded land and water systems; increasing public awareness; development of successful model interventions; and promotion of environmental conservation in the development of enterprise to be supported through targeted project activities. The NAPSAP is pending the approval of the Cabinet of Ministers.

Forestry

CARICOM Regional Food and Nutrition Security Policy (RFNSP) 20101 seeks to provide a clearly articulated, holistic policy framework (for the period 2011–2025) that translates overarching and underexploited regional development agreements and initiatives into concrete policy priorities 1 <http://www.caricom.org/jsp/community_organs/ regional_food_nutrition_security_policy_oct2010.pdf>

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Item No. Pressure Area Coastal and Watershed Management

Issue

Policy Response

Agriculture

that will guide the design, implementation and monitoring of specific future periodic strategic action programmes to address the major food and nutrition security challenges in CARICOM. The RFNSP promotes the pursuit of climate-resilient development which focuses on adaptation as well as mitigation strategies for the food and agriculture sector. In respect of mitigation, priority focus shall be placed on coastal management (which affects the fishing industry) as well as sustainable forest management for reducing emissions while improving livelihoods and ensuring their stability over time. This will also support a reduction in deforestation, improved watershed management and protection of carbon reservoirs. The National Agricultural Policy and Strategy speaks of increasing the efficiency and competitiveness of St. Lucia’s agriculture; promote the generation, adaptation and adoption of improved and appropriate technology; expand St. Lucia’s agricultural production and market base; rationalise the use of land in the country; enhance national food security; generate new opportunities for employment and income generation in rural areas; and protect, conserve and ensure sustainable use of natural resources. The Strategic Management and Action Plan for the Ministry of Agriculture articulates a joint agricultural Policy and Strategy which speaks to increasing the efficiency and competitiveness of St. Lucia’s agriculture; promote the generation, adaptation and adoption of improved and appropriate technology; expand St. Lucia’s agricultural production and market base; rationalise land and coastal use through planning; enhance national food security; generate new opportunities for employment and income generation in rural areas; and protect, conserve and ensure sustainable use of natural resources.

Climate Change

Forestry

St. Lucia Forest Policy (revised July 2008) has as its goal to conserve and manage the forest resources of St. Lucia for protection of water supply, wildlife, soil and other biodiversity resources and to sustain the forests’ contribution to the country’s socio-economic development and the livelihood of rural stakeholders. Revisions to the forest policy framework are again being considered aimed at creating low-carbon paths of development. The Policy calls for increased monitoring and assessment of resource utilisation and quality, both within and outside the forest areas, and including a determination of the value of forest assets and their contribution to the national economy.

Climate Change Adaptation and Mitigation

The National Climate Change Adaptation Policy and Action Plan (NCCPAP) was revised in 2010, and speaks to establishing integrated coastal management systems, protecting freshwater resources and promote integrated watershed management; in order to maintain the integrity of terrestrial resources, restoring degraded ecosystems and using consultative and collaborative strategies

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Item No. Pressure Area

Issue

Policy Response to manage existing systems1. It articulates climate change adaptation strategies at both the sectoral and macro-economic levels. NCCPAP proposes actions for implementation, facilitation and financing of climate change adaptation measures. A Climate Adaptation Trust (CAT) Fund is intended to be a multi donor financial facility which provides grants for projects that will help St. Lucia become climate resilient. The Strategic Plan for Climate Resilience (SPCR), 2010, supports discrete targeted land use planning, enhancement and application of St. Lucia’s GIS system, enhancing use of St. Lucia Integrated National GeoNode (SLING), system for data generation, coastal engineering, slope stabilisation and watershed management efforts to specifically increase resilience to climate change in a combined interaction of CCA/DRR, in building bridges, roads and other infrastructure in accordance with international best practice and building codes.

Other

Disaster Risk Management (DRM)/ Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR)

A Comprehensive Disaster Management (CDM) Strategy has been advanced by the Caribbean Disaster Emergency Response Agency (CDERA) as a new direction for disaster management. It moves away from the relief and response mode to a comprehensive approach which takes disaster and mitigation considerations into account during the planning and development stages. It also expands the partners to include economic, social, and environmental planners, architects, engineers, and health professionals among others2. The main objective of the Strategy is to integrate Comprehensive Disaster Management into the development planning process. The National Emergency Management Plan (2006) documents government’s commitment to disaster preparedness, prevention, mitigation and effective response to emergency situations associated with natural and man-made disasters, including floods, droughts, hurricanes, tsunamis, earthquakes, dam collapse, famines, and plagues. It defines the organisational and functional mechanisms and procedures and guidelines for the coordination of efforts in carrying out a disaster management program. Of note is that the areas of prevention and mitigation are not fully developed in this Management Plan but are addressed in annexes to the Plan. The National Hazard Mitigation Policy is the strategic instrument for integration of risk reduction into all aspects of private and public sector activities including those of local communities and individuals. The Policy takes into account risks associated with “slow on-set” hazards that include droughts, plagues, and the predicted effects of global climate change.

1 Government of Saint Lucia. (2010). Revised Saint Lucia National Climate Change Policy and Adaptation Plan. 35 pp. <http://www.preventionweb.net/files/13471_ nccpolicyadaptation27june200302.pdf> 2 [CDERA Press Release of Feb 27, 2004]

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