Post-Industrial Cyanobacterial Morphologies A cyclical approach to post-industrial architectural carbon negativity through the development and deployment of bacterial post-waste composite materials.
Paul Andrew Brooke Masters of Architecture (MArch ARB RIBA II)
Post-Industrial Cyanobacterial Morphologies A cyclical approach to post-industrial architectural carbon negativity through the development and deployment of bacterial post-waste composite materials.
Paul Andrew Brooke PG20 Masters of Architecture (MArch) Advanced Architectural Thesis BARC0011
Word Count: 9256
The Bartlett School of Architecture, UCL
Post-Industrial Cyanobacterial Morphologies Acknowledgements Thesis Tutor: Oliver Wilton PG20 Design Studio Tutors: Prof Marjan Colletti Javier Ruiz Rodriguez Additional Support: Ellen Paige Leach (Photographer) SiennaGriffin-Shaw(3DPrintTechnicianandMaker) B-MadeHereEastTeam(MakersandTechnicians) JayneBolaji(EnvironmentalAgent) TeesideEnvironmentAgency(EnvironmentalAgents) 4DFabricationTeam(Casting)
The Bartlett School of Architecture, UCL
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Figure0Redcar 1: Steelworksduringearlydemoliti
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Abstract
Through a reconsideration of the UK post-industrial wastelanda and its cyanobacterial toxicity as a site of rich material opportunity, this thesis proposes the development of a novel carbon-negative biogenic material, bornfromapost-industrialsite-specificcyclicalresou This paper then goes on to investigate the design and fabrication of such material components, using computational techniques to propose materially embedded functional gradients as a counterproposal to the currentdiscretefabricationtechniquesofthecomposit
Throughaliteraryandtheoreticalanalysisofthecurrentu oftheBritishsteel-townthroughasite-specificstudyofth b IndustrialZone this , (TVIZ) thesiscritiquesthecontemporaryp carbon-consciousindustrialpolicyoftheUK,anditsresu landscapeandsocio-infrastructural‘wasteland’.
Thisthesisarguesfor,anddevelops,theuseofanovelwaste-cen carbonnegativebiogenicmaterialsystem,whichcanbedeploy tandemtothere-invigoratedindustrialprocesstocreate carbonneutralitythroughasystemofcarbonoutputandoffs introduceindustrytothediscardedUKsteel-town.
Assuch,thethesiswillinvestigatetwopropositions: A 1. novelpost-wastecarbon-negativecyanobacterialmater A 2. computationallydesignedandaugmentedsysteminwh thebiogenicmaterialisengagedanddeployed.
Theterm‘Wasteland’willbedefined withinthefirstchapterofthispaper,and aimstounifythecommonthemesofdecay Thismaterial,developedthroughamultidisciplinaryenga anddegradationthroughoutinfrastructure, withliteraryscientifictext,laboratory-basedanalysis,an industry,material,environment,ecologyand economywithinthe2orth-EastoftheU/. loopbetweendigitalandanaloguetestingatvariousscales a
The Tees aV lley Industrial Zone is the general focus area of the material investigations within this research paper, with Redcar Steelworks acting as the primary context for ecological and material sampling. b
thereconsiderationofthepost-industrialwastelandasa structurally-capablebacterialcultures,cyclicalaggrega environmentalconditions.Moreover,thispapergoesontofur questioncurrentdiscretefabricationmethodologiesbyp functionalgradationofpost-wastematerialcompositesfo structuralandenvironmentalperformativity.
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0 1 2
The Development of a Novel Carbon- Negative Post-Waste Composite Material
Defining and Identifying ‘the Wasteland’
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Glossary
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Introduction
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Out of Sight, Out of Mind; 33 Statement of Intent ACritiqueofContemporary Enviro-IndustrialStrategy 34 Acquiring Post-Industrial Aggregates; The Shadow of Steel; WasteMaterialExtrac The Effects of Perceived andSampling De-Industrialisation 36 Binding Post-Industrial The Wasteland; Aggregates; DefiningaMulti-Faceted InitialDevelopmentof Condition WasteComposite
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Site Photography; ImagePlates
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Preserving Memory; MateriallyEmbedded Iconography
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Formulating Cyanobacterial Biopolymers; DevelopingaBiogenic Carbon-Negative,Post-Wa Binder
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Post-Waste and Re-Use; NovelMaterialStreamsin the Age of the Anthropocene
Developing Novel Composite Materialities Post-IndustrialCyan Bio-Composites
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Out of the Wasteland; 51 UnassumingMaterial Libraries
Analysing Post-Waste Composites Materially Testing
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Preserving Iconography; MateriallyEmbedded Memory
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Post-Waste Life-Cycles ASite-SpecificCyclic Ecology
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3 4 5 Deploying Post-Waste Composites; Functionally Graded Fabrication Methodologies
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Statement of Intent
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From Development to Deployment; IntroductiontoFabrication Methodology
ction
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Conclusion
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Bibliography
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Figures
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Discrete Assembly to Continuous Fabrication; faPost- FunctionallyGradedMaterials 62
c, aste 64
Post-Waste Construction FabricatingFunctionally GradedPost-Waste Composites Fabrication: Fragment 1; GradedDeploymentof UniformCompositeBlocks
nobacterial 74 Fabrication: Fragment 2; Digitally-Augmented CompositeCasting 88
Fabrication: Fragment 3; Multi-input3DPrinted Post-WasteComposites
cal
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Glossary
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Biopolymer
apolymerwhichisproducedbyorderivedfromlivingorganis plantsandmicrobes,ratherthanfrompetroleum,thetraditi polymers.
Carbon Negativity
the process of [materially] removing CO2 from the atmospher sequesteringmoreCO2thanisemitted[inthemateriallifeti
Cyanobacteria(e)
a division of microorganisms that are related to the bac capableofphotosynthesis.Theyareprokaryoticandrepresentt knownformoflifeontheearth.
Cyclical Material Ecologies
aphrasepennedbytheauthor,combiningthedefinitionsofbot economiesandmaterialecologiestodefineanenvironmentall biogenic material which engages in a material feedback loop use,decay,andre-growth.
Cyclical Economies
a model of production and consumption,which involves sha reusing,repairing,refurbishing,andrecyclingexistingm foraslongaspossible.
Feedback Loop
partofa[material]systeminwhichsomeportion(orall)ofthe outputisusedasinputforfutureoperations[andmateria
Functionally Graded Materials (FGMs)
innovative materials in which final properties varies dimensions, optimising local strength, porosity, tra materialparameters.
Material Ecologies
anemergingfieldindesigndenotinginformedrelationsbet buildings,systems,and their environment – augmented and computation.
Morphological
thistermcanbeappliedtobotharchitectureandmicrobiolo morphologies relate to the form or structure of materials a whilst microbial morphologies relate to the form of living therelationshipsbetweentheirstructures.
PWC
an acronym for ‘Post-Waste Composite’, the biogenic, carbon-ne post-industrialmaterialsdevelopedwithinthispaper
Wasteland
this term is used interchangeably throughout the docume both the very tangible material condition of aggregate wast industrial sites, and the governmentally perceived ‘wast economic destitution throughout the north-east of Englan industrialage.
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BARC0Advanced 01 ArchitecturalThesis(ARB/RIBAP
Introduction
Through a reconsideration of the UK post-industrial condition as a site of rich material opportunity, this paper proposes the development of a post-waste biogenic composite material, born from a post-industrial site-specific cyclical resource system.This paper then goes investigate the fabrication of such material components, exploring the use of computational techniques to propose composite-specific materially embedded functional gradients a counterproposaltocontemporarydiscretebuildingmethodologies.
In the first chapter, this paper will analyse the altering presence of the UK Steel industry in relation to the environmental,infrastructural and economic context in which it oper Through a theoretical analysis of the urban typology of the British steel-town in the age of globalised carbon-centric trade,a site-specific study of theTeesValley Industrial Zone (TVIZ) willcritiquetheUK’scontemporarypseudo-carbon-consciousindustrialpolicy,andits enviro-socio-infrastructural ‘wasteland’. As such, the definition and identificati ‘wasteland’ will be elicited throughout this initial chapter as a socio-economic,infra and environmental condition,as well as a physical material condition which abandons la un-tappedwasteresourcestreamsin-situ.
Through questioning the future condition of infrastructural brownfield sites and th industrial waste, this paper considers how unassuming material wastelands shou reconsidered as rich material libraries for the development of post-waste materials.Thro this reframing of the wasteland, Chapter 2 goes on to develop a novel carbon-negative post-waste composite material, born from a post-industrial site-specific cyclical r system.Developed through a multidisciplinary methodological approach which fuses lit scientific text,laboratory and workshop-based testing,and a feedback loop between digital and analogue testing at various scales, a library of novel post-waste composite materi typologies is generated,each with varying material parameters such as rigidity,trans and compressive strength.These various material properties, inherited through engin variations in the three-part symbiotic relationship between the brownfield waste aggregat structurally-adeptcyanobacterialcultures,anddesiredenvironmentalconditions,can optimallydeployedinamaterially-variedandstructurally-optimisedarchitecturalsys
Assuch,initsfinalchapter,thepaperopensdiscussionintospecificfabricationmeth for this novel biogenic post-waste composite material. Through initially questioni relationship between a material and it’s specific deployment and fabrication approach,th paperwillbegintoquestionhowthevaryingpropertiesofthepost-wastecompositescanbe deployedwithinacontinuous,yetheterogeneous,system.Learningfromarchitecturalresearc into the functional gradation of material aggregates for varied structural and enviro performativity,gradedcomposite-specificmaterialfabricationmethodologieswillbepr throughaniterativeprocessoffabrication,testingandanalysisalongsideindustryp withinthefieldsofmulti-input3Dprintinganddigitallyaugmentedcasting.
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Chapter I DefiningandIndentifying‘theWasteland’
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Out of Sight, Out of Mind
A Critique of Contemporary Enviro-Industrial Strategy
1 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. “Transcript: Adoption of the Paris Agreement [Article 2]” in 21st Conference of the Parties (Paris: United Nations, 2015): 3-32 2
Nationally determined contributions (NDCs) are at the heart of the Paris Agreement and the achievement of these long-term goals. NDCs embody efforts by each country to reduce national emissions and adapt to the impacts of climate change.
The contemporary climate-conscious industrial str a seemingly steadfast response to the guidelines set o Agreement’, defined at the 2015 UN Climate Conference.This dossi ‘aims to strengthen the global response to the threat of c 1 in the context of sustainable development’ through the measurement 2 and communication of ‘nationally determined ,or ‘NDC’s’. contribu However,given that these NDC’s are ruefully based on a foundati governmentalhonesty,theyfindthemselvesthesubjectofreg owing to recorded disparities in the ‘thematic coher voluntary domestic contributions that are meant to c 3 agreement’ .
3 Hannah Janetschek et Al. “The 2030 Agenda and the Paris Agreement: voluntary contributions towards thematic policy coherence” in Climate Policy 20, no. 4 (2019): 430-442
One of the major loopholes in the thematic coherence of thi canbepin-pointedto‘dirtyindustry’,definedbyJänickeas 4 processing and energy production’ , and the international trade practices with which the industry engages. These practices see e 4 developed countries importing vast amounts of produc Martin Jänicke et Al. ‘’’Dirty industries’: Patterns of change in industrial countries’’ in of embodied carbon (such as steel and cement) from econom Environmental & Resource Economics 9, no.4 developing countries5tomaintainaperceivedlowerlevelofnationa (1997): 467-491 emissions.Researchers cite that approximately 38% of globa 6 7 are traded across international , and given borders that the UNFCCC 5 In this paper, developing and developed requires countries to record only ‘emissions taking countrieshavebeendefinedinlinewiththe 8 territoriesandoffshoreareasoverwhichthecountry , this has OECD register (Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development) practice obfuscates the true carbon footprint of econom 6 Sara Pantuliano. ’Foreword’ in Counting countries. Naturally,this places the liability of the em Carbon in Global Trade 1, no.1 (2020): 9 imported products with the country of production, des 7 UNFCCC is an abbreviation of the United directlycontributingtotheinfrastructureoftherec Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change – the current benchmark for the recording of terrestrial greenhouse gas emissions
Furthermore,asKrishnanhighlights,thisinternatio strategy risks further disadvantaging developing c 9 squeeze’ , as, under the guise of the pseudo-green industria 8 IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate the developed recipient countries impose global ‘green p Change. IPCC guidelines for national greenhouse gas inventories. (Geneva: IPCC as environmental sanctions and higher export taxes, on t Publishing, 2019) of high-carbon goods.These costs are therefore covered by t 9 AartiKrishnan.StandardsandCertification: of production, further entrenching environmental pover AnOverviewinCountingCarbonInGlobal countries. Tradeno. 1, 9-76. 1(20):
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Figure1.01-MaterialProductivityTimelineofUKSteel-towns
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Post-Industrial Cyanobacterial Morphologies Figure1The .02- ChangingUKIndustrialLandscape(Digimap2021)
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The Long Shadow of the UK Steel Trade The Effects of Perceived De-Industrialisation
In the UK,the ‘dirty industry’ of metallurgy is at the centre of the UK’s ‘de-industrialisation’efforts,andsuchindustrialhubsriskbeingobliterated fromthelandscapeofEngland’soncehyper-industrialNorthinexchange foranewgovernmental‘TenPointPlanforaGreenIndustrialRevolution’. Whilethisendeavourpromisestobringthe‘decarbonisationoftransport, industry and10 power’ ,this ‘green revolution’,in actuality,remains driven by steel production. The following Bloomberg statistic illustrates this maintainedrelianceon‘dirtyindustry’: ‘Tobuildenoughwindturbinestoreachnetzerobybillion 1.7 205, tons 10 The UK Government. The Ten Point Plan of steel will be needed.That’s enough to make 2,4 replicas of San for a Green Industrial Revolution. (London, The Francisco’siconicGoldenGateBridge.Solarpanelsandpylons toexpand National Archives, 2020) 11 electricitygridsaresimilarly steelheavy.’ 11
Eddie Spence. The Green Revolution Is Being
InorderfortheUKtomateriallysupportit’s‘greenrevolution’, the Built on country a eV ry Dirty Industry. Bloomberg. comde(2021): https://www.bloomberg.com/ has instead transplanted much of its steel industry to centralised graphics/ 2 021-green-steel/ manufacturinghubsacrossChina,IndiaandtheEU,ceremoniouslyleading . 12 to a net national switch from a steel trade surplus to a trade deficit US Department of Commerce. “Global Steel Tradesteel Monitor”. www.trade.gov (2022): https:// in 2015 12 As . such, the UK currently relies more on international www.trade.gov/data-visualization/global-steelimports than domestically-produced steel products in order to appease trade-monitor the UNFCCC’s emission metrics.This appeasement,of course,allows the 13 Embodied Carbon is the carbon dioxide UKtoboastofaminimisedcarbonfootprint,despiteitscontinued reliance (CO2) emissions associated with material 13 onhighlevelsofmaterially-embodied carbon. from its initial production and fabrication to its transportation to its destination.
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‘The Wasteland’
DefiningaMulti-FacetedCondition
Theeffectsofthetransitiontoanimport-heavysteel-trade alteredmorethanjusttheU.K.’sadvertisedcarbonfootpri of the most egregious casualties of this switch is th SteelTown’,such as Redcar and theTeesValley in England’s Nort Within this particular urban typology, the Steel trade lifeblood and cultural fabric of the community.The observ de-industrialisation have therefore wholly impacted t environmentalandsocio-economicconditionoftheseloc
Inthetext‘IndustryintheTeesValley’,localhistorianAlan that,despite the area being ‘late in embracing the indus it eventually did so with a14 vengeance’ Betteney . goes on to affirm that Redcar‘ultimatelybecameoneofthemostimportantareasi for iron and15 steel’ Today, . however,the Redcar Steelworks,a mothballed metalfoundryontheSouthernbanksoftheRiverTees,andtheex-wo communitywhichsurroundsit,starklyevidencestheso conditionoftheregion,anditsmultifacetednature.This this tangible post-industrial condition,and holis Wasteland’. The definition of this specific urban condi examinedbyseparatingthetermintothreedistinctwast the ‘infrastructural’, the ‘environmental’ and the ‘econ orderoftheirphysicalitywithinthelandscape. The Infrastructural Wasteland:
At it’s most apparent, the post-industrial wasteland spatially. Heatherington surmises that post-indus zones can be spatially identified at varying scales: ’At scaletheremaybehugebuildings,factories,machinery,chi 15 ibid and tanks, and at the other end a myriad of artefacts and t 16 befoundscatteredamongthe Infrastructure . debris’ inanunprod 16 Catherine Heatherington. “Changing state invites a symbiotic-interaction between the con Histories and Landscapes: Reimaging Industrial natural; the overgrowth of disused industrial equip Sites” (Oxford, Routledge, 2018): 124 natural species is,ironically,supported by the polluti 17 DavidAdams.–Greenfields,Brownfieldsandthe derelict structures,thus ‘[enabling] invasive pl ,ousingDevelopment”(Oxford,Blackwell, 17 competitiveability . tocolonise’ 2002): 43 Alan Betteney. Industry in the Tees aV lley. (Middlesborough, Amberley Publishing, 2018): 3-12 14
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Figure1Abandoned .03RedcarSteelworks(NorthernEcho,20)
TheEnvironmentalWasteland: Theenvironmentalaspectofthepost-industrialwastelandischaracterised bythetransitionofmateriallyproductivelandscapestodisused‘brownfield’ sitesthroughthepollutionofthegroundconditionbywayofinfrastructural materialdecay.Brownfieldsitesaredefinedas‘area(s)oflandwhich(are) nolongerusableforcultivationorforanyotherpurposeafterhavingbeen 18 the site of industrial and , plant( are characterised s)’ by their ecological degradationatthehandsofindustrialprocesses,chemicalrun-off,andthe oxidationofsoils.Suchenvironmentalwastelandsthusformnon-cultivable dead-zones,owingtothe‘alkalinityofsoil,erosionandwaterlogging’. TheSocio-EconomicWasteland: The insidious economic destitution imposed upon the former industrial communities which once catalysed the North’s materially productive landscapesisadirectresultoftheglobalisationoftheUKsteeltrade.By offshoringproductiontocurtaillabourcostsandpromoteineffectualcarbon strategies,the UK’s economy has pivoted from one of industrial goodscreation to a service economy, centred around ‘service-skilled’ workers. Indeed,Vogt states that ‘[the] decline of employment in manufacturing 19 18 hasbeenaccompaniedbyanupsurgeofprofessional managerial Thejobs’. European Environmental Agency. “EEA Glossary” . .ew ea.europa.eu (2020) https:// Thishasengenderedalocalisedskillsgap,inwhichforcefullyunemployed e . w ea. europa. eu/howing elp/glossary/to eea-a glossary ex-industrialworkersareunabletoaccess‘skilled’servicejobs, lackofproficiency.Thiseconomicwastelandcanbeinferredbyexamining 19 Kristoffer oV gt. “The post-industrial society: figures on regional familial poverty.According to a 20 report, shortly from utopia to ideology” in Work, Employment after the cessation of industrial production in 2013, childand poverty Society 30, no.rates 2 (2015): 366-376 rose by 6% in Redcar,with neighbouring areas exhibiting ‘[a] proportion ofchildrenlivinginabsolutepoverty[which]isdoublethat fortheUKas 20 Anna Round et Al. “IPPR Report: Child 20 awhole,at30%’. Poverty and Devolution in North East England” (London, IPPR Publications, 2020): 19
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Figure[1.05]
Figure[1.06]
Figure1.05 -Redcar’sCorrodedSteelFoundry Figure1Teesworks .06 DemolitionContractors Figure1.07 -Redcar’sSlagGranulator Figure1.08 -SouthGare’sIndustrialWasteHeaps Figure1.09 Abandoned ControlRoom
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Figure[1.08]
Figure[1.09]
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Figure[1.1]
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Figure[1.12]
Figure[1.13]
Figure1.10- Metallic Waste Piles Figure1.1- AlumSlagPiles Figure1.12 -Redcar’sSlagGranulator Figure1.13 Abandoned Clarifiers Figures1.05-13capturedbyauthor, alongside photographer Ellen Leach on a site visit.February202.
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Preserving Memory
Materially-Embedded Iconography
While the subcategories of ‘the Wasteland’ presented ab convincing arguments for holistic definition, thi the trope of a perceived socio-cultural vacuum in the reg designationoftheNorthEastasasocialwastelandshou a purely idealogical notion,in which regional post-indu is falsely imprinted by non-local scholars.Indeed,Mazier theNorth‘canbesummarisedas‘Povertyshire’andcultur [and]tracedbacktoauthorssuchasCharlesDickens,Eli D.H. Lawrence and George Orwell’.21 Despite these provocations, s narrativeshavenotinfiltratedlocalsocialideologi industrialsitessuchasRedcarSteelworks,areconsi themindsofthepost-industrialpopulation.
21
Ewa Mazierska. “Heading North: The North of England in Film and Television” (London, Palgrave Macmillan, 2017): 3-5
22 Mary Lanigan. “Teeside Freeport Consultations” (2019) https://www. teessidefreeport. com/news/demolition-workbegins-on-iconicredcar-blast-furnace/
Quotes lifted from authors primary research investigation survey - dispersed through local Redcar groups on social media channels
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Nadine Dorries. The Local Democracy Reporting Service. (2020) https://ldrs.org.uk/. 24
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As such,the governmental decision to demolish the pos oftheTeesValleyvehemently contraststhedesiresoflocalac who have petitioned for the preservation of the disused s legitimate material iconography of the region’s indus Lanigan,theleaderofRedcarIndependentGroup,affirmsthis iron and steel making is in our blood here,there is a real s 22 theseiconicstructures Asurvey comedown”. carriedoutbythispap author,which largely sampled residents of Redcar and Clev that the majority of respondents wish for the steelworks the landscape, citing anger at their demolition and th iconicstructures.Onerespondentstated‘wewanttheste [or] at the very least,protected’ and ‘it’s a shame,three gen 23 my family made their living in those Over steelworks’. 70% of survey respondentsincludedeitherthewords:‘shame’and/or‘dis in their written response.Despite these sentiments,the doesnotappearreceptive,andinthe 20 UKCultureMinisterdeem the industrial structures to be “not of sufficient ar 24 interesttomerit effectively , listing” green-lightingtheirdemolit
Itisthecontentionofthispaper,however,thatalthoughth theseiconographicstructuresisinexorable,themater levellingshouldavoidfurthercontributingtothe‘Was as mere rubble-heaps on the brownfield site, or filling UK lan Indeed, through the research of post-waste composite (PWC) ma opportunitiesinthefaceofmountingdemolitionwaste,t novelpost-industrial,waste-centricmaterialinwhich oftheserazedindustrialiconsisre-used,materiallypr andiconographyofthelocalheritagewithinthelocalarea
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Figure1.14 - Primary Research Survey Report Data
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Figure1.15 - Tree Column (BLAST) Figure1.16 - Purged Plastic Wall - (Soft Baroque) Figure1.17 - CorkHouse Fragment (Matthew Howland, Dido Milne and Oliver Wilton) Figure1.18 - 3DPrinted Industrial Waste Chair (Jasper Morrison) Figure1.19 - Algal Biopolymer Dress, (Charlotte McCarthy) Figure1.20 - Waste Composites Figure1.21 - K-Briq, (Kenoteq) Figure1.22 - Waste Lamp Images Photographed by Author at The Design Museum: Waste Age Exhibition. (January2022)
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Post-Waste and Re-Use
Novel Material Streams in the Age of the Anthropocene
This paper looks to the emerging field of waste-centric materials within architecturalpracticetodevelopapost-wastecompositematerial(PWC) whichpreserves,reconsiders,andregeneratesthepost-industrialwasteland, and turns away from conventional, non-renewable material production. Indeed,Treggiden posits that “designers are exploring the potential of increasingly plentiful waste streams to become the raw materials of the 25 future’. 26 Arecentexhibition atLondon’sDesignMuseumcelebratedthismanifesto by showcasing the waste-centric material innovations of architects and technologists alike.This exhibition, which proved to be a foundational primaryresearcharchiveforthispaper,promotedthefabricationofpost25 Kate Treggiden. wastematerialscomposedofindustrial,household,andorganic waste.“Wasted: When Trash
Becomes Treasure” (Brussels, Ludion Publishers, 2020)
As the exhibitions’ curator Gemma Curtin “We must attests: face the problemofwaste…[instead]ofthinkingofobjectsasthings26that have an “Waste-Age: What The Design Museum. 27 Can Design Do?” (London, UKRI, 2022) endlife,theycanhavemanylives”. 27
Gemma Curtin. “Waste Age: What Can
Theindustrial-scaleapathytowardsthefinalstagesofamaterial’s lifecycle Design Do?” (2022) https://designmuseum. is further evidenced in governmental documentation regarding the built org/exhibitions/waste-age-what-can-design-do environment’s demolition sector.The EU Construction and28 Demolition European Comission. “EU Construction and WasteManagementProtocolstatesthat‘morethan450milliontonnes of Demolition Waste Protocol and Guidelines” 28 constructionanddemolitionwasteisgeneratedeveryyear[in theEU EU], ’ (Brussels, Publishers, 2020) (online version can be sourced at https://ec.europa.eu/ thusrenderingitamongthelargestquantitivewastestreams. Furthermore, growth/news/eu-construction-and-demolition) thisdocumentshockinglyexposesthatthedisposalofconstruction waste accountsforover50%ofUKlandfillvolumes. 29 Kate Treggiden. “Wasted: When Trash
Becomes Treasure” (Brussels, Ludion Publishers,
2020) These issues characterise the condition of the post-industrial North of England, which itself can be considered a mere proxy of global30postSeetal Solanki. “Why Materials Matter; Responsible Design for a Better industrialmaterialwaste-streams.Thispaperthereforeproposes amaterial World.”(Munich, re-use of the demolition ‘waste’ of Redcar Steelworks,capitalising onPrestel itsPublishers, 2020) 31 decayedmaterialconditionatthehandsofindustrialrecentralisation. This Kate Franklin. “Radical Matter, Rethinking Materials for a Sustainable Future.”(London, paperdrawsontheteachingsoftheWaste-Ageexhibition,alongside three Thames and Hudson, 2018) 29 30 31 pivotaltexts;‘Wasted’ ‘’Why , MaterialsMatter’ and‘RadicalMatter’.
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Out of the Wasteland
Unassuming Material Libraries
Quantified data relating to Redcar Steelworks, includi of construction produced waste on-site,is held by the private con group‘Teesworks’,andisthereforelargelypubliclywithheld various attempts to procure this information, the co privatelylistedstatus,isnotobligedtoshareanysuc
One can assume however, based on EU-published data, that lan the final destination for the majority of Redcar’s demoli only a limited portion of concrete foundation waste pot as aggregate for future concrete production. Furtherm approximations may be drawn through interrogation of an 32 ValleyAuthority report from Within . 20 this report,commissi estimatethecostofconvertingtheSteelworksintoaheri clearance costing is based upon an estimation of spec demolitionwaste,whichcanbegenerallycategorisedasfol Metallic 1. Waste-30,tonnes Copper 2. Waste-750tonnes Site2. BoundSteelSlag-20,tonnes Concrete 3. Foundations-15,0cubicmeters
Figure1.23 (Opposite)- 3D Site Map with Material LIbrary 32 Tees aV lley Combined Authority. “Redcar Blast Furnace: Key Considerations Summary” (2020) (digitallly archived via pdf at https://teesvalley-ca.gov.uk/wp-content/ uploads/2020/10/Redcar-Blast-FurnaceReports.pdf)
Brian Palmer. “Olivine: Carbon Eater? A simple rock is being put forth as the solution to global warming” (2019). https://www.nrdc. org/ onearth/olivine-carbon-eater 33
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Alongside these figures, there are of course various pet asbestos waste streams which have been discounted, as t toxicity renders them unusable within a novel PWC. Furthe smaller-scale aggregates are present on the site, and as consideredproductsofthepost-industrialconditio sands of the dunes which surround the site,are products exchange between industry and nature.This interaction,d bythemovementofrainwaterandwindonthecoastalsite,con otherwise ecologically-stable marine sand with chemi oxidised metallics.The second is the disused olivin formerlyemployedwithinthemetallurgyprocess,deployedwit ofpurifyingsteelslagaftermetalfabrication.Thisoliv fascinating,as is naturally sequesters carbon,and as poundcanabsorbasmuchasone ofcarbon pound dioxidefrom3 theair
Itisevident,therefore,thattheassumedbrownfield‘wastel Steelworksisinfactcomposedofmillionsofkgsofre-usa aggregatewaste.
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Chapter II The Development of a Novel CarbonNegative Post-Waste Composite Material
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Chapter II
Statement of Intent
The second chapter of this paper focuses on the development of a novel material which capitalises on the waste demolition aggregate which is held on the Redcar Steelworks site.This material exploration develops a composite material through the binding of post-industri demolition aggregate waste within a secondary medium in order to generate a library of PWC’s, each with varying material properties.
This approach materially fastens carbonic industrial material wa within an encasement, or binder, while also diverting vast quantitie of waste from landfill. Moreover, the material iconography of NorthEastern industrial infrastructure is opportunely preserved, entering into a secondary material lifecycle through novel PWC architectural development and deployment. In this way, the memories of the industrial past of the area are architecturally fossilised withi novel composite material and the architectures that they generate.
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Acquiring Post-Industrial Aggregates Waste Material Extraction and Sampling
Composite material research shows that specific varia material,suchasitsdimensionordensity,substanti properties of the fabricated composite.In order to limit material fabrication research methods, the aggregates thispaperwerecollectedbytheauthoronaseriesofsitevi Steelworks,whichtookplaceatvariousstagesofthesite demolition process.As such, the materials developed wi employtruepost-industrialaggregatewithintheircom
Despite repeated requests, access to the inner site is s to demolition workers,owing to the structural precari infrastructurebywayofmetalliccorrosion.However,asthes intodisrepair,theperimeteroftheplannedsitehasdecre andassuch,vastpilesofaggregatedemolitionmaterials forsampling.Furthermore,duetotheclimaticcondition coastalwindsdisplacevastquantitiesofsmallerpos into neighbouring sand dunes.The diagrams of Figure2.01-26 i samplescollectedacrossthesite.
Other remaining post-industrial aggregates, such as slagandolivinesand,couldnotbesourceddirectlyfromt proximity to hazardous structures.Therefore, the remain usedwithinthisstudyareproductsofsimilarwastes similarlycontributetoanaccurate,post-wastecyclica
Ofvariousextractsacquired,6primarysamplescanbeide
Metallic 1. Waste: Variousheapsofmetallicwastecanbeobs around the site, this waste can be pulverised i aggregatefordeploymentinacompositematerial,how processishighlyenergy-intensive.
Crumbled 2. SteelSlag: TheSlagPitsontheRedcarSteelworks Siteexemplifythesheerquantityofslagwastemateri similarsteelworkssiteshavecreated.Evenduring production,steelslagremainsalargelyuntappedwa with only small percentages going on to re-use as an instandardconcrete.
Alum 3. FurnaceSlag: Thismaterialisinherentlybritt such,canbeeasilygroundintoanaggregatewithout largeamountsofenergy.
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Ground 4. ConcreteFoundations: Hugedepositsofconcrete rubble,whileoccasionallyre-usedasanaggregateforfurther productionofstandardconcrete,currentlysitsonnumerous brownfielddemolitionsites,andremainsanuntappedwaste stream. Polluted 5. MarineSand: Thepollutedmarinesandsaround thesite,whichholdahighconcentrationofsmall-scalecarbonic particulates,pollutethewaterwaysaroundtheshorelinebiome ofthedisusedindustrialsite.Thereuseofthesesandswithina compositenovelmaterialisanopportunityforauniquesitespecificwaste-stream,andallowsforenvironmentaltoxicitytobe safelysequesteredwithinthenovelmaterial. Combination 6. Demolition Abandoned Dust: inlargeheaps acrossthesite,theirvariedmaterialcompositioniscomposed whollyofwastematerials,whichcanbeusedassmaller aggregateswithinanovelcompositematerial. These 6 principle samples, once screened for petrochemical toxicity, are processed into aggregates of varying size, density, and materiality. These aggregates then continue into further testing and iteration in the developmentofanovelPWC.
2.01
2.0
2.03
2.04
Figure2.01-2.06 Aquired Samples of PostIndustrial Waste from Site Visit
2.05
2.06
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Binding Post-Industrial Aggregates Initial Development of a Post-Waste Composite
Thenextsectionofthispapersuggestshowtheseprocessed aggregates can be converted into a new architectural PWC. Learnings from the research into the long history of materialssuggestthata‘host’materialisrequiredi is suspended, in varying quantities,in order to achi properties; such as porosity, opacity, rigidity, tensi This host medium,known as the ‘binder’,is composed of ei or in-organic materials, and effectively tethers a secon materialwithinahomogenousmaterialmatrix,oracompos
Figure2.07(Opposite)Samples ofPostWasteLime-BoundAggregateTestsof VaryingDensityRatios Figure2.08(Overleaf)- AnalysingSamples ofPost-WasteLime-BoundAggregates 34 Gadi Rothenberg et Al. “Plantics-GX: a biodegradable and cost-effective thermoset plastic that is 100% plant-based” in Faraday Discussions 1, no.1 (2017)
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ibid
Inholdingthispost-industrialaggregatewithinabi siteisre-used,divertingitsfinaldestinationawayfr anewmateriallifecycle,whilstalsocontributingtothede ‘wasteland’.Theuseofaplant-basedmediumasabinderwould remediatethepost-industrialcondition,assuchorga greatquantitiesofcarbonthroughtherespiratoryphot theplantthroughoutit’slifecycle.Plantics-GXisanexemp 34 binderwhichisalreadyindevelopmentbyTheUniversity ofA These novel mediums, which have thermoset properties and solidifyduringcooling,aredescribedbymolecularscie asbeingtheproductof‘polymerisingglycerol,thesimple 35 citric acid,the simplest abundantly in order available to developtriaci a10%plant-basedandnon-toxicbio-binder.
Althoughthisstudyaimstofindit’sownawaste-centri developatrulypost-wastenovelbiogenicmaterial,asampleo lime will be used in these early studies in order to test t of post-industrial aggregate within a placeholder bin the effects of varying aggregate-to-binder ratios on resu propertiessuchasstrengthandrigidity.
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Post-Industrial Cyanobacterial Morphologies Formal Table of Empirical Results - Lime PWC Tests
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Formulating Cyanobacterial Biopolymers Developing a Post-Waste Binder
Plantics VB“P. lantics: Biodegradable BioPlastic From 100% Renewable Resources - Superior Natural Materials” (2022) https:// plantics.com/#technology. 36
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (Governmental Organisation). “Harmful Algal Bloom (HAB)-Associated Illness: Causes And Ecosystem Impacts” (2022) https://www.cdc. gov/habs/environment.html. 37
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ibid
39 Congressional Research Service (Governmental Organisation).“Freshwater Harmful Algal Blooms: Causes, Challenges, and Policy Considerations”. (2018) https:// crsreports.congress.gov
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (Governmental Organisation). “Harmful Algal Bloom (HAB)-Associated Illness: Causes And Ecosystem Impacts” (2022) https://www.cdc. gov/habs/environment.html. 40
41 Ijaz Rasul et Al. “Algae Biotechnology: A Green Light for Engineered Algae” in Algae Based Polymers, Blends, and Composites 1, no.1 (2016): 301-334
Cajca, Carlson. “Dezeen: Natural Material Studio And Frama Showcase Algae And Terracotta Fabrics” (2022) https://www. dezeen.com/2022/01/19/natural-materialstudio-frama-algae-terracotta-fabrics/.
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36 Despite Plantics-GX being a CO2-negative , inbinder the search for a waste-centricbindingmedium,thispaperlookstowards condition of the waterways surrounding the Redcar sit cyanobacteriaaroundthesiteiscatalysedby‘theovergro 37 algaeoralgae-likebacteriainfresh,salt,or which brackish canbe water 38 characterisedbya‘scum,foam,froth,orapaint-likeslick
It is the contention of environmental researchers that t bloom is a direct product of the nutrient imbalance of wat hands of human pollution. Indeed, as the US Congress Report Blooms reports ‘many anthropogenic activities cont 39 waterbodies… Sources include industrial wastewater , with d theCDCgoingontoaffirmthattherearemain 3 sourcesofwatern pollution: Plant 1. Fertiliser Sewage 2. 40 Run3. offfromcitiesandindustrial buildings
According to Rasul, samples of this cyanobacterial al product of industrial pollutants or simply a natur ‘represent a potential biomass to be explored as a sourc 41 bioplastics,becausealgalbiomasscauses . Inexploring wasteproble the potential to convert this harmful algal waste into a P paper looks towards the work of various bio-material d innovators such as Natural Material Studio,who are work cyanobacteria into various biopolymers through the 42 molecularproperties.
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Suchconversioniscatalysedthroughtheheatingofthenaturally-occuring polymers within algal samples. By heating these polymers, their short polymer chains are dissolved into individual monomers, and as cooling occurs, these monomers are invited to re-polymerise and ‘thermoset’, forming longer polymer chains which create the desired plasticised materialpropertiesofcyanobacterialbiopolymers.Indeed,asresearchers affirm,naturalpolymerswithinalgae’suchasstarchorPHA…arealready beingusedinplastic43 production’. Thesebiopolymersareinherentlycarbon-negative,owingtothefactthatthe cyanobacterial sinks vast quantities of CO2 throughout its photosyntheic lifetime before being materially converted into a plasticised biopolymer. Thisconversion,despitereleasingasmallamountofcarbonwhenheated, locks large volumes of this carbon in-place within the material.The use of this carbon-embodied biopolymer to tether the polluted industrial aggregate within the novel PWC creates a unique material quality, in whichhighpollutanttoxicityislockedwithinamaterial,catalysingthebioremediationofthewasteland. Of course, it is understood that there is a finite stream of industrial cyanobacterial waste,and this paper does not suggest that such aquatic pollutionisadesirablenecessityonwhichthesuccessofsuchamaterial investigationdepends.Therefore,thispaperinsteadproposestheutilisation ofever-growingcyanobacterialbiomasswaste-streamsgeneratedthrough biofuel production. In utilising this waste-stream, alongside the use of harmful cyanobacteria from post-industrial sites, an essentially limitless carbon-negativeandbioremediativematerialresourcecanbetappedinto. Figure2.09- AlgalBiopolymersheets Figure2.10(JessieFrench)
AlgalBiopolymerraincoat (Charlotte McCurdy)
43 Cinar Onen et Al. “Bioplastic Production from Microalgae: A Review” in International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 17, no.1 (2020)
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Formulating Cyanobacterial Biopolymers Fig[2.1]
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Fig[2.12]
Fig[2.13]
Fig[2.14]
Fig[2.15]
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Fig[2.17]
Fig[2.18]
CyanobacterialSamplesareharvestedfromrocks,brackishwaterpools andmoundsof Figures2.11-2.18 post-industrialwaste,intheformofmicroandmacroalgae.Thesecyanobacterial samples Documenting the end-to-end process arethenwashedtoremovesedimentaryimpurities[Fig2.12].Thefirststep ofthe process of developing involvesexposingtheaquiredcyanobacteriatoheatsof70*C.thisconsistent heat cyanobacterial exposurebeginstobreakdownthesolutionintoitsindividualpolymers, usingheatenerg biopolymers from tobreakthenaturallyoccurringpolymerbondswithinthesugarsmicroalgae ofthecyanobacteria. Uponheating,theBacterialsolutionbeginstothicken,andthepolymerbecomesalmost gelatinousandplasticised. Non-ToxicPlast-basedglycerineisaddedtopreventcrackingduring thethermosetting Figure2.19 (Overleaf) ofthebiopolymerwithinamould.Theresultsvarygreatlyduetohumidity, internal aV rying water, cyanobacteria temperatureofthetestingarea,UVexposureandamountoftimeexposedto heat.Theand glycerine ratios, altering biopolymersheetinFig2.17istheresultofaveryhumidlaboratoryenvironment. Assuch, material properties thistookfarlongertocure,andthethermosettingwasinterruptedbysmallfracturesin thebiomaterial.
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Post-Industrial Cyanobacterial Morphologies Formal Table of Empirical Results - Biopolymer Tests
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Developing Novel Compsite Materialities Post-Industrial Cyanobacterial Bio-Composites
Therefore,throughthereconsiderationofthepost-indust infrastructuralwastelandasaprimesiteofmaterialo a progressive methodology of primary testing and empir papersuggestsanovelbiogeniccompositematerialoft
The first ,a binder derived from the cyanobacterial blooms an algalbiofuelwaste-streams.
The second, a post-waste material stream which capitalis industrial aggregate waste, olivine sand and granula wastelandsitefordirectreconsiderationasamateria
The third,non-toxicvegetableglycerintopromotematerialflexi
The following documented samples test various compos industrial cyanobacterial composites, in order to a material parameters, allowing for an iterative control strength,opacity,rigidityandevenmateriallyembeddedflex
+
Translucent,CO2negativeBiopolymer
Waste Industrial Aggregate
= Figure2.20 - Composite material diagram Figure2.21 (Opposite) - Overview of PWC Toolkit Figure2.22 (Overleaf) - Iteratively testing varying PWC ratios
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Post-Waste CompositeMaterial Figure[2.20]
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Post-Industrial Cyanobacterial Morphologies Formal Table of Empirical Results - PWC Tests
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Test A: Regular Freezing and Thawing of Highly-Graded PWC
Test B: Constant Submersion of Flexible Biopolymer
Noted results: Little affect on the ability for the sample to withstand drops from 2m height, or to withstand compressive tests of 100kg per block. Some aggregate began to release from the biopolymer, however.
Noted results: Despite being water resistant, constant waterlogging seems to destroy the elastic properties of the biopolymer, the rip seen in test Bwasgeneratedbyslightlybendingtheonce-flexiblesample.
Test C: Abrasion Testing of a Medium-Density PWC
Test D: Sunlight-Dried Panel
Noted results: Little affect on the overall PWC strength, however, the sample has become misshapen within the abrasion process, due to the action of rubble hitting against the biopolymer edges and wearing them away.
Noted results: On keeping the Panel in a sunny window, the panel quickly became incredibly hard despite its thinner surface area to volume ratio. Perceived effects of UV is the hardening of the cyanobacterial biopolymer binding medium.
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Analysing Post-Waste Composites Testing Novel Composite Material Properties
Giventhispaper’sintenttodeploynovelPWCmaterialswithinarchitectural systems, it is necessary that the material samples are informed and developed parallel to a variety of performance-based testing. Indeed, Wastiels etAl.conclude that current architectural materials are selected primarily by their ‘technical aspects’,such as their strength,opacity and weight,alongsidetheir‘visualaspects’,suchas44colour,texture,andtactility. Therefore,bydevelopingatestingrubric,samplesareextractedfromthe materiallibraryandanalysedforavarietyoftheseparameters. The effects of daily environmental conditions on the novel PWC’s were tested by leaving material samples outdoors close to the wasteland site of Redcar, in order to accurately mimic the site conditions.Throughout their 14 days of testing, the PWC’s were subjected to temperature fluctuationsbetween3-17*C,days 10 ofrainfall,days 4 ofdirectsunlight, and a remaining 13 days of overcast, dry conditions.When compared to a control sample,the tested PWC composites exhibited little physical change,andwereabletowithstandequivalentcompressivestrengthtests whensubjectedtoaweightofapproximately10kgperbrick. Furthemore,duringthistime,differentPWC’sweresubmergedtoexamine the effects of long-term waterlogging, as well as being held within a domesticfreezertoreplicateattainablewinterconditions.Whilsttheeffects of freezing and thawing did not greatly affect the PWC,the submerged samples displayed signs of biopolymer ‘bloating’, in which water had been drawn into the biopolymer binder, causing it to begin to degrade Figure2.23 (Opposite) - PWC Material Analysis and fracture under the compression test.This bloating effect should be Results investigated further to investigate the preventative opportunities of regular 44 Lisa Wastiels et Al. “Material Consideration waterproofingtreatments.
in Architectural Design: A Study of the Aspects IdentifiedbyArchitectsforSelectingMa in Undisciplined! 1, no.1 (2009)
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Preserving Iconography Materially-Embedded Memory
Theabilitytoessentially‘lock’aggregatematerialson-sitebybindingthem withinthePWCisakeyelementofthesite-specificcyclicalecologyofthe material developed within this paper,and allows this material to engage inaconstantfeedbackloopbetweenwasteandresource.Asresearchinto the social context of the ‘wasteland’ condition uncovered, the industrial infrastructureremainsakeypartofthelocalculturalheritage,despiteits slowdemolitionbythelocalauthorities. Through a site-specific material feedback loop,which encases the site’s aggregate demolition material and its precious material iconography within the translucent cyanobacterial biopolymer,the material legacy of thelocalindustrialinfrastructureisvisiblypreserved,avoidingitsotherwise inevitable fate within landfill. As such, the material explores ideas of industrial material fossilisation as a form of socially-conscious up-cycling and heritage preservation. Indeed, classical archaeologist Sarah Rous Figure2.not 24 (Opposite) affirms that ‘preservative up-cycling can work to perpetuate only - Materially-embedded iconography difficult memories of communal hardships to inspire and exhort current 45 Sarah Rous. “Reset in Stone” (Madison: andfuturegenerations,butalsomorepositivememoriesofacommunity’s 45 University of Wisconsin Press, 2021): 79 deep-rootedidentity’.
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Post-Waste Composite Life-Cycles ASite-SpecificCyclicalEcology
Figure2.25 - Flow chart tracking site’s cyclical ecology and history
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Thedevelopmentofthispost-industrial,carbonnegativeb istheproductofamaterialresourcesystemwhichinvolv materialecologies,engagedinaconstantfeedbackloopbetw materialandwaste.Thewastematerialsboundwithinthecu since the site’s construction in 197, have been primari materials with no inherent re-use, destined for informa on-site or within formal landfill.The novel PWC materials d this paper aim to reverse this material approach,capi streams which have been created over 10 years ago, in the form aggregatewasteandpost-industrialcyanobacterialbi fabricationanddeploymentwithinanarchitecture,andu material treatment,the biopolymers will begin to decay,re-r aggregate back to the site for further incorporation in so on.This material ecology can be tracked through the flow d Figure2.25
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Chapter III Deploying Post-Waste Composites; Functionally Graded Fabrication Methodologies
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Chapter III
Statement of Intent
Throughout this paper,a library of uniform material samples have been generatedbyamendingratiosofpost-industrialaggregateswithinacarb negativebiopolymerbinder,withvaryinglevelsofglycerineadditivesaffect flexibility.Going forward,the third chapter of this paper opens discussi around possible fabrication methodologies through which these PWC’s and their varying properties may be deployed on an architectural scale. These various fabrication methods,developed alongside various indus professionalsthroughaniterativeprocessofcomputationandphysicalt propose how post-waste fabrication can capitalise on aggregate-derived heterogenouspropertieswithinamaterially-homogenousPWCbuildingskin
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From Development to Deployment Introduction to Fabrication Methodology
Atpresent,long-establisheddesignandconstructionmethodologyconsiders architectural form to be the product of a series of finite elements such as bricks, planks, beams and boards, each with their own independent material properties, which are combined into a complex architectural system,or‘abuilding’. Indeed,Ulrich refers to the theories of product development as a multidisciplinaryparalleltofurtherunderstandtraditionalarchitecturalbuilding methodologies,whereby ‘different physical elements are assembled into 46 anumberofmajorbuildingblocks,oftenarereferred Oftoas‘chunks’’. course,thesevariousarchitecturalelementsareindependentlydesignated and deployed to fulfil the desired architectural intent relating to their material properties.Moreover,Koolhaas posits that the product of these individualelementsor‘chunks’suchasthestair,wall,floor,doorandsoon, can be further characterised not only by their material properties,but by 47 their inherited history leading , and meaning to the further classification of‘partsandchunks’asmateriallyandcharacteristicallyfinite. This paper, however, proposes employing more contemporary methods 46 Karl Ulrich et Al. “Product Design and of architectural fabrication,in which varying properties can be deployed Development: 7th Edition” (New oY rk, McGraw-Hill, 2020): 122 withinacontinuousmaterialgradient,inordertoembedvarious functions 47 Koolhaas. ”Elements Of Architecture” withinoneparametricallyheterogeneousbuilding‘chunk’,orRem ‘skin’. (Venice: Marsilio, 2014)
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Discrete Assembly to Continuous Fabrication Functionally Graded Materials
Whenproposingthedeploymentoffabricatedgradientswit system, one should highlight that composite material considered inherently graded materials in their own r states of aggregate-binder gradation defining the perfo material sample.For example,in their analysis of aggregat within asphalt, Fang et Al. affirm that ‘aggregate gradat role on asphalt mixture’s properties [and] significa 48 performancesofasphaltpavement. Aggregate ’ gradationcanbedefin as either ‘Well-Graded’, ‘Poorly-Graded’ or ‘Gap-Graded’, which s spectrum between rigidity and fragility.These gradient form,were explored within Chapter 2 of this paper as part of the materialdevelopmentprocess.
Figure3.01 - aV rying Aggregate Gradation Techniques
Instead,thischapterexploresbroadermaterialgradients scale, in which PWCs of differing properties can co-exist continuous gradient across a larger surface, such as an architectural facade element.Itisthecontentionofthispaper,therefore,thatthef 48 FangetAl.“InfluenceofAggregate a single biopolymer medium with varying ratios of post GradationonthePerformanceProperties awiderarchitecturalsystemcanbegintosu ofPorousAsphaltMixtures”inJournalthroughout of MaterialsinCivilEngineeringno. 1, 25(013): graded material (FGM) out of which novel heterogeneous and bi 281-. post-wastearchitecturalbuildingskinscanbederiv
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Figure3.02 - Functionally Graded Concrete Beam, (Oxman and eK ating, MIT)
Indeed,Grigoriadis states that ‘’FGMs consist of submaterials continuously 49 fused in one volume, without the use of mechanical While . connections’ FGMs are primarily employed across the aerospace, medicine, defence, energy and optoelectronics sectors, certain contemporary designers are 49 Kostas Grigoriadis. “Computational lb ends: questioning the deployment of FGMs on an architectural scale in towith functionally the epistem ologyorder of designing develop mono-structural building fabrics which are ablegraded to execute a wide materials” in The Journal of Architecture 24, no.2 (201or 9): 16controlling 0-192, rangeoffunctions,suchasexhibitingstructuralrigidity opacity.
Figure3.03 - Functionally Graded 3D Printed Architectural Model (Gridoriadis)
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Post-Waste Construction
Fabricating Functionally Graded Post-Waste Composites
Inordertoexplorethesenovelfunctionally-gradedarchitec PWC’s,astandardsetoffacadeconditionsmustbeisolated fragment,in order to test the various common facade cond standard architectural design and construction.Thi theproductofvariousdiscretematerialswhicharecom arangeofproperties,withtheglassofwindowsprovidingt transparency,bricksprovidingstructureandopacit jointsandhingesthroughoutthefacade.Assuch,asapoi thispaperwilluseatypicalfacadefragmentwhichcontai standardisedmaterialpropertiesattributedtovari 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
WoodenDoor:OpacityorTranslucency,Strength MetallicHinge:Flexibility,Strength BrickWall:Rigidity,Strength StandardWindow:Transparency,Rigidity,Streng FrostedWindow:Translucency,Rigidity,Strengt
Thesetypicalarchitectural‘parts’andtheirrespecti can be effectively re-imagined as a series of architect properties on a continuous gradient, in order to develop a conceptual diagramofa‘typical’continuallygradedarchitectura
WhenconsideredthroughthelensofPWC’s,despitetheiroverarc homogeneity (all being two-part composites of post-indus withinacyanobacterialbinder)these , conceptualmateria architecturaltranslucency,transparency,rigidityand throughthecontinuousheterogeneityofPWCmaterialprope fromthevaryingaggregatetobinderratiosfromwhichthe
The targeted deployment of differing composites of varyi to binder ratios within a larger gradient-based sys complex, as the level of control required in order to accur the location of particular material deposits withi system is high. As such, computational methods of di augmented fabrication must be tested as a key part of the p such,this paper will suggest three potential methods of fabricationofsuchbiogenicbinder-basedcompositeFG of accuracy of embedding functional gradation within a Graded 1. DeploymentofUniformCompositeBlocks(Fragment1) Digitally 2. AugmentedCompositeCasting(Fragment2) Voxelised 3. Multi-Input3DPrintedComposites(Fragment3)
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Figure3.04 - Conceptual blend diagram
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Fabrication Methodology Fragment 1
Graded Deployment of Uniform Composite Blocks
Fragmentarguably 1, the most readily deployable approach to a composite material heterogeneity, embodies a direct tr traditional building materials to novel PWC’s.Indeed,eac material properties explored throughout this paper c allocatedanarchitecturalelementintheformof‘bio-bric inthetablebelow.Thismethodofarchitecturalconstruct deploymentofdifferenttypesofcomposite‘parts’,orbrick a way which mimics the structural and material propert architecturalelements; WoodenDoor:NovelBio-CompositeTypology G CompleteOpacityandNon-StructuralRigidty 2.
MetallicHinge:NovelBio-Composite C Typology MediumTranslucencyandFlexibility 3.
BrickWall:NovelBio-Composite I Typology CompleteOpacityandStructuralStrength 4.
StandardWindow:NovelBio-Composite ATypology HighTranslucencyandFlexibility 5.
FrostedWindow:NovelBio-Composite ETypology LowTranslucencyandMediumRigidity
1.
Thegradationbetweenthesematerialpropertiesinarchi would be driven by the placement of the distinct bio-brick determinetheoptimumplacementofsuchblocksalongafac brick dimensions would be directly mapped onto a concep elevationofthefacadefragmentina3Dmodel,andthenumberofvar brick typologies would be informed by specific aggregate Basedontheseprinciples,thefollowingexamplerequiresfi ‘types’toachievemultipledesiredproperties.
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In this example,the data from the 3D model directly informs the PWC brickcastingprocess,inwhichviscousbiopolymerandaggregateindustrial waste slurries are poured and packed into brick moulds and thermoset at room temperature over a short time span of 20 minutes, and then a longer-term hardening process over the following 5 days.These bricks, once fully hardened, are then carefully placed responding to the generated algorithmic layout, using fresh viscous biopolymer as a flexible and transparentbinding‘mortar’betweentherowsofbricks.
Figure3.05 - Generating a graded PWC lb ock facade Figure[3.05]
Figure3.06 (Overleaf) - Annotated 1:1 PWC Wall Sample
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Figure3.07 - 120 Individually cast PWCbricks, fabricating an accurate graded scale model
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Figure3.08 - Deploying PWC bricks in graded facades with biopolymer mortar binder.
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While the initial fabrication methodology of Fragment 1 proves to be somewhat successful, it should be noted that this method remains a gradation of discrete parts,with changes in material properties occuring atseparate,linearjunctionsbetweeneachbrick.Notonlydothesebinding lines disrupt any continuous material gradient within a single material sample,theyalsointroducepointsofweaknesswithinthefacadesystem, duetotheinherentfragilityoflaminationpoints.Theidealgradedfacade system would,therefore,permit multiple material properties within Figure3. 09 - Facadesingle fragment within parts:forexample,asinglepanelwithahighaggregate-to-binder ratio my workspace, UV at light exposure tests longevity oneend,andalow-aggregate-to-binderratioattheother.
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Post-Industrial Cyanobacterial Morphologies Figure3.10 - Graded lime composite panel.
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Fabrication Methodology Fragment 2
Digitally Augmented Composite Casting
Fragment 2 is the product of digitallyaugmented composi initiallydevelopsinasimilarwaytoFragment1bymappin elements onto the conceptual blended facade diagram and properties at each deployment location. However, Fragment 2 d from the previous fabrication study in its aim to vary within a single piece, and these finite elements will tak larger interlocking panels. In increasing this scal multiple composite materials may be combined,thus allo todevelopacrossthefacade.Thisfabricationstudyemplo and fabrication in an iterative methodology,in order to augmentedcompositecastinginwhichgradientscanb reliablyconstructed.
Figure3.11 - Panelising the conceptual facade diagram
UsingHoudini3Dsoftwaretodeveloppowerfulfluidsimulati specific viscosity values were digitally attribute volumes to replicate a volume of cast-able,pre-thermoset PWC.Ea these attributes relate to the pre-thermoset viscosity materialsdevelopedwithinthispaper,andtheyallowforthe a digital library of viscous composites which direc materiallibrarydevelopedinChapter2ofthispaper.
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Wideralgorithmicfluid-dynamicsetup-Houdini3D
Setting‘White’and‘Black’ to the required PWC viscosities.
ApplyingDigitalViscosities
Figure3.12 - Computational development of fluidsimulationtests
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The results of the initial PWC interaction simulation,which deployed digital translationsoftheviscositiesofPWCtypologiesA(inwhite)andE(inblack) in pre-thermoset form, show the chaotic interaction of the two molten materials within the flat-bed mould over 160seconds (the approximate time required for thermosetting)This . unpredictable interaction, which will nowbetestedinphysicalformtoassuretheparallelfindingsofbothdigital andanaloguecastingmethodologies,essentiallyvoidsanypotentialgradient deploymentwithinthepanel.
Figure[3.14]
In order to ensure reliability of comparison between analogue and digital testing,initialtestsmould conducted 01deployed within thesamematerial typologiesofAandE.Despitethecastingprocessfunctioningsuccessfullyin containing varying material properties within one finite element,analogue testing also revealed that the rapid movement of highly viscous, nonFigure3.13 (Opposite) - Simulation of PWC’s in thermosetPWC’screatesanunpredictableinteractionofaggregates within undamped mould01. the mould, essentially preventing any control over the mould’s material gradients. Learning from the fluid simulations, this fabrication approach Figure3.14 - Physical test results of PWC ‘s in looks to develop a series of digitally-augmented moulds,undamped as seen in the mould01. followingdiagram,toslowtheunpredictableinteractionofviscousPWC’s.
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Mould 02: Deployingstuds throughout the mouldbedto dampenexcessive fluidmotioninall directions.
Moulds are ableto interlock, casting interlocking gradedpanels.
Figure3.15 - Axo of various mould designs to slowfluidinteraction
Figure3.16 - Mould LaserCut vectors
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Mould 03: Deployingstrips alongthemould bedlengthto dampenlateral fluidmotioninthe X-direction.
Mould 04: Deployingstrips acrossthemould bedwidthto dampenlateral fluidmotioninthe Y-direction.
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Figure3.17 - Simulation of PWC’s in Mould02.
The second test, mould 02,seeks to control the unpredictable mixing of desired gradients through computationally simulating a series of ‘breaks’ withinthemould.These‘breaks’,placedsystematicallyacrossthebedofthe mould,aimed to slow the multi-directional flow of the viscous composite materials before they initiate thermosetting. However, when developed and tested with digital fluid dynamic algorithms,mould 02 showed only slightimprovementsinthecontrolofmixingalongboththeXandY-axis, when directly compared to mould 01’S un-damped ‘flat-bed’. These computationalfindings[Fig3.17]werereflectedinphysicaltesting[Fig3.18], whichshowedthatmaterialsremainedmixedinunpredictablewaysalong theX-axis,voidinganyintentionallycastgradientsacrossthepanel.
Figure3.18 - Physical Test of PWC’s in Mould02
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Figure3.19 Mould03 Axo
Figure3.20 - Thermosetting PWC within Mould03.
Figure3.21 Physical Results of Mould03
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Figure3.22 - Simulation of PWC’s in Mould03.
Learning from the outcomes of the second test, the third test (mould 03) deployed greater measures to control the unpredictable mixing of pre-thermoset PWC’s along the X-Mould axis. 03 is composed of a series of ribs,placed perpendicularly (Y-axis) to the desired direction of materialgradientwithinthepanel,inordertocontrolthemixingofthetwo composites along the X-axis. In computational testing [Fig3.2], mould 03 generated broadly reliable results, suggesting the successful control of unpredictable mixing of fluids.These computational simulations were supportedbyphysicaltesting,asmould03successfullyformed Figure3.2controlled 3 (Overleaf)- Graded digitallyaugmented cast panel. material gradients along the X-axis length in 9 of 10 panels tested [Fig3.21].
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In order to determine whether the perpendicularity of the ri be the crucial variable in the successful casting proc generalexistenceofribsthemselves,afinalstudywascarr fourthmould(mouldThis 04). mouldiscomprisedofdimensio ribswithinthemouldbed,thistimehowever,alignedparall directionofmaterialgradient(alongtheX-axis).
Computationaltestingofmould[Figure3 04 .24]indicatedthat rib deployment, whilst controlling the multi-directio composites, instead exacerbated lateral (X-direction) in two composites throughout the mould, disrupting the during thermosetting. Physical testing of mould 04 [Fig supported computational analysis, creating poor qua panels.
Figure3.24 - Simulation of PWC’s in Mould04.
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Figure3.25 - Mould 04 Axo
Figure3.26 - Physical test of PWC’s in mould04.
Figure3.27 - Selecting the most successful mould
Throughoutalloftheabovecastingtests,bothcomputationalandphysical, variablesofmaterialviscosity,compositecoolingtime,pouringheight,and testing environment were controlled,in order to isolate the mould as the singletestedvariable.Astheanalysisshows,mould03provedtohailthe most successful casting method, with the perpendicular deployment of ribssuccessfullycontrollingthelateralmixingoftheviscousPWC’sinthe X-axis by slowing their movement.Whilst this mould approach requires 28 (Overleaf)- 1:1 Scale model of further development,with a tested failure rate of 10 percent,theFigure3. results digitally-augmented cast graded provedsuccessfulenoughtobedeployedwithinalargerfacadesystem. fragment
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Fabrication Methodology Fragment 3
Multi-Input3DPrintedPWC’s
While the panelised fabrication method explored previo successfulincreatingmono-directionalmaterialgra to suggest a more continuous, homogenous fabricatio third fabrication method in this paper is therefore ba input 3D printing of novel PWC’s in order to achieve a facad seamlessly gradients from structural rigidity to flexi totranslucency.
50 aY o aY o Meng et Al. “Calcareous Arabesque” Exhibited at The Design Museum. “Waste-Age: What Can Design Do?” (London, UKRI, 2022)
Figure3.29 - Custom PWC 3D Print Head
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As these composite materials need to reach a temperatu and contain varying aggregate dimensions,a custom pr fabricatedinordertoextrudethesenovelsubstances.Unfo to constraints,the development of a custom extruder can n out within the scope of this paper.However,in looking to Bi 50 wastepanelgeneratedfrom3Dprintedsugarcane the , following waste diagramshavebeengeneratedtoshowhowthiscustomprin bedesignedandfabricatedinfuture:
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Figure3.30 - Lamination Testing Results Top - Laminating Large-Scale Aggregates using wide nozzle. Middle - Extruding PWC’s of Biopolymer and Marine Sand for small-scale aggregate deployment using accurate extruder head. Bottom - Laminating PWC layers with caulk gun
Although material technologists have previously 3Dprinted with aggregate thermoset materials with similar properties, this third fabrication study employs a large cement caulking gun to test the ability of this papers’ specificmaterialtobeextrudedinaseriesoflayers,emulating3Dprinting methods.These tests reliably demonstrated that the PWC,when extruded throughanappropriatelysizednozzleinresponsetotheviscosityoftheprethermoset material,is able to laminate in a series of layers when afforded approximately120secondsofdryingtimebetweenlayerstoensurestructural integrityismaintainedduringlamination.Followingtheconfirmationofthese lamination tests,a PWC facade printing methodology was then developed alongsideexpertswithintheB-MadeteamincludingSiennaShaw.
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Initially, the conceptual blended facade diagram used t sectionofthepaperisconvertedintoanetworkofvoxelsusi software. Each of these ‘voxels’, essentially a 3D pixel, contai relating to the aggregate-to-binder ratio required to desired properties, be it rigidity, flexibility or tran panel.A computational voxelisation approach employing allows for a more accurate topological optimisation which structurally-capable PWC’s can be placed along mor compression-lineswithinthefacade.Theinfillbetweensuc within the facade then acts on a continuous gradient in conceptual facade diagram,continually blending between elements, transparent areas, translucent zones and area whichreplicatehingedopenings.
Figure3.31 - Computational voxelisation of 3D-printable graded fragment
The digital development of this 3D-printable fragment, se contains approximately 140, voxels, each with an aggregate-t binder composite ratio which dictates its required m a continuous gradient.These material properties can be specific3Dprintablefilamentstoallowforthefabrication upusingamulti-material3Dprinter,whichdemonstrates gradient between each of the material properties achieved PWCsamplesinchapter2ofthispaper.
Figure3.32 - Topological Optimisation of fragment
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Figure3.33 - Axo of 3DPrinted Prototype for a PWC functionally graded facade
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Figure3.34 - Mapping the relative PWC’s to the scale multimaterial prototype.
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Theprocessofthisfabricationmethodinformsthefollowingdiagram,which demonstratestherequiredset-upto3DPrintmultiplePWC’swithinasingle gradedfacadeelement.
Figure3.35(Opposite)-FlexibleTPUfilament hinges-mimickingPWCtypologyC.
Figure3.36 - Robotic set-up of future graded PWC 3DPrinted facades.
Of the various fabrication methods tested throughout this paper, the use of multi-input 3D printing can be seen to hold the most architectural promise, allowing for the hyper-specific deployment of continuous PWC gradedstructuresthroughvoxelisation,whicharetopologicallyoptimisedand materiallyefficient.Futureresearchwillfocusonthefurtherdevelopmentof thismethod,employingcustom-builtextrusionheadswithinarobotic-printing matrix to fabricate at-scale functionally graded post-waste composite architectures.
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Conclusion
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In its purest sense,this paper opens a new architectural discourse concerning the develo novel post-waste composite materials and their fabrication within functionally graded systems.Moreover,and on a personal note,this paper can be considered an initial statement intentfortheauthor’sfuturearchitecturalpractice.
Initially,throughaliteraryandtheoreticalanalysisofthecurrenturbantypologyoftheBr town, this thesis critiques the contemporary pseudo-carbon-conscious industrial p anditsresultant‘wasteland’condition.Throughout,thispaperdefinesandidentifiest as not only a pertinent socio-economic,infrastructural and environmental condition,bu materialstateinwhichvastun-tappedaggregatewastestreamsareabandonedin-situ.
Inreconsideringthispost-industrialmaterialcondition,typicallycharacterised aggregate stores and cyanobacterial toxicity,as a site of rich and iconographic materi the paper continued in proposing a novel carbon-negative biogenic material,or PWC.This PWC, bornfromapost-industrialsite-specificcyclicalresourcesystem,wasrigorouslydevel multidisciplinary engagement with literary scientific text,laboratory-based testing loop between digital and analogue fabrication at various scales. In this way, a library of r post-waste composite material samples was generated, each with varying architectural m propertiessuchasrigidity,translucency,andcompressivestrength.
Uponnotingtheabilitytocontrolmaterialpropertiesthroughamendingaggregate-to-bi during material development,this paper culminated in provoking discussion around t of PWC functionally graded architectures,offering tests of three initial material-specifi methodologies in which the gradation of material aggregates continually varies str environmentalperformativity.
Assuch,andinconclusion,thispapersuccessfullycontributestoarchitecturaldis andevidencingthedevelopmentanddeploymentofsuchpost-wasteandpost-industrialcompos findingparticularpromiseinthefabricationoffunctionally-gradedPWCarchitectures input3Dprintinganddigitally-augmentedcasting.Incatalysinganewareaofmaterialint paper hopes to inspire greater research into the design and fabrication of carbon-negati wastematerialswithincontemporaryarchitecturalpractice.
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Bibliography and Figures
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Cinar Onen et Al. “Bioplastic Production from Microalgae: Kate Franklin. A Review” i International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Future.Health ”(London 17, no.1(20) KateTreggiden.“ CongressionalResearchService(GovernmentalOrganisation) Publishers, “Freshwa . 20) Harmful Algal Blooms: Causes, Challenges, and Policy Considerations (2018)https:/crsreports.congress.gov Kostas Grigo withfunction David Adams. “Greenfields, Brownfields and Housing Development” 160-92 (): (Oxford,Blackwell,13-42 0): Kristoffer Vog EddieSpence.TheGreenRevolutionIsBeingBuiltonaVeryDirty Work, Industry. Employment Bloomberg.com (201): https:/www.bloomberg.com/graphics/201green-steel/. Lisa Wastiels Study of the As EuropeanComission.“EUConstructionandDemolitionWaste Undisciplin Protocoland Guidelines”(Brussels,EUPublishers,(online 20) versioncanbesourced athttps:/ec.europa.eu/growth/news/eu-construction-and-demolition) Martin Jänic countries’’ i Ewa Mazierska. “Heading North:The North of England in Film 491 and Television”(London,PalgraveMacmillan,2017)
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nceofAggregateGradationonthePerformance Mary Properties Lanigan. “Teeside Freeport Consultations” (2019) https haltMixtures”inJournalofMaterialsin teessidefreeport. CivilEngineering com/ 1, news/demolition-work-begins-on-ico furnace/
rg etAl.“Plantics-GX:a biodegradable andNadine cost-effective Dorries.The Local Democracy Reporting Service.(20) http astic that is 10% plant-based” in Faraday Discussions ldrs.org.uk/ 1,
“Waste Age: What Can Design Do?” (20) https:/ um.org/exhibitions/waste-age-what-can
Plantics VB.“Plantics: Biodegradable Bio-Plastic From Resources - Superior Natural Materials” (20) https:/pla com/#technology.
chek etAl.“The 203Agenda and the ParisAgreement: RemKoolhaas.”ElementsOfArchitecture”(Venice:Marsilio,2014) ntributions towards thematic policy coherence” in Climate Sara Pantuliano. ’Foreword’ in Counting Carbon in GlobalT (2020) l.“AlgaeBiotechnology:AGreenLightforEngineeredAlgae” dPolymers,Blends,andCompositesno. 1, 301-4 (2016): Sarah Rous. “Reset in Stone” (Madison: University of Wisc 32-10 ): nmental Panel on Climate Change. IPCC guidelines for nhousegasinventories.(Geneva:IPCCPublishing, Seetal Solanki. 2019) “Why Materials Matter;Responsible Design f World.”(Munich,PrestelPublishers,20) Al.“Product Design and Development:7th Edition” (New ll,20) TeesValleyCombinedAuthority.“RedcarBlastFurnace:KeyConsi Summary” (20) digitallly archived via pdf at https:/teesvall “Radical Matter, Rethinking Materials uk/ for wp-content/ a Sustainable uploads/20/1Redcar-Blast-Furnace-Reports.pdf) n,ThamesandHudson,2018) TheDesignMuseum.“Waste-Age:WhatCanDesignDo?”(London,UKRI, “Wasted:WhenTrashBecomesTreasure”(Brussels, 2022) Ludion
TheEuropeanEnvironmentalAgency.“EEAGlossary”.www.eea.europa oriadis.“Computational blends:the epistemology (20)https:/www.eea. ofeuropa. designing eu/help/glossary/eea-glossary nallygradedmaterials”inTheJournalofArchitectureno. 24, 2 UK Government. TheTen Point Plan for a Green Industrial Revol (London,TheNationalArchives,20) gt. “The post-industrial society: from utopia to ideology” in tandSocietyno. 30, 36-7 2(015): United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. “Tr Adoption of the ParisAgreement [Article 2]” in 21st Confer s et Al. “Material Consideration in Architectural Parties(Paris: Design: United ANations,3-2 015): spects Identified by Architects for Selecting Materials” in ned!no. 1, 1(209) US Department of Commerce.“Global SteelTrade Monitor”.www.trad gov (20): https:/www.trade.gov/data-visualization/global-steel cke et Al. ‘’’Dirty industries’: Patterns of monitor change in industrial in Environmental & Resource Economicsno. 9, 467- (19): YaoYao Meng et Al. “Calcareous Arabesque” Exhibited at The D Museum.“Waste-Age:WhatCanDesignDo?”(London,UKRI,20)
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List of Figures Figure[0.01]-PWCCoverImage
Figure[1.15]Tree Co
Figure[0.02]The - Blast Furnace of Redcar Steelworks - Image captured Figure[1.16]-Purg byauthorPaulAndrewBrookeandphotographerEllenPaigeLeachona sitevisit(February20) Figure[1.17] - Cork H Milne and Oliver Wil Figure[1.01] Timeline tracking the growth and decay of the UK Steeltown-Diagrambyauthorusingdatafromhttps:/tradingeconomics. Figure[1.18]-3DPri com united-kingdom/industrial-production Figure[1.19]Alga Figure[1.02] - Maps (Digimap2021) tracking the abandonment of UK SteelworksDiagram byauthorusingdatafromhttps:/www.sciencedirect. Figure[1.20]-Post com/science/article/pii/S03756420 Figure[1.21]-Close Figure[1.03]Abandoned RedcarSteelworksfromabove.(NorthernEcho, 2020) Figure[1.2]-Post
Figure[1.04] - The Abandoned Skyline of Redcar Steelworks - Image (Figurescaptu 1.5-2 captured by author Paul Andrew Brooke and photographerMuseum: Ellen Paige WasteAg Leachonasitevisit(February20) Figure[1.23]-3DSite Figure1The .05- CorrodedSteelFoundryatRedcar Figure2.01-26 - Aquir Figure1Teesworks -.06 DemolitionContractorsContributeto Visit theMaterial Photogr WastelandofRedcarBulkTerminal PaigeLeach(Febr Figure1The .07- SlagGranulatorofRedcarFoundry
Figure[2.07] - Samp VaryingDensit Figure1.08 - IndustrialWaste Breaches the Site Boundary of South Gare, Redcar and Cleveland Figure[2.08] - Anal Tests-Photogr Figure1.09The - Abandoned Concrete Control Room Building Sits in the ShadowoftheCastRiggerCrane Figure[2.09] - Alg matter. com/ AB Figure[1.10]-PilesofMetallicWasteMaterial experimental,of
Figure[1.1]Large HeapsofAlumSlagWasteontheShorelineofRedcar Figure[2.10] -Alga www.dezeen.com/2019/5cha Figure[1.12]The - SlagGranulatorofRedcarFoundry Figures2.1-28 - Docum Figure[1.13]Abandoned ClarifiersandPelletisers cyanobacteria industrials (Figures 1.05-3 captured by author Paul Andrew Brooke and photographerEllenPaigeLeachonasitevisit(February20) Figure[2.19] - Doc cyanobacteria Figure[1.14] - Excerpts from a report generated using the findings -Photographs of a b primaryresearchsurvey-JotformExport
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olumnNo1(BLASTStudio)
Figure[2.20]-Compositematerialdiagram-Diagrambyauthor
gedPlasticWall-(SoftBaroque)
Figure[2.21]-Photographbyauthor
House Fragment - (Matthew Barnett Howland,Dido Figure[2.2]-Documentingiterativetestingwithvaryingm lton) Photographsbyauthor
intedIndustrialWasteChair(JasperMorrison) Figure[2.23]-Documentingtheresultsofmaterialanalysis PWC’s. alBiopolymerDress,(CharlotteMcCarthy) Figure[2.24]-Materially-embeddediconographyPhotograph and t-WasteComposites author
ed-LoopK-Briq,(Kenoteq)
t-WasteLamp
Figure[2.25]-Flowcharttrackingthematerialhistoryofthe cyclical ecology which novel post-waste composite build byauthor
uredbyauthorPaulAndrewBrookeatTheDesign Figure[3.01] - Varying Aggregate Gradation Techniques - htt geExhibition(January202) constrofacilitator. com/ importance- of- aggregate- g slab/ eMapwithMaterialLibrary-Diagrambyauthor Figure[3.02] - Functionally Graded Concrete Beam, (Neri Oxma red Samples of Post-Industrial Waste from Steven SiteKeating, MIT) - Kostas Grigoriadis. “Computationa raphsbyauthorPaulAndrewBrookeandPhotographer epistemology Ellenof designing with functionally graded m ruary20) JournalofArchitectureno. 24, 160-92, ():
ples of Post-Waste Lime-Bound Aggregate Tests Figure[3 of .03]Functionally Graded3DPrintedArchitecturalMo tyRatios-Photographbyauthor Gridoriadis,TheJournalofArchitecture)Kostas Grigori blends:the epistemology of designing with functionally lysing Samples of Post-Waste Lime-Bound Aggregate inTheJournalofArchitectureno. 24, 160-92, (): raphbyauthor Figure[3.04]The - conceptualfacadeblenddiagram-Diagrambyau gal Biopolymer sheets (Jessie French) - https:/otherBOUT# : ~: text=OTHER% 2 0 MATTER% 2 0 is% 2 0 an% 2 0 Figure[3.05]Generating agradedPWCblockfacadeDiagram byauth f%20a%20post%2Dpetrochemical%20world. Figure[3.06]ZoominofaWall 1: Sample,annotatingthevariousPWC al Biopolymer raincoat (Charlotte McCurdy) typologies - https:/ deployed to achieve the graded deployment of pro arlotte-mccurdy-bioplastic-raincoat-2/ Photograph/Diagrambyauthor
menting the end-to-end process of developing Figure[3.07] - 120 bricks were individually cast in order to al biopolymers from microalgae extracted accurate from the and postreliablescalemodelofagradedwallsampleofPW site.-Photographsbyauthor. -Photograph/Diagrambyauthor
cumenting testing with varying ratios Figure[3 of water, .08]These brickswerethendeployedaccordingtothel aandglycerineinordertoachievevarious within material theproperties. conceptual blended facade diagram, using bi byauthor. ‘mortar’-Photograph/Diagrambyauthor
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List of Figures (Continued)
Figure[3.09] - The facade panel sits within my personal workspace, Figure[3.25]-Pop-Ap exposedtoUVlightasacontinuoustestofmateriallongevityPhotogra byauthor Figure[3.26] - Resu Photographbya Figure[3.10] - Aggregate-graded lime composite panel - Photograph by author Figure[3.27]Select PWCgradientca Figure[3.1] - Panelising the conceptual facade diagram - Diagram by author Figure[3.28] - Over facadeelement-P Figure[3.12] - Computational development of fluid simulation tests in Houdini3D Figure[3.29] - Diag author Figure[3.13] - Computational simulation of PWC interaction in an undampedmould. Figure[3.30]-Resu
Figure[3.14]Results ofPhysicalTestofPWCinteractioninan Figure[3 undamped .31] - Comp mould.-Photographbyauthor gradedfragmen
Figure[3.15] - Pop-Apart Axo of various mould designs to Figure[3 slow fluid .32] - Comp interaction.-Diagrambyauthor exposescompre Figure[3.16]-3DPrintfileformoulds-Diagrambyauthor
Figure[3.3] - Pop-A functionallyg Figure[3.17]-ComputationalsimulationofPWCinteractioninMould02 Figure[3.34] - Mapp Figure[3.18] - Results of PhysicalTest of PWC interaction in 3D-printed Mould02 - prot Photographbyauthor Figure[3.35] - Flexi Figure[3.19]-Pop-ApartAxoofMould03-Diagrambyauthor typologyC-Photo
Figure[3.20] - Thermosetting PWC within Mould 03 - PhotographFigure[3 by .36] - Robot author printingoffu
Figure[3.21] - Results of PhysicalTest of PWC interaction in Figure[3 Mould03 - .37] - Back Photographbyauthor author Figure[3.2]Figure[3 .2]Computational simulationofPWCinteraction inMould03.
Figure[3.23] - Zoom in of successfully graded digitally-augmented cast facadeelement-Photographbyauthor Figure[3.24]-ComputationalsimulationofPWCinteractioninMould04
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partAxoofMould04-Diagrambyauthor
ults of PhysicalTest of PWC interaction in Mould04 author
tingthemostsuccessfulmouldfordigitallyaugmented asting-Photographbyauthor
rall scale model of graded digitally-augmented cast Photographbyauthor
gram of custom PWC 3D Print Head - Diagram by
ultsfromLaminationTesting,-Photographsbyauthor
putational development of voxelised 3D-printable ntinHoudini3D
putational Topological Optimisation of fragment essionlines
Apart Axo of 3D Printed Prototype for a PWC gradedfacade-Diagrambyauthor
ping the relative PWC’s to the scale multimaterial totype-Diagrambyauthor
ibleTPU filament creates a hinge which mimics PWC ographbyauthor
tic set-up of future experiments into at-scale PWC unctionallygradedarchitectures-Diagrambyauthor
k Cover Image - Graded Cast Facade - Photograph by
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