Impact of Animal Assisted Therapy Reading Performance on Homeschooled Children by Cassie Gonce

2009 The eleaming Institute.

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reserved.

Journal of Elementary and Secondary

Education

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Impact of Animal Assisted Therapy Reading Instruction on Reading Performance of Ilomeschooled Students Dr. Kelly A. Smith Semrnole State College

ABSTRACT This

pilot study aimed to determine the impact of AAT reading instruction

on reading performance, within a sample of 26 homeschooled students in

grade 3. An experimental pre/post test control group research design was

utilizedfor this pilot study. The

ffict

of AAT on reading performance was

determined bqsed on the results of two+ailed two-sample t-test

statistical analysis of participant pre/post test scores of the Gray Oral Reading Test 4th edition (GORT-Q in the areas of reading rate and overall reading quotienL The two-tailed two-sample t-test score t(24) : 2.56,

p:.017 confirmed that AAT orql reading instruction significantly impacted student reading rqte. Due to the small size of this pilot study, the analysis lacked sfficient power, limitingfindings to this study. However, this

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research prepares the foundation for future larger studies that can

explore the instructional ffictiveness of AAT.

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Reading challenges can have a lasting impact on students, with most who experience reading difficulties in elementary school continuing to have reading problems

into adulthood (Felton & Pepper, 1995; Maughan et al., 2009). Reading challenges affect a large portion of the elementary school population with 30 to 40 percent of all school

children facing significant difficulty leaming to read (National Assessment of Educational Progress [NAEP], 2003). In addition, the reliance of public schools on the use of traditional curriculum and structured one-size-fits-all instruction (Bruni, 2004;

Owens

& Valesky, 2007) often

leads to lack of motivation and lack of skill development

(Barkley, 2007 ; Ehren, 2009). However, with the application of altemative reading intervention strategies, the reading skills of struggling readers increased by 90% (Montgomery & Moore-Brown, 2003). Altemative reading instruction methods should be examined and tested to address the continued deficiencies within the teaching of reading so that student comprehension

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improves. Savage, Carless, and Erten (2009) examined the effectiveness of alternative reading intervention methods for reading instruction and found that two out of three participants improved in the area of reading comprehension. The use of animal assisted therapy (AAT) as an alternative reading instruction method may also be a viable option

for addressing reading deficiencies. Researchers could explore the effectiveness of altemative reading instruction methods such as AAT reading instruction in improving reading skills in homeschooled children. The educational setting of homeschooling is an educational model that is an alternative to the more highly structured nature of traditional public education, and is one that embraces self-directed and inquisitive instruction such as AAT (Wasley, 2007).

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Homeschooling, by being adaptable, allows for individualization of the learning experience, instruction and assessment materials that best meets the leaming needs of the

child (Ray, 2009). AAT is an alternative instructional method for reading that accommodates not only the leaming style of each child but allows for instruction and presentation of information to be adapted to best fit the individual learning style (Bannier, 2007). Recent research findings support the hypothesis that the inclusion of animals

within the educational process does benefit learners (Beck, 2000; Miller & Lago, 1990).

AAT fits well within the more flexible educational constructs of homeschooling and the impact of an AAT reading program on reading progress can be explored through a quantitative research design.

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Purpose of the Study The purpose of this quantitative experimental pre/post test pilot study was to determine if homeschooled children in Grade 3 who received weekly AAT reading

instruction had improved reading performance as measured by pre/post test results of the Gray Oral Reading Test

edition (GORT-4) in the areas of reading rate and overall

reading quotient (ORQ), when compared to the pre/post test results of the GORT-4 in the areas of reading rate and ORQ of a control group, members of which

will not receive

AAT reading instruction and will read independently while the experimental group receives AAT instruction. In this study, the independent variable was the AAT reading

instruction. AAT reading instruction provided within this design was once weekly oneon-one therapeutic reading instruction sessions between study participant and certified therapy assistance dog and dog handler. Each session allowed for monitored reading of grade level selected books by the study participant to the dog, as a part of an

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reading instruction regiment that focused on improving reading performance. The dependent variable was reading performance as measured by pre/post difference scores

from the GORT-4 of both the experimental and control groups in the areas of reading rate and ORQ. The control variable was grade level, with all participants being members of

the third grade. Confounding variables included testing and maturation. Testing as a

confounding variable may exist if participants were affected by taking the pretest

reouired bv the research desisn. Maturation as a confoundins variable mav be in

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operation given that children naturally change physically and mentally so quickly, thus

may difficult to know whether the change observed from pre/post test results were due to the treatment of

AAT reading instruction sessions or were due to maturation.

This study included homeschooled children in Grade 3 from the Volusia Counfy, Florida area. The sample consisted of 26 participants, l3 within the experimental group and l3 within the control group. Issues related to sample size are discussed further in the

participant section, in the evaluation of findings section, and in the limitations section of this manuscript. Members of both the experimental sample and control sample met at the local public library for either AAT reading instruction or independent reading sessions at the same time once a week for 6 weeks, The research aimed to determine the exact effect

of oral reading AAT on homeschooled children's reading progress through several research questions.

Conceptual Framework The top-down model is an interactive model that relies on cues and reader input to construct meaning. The whole language approach of reading instruction is categorized

within the top-down model as an instructional model that relies on methods such

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shared reading experiences. Shared reading experiences allow for student and teacher to

partner in the process of guided reading for fluency and comprehension (Coyne et al., 2004; Holdaway, 1980). The aim of shared reading experiences within the whole lanorraoc qnnrnanh is fn allnrrr rcar{erc fn cwncrienne c nnn-fhreafenino leamino

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environment in which they can learn to read through experience. This can be done

without fear or shame and with encouragement and guidance from

teacher. AAT

reading instruction is an example of a whole language approach to reading that utilizes the aspect ofshared reading.

Within the assisted reading theory (Pikulski & Chard, 2005), reading rate is an essential component of comprehension and fluent reading. When this theory is applied to reading instruction, students would complete oral reading sessions in which minimal

correction and positive feedback on missed words is provided. The goal of reading instruction that follows the assisted reading theory is to improve the reading rate and accuracy ofstudents through reading instruction session in order to develop enhanced

fluency. When applied, students who engaged in assisted reading made significant gains in reading rate and fluency (Heibert & Fisher, 2002). Such findings illustrate the practical value of utilizing assisted reading theory as a framework for research that aims to address reading rate and fluency through reading intervention sessions. In this study, the assisted reading theory was a guiding construct for the AAT reading instruction reading sessions provided to members of the experimental group. One of the aims of the

AAT reading session provided within this study was to address the

performance measure of reading rate and fluency, with the intent of improving reading rate in students. Given that reading comprehension is reliant on reading rate and fluency,

Journal of Elenvntary and Secondary Education

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2010. October Volume: 1 . Issue: Hage

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Q1: What impact does weekly 30-minute AAT reading instruction sessions have on the reading performance of the experimental group as measured by the pre/post test

reading rate results of the GORT-4 versus the reading performance of the control group, whose members read independently during the experimental groups AAT instruction session, as measured by the pre/post test reading rate results of the GORT-4?

Q2: What impact does weekly 30-minute AAT reading instruction sessions have on the reading performance of the experimental group as measured by the pre/post test

Overall Reading Quotient (ORQ) results of the GORT-4 versus the reading performance of the control group, whose members read independently during the experimental groups

AAT instruction session,

as measured by the pre/post test ORQ results of the GORT-4?

Hypotheses

Hl:

The reading performance as measured by reading rate of the experimental

group receiving AAT reading instruction will be statistically equivalent as the reading rate of third grade homeschooled students not receiving

Hla: The reading performance

AAT reading instruction.

as measured by reading rate

group receiving AAT reading instruction

will

ofthe experimental

be statistically significantly different than

the reading performance of third grade homeschooled students not receiving

AAT

reading instruction.

H2: The reading performance as measured by ORQ of the experimental group receiving AAT reading instruction will be statistically equivalent as the ORQ of third grade homeschooled students not receiving

AAT reading instruction.

H2a: The reading performance as measured by ORQ of experimental group receiving AAT reading instruction

will

be statistically significantly different than the

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aS IIICSC aIâ&#x201A;ŹaS IIIIpIUVCT I-EaUlIlg CUIIIpIgIreIlslOII lIIrpIUVgs aS Wgll (DaIIlUsrS,

of34

z1vz). Jucl

improvements create a larger impact on reading performance in the area of reading comprehension. The independent reading experience ofthe control group was modeled on the

wide independent reading theory (cunningham & stanovich,lggg; Ehri, 2005; Kuhn

Stahl, 2000). The basic tenant ofthis theory is that a strong correlation between independent reading and reading achievement exists. Within this construct, increases in reading faculties such as vocabulary, fluency, and comprehension are directly related to the amount of reading done (Adams, 1990; cunningham

& Stanovich, l99g; Ehri, 2005;).

Within this researcher's completed study, the reading experience of the control group was based upon the theoretical construct that reading in any form might increase reading

skills. Research into reading fluency performance should not be limited to the assessment

oforal reading rate and oral reading accuracy based upon the assisted and

independent reading fluency theories. The assessment ofreading fluency should also include the measurement of reading comprehension (pikulski

& Chard, 200s). For this

reason, reading theory related to reading comprehension was also utilized as a guiding

theoretical construct for the completed research and its statistical evaluation ofthe overall reading quotient, which is a combination of fluency and comprehension scores. Guided

fluency instruction theory provided is the additional theoretical building block upon which the second research question ofreading comprehension though overall reading quotient was addressed. Research Questions

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reading performance of third grade homeschooled students not receiving AAT reading

instruction.

Nature of the Study The pilot study utilized an experimental pre/post test control group research design to determine the effectiveness of AAT reading instruction on improving the reading performance of third grade homeschooled students. The independent variable of

AAT reading instruction was used

the intervention method that

will impact

the

dependent variable of reading performance, which was measured by difference scores

from the pre/post test results in the area ofreading rate and overall reading quotient. The assessment tool that was utilized to determine reading performance was the Gray Oral

Reading Test

edition (GORT-4). Statistical comparisons were based on pre and

posttest results ofboth the experimental and control groups in the areas ofreading rate

and overall reading quotient (ORQ).

Literature Review The field of AAT is a new and complex area that must be further researched as a medical adjunct to patient treatment, as an adjunct to reading instruction, as a component

of reading models, and as a potential therapy for student issues such as low self-esteem, low motivation, and emotional trauma. AAT has been quantitatively researched in the medical field, thus illustrating the impact animals, and animal ownership and interaction can have on humans and their health (Fischman,2005; Shaw, 2005; Souter

& Miller,

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2007). The use of AAT within the educational setting is relatively new but research by Jalongo (2004) and Jalongo (2005) has provided basic statistical support forthe positive impact AAT intervention and instructional can have on the academic performance and

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educational experience ofstudents. A multitude ofadditional anecdotal support exists regarding the success AAT reading programs have within the school and library settings. Programs such as READ, Sit, Stay, Read! and Reading paws each provides personal success stores for

AAT within the educational realm (Bueche, 2003; Kogan , 2008;

Moustaki, 2003). Given the current educational situation within public schools in which

/"\,r\*-

reading performance continues to decline (Palka, 2008), researching viable alternative educational methods that may improve academic areas of concem such as reading should be completed (Bannier, 2007; Bush, 2006; Ehren, 2009; Kame' enui, 2004).

AAT

as a

reading instruction tool is one such option that should be researched and could prove to be an extremely valuable educational tool.

AAT reading instruction is an area that

necessitates further quantitative research to discern the impact it may have on students and their leaming.

Research Method The research was used as a pilot study so that the results could prepare the

foundation for future research into this area. In addition, a quantitative experimental pre/post test control group design was selected based on the nature ofthis design that

allows for difference scores of both the experimental and control groups to be calculated

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based on reading rate and ORQ of the GORT-4. The calculation of difference scores

allowed for a statistical point of comparison of reading performance between the experimental and control group (Lohr, 1999). Such statistical comparison may verifo the research hypothesis thus validating the effectiveness

ofAAT reading instruction as an

educational tool. In order to complete the study, a sample was selected, from which an experimental and control group were created. Participants within both the experimental

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and control groups were either randomly assigned to the experimental or control group by

simple random sampling without replacement (SRSWOR). The use of quantitative research allowed for statistical data to be collected that results in mixed results

concerning the effectiveness of AAT reading instruction on reading performance.

An experimental design was chosen based on the fact that statistical data can be collected through the designed experiment. This data can be utilized to establish

powerful cause-effect relationships between variables (Stanovich, 2000). Also, the researcher aimed to not only determine if

AAT impacts reading progress, but also how

the reading performance of the experimental group compared to the control group through pre test/post test difference scores in the areas of reading rate and ORQ. Within

this research design, one aspect of the research aimed to measure reading rate. In addition, this research aimed to measure the overall reading quotient (ORQ), which is a

combination of the measurement of reading fluency and reading comprehension. More specifically, this pilot study utilized a pre-test/post-test control group design so that

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assumptions associated with grade equivalency scores. In addition, gain scores are recommended by the authors of the Gray Oral Reading Test

Wiederholt and Bryant (2001)

edition (GORT-4)

the most valid measure of change in performance.

Collection and Processing This pilot study consisted ofseveral phases ofresearch. Once IRB approval was received from Northcentral University, a pre-test of the GORT-4 was given to members

of both the experimental and control groups. This was followed by a 6-week research period during which time once weekly reading sessions were completed by members of both the experimental and control groups. The experimental group received the treatment

of 6 weekly 30-minute one-on-one reading sessions with the therapy animal. In this case a

therapy dog was utilized, given that studies have found that therapy dogs have been the

most effective animal for AAT use (Nimer & Lundahl, 2007). The second group, acting

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the control group, did not receive any treatment but was required to read aloud

independently in an established location for 30 minutes once a week for 6 weeks. The

AAT reading sessions were once

a week 30 minutes reading sessions in which the

member of the experimental group read aloud to the therapy animal, while being monitored by a certified educational professional who was acting as the dog handler. Members of the control group read aloud independently in an assigned area of the public

library, for the same 30 minute length of time

the experimental group. The reading

qsinns took nlace nf fhe local lihrarv siven thaf the lihrarv is an edtrcnfionnl

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relationships were determined between reading performance and reading instruction method and to develop a foundation for future broader research into this area. Pre and posttest scores from the GORT-4 for both the experimental and control groups were

compiled. From this data, difference scores were calculated and statistical analysis of means was completed.

Participants The 26 sample participants were selected from 500 homeschooled third grade students in Volusia County, Florida. The 26 participants were split into 2 groups

3 to

create an experimental and control group. Participants were assigned to their respective

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groups based on simple random sampling without replacement (SRSWOR). In addition,

all participants had to meet certain criteria to be included. First, they had to live in Volusia County, Florida and be a third grade homeschooled student. They also had to have no allergies to dogs and no fear of dogs. The small sample of this pilot study

resulted in limited achieved power for analysis and limited the findings to this study. Reading performance was measured by difference scores, which are also referred to as gains cores given that all participants made gains in each tested area. Gain scores were utilized as the performance measurement because of the shortcomings of using grade equivalency scores. Grade equivalency scores do not take into account that growth

in leaming is not linear and uniform across age groups (Boyer, 2006; Stahl, 2003). Thus gain scores were selected to avoid the issues of misinterpretation of scores and

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comprehenslon, ancl uKQ. Keadlng rate ls the amount oI trme taKen by a student to reacl a story. Fluency is the students rate and accuracy scores combined, with accuracy being the student's ability to pronounce each word correctly. Comprehension is the appropriateness ofthe student's response to questions about the content ofthe study that was read. ORQ is a measure of overall reading ability that is calculated from the

combination of fluency and comprehension scores.

Finally,

a comparison of mean gain scores between groups was completed to

determine if there was statistically significant difference in performance between the groups in the area of reading rate andlor ORQ. This analysis was completed through the use of two tailed two-sample t-tests. Given that two tailed t tests assess whether the means of two groups are statistically different from each other, the two-tailed t-test

matched with the analysis goals of this pilot study. SPSS software was utilized to analyze calculated t values to determine p values. Determination of statistical

significance was then based on p value findings. Results and Findings Analysis of the findings of the descriptive statistics of participants were similar to those of the normed sample. The complete table to descriptive statistics is included in

APPENDIX A. In addition, there was no calculated difference in means between the groups in pre test results, thus allowing for t test calculations to be completed using an

equality of variances. A comparison of mean gain scores based on two-tailed two-sample t tests was completed in the areas of reading rate and ORQ. In the area of reading rate, a calculated p<.05, with an actual p:.0172 illustrated a statistically significant difference in

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list of pre-approved books.

A post-test of the GORT-4 was then given to members of the experimental and control groups following the completion of the 6-week research period. The GORT-4 was selected as the main measurement instrument. The GORT-4 measures reading progress and reading performance that results from reading intervention instruction.

Within this study, the reading intervention instruction was the provided AAT oral reading session. The GORT-4 is a testing instrument of reliability and validity with test/re-test

reliability between .85 and .95 that illustrates minimal inter-scorer difference. In addition, the high criterion validity of the GORT-4 illustrates that the GORT-4 is a valid instrument for a range of ages of abilities, within which the sample falls.

Data Analysis Statistical analysis was then completed based on GORT-4 pre and post results in the areas of reading rate mean gain scores and overall reading quotient (ORQ) mean

difference scores. Several levels of data analysis was completed. First, descriptive statistics were compiled that provided a standard mean score comparison to the normed sample in the areas of reading rate, fluency, comprehension, and ORQ. A test of equality

of means was also completed to ensure that no statistically significant difference existed between the pre-test mean gain scores of the experimental and control groups. Standard

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gain scores for each group were also calculated in four areas: reading rate, fluency,

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environment that is normally used by homeschooled children (Willingham, 2008). The selection of this location as one of familiarity with homeschooled children addressed the external threat to validity of reactive arrangements. The AAT reading instruction weekly sessions were uniform in structure so that extraneous variables and error were controlled as much as possible. Each visit was conducted in an allotted space in the local public library. Within this space, the child was seated next to the therapy dog, with the dog handler on the other side of the animal

farthest from the child. The parents was allowed to observe from a distance in an inconspicuous manner but were not permitted to be so close as to interfere or distract

from the AAT reading instruction session. Each session followed a set timetable. To begin each session, the dog handler was to spend 3 minutes interacting with the dog and

child to create a comfortable atmosphere with lessened anxiety. This was followed by a 3 minute AAT oral reading session in which the child read aloud to the therapy dog from a personally selected book from the provided pre-approved books. The pre-approved books were screened to ensure grade level appropriateness for the selected sample. To

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reduce threats to validity, activity of members of the control group was predetermined.

While a member of the experimental group was participating in an AAT reading session, a member of the control group was concurrently reading aloud independently at a pre-

determined location in the library. Members of the control groups read aloud for the -^

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reading rate gain by the experimental group. The complete table to mean reading rate scores is included in APPENDIX B. This hnding resulted in the rejection of the null

hypothesis (H1) that stated that the reading performance as measured by reading rate of the experimental group receiving AAT reading instruction as the reading rate of

will

be statistically equivalent

third grade homeschooled students not receiving AAT reading

instruction. In the area of ORQ, a calculated p>.05, with an actual p:.21 illustrated that there was no statistically significant difference in ORQ gain by the experimental group. The

complete table to mean ORQ scores is included in APPENDIX C. This hnding resulted in the null hypothesis (H2) that stated that the reading performance as measured by ORQ of the experimental group receiving AAT reading instruction will be statistically equivalent as the ORQ of third grade homeschooled student not receiving AAT reading

instruction, not being rejected. It is important to note that given the nature of this pilot study, these findings are non-generalizable.

Conclusions Several conclusions can be made based on the findings of this study. The

statistically significant mean gains in reading rate by the experimental group was similar to findings of other research studies (Kuhn, 2005; Samuels & Farstrup,2006).In one study, assisted reading practice resulted in improved reading rate of 1.6 grade levels over the course of 6 months (Stahl & Heubach, 2006). These findings illustrated that there is a connection between increased oral reading practice and improved reading rate. The ORQ p value findings of p--.2l illustrated that there was no statistically

significant difference in the gain score ofthe experimental group over the control group.

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In addition, Wiederholt and Bryant (200 I ) stated that a gain score of over 9 was needed for the gain to be statistically significant. While the gain by the experimental was not greater than 9, the experimental groups gain score was 6.69. This value does illustrate

that a larger gain in the area of ORQ was made by the experimental group. In addition, consideration should be made with regards to the percentile gains of the experimental group in all areas of the GORT-4. Within each category of the GORT-4,the gain by the experimental group exceeded that ofthe control group especially in the area ofreading rate and ORQ, with a 9 percentile difference in reading rate, 1 percentile difference in

fluency, 3 percentile difference in comprehension, and a 9 percentile difference in ORQ. The complete table of percentile gains is included in APPENDIX D. When taken together, the larger gain score and larger percentile gains ofthe experimental group both

provide an important reflection of the impact AAT reading instruction can have on reading ability. These findings indicate that reading programs that include a variety of

instructional strategies to improve all aspects ofreading ability can create greater overall improvement in reading ability (NCES, 2006; Nimer & Lundahl, 2007; Pikulski

Chard,2005).

Limitations There were several limitations of this pilot study related to interpretation that should be addressed. First, while the 6-week length of this study was in line with previous studies and with suggested length of studies (Prescott, 2005), the completion of a longer study might have produced more conclusive results. Second, the small sample

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References

Adams, M. J. (1990). Beginning to read: Thinking and learning about print. Cambridge,

MA: MIT

Press.

Bannier, B. J. (2007). Home schooling and developmental education: Leaming from each other. Research and Teaching in Developmental Education, 23(2),62'68.

Barkley, S. G. (2007). Tapping student efort: Increasing student achievement. Performance Leaming Systems Inc. Publications Division. Beck, A. M. (2000). The use of animals to benefit humans: Animal-assisted therapy. In

A. Fine (Ed.), Handbook on animal-assisted therapy: Theoreticalfoundations and guidelines for practice,

p.2l-40.

San Diego, CA: Academic Press.

Boyer, V. E. (2006). Animal-assisted therapy in speechJanguage pathologt: Using an alternafins treatment desisn to comnare the effects of usins animal-assisted

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that personalize instruction and teach to the whole child through avariety of methods, Further research should also aim to determine which aspect of the AAT instruction impacts learners the most, the dog, the handler, or both? The completed research based on two guiding research questions resulted in the statistical information provided in this chapter. Analysis of the data revealed mixed

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results. Findings from a two-sample t-test of reading rate mean difference scores

illustrated the statistical significance of the reading rate gain of the experimental group. Results of analysis of the ORQ mean difference scores did not prove any statistical difference between the groups. The small sample that was utilized to complete the pilot study was a design flaw and resulted in the insufficient achieved power, which might explain the lack of statistical difference between the experimental and control groups in the area of ORQ. However, percentile gains made in each reading area by the experimental group exceeded those ofthe control group. Even though these findings are not generalizable, the results do indicate that student reading abilities can be effectively

improved through the utilization of a variety of reading instruction strategies (Gordon, 2002;Kame'enui, 2004). Also, the findings of this research begin to lay a foundation for future research that should explore AAT within the instructional realm. Such reading

instruction should focus on developing a variety ofreading skills that are learned through balanced reading instruction like assisted reading focused AAT reading instruction that embraces varietY.

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size of this pilot study resulted in low achieved power, which might have impacted the

interpretation of study results. In addition, this sample issue also limited findings to this

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study. However, it is hoped that the results of this study might lay the foundation for

future larger studies. Third, while the reading activities of both the experimental and control groups were controlled, the additional interaction and prompting that was received only by members of the experimental group very well might have impacted the

findings by confusing what was actually impacting the reading performance results; the dog, the handler, or both? One way this could have been addressed would be by negating

the human interaction by providing members of both groups with interaction and

prompting, thus making the AAT reading instruction the only differing variable between the groups. Finally, there was a lack ofregulation or control over reading practice and

activity ofparticipants outside ofthe reading practice completed during the research sessions. While the activify of both groups during the weekly sessions was dictated, the

reading practice and activity of members of the experimental and control groups completed outside the research sessions was not controlled. Controlling outside activity

of both groups may have produced more significant results. Research Recommendations and Summary

Finally, several research recommendations can be made. It is hoped that this pilot study and its results have laid the foundation for future research into this area. These

findings have illustrated the need to explore the value of alternative instruction methods

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