PEP Magazine Issue #1

PEP ISSUE

JUNE 31 2020

M A G A Z I N E / W O R L D

FOR YOUTH

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E D I T I O N

POLITICS/ECONOMICS/ PHILOSOPHY

message from our FOUNDER

We live in a gendered world, and I grew up in a gendered household. When I was young, I liked to paint. I would go out and buy construction paper, and take the okra from my fridge and cut it into tiny pieces, dip it in paint and make polka dots for my parents. It would have been fine if I was a girl, but since I was a boy, the conversations usually began with - “Nice, but polka dots are a girls-only thing.”

At the beginning of quarantine, as I saw the wave of social reform around me, I realized that I too needed to fight for what's right; and when I began this war, I knew I was not fighting alone.

PEP Magazine began as a way for me to change the social fabric and way of thinking. It was a part of my war against the gendered norms of society because when I became interested in the social sciences, I never saw someone like me in this field. I never saw a queer individual take action and become a guiding force. I never saw a POC come upfront and speak out publicly. Sure, there were a few here and there, but not enough to make me feel that I belonged, not enough so I could see myself working in this area. PEP is the first ever social sciences magazine that is gender androgynous. This means that there is no longer pink for girls and blue for boys, but instead a rainbow for everyone. We are also a racially representative magazine that includes POC in every single issue, and we help POC students see themselves in the social sciences. However, representation for just POC and the LGBTQ+ community is not enough. It is important that this representation reaches people regardless of their ability. Thus, we provide our magazine in the 6 official UN languages, and also provide audiobooks. So far, we have reached 100,000 readers through school partnerships and are expanding day by day.

More than anything, PEP is my way of saying, “who cares what society thinks?” I am a queer person of color who is interested in the social sciences, and guess what? My cover page is filled with polka dots.

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CONTENTS

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politics

1 The Impact of COVID-19 on Democracy As We Know It By: Paul Reynols

1.1 million Americans (with much more unaccounted for) have perished among numerous conflicts in the pursuit of a free, just and democratic world. This patriotic fervor has ensured that our societies are governed, more or less so, by the people, for the people.

Nevertheless, no system is perfect and neither is that of the United States as we have weathered many confrontations threatening the integrity of the home of the brave. However, we have stood strong in the face of adversity, tall to our foes and stern to the enemies of our rights to life - that was all true, up until December 31st, 2019.

In 2015 Bill Gates eerily predicted that an epidemic would be the next great threat to humanity. His criticisms of a lackluster organization of epidemiologists to combat such a scenario are now haunting the families who are burying their loved ones with surgical masks catching their tears. And so we prayed; we prayed for the claims of lethality to be inflated; we prayed for available medications to be effective, and we even prayed for the economy to stay afloat; but most importantly, we prayed that our governments would do something to save us from the impending crisis. Instead, they waited until the horrendous situation in Western Europe had been matched in New York - scratch that - until it had exceeded it.

It is an unavoidable fact that the Federal Government blew the few safety measures we had right out of the picture. For starters, we’ll touch upon the extremely questionable trading habits of some of our senators with millions in securities (financial asset or investment) being sold off directly before our economy began to crash. This serves to be an almost certain indicator that our government officials had used briefings and internal knowledge for their personal benefit.

Fantastic, so with the corruption portion covered, we’ll move right along here, onto the weeks of a fair heads-up from Europe. Beijing didn’t do such a great job of sweeping this one under the rug, and so we were left to watch the Italian economy get slaughtered while their healthcare system was bombarded for almost 2 months straight. Meanwhile, we stood idly by throwing a Hail Mary for this to pass over - it turned into a pick-six and then some.

“Weakness and ignorance are not barriers to survival, but arrogance is” ― LIU CIXIN, DEATH'S END

2 Donald Trump’s twitter storm towards the start of January had fairly well assured Americans that the CoronaVirus Pandemic was fully contained - surprise, it wasn’t. On that note, the publicity he grabbed towards the beginning of the year for his dissemination of falsehoods such as “it’s just the flu” may have been the single most dangerous factor that has led to the mess we are only now getting to mop up. State governments and other localities having to spearhead the response. See, one of the most important cards the US has in its deck against global crises is her federal government’s ability to access a gauntlet of industryleading resources, professionals, and services, as well as its efficiency at coordinating the logistics behind employing those assets to their fullest potential. Yet, there was no grand call from Uncle Sam to rally the patriots in an effort to scuttle Corona this time around; rather it was quite the opposite. We watched the governors bicker with the president in an attempt to file a national shut-down. There were calls from accredited organizations on the need for unanimity in our answers to a scared, confused, and unemployed public. In the past, we the people have found our strength in the “rally around the leader” mentality, but unfortunately for the millions of immunocompromised people and members of other disproportionately affected groups, there was no leader to rally around this time.

“Voting is not only our right - it is our power” ― LOUNG UNG

In contribution to the hubbub, several states have postponed their elections while many republicans have roused concerns that mail-in-voting alternatives are unconstitutional.

There has been a lot of worry over this push to actually prevent people from voting, considering that it is essentially the core of our republic. It is a shame in all honesty that along partisan lines we would see the question of allowing people to vote faces opposition from the right and push-back from the left. Despite this, it seems the Democrats have prevailed in a fight that should have never had to have been fought, seeing as the ranking member of the Senate Rules Committee, Amy Klobuchar worked hard with affiliates to release the National Disaster and Emergency Ballot Act of 2020. Klobuchar herself declared that the act will “guarantee every voter a secure mail-in paper ballot and help states cover the cost of printing, self-sealing envelopes, ballot tracking, and postage.” In addition, this legislation also hopes to spark a conversation among state governments about how to facilitate safe and well-sanitized voting environments for those that do see it fit to go out and cast in person.

3 This is a once in a lifetime scene - don’t let it pass you by - and almost as sure as the sun will shine on tomorrow, we are witnessing a separation between two vitally varied visions of politics. Before, it didn't really matter how, just if. As preventable as this embarrassment was, no longer will the happenings of the government be sheathed, and no longer will they have the option of trying to silence the American people. The unrest in this country is undeniable and among the rest of the pot being stirred to the tune of other conversations, be ready, for this will be remembered as a time of change. With the number of Americans lost in the fight for freedom ticking up with each flatline from COVID, know well that the voices of the people will grow louder. Know that, despite the partisanship we see, we are patriots at heart and when our lives are sacrificed for a fight we know we shouldn’t have to be fighting, bet on the will of the majority to partake in the resultant change, one mail-in ballot at a time.

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4 5G Governments By: Sean Furbush In December of 2017, the Federal Communications Commission of the United States was barraged by 20 million hasty comments regarding their recent decision to repeal net neutrality. Less than a month later, they would also find themselves facing 22 lawsuits from state attorneys waiting on their doorstep. Yet, despite its unpopularity, this push had just become a precedent, declaring that, under the Trump Administration, Broadband Internet access wasn’t a utility that everyone deserved equal access to; instead it was a luxury.

Well, before we get into the finer details of how we got here, you’re probably asking “what is net neutrality anyway?” It is essentially the policy of free and equal internet - for example when net neutrality was enacted, an internet service provider (ISP) such as Verizon, couldn’t slow down your ability to access Facebook because Facebook wouldn’t pay a special fee. The essence of this concept though had wider implications than throttling down how fast you could refresh your celebrity crush’s Twitter feed. See, this concept of charging companies a “fee” to allow their users faster loading times could put the final nail in the coffin for small business owners, as now their online presences would be squandered due to the challenge of fitting another fee into the budget, whilst multi-billion dollar corporations would have no trouble financing their way to a monopoly as they quite literally sped ahead of their competition.

The U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals in D.C. had handled this round of the FCC’s flip-flopping on net neutrality just like it had 3 other times within the last decade. Unfortunately for the supporters of net neutrality, the issue very quickly dissolved into a strained debate about the fine-lined difference between a “Title I Information Service” and a “Title II Common Carrier Service”. Due to this progression of the focus of the repeal, the Courts became less focused on the central question around the policy: whether or not ISPs should be able to throttle access to certain types of content and not the others. Aside from the fact that over 80% of Americans and some several corporations at the time had denounced ending a practice that had essentially harmed no one, the FCC prevailed in their belief that broadband access without a taste of capitalist competition would stagnate. Hence, the courts were forced to agree (based on a precedent case that established a similar definition) that ISPs were to be regarded as a “Title I” service and therefore were subject to less regulation from the FCC. The regulations that we lost in that reclassification were what we knew as net neutrality.

5 Several attempts at blocking the FCC’s repeal became a highlight of partisanship as almost every headline does.

Democratic Senators had fought hard under what was known as the “Congressional Review Act”, in order to revert the new designation of ISPs as “Title I” Services and therefore, restore net neutrality. However, term limits, partisan politics, and ultimately a republican president stood to be impermeable barriers for what was thought to be the last shot at saving the internet, and that was including the death of a piece of legislation literally titled the “Save the Internet Act of 2019” which would also go on to be shut down by President Trump.

This case study in the political nature of technology and the internet as we know it was not the first, by any means, nor will it be the last. Rather, it would come to be a relevant example of the ways in which our democracy is not perfect and how party politics can, well, really ruin the party. And to that point, in the end of a decade where we had witnessed just about every human being buy a smartphone, Mark Zuckerberg sweat buckets during a congressional hearing, and the death of Vine (may you forever rest in peace), the next great technological power struggle would be maliciously rubbing its palms together right beneath the horizon, lying in wait to pounce on its first prey: The United Kingdom.

Recently, British telecom workers have received instructions to begin stockpiling components from Huawei and other suppliers that are being used in their new 5G cell towers. But before we get to that, it would be keen to note that the UK is one of the first major nations to offer standardized 5G connectivity and is still working on its network’s completion. The 5G title derives its numeration from it being the 5th generation of advancements in cellular technology. This sweep comes with some insanely zippy speeds along with a whole lot of conversion of the heavy lifting from physical architecture to some impressive integrated software. However, the adoption of the technology has been a “moderately-warm” button issue across the globe considering that, since the US has stepped down as the flagship tech house, the Chinese company Huawei has since filled their role. And as much as any nation would be glad to toss less expensive and arguably higher quality components into the production of this already expensive embargo, the United States is flexing its global influence to stop this replacement in its tracks - and maybe for the first time in the recent history of US sanctions, this one comes with good reason.

In early 2019, the Trump Administration placed the Shenzhen tech giant on what is called an “entity list”. Now, in short, this is a very bad sign for Huawei seeing as you pretty much get placed on that special list for one reason and one reason only, and that is for being considered a national security threat to Washington D.C. In this case, due to the fact that the Chinese Communist Party can require companies in their country to hand over whatever

6 user data they want, it makes sense that the US would prefer to not potentially put the transfer of their citizens’ information in the hands of their greatest economic rival. Typically, this status also comes with some not-so-fun perks including having your ability to purchase certain US goods being heavily restricted while your ability to sell your products in US markets also takes a slash to the throat. However, the downward spiral doesn’t end there because these “entity lists” also influence other nations’ attitudes towards doing business with you, for where the US goes, her allies often follow.

However, this is what makes Britain’s “stockpile” order so peculiar. One would think that the Brits would have dropped the company altogether to keep her sister across the sea happy, but that isn’t entirely the case here. Even with Huawei facing restrictions from the US, Prime Minister Boris Johnson offered to let Huawei have a hand in the production of his country’s 5G network while capping their market share around 35%. This quick slip wasn’t received well in D.C. though, and nor was parliament all that grateful in the persistent view of the company’s involvement being a serious national security threat. That being said, it won’t be all that easy to sever ties with Huawei, knowing that their technology is already up and running in some of the most major components of the network’s structure, whether the MI5 (the British equivalent of the CIA) likes it or not. This creates an issue for the currently completed portions of the project which will require Huawei’s support and supplies to keep their networks up and secure in the future. The feasibility of doing such, though, has become more and more of an uncertainty, considering that the US very well could cut Huawei off from the western world entirely, causing an even more disastrous scenario than the one we are in now.

So here we find ourselves again, with technology becoming a political debate topic. Granted in this circumstance it bleeds over into an issue of the security of our national assets, we have come to balance the furthering of humanity against our paranoia of one another. We have found ourselves in a position where cooperation is an option left untouched. Where our fear of being the slightest bit vulnerable has compromised our ability to develop lifesaving monitoring systems, comprehensive artificial intelligence, and lasting relationships between our countries. At the end of the day though, when weighing the weight of those benefits against the prospect of our data being left in the hands of an authoritarian crackdown state, adamant about doing away with free speech and forcefully inspiring compliance, who can really blame the west for taking a back seat in the race to 5G?

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7 Biden vs. Trump: Who will lead us out of this crisis?

By: Ethan VanGosen America is approaching a Presidential election this year unlike any it's seen before. The decision voters will make only a few months from now may have an impact on generations to come. The two nominees set to face off in November, incumbent Republican President Donald Trump and Democratic former Vice-President Joe Biden, couldn’t be more polar opposites. President Trump has led the first term as a culture war against progressives, making headline statements and conducting his domestic and foreign duties in non-traditional ways.

Former Vice-President Biden, countering this, has advertised his plan to save the soul of America—something he believes has been hurt by Trump’s harsh rhetoric.

The opposing ideas of Trump and Biden come at a time when America continues to drift into divisive partisan camps. Former Democratic Presidential candidate Bernie Sanders made this issue really apparent during this election season. In 2016, his progressive campaign was overshadowed by Hillary’s more Democratic centrist plans. This past year, however, Sanders was seen as an almost unbeatable progressive candidate. This change shows that the Democratic Party has shifted more toward the progressive side over the course of Trump’s first term. The growing divide makes this upcoming election ever more important and telling for where America is headed for many decades to follow.

Trump’s Past Four Years vs. Biden’s Past Forty-Seven Given that the divide between ideologies continues to grow year after year, it's important to call into question which side will come out on top this November. To really evaluate this question, let’s start by looking into Trump’s past four years as President as well as Biden’s accomplishments in his own career in politics.

It’s no question that President Trump’s win in 2016 was upsetting to most. All the polls pointed toward a likely win for Democratic nominee Hillary Clinton. When Trump entered office in 2017, he was seen as one of the most controversial Presidents in history. He was also one of the most unpopular Presidents to enter the White House, with an average approval rating of 40%. Boasting his plan to “Make America Great Again”, Trump has spent

8 his years since 2017 trying to do just that. While his accomplishments haven’t been popular with critics, he has still achieved many long-lasting feats. First, Trump has installed two conservative Supreme Court justices on the bench. This has caused the court to lean in the conservative direction on most rulings—something that may last for decades. Another accomplishment of Trump was the First Step Act, a law that brought much-needed reform to the criminal justice system. It overhauled federal sentencing laws and expanded early release programs.

These accomplishments by Trump, however, haven’t come without failures along the way.

For one, Trump’s insults to many crucial U.S. allies have left America’s global image at a low point. Domestically, Trump’s policy of family separations at the border in 2018 left many children dead and received harsh backlash from human rights groups. In late 2019, Trump became the third President to be impeached by the House of Representatives. The impeachment came in response to Trump’s attempt to gain damaging political information on his rival Joe Biden by withholding congressionally-approved funds from Ukraine.

When we look at Biden, his political history extends much longer than four years and comes with its own accomplishments and failures.

Unlike Trump, who led most of his life as a businessman, Biden quickly turned to politics after graduating from law school in the late 60s. In 1972, Biden became the fifth-youngest person to be elected to the U.S. Senate at the age of 29. He went on to win reelection six times, with a focus on foreign relations and criminal justice. During his time as a Senator, Biden ran for President twice—once in 1987 and another in 2007. He lost both times but later became Vice-President under President Obama after his second loss in 2008. For eight years, Biden served as VP under President Obama. Due to his connection to Obama, Biden has received a lot of support from African Americans and Obama supporters.

During his career in politics, one of Biden’s biggest accomplishments was introducing the Violence Against Women Act in 1990. It was a law that addressed sexual assault and domestic violence by challenging attitudes that domestic abuse was a “family matter”. In contrast to this success, one of Biden’s biggest failures as a Senator was his constant demands for more criminal justice reform. While many parts of his reforms were positive, many critics believe that some of his ambitious legislation laid the groundwork for mass incarceration (The New York Times). To criminal justice experts, mass incarnation is something that has negatively affected minorities for decades. The backlash of his aggressive criminal justice reform is something Biden still faces today from members of his own party.

9 It is clear that both nominees have many accomplishments that have had important lasting impacts. However, to voters, it’s their failures that may eclipse any positive impacts they made. This is the reason why it is crucial for the two nominees to clear up their mistakes and gain voter trust.

How Today’s Issues Affect November The records of both former Vice-President Biden and incumbent President Trump will certainly factor into voters’ minds coming into November. However, it's more likely that the election results will be determined by how the nominees respond to the current crises America is facing. The first crisis, the coronavirus pandemic, has caused the deaths of over 121,000 Americans and undoubtedly hurt the economy. Even as states reopen, the virus continues to ravage communities and affect the lives of everyday Americans. The second issue the two nominees face is addressing the increased racial tensions due to the deaths of innocent African Americans at the hands of law enforcement. Both peaceful and violent protests have exposed Americans to the pain POCs have faced for decades and have shed light on the work that needs to be done to improve America’s law enforcement systems.

The pandemic has possibly affected Trump the most negatively. His critics have mainly called out his carelessness in handling the pandemic. His lack of following CDC guidelines and taking early steps to protect Americans from the virus has, in the eyes of many, led directly to the deaths of over 121,000 citizens. The crisis has also effectively destroyed his reelection strategies, which included running on economic prosperity and against a far-left candidate (New York Times). What’s more, Trump hasn’t been able to host large in-person rallies which brought media attention to his campaign. The inability to hold traditional campaign activities has certainly hurt Biden as well. Unlike Trump, however, he doesn’t have to deal directly with the consequences of the Covid-19 pandemic in America. Biden instead has been able to capitalize on the mistakes Trump has made in handling the crisis by advertising his own solutions to the pandemic.

The second crisis, the increased racial tensions in America, has similarly played right into the hands of Former VP Biden. The protests over police brutality are, in many ways, aimed against President Trump. Many protesters have called out his lack of action in protecting the African American community from unjust law enforcement. Protesters have also taken note of his public statements in support of the police, including those where he called for aggressive use of force against them. While Trump has avoided talking with protesters, the news media has noted that Biden has taken this opportunity to meet with community leaders and visit protest sites. This positive media attention has only contributed to Biden’s popularity as a nominee.

10 Who Will Pull Out the Win In many ways, the crises of our current day may overshadow some of the past failures of Biden and Trump.

That is already apparent when reading the news. Back in 2016, countless articles spoke to the records of both Hillary and Trump. Now, articles focus more on how Trump and Biden are responding to the pandemic and increased racial tensions.

This makes it even clearer that the crises we are facing right now will have an outsized impact on the election in November. If Trump ends up doing a good job handling the issues America faces right now, then he might win. However, it is becoming clearer and clearer every day that he is not handling the crises in a way most Americans support. According to Real Clear Politics, Biden currently has an average for winning at 50.1% while Trump is at 41.3%. This gap only continues to widen as more problems arise for Trump. If he doesn’t find a way to effectively address them soon, it's unlikely that he will find himself securing another upset win in November.

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11 Why the United States Might Not Be The “Top Dog” In The World Post CoronaVirus By: Thomas Postell Los albores del siglo XX catalizaron el ascenso de Estados Unidos a la posición de liderazgo en el mundo, tanto política como económicamente. Con el enfoque global desplazándose hacia el oeste para variar, se hizo cada vez más evidente que la evolución de nuestro mundo, tal como lo conocíamos, estaba destinada a crecer exponencialmente cada vez más rápido. Sin embargo, este fue un discernimiento bienvenido de las eras anteriores en las que se había encontrado la humanidad. Durante milenios literales, se consideró que la joya de la corona de la civilización era la del este de China continental. Su historia está profundamente arraigada en la tradición y fue lo que creó un aire de prestigio en torno a la multitud de dinastías que habían disparado a la cultura asiática muy por delante del juego, pero también la habían puesto de rodillas. Escriba: "El siglo de la humillación".

Un montón de rebeliones, reformas fallidas, guerras y tratados injustos habían asestado una serie de golpes paralizantes a la orden manchú durante mediados y finales del siglo XIX. En general, todos los países durante esta era de rápida industrialización se enfrentaban a un problema de éxito o -Muere paleta de naipes. Entre la Primera Guerra Mundial y la Gran Depresión, y ... oh sí, otra Guerra Mundial, ninguna nación importante tenía necesariamente la capacidad de acudir en ayuda de los chinos, y para ser completamente honesto, con las actitudes nihilistas de los manchúes hacia el oeste ¿Quién respondería la llamada incluso si pudiera? Muy rápidamente, Asia aparentemente había perdido su cultura más recopilada y prominente y la transformó en una consideración menos que secundaria para el creciente oeste.

Una de las características más definitorias de la dinastía Han, desde el comienzo de la Era Común, fue la Ruta de la Seda, que esencialmente conectaba el oeste con el resto de Eurasia.

Esta iniciativa extremadamente exitosa llevó a muchos reinos europeos a los chinos, que poseían algunos de los bienes más finos y preciados sobre la faz de la Tierra en ese momento. Hoy asistimos al desarrollo de una iniciativa asombrosamente similar; una nueva Ruta de la Seda, por así decirlo. Se conoce como la Iniciativa de la Franja y la Ruta. Este monstruo del desarrollo entrelazará prácticamente todas las regiones principales desde la costa del Pacífico de China continental hasta la esquina noroeste de Alemania por tierra y mar. Sin duda, esto suena como un movimiento de poder económico; genio al final de los chinos para replicar lo que una vez los llevó a la cima de la cadena. Sin embargo, algunos funcionarios están levantando un dedo cuando se topan con

12 the estimated budgets being laid out here by the Chinese Communist Party (CCP). The Indonesian region especially has been furious over the figures China is anticipating them to undertake - most of which are comically astronomical. The debt these nations would have to incur in order to implement this infrastructure would nearly send them bankrupt trying to pay off the low-interest loans. Hence, we are starting to see the development of what has come to be known as the “Debt Trap.”

The “Debt Trap” is a tactic that is likely to be employed with the new Belt and Road Initiative to create a more assertive presence in the affected regions. The strategy follows a pattern of “generously” granting these loans to 3rd world countries who clearly cannot pay them back, and then, when their contracts tick to an end, taking all or some of their land, ports, assets, or other freedoms as payment in place of currency. Such a method is especially effective when making an attempt to expand military dominance or to address other socially-focused components of the agenda. In essence, it is China creating a problem that didn’t exist, putting it on countries that are ill aware of the magnitude, and then taking it back into their hands to solve. This scenario right here is exactly what experts on the CCP’s foreign policy are especially afraid of due to the many potential implications this could hold on the rights of conquered peoples. As evidenced by the human rights violations of Uighurs within the Xinjiang region, chock full of resources that China would like to access but can’t due to protests, Beijing has little patience for people with ideas different than that of their own; nothing new in a notorious police state. To quell this issue they’ve simply gone ahead and established internment camps within the region and have oppressed the Uighurs to the point where they are being systematically replaced by Han Chinese, the ethnic majority in the mainland.

Nevertheless how terrifying this “ethnic cleansing” sounds and how easily it will likely be replicated within the newly conquered regions, China is pushing ahead with their goals.

13 The frightening reality of this aspect has led many within the western sphere to reconsider their views of communist China. Furthermore, it has made them question the superpower’s role in the CoronaVirus pandemic. The nation received praise for their identification of the COVID-19 genome however their blatant attempts at covering up the spread of the disease, as well as the silencing of whistleblowers who could have bought the world valuable time has smeared their image instead of christening it. This ultimately resulted in them having to double down on their supply of essential resources such as masks and other PPE to nations in pain as a result of their obsession with their image - something that could have been avoided had they been honest from the start. Despite the fact that the number of deaths globally is approaching half a million at the time of this writing, China is still benefiting from this crisis due to the fact that their distribution of aid has been perceived as a helping hand rather than an apology note. Coincidentally, the US happened to be suffering the most right around the time China began to ramp up shipments of supplies, which made the US, who undoubtedly still butchered their own response, look like less of a superpower and ultimately a worse economic partner than the country who not only is somewhat responsible for grinding the world to halt but is also committing arguably the greatest humanitarian crime and genocide in decades - how did we let this happen?

Now as we are beginning to see the first wave of COVID-19 die down, everything is fair game and more likely than not, with the US Presidential elections nearing in November, there will be a rise in tension between Beijing and Washington - one greater than we’ve ever seen before. This escalation will likely not yield any positive results for either party involved, yet it will stand as the one chance for the United States to save its reputation before the CCP eventually looms over former US economic partners who will leave blindly for the ohso-enticing “Debt Trap”.

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14 few Decades Apart: The Peak of Polio and COVID-19 By: Vibaa Raghunath Background of Polio June 17th, 1894. Approximately a century earlier, around this time of year, the first documented outbreak of Polio took place in Vermont with 132 cases and eighteen deaths.

Polio is a contagious disease that attacks the body’s nervous system and has the potential to lead to severe paralysis and death. The illness primarily impacts children under the age of five and is spread from person to person contact. It was later discovered that there are three different types of poliovirus with two being eradicated as of 2019. Most patients that were infected with polio did not have any symptoms, and those who did have symptoms typically got better in a week. The average age of the patients who passed away was roughly 11 years. Polio remained largely scattered throughout the United States in the early 20th century as it reached its peak during the late 40s and early 50s. Yet, before its peak, the New York City Polio Epidemic in June of 1916 resulted in over 6000 deaths across the nation and 2000 deaths in New York City alone. To combat the virus, March of Dimes was founded by President Franklin Delano Roosevelt (whose legs were paralyzed after he contracted Polio) in 1938. The funds that were raised from this organization went towards the research and development of the Polio Vaccine.

The Vaccine Polio always seemed to be at its worst during the summer and the year 1952 was no exception. 1952 was by far the worst phase of the polio outbreak as it resulted in over 3,000 deaths, 20,000 patients experiencing some kind of paralysis, and more than 57,000 overall cases. As the number of cases was rapidly growing, the general public progressively became more frightened and summer soon developed into a time of year that people feared. Since the virus mainly attacked children under five, parents were terrified of letting their kids be in contact with others. It was soon understood that there needed to be a cure/vaccine, which eventually led to more money being spent on research. Dr. Jonas Salk had been working on a vaccine by using dead strains of the virus and injecting those into the body of a person who was healthy. This allowed the body’s immune system to create antibodies that could counter the virus in the future. His discoveries were announced in 1953, and it took two years until the vaccine was officially deemed successful and safe to use.

COVID-19 COVID-19, Coronavirus, officially was named on February 11th, 2020 by the World Health Organization. The virus originated in Wuhan, China and the first case discovered outside

15 China in Thailand on January 13th, 2020. It is believed that the virus came from a member of the bat species and it is confirmed that the COVID-19 is a zoonotic disease (where the disease can spread from one species to another). Scientists believe, at this point, that the original source of the virus was a wet market in China. The virus’s main mode of transmission is person to person contact especially through respiratory droplets of patients who are infected. The virus can also spread through contact with infected surfaces. Since the virus spreads through people in contact with one another, distancing policies require people to be 6 feet apart in order to reduce the risk of transmission. It is entirely possible that a person has the virus and shows no visible symptoms. Individuals with underlying medical conditions (especially those who are immunocompromised) and the elderly are at most risk for becoming infected by the coronavirus. Severe safety precautions are being taken in nursing homes as many of the patients are at high risk for the virus. However, just because one does not fit into the categories listed does not mean that they cannot have the virus. The symptoms are known to appear within 14 days of contact with a person that has the virus.

Most common symptoms include: Fatigue; Fever and Chills; Pressure in Chest area; Congestion; Nausea/Diarrhea.

The virus quickly spread around the world, with currently (June 2020), over 8 million cases and almost 500,000 deaths. Other than China, the United States, Italy, Brazil, and the United Kingdom have been highly impacted by the virus. The United States alone has over 2 million people who are infected and over 110,000 deaths. China was heavily impacted late 2019 and earlier this year; however, as of June the cases have reduced and the peak has passed. Restrictions have been placed worldwide as many public areas have shut down.

Though most countries have been hit heavily by COVID-19, there still remain certain countries including North Korea, Samoa, and Turkmenistan that officials have not reported any cases. Nevertheless, the lack of testing in certain countries could be a reason why some nations have claimed to have no infected patients.

Impact on Society Polio’s impact on American summers was drastic as they became a time that parents feared and children dreaded. Most swimming pools and beaches were closed to reduce the risk of transmissions and parents were terrified of letting their kids play outside. Quarantines were placed around the nation where cases were increasing and even though there were strict rules imposed, the virus didn’t stop spreading. Children who had the virus were taken away from their homes, regardless of age, and some were even forced into hospitals without their

15 parents (the virus impacted kids under 5 the most). Similarly, quarantines are being imposed all around the world to prevent the spread of COVID-19. In America, states decided to go under lockdown for a certain period and practice social distancing. Quarantine became the new normal for many as schools were closed and many adults began to start working from home. Online School became the new alternative as schools had to close before summer started. An obvious difference happens to be that the polio epidemic was centered in America whereas COVID- 19 impacted the entire world at the same time. Due to society’s advancement in technology, the spread of the virus from one side of the world to another was relatively quick. One patient spread it to multiple, and those spread it to even more people. If anyone of them was traveling, then they exposed all those people in their flight to the virus. This was especially difficult to control because a person who had their virus might not even have known that they were ill because of the incubation period. Another blaring difference was that Polio’s impact was at its worst during the summers and it occurred almost every year whereas COVID-19 is happening all at once as the season it currently has no impact on its spread. COVID-19 is spreading incredibly fast and even though (as of June 2020) certain states have lifted their strict quarantines, there still are large amounts of cases. Furthermore, there is still fear that a second wave of the virus could strike stronger than the first. Nothing is known for sure, but it is evident that people should still refrain from large gatherings and meetings just to be safe.

Due to the fact that much of the information in regards to COVID-19 is heavily contested, here are the sources used for those concerned.

“Polio.” Mayo Clinic, Mayo Foundation for Medical Education and Research, 9 Dec. 2017, www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/polio/symptoms-causes/syc-20376512.

“All Timelines Overview.” Timeline | History of Vaccines, www.historyofvaccines.org/timeline#EVT_100303.

“A History of the March of Dimes.” March of Dimes, www.marchofdimes.org/mission/ahistory-of-the-march-of-dimes.aspx.

Beaubien, Jason. “Wiping Out Polio: How The U.S. Snuffed Out A Killer.” NPR, NPR, 15 Oct. 2012, www.npr.org/sections/health-shots/2012/10/16/162670836/wiping-out-polio-howthe-u-s-snuffed-out-a-killer.

“Dr. Jonas Salk Announces Polio Vaccine.” History.com, A&E Television Networks, 9 Feb. 2010, www.history.com/this-day-in-history/salk-announces-polio-vaccine.

16 “WHO Timeline - COVID-19.” World Health Organization, World Health Organization, www.who.int/news-room/detail/27-04-2020-who-timeline---covid-19.

“Symptoms of Coronavirus.” Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 13 May 2020, www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019ncov/symptoms-testing/symptoms.html.

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17 The Thin Blue Line By: Sarah Reynolds 15 years ago almost to the day, an Iraq Veteran, a former contractor, and a soon-to-be father entered his local police precinct fresh out of the academy as the newest recruit in the unit - that man was my father. Today, when he goes to fasten the buttons on his uniform before strapping on his boots and clipping up his belt, he undergoes a noticeable shift in demeanor. Any hour of the day that he isn’t on shift, he’s a teddy-bear of a guy; the grill master with some gray locks; forever sweet to my mother; an icon for me and my brother.

That all washes away though, as he affixes his gleaming badge to the right breast of his overcoat and downs the last swig of his morning coffee - all of it is gone. My father is a police officer and a great one at that, but he is also part of a family just like all of the people he comes across daily. He knows that when he walks out of our front door, there is never a guarantee that he’ll come back, and that, is the chilling reality of life on the thin blue line.

News cycles this year so far have seemed more like a compilation of the craziest conceptions rather than the tumultuous reality we are actually enduring. From World War 3 threats to wildfires, pandemics to public unemployment, and now to what some are calling the defining civil rights movement of the entire century: the Black Lives Matter movement.

Otherwise known to the media as the George Floyd Protests, you would have to quite literally live under a rock to not have caught wind of the egregious and inhumane murder of the 46-year-old African American father at the hands of police, from whom the movement derives its alternate title. It was almost tranquil in a twisted way to witness total unabridged concurrence concerning the intolerance of the actions of Derek Chauvin, the officer who killed Floyd, and his fellow patrol mates. However, as most newsworthy events are, this too was unfortunately transmitted into a partisan debate.

The cries to end police brutality evolved into calls to make Black Lives Matter, and from there came the hope of police reform and the crackdown on systemic racism in police forces. Finally, though, the fight has taken its most recent, polarizing, and utterly terrifying form: the plea to abolish the police entirely.

When George Floyd was alive, the thought of a world where help wasn’t 3 numbers and a phone dial away would be seen as absurd - now, we are watching people in positions of power sacrifice the safety of their citizens to maintain their statuses. Certainly, the fight for racial equality has been one that has gone on for too long and undoubtedly there are steps we can take to create a more just society. However, when the lives of those who have suited up for years in the sole effort to serve and protect their communities; the livelihoods of those who have consigned themselves unselfishly to ensuring the security of people they have never met, are jeopardized even more than they already are, we will find ourselves at the point where they, those who support such action, have crossed the thin blue line. As a

18 result, we are witnessing this effort tear apart our country as people are forced to choose between blood and melanin - between family and race. My father especially has seen the security of his job, his benefits, and his duty, be put in the balance over a fear that he, a man who has only improved the lives of those around him, who has never fired a single shot from his district-issued Glock-22, and who only needs one thing at the end of the day, to make it home safely to his wife and kids, will for some ungodly reason, inevitably submit to his racial prejudices they say he inherently possesses.

This issue is more than just one tearing at the local levels. As previously mentioned, the protestors have gotten the opportunity to sit down at the table with mayors, governors, legislators, and have even gotten the attention of the President. But instead of fighting for police reform and a mutually beneficial approach to a more equal society, they have used their time in the spotlight to express anger and hatred, to segregate people by race even more than before by demanding complete compliance with their borderline extreme orders, and have threatened the lives of politicians doing their best to come to reasonable conclusions and sustainable methods on this topic - most notably that of Minneapolis’s Mayor Jacob Frey. In Seattle, Mayor Jenny Durkan has found her capital hill occupied by armed rioters declaring the sectioned off blocks the “Capital Hill Autonomous Zone” which has done nothing to accomplish or further our means for equality, but has rather diminished appeal and insulted the mayor who has done nothing other than cooperate with her people on this to the best of her ability. The armed guards within the border pose a very real threat to any attempt at de-escalating the situation through the use of cops and the tolerance of such assertive and inherently dangerous organizations makes me think, “what if there was a CHAZ where I live? Would my father be asked to go face those people with their guns and risk his life?” These types of scenarios are becoming increasingly more realistic as protests continue throughout the summer months.

To add to the political implications of this, we are starting to see the demands for total compliance seep into the state level where now governors are being silenced by groups of people despite trying their best to come to a conclusion that genuinely protects the safety of the majority, not just the radicals who have unfortunately taken the spotlight away from the peaceful protestors doing meaningful work. As the progression goes, we must now start to question that if the governors are not immune to the corruption of the push to abolish the police, will the presidential campaign also be influenced by one candidate’s willingness to say that they will get rid of police? If so, we may be in grave danger as by that point there will be little that can be done to reverse the increasing crime rates directly resulting from the decrease in police forces doing their jobs to maintain a pay-check; a horrible side effect that we are already witnessing in Minneapolis. We should never have to force those who maintain order in our streets to choose between their livelihoods and the integrity of their jobs all while under the pressure of knowing their lives could be in danger at any moment.

We need police reform, not police abolition. Yet for now, as the protests rage on and the

19 presidential elections irk closer and closer, we will see the thin blue line that many officers such as my father already teeter upon, dwindle thinner and thinner. May we pray that in the process too many don’t lose their balance and fall off, and May God Bless America.

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economics

21 The impact of coronavirus on the global economy By: Rania Balaghi Transforming from an unknown virus to a global pandemic, COVID-19 has become a health nightmare that has impacted every single corner of the globe. This virus has forced all of us to reduce social contact and as a result, limit the various transactions that fuel the economy.

It is certain that this pandemic will leave a lasting effect on the economy, and the effects can already be noticed on three of the main economic indicators: GDP, inflation, and unemployment.

GDP (gross domestic product) is the total value of goods produced and services provided in a country during one year. It is calculated by adding up the amount of consumption - how much people buy various goods; investment by business - people putting money into the economy with expectations that they will get more back; government spending - money used up by the government to pay for things like the salary of the president and military weapon purchases, and lastly you subtract the imports from the exports. During a global pandemic when factories, companies, entertainment centers, and tourist spaces are denied access by the public GDP will encounter a significant decrease. This is because people cannot go outside and spend money on various things so consumption decreases. There is uncertainty in the economy due to the pandemic so investment decreases, because people don’t know how fast they are going to get their money back. The amount of government spending also decreases, since spending on things like military equipment becomes less important. Finally, the amount of imports and exports decrease due to concerns that if you bring items in (import) they can harm the public and if you push items out (export) they can harm the public in a foreign nation. When every single part of this equation declines, so does GDP.The GDP provides an overall image of the country’s economy and let policymakers know whether the economy is expanding or contracting and so if it needs a boost in case of a recession or to be restrained in the case of inflation. In other terms, an increase in the Real GDP, which takes into consideration inflation and deflation, usually reflects the state of a healthy economy. Conversely, a decrease in the REAL GDP indicates a contraction in the economy and can lead to fears of a recession.

During these times, of slow economic growth, companies will lay off workers to lighten their expenses. Thus, more than 40 million American have filed for unemployment over the 10 weeks following the pandemic outbreak. According to the Department of Labor, the national unemployment rate for April was 14,7%, up from 4.4% in March. This type of unemployment is called cyclical unemployment and it occurs during economic contractions. It is due to a lack of consumers’ demand, and so companies and businesses produce less and have to lay off workers to lighten their expenses and maintain their profit margin. Furthermore, if workers remain unemployed for too long, there will be a mismatch between the employers’ demand and the workers’ skills and abilities. And in this case, cyclical unemployment becomes structural unemployment.

22 This high unemployment rate has a direct impact on inflation. Indeed, as the Philip curve demonstrates, the relationship between inflation rates and unemployment rates is inverse.

Inflation

Thus, the inflation rate is expected to decrease, since the unemployment rate has increased. This mechanism can be explained by the fact that there are fewer demands for workers and so, companies have to reduce their prices to meet the low purchasing power of the consumer.

All these elements make a recession very likely to occur. A recession is a period of temporary economic decline during which trade and industrial activity are reduced, generally identified by a fall in GDP in two successive quarters. Thereby, as the high unemployment rate, affects the purchasing power of the consumers and so generates a lack of demand, companies, and businesses will reduce their productions and expenses by laying off more workers. The total value of goods produced and services inside a country, measured by the GDP, will importantly decrease, as shown global GDP of 2020 assumptions. The Federal Reserve and central banks are taking actions in order to prevent a recession to happen.

And so, they quickly decided to lower interest rates, to encourage people to borrow more and so to invest and restore the economy.

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23 Debt Crises, from Argentina to Greece. What happened?

By: Sushil Subedi A debt crisis is when anyone - you, your business, or your country - owes more than they can pay off in loans. Mortgage defaults, student loan default, bond defaults are all such examples, and broadly speaking all financial crises or depressions are all debt crises. But this article is focused on the sovereign debt crisis which sets off an inflationary depression rather than a deflationary one; this is a crisis that most of the countries are facing today.

Causes and Effects of a Sovereign Debt Crisis A country can enter into a debt crisis when the tax revenues of its government are less than its expenditures for a prolonged period. In any country, the government finances its expenditures primarily by raising money through taxation.

When tax revenues are insufficient, the government can make up the difference by issuing debt. That is done primarily by selling government treasury bills in the open market to investors.

A government with a good reputation and little debt or an established track record of paying back what it has borrowed usually does not face many difficulties in finding willing investors.

However, if the debt load of a government becomes too large, investors naturally begin to worry about its ability to pay back, and begin demanding higher interest rates to compensate for the higher risk. That results in an increase in the cost of borrowing for that government. As investor confidence deteriorates further over time, pushing the cost of borrowing to higher levels, the government may find it more and more difficult to roll over its existing debt and may eventually default and enter into a debt crisis.

Most of the time, the country’s debt is held by foreign investors and entities, in foreign currency. As the country finds it more and more difficult to roll over its existing debt, as its last resort, the government starts printing money. This heavily devalues the nation’s currency and sets off a vicious inflation (inflation reached up to a monthly rate of 20% in Argentina in 2002). Inflation declines the capital flows coming into the country as foreign investors reduce their net lending or net investment into the country. Even the country’s own citizens or companies want to get their money out of their country/currency.

Weakening capital flows are often the first shoe to drop in a balance of payments crisis.

24 They directly cause growth to weaken because the investment and consumption they had been financing is reduced. This makes domestic borrowers seem less creditworthy, which makes foreigners less willing to lend and provide capital. So, the weakening is selfreinforcing. The shift in capital and income flows drives asset prices down and interest rates up, slowing the economic growth rates that were dependent on the inflows. This worsens the fundamentals of companies and further drives out capital flows. The economy suffers a debt bust—asset prices fall and banks fail and the whole system falls apart. Debt crises transform the lives of many individuals and families. Millions of people fall, or are at risk of falling into poverty and exclusion, unemployment reaches sky-high, and the country normally faces massive social unrest (as evidenced by the December 2001 riots in Argentina).

Case Study: 1998–2002 Argentine Great Depression The 1998–2002 Argentine Debt Crisis was an economic depression in Argentina, which began in the third quarter of 1998 and lasted until the second quarter of 2002. The depression, which began after the Russian and Brazilian financial crises, caused widespread unemployment, riots, the fall of the government, a default on the country's foreign debt, the rise of alternative currencies and the end of the peso's fixed exchange rate to the US dollar.

Causes Argentina's many years of military dictatorship (alternating with weak, short-lived democratic governments) had already caused significant economic problems prior to the 2001 crisis. But the most important factors that caused the debt crises that may be summarized as follows: The fixed exchange rate between the Argentine peso and the US dollar decided by Cavallo.

The large amounts of borrowing by Menem.

An increase in debt from reduced tax revenues.

Aftermath The economic and social impact of the crisis was huge. The economy shrank by 28 percent from 1998 to 2002. In terms of income, over 50 percent of Argentines lived below the official poverty line and 25 percent were indigent (their basic needs were unmet); seven out of ten Argentine children were poor at the depth of the crisis in 2002. The crisis intensified when, on 5 December 2001, the IMF refused to release a US$1.3 billion tranche of its loan, citing the failure of the Argentine government to reach its budget deficit targets, and it demanded budget cuts, 10% of the federal budget. On 4 December, Argentine bond yields

25 stood at 34% over U.S. Treasury bonds, and, by 11 December, the spread jumped to 42%. By the end of November 2001, people began withdrawing large sums of dollars from their bank accounts, turning pesos into dollars, and sending them abroad, which caused a bank run and a huge devaluation of the peso. On 2 December, the government enacted measures, informally known as the corralito, that effectively froze all bank accounts for twelve months, allowing for only minor sums of cash to be withdrawn, initially $250 a week.

The freeze enraged many Argentines who took to the streets of important cities, especially Buenos Aires. They engaged in protests that became known as cacerolazo (banging pots and pans) and further civil and political unrest ensued.

Concluding Remarks The Argentine economic crisis was caused by the undesirable confluence of several economic events. IMF support played an important role in the course of the crisis. This, together with the political and social turmoil that accompanied the events, made the Argentine crisis one of the most severe emerging market crises in history. As world economic growth in the early 2000s was strong and Argentine producers benefitted from the strong depreciation of the currency, the Argentine economy was able to recover rather quickly. Profound reforms were therefore not implemented.

Case Study: Greek Debt Crisis The Greek government-debt crisis was the sovereign debt crisis faced by Greece in the aftermath of the financial crisis of 2007–08. It reached the populace as a series of sudden reforms and austerity measures that led to impoverishment and loss of income and property, as well as a small-scale humanitarian crisis. In all, the Greek economy suffered the longest recession of any advanced capitalist economy to date, overtaking the US Great Depression. As a result, the Greek political system has been upended, social exclusion increased, and hundreds of thousands of well-educated Greeks have left the country.

Causes The Greek debt crisis originated from heavy government spending and problems escalated over the years due to slowdown in global economic growth. When Greece became the 10th member of the European Union on Jan. 1, 1981, the country's economy and finances were in good shape, with a debt-to-GDP ratio of 28% and a budget deficit below 3% of GDP. But their economic situation deteriorated dramatically over the next 30 years because fiscal profligacy, wasteful and excessive expenditure, caused deficits and debt levels to explode.In Oct. 1981, the Panhellenic Socialist Movement (PASOK), came into power on a

26 populist platform. Over the next three decades, PASOK alternated in power with the New Democracy Party. In a continuing bid to keep Greek voters happy, both parties lavished liberal welfare policies on their electorates, creating a bloated, inefficient, and protectionist economy. The government sent the country on an unsustainable fiscal path.

As a result of low productivity, eroding competitiveness, and rampant tax evasion, the government had to resort to a massive debt binge to keep the party going. Greece's admission into the Eurozone in Jan. 2001 and its adoption of the euro made it much easier for the government to borrow. This was because Greek bond yields and interest rates declined as they converged with those of strong European Union (EU) members like Germany.For instance, the yield spread between 10-year Greek and German government bonds plunged from more than 600 basis points in 1998 to about 50 basis points in 2001.

But that growth came at a steep price in the form of rising deficits and a burgeoning debt load. The jig was up shortly after the financial crisis of 2007-08, as investors and creditors focused on the colossal sovereign debt loads of the U.S. and Europe. With default a real possibility, investors began demanding much higher yields for sovereign debt issued by the PIIGS (Portugal, Ireland, Italy, Greece, and Spain) as compensation for this added risk. As Greece's economy contracted in the aftermath of the crisis, the debt-to-GDP ratio skyrocketed, peaking at 180% in 2011. The final nail in the coffin came in 2009, when a new Greek government led by Papandreou's son George came into power and revealed that the fiscal deficit was 12.7%, more than twice the previously disclosed figure, sending the debt crisis into a higher gear.

Aftermath In 2010, Greece announced a plan to lower its deficit to 3% of GDP in two years. Greece attempted to reassure the EU lenders it was fiscally responsible. Just four months later, Greece instead warned it might default.The EU and the International Monetary Fund provided 240 billion euros in emergency funds in return for austerity measures. The loans only gave Greece enough money to pay interest on its existing debt and keep banks capitalized. The EU had no choice but to stand behind its member by funding a bailout.

Otherwise, it would face the consequences of Greece either leaving the Eurozone or defaulting.9 Austerity measures required Greece to increase the VAT tax and the corporate tax rate. It had to close tax loopholes.

In 2011, the European Financial Stability Facility added 190 billion euros to the bailout.

Despite the name change, that money also came from EU countries.By 2012, Bondholders finally agreed to a haircut, exchanging 77 billion euros in bonds for debt worth 75% less.

27 In 2014, Greece’s economy appeared to be recovering, as it grew 0.7%. The government successfully sold bonds and balanced the budget.

Concluding Remarks Despite austerity measures, many aspects of Greece’s economy are still problematic.

Government spending makes up 48% of the GDP while EU bailouts contribute around 3%.

As of 2017, Greece relies on tourism for 20% of GDP. Bureaucracy often delays commercial investments for decades. The government has shrunk, but it is still inefficient.

There is too much political patronage. Government decision-making is centralized, further slowing response time.This bureaucracy, combined with unclear property rights and judicial obstacles, has kept Greece from selling 50 billion euros worth of state-owned assets. Only 6 billion euros worth of property has been sold since 2011.Tax evasion has gone underground as more people operate in the black economy. It now comprises 21.5% of GDP. As a result, fewer people are paying higher taxes to receive less from the government than they did before the crisis.Many of the jobs available are part-time and pay less than before the crisis. As a result, hundreds of thousands of the best and brightest have left the country. Banks haven’t completely recuperated, and are hesitant to make new loans to businesses. It will be a slow road to recovery.

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28 money By: Divyanjali Raskonda One day, John went to the store to buy milk. He looked at the label that stated that it cost about $5.00. John patted himself down trying to find a $5 bill. He later found a $5 bill in his pocket and used it as a “medium of exchange”. While the store manager got $5, John got his carton of milk. You all probably know that the $5 bill is also called money. Well, what is money? Money can be used as a medium of exchange as customers and salespeople agree on its common value. Money also functions as a “store of value” as it can be stored away for later purposes and still retain its value. For example, John could have stored his $ 5 bill and a year later, it would still retain its value of $5. Besides these functions, money is also a measure of value. Money is an important factor in exchanges, as it can be used as the measure of exchange values from say dollars to pounds and vice versa.

While money serves many functions, there are many forms. It can take up the form of representative money. Before going into that, let’s discuss the term “intrinsic value”. Intrinsic value is the calculated value of money or any asset. Representative money is a form of money that has no intrinsic value, but it can be used to buy items. For example, checks are considered representative money. This is because they don’t have any calculated value since the paper (check) itself without any numbers is worth nothing.

Apart from representative money, fiat money can also be used as a medium of exchange.

Fiat money refers to physical money such as coins and paper money and this medium of exchange does not have any intrinsic value. Does any medium of exchange contain intrinsic value? Yes, since coins and paper money themselves can be used to buy things without any extra interference.

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29 How perfect and imperfect competitions work By: Praneeta Kondragunta Have you ever thought about which person has an influence on certain aspects in the market when buying your goods and services? For example, who comes up with the ideas of the goods? What about the consumers? What influence do they have on the products that are decided to be made? In this article, we will delve into the topic of the competitive market and learn about how perfect and imperfect competitions work. Some basic information you’ll need to know is about competitive markets - which occurs when there are a various number of producers who compete against each other to produce the goods and services that we (consumers) want, need, and prefer the most. There are five characteristics in a competitive market: profit, diminishability, rivalry, excludability, and rejectability.

Perfect Competition Perfect competition is a concept that describes the market structure controlled solely by market forces. There are three specific features for the perfect market. First, it consists of a large number of buyers and sellers that are smaller compared to the overall market. This means that no one buyer and seller can have a significant influence on the market because of how large the number of buyers and sellers are. Second, the sellers in these markets offer homogeneous, or similar products. Essentially there are not any differences in the product, branding, etc., and consumers view all of these products as substitutes for one another. Finally, firms can freely enter and exit the market as there are no barriers to enter or exit a market.

Imperfect Competition An imperfect market is any market that does not meet the standards of a “perfect” market; when a market does not meet one of the three standards explained above, it is said to be imperfect. In this market, buyers and sellers can influence prices and production, information about the products and prices are not fully disclosed, and barriers are present to enter or exit the market. This market is found in the real world and used by businesses. The imperfect market has something known as a monopoly. Monopolies are big companies that tend to exploit a consumer by setting prices that are excessive compared to what the price would normally be in a competitive market. For this reason, they are usually heavily

30 regulated in order to prevent these practices that take advantage of the consumer. There are three types of monopolies: natural, state, and un-natural monopolies. Natural monopolies are called “natural” because there is no direct involvement of the government; there are no man-made variables present. Natural monopolies exist as it is able to provide a good or service at a much lower cost than a competitive market would offer. An example of this monopoly is railways because the cost to build another track would be above what a competitor would make back in profit. State monopolies are where the state (typically the government (has full ownership. These include postal services, television, and the supply of money. State monopolies help prevent price gouging that private monopolies would take part in. Finally, un-natural monopolies are a combination of natural and state monopolies.

They are natural monopolies because there is no direct government involvement but are reenforced by the state, which makes it a state monopoly. An example of this monopoly are patents. Unlike a monopoly, where one firm dominates a certain market, an oligopoly consists of a few companies that have a significant influence over a market. An example of an oligopoly is cell services, with the leading providers being Verizon, Sprint, AT&T, and Tmobile.

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philosophy

32 epistemology By: Veronica Hester Epistemology is the study of knowledge. The questions this type of field aims to explore are around the possibility, the structures behind, and the criteria for knowledge. What counts as knowledge? Does knowledge need a justification? Is it possible for humans to even gain knowledge?

Epistemology is one of the oldest branches of philosophy, pre-dating Socrates, and it’s easy to see why. Every field of philosophy relies on insights from epistemology. Philosophy aims to answer big questions about the universe and life, which relies on knowledge, and the methods to get that knowledge: the human mind and outside information.

This means we need a theory of knowledge.

Normally the knowledge being spoken about is ‘propositional’ knowledge, rather than ‘howto’ knowledge, like riding a bicycle. Propositional knowledge, for example, is something like philosophy is old. This type of knowledge tends to be more relevant since that’s the way many of our beliefs are categorized. We typically think in categories like old. young, rich, poor, good, bad and this makes our knowledge more relevant and easy to understand.

All this conversation about knowledge incites the natural question, how can humans gain knowledge? The main sources include perception, reason, and memory. However, epistemologists argue about the reliability of these sources. Some say the process of knowledge is only related to our internal mental states: if we were a brain in a vat stimulated by electrodes we would form knowledge in exactly the same way as a normal brain. Others reject these conclusions and emphasize the importance of the outside world in shaping our knowledge and understanding of the world.

Some epistemologists say we can gain knowledge through logical reasoning, while others insist we can only gain knowledge through our experiences. Philosophical skeptics say it’s impossible to ever get real knowledge at all; since our senses cannot be trusted. So, what is the criteria for knowledge? Clearly, we need some kind of justification for our belief to be called knowledge. As Socrates said, an optimistic man might believe he will heal from his illness. That doesn’t mean he knew he would. Philosophers call this requirement a justified true belief.

Many philosophers agree that knowledge needs justification. This agreement, however, brings light to a different problem: how do we structure our knowledge system without going into infinite regress? Every time you justify a piece of knowledge, like “Socrates is a mortal”, the justification for it, like “All humans are mortal”, needs justification too. This can keep going on and on, all the way to infinity. This is a problem because thinking through an infinite series of justifications is impossible, and the truth of our knowledge is then under

33 threat. A few schools of thought have popped up to address this issue: foundationalism, coherentism, and pragmatism.

In foundationalism, some beliefs are basic. Foundationalism can be imagined as a building; basic beliefs are the foundations and don’t require any extra reasons. Every belief above this level is only justified because of these foundations. Without the foundations, the house – our beliefs - can’t stand. The infinite regress problem is solved as the regress stops at these basic beliefs. Foundationalism is also appealing because of how obviously justified some beliefs seem to be: does “white is not black” need further justification? Or beliefs about the pain we feel? Despite its clear validity, foundationalism has been criticized.

Opponents say that ‘basic beliefs’ are arbitrary – that they do actually need more justification. For example, our perceptual states, like the things we see need to be justified since things are not what they seem. For example, the statement “the disk is red” may sound valid and accurate. However, what if we’re being misled by this state? What if we have taken drugs that change the way we see color? What if the disk is white, but illuminated with a red light? Critics, including coherentists, would say we can’t stop the regress of justifications at the disk is red’ This brings us to our second idea related with justifications - coherentism. Coherentism takes a different approach - it treats knowledge like a web, where every belief is justified by another belief. For example, Belief A is justified by Belief B. Belief B is justified by Belief C. Belief C is justified by belief A. As you can see, there’s no ‘built-up’ structure, like in our foundationalism house; coherentism is more like a flat circle. There are no basic beliefs; instead, we have a string of beliefs and justifications, which loops back on itself. This also stops any infinite regress; every belief is contained in this web. Many people advocate for coherentism by saying it allows for flexibility in the basic belief. On the other hand, in foundationalism, if a ‘basic belief’ turns out to be false, all of your knowledge could come crashing down. In coherentism, if a belief turns out to be false, the fallout wouldn’t be as bad - you’d just need to change some bits in your web.

Although this may make it seem like coherentism is the ideal philosophical justification, there is one major flaw of coherentism and that is that it doesn’t ensure truth. A made-up system of beliefs could ‘cohere’ together just as well, but that coherence by itself doesn’t make those beliefs reliable. For example, the sky is yellow → the sky is near the clouds so the clouds are yellow → birds are near the clouds so the birds are yellow. Every single part of that web cohere with each other, BUT they are not true at all.

Last but not least within our 3 approaches to solve an infinite regress, we can find pragmatism. Pragmatist epistemology has a different focus to traditional epistemology.

Pragmatists emphasize the biology of human beings, and the “fallibility” of our beliefs: they claim many of the beliefs we have are probably incorrect, and the way in which we justify

34 our beliefs is probably faulty. Pragmatism is thus much more focused on knowledge seeking that is practical, not perfect. As such, they’re more focused on improving our knowledge-seeking processes. This includes adopting certain rules or guiding principles when we look for knowledge. They reject the idea that something is 100% true - this is impossible for pragmatist epistemologists.

Ultimately, everything in epistemology circles back to us as individuals. Do we actually justify our beliefs properly? Do we have more unjustified beliefs rather than knowledge?

Can we actually know anything? This area of philosophy is not just about abstract theories on the truth and systems and beliefs – it informs the way all of our knowledge-seeking tools work. It gives us the power to consider the way we think and believe, and perhaps helps get us closer to the truth.

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35 axiology By: Lawrence Pei Every day, different philosophies are brought up in conversations, articles, videos, and more. Within the field of philosophy, there are plenty of ideas that have been conceived by different philosophers. Amongst these ideas, some are more well known, such as Confucianism or capitalism which are taught and put into practice on a daily basis by millions of people around the world.

One such topic that is not as well known but is equally important to concepts like capitalism and Confucianism, is known as axiology What exactly is axiology? This term was first coined in 1902 by philosopher Paul Lapie. Put simply, axiology is the study of value. However, its true purpose is so much more. Axiology places an emphasis on the concept of ethics and aesthetics and is also the understanding and differentiation between what is good and of value versus what is bad and of no value.

Before going into more detail about axiology, let us take a step back and understand what the field of philosophy is. This field is said to be the collection of all the different proposed and accepted interpretations of our knowledge and existence. By that logic, axiology not only serves as its own category, but the roots of its ideas also extend to many other aspects of philosophy. As a result of the sub-section of axiology in the study of ethics, it links axiology to the core thinking of a majority of other philosophies. The reason for this is that the original philosophers that came up with the study mostly had good intentions and used ethics to demonstrate the sought after good behavior in its practitioners.

Speaking of ethics, as mentioned previously, axiology is the study of value and the study connects the ideas of ethics and aesthetics together as a way to solidify the ideas regarding worth and value within philosophy. When it comes to ethics, while it is its own study and a key component of philosophy in its own right, it serves as one half of the sub-study of axiology. Ethics in its most basic form is one of the three Aristotelianism appeals that is focused on the study of morality and proper conduct. Most commonly, ethics is utilized in support of different arguments in a similar manner to a common “what is the right thing to do.”

As for the other half of the axiology, aesthetics is every bit as important in both axiology and philosophy. First off, aesthetics is a major concern in axiology and is a branch of philosophy

36 hat is primarily focused upon looks, nature, art, taste, and the appreciation of beauty. As a study, aesthetics is of tremendous value to philosophy because its concern regarding beauty in various forms allows other philosophers in different studies to propose their own take on beauty and the value associated with beauty, which in large part describes components of axiology. Regardless of whether or not most people are aware of how commonplace aesthetics are in life, some examples of aesthetics are, but not limited to our judgments regarding the looks of objects such as art, cars, landscape, nature, design, or a combination of all of them. As it pertains to axiology, however, both ethics and aesthetics play a major role in determining value or worth. Value is subjective in that it is worth what someone else would be willing to pay for it. While determining the value of something like an object or an experience, topics that people are likely to take into consideration will be the how good it is which is ethics and the looks and beauty of it which is aesthetics which combine into creating perceived value for said object for the buyer.

As a whole, axiology is an important aspect of philosophy and has plenty of good applications in the real world. The studying and basic understanding of axiology is very important because of the importance of value and the concept of value in the world and its unification of economics, aesthetics, and ethics which can be used to explain many decisions made by people every day. For example, the concept of value can be used to understand why people place emphasis on what they view to be important and how certain products are priced and how some products in a category do better than their competitors at the same price. Using these observations that come from axiology, people can see the trends that could be implemented in their own lives for the better, or truly look and see what they themselves value and prioritize and if it indeed is the right decision. For example, a study in axiology can encompass almost every topic imaginably and is important for the comprehension of other philosophies and basic appeals in daily life. Understanding axiology serves to help a person in facets such as in a job as well as learning different topics. To demonstrate, using one’s job as an example, the morals and ethics that are always questioned when engaging in axiology allows one to come to an agreeable action to take in the workplace and make good decisions that peers and co-workers in the office would be understanding towards and prevent the unnecessary and disruptive workplace conflict that arises due to workers being dissatisfied over perceived biased decisions.

Furthermore, axiology also serves as a terrific tool to allow for a better understanding of both sides in a study. This would be achieved because using ethics, a learner would consistently raise questions about the morality of an action and see both sides of the story to see which side was more justifiable and if their claim was correct.

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37 Famous and historical: Thales of miletus By: Nathan Kimi Philosophy is a way to think about you, me, society, and the universe.

It allows us to understand this world, where we are in it and helps us explain why the world is the way it is. But like all things, it has a history; philosophy is a human construct. We created the concept of thinking and pondering as philosophy. But like all things made human, it comes from an origin, and in this case for philosophy, it is believed that Thales of Miletus has sparked the fire for philosophy millennia ago. He is believed to be the first Greek philosopher for Western philosophy, but many contradictions and mysteries overlap when looking at his past.Not much is known about Thales’ life and his major accomplishments when it comes to primary sources. Yet later in history, much of his life was documented through writings mostly by Diogenes, a very well-known Illustration from "Illustrerad philosopher famous for not having a care in the world. verldshistoria utgifven av E. Wallis. volume I": Thales.

Thales lived around 626 BC - 548 BC and was born in the city of Miletus, Ionia (current-day Turkey). He is believed to be born into a wealthy family and be of Phoenician descent. His childhood life is not documented anywhere, but later in his life, he became a man of firsts.

He is considered the first philosopher, first astronomer, and first mathematician. He was also a great general, and he displayed that during a war where he was commanding an army. His army had to cross a river to get to the battlefield, but the river was too deep to walk through and his men didn’t bring boats. Upon facing this obstacle, he set up camp in the river bank and pondered for a solution. He thought about the water and came up with a simple yet clever plan to divert the river behind their camp using a man-made moat. Their army crossed the river, and when the battle was done, the moat was still there for his army to cross through. But this wasn’t the only time Thales tinkered with the idea of water. See, he was proclaimed the first philosopher mainly because he wanted to find the arche of the world (a substance that explains the entire universe and life itself). He was looking for something that explained existence, change, motion, and life. Then he considered water; water existed in all 3 states of matter known at that time: solid ice, liquid water, and water mist as a gas. Water also changes frequently through those 3 states, and it moves by itself.

Water is also the foundation for life; every living being needs water to survive. Although this theory may sound like common sense to you, during the time such concepts were revolutionary. As the arche of the universe, Thales’ theory of water sparked a plethora of different theories that explained different events, like earthquakes. Thales thought that all the land floated on water and that land was more buoyant than the oceans. This was

38 because using the arche theory (the theory that one substance makes up the entire universe), the land is just modified water, and that therefore land can float easily on the water. This theory expands into explaining earthquakes and that when land masses hit each other due to the ocean’s roughness, earthquakes are a result of the vibrations made from the impact.

Thales was also the first astronomer; he was the first person ever to predict a solar eclipse on May 28th, 585 BC. It is not known how Thales could’ve predicted the eclipse nor what methods he used, but it’s assumed he memorized the Saros cycle - a cycle that is used to predict solar eclipses. According to Herodotus (a Greek historian) and his writings, this eclipse that Thales predicted carried onto the battlefield, where both sides paused in the wonder of the eclipse. As a result of the eclipse, peace followed between the two kingdoms at war. Thales’ astronomy skills were further reflected in his spherical earth theory; Thales didn’t think the Earth was a flat disk - rather he concluded that the Earth has a spherical shape and used his mind and previous findings to support his theory. Firstly he most likely noticed that during a solar eclipse, the shadow created is always convex (a product of a spherical shape) and not elliptical (a product of a disk shape). Secondly, he noticed that some stars wouldn’t be visible if the viewer travels north or south. These things produced the then-controversial theory that the Earth is spherical and went well with Pythagoras’ findings of a spherical Earth as well. But Thales’ possibly most important finding as an astronomer was Ursa Minor because he was always looking up at the stars. There’s a story that says Thales was so interested in gazing at the stars that he tripped and tumbled into a well. He got made fun of, but the results of his star-gazing resulted in the credit of finding Ursa Minor. The new constellation that Thales found aided Miletus mariners to find a more accurate north than Ursa Major and is still used thousands of years later.

Adding to Thales’ achievements, Thales is also credited as the first mathematician and is known for his numerous theorems, one of them being the Thales Theorem. It states that if a triangle is drawn inside a circle and the longest side of the triangle is the diameter of the circle, the angle opposite (angle B) from the longest side of the triangle is always a right angle. It is said that his history in math stems from his extensive journeys to Egypt and possibly Babylon. So how did Thales fund his multitude of talents? Well, the man who could do it all could also make money while proving to his doubters that philosophers can make huge profits. Thales was a wealthy businessman who became rich using a rather odd method.

When Thales quit being a merchant he became poor and got mocked when he pursued being a philosopher. But Thales somehow predicted a great harvest of olives that season, and bought all of the olive press machines in his city, establishing a monopoly (so

39 he could be the only one to sell olives) over the region. Turns out his prediction was very accurate, as the olive harvest was very plentiful, and he made a huge profit, proving to others that as a philosopher he could still become very successful. Thales’ life was filled with great achievements, and although they have never been seen before in history, his impact and legacy are still admired today.

A major impact Thales had was with religion because he turned to nature and reason rather than gods and goddesses when trying to process the world. Thales was among the first to cement the idea that the world could be explained through science and logic and believed in his arche rather than deities when it came to earthquakes, floods, or other unexplainable nature events. He curated this way of thinking and paved the way for the future of philosophy. Combining his firsts of philosophy, astronomy, and mathematics, he was truly the first scientist, and because of his various accomplishments, he became one of the Seven Sages of Greece (a title given to 7 classical Greek philosophers and leaders who were recognized for their wisdom).

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40 metaphysics By: Max Moore “What is the meaning of life?” This is a question often asked, and rarely answered. Metaphysics asks questions like this and seeks out answers for them, and these answers extend beyond the meaning of life. Metaphysics is the branch of philosophy that deals with the principles of various abstract concepts such as being, knowing, substance, cause, identity, time, and space. This field is a branch of philosophy that generally seeks to answer two questions: “What is there?” and “What is it like?” It is often considered the foundation of philosophy, and even regarded as the “first philosophy” by philosophers such as Aristotle because of the fact that it deals with first causes and principles of being.

Metaphysics dates back all the way to the stone age with the belief of perennial philosophy, which is a philosophy that views all of the world's religious traditions as sharing a point of origin from which all knowledge has grown. By the bronze age humans had begun to take an interest and experiment in topics such as mythology and astronomy. After these discoveries many different nations took their own paths for researching metaphysics. For example: In China, philosophical concepts such as Yin and Yang rose into popularity along with Taoism. This acceptance of metaphysics as an important and relevant philosophy was not popular in every region of the world just yet. Some groups of people regarded this philosophy as futile because it was not empirically verifiable, testable or provable. For example, the major Asian religion Buddhism dismissed certain metaphysical questions as unhelpful and recommended they should be set aside. Meanwhile in Greece, philosophers Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle were exploring ideas in metaphysics rather than shunning them.

Topics studied by philosophers in the field of metaphysics include cosmology, ontology, the philosophy of space and time, universal science, and the philosophy of religion (which includes natural theology). These branches of study all come together to form metaphysics because they all question the nature of being. In contemporary metaphysics, topics include: nature of time and space, mind-body problem, causality, what it means to be a person, problem of free will. Although metaphysics is a very vast field of philosophy, there are branches that are more prominent and relevant today. These branches of metaphysics are ontology, natural theory, and universal science, and are grouped by Aristotle as his three fundamental principles of metaphysics.

41 Ontology, sometimes referred to as general metaphysics is the branch concerned with the nature of being. In the simplest terms, philosophers in this field question the definitions and extents of nouns. For example, the word mind, instead of referring to a person, refers to the series of mental events experienced by said person. The word society refers to a collection of persons with some shared characteristics, and geometry refers to a collection of specific kinds of intellectual activities, all according to Charles Griswold. Common questions studied in the field of ontology include: “What can be said to exist?” “What is a thing?” “Into what categories, if any, can we sort things into?” and “What are the meanings of being?” To answer such questions it is essential to divide subjects into categories. Aristotle has categorized the ways in which a being may be addressed. His categories are: “what it is,” “how it is,” “how much it is,” and “where it is.” Philosophers throughout time have used Aristotle’s method to group concepts of ontology into dichotomies, which are partitions of a whole into two mutually exclusive parts. Common examples are good and evil; real and imaginary; savage and civilized.

Natural theology, Aristotle’s second section of metaphysics, is the inquiry into the existence and attributes of God without referring or appealing to any divine revelation. The aim is to answer questions about the knowledge and existence of God without using any claims drawn from any sacred texts or divine revelation. For reasonable discourse, Christians, Jews, Muslims, and people of other religions will set aside their commitment to the sacred writings or traditions they believe to be God’s word. Natural theology is often confused with revealed theology, but it is very important to note the great difference between the two. In revealed theology, the knowledge has been gifted by a supernatural deity, while natural theology studies based on the observation nature. Observing nature involves more of an intellectual pursuit using human philosophy from nature instead of sourcing from sacred texts.

The final section of Aristotle’s study in metaphysics is universal science, a study rooted in true logic emphasizing the reasoning behind everything. Universal science questions ideas such as the existence of universals. Universals can be defined as things which can be instantiated or shared by different individual objects, such as beauty or roundness.

Philosophers in this field question the existence of universals and if they have any sort of existence outside of the things they occupy.

Between these 3 sections of Aristotle’s findings on metaphysics, there are two underlying themes. The first is the study of first causes: that which does not change and from which emanates the things in this world we experience. Many times throughout history this first cause has been identified as God. The second is the study of being, the study of that which exists. Aristotle attempted to identify and delineate the fundamental categories of being.

42 he could be the only one to sell olives) over the region. Turns out his prediction was very accurate, as the olive harvest was very plentiful, and he made a huge profit, proving to others that as a philosopher he could still become very successful. Thales’ life was filled with great achievements, and although they have never been seen before in history, his impact and legacy are still admired today.

We all struggle with answering the question, "What is the meaning of life?" Hopefully these metaphysical ideas and concepts help you find your answer.

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43 paradoxes By: Elliot Liu If one disassembled a ship and replaced each of its wooden parts, would it remain the same ship? What would happen if Pinocchio said “my nose grows now?” How can one make a rational decision between two outcomes of equal value? Questions like these have piqued humans’ interests for ages as they pondered how to answer them, only to find, alas!, they seem to have no definite answer. That is the essence of a paradox, which is an apparently sound statement that seems to contradict itself or present a logically unacceptable conclusion.

In general, a paradox focuses on the idea of self-reference, meaning that it continually refers to itself. When one considers a paradoxical statement, one cannot help but realize that they seem to be going around in circles. Take, for example, the Pinocchio paradox: one likely knows that whenever Pinocchio lies, his nose will lengthen; but what if he uttered the unorthodox statement “my nose grows now”? If Pinocchio’s statement were true, his nose grows because he speaks honestly; but his nose could not grow because it grows only when he lies, but then it would grow because he was lying that it would grow, and so on. If Pinocchio’s statement were false, then his nose would not grow; but his nose would grow because he was lying, which must mean that Pinocchio was telling the truth initially, and so on.

The Pinocchio paradox is just one example of many that invites people to think critically.

Another intriguing example of a paradox is the Horned Man. This paradox is attributed to Eubulides, a pupil of the renowned ancient Greek mathematician Euclid. The paradox is based on the interpretation of the statement: “what you have not lost you still have.” With that logical statement in mind let us see how it applies in terms of two characters - Bob and Mark. Bob can force Mark into admitting that Mark has not lost any horns. Mark (unless he is somehow part human and goat) would have to agree. However, with this acceptance Mark would in turn have to accept the strange conclusion that he still has horns, since he has revealed that he has not lost any. The Horned Man paradox reveals that the definition of the word “lost” is perhaps not as clear as one might think, as the word could mean that one owned an object in the past but no longer owns said object; “not lost” could mean that one does still own an object or that they did not own said object in the first place.

Paradoxes are not limited to the sphere of logical reasoning; they are also found in the realm of mathematics. In the AP Statistics class I took during my junior year of high school, I was exposed to a certain phenomena known as Simpson’s paradox, which states that an association between two variables can be changed or reversed if a third variable is revealed. Consider this example, in which data was collected on whether medical helicopters save more lives from an accident than ambulances do.

44

One can see from the table that 68%, or 136 out of 200, of the patients who were evacuated from the accident by helicopter survived, while 76%, or 840 out of 1100, of the patients who were evacuated by road survived. It would seem that there is a greater association between patients who survive if they were transported by road than if they were transported by helicopter. That seems a bit odd, considering one is likely to believe that transport by helicopter should save a greater proportion of lives as they are able to reach a hospital more quickly.

However, in order to have a more nuanced understanding of the relationship between evacuation by medical helicopter vs. by road and accident survival rates, one must consider a hidden variable: the severity of the accident. Medical helicopters are usually used in accidents of greater severity, as the victims’ injuries are usually more life-threatening and require more immediate medical attention. Let us consider the following tables, which divide the initial table based on the severity of the accidents.

45 As one can see from the tables, transport by helicopter was not only able to save a higher percentage of patients who were in serious accidents than transport by road (52% vs 40%) but also a higher percentage of patients in less serious accidents (84% vs 80%). Transport by helicopter had a higher survival rate for both serious and less serious accidents. This demonstrates Simpson’s paradox, as the association between accident survival rates and transport by medical helicopter is reversed when a third factor, the severity of the accidents, is considered.

As the previous examples have shown, paradoxes are multifarious in nature. Because of this, a definitive view on paradoxes is very much welcome. Fortunately, American philosopher Willard Van Orman Quine provides us with just that. Quine’s view on paradoxes is that they are arguments that seem successful but have conclusions that seem absurd. Furthermore, Quine classifies paradoxes into three groups: veridical, falsidical, and intractable paradoxes.

Quine defines veridical paradoxes as paradoxes that have true conclusions despite their absurd arguments. An example of a veridical paradox is the case of Frederic in the opera The Pirates of Penzance, in which Frederic is described as having reached 21 years of age despite only having celebrated five birthdays. One would think that it is nonsensical that Frederic could be 21 years old if he celebrated only five birthdays. However, it is revealed that Frederic was born on the 29th of February, a leap day that occurs every four years only. So despite the absurd argument that Frederic has only celebrated five birthdays, the conclusion that he is 21 years old is indeed true, making Frederic’s situation a veridical paradox.

The second category of paradox that Quine defines is the falsidical paradox, which Quine defines as a statement that contains a fallacy, or faulty reasoning, resulting in an obviously false or self-contradictory conclusion. An example of a falsidical paradox is the Arrow Paradox, which is attributed to the ancient Greek philosopher Zeno. Zeno postulates that a flying arrow is divided into moments in which the arrow is frozen midair and the motion of its flight is merely many such moments strung together. Since there is no one moment in which the arrow is moving, Zeno concludes that movement is impossible. This is a falsidical paradox because Zeno employs a fallacious understanding of movement to justify a false conclusion.

The third category of paradox that Quine defines is the intractable paradox, which Quine explains is a statement that contains a self-contradictory conclusion that does not feature a fallacy. The Pinnochio paradox mentioned earlier is an example of an intractable paradox.

46 Lastly, no general discussion of paradoxes is complete without touching on one of the most fun and iconic paradoxes: Schrödinger's Cat. This famous paradox was proposed by physicist Erwin Schrödinger, which asserts that a physical object can exist in all possible states simultaneously (in superposition) until it is measured, in which it will assume one state. Schrödinger’s thought experiment paradox proposes a cat sitting in a box; next to the cat rests a radioactive sample, which has a 50 percent chance of decaying and killing the cat. Schrödinger asserted that if the Copenhagen Interpretation were true, then when the cat sits in the box, it must be simultaneously dead and alive in order to be in all the possible states. It is only when the box is opened when the cat will be found to be either dead or alive; the cat will have assumed one state during measurement. Of course, we know that it is physically impossible for a cat to be simultaneously living and dead, hence the paradox.

We all struggle with answering the question, "What is the meaning of life?" Hopefully these metaphysical ideas and concepts help you find your answer.

While paradoxes do not play the most prevalent role in everyday life, they are still a most intriguing philosophical phenomena.

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