MISSION IN MONGOLIA AN INTRODUCTION
1. HISTORY / 2. DEMOGRAPHICS / 3. RELIGION / 4. LANGUAGE / 5. CULTURE / 6. CONTEXTUAL THEOLOGICAL & MISSIOLOGICAL ISSUES.
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COVER: A KAZAKH EAGLE HUNTER (BY JOEL SANTOS) 1. ALTAI GOLDEN EAGLES AND THEIR HUNTER OWNERS / 2. KHUISIIN NAIMAN LAKE / 3. BUUZ (DUMPLINGS) / 4. PREPARATION OF AIRAG (FERMENTED MARE’S MILK) / 5. MILK TEA / 6. HORSE-RIDING DURING NAADAM
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INTRODUCTION C
ontinuing the tapestry of God’s work in Mongolia requires an appreciation for what has been woven by our predecessors. At times seemingly put away for centuries, we must remember that God’s presence and purpose in Mongolia transcends our historic records even as we endeavour to understand it. This introduction to mission in Mongolia will trace Christianity’s intertwining presence alongside national history, give an overview of demographics, language, religion and culture, before finally exploring contextual theological and missiological issues relevant to missions work today.
HISTORY IN THE HOUSE OF THE KHANS / page 6 OCCUPATION AND WESTERN MISSION ATTEMPTS / page 8 LIBERATION AND THE GOSPEL FINALLY TAKES ROOT / page 9 DEMOGRAPHICS / page 10 RELIGION / page 12 LANGUAGE / page 14 CULTURE FEATURES AND PRACTICES / page 17 HOFSTEDE CULTURAL DIMENSIONS / page 20 CONTEXTUAL THEOLOGICAL AND MISSIOLOGICAL ISSUES CONTEXTUALIZATION IN MISSION AND MINISTRY / page 23 URBANISATION AND THE NOMADIC FRONTIER / page 26 TRADITIONAL RELIGIONS AND MODERN PERCEPTIONS OF CHRISTIANITY / page 33 REDEEMING TRADITIONS FOR CHRIST / page 35 CONCLUSION / page 38
BRISBANE SCHOOL OF THEOLOGY / PETER HO SHUN CHAN / SEPT 2017
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fig. 01 / A statue of a Mongol warrior at the great Equestrian Monument of Genghis Khan.
HISTORY H
aving once controlled the largest land empire the world has ever known, the history of the Mongols is a proud and impressive one. Yet these courageous, free-spirited people later suffered tremendously under Chinese and Soviet rule. Throughout the chapters of history, the story of Christianity weaved in and out like a thin thread, present on two occasions but never really taking root until the 1990s when the country final opened up and the gospel was preached for the third time.
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1. IN THE HOUSE OF THE KHANS
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emüjin was born 1164, into a scattered Mongolia of warring tribes. Having had his father poisoned by a neighbouring chieftain, Temüjin gathered his brothers, defeated the opposing tribe and amalgamated their clan into his own. Thus, he continued subjugating the people groups of the plains in this manner until he had united all of them as nation in 1206, and was named ‘Genghis Khan’.
faith, when he met Niccolo, Marco Polo’s father in 1267. After witnessing to him about Christ, Kublai instructed Niccolo to return to Italy and bring with him 100 Christians to teach the Mongols about Christianity, as depicted in the following edict: “To send 100 persons well skilled in your law, who being confronted with the idolaters (ie Buddhists) shall have power to coerce them, and showing that they themselves are endowed with similar art… When I am witness of this, I shall place them and their religion under an interdict, and allow myself to be baptised. Following my example, all my nobility will then in like manner receive baptism, and this will be imitated by my subjects in general; so that the Christians of these parts shall exceed in number those who inhabit your own country.”
It was into the royal court of the Khans that Christianity first came to Mongolia. One of the early neighbouring people groups that Genghis conquered were the Kerait, whose king had become Christian after a mysterious vision in the dessert prompted him to seek out Nestorian missionaries. Some of his daughters were married into the house of the Khans, and subsequently Christians came to hold prominent positions within the empire.
Unfortunately, the church of the time only managed to send two monks, who made it as far as turkey before turning back, and as a whole failed completely to respond to this invitation, which later became known as ‘the greatest missed opportunity in the history of Christian missions’.
One of these princesses, Sorghaghtani Beki, later became known as ‘Mother of the Khans’. She was mother to Kublai Khan, the last of the great Khans, and at least three other sons who ruled various parts of the empire. Sorghaghtani was highly competent and influential in ruling administration, known for her compassion towards the non-Mongol poor which was highly unusual for the time, and for instilling values of religious tolerance and respect for Christianity in her sons. Her firm but fair judgement won her high regard from rulers and subjects alike, as recorded by Muslim, Chinese and Christian historians. Bar Hebraeus, a Syrian Nestorian church leader writes of her, “If I were to see among the race of women another woman like this, I should say that the race of women was far superior to that of men.”
Overall, during the environment of religious freedom under the Mongol empire, Christianity had an influence within the royal courts of the Khans, but had failed to reach the hearts of the people, and failed to establish a church. With the fall of the empire in 1368, the xenophobic Chinese destroyed any foreign literature, and all traces of Christianity disappeared with it. Tibetan Buddhism was introduced as the national religion to pacify the ‘barbarians’, and it would be half a millennium before the gospel was again brought to the steppes.
No doubt, Kublai was influenced by his mother’s
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HISTORY
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fig. 02 / The Mongol army defeating the Polish in the battle of Legnica - April 9th 1241AD
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2. OCCUPATION AND WESTERN MISSION ATTEMPTS
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he period that followed was characterised by numerous Chinese and Mongol invasions into opposing enemy territory. Eventually in 1644, the Chinese secured control and incorporated Mongolia into the Qing Dynasty, subjecting the Mongols to harsh occupation for the next 250 years.
one years on the field had produced only a handful of converts, and none of them were baptised. Two years later, inspired by Gilmour’s writings, Swedish missionary Frans Larson led a team of 26 other young enthusiastic workers into the country and were met with the same spiritual resistance. Results were few, and sadly many were martyred during the Boxer rebellion. Hence despite the faithful and valiant efforts of these 19th century missionaries, the gospel had once again failed to take root in an environment of political unrest, a high degree of suspicion, especially towards foreigners, and a tight grip of Buddhism on the minds and identity of the Mongol people.
This was the context to which the gospel came for the second time. London Missionary Society workers Stallybrass and Swan
The next political upheaval saw power transfer from one occupier to another. In 1921, young Mongol leader Sukhebaatar formed an allegiance with the Russians and successfully expelled the Chinese. However, the aid came at a high price as Mongolia involuntarily became a communist country, officially independent, but in reality controlled by Soviet officials at every level. Sukhebaatar later died under mysterious circumstances during a visit to Moscow to protest the lack of freedom of his countrymen. As the communist grip tightened in the 1930s, thousands of defenceless monks were killed and monasteries destroyed in an attempt to wipe out all those with an education who may oppose the regime. Communications with the outside world were cut off and Mongolia would remain closed for the next seventy years, as culture and national identity were slowly influenced by communistic ideology. The weak flame of Christianity in Mongolia was once again snuffed out.
THE WEAK FLAME OF CHRISTIANITY IN MONGOLIA WAS ONCE AGAIN SNUFFED OUT.
pioneered western mission in Mongolia between 1817 and 1841. They managed to translate parts of the Bible into the northern tongue of the Buriats but were later ordered out by the Russians. Thirty years passed before another LMS missionary James Gilmour reopened the mission in 1870. James had a highly contextualised approach, preferring to live, eat and share in local life as much as possible. He observed keenly and wrote extensively about Mongol culture, introducing the western world to this previously unknown country and paving the way for future missionaries. However by the time of his death in 1891, twenty-
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HISTORY
3. LIBERATION AND THE GOSPEL FINALLY TAKES ROOT
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n Sunday March 11, 1990, waves of excitement and nervous anticipation swept over the crowd of over 100,000 who had gathered at the city square to call for the resignation of their communist leaders. The Berlin wall had fallen the previous year, and now the same hope of liberation grew to breaking point within the hearts of the Mongols. Zorig, the young leader of the democratic movement, who had previously heard of Christ, sat atop the shoulders of his peers and called for the protests to remain peaceful. All of a sudden, the doors of the parliament were thrown open, a spokesperson appeared to announce that the government had resigned, and that democratic elections should be held as soon as possible. Mongolia was free!
Christian missionaries flooded into Mongolia the moment its doors opened. Essentially starting from a blank canvas, Mongolia proved to be a unique ‘green-field’ opportunity for the ecumenical to put into practice the latest in missiological understanding. Principles such a bonding, contextualisation, indigenization, planning an exit strategy from day one, training national leaders, instilling a vision for outreach and multiplication were all implemented with a good amount of success. The movement was also marked by a blurring of and willingness to co-operate across denominations, a unique characteristic which continues to define the Mongol church today. In 1990, there were less than 10 known Christians in Mongolia, today there are an estimated 72,000 believers and over 600 churches, most of them led by Mongolians as foreign missionaries retreat to leadership training and resource development. The church has even begun to look outwards, with numerous short term missionaries and over 20 long term missionaries sent to neighbouring countries and abroad. After the many changes of seasons in the past centuries, the gospel has finally taken root in Mongolia to produce a theologically sound, authentically Mongolian and highly missional church.
Rapid change occurred swiftly and peacefully in the next three years. Politically, the constitution was rewritten, democratic elections were held and Mongolia was opened up to the outside world. Economically, the transition from communist welfare systems to a capitalist economy was much harder, resulting in stark unemployment, inflation and poverty, challenges which the country is still trying to overcome.
fig. 03 / Zorig at Mongolian democratic protests, 1990
fig. 04 / Government Palace, Ulaanbaatar 9
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DEMOGRAPHICS Walking the streets of the capital, Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia today is vastly different from the communist-ruled country it once was before 1990. From billboards advertising the latest Hollywood movies and towering glazed office towers, to high streets with the biggest European brands, western influence is noticeable everywhere. Yet nearby, just beyond the outskirts of the traffic jams and city lights, clusters of gers can be found, inhabited by former nomadic herders seeking a better life in the city. As the country’s rapid development continues, how will local, regional and global influences shape the culture and identity of each demographic?
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fig. 01 / Mongolian faces.
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s of 2016, Mongolia had a population of 3.09 million people. Seventy-one percent of these reside in cities like Ulaanbaatar while fifty-five percent are below the age of thirty, creating a young, urbanite majority, one which is eager to learn from and make an impression on the rest of the world. Meanwhile, a considerable number of Mongols still retain their traditional nomadic life, moving across the plains in search for pasture to rear their livestock for food and trade. Life on the steppes is not easy, as shown by a higher percentage living under the poverty line than the national average of 21.6%. The unemployment rate throughout Mongolia is 8.6%, while other challenges include alcoholism, pollution, and harsh weather conditions. The literacy rate is ninety-nine percent, partially due to the schooling introduced by the Soviet Union while Mongolia was under its control. Today, schooling is mandatory for 11 years starting from the age of six. There are about a dozen universities operating in country, while many students also travel abroad to study in countries such as China, Russia, Great Britain, and the United States. Ethnically, Mongolians are a relatively homogenous ethnic group, with over eighty percent belonging to the Khalkha majority, and the remaining tracing their heritage back to twenty-eight other people groups; each with their own unique vernacular tongue, but all speaking the official language of Mongolian. 11
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RELIGION I
n the spiritual landscape of present day Mongolia, nearly 70% of the population identify themselves to Buddhism or ethnic religions such as Shamanism. Historically these two traditional faiths were often intermingled with each other and with national identity. Indeed for the most of history since the fall of the Mongol Empire, to be Mongol was to be Buddhist, a belief that was only loosened by the religious purges of the communist era. Today, lamas are once again actively promoting their faith by holding public talks, and translating their Tibetan scriptures into Mongolian.
next life, some of the primary concerns of believers. Shamanism focuses on interacting with the spiritual world, encouraging followers to reach altered states of consciousness whereby spirits and even death can be controlled. Missionary efforts since 1990 have seen tremendous growth in Christianity and an estimated 2.4 percent, or 72,000 Mongols are now professing Christians. However according to the Joshua Project, 23 of the 29 people groups are still considered unreached, the sparsity of the nomadic population continues to be a challenge. Of the remaining, 3.7% are Muslim and 25% consider themselves non-religious.
Religious practices for the average Buddhist include the spinning of prayer wheels, fingering rosaries, walking around pagodas and shrines, going on pilgrimage and reciting mantras. These are done to accumulate merit, often with a pragmatic approach, such that the contents of the prayer wheel is not as important as the fact that it works to bring prosperity, healing from sickness, animal welfare, and ultimately a better
fig. 01 / Gandan Monastery, Ulaanbaatar; fig. 02 / Young Buddhist at religious gathering; fig. 03 / Sagaan Ubgen, the bearded Mongolian guardian of life and longevity, surrounded by other deities during a Buryat Tsam festival
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LANGUAGE ‘BURKHAN’, ‘TENGER’ AND ‘LORD OF THE UNIVERSE’ Figure: Traditional Mongolian scripts in digital use today.
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ongolian is associated with the Ural-Altaic family of languages, which also includes Finnish, Hungarian, Turkish, Kazakh, Usbek and Korean. Written script has three expressions, traditional Mongolian which resembles Arabic, Russian Cyrillic alphabet which is most widely used today, and a Romanised form. Grammar and pronunciation is also not easy, with 8 grammatical cases, and numerous throat-driven syllables that may be challenging for a western speaker. Presently, the Australian National University offers postgraduate Mongolian language courses, and various other online courses are available. In Mongolia, volunteer organisations such as Projects Abroad offer language and homestay programs for an immersive learning environment, a similar arrangement can likely be made with members of a local church. Although English has been announced as the country’s primary foreign language, fluent speakers are still few.
he term to be used for God in Mongolian has been the subject of debate. Previously, a term that can be translated as ‘Lord of the Universe’ was used in the first complete New Testament translation published in 1990, the Shin Geree. Since then, it has been acknowledged that this has caused confusion, and the term ‘Burkhan’ which resembles the Greek word ‘Theos’ in meaning is most widely used now. ‘Tenger’ is another ancient term from the days of Genghis Khan that may be appropriately used to describe God in certain circumstances. The Ariun Bibli translation is the most widely used today and available online, however critics still claim that it is ‘translated Mongolian’ and sometimes difficult to understand. In response to this, the Mongolian Union Bible Society has started translating an all new Mongolian Standard Version from the original Hebrew and Greek, set to be completed in 2026.
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fig. 01 / Inside a ger in western Mongolia.
CULTURE FEATURES AND PRACTICES
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elf-described ‘Asian by ethnicity but Western by culture’, Mongolians have been found to have a rare and distinct culture amongst its neighbours. No doubt influenced by elements of a nomadic lifestyle, building of a world empire, and Russian occupation, such a history has produced a people who are meek yet adventurous, unassumingly stoic yet able to enjoy life, respectful and yet not burdened by strict social protocol. Life on the steppes have shaped a culture of hospitability by necessity, as each ger indiscriminately provides bedding, food, social contact and provisions for passers-by, enabling travellers to journey far without packing heavy supplies. The ger itself is fundamental to family life, with the single confined space offering little privacy, but promoting interdependency, patience and forgiving leniency. Exogamy is still practiced widely, believing that it is wrong to marriage within one’s clan. Hence Mongolians have three names, a clan name, a patronymic name based on the father’s given name, and a given name. Two spectauclar events that mark the Mongolian calendar are the Tsagaan Sar and Naadam.
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TSAGAAN SAR LUNAR NEW YEAR The Tsagaan Sar, or Lunar New Year occurs annually around late January or early February, and involves wearing one’s best clothes, visiting relatives, exchanging gifts and following ancient rituals of respect for ancestors. Buddhists visit temples to give thanks, and many observe astrological predictions for the year to come.
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CULTURE
NAADAM NATIONAL SPORTS EVENT Naadam is a spectacle that occurs during the mid-summer month of July. Resembling a national sports day, or days, competitions are held in archery, wrestling and horse racing. Any skill in or a willingness to participate in such activities will usually gather a warm respect for foreigners and visitors.
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HOFSTEDE CULTURAL DIMENSIONS
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lthough generalised, Hofstede’s cultural dimensions are one possible approach to quantitatively describe culture (explained here: https://geert-hofstede.com/ national-culture.html). The following graph compares Mongolia with its neighbours Russia and China, as well as Australia. It should be noted that the data for Mongolia was collected independently by other researchers, and specifically from a sample of 50 university students. As data for Mongolia’s indulgence aspect was unavailable, this has been excluded.
Scores for individualism are again relatively high for an Asian nation, indicating that an emphasis is placed on individual rights and responsibilities, including the freedom and independence of religious belief. Masculinity is extremely high, revealing a preference for competition, achievement, heroism, assertiveness and material rewards for success. This again may be rooted in the warring heritage of the Mongols, but instead of producing competition or disunity among churches and believers, an ambitious and heroic spirit is a fitting asset in carrying out the Great Commission. Data shows uncertainty avoidance is high, which indicates a preference for known, established methodologies, rather than new ideas, progress and change. This is not surprising given the century old traditions of nomadic life. Considering Russia’s even higher score, years of soviet rule may also have had an influence. Missionaries should be aware of this and not be discouraged if positive changes cannot be made quickly.
AN AMBITIOUS AND HEROIC SPIRIT IS A FITTING ASSET IN CARRYING OUT THE GREAT COMMISSION.
According to the results Mongolia is a short-term oriented culture, meaning that the immediate concern is often for the here and now. Planning into the far future is generally not as relevant, in contrast to its neighbours, Russia and China, where particularly long term financial planning, and provision for family members are highly valued. This may mean that Mongolian Christians are able to respond to the call to missions with less reservation.
Mongolia has a very low power distance score, meaning that equality across gender, class and social roles is preferred, a phenomenon which is rare for Asian cultures. Part of this may be traced back to Genghis Khan who was known for challenging social norms to promote his generals and successors based on competence and not birthright. In ministry, a low power distance may mean that congregation members are more willing to voice their thoughts and opinions, and relate to ministry leaders on equal terms.
Overall, results show that Mongolia is comparatively similar to Australia in its low power distance, high individualism and shortterm orientation. With this in mind, the other dimensions can be given particular attention to as areas of possible conflict.
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Hofstede’s Cultural Dimensions 103 93
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Individualism
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Masculinity
Uncertainty Avoidance Russia
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Long Term Orientation
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Data for Australia, China, Russia: Hofstede, Geert. Country Comparison. 2017 [cited 9 September 2017]. Available from https://geert-hofstede.com/countries.html. Data for Mongolia: Charles Rarick, Gregory Winter, Casimir Barczyk, Mark Pruett, Inge Nickerson & Arifin Angriawan. “Mongolia: A Cultural Portrait using the Hofstede 5-D Model.” Global Journal of Management and Business Research 14, no. 9 (2014).
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CONTEXTUAL THEOLOGICAL & MISSIOLOGICAL ISSUES HAVING TRACED CHRISTIANITY’S FLICKERING EXISTENCE IN MONGOLIA’S PAST, AND UNDERSTOOD ITS CURRENT DEMOGRAPHIC, RELIGIOUS AND CULTURAL CONTEXT, WE NOW TURN TO A DISCUSSION OF SEVERAL THEOLOGICAL AND MISSIOLOGICAL ISSUES THAT CURRENT AND PROSPECTIVE MISSIONARIES CAN EXPECT TO FACE.
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CONTEXTUALIZATION IN MISSION AND MINISTRY
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ust as the pioneering missionaries had remarkable success contextualising the gospel and thus producing an authentically indigenous church in the 1990s, the need to contextualise continues to be vital to ministry work today. To understand this, two examples will be explored, the first where contextualisation has been implemented successfully, and the second where minimal thought was given to the matter.
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CONTEXTUALISING THE GOSPEL THROUGH ANCESTRAL RELATIVES, A YOUNG LAMB, AND GENGHIS KHAN’S RELIGIOUS POLICIES.
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ick Leatherwood’s ministry in Mongolia from 1988 to 2000, as documented in his book ‘Glory in Mongolia’, illustrates a number of instances when an appreciation, understanding and loving acceptance of the local culture and heritage helped to advance the gospel. Towards the beginning of his ministry, God had given Rick a vision to invite American Indians to join him in mission because it was believed that they had ancestral links with the Mongolians. Indeed, as the two peoples came into contact, many undeniable similarities were found between the cultures. Food was cooked in a similar fashion, the Mongol’s gers bore an uncanny resemblance to the American Indian tipi, a distinct and gifted horsemanship was shared, and both people’s babies often had blue birthmarks on their backs. In this way, a mutual understanding was quickly built which enabled the sharing of the gospel. In another instance when a young lamb was presented by a chieftain as a gift, this naturally opened the door for a story about the ‘lamb of God’. Yet again, when called upon to voice an opinion on religious legislation by government officials, the Great Khan’s policies on religious freedom were drawn upon to make a case for the unrestricted practice of Christianity.
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nother group of missionaries who arrived in the early 1990s were the Koreans, passionate gospel workers who have accomplished much and continue to leave a legacy of thriving churches in Mongolia. One advantage of being Korean was that the Korean and Mongolian languages are very similar grammatically. With a keen intellect and diligent study, many early Korean missionaries were preaching in Mongolian and leading churches within months of arriving. However while the language was similar, the two cultures were actually in fact quite the opposite in certain aspects. As seen through Hofstede’s dimensions, Mongolia has a very low power distance while Korea’s is very high. Hence as Korean pastors established ministry and leadership patterns, the Mongolians did not respond well to the hierarchical structure, rigid control, formal worship, and unquestioning submission to authority that had worked well for the Koreans. Work patterns and concepts of time also differed greatly, so seven day working weeks and 6am prayer meetings were met with resistance. Thankfully over time, these differences were overcome and many Korean-planted churches continue to flourish today.
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s national identity and culture continues to grow and evolve under local, regional and global influences, missionaries must seek to have a grounded understanding of the Mongol heritage. Young believers tempted to discard their recent history of occupation and weakness, in favour of western identity, should be encouraged to employ their inherited gifts as a strong, adaptable, and adventurous people for the sake of the gospel. As God is the God of all cultures, missionary efforts must continue to humbly and tactfully grow churches that are authentically Mongolia, and highly relevant to the rapidly developing nation.
fig. 01 / Russian and Mongolian Christians partner to host summer camps in remote western Mongolia; fig. 02 / Young Mongol family involved in church leadership; fig. 03-04 / American Indian Tipi and Mongolian Ger; fig. 05 / Daughter of a herder with young goat; fig. 06 / Mongolian university students attending a leadership conference in New York.
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CONTEXTUAL THEOLOGICAL & MISSIOLOGICAL ISSUES
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URBANISATION AND THE NOMADIC FRONTIER From a historic nation of roaming herders, data now shows that 72% of the population live in urban centres, with an estimated 1.38 million people in the capital of Ulaanbaatar. Both the urban and rural nomadic contexts present unique social, missiological and theological challenges which require appropriate responses.
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CONTEXTUAL THEOLOGICAL & MISSIOLOGICAL ISSUES
fig. 01 / A young girl stands on top of her ger on the outskirts of Ulaanbaatar.
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n the fringes of Mongolia’s urban centres, an increasing number of ger districts have appeared. Most of the inhabitants in this makeshift settlements are former nomadic herders, attempting to rebuild a life in the city after losing their livestock to harsh winters or misfortunes. There is no access to fresh water, proper sanitation, heating and electricity, while pollution fills the air from the animal waste and rubbish that is burned for fire and warmth. Poverty is rampant with employment and education not readily available. Yet the population in Ulaanbaatar’s ger districts is growing by an estimated 40,000 each year. Within the city centre itself, homelessness is a problem. While not always fully apparent, numerous street children steal, beg and forage for food during the day. At night when temperatures can drop to -40°C in winter, they retreat underground to sleep in nooks and crevices among the network of heated pipes below the city. These children are often abandoned by parents unable or unwilling to look after them, or are forced to leave home due to abuse and alcoholism. It appears that within the urban context, there is much gospel work to be done in the areas of relief, education, vocational training, foster parenting and adoption. Christian principles of social concern, justice, and parenting can be highlighted. Psalm 40:2 provides here a literal image of Jesus’ redemptive work, “He lifted me out of the slimy pit, out of the mud and mire; he set my feet on a rock and gave me a firm place to stand.” 27
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fig. 02 / In Ulaanbaatar, a homeless man shelters underground, where the city’s water pipes provide warmth during extreme winters. 28
CONTEXTUAL THEOLOGICAL & MISSIOLOGICAL ISSUES
fig. 03 / Gers, and Mongolia’s “eternal blue sky”.
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ut on the plains of rural Mongolia, the primary challenge is the sparse and ever-moving population. When a nomad does become a Christian, keeping in contact to provide discipleship can be difficult, and time and resource intensive. Indeed, even locating the person again is no easy feat as a GPS system (here standing for ‘ger positioning system’) is employed, whereby stops are made at each encountered ger to ask for a particular family’s location. To this cause, Christian radio and TV stations have made precious contributions. Eagle TV, founded in 1994, now provides 200,000 subscribers more than 3 hours of Christian programming each day. Meanwhile, Ahn identifies that as Christianity has historically developed as a city religion, the faith has a limited ability to reach rural-dwellers, and so nomadic mission should be done by the nomadic. He argues that the Biblical example of Paul’s ministry contains helpful principles such as an emphasise on teamwork, training and mobilization done on the spot, and a nondistinction between church and mission, minister and missionary can be employed to good effect in nomadic mission. Indeed the key to reaching the most remote parts of Mongolia will be nomadic Mongol missionaries.
fig. 04 / On the plains of rural Mongolia, motorcycles are a more effecient mode of transport than traditional means. 30
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TRADITIONAL RELIGIONS AND MODERN PERCEPTIONS OF CHRISTIANITY
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urrent statistics show around 36% of Mongols are Buddhist, and 33% identify to various ethnic religions. These traditional faiths have an influence on every Mongol’s life, including Christians, and the 25% who describe themselves as non-religious. So how to Mongols typically view these religions, and how do they view Christianity?
Javklan, a 41 year old businessman remarks, “The traditions of Christianity are what have helped make Western civilisation so dominant. The values of mutual respect, of caring for others, of bringing progress and good to society are all necessary for Mongolia to develop,” and of Buddhism, “If Mongolia had not been a nation of celibate monks, following a religion forced on us by the Manchus (Chinese Qing Empire) to keep us weak, we would be a strong nation of 40 million people today”.
One attitude of Christianity is that of suspicion and dismissal. Byambajav, a senior Buddhist figure says, “It’s a problem of money. (Christian) missionaries have money to build schools and educate young people. They entice them by various means.” and “We cannot financially compete, but we have to try, otherwise we won’t have enough young people becoming Buddhist.” While L. Odonchimed, a former member of parliament says, “Our Mongolian Buddhist monasteries are weak.” and “They get money from people but don’t give much back. Missionaries give things away for free and help people - that is what a religious organization should do.” He also predicts that Christian organisations will eventually be ignored as the nation’s economy develops.
These excerpts are in no way conclusive, but provide a glimpse into some likely perceptions that missionaries may face. Contextualising principles can again be employed. Nothing should be assumed and questions should be asked about actual knowledge and experience of the faiths, as the return to traditional religions is often unexamined. In the face of suspicions, Christianity must have utmost integrity and be above reapproach, especially when dealing with finances, and believers are to be recognized for their genuine love through actions, not just mere words (John 13:35). As observed in Javklan’s words, there also needs to be a careful distinction between western and Christian ideology, or else prosperity theology may be unintentionally preached.
On the other hand, other sources reveal a more practical and favourable opinion.
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REDEEMING TRADITIONS FOR CHRIST Matthew 5:17 tells us that Christ did not come to abolish Jewish laws and customs, but to fulfil them into the fullness of what they were meant to be, pure acts of worship to God. So it also is with Mongolian culture. The task of the missionary is to grow believers in the Word of God until they can weld it for teaching, rebuking, correcting and training (2 Tim 3:16), including discerning parts of traditions that need to be redeemed, and how they are to be redeemed. The following three examples illustrate this.
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sagaan Sar celebrations are a beauty to behold, as whole families dressed in new dells (traditional costume) move from house to house, each with tables laid full of favourite traditional foods. However, the festival is also known to be an intensely alcohol fuelled occasion. Vodka is offered at every stop, so that the day typically ends in drunken disarray. Believers struggling with the social pressure to drink have remembered an ancient custom from the days of Genghis Khan whereby men under the age of forty where not allowed to drink, those above forty, just a little, and those above fifty supposedly knew how to control themselves. Another lost practice involved dipping one’s finger into the cup and then placing it on the forehead, as a signal of respect and thanks, when one did not wish to drink. Praise God for these precious precedents, and may believers continue to find creative ways to live out their faith while demonstrating respect for their traditions.
n a third example, Daah Urgeeh is a hair cutting ceremony for children between the ages of 3 to 5, to celebrate surviving the dangers of infancy. Before then, the child’s hair is never cut, in an attempt to confuse evil, jealous spirits wanting to cause misfortune. The ceremony lasts for an entire day as family members take turns cutting out locks of hair and presenting the child with gifts, before it is completely shaved at the end of the day. Once again, it is often an alcohol fuelled event. In this case, reasons for the practice are stepped in superstition and fear of the spiritual realm, making it difficult for a believer to redeem. One suggestion may be to draw on the story of Samson from the Bible, whose hair was never to be cut as a sign of dedication to God (Judges 13:5). The child could be dedicated to God in a similar way, so that while the practice and ceremony are adjusted to take on new meaning, the tradition remains recognisably and authentically Mongolian.
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nother more mundane practice occurs daily, as women across the country get up to collect milk for their families. During the process, a cup of milk is thrown into the air as an offering to the gods. Upon receiving Christ, the same form of worship should still be used, only now the object of worship has changed.
fig. 01 / Mongol women in traditional dress; fig. 02 / Many traditional celebrations involve alcohol; fig. 03 / Daah Urgeeh hair cutting ceremony; fig. 04 / The morning milk offering.
fig. 02
fig. 03
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CONTEXTUAL THEOLOGICAL & MISSIOLOGICAL ISSUES
fig. 04
MISSION IN MONGOLIA
CONCLUSION “GOD HAS BEEN AT WORK THROUGHOUT THE CENTURIES, MORE SO THAN WHAT HISTORIC RECORDS CAN DESCRIBE.” Photo: A young girl of the Kazakh, the second largest people group whose homeland is in the far west. (by Joel Santos)
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n conclusion, an observation of the gospel story so far has revealed God’s purpose and plan to be instrumental on various occasions in Mongolia’s past, accumulating in the peaceful resolution of Soviet rule, and birth of the present church. This would suggest that He has been sovereignly at work throughout the centuries, more so than what historic records can describe. As for the ‘greatest missed opportunity in the history of Christian missions’, admittedly the unrealised prospects seem splendid, and the church would do well to learn from that poor response, but it need not overly speculate on alternate outcomes already known by the wisdom of God.
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ofstede’s framework has affirmed the distinctiveness of Mongolia’s culture, and suggests similarities to Australia’s culture of low power distance, high independence and short-term orientation (although more comprehensive research should be undertaken). Contextualisation remains vital, and a deep appreciation of history and heritage enables creative and authentic contextualisation to take place, in the areas of mission and ministry models, and redeeming traditions for Christ. Engaging the religious majority is also key, and should be done through an unassuming yet curious questioning of the traditional faiths. Lastly, the gospel needs of the urban centres requires a focus on relief and rebuilding broken families, while the challenge of the nomadic frontier should be met by raising up nomadic indigenous missionaries.
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n the last three decades, the tapestry of God’s work in Mongolia has finally received an array of splendid designs, colour and beauty. However, there is still much work to be done and the church needs to focus on its place with the hurt, hidden, marginalized and unreached. No one knows what the future holds, but with the assurance of the Master Artisan’s unceasing presence, this introduction has hopefully provided some insight and boosted confidence to join in the work.
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MISSION IN MONGOLIA
fig. 01 / An eagle hunter lifts up his eagle at a high vantage point to scan for prey. (by Joel Santos)
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fig. 02 / Children hearing the gospel for the first time at a summer camp in western Mongolia 41
MISSION IN MONGOLIA
fig. 03 / A little girl of the Dukhan people, a small community of reindeer herders living in northern Khรถvsgรถl Aimag, Mongolia.
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
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Ahn, Kyo Seong. “Christian mission and Mongolian identity: the religious, cultural, and political context.” Studies in World Christianity 9, no. 1 (2003): 103-124.
Jewell, Jim. “Children huddled in crevices: Mongolia’s fledgling church seeks to meet a desperate need.” Christianity Today 49, no. 1 (2005): 54-57.
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Bazalgette, Edward. “Genghis Khan.” Pages. Edited by Jonathan Stamp and Edward Bazalgette. United Kingdom, 2005
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Brooks, Jessica. “Mongolia’s Culture and Traditions.” Pages: Eternal Landscapes, 2016.
Leatherwood, Rick. Glory in Mongolia. California: William Carey Library, 2006.
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O’Donnel, Lynne. “Mongolia, the Last Frontier: Buddhists are Battling Christians for Market Share in Post-Communist Mongolia.” The Australian, 4 December 1999.
Dench, Alison. Email, 8 Aug 2017 2017. Geoghegan, Peter. “Life in Ulaanbaatar’s tent city is hard – but Mongolians won’t give up their gers.” Pages in The Guardian, 2014.
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PETER HO SHUN CHAN