installed an electronic containment system in their yard

t r a i n i n g Identifying Positive Reinforcers for the Individual

Anna Bradley explains why using food as a positive reinforcer in training is not bribery

While I would say there is, in general, a much wider appreciation of the role of rewards in animal training and behavior these days, I also believe – and it is certainly my experience –that pet guardians do not always fully understand the power of positive reinforcement training. For example, I have had clients who consider the use of rewards to be “bribery.” There may also be a lack of ingenuity and inventiveness when it comes to actually choosing a reward beyond reaching for the nearest available dog treat.

It would be like winning the lottery if I claimed a dollar for all the times I have heard someone say something along the lines of, “My dog’s doing what I ask but it’s only cupboard love,” or “Bribery always works!” That’s my cue to explain that, if their dog is responding in the way they would like it’s because he actually wants to, because he finds it intrinsically rewarding and fun and is keen to do more.

Why is using food so powerful and not simply bribery? States PPG (2016): “All animals are motivated by food. Food is necessary for survival. It is therefore a powerful primary reinforcer and a critical component when used correctly as part of a strategic training or management plan. For behavior consultants who engage in behavior change programs where it is necessary to change a pet’s emotional reaction to a problematic stimulus, food is essential.” Wright (n.d.) explains thus: “The point of using treats is to REWARD the dog for a job well done. This is done AFTER the dog does whatever is required…This is rewarding a behavior, not bribing the dog to do something.”

It’s not just a matter of semantics. On a physiological level, when done correctly, training with treats (or other reinforcers) engages what behavioral psychologist Susan Weinschenk refers to as a “dopamine seekingreward loop.” The neurotransmitter dopamine plays an important role in conditioning goaldirected behavior, according to Weinschenk (2018). Dopamine, she explains “is critical in all sorts of brain functions, including thinking, moving, sleeping, mood, attention, and motivation.” (Weinschenk, 2018). In a training context, when a dog experiences something pleasurable (e.g. he smells or tastes food or engages in an activity which is really good fun), dopamine is released, thus creating a feelgood relationship between what he is experiencing and whatever you are training in that moment. (Contrast this with punitive training methods and the emotional responses they generate in dogs.) Furthermore, dopamine causes an individual to “want, desire, seek out, and search” and the dopamine system is “especially sensitive to ‘cues’ that a reward is coming (remember Ivan Pavlov?).” (Weinschenk, 2018). Due to its “loop” nature, dopamine makes the dog want to engage more, search, seek, learn and thus be ready for your next cue. Not bribery after all then. Primary Reinforcers Something else I hear often goes along the lines of, “Positive reinforcement, that’s just treats right?” Well, actually, no. True, we might favor the use of food as a primary reinforcer, but this is where we can also start talking about the bespoke nature of reward. But let’s just stay with food for the time being. Many times, I might hear from a client that their dog really isn’t motivated by food. While it’s possible that food might not be a particular driver for that dog, it’s just as possible that the client has not actually identified exactly what food the dog would find reinforcing in that context. This may take some trial and error.

In such instances, this is what I recommend. Once you’ve identified some irresistible favorites, try then offering two or three varieties of high value foods in very small pieces. Be especially aware of morsel size if you will be requiring high volume, for instance, as part of a desensitization and counterconditioning protocol. If you have large pieces of one variety of food, then your dog may quickly become satiated and get bored. Feeding small amounts of a very highly valued (as determined by your dog, not you) and tasty food could be a game changer. You may have always used tasty chicken with your previous dog but this might not be appreciated by your current dog. He may be more motivated to work for small pieces of chopped sausage, ham or other smoked meats. Foods which appeal to multiple senses (aroma, texture, taste) may be especially helpful if you have a dog who is a little choosy.

If the dog still does not appear motivated by food, perhaps other factors are at play. For instance, is there too much environmental com© Can Stock Photo/websubstance and examines alternative options for dogs who may not always be so food driven

Dogs will have their own individual preferences as to what constitutes a high value reward and what does not, and these may differ depending on a variety of factors; it is incumbent on trainers to identify what will be most effective in terms of reinforcement Many times, I might hear from a client that their dog just isn’t motivated by food. While it’s possible that food might not be a particular driver for that dog, it’s just as possible that the client has not actually identified exactly what food the dog would find reinforcing in that context.

petition that is causing overarousal and/or stress? In fact, anything that is causing emotional stress will negatively impact both your dog’s appetite and his ability to learn (yet another reason to keep things positive.) Satiation is also a possible barrier to successfully using food rewards – maybe the dog just finished a meal or is being overfed. So, be sure to time feeding and training strategically. Note: When training with treats, always be aware of adjusting your dog’s regular meals accordingly and be mindful of those dogs with digestive or allergy issues.

Understand also that, just as food value can be adjusted upwards, it can also be adjusted downwards. Sometimes, really tasty, yummy food can be a little too much of a “Thank you, you did great!” In these cases, you’re probably better off transitioning back down the reward ladder to something like dry biscuits, kibble your dog already has for dinner or dry toast. In these cases also, you may be better off with a different form of reward entirely.

Individual Preference But if we don’t use food, what do we use? Well, verbal praise is the simplest form of saying “You did great!” Dogs are excellent readers and interpreters of our body language and visual expressions – notice how differently they react when we are happy and smile at them as opposed to when we are feeling generally angry or irritated. As we build up our trust account with our dogs, praise in itself becomes a positive reinforcer, creating a positive conditioned emotional response. In addition, offering calm praise for as many things as possible can greatly help with confidence boosting, especially if the dog is inherently anxious or has recently been adopted and is not yet used to his new situation. Look for those checkins with you when the dog is off leash, for example. Don’t ignore them; make sure you praise them. As they get reinforced, they will become more frequent. Petting can also be used as a positive reinforcer, provided the dog enjoys it (and not all dogs do). A quick scratch of his favorite spot can be another way to create a positive conditioned emotional response and motivate him to keep training and keep learning.

As StapletonFrappell (2018) explains: “Some rewards are considered by the recipient – not the provider – to be of a higher value than others. Importantly, this will be different for each animal. Once we have an understanding of this, we can create a ‘pyramid’ to help us easily see what an individual finds more reinforcing and what is perceived to be less so.”

Play as a Reinforcer Continues StapletonFrappell (2018): “[J]ust because you think something will serve to reinforce a behavior, it doesn’t mean that it will do so in all conditions or with all individuals. Some dogs will do just about anything if you throw a tennis ball for them to chase (unless they have just chased after 20 balls) while others would much rather lie under a tree while you go and retrieve the ball yourself.” Think about the innate characteristics of your dog’s breed and his personality. What is going to work for him? For example, retrievin g breeds will (usually) love working for throw and fetch games. Sight hounds and terriers, meanwhile, often perform well with either lures, fast moving toys on sticks, flirt poles or what I call whizzy stick games (essentially these are rather like a cat toy, a short stick with equally short length of material attached). All of these can be offered as reinforcement when other options may not be as well received for whatever reason.

For any dogs who love playing games, you can use this to your advantage and incorporate play as a reinforcer. We might then reward a greyhound for calm and quiet behavior in the presence of a house cat with a very short play session with a whizzy stick. In such a scenario we are implementing the Premack Principle, i.e. the opportunity to engage in something the dog enjoys doing, so has a greater chance of doing, can be used to reinforce something he may not enjoy as much and/or has a lesser chance of doing.

Don’t forget to be inventive. Toys can be used very effectively to build focus into visual cues where a dog may struggle, e.g. holding a ball in front of you may greatly assist the hand signal or verbal cue “watch.” Incorporating a game into the learning process can make it more fun –the training becomes absorbed into the game and becomes almost invisible. If, say, you are struggling with getting your dog to come back when called but you have a dog who loves to play fetch, then you can simply build your recall cue into that game.

Get Creative

If you are still struggling to find something that might tell your dog he’s done well, keep thinking. I quite often use scents in such cases, allowing the dog freedom of choice because not all dogs (like us) like the same scents. Making a scent stick or dabber can be useful and the dabber in itself will suffice as the reward. (See also Tell Us What You Really Think on pp.38‐40 where Dr. Gre‐gory Berns discusses the importance of olfactory stimuli in a dog’s universe.) Let the dog be the architect of his own

For dogs who are motivated by games, trainers and guardians can use this to their advantage and incorporate play as a reinforcer

© Can Stock Photo/ra2studio

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reward. For example, I hide toys and treats around the house for my dog to find. Originally, on cue, he would go find each one. Now, as soon as he is sent for the initial one, he will keep looking for more because the excitement of looking, searching, finding and, of course, my overthetop responses, all serve as rewards! Don’t forget to build fun and games into your dog’s learning. It’s not only simple to do, it’s enjoyable for both of you and can be repeated multiple times a day. What works for one dog may not work for another, just as what works for one dog may not work for that dog every single time. It is our job to find what works best for the individual we are working with in the moment. By being inventive and creative when it comes to rewards, we can be sure to find what our dogs find reinforcing every step of the way. n

References Pet Professional Guild. (2016). Open Letter to Veterinarians on Referrals to Training and Behavior Professionals. Available at: bit.ly/2KcMK84 Stapleton-Frappell, L. (2018, May). The Hierarchy of Rewards. BARKS from the Guild (30) 14-21. Available at: bit.ly/2EIG10Y Weinschenk, S. (2018). The Dopamine Seeking-Reward Loop. Psychology Today. Available at: bit.ly/37iVd47 Wright, M. (n.d.). Reward or Bribery? Available at: bit.ly/2RhDIvx

Anna Francesca BradleyMSc BSc (Hons) is a United Kingdomebased provisional clinical, certified IAABC animal behavior consultant and ABTC accredited behavior consultant. She owns Perfect Pawz! Training and Behavior Practice (perfectpawz.co.uk) in Hexham, Northumberland, where the aim is always to create and restore happy relationships between dog and owner in a relaxed way, using methods based on sound scientific principles, which are both force-free and fun.

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Brought to you by The A-Z of Training and Behavior

Habituate or Habituation: A decreased response to a stimulus after prolonged exposure to a stimulus. Ex. You move into a house next to a railway line and initially cannot sleep because of the noise of the trains. After a couple of weeks, you no longer hear the trains. H is for...

Hierarchy: A system in which individuals are ranked according to their level of authority or status, often depicted as a pyramid or ladder.

Hierarchy of Reinforcers (Common term: Hierarchy of Rewards): A classification of an individual dog’s positive reinforcement consequences from ‘lower value’ (least desirable) to highest value (most desirable). Before beginning any training, the trainer should make sure that the pet’s basic needs are met. The trainer can then make use of both primary and secondary reinforcers but must bear in mind that the ‘value’ will be ascertained by the recipient and not the provider.

Hierarchy of Needs: When needs are not being met, pets will be motivated to try and fulfil those needs. Psychologist Abraham Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs is a motivational theory in psychology, often depicted as hierarchical levels within a pyramid. Maslow stated that people are motivated to achieve certain needs and that some needs take precedence over others. The Hierarchy of Needs includes: Biological and physiological needs; Safety needs; Love and belongingness needs; Esteem needs; Cognitive needs; Aesthetic needs; Self-actualization needs; Transcendence needs.

High Order Conditioning: High order conditioning takes place when a well-established conditioned stimulus is paired with a neutral stimulus to elicit a conditioned response. High order conditioning takes place in the absence of an unconditioned stimulus. With high order conditioning many more stimuli can come to elicit conditional responses not just those paired with an unconditioned stimulus, thus enhancing the ability of the pet to adapt and survive. High order conditioning also affects and influences many emotional reactions such as fear.

From:A Lexicon of Practical Terms for Pet Trainers & Behavior Consultants: The language you need to know! by DogNostics Career Center. Available from: bit.ly/DogNosticsLexicon