essential to the ability to cope with everyday stressors

Emotional Scars

In the fourth of an occasional series of articles on animals and abuse, Beth Napolitano explores the effects of mistreatment on a dog’s behavior, as well as some possible signs of abuse

Content Warning: This article contains subject matter that some readers may find upsetting

Through careful observation, behavior provides us with a “window” into what a dog, or any animal, might be feeling or thinking. According to Dr. Susan Friedman (2008), a dog’s behavior is affected by whether or not his health, nutrition, and physical needs are being met, while Bibancos et al. (2006) point out that negative early life events, such as social isolation and stressful environments, influence brain development and have long lasting consequences on behavior.

Research with mice has shown that negative events affect emotionrelated behaviors, and increase aggressive and hyperactive behaviors because the brain is “vulnerable to the environment.” (Bibancos at al., 2006). So can we extend what we know about laboratory rodents to the behavior of dogs? According to Wernick (2015), the answer is yes. He cites Blaisdell, a professor of comparative psychology at the University of California: “They (rats) have a lot of the social mechanisms of behavior that are present in, for example, primates, pack hunting dogs and wolves.”

Signs of Stress

One indication of a dog’s level of stress is the appearance of stereotypical behaviors, defined as “repetitive, invariant behavior patterns with no obvious goal or function.”(Mench, 1998). These are abnormal behaviors that may be associated with multiple factors, including living in an environment that is less than optimal, which may result in stressinduced reactions like changes in brain chemicals and hormone levels.

The actual performance of such behaviors may be a dog’s attempt to reduce his internal state of stress – which would produce the added reinforcement to repeat the behaviors. Even when environmental conditions improve, the stereotypical behaviors may continue and researchers think this may represent the emotional “scars” of past abuse and trauma, i.e. the behavior is our clue that the scars exist.

According to Pierce (2012), emotional scars are invisible but may take longer to heal and cause more suffering than a physical injury. Pierce (2012) also states that “little is known about the longterm psychological effects of abuse on animals” and that researchers are trying to improve their understanding of what constitutes emotional suffering. This may lead to improved animal cruelty laws that currently only reflect the physical harm and injuries of an abused dog. Current research indicates that emotional abuse may be more widespread than physical abuse.

According to Todd (2014), there is “no single profile” that reflects behavior in all abused dogs. Rather, these dogs may display “various problem behaviours including aggression and fear to unfamiliar people

According to Pierce (2012), emotional scars are invisible but may take longer to heal and cause more suffering than a physical injury. Pierce (2012) also states that “little is known about the long-term psychological effects of abuse on animals.”

© Can Stock Photo / Svet_lana Through careful observation, behavior provides us with a “window” into what a dog, or any animal, might be feeling or thinking

and dogs, attachment problems, attentionseeking, and repetitive behaviours.” Symptoms range from no behavioral changes at all, to severe, depending on the individual, temperament, nature of abuse and length of time the abuse occurred. For example, a dog who has been abused at close range may display more fearful behaviors around humans than a dog that was shot from a distance and did not associate the injury with a human.

Based on research of abused children which shows that emotional abuse can result in more harmful effects than physical abuse, researchers suspect the same is true for dogs. The Sunbear Squad (2005 2016), a volunteer and nonprofit humane awareness organization, lists the following among a number of risk factors associated with abuse: dogs that are kept in large numbers like hunting and sled dogs, dogs who have never been trained in basic obedience behaviors or house trained, dogs kept to guard drug houses, and dogs who live outside. The Sunbear Squad (20052016) also notes that “a family in financial crisis is more likely to abandon their pets and some have been found, left behind, inside empty houses.”

Sunbear

The Sunbear Squad is named after just such a dog, Sunbear, whose family left him behind when they had to move out of their home. Sunbear, a chocolate Lab, was not discovered until six weeks after the family had abandoned him in their empty house without any food or water. Initially found alive, sadly, Sunbear passed away a few days later from the effects of malnutrition and dehydration. Thanks to the efforts of one of the Sunbear Squad members, an animal control officer, Sunbear’s

In a study of 69 dogs with a documented history of abuse, McMillan et al. (2014) found multiple differences in their behavior when compared to 5,239 companion dogs who had no documented abuse history.

owner was located, transported across state lines and sentenced under animal cruelty laws.

Behavioral Differences

McMillan et al. (2014) state that “the secretive nature of abuse” makes it very difficult to study due to incomplete information provided by guardians. Research typically compares an abused dog with a nonabused dog and there is little that is understood about the behavioral changes in the same dog before and after being abused. There is also the question as to whether a particular behavior is the result of or the cause of abuse, or if it's a vicious cycle (i.e. the abuse causes worsening behavior, which incites the abuser to respond more harshly, resulting in more severe behavior problems).

In a study of 69 dogs with a documented history of abuse, McMillan et al. (2014) found multiple differences in their behavior when compared to 5,239 companion dogs who had no documented abuse history. Some of the behaviors noted in the abused dog group were: excessive fear of men or strangers, timidity with humans, fear of caregiver, compulsive behaviors such as digging and circling, hoarding shoes, rolling in feces, persistent barking, bizarre or strange and repetitive behaviors, increased attention seeking behaviors, pronounced separation anxiety, hyperactivity, impaired humananimal bond, and increased aggression (seen as defensive behaviors). Attachment disorders are common in both abused dogs and children – separation from their guardian can lead to extreme panic attacks, selfharm and excessive vocalizing.

McMillan et al. (2014) also reference the study by Marder and Engel (1998), which “looked at a small sample of 17 dogs (Canis familiaris) seized for reasons of physical abuse, neglect, or abandonment by the American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals. When behavioral responses were compared between these dogs and 18 dogs with no history of maltreatment who were relinquished by their caregivers, the maltreated dogs were more likely to show fearful responses to petting or reprimand, whereas the control dogs showed more fear of an opening umbrella or when brushed.”

Animal Welfare

Abuse and shelter relinquishment are two major animal welfare prob

© Can Stock Photo / sonjachnuj McMillan et al. (2014) found that dogs who had been confiscated due to maltreatment had a much lower rate of adoption (38.5%) and a corresponding higher rate of euthanasia (61.5%) *Stock image: There is no suggestion that this dog has been subjected to mistreatment in any way

lems: “Recent evidence has shown that the sources of dogs entering animal shelters had a major impact on the rates of adoption and euthanasia (Protopopova, Gilmour, Weiss, Shen, & Wynne, 2012). Dogs who had been confiscated due to maltreatment, as compared with dogs surrendered by their caregivers or found as strays, had a much lower rate of adoption (38.5%) and a corresponding higher rate of euthanasia (61.5%).” McMillan et al. (2014).

Clearly, these dogs are in great need of methods to improve their chances for successful adoption. McConnell (2017) says she has believed for years that many of the dogs she has worked with “had behavioral problems because of some kind of trauma.” Once a dog is labeled with a behavior problem, however, possible hidden causes of trauma or abuse may not be considered or even suspected. McConnell (2017) lists the following symptoms that “MIGHT indicate trauma in a dog: anorexia, won’t eliminate, pacing, inability to sleep, hypervigilance, extreme fear, being easily startled, outbursts of aggression or rage that have no predictable pattern, and refusal to play.” In such instances, the last thing the dog needs is “force or coercion to behave.” (McConnell, 2017).

Learned Helplessness

Learned helplessness occurs “when an animal is repeatedly subjected to an aversive stimulus that it cannot escape.” (Cherry, 2018). Longterm or severe abuse can be just such an aversive stimulus whereby a dog learns that he cannot escape. Once a being realizes their behavior will not

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change their outcome, they may give up trying to escape because they have learned to accept the inevitable.

Learned helplessness was discovered “accidentally” in the lab by Seligman and Maier (1968) while researching the effect of shock on canine behavior. Ultimately, their conclusion was that the helpless behavior was not due to the shocks themselves, but the dogs’ perception that they had no control over the situation. Even when given the chance to escape the shocks, the dogs didn’t take the opportunity. Learned helplessness is seen in both animals and humans. Inescapable traumatic events can result in passive responding to future aversive events as well.

According to Regan (1985), the entire system of our treatment of animals is wrong because “we view animals as resources.” Regan (1985) argues that people must “change their beliefs before they change their habits.” Perhaps, by changing our beliefs to accept animals as emotional beings who are as vulnerable (if not more so) to emotional abuse as humans, we may also change our attitudes and behaviors that govern our relationships with them. n

References

Bibancos, T., Jardim, D.L., Areas, I., & Chiavegatto, S. (2006). Social Isolation and Expression of Serotonergic Neurotransmission-related genes in several Brain Areas of Male Mice Cherry, K. (2019). What is Learned Helplessness and Why does it Happen? Friedman, S.G. (2008). What’s Wrong with This Picture? Effectiveness is Not Enough Marder, A., & Engel, J. (1998). Are There Behavioral Indicators of Animal Abuse? Symposium conducted at the Veterinary Society of Animal Behavior Meeting, Baltimore, MD McConnell, P. (2017). Dogs and Psychological Trauma McMillan, F.D., Serpell, J.A., Duffy, D.L., & Zawistowski, S.L. (2014). Behavioral and Psychological Characteristics of Canine Victims of Abuse. Journal of Applied Animal Welfare Science 18 (1) 1-20 Mench, J. (1998). Why it is Important to Understand Animal Behavior Pierce, J. (2012). Emotional Pain in Animals: An Invisible World of Hurt Protopopova, A., Gilmour, A. J., Weiss, R. H., Shen, J. Y., & Wynne, C. D. L. (2012). The effects of social training and other factors on adoption success of shelter dogs. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 142, 61–68 Regan, T. (1983). The Case for Animal Rights. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press Seligman, M.E.P. & Maier, S.F. (1967). Failure to Escape Traumatic Shock. Journal of Experimental Psychology 74 (1) 1-9 Sunbear Squad. (2005-2016). Know the Risk Factors for Animal Neglect and Animal Abuse Todd, Z. (2014). Learning More about Canine Victims of Animal Abuse Wernick, A. (2015). The rat could become man’s newest best friend

Resources

McMillan, F.D. (2003). A World of Hurts—Is Pain Special? Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 223(2) 183-186 Seligman, M.E.P., Maier, S.F., & Geer, J.H. (1979). Alleviation of Learned Helplessness in the Dog. Origins of Madness / Psychopathology in Animal Life 401-409 Tudge, N. & Nilson, S. (2019, March). What Do Dogs, Cats, Cars and Chairs Have in Common? BARKS from the Guild (35) 16-21

Beth Napolitano worked as a staff nurse in hospitals for 40 years. Since retirement, she obtained certification as a pet care technician, level 2, and is currently working for certification as a dog trainer. She volunteers at Courteous Canine, Inc. in Tampa, Florida, and is an AKC Star puppy kindergarten instructor.