THE INQUIRER
Vol. 6 Issue 2
TABLE OF CONTENTS DESIGN BY MARLEY GEISLER-AMHOWITZ, REILAND BRUSKOTTER AND MADDY GIDDINGS
Basketball and the Quest for Efficiency Max Aronoff-Sher .............................................................................4 A Cuttlefish's Secret Weapon Sadie Gardiner ....................................................................................8 Spending Money to Save Money (And the Planet) A Cost-Benefit Analysis of Climate Policy Dani Barrett ......................................................................................12 Improving Diversity in STEM: Weed-Out Classes, Workplace Professionalism, and Counterspaces Ximena Perez ....................................................................................16 From Dust to Dawn: The Origins of the Solar System Ian Norfolk ........................................................................................22 3D Printing in Medicine Justin Dewig ......................................................................................26 The Future of Prosthetics Max Staples ......................................................................................30 A Deep Dive into Robotics in Surgery Steven Castillo-Troya .......................................................................32 2
HEAD LIN E byauthor Edit or ?s Not e
Welcome to Volume 6, Issue 2 of the Inquirer. In this edition, you?ll find writing from both seniors and ninth graders in the Institute, and read articles on biology, biotechnology, diversity in STEM, statistics, and more that reflect the evolution of WISRD Publications I?ve witnessed during my time as Senior Editor.
Over the past two years, WISRD members, writers, our Scientific Writing Coach, Dr. Amielle Moreno, our Editorial Team, and our Graphic Design Team have worked tirelessly to elevate the quality of The Inquirer and the WISRD Research Journal. From collaborating with Dr. Moreno through the WISRD Fellows program to attending our bi-annual Inquirer writing workshop to working remotely on creative designs, these groups and individuals have been instrumental in helping WISRD further develop into a fully-functioning Institute and solidifying scientific writing as a pillar of the Institute learning model.
As Institute members have invested more energy and time into developing their scientific writing skills, I?ve had the privilege of watching their abilities to communicate their research and articulate their thinking benefit every facet of the Institute.
We hope you enjoy the first WISRD Publication of 2021, and hope you?ll continue to follow WISRD writing and research in the year to come.
As always, I?d like to thank our Assistant Editor, Nnenna Brown, Publisher, Scott Johnson, WISRD COO, Joe Wise, WISRD Fellow and Writing Coach Dr. Amielle Moreno, writers, and Graphic Design Team -- Marley Geisler-Amhowitz, Reiland Bruksotter, and Maddy Giddings -- and their instructor Patter Hellstrom. As always, please feel free to reach out to me at danib21@wildwood.org if you have any questions or would like to contribute to a WISRD Publication!
Sincerely, Dani Barrett Senior Editor of WISRD Publications Institute Director 8
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Basketball and the Quest For Efficiency By Max Aronoff-Sher
When people talk about basketball they typically do not mention the math and physics behind it. Perhaps this is due to the countless movies, shows, and books that show the stereotypical ?jock? who makes fun of the stereotypical ?nerd? solely for being smart. Even when watching the game, it appears to be purely physical. However, this could not be further from the truth. As the availability of complex technology increases, NBA teams are taking full advantage of it and turning a game that is, at first glance, unsophisticated and raw into a sport of fine calculations in the everlasting search for peak efficiency. In the early 1950s, the NBA had a problem. Teams were taking leads in the game and then merely holding on to the ball until time ran out. This went against everything the newly founded league was built on. Basketball was supposed to be a fast-paced sport that kept spectators on their toes, and teams holding the ball for minutes was quickly boring the fanbase. This was an early case of teams using loopholes in the rules to gain advantage over their opponents. Our team is outmatched. Well, the other team can?t beat us if they can?t even get the ball. This thinking became increasingly popular, and after a game in 1954 where neither team eclipsed 20 points, the league knew it was time for a rule change.
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Danny Biasone was the owner of a team called the Syracuse Nationals, and he was tasked with finding the solution and had the idea of implementing a timer on each possession. This would limit teams to a certain amount of time before they needed to take a shot. Biasone determined that in the most entertaining games, each team took 60 shots, so he came up with the equation of 48 (minutes in a game) multiplied by 60 (seconds in a minute) and then divided that number by 120, which is the ideal number of shots (60) multiplied by the number of teams (2). This yielded 24 seconds, which became the league?s first shot clock, and was implemented the very next season. It was a major success: in the first game under the new shot-clock, the winning team scored 98 points, a significant increase from the sub-20 scores seen the prior season. Although the shot clock was an early math-based decision on the league?s behalf, the real data revolution began with individual teams. In 1979, the NBA introduced the three-point line. This was revolutionary on multiple fronts. Not only did its introduction drum up excitement for a league that needed a boost in attention, but it also sparked the statistical era of basketball. As teams became acquainted with the three-point line, they began to realize the potential it harnessed.
Shots attempted within the three-point line are worth two points, but not every shot is made. Shots attempted within three feet of the hoop are converted only 60% of the time, meaning that the average points-per-shot-attempt on shots within three feet is 1.2. This number decreases significantly as the shot moves farther away. Any shot made from further than three feet from the basket, yet within the three-point line, only averages 0.79 points-per-attempt. However, a shot from outside of the three-point line does not need to be made as consistently in order to be an efficient point-earner. A shot from the corner of the three-point line averages 1.16 points-per-attempt, and a shot from the top of the three-point line averages 1.05 points-per-attempt.
Teams quickly realized this and the three-point era of basketball skyrocketed. In 1979, the average team shot 2.8 threes per game. In the 2020-2021 season, Warriors?guard Steph Curry alone has been shooting 11.3 threes per game. It?s not just Steph. In the 2016-2017 season, teams shot an average of 26 threes per game. In 2020-2021, the Cleveland Cavaliers were last in the league in three-point attempts per game at 26.8 and yet still surpassed the 2016 average. The Portland Trailblazers are leading the NBA with nearly 43 attempts per game, a massive jump from just a few years ago.
This movement toward more point-efficient shots was largely catalyzed by two teams: the Golden State Warriors and the Houston Rockets. The Warriors were considered a dynasty for the latter half of the 2010s. On the backs of Steph Curry and Klay Thompson, two of the league?s best shooters, they won three championships, becoming the first team to win with a game plan that focused on three-point shooting. The success of the Warriors influenced the rest of the league
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to emulate the Warriors?barrage of deep shots, and none did it better than the Houston Rockets. With a sharpshooter of their own in James Harden, and a front office headed by two of the most statistically-minded men in sports, Mike D?Antoni and Daryl Morey, the Rockets took the search for efficiency to the extreme. Half of all shots they took in 2019 were from the three-point line or beyond while keeping their other shots within a couple of feet. This raises the question: is this an effective strategy? The Rockets had eight years with the trio of Morey (general manager), D?Antoni (head coach), and Harden. During this time, they were never able to reach the finals, let alone win a championship. The Warriors, however, won three. What did they do that the Rockets could not replicate? While the Warriors shot a heavy volume of threes, they also attempted more mid-range shots than the Rockets did. The Warriors?shot chart is much more evenly distributed than the Rockets?. Although it sounds counterintuitive to shoot more mid-ranges in order to rack up points more efficiently, the Warriors factored in one component the Rockets did not: human error. The Rockets?game plans were perfect, an ideal scenario, but ignored the reality that the people taking these shots were susceptible to bad games and misses. When the Warriors had bad shooting stretches, they would take shots from closer distances, and although this would yield fewer points, it had a higher chance of garnering any points at all. All of the Rockets?success at the three-point line would also lead to
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massive failures on its behalf. The Rockets lived and died by the three. In a playoff game where the Rockets had the chance to beat the Warriors and advance to the championship, they missed an NBA record, 29 consecutive three-pointers. The Warriors went on to win the game and the championship. When data and analytics are used to show the most effective way to win, the Rockets forgot to plan for when the team was incapable of following those analytics, and it led to their demise. The Warriors were able to use data while balancing it with a level of preparation that cannot be achieved through algorithms. (See opposite page for shot charts.) What does the future look like for data in the NBA? Teams already have begun using all sorts of research to figure out the best training regimen, the best diet, and the best arch on a shot, leaving no stone unturned. The future appears to be that basketball, at least at a professional level, will be broken down by the second, both on the court and off. Players will be put on schedules for when they eat, sleep, and exercise in order to maximize potential. Teams? rotations will be predetermined to have each player playing with only the teammates who fit the best together, and only for a set amount of time. And teams will be in an endless search for the next big discovery that will give them the edge over the others. This league of extreme precision will beg the question of whether too much analytics is taking
from the sport more than it is giving. As basketball enters a new era of hyper-analysis, teams are forgetting the Warriors owed their edge over the Rockets to a delicate balance of both analytics and raw preparation, instead of solely the former.
Rockets' Shot Chart
Warriors' Shot Chart
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A Cuttlefish's Secret Weapon: Chromatophores
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By Sadie Gardiner
Contrary to their name, cuttlefish are not fish; instead, they belong to the class Cephalopoda, also including octopuses, squid, and nautiluses. They are distinctively characterized by a thick internal calcified shell called a cuttlebone - made of a mineral called aragonite, responsible for maintaining the animal?s buoyancy. This alien animal comes in 100 different species of various sizes. One of the smallest varietes, the flamboyant cuttlefish, measures about 6cm, while the one of the largest species, the sepia apama can grow up to 50cm, or 20in. Like most cephalopods, cuttlefish eject ink into the water to defend themselves against predators, mixing mucus to create a potential decoy organism.
A
cuttlefish in its natural aquatic habitat
A cuttlefish in its natural aquatic habitat
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Another unique adaptation of a cuttlefish is their small skin cells called chromatophores which can change color in an instant. The ability to change the color of its skin allows the cephalopod to hunt amongst the reef bed, almost invisible to its prey. Cuttlefish can also use muscles in their dermis to change their skin texture from smooth to rough, enabling them to hide easily among rocks on the seafloor. A cuttlefish?s survival relies heavily on its quick changing skin, but how can these animals accurately match their surroundings? Surprisingly, cuttlefish don?t rely on their sight to change color; in fact, as far as researchers know, cuttlefish are colorblind. Yet they can change and match the color of their skin to their surroundings almost perfectly. Scientists are still stumped as to how they know what colors to match, but there are some theories. One hypothesis involves the animal's unique ?W?-shaped pupil. Unlike human eyes, the eyes of cuttlefish , and other cephalopods, contain just one kind of color-sensitive protein restricting them to only black and white vision. It?s theorized that a cuttlefish can rapidly focus their eyes at different depths, taking advantage of a lensing property called ?chromatic blur.? Color is perceived in wavelengths, and each color of light has a different wavelength that?s distinguishable from another. The theory is that cuttlefish eye
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lenses bend some wavelengths more than others? one color of light shining through a lens can be in focus while another is still blurry? so by quickly switching back and forth between depths, a cuttlefish can figure out the color of an object based on when it blurs. In a study published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, scientists built a computer model of an octopus eye and showed it could determine the object?s color just by changing focus, supporting the stated hypothesis. The second theory has to do with small cells in the skin of the cuttlefish called leucophores. Leucophores are flattened, elongated, reflective cells found in the skin of some cuttlefish. The cells reflect white light? a combination of all colors? appearing brighter and whiter while at the surface, closer to the sun, and then darker and more complex as the cuttlefish makes its way down the water column. In order to change their color, cuttlefish rely on chromatophores, organs within their skin that contain pigment sacs which become more visible as small muscles pull the sac open, making the pigment expand under the skin. The muscles contracting the pigment sacs are closely linked to electrical activity in the chromatophore nerve. An electrical impulse causes the radial muscle fibers to pull outward which expands the middle of the pigment sac. An early experiment done by Ernst Florey in 1969 showed that the increase in frequency of the electrical nerve activity widened the radial muscle, which in turn expanded the pigment sac. Florey believed the radial muscle to have elastic properties
which allowed the pigment sac to contract after being opened. Chromatophores are able to open and close quickly because they are neurally controlled. Neural control of the chromatophores allows for cuttlefish to change their appearance almost instantly, enabling them to generate small patterns or details on their skin for camouflage. Chromatophores are used to match the brightness of the background and to produce components that help the animal achieve general resemblance to the substrate or break up the body's outline. Another researcher named Roger Hanlon, theorized that cuttlefish have three basic camouflage patterns or ?templates? that the animal cycles through. ?In the laboratory we can test each of these pattern types and the animal?s magic is looking at a complex visual scene and only picking out one or two visual cues to turn on the right camouflage pattern type,? Hanlon says. Not only can cuttlefish skin shift colors and patterns in the blink of an eye, it can also change texture just a fast. Even in complete darkness, cuttlefish gather and constrict bands of muscles beneath their skin to small points on the surface of their skin. Cuttlefish use their complex visual ability for a variety of things. They are able to flash different sections of their body in order to hypnotize their prey and strike. They use similar flashes to ?fight? with other cuttlefish for dominance; whichever has the brightest and most alarming pattern is the victor. Male cuttlefish utilize their unique skin pattern while mating, changing their
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backs to mimic female patterns in order to deter other rival males. By mimicking another female cuttlefish, it deters suspicion that the male is courting a female. Cuttlefish, like their close octopus relatives, are considered highly intelligent, so it?s no surprise that cuttlefish exploit their skin?s abilities to its full potential; cephalopods are sometimes called ?honorary vertebrates?, despite being invertebrates, for their cognitive ability and potential consciousness. A study from Taiwan's National Tsing Hua University suggested that cuttlefish are even able to comprehend numerical quantities. In their experiment, fifty-four juvenile cuttlefish were presented with two separate boxes, one of which had a single shrimp while the other had out the possibility that cuttlefish only chose the more densely pfive. Each time the cuttlefish was presented with these two options, it chose the larger quantity of shrimp. The next experiment tested whether cuttlefish were able to distinguish the difference between closer numbers like three versus four, and each time the cuttlefish would choose the larger group. The final experiment ruled opulated area of shrimp. The scientists confined the three shrimp in a smaller enclosure and let four shrimp roam in a larger tank and still, every time, the cuttlefish were able to choose the tank with the most shrimp. The experiment suggests that cuttlefish are able to ?count? and understand small numerical quantities which greatly benefits them in the wild.
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These unique skills set cuttlefish apart from other cephalopods and aquatic invertebrates; not only can they identify and instantly adapt to their surroundings, but they can comprehend numerical value and use their skin patterns to fend off rivals. Cuttlefish are one of the most incredible species on Earth and scientists learn more about them every day.
Diagram of Taiwan's National Tsing Hua University's Experiment on juvenile Cuttlefish.
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Spending Money to Save Money (And the Planet): A Cost-Benefit Analysis of Climate Policy By Dani Barrett
Anthropogenic climate change, or
including withdrawal from the 2015 Paris
climate change induced by human
Accord (which President Biden has
activity, will impact weather patterns,
rejoined).
biodiversity, and global and domestic
So as President Joe Biden enters his fourth
economies in the next century. These
month in office, the United States? and the
ramifications will be ?significant? and
world? are watching how the new
?increase over time,? according to a
administration has tackled the climate
study by the Intergovernmental Panel on
crisis. Biden was elected on promises of
Climate Change. Multi-billion and -trillion
bold climate action including
dollar industries such as energy,
decarbonization, phasing out fracking,
agriculture, and real estate that account
natural gas, and fossil fuels, and a shift to
for much of the United States?economy
100% clean energy by 2035. These goals are
stand to be severely compromised if the
ambitious and will undoubtedly be
delicate balance of the global climate is
expensive, but they?ll save money,
disrupted. To halt climate change, the US
industries, and lives in the long run. Here?s
would need to reduce CO2 emissions by
why.
80 percent, right now. As outlined in the United Nations?Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), ?urgent? climate action is needed immediately to stave off the worst consequences of anthropogenic climate change and warming, and the United States is positioned to be a global leader in fighting climate change. Under the Trump administration, however, we?ve seen very little federally backed movement towards these goals and even regression. In the past four years, former President Trump sponsored the rollbacks of 104 environmental policies,
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Aggressive climate action comes with a hefty price tag, making it unpopular amongst conservatives who avoid big federal spending bills and tax increases in certain tax brackets. They claim that climate policy and investment in green energy will cut jobs and waste funds that could be spent ?cleaning up after ? climate change. One problem with this logic is that studies show that by waiting to see the worst of climate change, we?ll lose money, but we can save that money if we get out ahead of it. Consider asset depreciation of a car.
The longer you wait to sell it, the less
in recent years with storms like Hurricane
return you?ll get on your investment.
Dorian which ravaged states bordering
The longer we wait to address climate
the Atlantic in 2019, leaving 29,500 people
change, the slimmer the chances that
without homes or jobs, and resulting in
we?ll be able to salvage our economy,
more than 69 confirmed casualties and
our industries, and ourselves. Just four
upwards of 282 people missing. By 2100,
consequences of climate
the annual death toll as a result of climate
change? property damage from
change is forecast to reach 760, not
hurricanes, losses in real estate, and
unlikely considering just one event in
water and energy costs? would siphon
2019 killed at least 11% of that annual
$1.9 trillion from the nation?s GDP by
projection. Atlantic and Gulf Coast states
2100. These projections from the
will bear the brunt of these disasters,
National Resources Defense Council
which can create significant loss of life,
(NRDC) are based on an adapted
property damage, and disrupt crucial
version of a model employed by
sectors of the economy. Mostly targeting
Nicholas Stern, author of 2006 report
the same region, real estate losses are
The Economics of Climate Change. The
projected to account for a $34 billion
2008 NRDC report uses the model to
decrease in US GDP by 2025, increasing to
assess the costs of climate change
$80 billion in 2050 and $360 billion by the
across the four high-risk key indicators
end of the century. Along with a 13
mentioned above. Without running any
degree Fahrenheit temperature increase
of the numbers, we know this: every
(by some estimates), NRDC researchers
American will be impacted by the
expect to see a 23 inch sea level rise by
consequences of climate change, from
2050, which is on track to rise to 45 inches
private citizens to lawmakers to public
by 2100, threatening residential,
institutions to corporations.
commercial, and industrial real estate in
In 2025, hurricane damages are
coastal areas and inland as oceans
expected to pull $10 billion dollars
expand in surface area. In 2020, it can be
from the economy, with that number
argued that real estate losses due to
increasing four-fold by 2050 and rising
climate disasters extend well beyond that
to $422 billion by 2100. Rising
region and into the Western United
temperatures on the surface of the
States, with devastating losses due to
Atlantic Ocean create optimal
wildfires in California and Colorado, which
conditions for hurricanes, intensifying
are increasing in magnitude and
storms, and flooding, which results in
frequency each year.
erosion. These trends have played out
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In the energy sector, costs are expected
agricultural industry alone lost $1.8
to reach $28 billion by 2025, $47 billion
billion in direct costs and 10,100 in
in 2050, and $141 billion by 2021,
jobs and was forced to idle 78,800
impacting mostly the Southeast and
acres of farmland. The agricultural
Southwest United States. If weather
industry?s troubles didn?t end there:
patterns become more extreme in the
decreased rainfall required farmers
coming decades, air conditioning,
to truck in irrigation water, the price
heating, and refrigeration costs will
of which could soar to more than
skyrocket to match demand. Not only
$1,000 per acre-foot. Consequently,
will this demand require additional
in many areas where crops did
heating, air conditioning, and
manage to survive, they were
ventilation infrastructure, electricity use
rendered unprofitable by the cost of
will increase. This will impact residential
production. The catastrophic
structures as well as commercial,
impacts are inextricably linked to
because many industries rely on
anthropogenic climate change, as
refrigeration systems to function.
confirmed by Stanford University
Accounting for the greatest loss of
researchers in a 2014 study. With the
annual GDP, water costs will likely
help of computer modeling and
reach $200 billion by 2025, $336 billion
data, researchers uncovered a link
by 2050, and swell to $950 billion by
between emissions and California?s
2100, affecting mostly Western states
drought: the increased presence of
prone to drought conditions. Increasing
greenhouse gasses, as a result of
temperatures and more severe
human emissions triggered the
weather patterns like droughts and
formation of a high atmospheric
heat waves indicate significantly less
pressure system that repelled
rainfall during the remainder of the
water-rich storms from California,
twenty-first century. The impacts of this
leading to an intense period of
decreased rainfall have been felt in
drought conditions. The study found
California during the longest drought in
that the increased likelihood of this
state history, which spanned from 2011
pressure system?s formation is
through 2019. During 2015, California?s
directly correlated with rising CO2
levels. By the end of the century, the
energy sources and electric vehicles, and
United States is on track to lose over
creating 10 million new jobs in green
$1,870 billion in GDP as a result of
industries. This focus on building a
anthropogenic climate change? and
bridge to sustainable energy rather than
that?s just accounting for these four
an abrupt switch would ease economic
factors. Combined, the economic
pain and job losses and make
losses from these four factors alone
decarbonization a feasible option. While
are projected to account for a $1.9
new green jobs, less fossil fuels, and
trillion economic loss annually, with
more clean energy and transportation
that number topping $3.8 trillion
will cost us $1.7 trillion over the next
per year by 2100 when health risks
four years, waiting to address climate
and wildlife damages are included.
change will cost us over $15 trillion in the same amount of time. If we want a
These statistics present a daunting
livable future, healthy planet, and
future if anthropogenic climate
flourishing economy, the choice is clear.
change continues without
We don?t have to choose between
intervention. Luckily, though,
economic progress and environmental
markets, investments, and
progress. In reality, a climate-focused,
consumer habits are shifting
sustainable future is the only way to
towards sustainability in the United
achieve an economically stable future.
States and abroad. And under the Biden administration, it?s clear that climate change policy is a priority in a way it never has been before. Biden?s climate plan has an estimated cost of $1.7 trillion and focuses on investing in clean energy, green jobs, updating infrastructure, offering tax incentives for using renewable
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Improving Diversity in STEM: Weed-Out Classes, Workplace Professionalism, and Counterspaces By Ximena Perez
Historically, STEM fields display the same lack of diversity observed in many other facets of American culture. Apart from a few female and racial minority scientists, most people would find it difficult to name historically significant non-white, STEM researchers. This is not to say that they don?t exist, but the norm is white males. In almost every field of STEM, men outnumber women, particularly in physics and engineering. And in the fields in which men and women are equally represented, women face drastic under-representation at a faculty level as well as income inequality. The disparity is even more astounding when examining the rates of members of racial and ethnic minority groups in STEM. Based on proportion of the population, an overrepresentation of white individuals exist in STEM fields with 67.4% in the general STEM field and 74.5% in the science and engineering workforce (Dou, n.d.). A 2011 study by the National Research Council found that the number of people from underrepresented minority groups participating in STEM fields proportionately represented about a third of the total minority population in the country (Dou, n.d.). Two factors that contribute to the scarcity of diversity are weed-out classes in undergraduate institutions and grappling with
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professionalism later in the workforce. One of the root causes of this inequity is academic tracking and weed-out classes. Weed-out classes were introduced in the 19th century to separate students that were likely to excel in STEM fields due to the limited slots available in those classes. Weed-out classes are particularly common in science and mathematics fields at American universities. As the name suggests, they?re designed to ?weed out? students who may be unlikely to do well and succeed in these fields. These classes are often lecture based and have high D, F, Withdrawal, Incomplete (DFWI) rates. Weed-out classes come to define student career paths and end up pushing some out of STEM fields entirely. Those who excel in these introductory weed-out courses often go on to complete a major in the field. Those who do poorly are discouraged and made to feel as if they don?t belong in STEM. Undergraduate students? experiences in introductory STEM classes correlate with the student retention and persistence in STEM majors and careers. According to a
study published in the Journal for STEM Education Research, half of college students who intend to graduate with STEM degrees fail to do so within six years of starting college. The majority of students who leave STEM majors drop out after the first year of their program. Students cite course factors including their perceptions of classroom climate and faculty behavior as reasons to leave STEM majors. Weed-out classes also disproportionately affect historically underserved groups such as women and Black, Native American, and Hispanic people, pushing them out of the STEM field. Doing well in these introductory courses has more to do with social relationships, connections to teachers, tutors, collaboration, rather than the rigor. Weed-out classes are part of systemic racism which contributes to the diversity challenges the STEM field faces, and they can be traced back to early education. Students from marginalized groups are more likely to have attended high schools where advanced math and science classes aren?t offered. A study by the Gardner Institute of introductory chemistry courses at 31 institutions, including community colleges and public and private 4-year colleges and universities, found an average DFWI (including incompletes) rate of 29.4%. The DFWI rates for Black and Latinx students in introductory chemistry at the 31 institutions were
above 40% (Arnaud, 2020,). Angela Kelly, a physics education researcher at Stony Brook University says, ?If students hadn?t taken chemistry and physics in high school, they really come to the university with a disadvantage in terms of their likelihood to choose a STEM major and to persist in STEM majors. The lack of access at the precollege level is a particular issue that is just not getting the attention that it needs.? Research on the rates of participation and persistence of underrepresented groups in higher education in general, and women of color in STEM in particular, demonstrate the historical prevalence of white males in STEM and underrepresentation of women of color. This is especially noted in physics, astronomy, engineering, and computer science. National data consistently illustrate that women who self-identify as Asian American, Black, Latina, Native American, or mixed race/ethnicity are severely underrepresented in receiving science and engineering (S&E) degrees relative to their population in the United States. In a 2014 dataset from the National Science Foundation, at the bachelor 's level, women of color collectively represented 13.3% of S&E degree recipients, while their representation (age 18?24) in the U.S. population was 21.9%. Similarly, at the doctoral level, women of color represented 10.0% of S&E degree recipients, while their representation (age 25?64) in the U.S. population was
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18.8%. Research is continuously demonstrating that women of color and other underrepresented groups do not persist in STEM at the same rates as their white male counterparts due to social or interpersonal factors. They often struggle and leave because they do not experience a sense of social belonging. Even if students survive a weed out class, they then have to contend with professionalism in the workplace, continuously fighting to be taken seriously and seen as equal. Professionalism is important in unifying principles in medicine and have been historically described as ?the basis of medicine?s contract with society.? Professionalism is a historical construct which gained recognition in the 1990s, when members of the medical field agreed to uphold a set of ?ethical values and competency standards? that ?the public and individual patients can and should expect from medical professionals.? Afterwards, medical professionalism was made a core competency taught at an undergraduate and graduate medical education to govern how members should conduct themselves in public, with patients, and with each other. However, professionalism is a fluid and contextual notion that is often overused and misused. Professionalism is often used to describe the behavior, dress code, language, and hierarchies that are deemed appropriate in medicine. Historically, medical institutions didn?t have women or minority groups in leadership and authority positions, which
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led to professionalism being defined by the heterosexeual, white male identity and cultural norms associated with whiteness. That concept of what is deemed professional and unprofessional doesn?t include diverse groups and therefore can be noninclusive and discriminatory. Thus, the way certain groups dress, eat, wear their hair or speak may be deemed unprofessional. With an increase in diversity of the healthcare workforce, it is important to reevaluate and redefine professionalism standards to be applicable to more diverse populations and cultures. In a study conducted by the University of Pennsylvania Perelman School of Medicine, they found that underrepresented minorities place more importance on professionalism, yet they experience it differently within their organizations. It?s believed that the high value these groups place on professionalism stems from feeling like they?re lacking in their work environment and the gap between institutional values and personal experiences. Participants of the study who identified themselves as members of marginalized groups expressed violations of their professional boundaries ranging from microaggressions to blatant racism, sexism, xenophobia, homophobia, and other forms of harassment. These violations of professional boundaries disproportionately impacted women
and gender, sexual, and racial/ethnic minority groups. Furthermore, studies show that women in the STEM workforce are significantly more likely to leave their occupation than women with other occupations. Researchers at the University of Texas-Austin sought to find the reason behind this and compared womens?employment trajectories to those of a man in STEM fields to explain the disproportionate loss of women in STEM over time. They found that the women perceive a less positive and supportive climate, greater workplace demands, and fewer accommodations. This suggests that STEM employment is less conducive to family building then other professions. Along with gender expectations that differ from those of their male counterparts, these limitations often push women out for lack of support and flexibility. Perception of gender ability is particularly notable in S&E jobs. Men are typically assessed by employers as being more capable, worthy of career mentoring, and deserving of higher salaries than women with objectively identical performance. Additionally, men are more likely to be promoted more quickly and enter higher supervisory roles than similar women. So, not only are women?s expectations likely to be lower than men?s, many STEM workplaces are designed to stimulate men?s productivity but not women?s. This is especially true for women with
family responsibilities. These disparities have contributed to the lack of diversity in the workplace, and these systems have been historically maintained; minorities are still alienated and their voices continue to be suppressed. Unfortunately, most intervention efforts implemented to increase persistence in STEM among students from underrepresented groups are rooted in a deficit model and only aim to ?fix? students, offering tutoring sessions, teaching them self-confidence, or socializing them into S&E (Ong et al., 2017). Until we address these disparities at a classroom, departmental, and institutional level, examining social and cultural reform at these levels, it won?t be enough. We need to ensure minorities are supported and set up to succeed. Counterpaces offer a method for providing the support to succeed. A study by the University of Wisconsin-Madison indicated that institutions and departments may enhance persistence by offering opportunities for formal and informal counterspaces. They found that underrepresented students?persistence in STEM could improve if students had key academic experiences, such as strong peer support. In this study, counterspaces are defined as academic and social safe spaces that allow underrepresented students to: promote their own learning wherein their experiences are validated and viewed
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as critical knowledge; vent frustrations by sharing stories of isolation, microaggressions, and/or overt discrimination; and challenge deficit notions of people of color (and other marginalized groups) and establish and maintain a positive collegiate racial climate for themselves (Charleston et al., 2014). Counterspaces may contain more heterogeneity, such as women from multiple racial or ethnic groups, allowing for broader connections to be made. Though not explored in this study, the benefits of potential for one-on-one relationships with senior colleagues to be a part of counterspaces seems promising. Existing counterspaces, in educational institutions and the workplace, such as peer relationships, mentoring relationships, and STEM diversity conferences have enabled bridge-building across levels of differential power as they involved participation by members at multiple stages, such as undergraduate, graduate, and faculty. Similarly, there's already been success and progress seen in campus cultural organizations, such women's centers which help facilitate students?social integration by providing a sense of cultural connection, a space to develop and express their racial/ethnic or gender identities, and give back to their communities by supporting other students like themselves.
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In the workplace, counterspaces may manifest as mentoring relationships between underrepresented groups and diversity conferences. When establishing new counterspaces, it?s imperative that they?re close to STEM's center, because that?s where more stakeholders and members with power can publicly address bias, exclusion and microaggressions, and advocate for underrepresented members. Ultimately, the goal should be to operate in fully inclusive ways that there is no opportunity for microaggressions and the resulting isolation that commonly affect minorities at a departmental and institutional level. By reducing reliance on weed-out classes to select scientists early on, creating more inclusive professional norms once researchers enter a field, and providing and encouraging counterspaces for historically marginalized groups at all institutional levels, diversity in STEM fields can be improved. Bo
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From Dust Till Dawn: The Origins of the Solar System By Ian Norfolk
The Solar System is humanity?s home in the universe. We are blessed with a bountiful star system, including asteroids, comets, gas giants, moons, and most importantly Earth. But how did it all get here and what are the origins of the Solar System? This is a complicated question that humankind has struggled to answer for centuries. But if you look in its name you can find a big clue: Solar.
into large balls of gas. Which once a certain mass is reached, will collapse into a true, nuclear-fusion-powered, star.
Image of Molecular Clouds within the Eagle Nebula Artist Depiction of Solar System today The history of the Sun is closely knit with the Solar System?s history. So let's look back to where it all began roughly, 13.8 billion years ago, at the Big Bang. This event populated the universe with matter that eventually formed into stars. Over the next 9 billion years, the universe would go through the lives of countless stars. Some of which exploded into supernovae and filled the universe with more and new types of matter and clouds of gas and dust. These clouds are called molecular clouds but often in popular science are referred to as a ?star nursery.? These ?nurseries? are able to form stars because the large amounts of hydrogen and helium eventually coalesce, due to gravity,
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Five billion years ago, where the Solar System is today, there was one of these clouds.With a little help from time and gravity, 400 million years later, the Sun formed from a collapsed portion of this cloud. The newly formed star had a plethora of dust orbiting it and due to the conservation of angular momentum, this rotation sped up when the star collapsed and formed. This formed what scientists call a proto-planetary disk, a large plane of dust rotating a star (think of a Solar-System-sized asteroid belt that's filled with much more material). This dust is the original material that formed our solar system. Eventually as dust particles collided, they formed planetesimals which are minor planets that filled the young Solar System. The
famous Trans-Neptunian Object (TNO) MU69 that was visited by the New Horizons probe in 2019 is the only planetesimal visited by humanity. Over time these planetesimals clumped together and eventually formed into objects large enough to have their own gravitational pull on other bodies, which eventually formed into spherical planets, moons, and dwarf planets.
which created an extremely unstable environment. On top of this, with the frequent collisions between planets, planetesimals, and other objects, new matter was added to the planets. From these collisions, hot magma was lifted from the mantle, creating a hellish environment. But during this fiery and fierce time in Earth?s history, Earth may have gained its most unique trait: the presence of water. Scientists believe that a type of meteor called a Carbonaceous Chondrite, meteors rich in water and carbon, had many collisions with the developing Earth and gave us the thing that makes this marble blue. Artist Depiction of Asteroid Bombardment of Earth
Image of Protoplanetary Disc AS 209 taken by ALMA Telescope But these young celestial bodies weren?t gonna have it easy. The young Solar System was a place of chaos. For example, the terrestrial planets (Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars) faced a period of extreme celestial bombardment. These planets were struck by tens of thousands of, if not more, meteors causing massive geological change. From these events, objects were thrown across the Solar System
The general shape of the Solar System is often characterized as a plane or a plate shape. While this holds ground for most astronomers, the tilt within the orbits of some bodies, mainly the Gas Giants (Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune) all have semi-tilted and highly eccentric
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orbits. Saturn and the Ice Giants (Uranus and Neptune) all have an inclination, or tilt, of 2 degrees relative to the average plane of the Solar System, and all have eccentricities of at least 5% in their orbits. Scientists mainly believe this is due to the aforementioned bombardment of the early system. But rather than riddle the Gas Giants with craters, the bombardment, overtime, warped their orbits into the not so perfect shape they have today. There are many theories as to how the Gas Giants formed but one of the best supported theories is that an original rocky core formed, much like the planetesimals mentioned before, although, during their formation these bodies that would soon become gaseous, were surrounded by gasses, such as Hydrogen, Helium, Methane, and more. Eventually these gasses became attached to the rocky core by gravity and, hence, formed the Gas Giants.
Diagram of Orbital planes for planets and Dwarf planets All of this leads up to the Solar System
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today consisting of an initial lineup of terrestrial planets (Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars), a comfortable gap with the asteroid belt followed by the lovely gas giants (Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune), a beautiful Kuiper belt, and its dwarf planet buddies (including Pluto), and, finally, a gargantuan Oort cloud stretching a lightyear in every direction. Since the Solar System?s creation all the way back in the molecular cloud, it has been moving through the universe. Currently, its trajectory is taking us toward the star Vega in the constellation Lyra, but until we reach there it is nice to know a little more about our so-called ?Cosmic Neighborhood.?
Image of Vega
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3D-Priting in Medicine By Justin Dewig
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Developed in the 1980s, additive
unbelievable amount of potential
manufacturing? better known as
if 3D printing software and
3D printing? is the process of
development are applied and
adding and printing layers onto an
mastered. Since most medical
already established
procedures are performed in a
two-dimensional design,
clinical setting and on real
transforming that
patients, there?s less room for
two-dimensional design to a
error. Therefore, trials and
three-dimensional object. 3D
development of 3D printing
printing technology is still growing
technology is at a disadvantage
at a rapid rate, with new
when compared to other
applications constantly being
industries, but that does not
pioneered. Current applications of
mean it doesn?t have potential.
3D printing can range from
There are presently four main
educational technology to
applications of computer-aided
automotive equipment to the
design and 3D printing in the
aerospace industry. All of these
medical industry. This technology
are large and complex industries,
could be used to replace human
which have been improved in
organs in transplants,
efficiency by the use of 3D
manufacture cheaper versions of
printing. However, there is one
surgical instruments, produce
important field that utilizes this
improved prosthetic limbs, and
technology, but does not get as
speed up surgical operations.
much attention since it is still in its
Each of these four applications of
early stages of development: the
3D printing possesses growing
medical field.
potential for research and
The medical field has an
development, which researchers
and surgeons are eager to explore
successfully created a functional
as they strive to advance surgical
blood brain barrier, completely
medicine.
cell-based, that mimics the
Human Organ Transplants
organic human anatomy. Having
Instead of dealing with the traditional risks of an organ transplant from one individual to another, 3D printing technology has allowed surgeons to utilize a technique called bioprinting. Unlike the traditional 3D printers that use both plastics and metals when creating objects, bioprinters employ
this technology to produce copies of human tissue is a perfect tool for doctors to practice on before large surgeries, which in turn can speed up the process of these operations. This is just scratching the surface of what 3D printing could bring the medical field in the future.
a computer-guided pipette to layer living cells on top one another like a traditional printer would do with plastic. This substance, referred to as bio-ink, creates an artificially living tissue inside a laboratory. These artificially created tissues, known as organoids, can be used in laboratory research since they are miniature replicas of organs. Many organizations have been working to
A 3D printed organoid
master this process and find new ways to apply it to the medical field. For example, the Wake Forest Institute in North Carolina announced that their laboratory
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3D Development of Hospital
Prosthetics
Instruments
Prosthetics is another increasingly
3D printing also sparks interest for
common application of
engineers in the medical field. The
patient-specific devices. 3D
cost of producing 3D printed
printing has allowed medical
hospital instruments is far lower
professionals to create extremely
than the cost of traditional,
specific designs for each patient
mass-manufactured tools. It also
for half the price and in under half
provides a free range of
the time. It has not only made
instruments for engineers to
medical professionals?jobs slightly
produce. 3D printing is most
easier, but also the patients?, since
applicable to the production of
this is a cheaper alternative to
surgical instruments like forceps,
traditional prosthetic systems. In
hemostats, scalpel handles, and
particular, children benefit the
clamps. These are highly
most from 3D printed prosthetic
sought-after since they can be
devices since they can be
produced sterilely and can be
produced fairly quickly to keep up
engineered to exact specifications
as a child outgrows their old
of a procedure. These are called
prosthetic equipment. Not only
patient-specific devices, and are
that, but prosthetic innovations
now produced on a larger scale
have developed so far that
thanks to the development of 3D
doctors can allow patients to
design and printing. This method
design their own prosthetic that
can create tools thnimizing damage
fits their needs exactly. Even
done to a patient's at allow for
though 3D design and printing in
more precision while mibody during
the medical field is still in its early
a procedure.
stages, there are already countless applications of this
28
technology. Whether it?s speeding up the process of procedures or contributing to groundbreaking discoveries that can change the lives of many people, additive manufacturing will be the future of the medical field. In fact, not only in the medical field, but in every industry, 3D design and printing will have a part to play as the possibilities of this technology are endless.
A 3D printed prosthetic arm
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The Future of Prosthetics By Max Staples
After watching Star Wars as a kid, I was
the way in all fields of engineering,
fascinated by the fact that one day I may
including prosthetics. ENABLE is a
be able to see, or even build, a prosthetic
nonprofit organization that works with
limb like the one used by Luke Skywalker.
underprivileged communities and
Luke Skywalker 's robotic hand is just as
connects patients in need of a prosthetic
functional as his real hand: he can move
with an engineer that has 3D printer
each individual finger with precision and
access. After contact is established, the
feel the objects he?s holding. When we
engineer meets and learns what the
examine today?s state-of-the-art
patient needs in a prosthetic limb and
prosthetics there?s still nothing like it on
designs the prosthetic. Finally the
the market. Attempts have been made to
engineer prints a prosthetic to the
implement the ability to feel objects into
patient?s specifications and it?s ready for
prosthetic technology, but that feature is
the patient?s use. The best part of the
far from becoming available to the
arrangement is that because of the low
consumers. That is not to say that we
production cost, the engineers can
have not come a long way though. If we
afford to offer their services to the
toss aside the unrealistic expectation of
patient free of charge. The prosthetics
Luke Skywalker ?s fictional prosthetic
are cheap to produce but of high quality
hand, we would see that the real-world
and durable. Although they do not
future of prosthetics is just as
involve electronic components,
fascinating.
prosthetics produced through ENABLE
Although highly advanced prosthetics
usually operate off of the motion of the
have existed for years, one major barrier
users remaining joints. For example, if
for consumers has been price. In the
the wearer still has their wrist, the
past, many individuals in need of a
engineers can use the motion in that
prosthetic weren?t able to access one.
wrist to create a simple clenching
That is, until about 2010. After 2010,
motion with the prosthetic.
there was a surge of popularity as the 3D printer became more and more affordable to have at home. With this came a wave of brilliant engineers paving
30
pirate days. In an attempt to advance these technologies further, engineers have begun to integrate ultrasound technology into new prosthetics, a major improvement over the previous electromyogram (EMG) technology, in which sensors that are placed on a patient?s skin to measure the electric current being emitted from the muscles. ?EMG sensors aren?t very accurate. They can detect a muscle movement, but the A child wearing an ENABLE prosthetic arm
signal is too noisy to infer which finger the person wants to move,? Gil Weinberg,
On the other end of the spectrum are
a Georgia Tech researcher, said.
high-tech robotic prosthetics. These
Weinberg?s team at Georgia Tech have
prosthetics contain a multitude of
begun placing ultrasound probes on
electronic components and can perform
patients' skin instead. One of the team?s
complex maneuvers, though even these
trials involved a patient who had his arm
models have their limitations. One
amputated below the elbow, so with the
common issue with robotic prosthetics is
ultrasound probe, the scientists were
that the prosthetics internal computers
able to identify when the patient was
can?t differentiate between a user ?s
trying to move a specific finger or limb. If
attempt to perform one motion over
the ultrasound technology used in this
another. These prosthetics can identify a
study is integrated into modern
user ?s attempt to move a missing
prosthetics, patients may enjoy more
extremity, but this is the extent of its
reliable and responsive prosthesis.
capabilities. With only one significant detectable motion, the possible maneuvers are limited. The ability to move the prosthetic through brain and muscle activity detection is no small feat, however, and the devices usually cost upwards of $10,000. As you can see, modern prosthetic technology has come a long way from the simple hook of the
This will not be the end of the line for prosthetic development, with much room left to grow. And if research continues to move in the right direction, we may one day see prosthetic technology the likes of which we can now only dream of? or see in Star Wars.
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A Deep Dive into Robotics in Surgery By Steven Castillo-Troya
As the field of medicine is advancing
was a revolutionary piece of
and finding new ways to heal
technology with robotic arms
patients, robot-assisted surgeries
strategically placed next to the
might take the spotlight as the most
patient and the doctor at the console
promising new innovation. Robotics
controlling the robot. Miniature i
opens up the field of medicine to new possibilities. It leaves less room for human error and often yields better results for patients. Humans, of course, have limitations, but robots can surpass those limitations and bring a new level of precision and acuity to surgical procedures. The first reported use of robot-assisted surgery was in a brain surgery performed less than 40 years ago in 1985. The procedure was a stunning success because of the accuracy that human hands could
A Diagram Depicting the Da Vinci Surgical System
never achieve. This first procedure became a gateway for the widespread use of robotic limbs and tools in surgery. As the new technology gained traction, researchers began to test its groundbreaking capabilities. In the year 2000, the Da Vinci surgery system was approved by the FDA after multiple tests on pigs, cadavers, and successful surgery on a human. It
instruments are placed inside the patient through a very small incision and the doctor can see through a 3D camera. The surgery system was used to remove a gallbladder from a 35-year-old female patient. Robot-assisted surgery can be a preferable option in delicate procedures that require more accuracy. Robot-assisted surgery can
32
also be highly beneficial compared to
allowing more equitable access for
traditional surgery options. Surgical
people in many financial positions.
complications are greatly decreased in
Plus, as more insurance companies
robot-assisted surgeries when
realize the benefits of
compared to standard surgery, and
robot-assisted surgery, they might
because of the greater precision and
begin to cover these procedures as
less invasive techniques, scars are less
well.
noticeable and recovery tends to be
In the meantime, robot-assisted
faster and less painful. There is still a
surgery is an excellent option if
minimal risk of complications after
your surgery requires a high level of
robot-assisted surgery, but it's
precision and you?re able and
dwarfed by the risk of complications
willing to pay the extra amount. All
following traditional surgeries. Still,
we can do is look to the future and
the chances of getting a surgical site
see the improvements that are
infection through regular surgery are
already being made in the field of
already between 1 and 3%, so that
surgical medicine.
means that regular surgery isn?t extremely dangerous and that robot-assisted surgery is the only option. With the help of a robot, however, that minimal risk is only reduced. Right now, not everyone can afford robot-assisted surgery, which still costs about $3,000 to $6,000 more than the already-hefty price of a traditional surgery. As the technology improves, however, manufacturers will be able to produce robotic surgical technology more cheaply. Therefore, the cost of these procedures will eventually drop,
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