The 'Chasseurs Tagals' (Tagal Rangers) and the French Conquest of Cochinchina (1858-1863

III

THE PHILIPPINES’ FIRST PARTNERSHIP wITH FRANCE The ‘Chasseurs Tagals’ (Tagal Rangers) and the French Conquest of Cochinchina (1858-1863)

Despite the unsuccessful French expedition to Basilan, the issue of Cochinchina sparked a renewed relationship between the Philippines and France. Since 1676, Catholic missions in Tonkin were in the hands of the Spanish Dominicans based in Manila (Provincia del Santo Rosario)122 and the French from the Missions Étrangères de Paris (MEP) working mostly in Cochinchina.

Although Emperor Gia Long (r. 1802-1820) and French Bishop Pigneau de Behaine shared a close relationship, the emperor issued an edict in 1804, which treated Buddhism and Catholicism with equal suspicion and forbade both religions from building or repairing pagodas and churches. The edict was issued to secure the support of the orthodox Confucian elite to legitimize the Nguyễn Imperial Dynasty and to secure Chinese recognition. Nonetheless, it was only Catholicism that was regarded as a proper threat, owing to a more organized Catholic community.123

To prevent the European powers that had settled in Manila, Macau, and Penang from using religion as a means to extend their influence, Gia Long’s successor, Minh Mạng aka Minh Mệnh (r. 1820-1841), increased pressure on the missionaries. Minh Mạng’s first edict, issued in 1825, forbade missionaries from entering the kingdom. A second edict was issued in 1833, outlawing Catholicism and ordering the arrest of missionaries and their exile to Huế. The second edict was promulgated following Lê Văn Khôi’s insurgency in Gia Định province (Cochinchina) where some Vietnamese Catholics called the Siamese for help.

The third edict, declared in 1836, ordered the execution of all missionaries arriving on board Chinese ships and all missionaries detained in Vietnamese jails.124 Among those incarcerated were four Spanish clerics, including two bishops.125 Because of these developments, The Netherlands, Britain, and France refused to receive Minh Mạng’s ambassadors in 1840.

Under Emperor Thiệu Trị (r. 1841-1847), persecutions of missionaries decreased for a while as Western powers remained close to Annam due to their intervention in China for the First Opium War. Without fighting, French warships were able to rescue imprisoned French missionaries in 1843 and 1845 (including Théodore de Lagrené). However, in 1847, two French frigates under the command of Captains Augustin de Lapierre (54-gun frigate Gloire) and Rigault de Genouilly (24-gun corvette Victorieuse) sank five Annamite ships on the Tourane Bay (today’s Đà Nẵng) during an outbreak of hostilities resulting from the breakdown of the negotiations to release French missionaries, which again included de Lagrené. In retaliation, Emperor Tự Ðửc (r. 1847-1883) promulgated in 1848126 and 1851 edicts on the persecution of Catholics. Ten Europeans and 115 Annamite priests were executed until 1862, around 5,000 Christians were killed, and around 5,000 people who took refuge in Siam were exiled.

The situation escalated when the French warship Catinat shelled Tourane in 1856; Emperor Tự Ðửc refused to receive Emperor Napoléon III’s plenipotentiary in January 1857; and Spanish Bishop José María Díaz Sanjurjo, the apostolic vicar for Tonkin, was beheaded in July 1857. In September 1857, the Catinat returned to rescue missionaries; and in November 1857, Napoléon III decided to intervene in Cochinchina by asking the Spanish Ambassador in Paris for the support of 1,500 to 2,000 men from the Philippines.127

The French Empress Eugénie de Montijo was highly concerned about the situation in Cochinchina. A devout Catholic and a member of the Spanish nobility, sister of the Duchess of Alba, and with connections in the Philippines,128 Empress Eugénie de Montijo favored French intervention in Cochinchina.

The French intervention was to be headed by Rear Admiral Rigault de Genouilly. Two days before Christmas, the Spanish government ordered Governor-General Fernándo de Norzagaray y Escudero to send to Cochinchina two companies—infantry and cavalry129—and some 1,200 to 1,400 men.130 This reinforcement was significantly smaller than what the French authorities requested.

As the French forces in Asia were still engaged in China, the operation had to be suspended until the signing of the Treaty of Tianjin in June 1858. However, on 28 July 1858, Emperor Tự Ðửc ordered the Spanish Bishop Melchor García Sampedro to be chopped into pieces.

Figure 23. From the Governor--General of the Philippines, instructions given to Colonel Bernardo Ruiz de Lanzarote, Sept. 8, 1858. Reproduced in L.A. Síntes, p. 457 (España. Ministerio de Defensa. Instituto de Historia y Cultura Militar. Archivo General Militar de Madrid.)

Figure 24. State of the forces in Saigon by Lieutenant-Colonel Carlos Palanca Gutiérrez, May 15, 1860. As reproduced in L.A. Síntes, p. 484 (España. Ministerio de Defensa. Instituto de Historia y Cultura Militar. Archivo General Militar de Madrid.)

The Philippines dispatched more than 1,000 men to Cochinchina: the whole infantry regiment Ferdinando VII No. 3 from Manila; two companies of rangers, including some cavalry from the King’s Regiment No. 1 in Manila and the Queen’s Regiment No. 2 from Cavite; two mobile and field artillery divisions and one for logistics. Although all officers were Spanish,131 nearly all troops were Tagal.

On 20 August 1858, around 400 men boarded the French ship Dordogne under the command of Colonel Mariano Oscáriz, and around 100 men embarked on the Spanish aviso Elcano. They joined the French forces in the Yulikan Bay (present-day Hainan Island) where the Tagal soldiers were struck with cholera and dysentery, diseases that the French contingent contracted from China.

The remaining 550 Tagals, together with Colonel Bernardo Ruiz de Lanzarote who headed the Spanish expeditionary corps, were brought to Tourane on 15 September 1858 on board the Durance. They were joined by five Spanish merchant ships that brought food and equipment. After the bombing of Tourane’s forts, several posts were occupied by the Tagals, who rested for a while and feasted reportedly on rice field rats—shocking their French counterparts who preferred less exotic fare.132

Assessing that a siege of Huế, Annam’s capital, would be too risky, Rear Admiral de Genouilly decided to attack Saigon instead, Cochinchina’s main port. Leaving a small detachment consisting of three infantry companies in Tourane, Rear Admiral de Genouilly left for Saigon on 2 February 1859. He was accompanied by 2,176 soldiers, including the Elcano and 300 Tagals under the command of Lieutenant-Colonel Carlos Palanca Gutiérrez and Colonel Ruiz de Lanzarote.133 On 19 February 1859, the joint forces took control of the citadel of Saigon, which they destroyed in a few days later as they lacked sufficient number of troops to defend it. The Tagal soldiers took advantage of the victory break to train Cochinchinese fighting cocks.134 In March 1859, half of the troops were sent back to Tourane, leaving only 555 men in Saigon, including 223 Tagal fighters under the command of Captain Fajardo.

Except for the 24-day ceasefire in September 1859 resulting from the three-month negotiations in June-August, the fighting in Tourane lasted until the final evacuation in March 1860. On 27 November 1859, 127 Tagals and most of the French sailed out of Tourane on

Figure 25. The fight at the Pagode des Clochetons (3-4 July 1860)

board the French vessel Marne and the Spanish steamer Jorge Juan. The remaining forces left their bases on 22 March 1860 after the complete destruction of the fortifications.

Meanwhile, Manila had sent 50 horses for artillery and 450 Tagal fighters to Saigon135 who camped with the French soldiers in a site close to the “Camp des Lettrés”136 (Figure 25). In April 1860, the frigate Europe that was transporting the Tagal soldiers was shipwrecked near Triton Island in the Paracels. The stranded soldiers were rescued by three French boats a few days later.137

The resumption of the war in China led to French troops based in Saigon being dispatched once again to China in April 1860. Thus, only two companies, 50 Tagal cavalrymen under the command of Second Lieutenant Le Maréchal,138 around 250 French soldiers and a small navy detachment remained in Saigon. To cut the lines between Saigon and Cây Mai Pagoda,139 Rear Admiral Page—who succeeded

Figure 26."Assaut de la citadelle de Saigon par le corps expeditionnaire franco-espagnol, le 5 février 1859 [Attack of the citadel of Saigon by the Franco-Spanish task force, 5 February 1859]" from the weekly L'Illustration, 23 April 1859. Tagal soldiers are on the right side.

Rear Admiral Rigault de Genouilly in November 1859—ordered the occupation of the ‘Pagode des Clochetons’140 by 100 Tagal fighters, four Spanish officers and sixty French soldiers. On 3 July 1860, the pagoda came under attack by a detachment consisting of 2,000 Annamites who retreated because of the heroic actions of the Tagal and French troops.141

A peace treaty was finally signed between France and China on 25 October 1860. In February 1861, Vice Admiral Léonard Charner, who succeeded Rear Admiral Page, moved to Saigon with more than 4,000 soldiers and several warships as reinforcements. The small Philippine contingent had not been augmented despite repeated requests by Lieutenant-Colonel Palanca Gutiérrez and Rear Admiral Page to the Philippine Governor-General.

On 24 February 1861, the allies launched a joint attack on the Ki Hoa fort with the support from the French Navy. During the assault, 180 Tagal infantry soldiers followed General Élie Jean de Vassoigne’s African cavalry (Chasseurs d’Afrique). More than 35 Tagal soldiers either perished or were injured, while Lieutenant-Colonel Palanca Gutiérrez sustained a serious head injury.142 On 1 April 1861, to replace the casualties among the Philippine troops, the schooner Constancia brought 56 Tagal soldiers and 1 Spanish officer from Manila, who participated in the capture of the Mỹ Tho citadel on 12 April 1861.

Rear Admiral Louis-Adolphe Bonard, who replaced Vice Admiral Charner in November 1861, decided to unite all allied cavalry corps, including the Tagals, fighting in Cochinchina and formed the Cochinchina Spahis Squadron in December 1861.143 On the same month, the allied troops, which included two companies of the Philippine infantry (consisting of 100 men per company), captured Gò Công, Mỹ Hoa and Biên Hòa.144 In March 1862, the alliance conquered Vinh-luong with the Tagal soldier, Doroteo de Guzmán,145 being the first person to enter the conquered port.

France, Spain and Annam signed a treaty on 5 June 1862 whereby France annexed three Cochinchinese provinces and shared with Spain the compensation for war damages amounting to 4 million dollars. The Philippines’ Governor-General José Lemery transmitted to Spain a bill of 1,057,047 pesos, 30% of which was allotted for the infantry—itemized as salaries (253,047 pesos) and bonuses (89,935 pesos)—and awarded to the Tagal soldiers, whom the French official reports referred to as “les braves soldats espagnols” (courageous Spanish soldiers).146

Unfortunately, the peace in Cochinchina lasted only for a few months. When an insurgency raged between Mỹ Tho and Saigon, Rear Admiral Bonard requested Rear Admiral Constant Louis Jean Benjamin Jaurès,147 who was stationed in China, for reinforcement. Manila sent around 515 officers and men from the regiment España No. 5 based in Zamboanga, 54 soldiers from Rey No. 1 and Reina No. 2 units and military administrative staff, to make up for previous losses. The Philippine-French troops took over the Go Cong citadel in February 1863. On 1 April 1863, the entire Philippine contingent sailed back to Manila. A few days later, the plenipotentiaries Rear Admiral Bonard and Colonel Palanca Gutiérrez148 disembarked in Tourane and, accompanied by the Tagal military band of the regiment Ferdinando VII,149 left for Huế where the treaty was ratified by Emperor Tự Ðửc.

If the Cochinchina quest fully benefitted the French, the Spanish gained nothing but glory:150 the operating costs were six times higher than what Spain finally received as reparation from Emperor Tự Dửc in 1863.151 The French-Spanish agreement stipulated that, in case of further joint intervention in Tonkin, Spain would take the lead and would reap the benefits.152 However, when France intervened in the region twenty years later, in 1881, Spain was, by then, already exhausted from a third Carlist civil war and was, thus, unable to participate in the French intervention.

As recorded in the accounts of Colonel Mariano de Oscáriz, the Spanish supremacy in the Philippines was hinged on both Catholicism and the so-called racial superiority of the Spaniards while the French military authorities treated the Tagal troops no differently from their own, allowing them to be irreverent in speech, placing them in the same quarter and side by side with their men. The French equal treatment sparked a progressive idea in the Filipinos, that is, “ideas contrary to our (Spanish) domination”.153 Did this awaken in the Filipinos a desire to take a first step toward independence?

CHAPTER NOTES

1 See chronological index of maps, in Rodney W. Shirley, The Mapping of the World, Early Printed World Maps, 1472-1700, London, New Holland, 1993, p. 653-656.

2 At the very mouth of the Seine River.

3 With the help of Italian architects, Jean Ango built a magnificent manor close to Varengeville-sur-Mer in upper Normandy, which remains, until today, a beautiful testimony to the success of his maritime endeavors.

4 The brothers Parmentier, Jean (1494-1529) and Raoul (1499-1529), were both well-educated. Jean was both a Renaissance humanist (poet and cartographer) and a seafarer.

5 Luís Filipe F.R. Thomaz, “The Image of the Archipelago in Portuguese cartography of the 16th and early 17th centuries”, Archipel No. 49, 1995, p. 79-124; Luís Filipe F.R. Thomaz, “Precedents and Parallels of the Portuguese Cartaz system”, in Pius Malekandathil & Jamal Mohammed, eds, The Portuguese, Indian Ocean and European Bridgeheads: Festschrift in Honour of Prof. K.S. Mathew, Lisboa, Fundaçao Oriente & Tellicherry, Institute for Research in Social Sciences and Humanities of Meshar, 2001, p. 67-85.

6 Catherine Hoffmann; Hélène Richard & Emmanuelle Vagnon, L’âge d’or des cartes marines, quand l’Europe découvrait le monde [The Golden Age of Nautical Charts, when Europe discovered the World], Paris, Seuil/Bibliothèque nationale de France, 2012, 256 p.

7 Jean Roze was a ‘Dieppois’, i.e. born and raised in Dieppe, to a family which originated from Scotland. Jean Roze worked for the British King Henry VIII from 1542 to 1546 to whom he dedicated his major work, Boke of Idrography [author’s spelling], including a globe and 11 regional maps (London, British Library Royal MS 20 E IX). When he returned to Dieppe, the French King Henri II ennobled him in 1551.

8 Jean Roze’s map was nearly similar to the anonymous Dieppois portolan, called the ‘Harleian map’, whose first registered owner was Edward Harley, Earl of Oxford (British Library, Ms Add 5413). The Harleian map bears the coat-of-arms of both the French King and the Dauphin (i.e. crown prince).

9 The Greek geographer Claudius Ptolemaeus (ca. 90 — ca. 168 AD) designed maps where the world was not spherical, but plane and surrounded by seas.

10 Carte cosmographique et universelle description du monde [Cosmographical map and universal description of the World], BNF, Cartes et Plans, cota GE D 7896 (RES).

11 Atlas Vallard became the property of Charles-Maurice de Talleyrand-Périgord, Prince of Bénévent, Emperor Napoleon I’s Minister of Foreign Affairs, who sold it in 1816 to a British collector. It was bought by The Huntington Library, San Marino (California) in 1924. 12 Dedicated to the French King Henry II. 13 The Connétable [Grand Constable, supreme commander of the French army] Duke Anne de Montmorency (1493-1567) and the Amiral de France Claude d’Annebault (ca. 1495-1552). 14 Or ‘Paragua’, ‘Paragoyan’ on contemporary maps. 15 Following Gerardus Mercator’s map (1569). 16 Carte des provinces de la grande et petite Asie [Map of the provinces of Asia Major and Asia Minor], BnF, http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/btv1b8468393w. André Thevet (1516-1590), who had travelled to the Middle East and to Brazil, became royal chaplain in 1576, one year after the publication of his Cosmographie universelle [Universal Cosmography i.e. geography]. 17 Petrus Plancius (1552-1622), Dutch scholar and merchant from Amsterdam. 18 Jodocus Hondius (1563-1612) was from Ghent, in the Spanish Flanders (today Belgium). 19 Henry IV was murdered in 1610; he was succeeded by his 8½-year-old son, Louis XIII.

20 1565-1629. Born in Flanders, Petrus Bertius became professor of mathematics at the University of Leiden (Netherlands), and then settled in France in 1620 to teach mathematics at the Collège de France, the highest French academic institution. 21 The 1627 map includes much more data than the previous Philippinae Insulae map by Petrus Bertius which was published in 1616 in a mini atlas. 22 When Legazpi landed in Samar, he asked for the name of the island, and the nephew of the local chief gave instead his uncle’s name: Achan (Acham); see Thomas Suárez, Early Mapping of Southeast Asia, Singapore, Periplus, 1999, p. 188. 23 Melchisédech Thévenot (ca. 1620-1692), who had been Ambassador to Geneva, then to Rome, and knew English, Latin, Greek, Hebrew, Arabic and Turk, entered the French Royal Academy of Sciences in 1685. 24« Relation des Isles Philippines faite par un religieux qui y a demeuré 18 ans [Account of the Philippine Islands by a clergyman who lived there for 18 years] » ; « Relation de la grand Isle de Mindanao et de la conqueste qu’en ont fait les Espagnols [Account of the great island of Mindanao and its conquest by the Spanish] » ; pp. 1-13 ; 14-26 — « Relation des Isles Philippines faite par l’amirante D. Hieronimo de Bañvelos y Carrillo [Account of the Philippine Islands by…] » ; « Mémoire pour le Commerce des Isles Philippines par Don Juan Grau y Montfalcon, procureur général des Isles Philippines [Memorandum on Trade with the Philippine Islands by….] » pp. 1-29 & 30-40 in M. Thévenot, Relations de divers voyages curieux qui n’ont point esté publiées ou qui ont esté traduites d’Hacluyt, de Purchas…[Relation of various surprising travels that have not yet been published or translated from Hacluyt, Purchas...], Paris, Sébastien Cramoisy & Sébastien Mabre Cramoisy, 1664, vol. II. 25 Alain Manesson Mallet, Description de l’Univers [Description of the Universe], Paris, 1683, vol. pp. 127-129. 26 Gian Domenico [Jean-Dominique] Cassini (1625-1712), who worked first for

the University of Bologna (Italy) was invited to France by Minister of Finances Jean-Baptiste Colbert in 1669, becoming the first director of the French Royal Observatory. 27 1677-1756, the son of the astronomer Jean-Dominique Cassini, Jacques Cassini was elected both to the British Royal Society and to the Berlin Academy, and was a friend of Isaac Newton.

28 Denis Nardin, « La France et les Philippines sous l’Ancien régime [France and Philippines Under the Ancient Regime] », Revue française d’histoire d’Outre-Mer, 1976, LXIII/230, p. 8.

29 Ibid., p. 9. Four French ships stopped in Manila between 1715 and 1770, which had been registered in Pondicherry or Mauritius and bypassed the interdiction by using Indian captains. 30 J.B. Bourguignon d’Anville (1689-1782) was a scientist who initiated an academic project for measuring the dimensions of the earth, supported by the King. He participated in the French Encyclopédie, which was one of the main projects of the enlightenment period.

31 J.B. d’Après de Mannevillette was a member of both the Académie Royale des Sciences and the Académie Royale de Marine [Nautical Royal Academy], (see Claude Briot, «J.B.D.N. d’Après de Mannevillette, hydrographe de la Cie des Indes, auteur du Neptune Oriental», 2007, http://www.le-havre-grands-navigateurs-claudebriot. fr/411049280).

32 England, Austria, Russia, Prussia, Spain and Portugal, the last two kingdoms entering the war in 1761, on the French side. Prussia was first allied with France against Austria and England, then changed sides in 1756. 33Alexander dedicated several of his own charts to J.B. d’Après. 34 The title was inspired by the Neptune Français project, launched in 1693 by the French Minister of Finances, Colbert, to chart French coasts. The Neptune Français was updated and reprinted in 1753 by Jacques-Nicolas Bellin. 35 See a digitalized version on the website of the French Ministry of Defense, http://www.memoiredeshommes.sga.defense.gouv.fr/fr/ark:/40699/ m00525655f4b8602/525655f4b9c3c.

36 Bibliothèque nationale de France, https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark./1248/btv5962723b

37 The British Parliament had voted in 1713 the Longitude Act, creating a prize for the invention of a nautical chronometer capable of measuring time with enough precision according to the rotations of the earth. The winner was John Harrison in 1761. Five years later, the French Pierre Le Roy improved Harrison’s chronometer in adding a beam with compensation of temperature and an isochronous spring. Both inventions were improved during the three subsequent decades. 38 G. Le Gentil de La Galaisière (1725-1792), Voyage dans les mers de l’Inde, fait par ordre du Roi à l’occasion du passage de Vénus, sur le disque de soleil, le 6 juin 1761, & le 3 du même mois 1769 [Travel to the Indian seas, by order of the King, during Venus’ transit across the solar disc, on June 6, 1761, & the 3rd of the same month 1769], Paris, Imprimerie Royale, 1781, vol 2, part III, p. 1-366. 39 Pierre Sonnerat (1748-1814), Voyage à la Nouvelle-Guinée, dans lequel on trouve

la description des lieux, des observations physiques et morales, et des détails relatifs à l’histoire naturelle [Travel to New Guinea, including a description of the places, physical and moral observations, and the details relating to natural history …], Paris, Ruault, 1776, 206 p. 40 They came from a well-known merchant family from Saint-Malo (in Brittany) engaged in shipping to the East Indies for three generations.

41 Born in Bayonne (south-west of France, near the Spanish border) in 1752, François de Cabarrus aka Francisco de Cabarrús, came from a prominent French trading family and was educated both in Toulouse and in Saragossa. He settled in Spain in 1770, becoming a subject of the King of Spain after ten years while maintaining all his family and business connections with France. Imprisoned in Madrid in 1790 for misappropriation of company assets, he was pardoned by King Carlos IV and made Conde de Cabarrús, then sent as Ambassador to the Congress of Rastatt, negotiating peace between France and the Hapsburgs. He died in Sevilla in 1810. 42 Which became the Spanish Central Bank. 43 A Real Compañía de Filipinas, was initially created in 1733, and which remained in limbo. Cabarrus’ trading company of the same name and created in 1785 survived until 1830.

44 Comte Honoré-Gabriel de Riqueti de Mirabeau, «Extrait de la Cédule royale sur la Nouvelle Compagnie des Philippines [Excerpt of the Royal Order on the New Philippines Company]», in De la Banque d’Espagne dite de Saint Charles, Paris, 1785, p. cxiii-clxii. 45 Félix Renouard de Sainte Croix, Voyages aux Indes Orientales, aux Philippines, à la Chine, avec des notions sur la Cochinchine et le Tonquin, pendant aux années 1803, 1804, 1805, 1806 et 1807 [Travel to the East Indies, Philippines, China, with information on Cochinchina and Tonkin…], Paris, Clament, 1810, vol. 2, p. 367. 46 Jean-Pierre Poussou, Philippe Bonnichon & Xavier Huetz de Lemps, Espaces coloniaux et espaces maritimes au XVIIIe siècle [Colonial and Maritime Spaces in the 18th century], Paris, SEDES, 1998, p. 354-358. 47Antoine Raymond Joseph Bruni d’Entrecasteaux (1737-1793) was the nephew of one of the greatest French admirals of the 18th century, the bailly Pierre André de Suffren. A. d’Entrecasteaux commanded a large warship in the Mediterranean fleet during the war for American Independence, taking part in the protection of the Spanish troops sent to retake Minorca Island from the British. He became deputy head of the division of naval infrastructures (1783-1785), then was assigned to the Indian Ocean, commanding the French naval forces east of the Cape of Good Hope (1785-1787), and finally named governor-general of the French possessions in the Indian Ocean (1787-1789). Promoted to rear admiral in 1791, he was selected to search for La Pérouse with the frigates La Recherche and L’Espérance and promoted further to viceadmiral and died from scurvy in 1793. A. d’Entrecasteaux sent back a Mémoire sur les Isles Philippines (Archives nationales, collection Asie Orientale, folder 46). 48 Scipion de Castries was born in May 1756, to a family of Southern French nobility. The head of the elder branch of the Castries family, Field Marshal and the Marquess of Castries, was Secretary of State for the Navy between 1780 and 1787. During his training, young Scipion took part in a 9-month campaign against piracy in the Mediterranean Sea. When France became allies with the nascent United States fighting for independence, he took part in six naval battles in the Caribbean Sea. He suffered a serious injury during the conquest of Granada Island. Transferred in February 1780 to one of the

large warships escorting French Rochambeau’s army to the United States, he obtained permission to serve on frigates attacking isolated Navy vessels or, more often, British freighters. In 1782, he was ordered to sail to the West African coast where he captured two British ships. Scipion de Castries then became the captain of the larger frigate La Subtile. With his new ship, he was to remain for five years (1784-1789) in the Indian Ocean and the South East Asian waters. Promoted rear admiral after the Bourbon restoration, he died in 1830.

49 Barthélémy de Lesseps published La Pérouse’s journal: Jean-François de Galaup, comte de La Pérouse, Voyage de La Pérouse autour du monde pendant les années 1785, 1786, 1787 et 1788 [Voyage of La Pérouse around the world during the years...], Paris, Nouvelle Bibliothèque des Voyages, 1832, 4 vol. 50 On Lesseps’s own voyage from Petropavlovsk to Versailles, see Journal historique du voyage de M. de Lesseps, consul de France, employé dans l’expédition de M. le comte de La Pérouse en qualité d’interprète du roi […] [Historical Travel Journal of M. de Lesseps, Consul of France, who was hired to act as the King’s interpreter for the expedition of the Comte de La Pérouse], Paris, Impr. royale, 1790, 2 vol. Barthélémy de Lesseps’ nephew, Ferdinand de Lesseps, was to dig the Suez Canal. 51 Excerpts in D. Nardin, « La France et les Philippines sous l’Ancien Régime », op.cit., 1976, p. 26-27. 52 The French Revolutionary Wars of 1792 to 1802 were a series conflicts between the French Republic and Britain, Austria and several of the European monarchies. 53 Lord Nelson was killed during the battle, and the defeated French Admiral Pierre Charles Silvestre de Villeneuve, who was taken into captivity by the British, committed suicide in Brittany after his release a few months later. 54 Pierre Pigneau de Béhaine (1741-1799) became Apostolic Vicar of Cochinchina in 1771. 55 February 1793, June 1794 and September 1797 (D. Nardin, op. cit., p.35). 56 Capitaine de vaisseau Larcher, Projet d’établissement aux Philippines et à la Cochinchine, envoié [sic!] au Directoire Exécutif [Project for a settlement in the Philippines and Cochinchina sent to the Executive Directory – i.e. the French government of the time], Paris, 16 Fructidor an V (2 September 1797), Archives nationales d’Outremer, FR ANOM C15 folios 6-9, published by Henri Cordier, Mélanges d’histoire et de géographies orientale [Mixture of Oriental history and geography], vol. III, Paris, Jean Maisonneuve & Fils, 1922, pp. 145-151. 57 See Félix Renouard de Sainte Croix, op. cit., vol. 2, 390 p. 58 Paul-Anne de Nourquer du Camper (1776-1849), great-grandnephew of Marquess Joseph-François Dupleix, former Governor-General of Pondicherry (1697-1763), became Governor of French Guyana (1837-39) and finally Governor of the French East-Indies (1840-44); author of « Voyage aux îles Moluques, aux îles Philippines, à la Chine, à la Cochinchine […] [Travel to the Moluccas, Philippine Islands, China and Cochinchina…]», Annales maritimes et coloniales, 1824, vol. I, pp.105-161 et pp.186-204. 59 La Sémillante sailed from Brest to Isle-de-France in 1803, with the admiral Durand de Linois’ squadron.

60 Born in Honfleur (Normandy) to a family of navy officers, Léonard Motard was bestowed the title of baron in 1810 and promoted to rear-admiral in 1811. He died in Honfleur in 1852 (Ch. Bréard, Le vieux Honfleur et ses marins, biographies et récits militaires, Rouen, Gagniard, 1897, 265-317).

63 Efren B. Isorena, “Maritime Disasters In Spanish Philippines: The ManilaAcapulco Galleons, 1565–1815”, International Journal of Asia Pacific Studies (IJAPS, Universiti Sains Malaysia), vol. 11 No.1, 2015, p. 58.

64 Born in Brest in 1768, to a family of navy officers, César Bourayne entered the Navy in 1781, at 12 years of age where he worked his way up to becoming an officer. He was sent to the Indian Ocean after his promotion to captain in 1803. Given the title of baron in 1811, he became a rear admiral and died in Brest in 1817. His title was confirmed by the Bourbon King Louis XVIII in 1815. 65 Henri Prentout, L’Île de France sous Decaen, 1803-1810: essai sur la politique coloniale du Premier Empire et la rivalité de la France et de l’Angleterre dans les Indes Orientales [The Île de France under Decaen, 1803-1810: an essay on the colonial policy of France’s First Empire and the rivalry between France and England in the East Indies], Paris, Hachette, 1901, p. 481-482.

66 Chevalier Thorel de La Trouplinière, Voyages et campagnes dans les mers de l’Inde et à l’Océan Pacifique à bord des frégates la Canonnière, la Caroline, la Vénus, la Néréide [Travels and campaigns to the Indian seas and the Pacific Ocean, on the…], Paris, 1822, p. 7. 67 Thorel de La Trouplinière, loc. cit. 68 Alexandre Louis du Crest de Villeneuve (1777-1852) became rear admiral in 1832 and received the grand'croix de la Légion d’honneur, the highest French order, both for his skills and exceptional bravery.

69 Achille de Kergariou (1775-1820), La mission de la Cybèle en Extrême-Orient, 1817-1818, journal de voyage […] [The Cybèle's mission to the Far-East, 1817-1818, travel journal…], Paris, É. Champion, 1914, ed. by Pierre de Joinville. 70 Born in 1781, son of Louis-Antoine de Bougainville and of Marie-Flore de Montendre, rear admiral de Bougainville died in 1838. 71 Vice-admiral Cyril Pierre Théodore Laplace (1793-1875), Voyage autour du Monde par les Mers de l’Inde et de la Chine exécuté sur la Corvette de l’État la Favorite, pendant les années 1830-32 [Journey around the world through the India and China Seas, aboard the state corvette la Favorite in the years 1830-32], Paris, Imprimerie Royale, 1833, Philippines, vol. 1., p. 353-451.

72 Vice-Admiral Auguste-Nicolas Vaillant (1793-1858), Voyage autour du monde exécuté pendant les années 1836 et 1837, sur la Corvette la Bonite […] Relation du voyage par A. de La Salle…, [Travel around the world made in the years 1836 and 1837, on the corvette la Bonite … Account of the travel by…], Paris, A. Bertrand, 1845-1852, 3 vol.

73 Born in Isle Bourbon (today La Réunion) in 1774, Pierre-Henri Philibert introduced vanilla plants to his native island. He died mysteriously in Paris in 1824.

74 See Denis Nardin, « Un Français aux Philippines : La Gironière », Archipel No. 14, 1977, pp. 15-18.

75 Paul Proust de La Gironière, Aventures d’un gentilhomme breton aux îles Philippines [The Adventures of a Breton Aristocrat in the Philippines Islands], Paris, 1855, reprint Les Portes du Large, 2001, 278 p. 76 Due to a highly restrictive international trade tariff policy by Argentina in the 1830s. 77 Denis Nardin, « Les Français à Basilan, un projet de colonisation avorté [The French

78 Jean-Baptiste Cécille (1787-1873) was elected to the National Assembly after the downfall of King Louis-Philippe in 1848. He became Ambassador to London in 1849, then supported Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte, later Emperor Napoléon III, who made him a senator. In 1847, he was bestowed the title of count by Pope Pius IX .

79 The Prime Minister was the old Maréchal (field marshall) Soult, Duke of Dalmatia.

80 Born in Nîmes 1787, to a Protestant family, François Guizot was the son of a father beheaded in 1794 during the French Revolution. His mother moved the family then to Geneva. Returning to France in 1805, Guizot studied law in Paris and started publishing numerous contributions in newspapers, books and translations from English, including works by the great historian Edward Gibbon. In 1812 he was appointed professor of contemporary history at Sorbonne University, where his lectures increased his reputation, and gave him access to the Liberal Party. Entering high public office with the Bourbon Restoration in 1814, he was expelled from the government in 1820, and banned from teaching between 1822 and 1830, a period during which he published his major historical works. Elected to the House of Representatives in 1830, he became Minister of Education (1832-1837), Minister of Foreign Affairs (1840-1847) and de facto Prime Minister, then Prime Minister (1847-1848). He was elected to the Académie Française in 1836. He retired in 1848 and died in his country house of Val-Richer, Normandy, in 1874 (see G. de Berthier de Sauvigny, Encyclopaedia Universalis).

81 Born in Amiens in 1800 to an aristocratic family, Théodore de Lagrené entered diplomacy in 1822 under the administration of Foreign Minister Mathieu de Montmorency-Laval. He became fluent in Russian after a first posting in St. Petersburg, where he courted and later married Marie Varinska Doubenskaïa, nicknamed ‘the little bird’, then lady-in-waiting to the Empress, incurring the ire of Alexander Pushkin who challenged him to a duel. Lagrené gallantly refused, arguing that he could not fight against Russia’s greatest writer. After his stints in China and the Philippines, T. de Lagrené became a member of the French peerage and grand-officier de la Légion d’honneur, the second highest rank in the highest French order. He died in 1866.

82 Huangpu, some 25 kilometers downstream Canton.

83 Guizot had in hand a map of the Anambas islands (“Archipel des Anambas, carte de la baie Tupinier”) published in Cyrille Laplace’s Voyage autour du monde par les mers de l’Inde et de la Chine, exécuté sur la corvette de l’État La Favorite, pendant les années 1830, 1831 et 1832 […] Atlas hydrographique [Journey around the world through the India and China seas, on the state corvet la Favorite, in the years… hydrographic Atlas], Paris, Imprimerie royale, 1833.

84 François Guizot, « Introduction », in id., La Chine, racontée par Laurence Oliphant et traduite par… [China, relation by Laurence Oliphant, translated by…], Paris, Michel Lévy Frères, 1875, pp. 3-4. 85 T.-F. Page, Soulou et ses dépendances, 7 May 1843, Archives des Affaires étrangères, mém. & doc. Asie No. 24, ff. 38-57.

86 Traditional sailing boat.

88 Born in Angoulême in 1808, Jean Mallat was a medical doctor, who had engaged into trade in Canton for a while, before becoming head surgeon of the San Juan de Dios Hospital in Manila.

89 Jean Mallat, Archipel de Solou ou Description des groupes de Bassilan [The Sulu archipelago or Description of the Basilan Islands], Paris, Pollet, 1843, in-8°, 160 p.

90 Jean Mallat, Les îles Philippines, considérées au point de vue de l’hydrographie et de la linguistique, ou Description des mers, des côtes, des détroits... ; suivie d’un coup d’oeil sur les idiomes de ces îles, d’un recueil de phrases, de dialogues et d’un vocabulaire français, tagalog et bisaya [The Philippine Islands, as seen from a hydrographic and linguistic point of view, or Description of the seas, coasts, straits… ; followed by an overview of the idioms of these islands, a collection of sentences, dialogs, and a French, Tagalog and Bisaya lexicon], Paris, Pollet et Cie , 1843, XII-108-60 p.

91 Jean Mallat’s connections are illustrated by the book (Fig. 22) preserved in BULAC (Universities library for languages and civilizations, Paris): it is dedicated by the author to H.R.H. the Prince de Joinville (1818-1900), 3rd son of King Louis-Philippe, who himself served in the Navy.

92 See Claudine Salmon, « La mission de Théodose de Lagrené et les enquêtes sur les textiles d’Insulinde (1844-1846) [Théodose de Lagrené’s mission and the inquiries on Insulindian (Maritime Southeast Asia) textiles…]», Archipel No. 75, 2008, pp. 167-197; Guy Durand & Jean-François Klein, « Une impossible liaison ? Marseille et le commerce à la Chine, 1815-1860 [An impossible Route, Marseilles and the China trade]», Revue d’histoire moderne et contemporaine, No. 57/1, 2010, pp.139-167. 93 Denis Nardin, « Les Français à Basilan… », op. cit., p. 33. 94 Anonymous, « Lettre de Chine », Revue des Deux Mondes, June 1, 1845, p. 1033. 95 Docteur Gestin, « Le traité d’amitié et de commerce avec la Chine en 1844 et l’expédition de Basilan », extrait des mémoires du…, reprint, La Nouvelle Revue, vol. LCI, juillet-août 1906, p. 201.

96 V. de Mars, « Chronique de la Quinzaine, 31 mai 1845 [The Bi-weekly Chronicles]», Revue des deux Mondes, vol. 10, 1845, p. 1034. 97 Dr. Melchior Yvan, Voyages et récits [Travels and Accounts], Bruxelles, Meline, Cans & Cie, vol. 1., 1853, p. 219, who noticed the point during his stay in Sulu.

98 Which was published by Alexander Dalrymple in the “Essay toward an account of Sulu”, Oriental Repertory, Londres, G. Bigg, 1793, pp. 525-531.

99A sailor named Toche.

100 Dr. Melchior Yvan (Voyages et récits, Bruxelles, Meline, Cans & Cie, 1853, Part II, p. 180) mentions a third man. 101 J. F. Warren, The Sulu Zone, op. cit., p. XX.

102 According to the testimonies gathered by Dr. Melchior Yvan, op. cit., p. 196, local women did even more, ‘enjoying’ the company of the young prisoners.

104 Cesar Adib Majul, who did not have access to French sources, mistook T. Page’s expedition to Basilan in April 1843 for those of Guérin in November 1844, during which the two sailors were taken into captivity (C.A. Majul, Muslims in the Philippines, Diliman, Quezon City, University of the Philippines Press, 1973, p.322). The French diplomat’s name was not ‘Grene’, but ‘(de) Lagrené’ and Lagrené and Cécille’s warship in the Philippines was not the Erigone, but the Archimède, etc.

105 Anti-piracy light boats.

106 Dr. Robert Gestin, « Souvenirs maritimes (1843 à 1854) », Service historique de la Marine, Revue Maritime, 1904/04, p. 40.

107 Admiral Cécille’s report, abstract, in Dr. Gestin, Le traité d’amitié et de commerce... IIe partie, n. 1, pp. 209-211. Iman Baran is the same as Tuan Baran (Dr. Yvan, op. cit., p. 193) who participated in the negotiation of the ransom, getting 100 piasters for his mediation (Dr. Gestin, op. cit., n. 1 p. 202). Jules Itier (Journal d’un voyage en Chine en 1843, 1844, 1845, 1846, Paris, Dauvin & Fontaine, 1848, p. 185) adds that he was the chief of Balagtasan. 108 J. F. Warren, The Sulu Zone, op. cit., pp. 186-189. 109 2.8 km west from Tairan.

110 One of the Barangays of Lantawan. 111 Two minor chiefs signed the document on January 23. 112 J. Itier, op. cit., p. 195. 113 Dr. Gestin, op. cit., p. 200. The Latin name of the manchineel is ipomane mancinella, a small tree originating from Caribbean and South America, whose fruits, leaves, and sap are equally toxic. The tree had probably been brought to Sulu by some Spaniard decades ago.

114 See excerpts of Admiral Cécille’s report in D. Gestin, op. cit., n. 1, pp. 213-217.

115 Wyndham had married a mestiza from Iloilo, spoke fluent Tausug and was highly respected in Jolo, where he anchored his schooner (Warren, op. cit., pp. 5152). Among his customers were Singapore merchants and James Brooke himself. 116 The Tausug masters usually killed the slaves who tried to escape. 117 J. Itier, op. cit., p. 200. 118 The Anglo-French blockade of the Rio de la Plata was formally notified on 18 September 1845, aiming to protect the secession of Montevideo from Uruguay, then allied with Argentina (see Christian Hermann, « La diplomatie de la France en Amérique Latine au lendemain des Indépendances », Mélanges de la Casa de Velázquez, No. 28/3, 1992, pp. 80-81).

119 An Anglo-French expedition bombed Tamatave, the capital of the Merina Kingdom, in June 1845, in retaliation for Queen Ranavalona I’s persecutions against Christians. 120 Prince Antoine d’Orléans, duke of Montpensier, married the Spanish infanta Luisa Fernanda de Borbón, daughter of King Ferdinand VII, in 1846. 121 J.F. Warren, op. cit., p. 191.

122 José Montero y Vidal, Historia general de Filipinas desde el descubrimiento de dichas islas hasta nuestros días [General History of the Philippines since the discovery of the Islands to the present day], Madrid, M. Tello, vol. III, 1887, footnote, p. 354. 123 See Nicole-Dominique Lê, Les Missions étrangères et la pénétration française au Viêt-Nam [The Missions Étrangères and French penetration into Viêt Nam], Paris, Mouton, 1975, p. 78-86. 124 Ángel Santos Hernández S.J., « El Viet-Nam, tierra de sangre (I) & (II) [Viet-Nam, land of blood] », Revista de Política Internacional, No. 12, 1972, p. 103. The first missionary to be executed was F. Isidore Gagelin, in October 1833; taken prisoner in Gia Ðinh, J. Marchand had to endure the horrifying ‘death by a thousand cuts’. A total of 7 missionaries were put to death between 1833 and 1838. See Cao Huy Thuần, Christianisme et colonialisme au Viêt-Nam, Paris, PhD thesis, Faculty of Law & Political Sciences, 1972, 563 p.

125 Brebion, A., Dictionnaire de bio-bibliographie générale, ancienne et moderne de l’Indochine Française [Dictionary of general ancient and modern bibliography of French Indochina], ed. by A. Cabaton, Paris, Société d’éditions géographiques, maritimes et coloniales, 1935, pp. 121-129.

126 The 1848 edict ordered the throwing of European missionaries into the sea with a rock tied around the neck; Annamites following the Imperial order would receive a reward of 30 silver bars; indigenous priests refusing apostasy would be marked on the face and sent to insalubrious regions. In 1851, indigenous priests, whether having apostatized or not, were to be cut in half (Ángel Santos Hernández, op. cit., p. 104-105).

127 Luís Alejandre Síntes, La guerra de la Cochinchina, cuando los españoles conquistaron Vietnam [The Cochinchina war, when the Spaniards conquered Vietnam], Barcelona, Edhasa, 2006, p. 93. 128 Eugénie’s maternal aunt, Enriqueta Kirkpatrick (1797-1872) had married Conde Domingo de Cabarrús (1798-1834), Francisco de Cabarrús' grandson. 129 José Montero y Vidal, Historia general de Filipinas, op. cit., p. 349. 130 L.A. Síntes, op. cit., p. 171. 131 One colonel, three majors, one captain and two military vicars for the general staff; one colonel, one major, one captain, one assistant-doctor and two chaplains for the task force; plus some 50-60 junior officers.

132 Colonel Henri de Ponchalon, Indo-Chine : souvenirs de voyage et de campagne, 18581860, Tours, Alfred Mame, 1866, p. 107.

133 Promoted to brigadier general, B. Ruiz de Lanzarote was replaced as chief of the Spanish expeditionary corps by Carlos Palanca Gutiérrez, who came back from a short visit to the Spanish Government as the Kingdom’s plenipotentiary for Annam. 134 H. de Ponchalon, op. cit., p. 147. 135 José Montero y Vidal, op. cit., p. 359 ; the troops were transported by the warship La Gironde (H. de Ponchalon, op. cit., p. 234).

136 Paulin Vial, Les Premières années de la Cochinchine, colonie française [The first years of Cochichina, French colony], Paris, Challamel Aîné, vol. 1, 1874, p. 82.

137 The rescue was made possible by the bravery of Lieutenant Araquistain, who managed to reach Saigon aboard a small boat, where he asked for help.

139 Northwest outskirts of Chợ Lớn.

140 Chùa Kiễng Phước, known by French as the Pagode des Clochetons (Small bells Pagoda).

141 José Montero y Vidal, Historia general de Filipinas, op. cit., p. 361.

142 Five Spanish officers, two sergeants, one corporal and one Tagal soldier were commended in the French Army Order. 143 Officiers de l’État-Major du Général de Division Aubert, Commandant Supérieur des Troupes du Groupe de l’Indochine, Histoire militaire de l’Indochine française des débuts à nos jours (Juillet 1930) [Military History of Indochina, from the beginning to the present day], Hanoi / Haïphong, Imprimerie d’Extrême-Orient, vol. 1, 1930, p. 34.

144 The Annamites set fire to the Ta-Dan Prison, killing 286 Christian and 27 non-Christian inmates.

145 His compatriot Pioquinta Grava « having died holding up the flag vis-àvis the enemy » (José Montero y Vidal, Historia general de Filipinas, op. cit., p. 368).

146 Luís Alejandre Síntes, La guerra de la Cochinchina, op. cit., p. 397.

147 Brother of Admiral Charles Jaurès, 1808-1870, both being first cousins of the father of the radical-socialist politician Jean Jaurès.

148 On the global role of Spain, see James W. Cortada,"Spain and the French Invasion of Cochinchina", Australian Journal of Politics & History No. 20/3, 1974, pp. 335-345.

149 José Montero y Vidal, Historia general de Filipinas, op. cit., p. 374.

150 See Carlos Palanca Gutiérrez’s testimony, with many excerpts of his dispatches: Reseña histórica de la expedición de Cochinchina, Carthagena, 1869, 489 p. The Spanish intervention in Cochinchina was the object of staunch criticism as early as 1862, as shown by Lieutenant Colonel Serafin Olave in Cuestión de Cochinchina, Aclaraciones [The Cochinchina Issue, Explanations], Madrid, 1862, 31 p.

151 Luís Alejandre Síntes, La guerra de la Cochinchina, op. cit., p. 406.

152 Léopold Pallu de la Barrière, Histoire de l’expédition de Cochinchine en 1861 [History of the expedition to Cochinchina in 1861], Paris, Berger-Levrault, 1888, p. 17.

153 Francisco de Arce, Noticias de la vida de Don Mariano de Ozcáriz [Note on the life of…], Madrid, 1864, quoted by José Montero y Vidal, op. cit., footnote p. 355.

JOSé RIzAL AND THE FILIPINO ELITE IN FRANCE

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