V SEATO, THE PHILIPPINES, AND FRANCE

V

SEATO, THE PHILIPPINES AND FRANCE

The Manila Pact, or Southeast Asia Collective Defense Treaty, was signed on 8 September 1954 by eight states: the United States, Australia, New Zealand (who had already signed a first trilateral defense treaty, ANZUS, in 1951), the United Kingdom, France, Pakistan, Thailand and the Philippines. THE PACT WAS TO BE KNOWN AS SEATO, THOUGH IT DID NOT IMPLY A JOINT COMMAND SUCH AS NATO. ITS HEADQUARTERS WAS LOCATED IN BANGKOK.

Section 1, Article IV of the Pact states that “Each Party recognizes that aggression by means of armed attacks in the treaty area against any of the Parties or against any State or territory which the Parties by unanimous agreement may hereafter designate, would endanger its own peace and safety, and agrees that it will in that event act to meet the common danger in accordance with its constitutional processes”, hence, the Pact could be extended to other countries. To bypass the 1954 Geneva Agreement preventing the three Indochinese States to eventually join SEATO, a protocol was annexed to the treaty, mentioning that the States unanimously designed for the “purposes of Article IV” were “Cambodia and Laos and the free territory under the jurisdiction of the State of Vietnam”. However, none of the three entities had been properly consulted to know their wishes as far as their own security was concerned.

Though Indian Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru questioned the commitment of Asian leaders supporting the Manila Pact in front of Philippine delegate Carlos Romulo87 during the Bandung Conference,88 the Philippines remained staunchly anti-colonialist. While the Philippines did not sign the 26 July 1955 letter written by the Afro-Asian group requesting the inclusion of the Algerian question in the UN tenth session, it voted with the Afro-Asians and against France and Western powers to put Algeria on the agenda.89

Due to the drawdown of US troops in South Korea from 300,000 in 1953 to some 50,000 by the mid-1950s,90 President Syngman Rhee was thinking about joining SEATO and started consultations with South Korea’s foreign legations in 1956. According to Lee Jae-Bong, then Korean envoy to Manila, Vice-President Garcia was favorable to South Korea’s membership, as was France’s outgoing ambassador, Jean Brionval.91 However, the United Kingdom’s vulnerability with regards to the People’s Republic of China—with supplies of food, water and electricity of Hong Kong coming from the mainland—prevented London from supporting South Korea’s proposal: the British were afraid that South Korea’s membership would create a precedent with respect to Taiwan. SEATO thus remained a grouping of eight.

Figure 107. Manila Conference of SEATO nations on the Vietnam War, 24 October 1966, Malacañan Palace. (LBJ Library photo by Yoichi Okamoto)

Figure 108. French Prime Minister Georges Pompidou at the SEATO Council meeting in Paris, 8 April 1963 (L-R) Secretary of State David Dean Rusk (United States), Foreign Secretary Lord Alexander Douglas-Home (United Kingdom), Foreign Minister Thanat Khoman (Thailand), French Prime Minister Georges Pompidou, Mr. Pote Sarasin (General Secretary of SEATO), Foreign Minister Maurice Couve de Murville (France), Secretary of Foreign Affairs Emmanuel Pelaez (Philippines), Ambassador Jalaluddin Abdur Rahim (Pakistan), Minister of Defense Dean J. Eyre (New Zealand), and Minister for External Affairs Sir Garfield Barwick (Australia) (© Keystone Pictures USA/ZUMAPRESS.com)

When General Charles de Gaulle came back to power in 1958, the issue of the Protocol States—Cambodia, Laos and the free territory under the jurisdiction of the State of Vietnam—became a point of contention between the United States and France. Sharing apparently the same analysis, President Garcia declared on 5 September 1958, that the Philippines would go to war “only if provoked by direct military or naval attacks on its territory.”92 Four years after the signature of SEATO, its implementation thus remained limited, all the more because the Philippines and the United States disagreed on Philippine military buildup and on the role devoted to Asian countries inside the organization.

The resumption of war in Vietnam in 1959 increased the split inside the organization. Since 1961, General Charles de Gaulle regularly warned the Americans that intervening in South Vietnam or even Laos would be useless.93 In 1965, Prince Sihanouk considered refusing SEATO protection as a Protocol State.94 On

Figure 109. SEATO leaders in front of the Philippine Congress Building in Manila, 24 October 1966. (L-R) Prime Minister Nguyễn Cao Kỳ (South Vietnam), Prime Minister Harold Holt (Australia), President Park Chung Hee (South Korea), President Ferdinand Marcos (Philippines), Prime Minster Keith Holyoake (New Zealand), Lt. Gen. Nguyễn Văn Thiệu (South Vietnam), Prime Minister Thanom Kittikachorn (Thailand), and President Lyndon B. Johnson (United States) (LBJ Library photo by Frank Wolfe)

1 September 1966, during an official trip in Phnom Penh, in front of 100,000 people, French President de Gaulle urged the United States to negotiate its departure from South Vietnam. Due to SEATO’s lack of effectiveness, the United States used bilateral agreements to obtain support from some of its members during the Vietnam war: in 1966, the Philippines sent 2,200 men (mostly engineering), Australia sent 4,500, and South Korea—reciprocating American support during the Korean war—45,000.95

But without nuclear or popular support, the American intervention was a failure. On 25 July 1969, in Guam, President Nixon explained that, from now on, the United States would “look to the nation directly threatened to assume the primary responsibility of providing the manpower for its defense”.96 On 21 February 1972, President Nixon met Chairman Mao Zedong in Beijing. After more than one year of war and Indian intervention, Pakistan lost its eastern territory, which became Bangladesh. Reduced to its western part, Pakistan withdrew from SEATO in November 1973. After the withdrawal of American military aid to South Vietnam (August 1973), France, too, withdrew from SEATO on 30 June 1974. Two months later, the United States suspended its financial aid to Saigon. Left useless after the communist victories of April 1975, SEATO formally ended on 30 June 1977.

CHAPTER NOTES

1 The Coalition was composed of: the United Kingdom, the Netherlands, Prussia, Hanover, Nassau, and Brunswick.

2 Born in 1769 to a family that served in the French Navy, as well as a cousin to the well-known writer and politician François-René de Chateaubriand, J.-B. (de) Chaigneau joined the French Navy in 1781 as a trainee. As his commission as naval officer after two military campaigns was refused by the Ministry, he embarked on the merchant ship Flavie in 1791, to search for La Pérouse in the Pacific Ocean. When his ship was destroyed in Macao in 1794 by the British, who were then at war with France, he sailed to Cochinchina (A. Salles, J.-B. Chaigneau et sa famille, Bulletin des amis du vieux Hué, janvier-mars 1923, 200 p.; review by Louis Finot in BEFEO, vol. 23, 1923, p. 424-427).

3 Cordier, Henri, Mélanges d’histoire et de géographie orientales, vol. 2, Paris, Jean Maisonneuve & fils, 1922, p. 352.

4 Bensacq-Tixier, Nicole, Histoire des diplomates et consuls français en Chine (1840-1912) [History of French diplomats and consuls in China…], Paris, les Indes Savantes, 2008. 5 Guimarães, Ângela, Uma relação especial, Macau e as relações luso-chinesas, 1780-1844 [A special relation, Macao and the Portuguese-Chinese relations], Lisbon, Ediçao CIES, 1996, p. 30.

6 Gernet, Jacques, Le monde chinois [The Chinese World], Paris, Armand Colin, 1972, p. 465.

7 Cordier, Henri, “La mission Dubois de Jancigny dans l’Extrême-Orient (1841-1846) [Dubois de Jancigny’s mission to the Far East]”, Mélanges d’histoire et de géographie orientales, vol. IV, Paris, Jean Maisonneuve & Fils, 1923, p. 66.

8 Ibid., p. 159.

9 Born in 1803, brother of Odilon Barrot (briefly Prime Minister of France, 1848-49), Adolphe Barrot became High Commissioner to Haïti (1843), then Consul General in Alexandria (1845). He was designated Ambassador to the following places: Brazil and Portugal (1849), the Bourbon Kingdom of Naples (1851), Belgium (1853), and Madrid (1858). Holder of the Grand'Croix of the Légion d’honneur, he died in 1870.

10 Cordier, Henri, “La mission Dubois de Jancigny en Extrême-Orient (1841-1846)”, Revue d’histoire des colonies françaises, 1916, 2nd quarter, p. 29.

11 Amédée Fabre (1819-1871) was the son of Adolphe Barrot’s eldest sister. He served as Consul in what was, under the Swedish crown then known as Christiania, today Oslo, then Consul General in Quito, Ecuador. He was admitted into the French Société de Géographie in 1850.

12 Cordier, Henri, « La première légation de France en Chine (1847) », T’oung Pao, Second Series, Vol. 7, No. 3, 1906, p. 354.

13 Mercier, V. (S.J.), Campagne du Cassini dans les mers de Chine, d’après les rapports, notes et lettres du commandant [François ] de Plas, Paris, Retaux-Bray, 1889, p. 258.

14 Born in Paris to a Greek father and a French mother, A. de Codrika (1804-1880) served as an officer in the French Army before he joined the French Diplomatic Corps. He married Austrian Pauline Emmanuelle Joséphine Kemperle von Philips. See Maurice Herbette, Une ambassade turque sous le Directoire [A Turkish Embassy under the Directoire], Paris, Librairie Académique Didier Perrin & Cie, 1902, p. 16, n. 1.

15 Another term to refer to the Ottoman Empire.

16 In retaliation for the French invasion of Egypt, the Ottomans seized control of the French legation in Istanbul. In response, Napoléon Bonaparte did the same with the Ottoman legation in Paris, before the 1801 settlement.

17 Gustave Flaubert, « Lettre à Louise Colet [27 March 1853] », Correspondance, 2, juillet 1851-décembre 1858, Paris, Gallimard, coll. La Pléiade, 1980.

18 Mercier, V. (S.J.), op. cit., p. 374. Casimir worked as Consul General in Calcutta, then Singapore, and in early 1870, in Bogota. In 1881, he got married for the second time in Paris (La Presse, 31 December 1881) to one of his young cousins, the daughter of the royalist author Attale du Cournau, and died in 1887 (Le Gaulois : littéraire et politique, 12 December 1887).

19 Courcy, Marquis de, “Martyre de l’Abbé Chapedelaine en Chine (juillet-octobre 1856)”, Revue d’histoire diplomatique, 13th year No.1, 1899, p. 483-484.

20 Chevalier Jean-Baptiste Delambre (1749-1822).

21 Encyclopédie des Gens du Monde, répertoire universel, Paris, Presses Mécaniques de E. Duverger, 1842, vol. XVII/2, p. 462-463. On Pierre Méchain and the meter, see Ken Alder, The Empire of Science, the measure of all things: The Seven Year Odyssey and Hidden Error that Transformed the World, Abacus, reprint, 2004, 480 p.; Denis Guedj, The measure of the World, Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 2001, 310 p.

22 Catalogue reference: ms. EFEO, fondskhmer O 141. The trip to Manila {srukmnillā} is related f. 32-44.

23 Luciano P. R. Santiago, “The Heart of Norodom: The State Visit of the King of Cambodia in 1872”, Philippine Quarterly of Culture and Society, vol. 18, No. 3, 1990, p. 185-200. The ship was named after Rear Admiral César de Bourayne (see supra), Ch. 1. Santiago writes ‘Roxas’ for the girl’s family name and not ‘Rojas’, as engraved on the jewel Fig. 91.

24 King Norodom’s trip to Southern China and the Philippines was related in two poems, one written on palm leaves (EFEO No 141, 45 f.) and the second on paper (EFEO No. 9[141], 76 f.). See Khing Hoc Dy, “Le voyage de l’envoyé Cambodgien Son Diêp à Paris en 1900”, in Claudine Salmon, ed., Récits de voyages des Asiatiques, genres, mentalités, conception de l’espace, Paris, EFEO, 1996, p. 368. The Bulletin de l’École française d’Extrême-Orient (BEFEO) mentions in 1904 the two poems describing the trip, written by okñā Santhor Vohàr, one of the greatest Cambodian poets of the time, and by the Akkāmahāsenā i.e. Chief Minister (Anonymous, “Chronique — Cambodge”, BEFEO, 1904, vol. 4/1, p. 493).

25 Born in 1820, he served as Governor-General of the Philippines from April 1871 to January 1873, organizing the repression of the Cavite Mutiny. He died in 1882.

26 Luciano P. R. Santiago, “The Last Hacendera: Doña Teresa de la Paz, 1841-1890”, Philippine Studies vol. 46, No. 3, 1998, p. 349.

28 The girl was Josefa Roxas y Manio (Luciano P. R. Santiago, “The Heart of Norodom…”op. cit.); the King gave her a jewel as big as a pomegranate that eventually disappeared after being stolen. He also gave a smaller one to her elder sister, which still exists and has been given by the family to the statue of Nuestra Señora del Santo Rosario in the Santo Domingo Church (Quezon City). Prince Norodom Sihanouk visited the church in 1969.

29 Le Temps, 30 April 1873.

30 Such as Gazette des Tribunaux, 25 August 1876, p. 1-2 ; Revue du notariat et de l’enregistrement, Paris, 1876, p. 768-777; Recueil général des lois et des arrêts en matière civile, criminelle, administrative et de droit public, Paris, Bureaux de l’administration du Recueil, 1879, p. 252.

31 Revue du notariat et de l’enregistrement, vol. 17, 1876, p. 772. The document writes ‘Benjamin Méchain’ and not ‘Eugène,’ Benjamin being Méchain’s third Christian name.

32 Revue du notariat et de l’enregistrement, op. cit., p. 775.

33 Ministerio de Ultramar (Ministry of Overseas affairs, Madrid), Archivo Histórico Nacional, ES-28079-AHN-UD-178138-ES-28079-AHN-UD-1701963.

34 See Maria-Luisa Camagay, French Consular Dispatches on the Philippine Revolution, Manila, University of the Philippines Press, 1997, 207 p. Born in 1851, chevalier of the Légion d’honneur, Gabriel de Bérard had previously been Consul General in Santiago de Cuba and Cagliari.

35 Consul General Ernest Crampon’s report to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, excerpts in Revue des vins et liqueurs et des produits alimentaires pour l’exportation, January 1886, p. 110-112.

36 Ministère des Affaires étrangères, Documents diplomatiques, Négociations pour la paix entre l’Espagne et les États-Unis, 1898, Imprimerie Nationale.

37 Ibid.

38 Miles, Maj.-Gen. Nelson A. Harper’s Pictorial History of the War with Spain. Harper & Bros., 1899, page 426.

39 Article III of the Protocol of Peace between Spain and the United States signed on 12 August 1898.

40 Cambon’s letter to Delcassé dated 01 July 1898.

41 SS La Bourgogne is a French ocean liner which sank on 4 July 1898 and Cambon’s letter is dated 1 July. It is possible that he added the commentary about Bourgogne to his letter after he had heard about the sinking. The original report showed that the line on Bourgogne was added as an afterthought.

42 Cambon’s secretary at the French Embassy in Washington, Mr. Thiébaut, writes in November 1898 “The criticism made about the protocol by some shortsighted “do-gooders” does not surprise me. It can easily be replied to by saying “perhaps the protocol is vague, perhaps it was signed hastily, perhaps you were not acting like a good Spaniard when you signed it. But you were definitely acting like a good Frenchman when you did, and France is deeply indebted to you for having prevented the Americans from settling in the Balearic Islands. We just saw the way they dealt with things, or rather how uncompromising they can be. What would we have done

had we had them as our bad neighbors in the Mediterranean? As it stands, our Toulon squadron already lacks free rein between La Spezia, Malta, Gibraltar and Egypt. The day will come when people in France will understand this, just like people in England immediately understood it. The English would have been content if the war had kept going, and the support given to their American cousins regarding the Philippines is nothing compared to what it would have been if they had settled in the Balearic Islands – No, dear Ambassador, have no regrets; you did a good job.”

43 Cambon’s letter to Delcassé dated 19 August 1898, page 252.

44 Ibid., page 253.

45 Ibid.

46 Ibid., pages 256-257.

47 Ibid.

48 Ibid., page 258.

49 Ibid. page 259.

50 Ibid., page 260.

51 This hotel is now the Westin Paris-Vendôme.

52 De Ocampo, Esteban A., and Alfredo B. Saulo. First Filipino Diplomat: Felipe Agoncillo, 1859-1941. National Historical Institute, 1994. Page 95.

53 Ibid., pages 97-98.

54http://www.filipinoamericanwar.com/treatyofparis.htm accessed on 15 April 2018.

55 Felix M. Roxas later became the Mayor of Manila.

56 In De Ocampo, op. cit., page 103., he wrote that “They maintained a small office at L’Havana Hotel, No. 4 Rue de Trevise.” The correct name and address for the hotel is Le Grand Hôtel de la Havane and it is located at no. 44 Rue de Trévise based on the book Mémoire des rues Paris 9e Arrondissement 1900-1940 by Philippe Roy, page 148, showing an actual photo of the said hotel. This hotel is located within walking distance from most of the houses Rizal stayed in at the 9th Arrondissement of Paris.

57 As a reference to the two ministers of Foreign Affairs who prepared the treaty, French Aristide Briand (1862-1932) and American Frank B. Kellogg (1856-1937).

58 Dwight F. Davis (1879-1945) gave his name to the prestigious tennis tournament Davis Cup. Under the Republican Calvin Coolidge’s presidency, he was Deputy Secretary of War (1923-1925), Secretary of War (1925-1929); then (under Herbert Hoover) Governor of the Philippines (1929-32).

59 Henry Champly, “Lettre des Philippines”, Le Temps, 11 March 1932.

60 For some of Gaston Willoquet’s dispatches prior to 1941, see Armando Malay, “Bolshevism in the colonies: Indochina and the ‘Philippine example’”, Asian Studies, p. 16-36.

file 10, dispatch 10 September 1932, quoted by William Guéraiche, Manuel Quezon, les Philippines de la décolonisation à la démocratisation [Philippines from decolonization to democratization], Paris, Maisonneuve & Larose, 2004, p. 223, n. 9.

62 William Guéraiche, Manuel Quezon, op. cit., p. 224.

63 G. Willoquet, “Dispatch”, 2 July 1934, in ibid., p. 225.

64 G. Willoquet, “Dispatch”, 3 September 1939, in ibid., p. 227.

65 Revue de la France Libre, n° 126, June 1960.

66 The Philippine Diary Project, Diary entries from Philippine history, “Diary of Francis Burton Harrison”, 21-23 February 1943, posted on 23 February 1943, http:// philippinediaryproject.com/1943/02/23/february-21-23-1943/

67 Steinberg, David Joel, The Philippines, a singular and a plural place, Boulder, Westview, 1994, p. 103.

68 Benedict J. Kerkvliet, The Huk Rebellion. A study of Peasant Revolt in the Philippines, Berkeley, University of California Press, 1977, 305 p.

69 Bernard B. Fall, Viet Nam, dernières réflexions sur une guerre [translated from Last Reflections on a War], Paris, Robert Laffont, 1968, p. 156-157.

70Ibid., p. 157.

71On the cooperation between the Japanese and the Viet Minh, see Christopher E. Goscha, “Alliés tardifs : les apports techniques des déserteurs japonais au Viet-Minh durant les premières années de la guerre franco-vietnamienne [Belated Asian Allies: The Technical Contributions of Japanese Deserters to the Viet Minh during the Early Years of the Franco-Vietnamese War]”, Guerres mondiales et conflits contemporains, 2001/2, n° 202-203, p. 81-109.

72 Excerpts : “In considering the requirements for the rehabilitation of Europe, the physical loss of life, the visible destruction […] was correctly estimated but it has become obvious […] that this visible destruction was probably less serious than the dislocation of the entire fabric of European economy. […] before the United States Government can proceed much further in its efforts to alleviate the situation and help start the European world […], there must be some agreement among the countries of Europe as to the requirements of the situation and the part those countries themselves will take […]. The role of this country should consist of friendly aid in the drafting of a European program and of later support of such a program so far as it may be practical for us to do so. The program should be a joint one, agreed to by a number, if not all European nations.”

73G. Willoquet, Manila, 8 July 1946, in Ministère des Affaires étrangères & GeorgesHenri Soutou, edds., Documents diplomatiques français, 1946, tome II—1er juillet31 décembre, Paris, Commission de publication des documents diplomatiques français & Peter Lang, 2004, p. 330-334.

74 G. Willoquet was then appointed Consul General to Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, a very welcome assignment as he had just married, at the end of 1920, a Brazilian from Recife, Hilda Ballalai (1903-1959). Id., "Diary of Francis Burton Harrison," Posted on 25 February 1943 at 11:59 AM.

75An annotated bibliography on President Manuel A. Roxas, http://repository.mainlib. upd.edu.ph/pmarf/download.php?fileid=30

76 “Remarks of President Roxas on the occasion of the Presentation by the French Minister to the Philippines, Gaston Willoquet, of his letter of credence, 7 February 1947”, Official Gazette, http://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/1947/02/07/ remarks-of-president-roxas-on-the-occasion-of-the-presentation-by-the-frenchminister-to-the-philippines-gaston-willoquet-of-his-letter-of-credence.

77 “Edwin Ramsey dies at 95 (“WWII Army cavalry officer in Philippines”, Los Angeles Times, 16 March 2013. Back in the US, he got a law degree and worked for Hughes Aircraft as vice-president for Asia, then for electronics companies. See Edwin Price Ramsey & Stephen J. Rivele, Lieutenant Ramsey’s War: From Horse Soldier to Guerrilla Commander (Memories of War), Brassey’s, 1990, 333 p. (reprinted in 2005). Madeleine and Edwin had four children, Edwin Jr., Douglas, Michele and Janine. They divorced in the late 1970s and Ramsey remarried in 1979, this time with a Filipino academic.

78 Gaston Willoquet published a second book in the same collection on Brazil’s economy, and a surprising third book, on the 16th century prophecies of astrologer Nostradamus.

79 Christopher E. Goscha, Thailand and the Southeast Asian Networks of the Vietnamese Revolution, 1885-1954, Abingdon & Copenhagen, Routledge & NIAS, 1999, p. 318319.

80 He presented his credentials on December 14, 1949 (Diplomatic Agenda of Philippine Presidents, 1946-1985, Manila, Foreign Service Institute, 1985, p. 11).

81 Embassy of the Republic of the Philippines in Korea, http://www.philembassyseoul.com/dafa.asp

82 Kenneth Hamburger, “Le rôle du ‘bataillon de Corée’ dans la guerre de Corée”, Revue historique des armées, No. 246, 2007, p. 65-76.

83 See Benigno (Ninoy) Aquino’s description of the Korean War and the Philippine troops in Nick Joaquin, The Aquinos of Tarlac, Metro Manila, Solar Publishing Corporation, complete and unexpurgated edition, 1986, p. 199-217.

84 The Philippine Foreign Service was created by virtue of Executive Order No. 18 in 1946. It was re-organized in 1952. Republic Act No. 708, see Diplomatic Agenda of Philippine Presidents, 1946-1985, op. cit., p. 27).

85 H. W. Brands, Bound to Empire: The United States and the Philippines, Oxford University Press, p. 257.

86 Diplomatic Agenda of Philippine Presidents, 1946-1985, op. cit., p. 38-39.

87 Carlos Romulo chaired the Philippine delegation to the U.N. from 1947 to 1955.

88 Lisandro E. Claudio, Liberalism and the Postcolony: Thinking the State in 20th-Century Philippines, Singapore, NUS Press, 2017, p. 106; Vijay Prashad, The Darker Nations, a People’s History of the Third World, New York & London, The New Press, 2007, p. 36.

89 Jean-Luc Vellut, The Asian Policy of the Philippines, 1935-1963, Ph.D. dissertation, Canberra, Australian National University, 1964, p. 193-194.

90 Lee Jae-Bong, “US Deployment of Nuclear Weapons in 1950s South Korea & North Korea’s Nuclear Development: Toward Denuclearization of the Korean Peninsula”, The Asia-Pacific Journal, Japan Focus, vol. 7/8, 17 February 2009, p. 4.

92 President Garcia, September 5, 1958, in Diplomatic Agenda of Philippine Presidents, 1946-1985, op. cit., p. 85.

93 Pierre Journoud, De Gaulle et le Vietnam, 1945-1969, Paris, Tallandier, 2011, ch.4.

94 Richard A. Falk, The Vietnam War and International Law, Volume 3: The Widening Context, Princeton, Princeton University Press, 1972, p. 80.

95 François Joyaux, “La Conférence de Manille, 24-25 Octobre 1966”, Politique étrangère, vol. 31/5, 1966, p. 534.

96 Jeffrey Kimball, “The Nixon Doctrine: A Saga of Misunderstanding”, Presidential Studies Quarterly Vol. 36, No. 1, Presidential Doctrines, 2006, pp. 59-74; Richard Nixon, “President Nixon’s Speech on ‘Vietnamization’”, https://www.nixonlibrary. gov/forkids/speechesforkids/silentmajority/silentmajority_transcript.pd

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