АНГЛІЙСЬКА МОВА
КОМПЛЕКСНИЙ ДОВІДНИК
МАТЕРІАЛИ ДО НАПИСАННЯ ТВОРЧИХ РОБІТ PERSONAL CHARACHTERISTICS ............................................................................... 4 About Myself .................................................................................................... 4 House and Home ............................................................................................. 5 Our House and Flat ........................................................................................... 5 My Household Duties ....................................................................................... 6 PLACES .............................................................................................................................. 7 Kharkiv ............................................................................................................. 7 Kyiv................................................................................................................... 8 EVERYDAY LIFE ............................................................................................................. 9 My Working Day .............................................................................................. 9 RELATIONSHIP .............................................................................................................. 11 My Friends ...................................................................................................... 11 Relations between Ukraine and English-speaking Countries ........................ 12 FAMILY AND SCHOOL ................................................................................................ 13 My Family ...................................................................................................... 13 Our School ...................................................................................................... 15 FREE TIME AND HOBBIES .......................................................................................... 17 My Hobby ....................................................................................................... 17 My Day Off..................................................................................................... 18 My Summer Holidays ..................................................................................... 19 My Winter Holidays ....................................................................................... 20 Music in Our Life ........................................................................................... 21 My Favourite Painters .................................................................................... 22 Theatre in Our Life ......................................................................................... 23 My Last Visit to the Theatre........................................................................... 24 Cinema in Our Life ......................................................................................... 24 Sport in Our Life ............................................................................................. 25 My Attitude to Sport ....................................................................................... 26 TRAVELLING ................................................................................................................. 27 SHOPPING ....................................................................................................................... 28 1
LANGUAGE STUDYING ............................................................................................... 29 Foreign Languages in Our Life ...................................................................... 29 My Favourite Subject ..................................................................................... 30 LITERATURE .................................................................................................................. 31 My Favourite Writers ..................................................................................... 31 Oscar Wilde .................................................................................................... 32 William Shakespeare ...................................................................................... 33 Rudyard Kipling ............................................................................................. 35 William Somerset Maugham .......................................................................... 36 Bernard Shaw.................................................................................................. 37 Mark Twain .................................................................................................... 38 Ernest Hemingway ......................................................................................... 39 Theodore Dreiser ............................................................................................ 40 Lina Kostenko ................................................................................................. 41
ENGLISH-SPEAKING COUNTRIES ............................................................................ 42 GREAT BRITAIN ............................................................................................................ 42 Geographical Position of Great Britain .......................................................... 44 Climate of Great Britain ................................................................................. 45 Cities and Towns of Great Britain.................................................................. 46 London ............................................................................................................ 47 UK Political System ....................................................................................... 50 Sights of Great Britain .................................................................................... 52 Places of Interest in Great Britain .................................................................. 53 Outstanding People of Great Britain .............................................................. 56 Charles Darwin ............................................................................................... 57 Isaac Newton .................................................................................................. 58 John Lennon.................................................................................................... 60 British Youth .................................................................................................. 62 The English Character .................................................................................... 63 English Cuisine ............................................................................................... 64 Customs and Traditions in Great Britain ....................................................... 65 UK Holidays ................................................................................................... 66 British Art, Theatre, Music............................................................................. 67 Television........................................................................................................ 68 Music............................................................................................................... 68 The British Newspapers ................................................................................. 69 British Universities ......................................................................................... 70
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THE USA .......................................................................................................................... 72 The United States of America ...................................................................... 73 Geographical Position of the USA ................................................................. 75 Climate and Nature of the USA ..................................................................... 76 Political System of the USA ........................................................................... 77 The Executive Branch of the Government ..................................................... 78 The Legislative Branch of the Government ................................................... 79 The Judicial Branch of the Government ........................................................ 80 State and Municipal Governments ................................................................. 81 Cities and Towns of the USA ......................................................................... 82 Sights of the USA ........................................................................................... 83 Outstanding People of America ..................................................................... 84 O'Henry ........................................................................................................... 85 Bill Gates ........................................................................................................ 86 Edgar Allan Poe .............................................................................................. 87 Martin Luther King ......................................................................................... 89 American Customs and Traditions ................................................................. 90 Holidays in the USA ....................................................................................... 91 National Celebrations in the USA .................................................................. 92 Ethnic Holidays in the USA ........................................................................... 96 Education in the United States ....................................................................... 96 Transportation ................................................................................................. 97 Plant Life......................................................................................................... 98 Animal Life ..................................................................................................... 98 The Supercities ............................................................................................... 99 The Motion Picture ....................................................................................... 100 The American Movies .................................................................................. 101 More on American Literature ....................................................................... 102 NATURE AND ENVIRONMENT ................................................................................ 103 Seasons and Weather .................................................................................... 103 Pollution in Ukraine ..................................................................................... 104 Environmental Protection in Ukraine........................................................... 105 SCIENTIFIC PROGRESS ............................................................................................. 106 JOBS AND PROFESSIONS .......................................................................................... 107 My Future Profession ................................................................................... 107 MASS MEDIA................................................................................................................ 108 Mass Media in Ukraine ................................................................................ 109 Information Technology and Globalization ................................................. 110 3
PERSONAL CHARACHTERISTICS ОСОБА ТА ЇЇ ХАРАКТЕРИСТИКА About Myself First of all let me introduce myself. My name is Natalya. My surname is Goncharenko. I was named after my grandmother, and this fact makes me happy. I'm seventeen years old. I was born on the 7th of February, 1992, in Kharkiv. My family is neither large nor small. I have got a mother, a father and a younger sister. My father is a doctor. He works at a hospital. My mother works at a large company as an economist. They love their jobs very much, and they spend a lot of time at work. I am proud of my parents and love them. I would like to spend more time with them, but they are always busy. My sister is only ten. She is a schoolgirl. Her hair is red and curly. Her cheeks are freckled. My sister and I do a lot of things about the house. I have my own duties about the house. I must go shopping and clean the rooms. It’s not difficult for me. So, when my parents have a little free time, we can have fun together. I think our family is friendly and united. We like to go to the theatres and museums and go for walks in the wood. Now I am a pupil of the eleventh form of a secondary school. I'm doing well at school. They say I'm a hardworking person. I will finish school this year and I want to study at the University. So, I have to work very hard. I have already decided what profession to choose. I want to become a teacher of foreign languages. I think, the profession of a teacher is very interesting and useful to people but it is not easy, of course. I'm fond of foreign languages and literature. My favourite subject is English. I spend much time on my English learning new words, reading books in English, doing exercises and tests, listening to the tapes etc. My teacher of English is a skilled professional with broad outlook and deep knowledge of the subject. She encourages my ambition to become a teacher of English. I don't have much spare time but I have a hobby. My hobby is drawing. I have been drawing since my childhood. I also take an active part in social life and go in for sports. My favourite kinds of sport are volleyball and tennis. I'm a sociable person so I get along well with different people. I have many good friends. We like to spend time together. We meet and talk, dance and laugh, listen to good music and do everything what is interesting for a teenager. I'm happy to have nice friends and a good family. You see, my biography isn't long. I hope my dream will come true and I'll become a student. 4
House and Home БУДИНОК. ЖИТЛО Our House and Flat
I live in a new nine-storeyed block of flats in Pushkinska Street. It is situated in a very picturesque place. In front of the house there is a small park where we like to spend our time. Our flat is on the fourth floor. It is very comfortable and well-planned. We have all modern conveniences, such as central heating, electricity, gas, cold and hot running water and a telephone. There are three rooms in our flat: a living room and two bedrooms. We also have a kitchen, a bathroom, a small hall and two balconies. Our living room is the largest in the flat. We use it as a sitting room and a dining room. It is nicely furnished. In the middle of the room there is a big table with several chairs around it. Opposite the wall you can see a nice cupboard. There is a colour TV-set in the corner. In the opposite corner there is a sofa, two comfortable armchairs and a small coffee table. The piano is on the right. There are two pictures above the piano. There is a bookcase near it. We are fond of books and have plenty of them at home. On the floor we have a nice thick carpet. The curtains on the window match the wallpaper. All this makes the room very cosy. Our bedrooms are also very nice and cosy. The parents' bedroom is larger than the children's. There are two beds, a bedside table, some chairs and a wardrobe in it. There is a lovely carpet on the floor. The children's bedroom is just across the corridor on the right. Our bedroom is rather big and cosy. We have a large window which faces the beautiful garden with apple-trees. In our bedroom you can see two sofa-beds where my sister and I sleep at night and have a rest in the day-time. There is also a desk, two chairs and some bookshelves here. We use our bedroom as a study where we do our homework. In the corner of the room there is a small table with a tape-recorder on it. We all enjoy listening to music. I'm fond of painting, so there are two beautiful pictures on the walls. Our kitchen is rather large. There is a gas-stove, a refrigerator, a microwave oven and a cupboard in which we keep cups, plates and other things. The kitchen serves us as a dining-room. But when we invite guests or have our family celebrations we have meals in the living-room. We are happy to have such a nice flat and try to keep it clean. 5
My Household Duties
This is my last year at school and I work hard to pass my final exams successfully. As I am very busy I can't help my parents much in keeping house. But still I have some household duties. Every day I clean my room and make my bed, wash up dishes, dust the furniture and take out the rubbish. It is also my duty to buy bread and milk. I usually go to the bakers before dinner. I buy some brown and white bread, biscuits and cakes there. The shop is not far from our house and it doesn't take me much time to do my everyday shopping. Once a week I help my mother to do all other work about the house. We wash and iron our linen, and clean the flat. We vacuum the carpets and polish the floor. It's not difficult to keep the flat tidy if you do your rooms regularly. This is my usual round of duties. But sometimes I have some other things to do. When my mother is ill or away from home I do cooking and washing up, buying food and planning meals. I am not a good cook, but my vegetable soup is always tasty. I can also boil an egg or fry some meat. I also lay the table and clear away the dishes. If I'm too busy or can't do these things, all the duties are distributed among the other members of our family. Sometimes I have to visit everyday services: hairdresser's, shoemaker's, tailor's, dry cleaner's, photographer's. At the hairdresser's I have my hair cut and waved. At the shoemaker's I have my shoes and boots repaired, at the photographer's I have my photo taken. Their service is generally good, but in some cases it leaves much to be desired. My brother has his own duties at home. He helps to repair some things. For example, he repairs electrical appliances when they are out of order. He has already repaired our mother's electric iron, my desk lamp and his own shaver. Last year I was at my grandparents'. They are elderly people and need our care and attention. During my stay there I swept the floor and washed it, fed chickens, collected eggs and took care of the garden. I enjoyed this work very much.
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PLACES ОПИС МІСЦЕВОСТІ Kharkiv
My native city is Kharkiv. Kharkiv is quite an old city. It was founded over 350 years ago. The city is situated on the plateau surrounded by the Kharkiv and the Lopan rivers. According to the popular legend the city is named after the Cossack Kharko. Kharkiv is the historical capital of Slobidska Ukraine. With the foundation of Kharkiv University in 1805 the city became an important educational and cultural centre of Ukraine and the Russian Empire as a whole. Such cultural figures as Kvitka-Osnovianenko, Hulack-Artemovsky, Kostomarov, Repin lived and worked in Kharkiv. Kharkiv was the capital of Ukraine from 1919 to 1934. Today Kharkiv is the second largest city in the country. About two million people live there. Kharkiv is one of the largest industrial centres in Ukraine. Its numerous enterprises produce planes, tractors, electronic, mining and medical equipment, TV-sets, refrigerators, paints and cosmetics, clothing and-textiles. Furniture and printing industries are well developed in Kharkiv. Kharkiv is one of the major cultural and scientific centres of Ukraine. There are a lot of schools, higher educational institutions, research institutes in Kharkiv. There is the Scientific Library, the Historical and Natural Science Museums and the Museum of Fine Arts in Kharkiv. The city supports a circus and several professional theatres. Kharkiv is very beautiful, especially in spring. There are over 2,500 streets and 26 squares in the city. The largest parks are the Gorky Park, the Shevchenko Garden with the Zoo, the Artem Park, the Forest Park and some others. The city is ornamented with a large number of monuments. The most prominent of them is the one to Taras Shevchenko built in 1935. Its authors are sculptor M. G. Manizer (1891-1966) and architect I. G. Langbard (1882-1951). The monument is a multi-form composition while at the same time it is perceived as the integral whole. The bronze figure of T. Shevchenko is towering on the granite three-edged pylon over 16 other figures. They symbolize the continuous raising of the people's struggle against oppressors. Nowadays It is difficult to imagine Kharkiv without this monument. The grand monument is organically connected with surrounding scenery of the Shevchenko Garden and the architectural ensemble of the city. 7
Kyiv Kyiv is my native city. It's an ancient city. The archeologists discovered settlements of the 5th century on its territory. That's why it is considered that Kyiv is about 15 hundred years old. There is a legend about its foundation. Once there lived three brothers, Kyi, Shchek, Khoryv and their sister Lybid. They founded a city on one of the hills above the Dnieper and called it Kyiv after the eldest brother. And in honour of the younger brothers one hill was named Shchekavitsa, and another — Khorevitsa, while the river was called Lybid after their sister. Ancient Kyiv was a large commercial centre of the East Slavs. Its position on the important water route helped its trade. During the reign of Prince Volodymyr the city expanded greatly. Under the rule of Prince Yaroslav the Wise ancient Kyiv increased more than 7 times. Many churches, cathedrals, and monasteries appeared at that time. As Kyiv is a very ancient city, there are a lot of places of historical importance in it. Among them there are Kyivo-Pecherska Lavra, the Golden Gate, the St. Sophia Cathedral. When somebody comes to see Kyiv and asks me to show him my native city, I am always in despair. For those who love Kyiv as much as I do, it's very difficult to choose some places of the particular interest. If the day is fine and the sky is cloudless, Is like to take my guests to the Golden Gate. It is situated in the centre of the city. From the top of the Gates we can admire a splendid view of the city. I also like the St. Sophia Cathedral. Prince Yaroslav the Wise is buried there. His Tomb always reminds me about the glory of the first state on the territory of our country, about Kyiv Rus. I dream about the time when the historians will find the famous library of Yaroslav the Wise. I usually like to take my guests to Andriyisky Uzviz. As for me this is the best Kyiv street. I can't imagine the festivities on the Kyiv Day without having a walk along Andriyisky Uzviz. I am proud when I am walking along the streets where there are so many memorial boards telling us about the famous Kyivites who were walking along the same streets. Kyiv has changed greatly recently. There appeared a lot of small cafes, cosy restaurants, different shops and stalls. Their bright colourful signboards look so alluring. I hope that soon time will come when the standard of life of our people will permit everybody to enjoy everyday's small joys. 8
EVERYDAY LIFE ПОВСЯКДЕННЕ ЖИТТЯ My Working Day
I'm very busy on my weekdays. My weekdays do not differ much one from another. On weekdays my day begins early in the morning. I usually get up at 7 o'clock. I'm not an early riser that's why it's very difficult for me to get out of bed, especially in winter. I make the bed, open the window and do my morning exercises. Then I go to the bathroom where I clean my teeth and wash. If I have enough time I take a cold and hot shower. After bathroom I go back to my room where I dress and brush my hair. Ten minutes later I am ready for breakfast. After breakfast I put on my coat, take a bag and go to school. As I live not far from my school it takes me only five or seven minutes to get there. I don't like to be late for the first lesson so I come to school a few minutes before the bell. I leave my coat in the cloakroom and go upstairs to the classroom. The lessons begin at eight o'clock in the morning and they are over at half past two in the afternoon. I usually have six or seven lessons a day. After classes I go home. I don't like to do my homework just after classes because I am really tired. So I have dinner and have a short rest, read newspapers and magazines or watch TV. Then I do my homework. We do many subjects at school and it takes me three or even more hours to do my homework. Sometimes I go to the library to get ready for my practical classes or to prepare a report. As a rule I have no free time on my weekdays. Eight o'clock is supper time in our family. We all get together in the kitchen, then go to the sitting room and watch TV, read books or discuss different things. Twice a week I go to school in the evening to play volleyball. I am a member of the school volleyball team and we have our training classes rather late. At about eleven at night I go to bed. So by the end of the week I get very tired. All I can do on Saturdays and Sundays is to sleep till eleven o'clock, watch television, listen to music and read some books. Nevertheless I look forward to my next week as I like my school. I think I get a lot of useful experience there.
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My Working Day
I'd like to describe my working day. All the days look very much the same. On weekdays I usually get up at 7 a. m. I do my morning exercises. Then I wash my face and hands and clean my teeth. At half past seven I am ready to have breakfast. I like to have a quick light breakfast. After breakfast I leave for school. My school is not far from my house. It takes me 10 minutes to get to school. My lessons begin at 8.30 a. m. and finish at about 3 p. m. My ordinary timetable consists of six or seven lessons. Twice a week I stay at school after classes to play basketball. When I come home I have dinner. Then I rest a little. Sometimes I read a book or talk to my friends over the telephone. After that I start doing my home assignments. Twice a week I go to have private lessons in Maths in order to improve my knowledge. As a rule, I finish doing my homework at about 11 o'clock. But one day a week is not so busy. This is Thursday. On Thursday I usually help my mother. Sometimes I do shopping or pick up clothes at the cleaner's. I usually have supper at 8 p. m. Then I go on with my work. At 11 o'clock I go to bed.
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RELATIONSHIP СТОСУНКИ МІЖ ЛЮДЬМИ My Friends I am not a very sociable person yet there are people whom I can call friends. One of them is Igor. We made friends a few years ago when his family moved to our house. He was a schoolboy then. Now he is eighteen. He is a tall, well-built and strong boy. He has an oval face, thick hair, blue eyes and an attractive smile. So people find him handsome. Igor is a good friend. He's always ready to help everybody who needs it. He is honest and responsible, so I'm sure I can rely on him in any situation. He left school last year and now he's a first year student of the University. Igor is a future economist. He does not have much free time but if he has it he likes to spend it with his friends. Igor and his friends like to listen to good music, dance, watch new films and discuss them and do many other interesting things. We often go to the cinema, cafes, concerts and shows. My friend knows a lot of interesting facts about music, famous people and history. He is fond of driving. Now his car is not very new and beautiful but he hopes to buy another one in future. Igor also goes in for sports. He plays basketball and football very well. I'm happy to have such a good friend as Igor. I would like to tell you about one more bosom-friend of mine. Her name is Helen. We are of the same age, we are both 17. She is a beautiful girl, not very tall but pleasantly plump. She has fair curly hair and dark-blue eyes. When she smiles two pretty dimples appear on her cheeks. Helen is well-bred, joyful and kind, a good mixer and a soul of every company. She is tactful, quick-witted, generous and kind-hearted, careful and sensitive. She is always ready to help other people. She is fond of reading various kinds of books. She always has 2 or 3 books with. Helen's second hobby is knitting and sewing. She is always elegant and always wears the things that suit her. We spend much time together — watch video or listen to music, go for walks in the park not far from our house, go to the cafe or disco. We also discuss new films, television programmes or books. I think our friendship makes me feel strong and self-confident; develop the skill to consider other people's feelings and opinions. 11
Relations between Ukraine and English-speaking Countries
There is no denying the fact that not so long ago Ukraine had very weak connections with other countries in the world. But at present the situation has changed for the better. As now Ukraine is a sovereign state it establishes new relations with the countries throughout the world. Ukraine is one of the members of the United Nations Organization and participates in the work of many international organizations. We have wide relations with Canada, the USA and Great Britain in policy, economics and culture. Foreign Embassies of these countries are situated in Kyiv. We have some joint political projects with the United States of America and Canada. A lot of joint ventures have appeared in Ukraine recently. Such big plants of ours as Cherkasy joint-stock company "Azot", Gorlivka chemical plant "Stirol", Kharkiv aircraft plant sell their products at the international market. Scientific cooperation is also very important. We have joint projects for space exploration with the USA and Canada. Cooperation in culture, education and sport is very important, too. We exchange students and teachers with these countries. These exchange programs help us to understand each other better, to study culture and traditions of other countries. Ukrainian orchestras, pop and opera singers, ballet dancers are warmly received abroad. A lot of tourists from English-speaking countries visit Ukraine every year. It's very important to mention that many people who are Ukrainians by origin live in Canada. So we have special relations with this country. Canada was the first among the western states that recognized the state independence of Ukraine. Many of the Ukrainians now living in Canada and other English-speaking countries don't lose connections with Ukraine. A lot of public organizations, educational establishments, religious organizations make considerable contribution to the development of our culture, literature and art. From year to year the number of spheres of our relations with the countries abroad grows. We hope that our relations with other countries will go on developing.
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FAMILY AND SCHOOL СПІЛКУВАННЯ В СІМ'Ї ТА ШКОЛІ My Family Our family is neither large nor small. I have got a mother, a father and an elder brother. We all live together in a new flat in one of the industrial districts of Kharkiv. We are a typical Ukrainian family. My father is 45 years old. He is a tall and well-built man with short black hair and grey eyes. He works as a computer programmer at a big company. He likes his job and spends much time there. My father is always very busy but when he is at home and has some free time he plays the guitar and we sing. He is also handy with many things. He can easily fix almost everything. My father teaches me to repair furniture and to drive a car. As a person my father is a quiet man, while my mother is energetic with good sense of humour and always ready to help. My mother is 43 years old. But to my mind she looks much younger. She is not tall, but she has a fine figure. Father says she is still as slim as she used to be in her youth. She also has beautiful fair long and wavy hair. She is a professional painter. She works for a design company. Her colleagues respect her very much and she has many friends. My mother is a busy woman. She also has a lot of work to do about the house though we all try to help her as much as possible. My parents have been married for 20 years. They have much in common but they have different views on music, books, and films. My mother prefers soap operas but my father likes horror films and thrillers. My mother plays the piano and sings very well, and my father plays the guitar and he is an excellent story-teller. My brother is three years older than me. He is nineteen. Like our mother he has blue eyes and lovely fair hair. He is a very handsome young man. He studies at the University and he wants to become an economist. My brother isn't married yet and has no family of his own that is why he lives with us. Our family is very united. We like to spend time together. In the evenings we watch TV, read books and newspapers, listen to music or just talk about the events of the day. Our parents don't always agree with what we say but they respect our opinion. All of us like to spend our week-ends in the country. We often go to the village where our grandparents live. They are aged pensioners now and they prefer living in the country. I also have many other relatives: uncles, aunts and cousins. We are happy when we are together.
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My Family Our family is not large. We are a family of four: my father, my mother, my younger brother and I. My name is Olga. I am seventeen. I am a school leaver. My younger brother is ten. He is a pupil of the fifth form. He looks like our father. He has brown eyes, short straight hair. He is tall and thin. As for me everybody says I look like my mother. I have the same blue eyes, a snub nose, fair curly hair. I am not tall and I am not thin. I am an ordinary girl of 17. Our family lives in Kyiv in one of the residential areas on the left bank of the Dnieper. We have a nice three-roomed flat on the fourth floor of a nine-storied building. We have all modern conveniences: running hot and cold water, telephone, central heating, rubbish chute. We have no gas range. All the flats in our house are provided with electric cookers. At first it was rather unusual but we got used to it very soon. And then we realized the advantage of the electric cooker: the air in the kitchen is always fresh and the walls are clean. My mother is satisfied with our flat which we moved in only a year ago. My mother is about 40. She looks pretty well and doesn't look her age. We all love our Mum and are always ready to help her about the house. We try to share our duties. Returning home after classes I usually do the shopping. I drop in at the bakery, at the dairy or at the grocer's. My younger brother also has his duties about the house. He helps Mother to set the table and wash the dishes. He usually sweeps the floor and dusts the furniture. On Saturdays Dad joins us in our work about the house. He likes to make or repair something. He also likes to clean the flat with a vacuum-cleaner. I suppose it's his little hobby. But speaking seriously his real hobby is taking photos. He can do it perfectly well. We have several family albums with the pictures taken by him. My father is an engineer in computers. He is considered to be an experienced engineer. We are very proud of him but there is one unpleasant thing with this: he is always busy and very often he works overtime. My mother is an economist. The firm she works in deals with trading. They have business in different towns of Ukraine. She is to go on business trips from time to time. Then she is very tired and dreams about summer vacations. We have a small summer house and a lovely garden near it not far from Kyiv. The nature is very beautiful there. There is a lake there. My grandparents like to live there in summer. My grandparents don't work now. They are pensioners. They live in an industrial district of the city where the air is rather polluted. That's why they always look forward to going to our summer house. My Granny is fond of gardening and my Grandpa likes to go fishing. Our family is friendly. I like them all. 14
Our School
Our school is a modern three-storeyed building of typical design. It is situated in the centre of the city in a picturesque street named in honour of our great Ukrainian poet Lesya Ukrainka. In front of our school there are round flower-beds, where the pupils grow different flowers during their lessons in Crafts. Behind it there is a big sports-ground where the schoolchildren have their lessons of Physical Training when the weather is fine. There are different classrooms for the classes of Physics, Chemistry, Geography and Biology. They have slide projectors, schemes and charts on the walls. Chemistry and Physics classrooms have special laboratories well-equipped for different experiments and tests, which are done by our pupils during the lessons. The first floor of our school is occupied by English, French and German classrooms. There one can find different pictures, maps, diagrams and wall newspapers on the walls. On the second floor there are our gymnasium and assembly room, where we usually gather to celebrate different holidays. We decorate our assembly room with colourful balloons, slogans and pictures. In our gymnasium we have our classes of Physical Training and also spend the breaks between the lessons there, playing volleyball or basketball. There are also classrooms for junior classes in our school. They are decorated with large pictures of nature, different things made by our youngest schoolchildren, large posters with alphabet and so on. Those rooms are the largest and most beautiful in our school. We also have an Aesthetics classroom where we have the lessons of Drawing, Music, Russian and Ukrainian Literature. There one can see portraits of Ukrainian poets and writers, posters with the history of the development of Ukrainian costumes. The canteen and the cloak-room are on the ground floor. Our school is very clean and light. There are white and pink curtains on the windows and many flowers on the window sills. The corridors are large and full of sunlight. There we can have some rest between our classes or just talk with each other. I like my school very much. I am very grateful to my teachers for all they have done for us. During the school years we have acquired deep knowledge in various subjects. 15
My School
Our school is a fine four-storeyed building. There are many classrooms and specialized rooms for studying different subjects in it. The pupils study Mathematics, Physics, Chemistry, Ukrainian, Russian, English, History, Geography and Biology in specialized rooms. Chemistry, Physics and Biology are taught in well equipped science rooms. There is good equipment for laboratory experiments there. At the lessons we often carry out different experiments. Mathematics is taught in the science rooms on the third floor. There is a special room equipped with calculators and computers. The Assembly Hall is on the first floor of our school. We usually gather there to celrbrate holidays. On the second floor there is a gym. We like our gym, and we like to spend our breaks there. During the breaks we usually play basketball or volley-ball there. The canteen is on the ground floor. On the ground floor there is a workshop too. There we are taught to use some tools and machines.
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FREE TIME AND HOBBIES ВІДПОЧИНОК, РОЗВАГИ ТА ЗАХОПЛЕННЯ My Hobby Hobbies differ like tastes. If you have chosen a hobby according to your character and taste you are lucky because your life becomes more interesting. Hobby is a favourite occupation of a person at his free time. I have many friends. They are very different and they have different kinds of hobbies. One of my friends likes to make everything with his own hands. He can repair an iron, a radio-set or a tape-recorder. I think it's a very good hobby for a boy. Another friend of mine is very fond of collecting stamps. Her mother had started collecting stamps long before she was born. Now she has 5 albums full of stamps, there is more than one thousand of them. She likes to sit at a table in the evening and arrange new stamps in the albums, or write in the names of the countries, or just look through the stamps. Each stamp has its own story about distant countries and strange people. The stamps show the pictures of men and women, birds and animals which we have never seen. Kings and presidents are presented in the stamps, so we can follow the history of the whole nations. One more friend of mine has a relatively new hobby, which appeared about 10 years ago. He likes playing computer games. This way of spending spare time is becoming more and more popular. I have little free time because I have to study much in order to do well at school. But I try to find some time during the weekends for my favourite occupation: knitting and sewing. I learned to knit when I was ten. The first thing I made was a muffler. I knitted it for my Dad. I was very proud when he wore it. Now I can make quite complicated things. This year I've knitted pullovers for my Mom and myself, and a hat for my friend as a birthday present. When I see beautiful knitting-wool in a shop, I find it very difficult to go by without buying it. My hobby always lets me wear new and fashionable but not very expensive things. I learned to sew at the age of twelve. Now I'm very good at it. Sometimes I cut patterns out of magazines, but more often I design clothes by myself. I think it's a very useful hobby. Thanks to it I have some very nice clothes which aren't expensive. I don't have to spend much money to look attractive. My hobby is not only wonderful but very useful, too.
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My Day Off
I go to school five days a week, so I have two days off — Saturday and Sunday. I usually have no free time on week-days that's why I look forward to my days off. I like them very much. On a day off I don't have to hurry anywhere. I can do whatever I like. On a day off I wake up later than usual, at about 10 o'clock. I don't get up at once. I enjoy staying in bed for a while and thinking about something nice. Then I get up, wash and have breakfast. I like to have something special for breakfast on such days. After breakfast I clear away the dishes and wash up. Later if the rooms are untidy I help my mother to do the rooms. I sweep and wash the floor and put everything in its place. As a rule my mother and I go to the supermarket and do the shopping. Two more hours for getting ready with my homework, and I am free. I meet my friends and we discuss our plans together. We may go to the cinema or theatre, to museums and parks. In the afternoon I sometimes play football or basketball with my friends. If the weather is fine, we often go to the country. In summer we find a nice place and sunbathe, swim or play different games and in winter we go skiing or skating. If the weather is bad, I stay at home and my friends come to my place. We listen to music, play computer games or watch video films. We like films about the life of the youth abroad. We usually discuss the films we have seen. In the evening all the members of our family get together. We have supper, make plans for the next day, watch TV or read books. Sometimes we have guests at our place and enjoy ourselves. I like my days off very much. Yesterday was Sunday, that's why my last day off wasn't long ago and I remember it quite well. I always try to do my best to make my day off really exciting because I have only two days a week for relaxation and rest. I met with my friends and we went to the skating-rink. Though it was rather cold we played soccer and skated almost all day long. All of us liked that day very much! I like my days off because all the working days are alike, but every day off is unique. At the weekend we have an opportunity to enjoy our life and have a rest.
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My Summer Holidays Summer is a wonderful season for everyone. It is the hottest season of the year. The weather is always nice and sunny. It’s a real pleasure to spend some days out of a noisy town. So many people leave towns for countryside, seaside or mountains. In summer schoolchildren do not go to school. They have summer holidays which are three months long. Children don't have to get up early. There is no homework to do or lessons to learn. So they like holidays. I never stay in bed long in a bright summer morning. Sometimes my friends and I go to the cinema or to a concert. Sometimes we play football or badminton in the yard. Every summer I go to the country to stay with my grandmother for a week or two. I help Granny to work in the kitchen garden or to look after chickens and ducks. In the village I often go for long bike rides with my cousins. There is a nice river not far from my Granny's place. Sometimes we go fishing or boating. I like to sit in silence for a while waiting for a fish to get caught and listening to the birds singing in the forest. I like to go to the beach in the morning when it is not too hot. I swim, sunbathe and play with my friends on the bank of the river. If my uncle is not very busy he takes my cousins and me on a hike in the forest. I like sleeping in a tent, sitting by the fire and singing songs. Every year my family and I go somewhere to the South for holidays. There are many holiday-homes and tourist camps at the seaside. Sometimes we live in a tent on the seashore enjoying fresh air and the sun all day long. We swim and sunbathe a lot. My father and I are fond of mountaineering. So we do a lot of climbing together. Some people think that there are two ways of spending holidays — active and passive. The passive way means lying in the sun and doing nothing, and the active way means the opposite: sailing, climbing, swimming, etc. Now I can tell you for sure that I prefer an active way of spending holidays to a passive one. Summer holidays are never too long for me.
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My Winter Holidays Winter holidays are shorter than summer ones. They begin at the end of December and last about two weeks. It is so nice to have a rest from school. During winter holidays we celebrate the New Year Eve and Christmas. There are New Year parties for children at schools and theatres. Cinemas show children's films and cartoons. As New Year approaches, excitement mounts to a pitch. Presents should be bought, cards should be sent and rooms should be decorated. Parents are faced with the difficult task of concealing presents from inquisitive young children. If the gifts are large, this is sometimes a real problem. It is usually very cold in winter, but frost and snow can't keep children indoors. It's so great to go skiing down a hill. Boys like to play hockey on the ice. Many children go to the skating-rinks to skate. Little children play snowballs and make snowmen, or ride the sledges happily. When the weather is bad I stay at home and watch TV. There is always something interesting on during winter holidays. Sometimes my friends come to see me and we play computer games or listen to music. There is also more time for reading, drawing and other hobbies. Sometimes my friends and I go to the cinemas, theatres, visit art galleries, attend music and concert halls. This year our winter holidays began on the 28th of December. On that day we had a New Year party at school. Certainly, we had been preparing to the party for a long time beforehand. We had prepared an amateur performance with Father Frost and SnowMaiden. There were different competitions, we played different games. Certainly the lucky winners got the memorable prizes. We had prepared them beforehand but we had not bought them. We had brought some nice trinkets from our homes. Those who won these prizes said that they were especially dear to them because they would remind them about their schoolmates. Then we had a dance party. That day we had a lot of fun. The period of the winter holidays is rich in different shows and performances. This year we chose the show in the circus. We are not children any more to go to the theatre to see some childish performance with a bad wolf who has stolen a new year tree. But a circus show is another pair of shoes. I think there is nobody in the world who can be tired of the circus. I liked the clowns most of all. Their tricks were so funny. And, of course, I liked the performing animals. They are so clever and beautiful and sometimes they behave themselves exactly like people. Holidays passed quickly and soon it was time to go to school again.
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Music in Our Life
Music is an essential part of everyone's life. People cannot live without music. They can listen to music everywhere: at home, at work, in the car, while walking along the street or even in the forest, when they walk and hear birds singing. Music can be classical and modern. Classical music is performed by symphonic orchestras in the great halls. There are a lot of famous composers whose music is played nowadays. Classical music is serious and requires good understanding otherwise it may seem to be boring and dull. Speaking about classical music in my life I have always liked the music of Peter I. Tchaikovsky. I like it because it is deeply Slavonic in its spirit. In his creative work Tchaikovsky used folklore melodies. He created wonderful music: 10 operas, 3 ballets, 6 symphonies, 7 large symphonic poems and many other musical pieces. I like his First Symphony "Winter Dreams" most of all. It is very tender, and at the same time solemn and grand. Most people prefer modern music. Modern music is often performed by TV and radio. Modern music has different trends: pop, rock, disco, rap, techno and others. Young people like techno and disco. Older people are fond of jazz, rock and pop. There are a lot of singers or music bands who perform this or that kind of music. Everybody knows the founders of rock music. They are "The Beatles" and Elvis Presley. Now there are a lot of albums of different performers. As for modern music I prefer to listen to jazz. Jazz appeared in 1900 in America. Most prominent of jazz players were Louis Armstrong, Duke Ellington and Ella Fitzgerald. It is a kind of music where experiments are always welcome. The main jazz instruments are the piano, the trumpet and the drums. Jazz is often based on improvisation. It is always new and diverse music. The last achievement in music production is a clip. Musical clips are short films accompanied by the song. People like to watch clips because it's not only listening to music but also watching interesting things. I'm fond of music and like to listen to it for it helps me to have good relaxation.
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My Favourite Painters
I like painting and I think I understand it. I am very fond of impressionism, and Monet especially. Classicism attached the main importance to composition and figure painting. Romantism laid stress on personal and emotional expression. In its turn impressionism showed the moments of life, parts of human existence. It was one of the most interesting and unusual trends in modern painting. It started in the 60s of the 19th century and the most famous impressionists were French painters Renoir, Degas, Manet, Monet, Pissaro and Sisley. They added some freshness and spontaneity of perception of life to the painting. This kind of perception was quite unusual even for that time, and impressionists were not accepted as a new school. First they were thought to be a group of painters of some unusual style. Their paintings were not admitted to exhibitions. But some critics paid their attention to them, and they were able to show their art. The most famous of Monet's works are: "The Ruan Cathedral in the Morning", "The Ruan Cathedral in the Afternoon", "The Ruan Cathedral in the Evening", "Haystacks" and others. He created the feeling of glittering sunshine, of subject dissolved in the vibration of light and air. He showed moments of life, subjects in different times of the day. His colours are very soft and delicate, his paintings are always full of air and light. They seem very alive to me. By developing their own style of painting these artists opened a new school in the history of modern art. I also like the paintings of one of the greatest Dutch masters Rembrandt van Rijn. He created a number of portraits and some group portraits, which were traditional to the Dutch art. The best of them are "Anatomy Lesson of Dr. Tulp" and "The Night Watch". Rembrandt was not understood when he was alive. He died in poverty. But it is the spirituality of his art that distinguishes Rembrandt from his Dutch contemporaries making him one of the greatest artists in the world.
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Theatre in Our Life
There are quite many theatres in my city and they are all very popular with the public. If one made up his mind to go to the theatre one should go to the box-office to buy tickets in advance. There are a lot of people who love and visit different kinds of theatres: drama, comedy, variety, puppet, musical theatres, opera and ballet houses. I am a theatre lover, too. As for me, I prefer drama to all other theatres, but I also like ballet and musical comedy. I'll never forget my first visit to the Opera and Ballet Theatre. My friend and I wanted to see the famous ballet "Swan Lake" by Tchaikovsky. We bought the tickets in advance and came to the theatre half an hour before the show. At 7 sharp the performance began. From the very first minute I was deeply impressed by everything I saw on the stage. The costumes were excellent The dancing and music were thrilling. The ballet seemed a fairy-tale to me. I had never seen anything more wonderful. My friend also enjoyed every minute of it. When the curtain fell at the end of the performance there came a storm of applause. It seemed that it would never end. The dancers received call after call. They were given large bouquets of flowers. We also applauded enthusiastically. The performance was a great success. Last summer my classmates and I went to Moscow. I highly appreciated my first visit to the Bolshoy Theatre. We saw the famous ballet "Sleeping Beauty" by Tchaikovsky. The theatre was packed. Our seats were in the second row of the pit. Before the beginning of the performance we bought a bill and saw that the leading parts in the performance were played by the well-known actors. The setting and the dancing were superb and exciting. The costumes were wonderful and the music was nice. The performance was a great success with the public. It was one of my brightest memories. But we are to admit that theatre is not so popular now as it used to be. There are many people who prefer sitting comfortably before their TV-sets and enjoying themselves without leaving their homes. According to the poll, the actual priorities are as follows: TV comes first, followed by reading, films, listening to records, radio, going out to dances and discos; then come concerts, museums, amateur arts, and finally theatre.
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My Last Visit to the Theatre As for me I like theatre very much, especially, the Ukrainian Drama Theatre. I highly appreciate the cast of this theatre. I like the traditional scenery, skilfullymade costumes. And, of course, it's very important what plays there are in the repertoire. The Kyiv Ukrainian Drama Theatre always chooses the plays for its repertoire very thoroughly. Sometimes it is very difficult to get tickets for the performance. Not long ago I visited the Ukrainian Drama Theatre, where I saw the play "The Pious Martha" by the Spanish playwright Lope de Vega. The leading parts in the performance were played by the well-known actors. Generally speaking this production has an excellent cast. This time our seats were in the second row of the pit. Before the beginning of the performance we bought a bill. The music in this perfomsnce was marvellous. But what I especially enjoyed in this performance was the sense of humour which permeated the whole performance. I consider it is one of the best performances I have seen this season. Cinema in Our Life The movies are truly an art of our time. The cinemas possibilities are unlimited. Cinema brings culture to homes, schools and institutions. It is the greatest aesthetic and educational force in the world today. Video classes are useful when studying Geography, Foreign Languages and many other subjects. They are also the means of getting familiarized with the world. With the help of documentary and science films one can get much information about the world around. The news on TV helps to know what happens in the world each day. It also helps to attract the attention of people to different important issues, such as hunger, earthquakes, water pollution and so on. Cinema is also the means of entertainment. After a working day one can relax watching some good movie. Nowadays people can't just imagine their life without the art of cinema. Many people prefer going to the cinema on our days off (at the week-end). I like going to the cinema too. When I have free time I always go to see some new film. When I want to go to the cinema I usually find out in the program what films are on. Then I phone my friends and we discuss what films to see. We prefer feature films but also enjoy cartoons and popular science films. To see a good love story, musical or detective film is a very pleasant leisure. There are a lot of talented actors and actresses in this country. My favourite actor is Oleg Yankovsky. My favourite actress is Natalia Gundareva. They starred in many films and I have always enjoyed their superb performance. The last film I saw was the screen version of the novel "Gone with the Wind" by Margaret Mitchell. Its an old film but still it enjoys great popularity. There are a lot of famous American actors in it with Vivien Leigh and Glare Gable starring. I was deeply impressed by their acting and the film itself. It hasn't lost its visual splendour with the passage of time. 24
Sport in Our Life
Sport is probably as old as the humanity itself. It has been developing with the developing and growth of the mankind. Sport is very important in our life. People all over the world are fond of sports and games. Sport makes people healthy, keeps them fit, more organized and better disciplined. Nobody likes to be stout and clumsy. Some people go in for sports for their health and some for professional aims. There are a lot of stadiums, sports grounds, swimming pools, football fields in each town. Practically all kinds of sports are popular in this country, but football, figure-skating and tennis enjoy the greatest popularity. A lot of people are fond of jogging. Both in the morning and in the evening we can see people jogging in the parks, stadiums and even in the streets. We've always paid great attention to sport in our schools, colleges and universities. You can hardly find a school without a gym or a sports ground. In every school pupils spend much time going in for sports. First of all they have their Physical Training lessons. And after classes they may train different kinds of sport at different sports clubs and sections. Professional sport is also paid much attention in this country. Every year there are a lot of sports competitions, sports days and Olympics. Once in four years the Olympic Games take place in different countries. There are Summer and Winter Olympic Games. This is a great sport competition of the best sportsmen in the world. When I go in for sports I feel wonderful. I am cheerful, active and full of energy. In summer I go in for swimming or rowing. I enjoy spending winter holidays in the country. There I can ski or skate. I also go in for table tennis (pingpong). It needs mobility, good reaction and much energy. It maintains a person in a good form. I have been playing tennis for five years, but the more I play the more I like it. My friends and I often gather after school to play basketball, football or other active games. Basketball is a dynamic and interesting game. It develops many good qualities such as rapid action, accuracy, dexterity, agility, endurance, will-power and collective spirit. The object of the game is quite simple. To win you must put the ball through the hoop more often than your opponent. This means the basketball player must learn to shoot effectively. All the players may take part in both the attack and the defence. I have already realized that sport is desperately necessary for everybody. I'd like to give you advice: if you haven't chosen the kind of sport for you yet, do it and you'll see: your life will become more interesting. 25
My Attitude to Sport
If you want to be healthy, strong and beautiful you should go in for sports. If you want to keep fit, you should go in for sport regularly. Nobody likes to be stout and clumsy. We enjoy watching nice bodies of sportsmen, their strength and adroitness. When I go in for sports I feel wonderful. I don’t sneeze or cough. I am cheerful, active and full of energy. I try to do some training almost every day. In summer I go swimming or rowing. I enjoy spending winter holidays in the country. There I can ski or skate. Certainly, it depends on the weather. But all the same in the country there are more possibilities for this than in town. For those who have already determined to go in for sport is very important to choose the kind of sport he likes best. Some games are quiet, others are very lively, active. Some kinds of sports need simple equipments and facilities, others — rather complex ones. We start playing games and going in for sport in our childhood. Later on in school we discover our favourite sports and games. I doubt whether the bare idea that sport is helpful to make us healthy, will make somebody go in for sport if he doesn't like physical exercises. That's why the lessons of physical training at school are very important. At school we have PT lessons twice a week. Our sports teacher is a reasonable woman. She realizes that those who want to become professionals attend specialized sport sections but the majority of us will remain amateurs. Our teacher considers her pupils must enjoy sports, then they will go in for sports when they leave school. And I completely agree with her. As for me I enjoy basketball. Basketball is a dynamic and interesting game. It develops many good qualities such as rapid action, accuracy, dexterity, agility, endurance, will-power and collective spirit. The object of the game is quite simple. To win you must put the ball through the hoop more often than your opponent. This means the basketball player must learn to shoot effectively. All the players may take part in both the attack and the defence. I have already realized that sport is desperately necessary for everybody. I'd like to give you advice: if you haven't choose the kind of sport fdr you yet, do it and you'll see: your life will become more interesting. 26
TRAVELLING ПОДОРОЖІ ТА ПОЇЗДКИ Travelling
Modern life is impossible without travelling. Thousands of people "travel every day. They travel to see other countries and continents, to learn about people's traditions, to enjoy picturesque places. It is interesting for them to discover new things, different ways of life, to meet different people, to taste different food. Those people who live in the country like to find themselves in large cities with their shops, cinemas and theatres. City-dwellers usually like a quiet vacation at the seaside or in the mountains. There are many different ways of travelling. People can travel by plane, by train, by ship, by bus or by car. There are moments in every person's life when he or she wants to travel. Everyone understands travelling in his/her own way. Some people consider trips to new towns and countries offered by different travel agencies to be the best way to travel. These package tours are for the laziest. The others prefer walking tours and tourism. There is nothing more beautiful for them than walking in some pinewood, or rowing down the river in a boat, or even riding a bicycle and enjoying the landscape. There are also people who are fond of mountain climbing. The most unforgettable feeling for them is the one they have at the peak of the mountain. And the view, which opens from it, is just magnificent. The sea has also attracted mankind as one of the powers of nature. Therefore sea tours are very popular among people. They offer a great possibility to enjoy the sight of the sea in different seasons and weather, and also to open some new towns and countries for oneself. For some people travelling is associated with visiting ancient cities. There one can see ancient palaces, cathedrals and fortresses, visit different museums. There also exists a very interesting and cheap kind of travelling — hitchhiking. It is very popular among young people. And there are also people who like exotic kinds of travelling, like travelling on a balloon. But only brave people can risk and surrender themselves wholly to the will of the wind. Speaking about different types of travelling, one should say that any of them is a good method of having a rest and spending some new unusual life. 27
SERVICE СФЕРА ПОСЛУГ Shopping
When we want to buy something, we go to a shop. There are a lot of kinds of shops in every town or city, but most of them have a food supermarket, a department store, men’s and women's clothing stores, a grocery, a bakery and a butchery. I like to do my shopping at big department stores and supermarkets. They sell various goods in one building and this is very convenient. A department store, for example, true to its name, is composed of many departments: ready-made clothes, fabrics, shoes, sports goods, toys, china and glass, electric appliances, cosmetics, linen, curtains, cameras, records, etc. You can buy everything you like there. There are escalators in the big stores which take customers to different floors. The things for sale are on the counters so that they can be easily seen. In the women's clothing department you can find dresses, costumes, blouses, skirts, coats, beautiful underwear and many other things. In the men’s clothing department you can choose suits, trousers, overcoats, ties, etc. In the knitwear department one can buy sweaters, cardigans, short-sleeved and long-sleeved pullovers, woolen jackets. In the cosmetics they sell face cream and powder, lipstick, lotions and shampoos. In a food supermarket we can also buy many different things at once: sausages, fish, sugar, pasta, flour, cereals and tea. At the butchers there is a wide choice of meat and poultry. At the bakery you buy brown and white bread, rolls and biscuits. The greengrocery is stocked with cabbage, potatoes, onions, cucumbers, carrots, beetroots, green peas and what not. Everything is sold here ready-weighed and packed. If you call round at a dairy you can buy milk, cream, cheese, butter and many other things. The method of shopping may vary. It may be a self-service shop where the customer goes from counter to counter selecting and putting into a basket what he wishes to buy. Then he takes the basket to the check-out counter, where the prices of the purchases are added up. If it is not a self-service shop, and most small shops are not, the shop-assistant helps the customer in finding what he wants. You pay money to the cashier and he gives you back the change. 28
LANGUAGE STUDYING ВИВЧЕННЯ МОВИ Foreign Languages in Our Life
Learning a foreign language is not an easy thing. It is a long and slow process that takes a lot of time and efforts. Nowadays it is especially important to know foreign languages. Some people learn languages because they need them for their work, some people learn languages because they travel abroad, for the others learning languages is a hobby. Every year thousands of people from Ukraine go to different countries as tourists or employees. They cannot go there without knowing the language of the country they are going to. Everyone, who knows foreign languages, can speak to people from other countries, read foreign authors in the original, which makes ones outlook wider. It is not surprising that many intellectuals and well-educated people are polyglots. The problem of learning foreign languages is very important today Foreign languages are socially demanded especially at the present time when the progress in science and technology has led to an explosion of knowledge and has contributed to an overflow of information. Foreign languages are necessary as the main and most efficient means of information exchange of the people of our planet. I learn English. Nowadays English has become the world's most important language in politics, science, trade and cultural relations. Over 300 million people speak it as a mother tongue. The native speakers of English live in Great Britain, the United States of America, Australia and New Zealand. English is one of the official languages in the Irish Republic, Canada, the South Africa Republic. English is one of the official languages of the United Nations and other political organizations. Half of the world's scientific literature is in English. It is the language of computer technology. To know English today is absolutely necessary for every educated person, for every good professional. The English language is a wonderful language. It is the language of the great literature. It is the language of William Shakespeare, Jonathan Swift, Walter Scott and Charles Dickens. The great German poet Goethe once said, "He, who knows no foreign language, does not know his own one". That is why in order to understand oneself in the world one has to study foreign languages. 29
My Favourite Subject
We have a lot of subjects at school. They are: Mathematics, Physics, Chemistry, History, Geography, Russian, Ukrainian, English, Literature and others. Every teacher asks for equal and adequate attention to his/her subject. I know that all the subjects are important but my favourite subject is English. English is very important as it has become one of the most important languages in politics, science, trade .and cultural relations in the world. It is also the language of great literature. Such writers as William Shakespeare, Walter Scott, Charles Dickens and Bernard Shaw wrote in English. It gives me great pleasure to read their books in the original. We began learning English in the first form of school. We started with the ABC and sounds. Then we learnt English words, phrases and dialogues by heart, read and translated texts. From lesson to lesson we have improved our knowledge, learnt to speak, to write, to listen and to read in English. We enjoy our English lessons and prepare well for them. Our lessons usually start with phonetic verses and tongue-twisters in English. Some of them sound very funny but they are very useful. Sometimes we practice our pronunciation in the language laboratory where we can listen to the tapes. We usually do some exercises from the textbook. Then the teacher gives us a dictation to check how well we have learned the new words. After it we discuss different topics or make up dialogues. At home I read English books, magazines and newspapers. I watch video films and listen to songs in English. I do many different exercises, translate texts and learn grammar. I write new words on small cards and revise them every evening before going to sleep. I want to know foreign languages because I have always been interested in foreign countries, their cultures and peoples. I want to learn English in particular because it has become the international language. I hope that in future I'll speak English fluently!
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LITERATURE ЛІТЕРАТУРА My Favourite Writers
I'm fond of reading. Usually I borrow books from the library, but I have a lot of them at home, too. I like to read books about famous people and detective stories. Literature means much in my life. It helps to form my character and to understand life better. There are some names in Russian and foreign literature that are very dear to me. In Russian literature I highly appreciate Ivan Sergeyevich Turgenev. For me he is a real intellectual and aristocrat, a man of culture, devoted to literature, music and art. Though he lived abroad for a long time he didn't stop being a Russian writer for a moment. He reflected a number of national characters in his books. The image of Turgenev's woman, deeply feeling, faithful and tender is an ideal of a Russian woman for me. It doesn't lose its charm even today. Among the present day writers and poets I like Eugene Evtushenko, Valentin Rasputin, Valentin Pikul, Boris Vasilyev. Their works are very human and realistic. They assert high moral principles into life. And this is very important nowadays. One of my favourite foreign writers is O'Henry. In my childhood I was deeply impressed by his story "The Last Leaf". Since then I have been bearing in my heart the image of a young girl suffering from the incurable illness, and her friends doing all they can to give her hope and bring back to life. I also like the novels and short stories by William Somerset Maugham. I've just read his novel "The Moon and Sixpence" and liked it very much. This novel is based on the life of the artist Paul Gauguin. While writing the book Maugham went to Tahiti and lived in Gauguin's hut. As for detective stories my favourite writer is Alexandra Marinina. She is considered to be a Russian Queen of detective prose. The works of this author are clever and really interesting. In all books there are the same characters and starting a new book you meet old friends. The author used to work as an investigator and she knows how to arouse the reader's interest and at the same time writes the facts that could take place. Many detective novels by Marinina are translated into foreign languages and foreign readers can compare our writer with Agatha Christie. When I got acquainted with these books I was greatly impressed by the wit and humour. I can't imagine my life without reading. Books are a source of information. They are collected wisdom and experience of many generations. Books are our teachers and advisors. Books are effective means of educating oneself. 31
Oscar Wilde
Oscar Wilde is a famous English writer of the 19th century. Oscar Wilde was born in Dublin, Ireland, in 1854. His mother wrote poetry, and she taught him to love literature. He was educated at Trinity College, Dublin and Magdalen College, Oxford. Soon after leaving university his first volume of poetry, "Patience", was published. Oscar Wilde married Constance Lloyd in 1884 and the. couple had two sons. When the boys were children Wilde wrote fairy stories for them that were later published as "The Happy Prince and Other Tales" (1888). Wilde's tales are very beautiful.This was followed two years later by the novel, "The Picture of Dorian Gray" (1890) and a book on the role of the artist, "The Soul of Man under Socialism" (1891). However, it was a playwright that Wilde had his greatest success. Comedies such as "Lady Windermere's Fan" (1892), "A Woman of No Importance" (1893), "An Ideal Husband" (1895) and "The Importance of Being Earnest" (1895) made him one of Britain's most famous writers. By 1895 Wilde had left his wife. Wilde was publicly accused by the Marquis of Queensberry. Wilde sued for libel but he lost his case and was then himself prosecuted and imprisoned. After being released from Reading Prison in 1897 Wilde moved to France. The following year he wrote "The Ballad of Reading Gaol", a poem inspired by his prison experience. Wilde's time in prison badly damaged his health and he died in 1900. His books are read and his plays are staged in many countries and in many languages. Here are some of his quotations: Art is the most intense mode of individualism that the world has known. The best way to make children good is to make them happy. Duty is what one expects from others. I can resist anything except temptation. He to whom the present is the only thing that is present, knows nothing of the age in which he lives. The pure and simple truth is rarely pure and never simple. A thing is not necessarily true because a man dies for it.
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William Shakespeare William Shakespeare was born on April 23, 1564, in the town of Stratford-uponAvon. His father, John Shakespeare, was a glove-maker and wool-dealer. William went to the local free grammar school where he studied Latin. At the age of 18 Shakespeare married a local girl, Anne Hathaway. We don't know exactly when Shakespeare went to London, maybe in 1584-1589. Probably his first play was "Titus Andronicus"(1589/1590). Shakespeare wrote history plays such as "Henry IV" and "Richard III", comedies such as "A Midsummer Night's Dream" and "A Comedy of Errors". Shakespeare's early tragedy is "Romeo and Juliet". Shakespeare's plays became more serious and psychological as time went on. Between 1600 and 1608 Shakespeare wrote his four great tragedies, "Hamlet", "Othello", "Macbeth" and "King Lear". It is the summit of Shakespeare's art. "Hamlet" is probably the most popular, the best-known of all Shakespeare's plays. It is a very philosophical play. Hamlet, Prince of Denmark, is a highly intelligent person. Hamlets soliloquy is very famous: To be, or not to be; that is the question: Whether 'tis nobler in the mind to suffer The slings and arrows of outrageous fortune, Or to take arms against a sea of troubles, And, by opposing, end them? ... Queen Elizabeth I died in 1603 and was succeeded by James VI of Scotland, son of Mary Stuart. James, who became James I of England and Scotland, was a lover of the theatre. Shakespeare wrote a tragedy "Macbeth", in which action passes in Scotland. In 1606 Shakespeare was a very mature and successful playwright. He had become a wealthy man. In "King Lear" we see evil defeated, but we also see goodness being destroyed. King Lear through his madness glimpses truth of human existence. "King Lear" is the greatest of all Shakespeare's tragedies. The story of an old king of England and his three daughters was not invented by Shakespeare. Shakespeare hardly ever invented the plot of his plays. Between 1608 and 1613, Shakespeare wrote five plays: "Pericles", "Cymbeline", "The Winter's Tale", "The Tempest" and "Henry VIII". In "The Tempest", Shakespeare says farewell to the theatre, to his friends. On June 29, 1613, the Globe theatre was destroyed in a fire. For Shakespeare and his colleagues it must have been a terrible time. The Globe was the greatest theatre in England. Shakespeare died on April 23, 1616. The verse on his grave stone is: Good friend for Jesus sake forbear To dig the dust enclosed here: Blest be the man that spares these stones, And curst be he that moves my bones. Shakespeare wrote 38 plays and many poems. Many people think that William Shakespeare is the greatest playwright of the world. 33
William Shakespeare
There are a lot of famous names in the history of Great Britain. The name of William Shakespeare is one of them. William Shakespeare, the great English poet and dramatist, was born in 1564 in the town of Stratford-on-Avon. This picturesque town situated on the river Avon is visited yearly by thousands of people desirous to see the birthplace of W. Shakespeare. There were no theatres in England then. Groups of actors travelled from town to town showing performances in the street. Sometimes actors came to Stratford-on-Avon. The boy went to see all their shows and liked them very much. He wanted to become an actor. Sometimes he wrote little plays and staged them with his friends. When he was twenty-one, William went to London. There he joined a group of actors. At first he only helped actors and then began writing plays for them. Soon Shakespeare's plays were staged more and more often and became famous. The theatre where he worked was called "The Globe". It became the first professional theatre. Many of his plays were staged there. Shakespeare is known as a writer of delightful comedies and historical dramas. His comedies "A Midsummer Night's Dream", "Comedy of Errors" are light and bright, and jingle with many rhymes. The tragedies "Othello", "Hamlet" and "Romeo and Juliet" strike by the depth of the thought. Shakespeare showed the real life and relations between people. Love and death, friendship and treason, devotion and lie are the main topics of his plays. In "King Lear" we see evil defeated, but we also see goodness being destroyed. King Lear through his madness glimpses truth of human existence. "King Lear" is one of the greatest of all Shakespeare's tragedies. The story of an old king of England and his three daughters was not invented by Shakespeare. Shakespeare hardly ever invented the plot of his plays. Between 1608 and 1613, Shakespeare wrote five plays: "Pericles", "Cymbeline", "The Winter's Tale", "The Tempest" and "Henry VIII". In "The Tempest", Shakespeare says farewell to the theatre, to his friends. Shakespeare's plays translated into many languages are performed on the stages of the best theatres of the world. Shakespeare is highly appreciated by people in many countries of the world. His works will always be interesting for people. 34
Rudyard Kipling
Rudyard Kipling (1865-1936) was born in Bombay, but educated in England. In 1882, he returned to India, where he worked for Anglo-Indian newspapers. His literary career began in 1886. A prolific writer, he achieved fame quickly. Kipling was the poet of the British Empire. His "Barrack Room Ballads" (1892) were written for, as much as about, the common soldier. In 1894, appeared his "Jungle Book", which became a children's classic all over the world. "Kim" (1901), the story of Kimball O'Hara and his adventures in the Himalayas, is perhaps his most felicitous work. Other works include "The Second Jungle Book" (1895), "The Seven Seas" (1896), "The Day's Work" (1898), "Just So Stories" (1902), "Actions and Reactions" (1909), and "Limits and Renewals" (1932). During the First World War Kipling wrote some propaganda books. His collected poems appeared in 1933. Kipling was the recipient of many honorary degrees and other awards. In 1926 he received the Gold Medal of the Royal Society of Literature, which only Scott, Meredith, and Hardy had been awarded before him.
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William Somerset Maugham
William Somerset Maugham is one of the best-known English writers of the present day. He was not only an outstanding novelist, but also one of the most successful dramatists and short-story writers. He was born in Paris in 1874. His father was an official at the British Embassy in France and William spent his childhood in that country. In his later life he also lived for long periods there. His parents died when he was very little, and the boy was brought up by his uncle, a clergyman. At the age of ten the boy was sent to England to attend school. In 1890 he went abroad and studied at the University of Heidelberg, from which he returned in 1892. As his parents had destined him for the medical profession, he became a medical student in London. After graduating from a medical college he worked at a hospital in Lambeth — one of the poorest districts of London. Although he had taken his degree in medicine and become a fully qualified doctor, he decided to devote his life to literature. And in 1897, when he was only 23, Maugham wrote and published his first novel "Liza of Lambeth" and after that he went on producing books, one almost every year for more than sixty years. In his literary works Maugham gave a realistic picture of the English society — its egoism and false democracy, but he didn't want to improve that society or human nature. Maugham's cherished desire from childhood was to see different continents and as soon as he got the opportunity he set out to realize his dream. During World War I Maugham was in the British Intelligence Service. His work there is described in a collection of short stories under the title of "Ashenden, or the British Agent", published in 1928. The action of one of the stories takes place in Petrograd where Maugham was sent as a secret agent just before the Great October Socialist Revolution. The best-known novel of Somerset Maugham is "Theatre" published in 1937. His rich experience of life helped him in the vivid depiction of characters and situations. Maugham expects the reader to draw his own conclusions about the characters and events described in his novels. W. S. Maugham lived a long life. He died ih 1965. He was always a very popular writer because he tried to satisfy his readers and all his books were sold well. 36
Bernard Shaw
George Bernard Shaw was born in Dublin, Ireland, on 26th of July, in 1856. At the age of twenty one, Shaw came to live in London. His first five novels were rejected by London publishers, but became well sort after when Shaw became famous. In his own words, Shaw said he was a writing machine. He became a famous playwright. He wrote 65 plays and many pamphlets. His interests lay in politics, socialism, communism, humanist issues. Bernard Shaw rejected the plea to become a full time MP. He said, "All those who think they should be politicians, should not be allowed to become one". He was an ardent vegetarian. He wrote on such subjects as Drama, Women and Feminism, Stimulants, Vivisection, Natural Selection, Music, Marriage, Capital Punishment and so on. Apart from writing, Shaw loved to speak on the radio. What the audience perceived as a joke, Shaw actually meant. He used comedy as a way of translating what he seriously thought about society and it worked. Shaw had a great respect for woman. He spoke up for the Suffragette movement in Parliament and the prison movement. Actresses begged him to write plays for them. Bernard Shaw was a sensitive man who looked upon poverty and social injustice in disbelief. To Shaw, all living things, human or animal were equals and should be treated with equal respect. In his world all humans (men and women; rich and poor), were equals and have the right to bring out the best in themselves, no matter what class you were born into. Throughout Shaw's 94 years, famous actors, presidents, prime ministers, scientists, royalty, lords and ladies etc. requested Shaw at their dinner tables. At the age of ninety four Bernard Shaw died on 2nd of November, in 1950. It was the first time the lights on Broadway went out as a mark of respect. Even so long after his death, Shaw's influence is still with us.
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Mark Twain
Samuel L. Clemens, better known as Mark Twain, is one of the most widely loved and celebrated American writers since his first books were released in the late 1860s, early 1870s. Since his death, Mark Twain has transcended ordinary fame and become an icon of American culture and humor the world over. Sam Clemens lived a rich and eventful life, which covered the years 18351910. He had many unique experiences before his first book, "The Celebrated Jumping Frog of Calaveras County", was published in 1867, including stints as a printer, a steamboat pilot, a gold prospector, a journalist in Nevada and San Francisco during the height of the Gold Rush, and a renowned lecturer, known for his storytelling and stage presence. He was married to Olivia Langdon for 34 years, until her death in 1904, and they had three daughters (Susy, Clara and Jean). Under the pen-name Mark Twain, Sam Clemens published over 30 works of literature — encompassing satire, historical fiction, short stories and nonfiction. Many of his writings have reached the pinnacles of American and world literature, including the timeless "Adventures of Huckleberry Finn" and "The Adventures of Tom Sawyer". In 1881 "The Prince and the Pauper" was released. This was Clemens' first attempt at writing historical fiction with a serious thefne, a marked departure from the humorous books of his earlier career. Another classic historical novel, although more satirical, was "A Connecticut Yankee In King Arthur's Court", released in 1889. Lesser-known gems in Twain's catalogue are a detailed history of "Joan of Arc", "Extracts From Adam's Diary", "Eve's Diary" and "Letters From The Earth".
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Ernest Hemingway
Hemingway is an American novelist and a short-story writer. He is one of the greatest American writers of the 20-th century. Oak Park is a suburb of Chicago. There Ernest Hemingway, the second child of the local doctor was born in 1899. In 1917 the USA went to World War I. Hemingway tried to enlist but was rejected because of his poor eyesight. For six months he worked as a reporter in the "Kansas City Star", one of the biggest newspapers in the Middle West. Then he found a way to leave for Europe with American Red Cross and fought on the Italian front. He was wounded, went to hospital in Milan, was decorated by the Italian Government and returned to America in 1919. He began to write fiction in 1923. His first books were the reflection of his war experience. In 1929, when he was thirty, his book "A Farewell to Arms" appeared bringing him great success. To some degree the book describes the events of World War I in which he took part. In the summer of 1936 the Spanish Civil War broke out. Hemingway sailed for Spain to support the Republicans. During World War II he was a war correspondent first in China and then in Europe. In 1954 Ernest Hemingway was awarded the Nobel Prize for literature. Hemingway's fiction usually focuses on people living essential, dangerous lives — soldiers, fishermen, athletes, bullfighters — who meet the pain and difficulty of their existence with stoic courage. Among his best works are "A Farewell to Arms", "The Green Hills of Africa", "The Old Man and the Sea". Very often the books reflect the events that he himself witnessed. He died at his home in Sun Valley, Idaho, in 1961.
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Theodore Dreiser
Theodore Dreiser is a famous American writer and publicist. He was born in 1871 in the state of Indiana. He was the 12th child in the family. His mother came from the family of Czech immigrants and his father came to America from Germany and was a factory worker. From his early childhood the boy knew what poverty was. In 1887 he moved to Chicago where he worked in restaurants washing dishes and cleaning. For a short period of time he studied at the University of Indiana. Working at the newspaper "Chicago Daily Globe" he started to publish his first sketches and stories. His first novel "Sister Carrie" is a real life story. One of his elder sisters, Emma, was the main character of the novel. The story about the girl, who became an actress at a high price of losing her best human qualities was considered to be immoral by critics. The feature of American literature that struck Dreiser most of all was the contradiction between the real life and the life described in literature. Therefore Dreiser's novels always depicted the life of common people, the cruelty of their existence in American society. His novel "An American Tragedy" was the work of critical realism in the American literature of the 20th century. In his three novels "The Financier", "The Titan", and "The Stoic" Dreiser described the life of a financier Cauperwood. He is not only a cruel American businessman, a person without "soul or heart", but a very tragic figure. Having an extraordinary personality, he can t fully realize himself in American society. His love of arts, his unusual talent stay deep inside him. In 1928 Dreiser came to Russia, as he was always interested in the country and especially its literature. The works of Tolstoy and Dostoyevsky influenced his creative work. Till nowadays Dreiser remains the largest master of realistic American literature of the 20th century. 40
Lina Kostenko Ukrainian literature boasts a lot of glorious names. Among them one can name Lina Kostenko, Pavlo Zahrebelny, Vasil Stus, Roman Ivanychuk. One can continue this list for many pages. But I want to tell you about Lina Kostenko. The famous Ukrainian, poet Lina Vasylivna Kostenko was born on the 19th of March, 1930 in the town of Rzhyshchev in Kyiv region in the teachers' family. Since 1936 she lived in Kyiv where she graduated from the secondary school. Lina Kostenko continued her education in Kyiv Pedagogical Institute. As a matter of fact she did not want to stop at this level and in 1956 she graduated from Moscow Literary Institute. Such Ukrainian outstanding writers as Taras Shevchenko and Lesya Ukrainka, I. Karpenko-Kary and M. Kotsubinsky, M. Rylsky and A. Doyzhenko influenced the creative works of Lina Kostenko. The leading theme in her poems is the role of an artist and art in the society, its close connection with the people's life. Lina Kostenko belongs to the generation that is usually called "the children of the war". That is why the problems of war and peace are often raised in her works. The Chornobyl tragedy did not leave Lina Kostenko careless. The new topic became interesting for her — the problem of ecology. Nevertheless I would like to admit that the majority of Lina Kostenko's works are dedicated to the historical life of Ukraine. The most famous Lina Kostenko's creation is the novel in verses "Marusya Churay". In this work the political, philosophical and esthetic problems are raised against the national background. In the centre of the novel there is the image of legendary Marusya Churay — the poet and the author of many Ukrainian folk songs. In the novel the accent is made on Marusya's love to people, her motherland, and her patriotic feelings are underlined as well. The action takes place in the period of the liberation war of the Ukrainian people that was headed by Bogdan Khmelnitsky. In this context Lina Kostenko depicted the tragic love story of Marusya and Grits Bobrenko. It was difficult for Marusya to forgive her beloved for betraying their feelings, because Grits decided to marry another girl for the reason she was rich. Marusya made up her mind to commit the suicide. Accidentally Grits drank the poison prepared by Marusya for herself. Lina Kostenko managed to create the perfect picture of psychological, heroic and romantic life of Marusya Churay and to depict the historical events in Ukraine in the mid of the 17th century. Being devoted to national traditions Lina Kostenko proves the immortal spiritual values of the Ukrainian people, and that fact makes her creative works sound very vital especially today when the Ukrainians solve the problem of the national and cultural revival of their country. That is why it is just to say that Lina Kostenko is the daughter of her epoch who completely belongs to the contemporaries. 41
ENGLISH-SPEAKING COUNTRIES КРАЇНА, МОВА ЯКОЇ ВИВЧАЄТЬСЯ, ЇЇ ГЕОГРАФІЧНІ ТА ПРИРОДНІ ОСОБЛИВОСТІ, ВИЗНАЧНІ МІСЦЯ, ВИДАТНІ ОСОБИСТОСТІ Great Britain The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland is situated on the British Isles which consist of two large islands: Great Britain and Ireland. They lie to the north-west of Europe. The British Isles are separated from the continent by the narrow strait of water, which is called the English Channel. The country is washed by the waters of the Atlantic Ocean, the North Sea, and the Irish Sea. The United Kingdom consists of four parts: England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland. England, the central part, occupies the most of the island of Great Britain. To the north lies Scotland and to the west the third part of the country, Wales, is situated. The fourth part is called Northern Ireland and is located on the second island. Each part has its capital. The capital of England is London, Wales has Cardiff, Scotland has Edinburgh and the main city of Northern Ireland is Belfast. The population of the UK is over 57 million people. The UK is inhabited by the English, the Scottish, the Welsh and the Irish. About 80 percent of the population is urban. Many of them live in big industrial cities like London, Liverpool and Manchester, but people are often surprised by how much of Britain is an open country, with lonely hills and woods, quiet rivers, lakes and farmlands. Great Britain is a country of forests and plains. There are no high mountains in this country. Scotland is the most mountainous region with the highest peak, Ben Nevis. The rivers of Great Britain are not long. The longest river is the Severn and the deepest river is the Thames. The capital of the United Kingdom, London, stands on the bank of the Thames. As the country is surrounded by many seas there are some great ports at the seaside: London, Glasgow, Plymouth and others. Wales is a country of lakes. It has the most famous lake in the world — Loch-Ness. Seas and oceans influence the British climate which is not too cold in winter but never hot in summer. Great Britain is a beautiful country with old traditions and good people. The UK is a highly developed industrial country. It is known as one of the world's largest producers and exporters of machinery, electronics, textile, aircraft, and navigation equipment. One of the chief industries of the country is shipbuilding. The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland (the UK) occupies most of the territory of the British Isles. It consists of four main parts: England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland. London is the capital of England, Edinburgh is the capital of Scotland, Cardiff — of Wales and Belfast — of Northern Ireland. The UK is a small country with an area of some 244,100 square kilometres. It occupies only 0.2 per cent of the world's land surface. 42
It is washed by the Atlantic Ocean in the north-west, north and south-west and separated from Europe by the North Sea in the east and by the English Channel in the south. The Strait of Dover or Pas de Calais is the narrowest part of the Channel. The North Sea and the English Channel are often called "the narrow seas"; they are not deep but are frequently rough and difficult to navigate during storms. In the west the Irish Sea and the North Channel separate the UK from Ireland. The seas around Britain provide exceptionally good fishing grounds. The country has many bays favourable for shipping. In their shelter are Britain's main ports such as London, Liverpool, Glasgow, Hull and others. One will not find very high mountains or large plains in Great Britain. Everything occupies very little place. Nature seems to have carefully adapted things to the size of the island itself. The highest mountain is Ben Nevis in Scotland, 4,409 feet high. The longest river is the Severn in England, about 200 miles long. The population of the United Kingdom is over 57 million people. Foreigners often call British people "English", but the Scots, the Irish and the Welsh do not consider themselves to be English. The English are Anglo-Saxon in origin, but the Welsh, the Scottish and the Irish are Celts, descendants of the ancient people, who crossed over from Europe centuries before the Norman Invasion. It was this people, whom the Germanic Angles and Saxons conquered in the 5th and 6th centuries AD. These Germanic conquerors gave England its name — "Angle" land. They were conquered in their turn by the Norman French, when William the Conqueror of Normandy landed near Hastings in 1066. It was from the union of Norman conquerors and the defeated Anglo-Saxons that the English people and the English language were born. The official language of the United Kingdom is English. But in western Scotland some people still speak Gaelic and in northern and central parts of Wales people often speak Welsh. The UK is a highly developed industrial country. It is known as one of the world's largest producers and exporters of machinery, electronics, textile, aircraft, and navigation equipment. One of the chief industries of the country is shipbuilding. The UK is a constitutional monarchy. In law, Head of the State is Queen. In practice, the country is ruled by the elected government with the Prime Minister at the head. The British Parliament consists of two chambers: the House of Lords and the House of Commons. There are three main political parties in Great Britain: the Labour, the Conservative and the Liberal parties. The flag of the United Kingdom, known as the Union Jack, is made up of three crosses. The big red cross is the cross of Saint George, the patron saint of England. The white cross is the cross of Saint Andrew, the patron saint of Scotland. The red diagonal cross is the cross of Saint Patrick, the patron saint of Ireland.
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Geographical Position of Great Britain The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland occupies the territory of the British Isles which consist of two large islands: Great Britain and Ireland. They lie to the north-west of Europe. Once upon a time the British Isles were an integral part of the mainland. As a result of sinking of the land surface they became segregated. Great Britain is separated from the continent by the English Channel. The country is washed by the waters of the Atlantic Ocean. Great Britain is separated from Belgium and Holland by the North Sea, and from Ireland — by the Irish Sea. There are several islands along the coasts. The total area of the British Isles is 325,000 square km. The main islands are the Isle of Man and the Isle of Wight. Geographically the island of Great Britain is subdivided into 2 main regions: Lowland Britain and Highland Britain. Lowland Britain comprises southern and eastern England. Highland Britain consists of Scotland, most of Wales, the Pennines (or the Pennine Chain) and the Lake District. The surface of the country is varied. Great Britain is the country of valleys and plains. The mountains in Britain are not very high. Scotland is the most mountainous region with the highest peak, Ben Nevis (1344 m). The northern part of Scotland is mountainous and is called the Highlands. The southern part of Scotland, which has beautiful valleys and plains, is called the Lowlands. There are many rivers in the UK but they are not very long. The main rivers are: the Severn (the longest and the most important river) and the Thames (the deepest one). The insular geographical position of Great Britain promotes the development of shipbuilding, different trading contacts with other countries. It has also allowed the country to stay independent for quite a long period of time. The population of Great Britain is over 57 million. Four of every five people live in towns. The largest cities of the country are London, Birmingham, Liverpool, Manchester, Glasgow and Edinburgh. The territory of Great Britain is divided into four parts: England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland. England is in the southern and central part of Great Britain. Scotland is in the north of the island. Wales is in the west. Northern Ireland is situated in the north-eastern part of Ireland.
Geographical Position of Great Britain The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland is situated on the British Isles. The British Isles are separated from Europe by the English Channel. The British Isles are washed by the North Sea in the East and the Atlantic Ocean in the West. The population of Great Britain is over 56 million. The largest cities of the country are London, Liverpool, Manchester, Glasgow and Edinburgh. The territory of Great Britain is divided into four parts: England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland. England is the richest, the most populated part in the country. There are mountains in the north and in the west of England, but all the rest of the territory is a plain. Scotland is a land of mountains. Its highest peak is Ben Nevis. The British Isles have many rivers. The longest of them is the Severn. It flows into the Irish Sea. The Thames is over 200 miles long. London, the capital of Great Britain, stands on it. Geographical position of Great Britain is very good as the country lies on the crossways of the sea routes from Europe to other parts of the world. 44
Climate of Great Britain Great Britain is situated on the islands. It is washed by seas from all the sides. The mountains, the Atlantic Ocean and the warm waters of the Gulf Stream influence the climate of the British Isles very much. The climate and the nature of Great Britain are very specific. British climate is mild and damp. It is not very cold in winter and never very hot in summer. In winter there is no ice on the lakes and rivers. The temperature seldom falls below zero and the fields and meadows are green all year round. It rains very often in all the seasons. Besides, Britain is famous for its fogs. Fogs are quite frequent especially in the west and south-west. Sometimes fogs are so thick that it is impossible to see anything within 2 or 3 metres. The weather changes very often. Mark Twain said about America: "If you don't like the weather in New England, just wait a few minutes", but it is more likely to have been said about England. A fine morning can change into a wet afternoon and evening and the wrong side down. The English people say: "Other countries have a climate; in England we have weather." The English also say that they have three variants of weather: when it rains in the morning, when it rains in the afternoon or when it rains all day long. The weather is the favourite conversational topic in the UK. After the British greet each other they start speaking about the weather. The nature of the British Isles is picturesque. There are a lot of rivers and very beautiful lakes, but there are no great forests in the British Isles. The mountains there are not very high, but very beautiful. The most picturesque part of the country is Highlands in the North of Scotland. This is a region of mountains and rivers, small towns and villages. In Wales there are also many beautiful mountains and valleys. The highest mountain in Wales is Snowdon. Everyone who comes to England says that it looks like one great beautiful park. The Englishmen love their country and take care of it. Climate of Great Britain In Great Britain it is never too hot or too cold for work or play in the open air. The sea keeps the island warm in winter. The winds have also very much to do with weather in Great Britain. Warm winds from the Atlantic are wet and warm. They bring plenty of rain to the island. The east and north-east Winds are cold and dry. Thanks to the mild climate there are a lot of evergreen plants in Great Britain. But the lack of sunshine is the reason why the cultivation of grain crops is difficult. Grass grows all the year round. The weather changes very often. In spring sunshine and showers follow each other often during the day. In spring the weather is generally mild, the summer is not so hot as on the continent. In winter they have all sorts of weather. Sometimes it rains and sometimes it snows, and they also have fog and frost. The rivers and lakes are seldom covered with ice. But the worst thing about the climate in Great Britain is the thick fog they so often have in autumn or winter. 45
Cities and Towns of Great Britain
Great Britain is a highly developed industrial country, and most people live in large cities. Naturally, the capital comes first among the biggest industrial, economic, political and cultural cities of the country. Lots of things such as clothes, food, planes and cars are made in London. London is a great port though it is about 45 miles from the coast. Big liners go to and from all parts of the world. They are loaded and unloaded here. Birmingham is the biggest town in the centre of England. It is the centre of the British heavy industry. Machines, cars and lorries are made here. TV and radiosets are also produced in Birmingham. Manchester is an industrial capital of the North of England. It is a very old city. It is the centre of the cotton industry. Manchester was the first city in Great Britain to build an airport in 1929. In Manchester computers, electronic equipment, various machines, foods and other things are made. Manchester has many libraries, museums, art galleries and theatres. Edinburgh is the capital of Scotland. It is one of the most beautiful cities in Europe. Its main attractions are the Floral clock made of growing flowers, and the Edinburgh Art Festivals, the annual summer performances of operas, dancing, music and drama. Glasgow is another great. Scottish city. It is famous for its shipyards. Glasgow is a great industrial city and also the centre of Scottish culture. Cardiff is the capital of Wales. It used to be a capital of coal mining, and now it is a big port and ships come here from all over the world. Cambridge and Oxford are the oldest university towns in Great Britain. Many great men studied in these universities: Cromwell, Newton, Byron, Darwin and others. Stratford-upon-Avon is a small town with the population about 20 thousand. It is 94 miles northwest of London. Its chief points of interest are associated with the name and life of Shakespeare. In Henley Street stands a one-storeyed wooden house, where the greatest English poet and playwright was born. Nowadays this house belongs to the British government.
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London
London is a very old town. It is about two thousand years old. Now London is one of the biggest cities in the world. Its population is about 8 million people. It's not only a capital of Great Britain, it's a large business and commercial centre. London stands on the Thames. As an ancient city London has a great number of places of historic interest. They attract tourists from the entire world. London is traditionally divided into four main parts. They are Westminster, the City, the West End and the East End. Westminster is the historical area in London. Famous monuments and buildings are there. One of the most beautiful places is Westminster Abbey. Many greatest poets and writers are buried there. Chaucer, Dickens, Kipling are among them. Newton and Darwin are buried there too. Another place which is worth seeing in London is the Tower. In different times this castle was a fortress, a royal palace, a prison. Now it is a museum. London is rich in famous palaces. Buckingham Palace is the official residence of the Queen. Westminster Palace is the seat of the British Parliament. The greatest of English churches is St. Paul's Cathedral. It was built by a famous English architect, Sir Christopher Wren. Trafalgar Square is considered to be the very centre of London. In the middle of it stands the monument to Admiral Nelson. London is famous for its streets and squares as well. Fleet Street is known for the newspaper offices situated there. Regent Street is famous for the richest shops and supermarkets. Speaking about London it is impossible to say nothing about its museums. The British Museum shows works of art from ancient Asia, Egypt, Rome and Greece side by side with those of Great Britain and other countries.
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London
London is a very old town. It is about two thousand years old. The first settlement was situated on the place of modern city even before the first Roman invasion in 55 Đ’. C. (Before Christ). The Romans founded a fortress on the place where it was possible to cross the river. Time passed and round it a lot of villages appeared. There were about three hundred 'of them. Their names we can still find in the names of some London streets. For example, Kensington, Westminster and others. After many years all of them grew into one very large city. Now London is one of the biggest cities in the world. Its population is about 8 million people. It's not only a capital of Great Britain, it's a large business and commercial centre. London stands on the Thames and is situated about 64 kilometres (40 miles) from the mouth of the river. But it doesn't prevent it from being an important ocean port. When the tide from the sea comes up the river big sea-going ships can get to London through a wide mouth of the river. As an ancient city London has a great number of places of historic interest. They attract tourists from all the world. Tourism has become a profitable business and brings large sums of money to the London budget. London is traditionally divided into four main parts. They are Westminster, the City, the West End and the East End. Westminster is the historical area in London. Famous monuments and buildings are there. One of the most beautiful places is Westminster Abbey. It's full of history. For nearly one thousand years all the kings and queens of England have been crowned here. Many of them are buried here too. There is one place in Westminster Abbey which the tourists like to'Visit most of all. This is the Poet's Corner. Many greatest poets and writers are buried there. Chaucer, Dickens, Kipling are among them. Newton and Darwin are buried there too. One can also see there the memorials to Shakespeare, Burns, Byron and Walter Scott. Another place which is worth seeing in London is for sure the Tower. The Tower is situated on the north bank of the Thames. It dates from the Roman times and was strengthened by William the Conqueror. In different times this castle was a fortress, a royal palace, a prison. Now it is a museum of armour and also the place where Crown Jewels are kept. London is rich in famous palaces. Buckingham Palace is the official residence of the Queen. Westminster Palace is the seat of the British Parliament. Most of the people know this building as the Houses of Parliament. 48
There are two tall towers at the corners of the building. One of them is the Clock Tower with the famous Big Ben. This tower has become a visiting-card of the British capital as well as the Tower or Westminster Palace. The greatest of English churches is St. Paul’s Cathedral. It was built by a famous English architect, Sir Christopher Wren. Wellington (a famous British general whose army defeated Napoleon at Waterloo in 1815), Nelson (an English admiral who won the battle of Trafalgar) and other great men of England are buried under the huge dome of the Cathedral. Trafalgar Square is considered to be the very centre of London. In the middle of it stands the monument to Admiral Nelson. It's a tall column with a statue of Nelson at its top. At the bottom of the column there are four bronze lions. London is famous not only for its historical buildings. It is famous for its streets and squares as well. Fleet Street is known for the newspaper offices situated there. Regent Street is famous for the richest shops and supermarkets. A small side-street Downing Street is quiet and unimpressive. There is the official home of Prime Minister in this street. All Prime Ministers have lived there for the last 200 years. Piccadilly Circus and Piccadilly can be called quiet. On the contrary everything shines here with bright advertisements. Big hotels and shops, different clubs are situated here. One of the oldest streets in London is The Strand. "The Strand" means a river bank and dates from the times when the grey waters of the Thames washed the sides of the wide muddy road — the ancient Strand. Now this street links the City and the West End. It's worth mentioning that there was never a plan of building in London. That's why it's sometimes difficult to find the way in the crooked streets of the city. The best way to see the city is from the top of London red double-decker buses. Speaking about London it is impossible to say nothing about its museums. The British Museum is one of the best-known for its library, reading room, the collection of manuscripts. It shows works of art from ancient Asia, Egypt, Rome and Greece side by side with those of Great Britain and other countries. Going sightseeing in London one should have a look at London's Underground. It was built in 1863. Then its trains covered the distance of four miles. Now, more than a hundred years later, the London Underground carries two million passengers every day over its 244 miles of route with their 273 stations. London is an ancient city. But it is also a living city and like all living cities it is constantly developing. Londoners like to say "When a man is tired of London, he is tired of life".
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UK Political System
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland is a constitutional monarchy. The power of Queen Elizabeth II is not absolute. It is limited by the Parliament. The Queen reigns but she doesn't rule. The country is ruled by the elected government with the Prime Minister at the head. The legislative body, the Parliament, consists of two chambers: the House of Lords and the House of Commons. The executive body consists of the central Government — that is the Prime Minister and the Cabinet of Ministers, who are responsible for initiating and directing the national policy, government departments, local authorities, and public coronations. The judiciary body is independent of both the legislative and the executive ones. It determines common law and interprets status. The Government derives its authority from the elected House of Commons. General elections, for all seats in the House of Commons, must be held at least every five years. The Government is normally formed by the political party, which is supported by the majority in the House of Commons. The leader of the party chooses a team of ministers. The second largest party becomes the Official Opposition with its own leader and "Shadow Cabinet". The House of Commons comprises members from the constituencies in England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland who represent people whose history and traditions differ. The House of Lords used to be a hereditary chamber. The members of the House of Lords are not elected. They inherit this right from their fathers. The Chairman of this House is called Lord Chancellor. It's in the House of Commons that new bills are introduced and debated. If the majority of the members are in favour of a bill, it goes to the House of Lords to be debated. The House of Lords has the right to reject a new bill twice. But after two rejections they are obliged to accept it. And finally a bill goes to the monarch to be signed. Only then it becomes a law. In Great Britain there is no written constitution, only the precedent laws. The main political parties are the Conservative Party, the Liberal Party and the Labour Party.
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Political System of Great Britain
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland is a constitutional monarchy. Britain does not have a written constitution. Parliament is the most important authority in Britain. The monarch serves formally as head of state. The present sovereign is Queen Elizabeth II (the second). The House of Commons consists of Members of Parliament. General elections are held every five years. All citizens aged 18 have the right to vote. There are few political parties in Britain. The main ones are: the Conservative Party, the Labour Party. Each political party puts up one candidate for each constituency. The one who wins the most votes is elected MP for that area. The party which wins the most seats in Parliament forms the Government; its leader becomes the Prime Minister. The functions of the House of Commons are legislation and scrutiny of government activities. The House of Commons is presided over by the Speaker. The House of Lords is presided by the Lord Chancellor. The House of Lords has no real power. It's in the House of Commons that new bills are introduced and debated. Parliament is responsible for British national policy. Local governments are responsible for organizing such services as education, police and many others.
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Sights of Great Britain
There are a lot of places of interest in Great Britain. They are both modern and ancient monuments, like Stonehenge and Hadrian Wall, Durham castle and York Cathedral. The Lake District is very famous in Northern England. In Embleside one can visit the Steam Boat Museum. The oldest ship in this museum — her name is "Dolly" — is 150 years old. In York the tourists are usually attracted by the National Railway Museum. It presents the history of Stephenson's invention of steam locomotive. There is a prehistoric monument in Great Britain which is as interesting to the tourists as the Egyptian pyramids. This is Stonehenge. Stones stand here in circles or are arranged into a horseshoe shape. A great many theories have been advanced but exactly why it was built remains a mystery. Though the scientists consider that Stonehenge was built in order to calculate the annual calendar and seasons. But the main attraction is London places of interest. Among them there are: Westminster Abbey, the Houses of Parliament, Buckingham Palace, St. Paul's Cathedral, London Bridge, the Tower of London. London is situated on the river Thames. Its population is more than 11 million people. The city is very old and beautiful. It was founded more than two thousand years ago. On the Houses of Parliament one can see the famous Clock Tower, Big Ben, the symbol of London. Big Ben is the real bell, which strikes every quarter of an hour. Another place, which you can admire, is Buckingham Palace. It's the residence of the Queen. In the West End of London one can see the famous St. Paul's Cathedral, the masterpiece of the well-known English architect Christopher Wren. It is the third largest church in the world. It contains the monuments of many English statesmen, poets, writers and other famous people. Whoever comes to London is eager to see the Tower of London. It is associated with some of the darkest scenes in the history of England. A number of famous English men and women were imprisoned here. Now it is a museum. London is also famous for its beautiful parks. Hyde Park is the most democratic park in the world, as anyone can say anything he likes there. Regent's Park is the home of London Zoo. I'd like to see all the sights myself.
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Places of Interest in Great Britain
Great Britain is rich in world-famous places. Certainly among them there are famous university towns Oxford and Cambridge; Shakespeare's birthplace — Stratford-upon-Avon, towns of Cardiff, Edinburgh, Glasgow. Stratford-upon-Avon is a small town. Its chief points of interest are associated with Shakespeare, the greatest English poet and playwright. Shakespeare was buried in the church at Stratford on the banks of the Avon. The Royal Shakespeare Theatre was opened in Stratford in 1932. Only Shakespeare's plays are performed here. Those who come to Oxford are certainly interested in its university most of all. It was founded in the 12th century. But there is no "university" as such in Oxford. The component parts of the University of Oxford are the colleges. Each college is practically autonomous. But they do not stand in isolation, they are mixed together with houses, shops and offices. Cardiff is the capital of Wales and its chief port. Cardiff is also a tourist centre. There are some places of interest there. Wales is sometimes called "the land of song". One of the Welsh traditions is festivals. Song festivals are very popular. Edinburgh is a city where the historic past lives side by side with the present. Edinburgh Castle is the most famous building in the city. Edinburgh is especially famous for its festivals. In summer there is the Edinburgh Festival. This is Britain's biggest arts festival. Besides the official festival there is also an unofficial festival. There is a prehistoric monument in Great Britain which is as interesting to the tourists as the Egyptian pyramids. This is Stonehenge. Stonehenge was built in order to calculate the annual calendar and seasons.
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Places of Interest in Great Britain
Great Britain is rich in world-famous places. Certainly among them there are famous university cities . Oxford and Cambridge, Shakespeare's birthplace — Stratford-upon-Avon, towns of Cardiff, Edinburgh, Glasgow. Stratford-upon-Avon is a small town with the population about 20 thousand. It is 94 miles northwest of London. Its chief points of interest are associated with the name and life of Shakespeare. In Henley Street stands a one-storeyed wooden house, where the greatest English poet and playwright was born. Now, this house belongs to the British government. When Shakespeare won the recognition of his contemporaries and became wealthy he bought New Place, one of the largest houses in Stratford. It was in 1597 but he continued to live and work in London until 1610. Shakespeare died at the age of fifty-two in 1616 at New Place. But in 1759 the house where he died was torn down. Shakespeare was buried in the church at Stratford on the banks of the Avon. The Royal Shakespeare Theatre was opened in Stratford in 1932. Only Shakespeare's plays are performed here. The plays staged in this theatre attract people from all over the world. Every year on the 23d of April people from all over the world come to Stratford to take part in celebrating Shakespeare's birthday. Those who come to Oxford certainly are interested in its university most of all. It was founded in the 12th century. But there is no "university" as such in Oxford. The component parts of the University of Oxford are the colleges. Each college is practically autonomous, with its own set of rules of government. But not only this differs Oxford from universities in other countries. Oxford has a "golden heart" — an area of less than half a square mile in which various historic buildings may be found. But they do not stand in isolation; they are mixed together with houses, shops and offices. 54
Cardiff is the capital of Wales and its chief port. Cardiff is also a tourist centre. There are some places of interest there: the Castle, National Museum of Wales, New Theatre, Welsh Folk Museum. The Welsh people love singing. That's why Wales is sometimes called "the land of song". One of the Welsh traditions is festivals. Song festivals are very popular and usually gather a lot of people. Edinburgh is a city where the historic past lives side by side with the present. The first thing one can see is a very large hill in the middle of Edinburgh — the Rock. Edinburgh Castle stands on the Rock. It is the most famous building in the city. Edinburgh is famous for many things: its art galleries, museums, libraries. But it is especially famous for its festivals. In summer there is the Edinburgh 54 Festival. This is Britain's biggest arts festival. The city gets thousands of visitors during the festival period and every theatre, church and school hall is used for drama, music, film or opera. Besides the official festival there is also an unofficial festival. Here the artists are amateurs. Now, the unofficial festival is even bigger and more popular than the official one. The best-known monument in Edinburgh is the Walter Scott Monument. The famous English writer of historic novels lived and worked here, The monument is in the form of a Gothic spire 200 feet high with a statue of Sir Walter Scott inside this beautiful structure. In the niches of the monument there are 64 statuettes of well-known characters from Scott's novels and poems. There is a prehistoric monument in Great Britain which is as interesting to the tourists as the Egyptian pyramids. This is Stonehenge. Stones stand here in circles or are arranged into a horseshoe shape. A great many theories have been advanced but exactly why it was built remains a mystery. Though the scientists consider that Stonehenge was built in order to calculate the annual calendar and seasons.
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Outstanding People of Great Britain
Great Britain made a great contribution to the science, literature, music and arts of the world. It gave to mankind a lot of outstanding scientists, writers and poets, musicians and painters. Thomas More, who lived in the 15th century, was an outstanding humanist, scientist and statesman. His work "Utopia" brought him world-wide acknowledgement. Many prominent people were influenced by his ideas of a free democratic state described in "Utopia". William Shakespeare is one of the most famous writers in the world. His plays "Romeo and Juliet", "Hamlet, Prince of Denmark", "King Lear", "Macbeth" were translated into almost every language and staged in every theatre. He described the characters and feelings, which can be called international and living forever. Daniel Defoe, Robert Burns, Walter Scott, Charles Dickens, Lewis Carroll are only a few names well-known all over the world. William Hogarth, Sir Joshua Reynolds, Thomas Gainsborough, John Constable contributed to the world's painting treasures. Great Britain has also given to the world many outstanding scientists. Alexander Fleming, the discoverer of penicillin, was born in Scotland. He spent his working hours in hospitals and laboratories. His discovery of penicillin did more to help suffering people than anything else for centuries. When he died in 1955 his old friend said: "... by his work he relieved more suffering than any other living man". Ernest Rutherford, a famous English physicist, worked in the field of radioactivity. His brilliant research established the existence and nature of radioactive transformations. He was one of the founders of the atomic theory of physics and creators of the first atomic model. Michael Faraday made his major discovery in the field of electricity — the electromagnetic induction. He also made several important observations on the conductivity of different materials. Enjoying worldwide popularity, Faraday remained a modest man, who rejected high titles. All of them considered hard labour and love for mankind to be the main reason of their success.
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Charles Darwin
Darwin had not planned to be a scientist. He wanted to become a doctor. But he was interested in plants and animals. A friend who knew about Darwin's interest in nature invited him to take the trip. Charles was 22 when he left England for a five-year trip around the world. This trip is a very important one in the history of science, for it led Darwin to write one of the world's most famous books. The book is "The Origin of Species". It gives Darwin's ideas of how all the plants and animals of today have come from the very simple plants and animals that first lived on the Earth. Darwin was seasick for much of the voyage, but he came back with the notes for his great book. He visited the Galapagos Islands, Australia, New Zealand. There he saw many strange plants and animals. These were Darwin's chief ideas: many more plants and animals are produced than can possibly live. There is no two plants and animals, even of the same kind, which would be exactly alike. The idea that all the plants and animals of today came from the simple plants and animals of long ago is called "the theory of evolution".
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Isaac Newton
Plato is my friend, Aristotle is my friend, but my best friend is truth. Isaac Newton's life can be divided into three quite distinct periods. The first is his boyhood days from 1643 up to his appointment to a chair in 1669. The second period from 1669 to 1687 was the highly productive period in which he was professor at Cambridge. The third period (nearly as long as the other two combined) saw Newton as a highly paid government official in London with little further interest in mathematical research. Isaac Newton was born in the manor house of Woolsthorpe, near Grantham in Lincolnshire. By the calendar in use at the time of his birth Newton was born on Christmas Day, 1642. (The Gregorian calendar was not adopted in England until 1752, by the Gregorian calendar — on January 4, 1643). Isaac Newton came from a family of farmers but never knew his father, also named Isaac Newton, who died in October 1642, three months before his son was born. Although Isaac’s father owned property and animals, which made him quite a wealthy man, he was completely uneducated and could not sign his own name. Isaac's mother Hannah Ayscough remarried Barnabas Smith the minister of the church at North Witham, a nearby village, when Isaac was two years old. The young child was then left in the care of his grandmother Margery Ayscough at Woolsthorpe. Basically treated as an orphan, Isaac did not have a happy childhood. Isaac began attending the Free Grammar School in Grantham, but soon was taken away from school. An uncle, William Ayscough, decided that Isaac should prepare for entering university and, having persuaded his mother that this was the right thing to do, Isaac was allowed to return to the Free Grammar School in Grantham in 1660 to complete his school education. Newton entered his uncle's old College, Trinity College Cambridge, on June 5, 1661. He was older than most of his fellow students. Instruction at Cambridge was dominated by the philosophy of Aristotle but some freedom of study was allowed in the third year of the course. Newton studied the philosophy of Descartes and Boyle. He recorded his thoughts in a book which he entitled "Quaestiones Quaedam Philosophicae" ("Certain Philosophical Questions"). He headed the text with a Latin statement meaning "Plato is my friend, Aristotle is my friend, but my best friend is truth" showing himself a free thinker from an early stage. Newton received his bachelor's degree in April 1665. His scientific genius emerged suddenly when the University was closed because of the plague in the summer of 1665 and he had to return to Lincolnshire. 58
There he began revolutionary advances in mathematics, optics, physics and astronomy. He had reached the conclusion during the two plague years that white light is not a simple entity. Every scientist since Aristotle had believed that white light was a basic single entity, but the chromatic aberration in a telescope lens convinced Newton otherwise. When he passed a thin beam of sunlight through a glass prism Newton noted the spectrum of colours that was formed. He argued that white light is really a mixture of many different types of rays, which are refracted at slightly different angles, and that each different type of ray produces a different spectral colour. Newton's greatest achievement was his work in physics and celestial mechanics, which culminated in the theory of universal gravitation. In 1687 Newton published the "Philosophiae naturalis principia mathematica" or "Principia" as it is always known. The "Principia" is recognised as the greatest scientific book ever written. Newton analysed the motion of bodies in resisting and non-resisting media under the action of centripetal forces. He demonstrated that the planets were attracted toward the Sun by a force varying as the inverse square of the distance and generalised that all heavenly bodies mutually attract one another. Further generalisation led Newton to the law of universal gravitation: ... all matter attracts all other matter with a force proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them. Newton explained a wide range of phenomena: the tides and their variations, the precession of the Earth's axis, and motion of the Moon as perturbed by the gravity of the Sun. This work made Newton an international leader in scientific research. Newton decided to leave Cambridge to take up a government position in London, becoming Warden of the Royal Mint in 1696. However, he did not resign his positions at Cambridge until 1701. As Master of the Mint, adding the income from his estates, Newton became a very rich man. For many people a position such as Master of the Mint would have been treated as simply a reward for their scientific achievements. Newton did not treat it as such and he made a strong contribution to the work of the Mint. He was particularly active in measures to prevent counterfeiting of the coinage. In 1703, he was elected president of the Royal Society and was re-elected each year until his death. He was knighted in 1705 by Queen Anne, the first scientist to be so honoured for his work. Newton died on March 31, 1727, in London.
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John Lennon
John Winston Lennon was born on October 9, 1940, to a troubled, working-class Liverpool family. John’s father deserted his mother when John was only three, so at an early age Lennon was sent to live with his aunt in the suburb of Woolton, where he was a rebellious child. Frequently skipping school, Lennon left Quarry Bank High School at age 16 after his aunt persuaded the headmaster to write him a recommendation to Liverpool Art College. At art school Lennon became involved in music, buying a guitar and starting a skiffle band in early 1957. That band, the Quarrymen, evolved over the next few years into the Beatles. Lennon remained a principle singer and songwriter for the band through its decade-long career, splitting these duties with Paul McCartney. Lennon contributed more experimental and mystical music during the band's later years, while McCartney was more pop-oriented; Lennon also led the group into drug use during the mid-'60s and encouraged them to follow his guru, the Maharishi Mahesh Yogi. Shortly after forming the Beatles, Lennon married an art school classmate, Cynthia Powell, with whom he had a son, Julian, in 1963. Their marriage was rocky, especially after Lennon began openly dating an older Japanese-American artist named Yoko Ono. Cynthia divorced John in 1968. In the spring of 1969 Lennon and a very pregnant Ono embarked on a "honeymoon" to Europe, stopping along the way to get married in Gibraltar on March 20th. The newlyweds returned to England in May 1969, where Yoko had a miscarriage, the first of several. To deal with their anguish, John and Yoko hastily recorded two avant-garde albums, "Life with the lions" and "The Wedding Album" (whose entire B-side consists of John and Yoko screaming each other's name). As Lennon spent more time collaborating with Ono, he began to distance himself from the other "Beatles". In late 1969 he informed the group that he wanted to quit the band, but because contract negotiations were underway with EMI, his decision was kept quiet. Lennon intensified his political actions, paying for billboards in various cities that called for the end of war, and returning an award given to him by the Queen in protest of Britain's involvement in Biafra. Lennon refocused on his music career in February 1970. Two months later Paul McCartney released his debut solo album and publicly announced the end of "The Beatles", angering Lennon, who had first had the idea and wanted to be the one to break the news. In the spring of 1971 Lennon and Ono relocated to New York City, moving into the Dakota, an historic apartment building on Central Park West. Lennon wasted no time becoming involved in American society, siding with Chicago Seven political radicals and frequently speaking out on political issues. That fall Lennon released his most popular solo album, the No. 1 charting "Imagine", which dealt with personal and political issues in a more accessible manner than his earlier works. 60
In 1974 Lennon separated from Yoko Ono, relocating to Los Angeles. For the next two years Lennon became heavily involved in drugs, and became a frequent attendee of celebrity parties and wild nightclubs. Through the party circuit Lennon developed a friendship with Elton John, with whom he co-wrote the song "Whatever Gets You Through the Night," Lennon's 1974 No. 1 comeback. On Thanksgiving night Lennon joined John onstage at Madison Square Garden, a legendary performance which turned out to be Lennon's last public concert. The following year Lennon recorded a contractual obligation album, "Rock and Roll". Several months before the official release of the album, businessman Morris Levy released a bootleg of the record. Lennon later sued Levy, winning a large judgement in court. By the end of 1975, things had turned around for Lennon: Elton John had helped John and Yoko resolve their marital differences, and in early October an appeals court overturned the deportation order which had been haunting Lennon. The following year Ono became pregnant yet again, and on October 9, 1976 (John's birthday) gave birth to their child, Sean. In the summer of 1976 John retired from music to raise his child. In early 1980 Lennon came out of retirement and signed a new record. John and Yoko recorded a new album that summer, "Double Fantasy", which was released in November. While leaving his New York apartment on December 8, Lennon was approached by a sleazy-looking fan who requested an autograph. When John returned home several hours later, the fan was still outside his apartment, and shot Lennon several times. He died minutes later, and the crazed fan, Mark David Chapman, was quickly arrested. On December 14, at 2 p. m., Lennon fans around the world participated in a widely publicised 10-minute silent vigil. Naturally, Double Fantasy went to No. 1 and sold thousands of copies. As Chapman went to trial, bizarre details came out about the disturbed loner, who apparently was obsessed not only with Lennon, but also with the popular novel Catcher in the Rye. He was easily convicted and sentenced to an indefinite term in a mental institution.
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British Youth
Most 18 and 19 year-olds in Britain are quite independent people. Relationships within the British family are different now. Children have more freedom to make their own decisions. For example, children aged 13 may be employed part time in Great Britain. At the age of 16 they can leave home, marry with "parents' consent". At the age of 18 they can vote, get married and drink in pubs. Education is a very important part in the life of British youth. One can't become an independent person without it. During the last 30 years there were a lot of different trends in youth movements. Those trends are known as the "hippies", the "punks", the "rockers". But certainly there are different traditional youth organizations in Great Britain. Among them — the Scout Association, the National Union of Students (the Nus). The National Union of Students was founded in 1922. It promotes the educational and social interests of students. But certainly the most numerous is the Scout Association, founded in 1908 for boys and in 1910 for girls by Lord Baden-Powel. The programme of training is planned to develop intelligence and practical skills and to promote health. Scout training is complementary to the ordinary education. Everyone in Great Britain can find the activity he likes most.
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The English Character
The national character of the English has been very differently described, but most commentators agree over one quality, which they describe as a sense of superiority or "insular pride". English patriotism is based on a deep sense of security. Englishmen as individuals may have been insecure, threatened with the loss of a job, unsure of themselves or unhappy in many ways. But as a nation they have been secure for centuries. The English are a well-disciplined people. This is not to say that they are never rude. Coarse expressions are hardly ever used. You may be struck by the fact that life in Britain is less noisy. The English display a surprising unity in a crisis. The visual coldness of Englishmen has been almost universally noted by the foreigners. But they also confess that once one gets to know an Englishman better, he turns out to be a very companionable fellow. The characteristic feature of the English is their love of games. They love playing all of them. They play football and cricket; games are nowhere so popular as in England. But however childish at their games they are very serious in business. The British have long been famous as a nation of animal-lovers. There is a pet in nearly every family and often the family dog or cat has a special chair near the fire, special food and a special place in the hearts of his owners. All this doesn't mean that the English are different from other human beings. They certainly feel the same emotions: jealousy, envy, joy and happiness as others — only their external reactions are different. When one speaks of the English, one usually means all the other nations living within the borders of the United Kingdom — Scottish, Welsh or Irish. The difference between these nations is great enough for everyone who lives in Britain, but for the outside world it is much smaller.
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English Cuisine
With the exception of breakfast meals in England are much the same as in other countries. The usual meals in Great Britain are breakfast, lunch, tea and dinner. The English are very particular about their meals and strictly keep to their meal times. Breakfast time is between 7 and 9 a.m. Many people like to begin it with porridge. English people eat porridge with milk or cream and sugar, but no Scotsman — and Scotland is the home of porridge — ever puts sugar in it. Then comes bacon and eggs, marmalade with toast and tea or coffee. For a change you can have a boiled egg, cold ham or perhaps fish. The two substantial meals of the day, lunch and dinner, are more or less the same. Lunch is usually taken at one o'clock. Many people, who go out to work, find it difficult to come home for lunch and go to a cafe or a restaurant, but they never miss a meal. Lunch is a big meal — meat or fish, potatoes and salad, puddings or fruit are quite usual for it. In the afternoon, about four o'clock, the English have a cup of tea and a cake, or a slice or two of bread and butter. Tea is very popular with the English; it may be called their national drink. The English like it strong and fresh made. Tea must be brewed as follows: one teaspoon for each person and one for the pot. They drink it with or without sugar, but almost always with milk. It is important to pour tea into milk, and not vice versa. Very famous is their "high tea" at 5 o'clock, where tea is accompanied by ham, tomatoes and salad, bread and butter, fruit and cakes. Dinnertime is generally about half past seven or later. In some houses dinner is the biggest meal of the day. They begin with soup, followed by fish, roast chicken, potatoes and vegetables, fruit and coffee. But in great many English homes the midday meal is the chief one of the day, and in the evening they only have light meal, for example, bread and cheese and a cup of coffee or cocoa and fruit.
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Customs and Traditions in Great Britain Every country and every nation has its own customs and traditions. You cannot speak about England without speaking about its traditions and customs. Englishmen are proud of their traditions and carefully keep them alive. The English are stereotyped as cold and reserved. However, they are steady, easygoing and fond of sport. But these statements can't be universal. Great Britain consists of England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland. Inhabitants of all these parts have a lot of differences. For example, the Scots are not English. The Scots don't like to compromise, lean much upon logic and run much to extremes. The Scots are more extravagant, their traditions are more colourful and exciting. The Gaelic language and songs, the tartan, the bagpipes are Scottish attributes. In Wales national spirit is strong, national traditions are really appreciated. The Welsh still proudly wear their national dress on festive occasions. The Welsh language is still very much a living force and is taught side by side with English at schools. Welshmen, who have a highly developed artistic sense, have a distinguished record in the realm of poetry, song and drama. The main difference between the Irish and the British is their religion. But there are some things that unite them all together. One of them is gardening. The love of gardens is deep rooted in all the British people. You will seldom see a suburban garden neglected. Britain is also a nation of animal lovers. Every family has a pet, which is carefully attended. The English are stay-at-home people. "There is no place like home", they say. When they don't work they like to spend their days off at home with their families. Englishmen are very fond of fire-places, that's why many of them prefer the open fire to central heating. They like to live in small houses with a small garden. People all over the world know the saying "The Englishman's home is his castle". They say that English people keep to their traditions even in meals. Many Englishmen eat porridge with milk and sugar for breakfast. As for the Scots, for example, they never put sugar in their porridge, they always put salt in it. By the way, breakfast time in England is between seven and nine. Then, between 12 and 2 there comes lunch time. In some English houses lunch is the biggest meal of the day — they have meat or fish, vegetables, fruit or pudding. In the afternoon, at teatime the English like to have a cup of tea with milk. Some Englishmen have their dinner late in the evening. For dinner they have soup, fish or meat, vegetables," pudding or fruit. For supper they usually have a glass of milk and a cake or a cup of tea and a sandwich. The English are tea-drinkers. They have it many times a day. Some Englishmen have tea for breakfast, tea at lunch time, tea after dinner, tea at tea-time and tea with supper. Some English families have "high tea" or big tea and no supper. For high tea they may have cold meat, bread and butter, cakes, and, of course, a lot of tea. 65
UK Holidays
Great Britain is famous for its old traditions. Some of them existed in ancient times and survived through centuries. Some of them appeared when Christianity came to the British Isles. Speaking about religious holidays one can't but mention Easter, Pancake Day and Mother's Day, Christmas Day, Boxing Day. Public holidays in Britain are called Bank holidays. I would like to speak about Christmas, New Year and Bank holidays. Christmas is celebrated on the 25th of December and symbolizes the birthday of Jesus Christ. This day is marked by setting the fur-tree and decorating it with different toys and candles. Children wait for Santa Claus who comes to every house and brings presents. Going to bed children leave their stockings to receive presents next morning. There are a lot of parties organized by people to celebrate this wonderful holiday. Young people like to spend it together in good companies. There is a lot of fun and jokes on that day. Celebrating of the New Year Eve is held in the family in England. Some people in Scotland go outside and celebrate New Year in squares singing songs or dancing. The first man coming to you after the New Year Eve may bring you luck, especially if he comes with a piece of bread and coal. Bread symbolizes wealth and coal — warmth. Children like this holiday very much. They go out of their houses, sing songs and congratulate people. People treat them with candies or give them little money. Bank holidays are celebrated four times a year. This day is a day-off for everybody because all banks and all places of business are closed. According to the Act of Parliament of 1871 there are 4 bank holidays: Easter Monday, White Monday, the first Monday in August December 26 — Boxing Day. There are also great fairs with a lot of goods for sale, with fun, jokes and choosing the Pearl Queen and King. The Pearl Queen and King are people at the fair who have the most unusual costume with a lot of pearl buttons on it. There are a lot of other holidays in Great Britain.
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British Art, Theatre, Music People assume that the artist's prime responsibility is to communicate with them and that this communication ought to be instantly understandable — something they can hum, a landscape they can recognize, characters they can identify with, a plot they can follow. The history of the arts is notoriously rich in examples of great talents ignored in their generation; such as Ibsen, Van Gogh and Wagner who were considered in their day as bad, mad and dangerous. But it's also true, of course, that there are examples of great artists who enjoyed immediate success — Shakespeare is the most familiar example. What makes it worse for many people is the tendency of so much contemporary art in the West to look inwards, or into the mirror, rather than outwards, into society. Although the arts are there to be enjoyed, to give more intensity of living, a greater depth of understanding, a more profound self-awareness, you really can't expect to enjoy them all, or always to understand what is new straight away, any more than you should feel obliged to like what you don't comprehend. But to try is always worth the effort. There was little pictorial art in England until the great miniaturists of the Tudor epoch. There were portraits on a large scale, of course, but they were in the main, of foreign origin, notably Dutch like Holbein. Then came Hogarth, the first great native painter born at the end of the 17th century. Famous for both engravings and oil paintings, some of them of an extreme sensitivity, others bitterly satirical, he was followed by Joshua Reynolds (1723-1792) famous for his portraits. If Hogarth was the artist of the towns, Gainsborough, contemporary of Reynolds, was the painter of the countryside, frequently the background to his portraits. In a similar tradition was Stubbs, as famous for his portraits of horses as of people. Among the other portraitists of the 18th century were Romney, and Raeburn. Constable (1776-1837) finally gave landscape painting its importance. Among his near-contemporaries, though a little younger, were William Blake, poet, visionary and painter, and Turner, renowned above all for his naval scenes. The modern period in British art may be said to date from the year 1910, when the first Post-Impressionist Exhibition was held in London. The first decade of the century had been dominated by two romanticists, Frank Brangwyn and Augustus John and by the sculptor Jacob Epstein who became a protagonist of modernity. The two painters may, to some extent, have been influenced by Gauguin, Epstein was essentially an expressionist. Such modern painters as Peter Blake, Allan Jones and some others seek an image of immediate popular appeal (hence the term "pop-art" sometimes applied to this school). Lacking any formal or even ideological basis, such a pictorial activity tends to become amateurish, flippant and vulgar. And what is more, it is not "popular" in the sense of having a direct appeal to the masses. 67
Television Television gained acceptance as a communications medium following World War II. Critics claim that the golden age of television occurred in the 1950's. Various fads have swept the television scene — e. g. westerns, doctor and lawyer shows, cops-and-robbers series, rural comedies. Sports coverage of baseball, golf and especially professional football is currently in vogue. Late evening talk shows are currently popular. Recently controversies involving television have concerned children's programming, the issue of violence, and the right of TV to broadcast controversial news programs. Psychologists have argued that the presentation of violence on television might lead young people to regard violence as acceptable behaviour, TV is a major factor in British life. The British spend a great deal of time watching television. Some people watch one program, and then they are tempted to watch the next one as well, when perhaps they ought to be doing something else. The more intelligent people, however, choose their programs very carefully. They find out what they really want to watch by studying the printed programs, and do not allow themselves to waste too much time watching merely entertainment.
Music Musical activity in Britain has reached in 20th century its highest level since Tudor times. An unusual amount of new composition has included the operas of Sir Benjamin Britten and the symphonies of Sir Edward Edgar and Ralph Maughan Williams who can be considered as the greatest symphonic composers Britain has produced. The musical public has grown steadily larger, and can support nightly concerts at London's two great concert halls, The Royal Festival Hall and The Royal Albert Hall, as well as a number of smaller halls. London has five major orchestras, of which the Royal Philharmonic and the younger Philharmonia are outstanding. Choral singing, always a feature of British musical life, remains as popular as ever, particularly in the North of England and Wales. Grand opera has no more than-a limited following among the British, but in London The Royal Opera House, Covent Garden, maintains a high standard and draws large audiences. Opera is also performed at Sadler's Wells Theatre. Ballet, on the other hand, has become increasingly popular, and The Royal Ballet (the resident company at Covent Garden) has established a high reputation, and has been ranked by experts among the best ballet companies in the world. Although there have been no great jazz artists of British origin, jazz is still quite popular in Britain. Attempts are made to combine jazz and rock. Since the early fifties pop music has been the enthusiasm and the entertainment of the young, but recently it has joined forces with beat and protest songs to express more than romantic yearnings: it has become an outlet for discontent, disillusionment, for hopes and social protest. With the emergence of the Beatles and the Rolling Stones in the early 1960s, a distinctive new style began to make itself heard. The young began to create their own music with instruments such as the guitar and percussion. The pop group was born. There is considerable force in the music of many pop groups, and much in common, for example, between Bob Dylan and recent Paul McCartney. Such groups as "Led Zeppelin" and "Pink Floyd" achieved international success. 68
The British Newspapers Let's talk about English papers. First of all there is no subscription. You may buy any on sale. There are too many types of newspapers; the "popular" papers and the "quality" papers. The popular papers are less in size, with many pictures, big headlines and short articles. They are easy to read. The quality papers are for more serious readership. These papers are bigger in size, with larger articles and more detailed information. The newspapers in Britain are proud of the fact that they are different from each other — each tries to have a definite profile. The following is a witty, but at least partly accurate, description of the people who read the different papers. The Times is read by the people who run the country. The Mirror is read by the people who think they run the country. The Guardian is read by the people who think about running the country. The Morning Star is read by the people who think they ought to run the country. The Mail is read by the wives of the people who run the country. The Telegraph is read by the people who think the country ought to be run as it used to be. The Express is read by the people who think it is still run as it used to be. The Sun is read by the people who don't care who runs the country as long as the girl on page three is attractive.
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British Universities
For seven hundred years Oxford and Cambridge universities dominated the British education. Scotland had four universities, all founded before A. D. 1600 (Glasgow, Edinburgh, Aberdeen, and St. Andrews). Wales only acquired a university in the 20th century; unlike the others it is a loose federation of four university colleges located in different cities (Cardiff", Swansea, Bangor, and Aberystwith). The first English university after Oxford and Cambridge (sometimes referred to as Oxbridge) was Durham, in the North of England, founded in 1832. The University of London was founded a few years later in 1836. During the nineteenth century institutions of higher education were founded in most of the biggest industrial towns, like Birmingham, Manchester, Leeds, Sheffield (sometimes called the Redbrick Universities). At first they did not have full university status but were known as university colleges; since 1945, however, all have become independent universities, and in recent years a number of other universities have been founded: Sussex, Essex, Warwick, and others. In the middle 60s there was a further new development. Some of the local technical colleges maintained by local authorities had gained special prestige. By 1967 ten of these had been given charters as universities, though they still concentrated mostly on science and technology, with languages and social sciences on a smaller scale. Many of them are in the biggest cities where there were already established universities; so now we have the University of Aston (Birmingham), Salford (close to Manchester), Strathclyde (Glasgow), Herriot-Watt University (Edinburgh) and Brunei University (London). When we add all these together we find that the number of universities in England increased within ten years from nineteen to thirty-six, and in Scotland from four to eight. Oxford University is a sort of federation of colleges, and it is impossible to understand its structure (or that of Cambridge or Durham) unless one first understands the nature and function of these colleges, which have no resemblance whatever with the institutions called "colleges" in America. Oxford has twenty-three ordinary colleges for men, five for women. All these are parallel and equal institutions, and none of them is connected with any particular field of study. No matter what subject a man proposes to study he may study at any of the men's colleges. Each college has a physical existence in the shape of a dining-hall, chapel, and residential rooms (enough to accommodate about half the student membership, the 70
rest living in lodgings in the town). It is governed by its Fellows (commonly called "dons"), of whom there are usually about twenty or thirty. The dons are also responsible for teaching the students of the college through the tutorial system. The Fellows elect the Head of the college (whose title varies from college to college). The colleges vary very much in size and extent of grounds and buildings, and also in eminence. The biggest and most magnificent is Christ Church, the chapel of which is also Oxford cathedral. Colleges choose their own students, and a student only becomes a member of the University by having been accepted by a college. Students are chosen mainly on academic merit, but the policy of colleges in this respect varies from college to college. Some tend to be rather keen to admit a few men who are very good at rugby or some other sport, or sons of former students or of lords, or of eminent citizens, or of millionaires. The University prescribes syllabuses, arranges lectures, conducts examinations, and awards degrees, but there is no single building which can be called "the University". The colleges and university buildings are scattered about the town, mostly in the central area, though the scientific laboratories and the women's colleges are quite a long way out. The university teachers are mostly Fellows of colleges, who may at the same time hold university appointments as lecturers or professors. Part of the teaching is by means of lectures organized by the university, and any student may attend any university lecture. At the beginning of each term (there are three terms in the Oxford academic year) a list is published showing all the lectures being given during the term within each faculty, and every student can choose which lectures he will attend, though his own college tutor will advise him which lectures seem likely to be more useful. Attendance at lectures is not compulsory, and no records of attendance are kept. Apart from lectures, teaching is by means of the "tutorial" system, which is a system of individual tuition organized by the colleges. Each Fellow in a college is tutor in his own subject to the undergraduates who are studying it. Each student goes to his tutor's room once every week to read out an essay which he has written, and for an hour he and the tutor discuss the essay. A student does not necessarily go only to his own tutor but may be assigned to another don in his own college or in another college when he is studying some particular topic which is outside the special interest of his own tutor. 71
The USA
The United States of America is one of the greatest countries in the world. It is situated on the North American continent and is washed by two oceans: the Pacific and the Atlantic. The USA only borders on two countries — Canada and Mexico. This large country has a lot of mountains, rivers and lakes. The main mountains are the Appalachians and the Cordilleras. The longest rivers are the Mississippi and the Missouri. There are five great lakes in the northern part of the USA. They are Lake Ontario, Lake Huron, Lake Erie, Lake Superior and Lake Michigan. The longest rivers of the USA are the Mississippi, the Missouri, the Columbia, the Colorado, the Yukon and the Rio Grande. The USA is a very large country so it has several climatic regions. In the southern part the climate is subtropical while the northern part has very cold weather in winter. The United States is rich in most of the metals and minerals needed to supply its basic industries. It produces iron, copper, coal, phosphate rock, natural gas, uranium, non-ferrous metals etc. America has fifty states and one federal District of Columbia where the capital of the country is situated. The capital of the USA is Washington. It stands on the Potomac River in the eastern part of the country. The main cities are located on the Pacific and Atlantic coasts. New-York, the largest city of the country, is situated on Manhattan island. Other large cities are San-Francisco, Los-Angeles, Detroit, Chicago, Phoenix and Dallas. The USA is a country of highly developed industry and agriculture. The main industrial centres are Chicago and Detroit, with their greatest automobile company "General Motors". There are a lot of farms with various agricultural products there. Grain, fruits and vegetables are grown in vast fields especially in the South. The USA is a country with great holidays, customs and traditions. It is one of the most beautiful and interesting countries in the world.
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The United States of America (Part I)
The U.S.A. is a federal republic of 50 states. Besides the 48 contiguous states that occupy the middle latitudes of the continent, the United States includes the state of Alaska at the north-western extreme of North America and the island state of Hawaii in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The conterminous states are bounded on the north by Canada, on the east by the Atlantic Ocean, on the south by the Gulf of Mexico and on the west by the Pacific Ocean. The national capital is Washington, which is coextensive with the District of Columbia, the federal capital region created in 1790. The total area of the United States is 3,679,192 square miles (9,529,063 square kilometres), making it the fourth largest country in the world in area (after Russia, Canada and China). Outlying territories and other politically associated areas in the Pacific Ocean and the Caribbean Sea add approximately 4,000 square miles to this figure. The major characteristic of the United States is probably its great variety. Its physical environment ranges from the Arctic to the subtropical, from the moist rain forest to the arid desert, from the rugged mountain peak to the flat prairie. Although the total population of the United States is large by world standards, its overall population density is relatively low; the country embraces some of the world's largest urban concentrations as well as some of the most extensive areas that are almost devoid of habitation. The United States contains a highly diverse population; but, unlike a country such as China that largely incorporated indigenous peoples, its diversity has to a great degree come from an immense and sustained global immigration. Probably no other country has a wider range of racial, ethnic and cultural types than does the United States. In addition to the presence of surviving native Americans (including American Indians, Aleutians and Eskimos) and the descendants of Africans taken as slaves to America, the national character has been enriched, tested, and constantly redefined by the tens of millions of immigrants who by and large have gone to America hoping for greater social, political and economic opportunities than they had in the places they left.
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The United States of America (Part II)
The United States is the world's greatest economic power, measured in terms of gross national product (GNP). The nation's wealth is partly a reflection of its rich natural resources and its enormous agricultural output, but it owes more to the country's highly developed industry. Despite its relative economic self-sufficiency in many areas, the United States is the most important single factor in world trade by virtue of the sheer size of its economy. Its exports and imports represent major proportions of the world total. The United States also impinges on the global economy as a source of and as a destination for investment capital. The country continues to sustain an economic life that is more diversified than any other on the Earth, providing the majority of its people with one of the world's highest standards of living. The United States is relatively young by world standards, being barely more than 200 years old; it achieved its current size only in the mid-20th century. America was the first of the European colonies to separate successfully from its motherland, and it was the first nation to be established on the premise that sovereignty rests with its citizens and not with the government. In its first century and a half, the country was mainly preoccupied with its own territorial expansion and economic growth and with social debates that ultimately led to civil war and a healing period that is still not complete. In the 20th century the United States emerged as a world power, and since World War II it has been one of the pre-eminent powers. Although the United States still offers its residents opportunities for unparalleled personal advancement and wealth, the depletion of its resources, contamination of its environment, and continuing social and economic inequality that perpetuates areas of poverty and blight all threaten the fabric of the country. 74
Geographical Position of the USA
The USA occupies the central part of the North American continent. It borders on Canada in the north and Mexico in the south. It is washed by the Atlantic Ocean in the east, by the Pacific Ocean in the west and by the Gulf of Mexico in the south. The territory of the USA consists of three separate parts. The USA and Alaska are situated in North America. The Hawaii are situated in the central part of the Pacific Ocean. The total area of the United States is 3,679,192 square miles (9,529,063 square kilometres), making it the fourth largest country in the world in area (after Russia, Canada and China). Outlying territories and other politically associated areas in the Pacific Ocean and the Caribbean Sea add approximately 4,000 square miles to this figure. The population of the USA is about 256 million people. The United States contains a highly diverse population; but, unlike a country such as China that largely incorporated indigenous peoples, its diversity has to a great degree come from an immense and sustained global immigration. Probably no other country has a wider range of racial, ethnic and cultural types than does the United States. No general statement can be made about the landscape of the USA. It is a country of mountains and prairies, valleys and deserts. About one half of the territory in the west is occupied by the Cordilleras. In the east there are the Appalachian Mountains. Between these great mountain chains central and large, valleys lie. The Rocky Mountains extend from Alaska through Canada and the USA to Mexico. Together with the Sierra Nevada Mountains in California they have snow-capped peaks and clear mountain lakes. The Great Lakes are situated in the north-east of the country. They are Lake Ontario, Lake Huron, Lake Erie, Lake Superior and Lake Michigan. The largest rivers of the USA are the Mississippi, the Missouri, the Columbia, the Colorado, and the Yukon. American rivers have very expressive names: the Snake River, the Milk River, the Green River, the Sweetwater River, the White River. The USA has rich deposits of coal, oil, iron, zinc, copper, silver, phosphate rock, natural gas, uranium and non-ferrous metals. The country has one fourth of the world’s coal deposits.
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Climate and Nature of the USA
The USA is situated in the central part of the North American Continent. It is washed by the Atlantic Ocean in the east, by the Pacific Ocean in the west and by the Gulf of Mexico in the south. The climate varies from moderate to subtropical. Along the Pacific and Atlantic coasts it is oceanic. In the USA are observed sharp differences between winter and summer. Average winter temperature is about 25 degrees below zero in Alaska and up to 20 degrees above zero in Florida. Average summer temperature varies from 14 degrees above zero in the western part up to 32 degrees above zero in the southeast. The largest amount of rainfall is observed in Alaska and the southwest of the country. In winter the northern part of the USA usually has a steady snow cover. The largest rivers of the USA are the Mississippi, the Missouri, the Yukon, the Columbia, and the Colorado. The Great Lakes are situated in the northeast of the country. The region of the Cordilleras has semi deserts, while the rest of the territory is rich in forests. In California, where the climate is usually mild, the famous fruit-raising area is located. Californian oranges, grapefruit and lemons are sold all over the USA and other parts of the world. The plains of Wyoming, stretching for hundreds of miles, are covered with short grass and sagebrush. This is the land of cattle- and sheep breeding. The south of the country has been an agricultural region for many years. It raises the nation’s cotton and tobacco. The USA also grows wheat, corn and different vegetables. There are a lot of national parks in the USA, the aim of which is to preserve the beauty and treasures of the nature.
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Political System of the USA
The United States of America is a federative republic. From 1959 the Federation comprises 50 states. The president is the head of the state and the executive departments. He is also the Commander-in-chief of the army and Navy of the USA. The president and vice-president are elected for a term of four years. All the legislative power is vested in Congress, which consists of the Senate and the House of Representatives. There are 100 Senators who are elected by popular vote for a term of six years two from each state. The Senators represent all of the people in a state and their interests. The House of Representatives has 435 members. They are elected for twoyear term. They represent the population of "congressional districts" into which each state is divided. The number of Representatives from each state is based on its population. Congress makes all laws, and each House of Congress has the power to introduce legislation. Each can also vote against legislation passed by the other. Within the executive branch there are a number of executive departments. Each department is established by law, and is responsible for a specific area. The head of each department is appointed by the President. These appointments, however, must be approved by the Senate. An essential role in the US political system is played by the Supreme Court, which may declare a law, passed by Congress, to be contradictory to the Constitution of the country. The states have legislative and executive bodies of their own. Their structure, function and competence are determined by the Constitution of each state. There is an elected governor at the head of each state. States enjoy independence in their domestic affairs, including financial matters. However, state laws and actions of state authorities must not conflict with the Constitution of the USA. The US has in fact developed a two-party system. The two leading parties are the Democrats and the Republicans. There are other parties besides these two which do not play a role in national politics.
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Administration. The Executive Branch of the Government
The U.S. Constitution defines a federal system of government in which certain powers are delegated to the national government; other powers fall to the states. The national government consists of executive, legislative and judicial branches that are designed to check and balance one another; all are interrelated and overlapping yet each is quite distinct. Since the Constitution was ratified in 1788, there have been 26 amendments to it. The first 10, known as the Bill of Rights, established a number of individual liberties. Notable among the other amendments are the 13th, 14th and 15th, which abolished slavery and declared former slaves citizens with the right to vote; the 17th, which provided for the direct election of U.S. senators; and the 19th, which effected women's suffrage. Amending the Constitution requires a proposal by a two-thirds vote of both houses of Congress or by a national convention, followed by ratification by three-fourths of the state legislatures or state conventions. The executive branch of the government is headed by the president, who must be a natural-born citizen of the United States, at least 35 years old and a resident of the country for at least 14 years. The formal responsibilities of the president include those of chief executive, treaty maker, commander in chief of the army and head of state. In practice, they have grown to include drafting legislation, formulating foreign policy, personal diplomacy and leadership of his political party. The members of the president's Cabinet — the secretaries of State, Treasury, Defence, Interior, Agriculture, Commerce, Labour, Health and Human Services, Housing and Urban Development, Transportation, Education, Energy and Veterans Affairs and the attorney general — are appointed by the president with the approval of the Senate; they are described in the Twenty-fifth Amendment as "the principal officers of the executive departments," but much power has come to be exercised by presidential aides who are not in the Cabinet. Thus, the president's Executive Office includes the Office of Management and Budget, the Council of Economic Advisers and the National Security Council.
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Congress. The Legislative Branch of the Government
The legislative branch of the government is the Congress, which has two houses: the Senate and the House of Representatives. Powers granted Congress under the Constitution include the power to levy taxes, borrow money, regulate interstate commerce, declare war, seat members, discipline its own membership, and determine its rules of procedure. With the exception of revenue bills, which must originate in the House of Representatives, legislative bills may be introduced in and amended by either house; a bill — with its amendments — must pass both houses and be signed by the president before it becomes law. The president may veto a bill, but a veto can be overridden by a two-thirds vote of both houses. The House of Representatives is chosen by the direct vote of the electorate in single-member districts in each state, the number of representatives allotted to each state being based on population and the overall total never exceeding 435. Members must be 25 years old, residents of the states from which they are elected, and previously citizens of the United States for at least seven years. It has become practically imperative, though not constitutionally required that they be inhabitants of the districts that elect them. They serve for a two-year period. The speaker of the House, who is chosen by the majority party, presides over debate, appoints members of select and conference committees and performs other important duties. The parliamentary leaders of the two parties are the majority floor leader and the minority floor leader; they are helped by party whips who maintain contact between the leadership and the members of the House. Bills introduced by members in the House of Representatives are received by the standing committees, which meet in private executive session and can amend, expedite, delay or kill the bills. The committee chairmen traditionally have attained their positions on the basis of seniority, but this practice has been challenged. Among the most important committees are those on Appropriations, Ways and Means, and Rules. The Rules Committee, traditionally conservative, has great power to determine which bills will be brought to the floor of the House for consideration. Each state elects two senators at large. Senators must be at least 30 years old, residents of the state from which they are elected, and previously citizens of the United States for at least nine years. Each term of service is for six years, and terms are so arranged that one-third of the members are elected every two years. The Senate has 16 standing committees, among which the most prominent are those on Foreign Relations, Finance, Appropriations and Governmental Affairs. Debate is almost unlimited and may be used to delay the vote on a bill indefinitely. Such a delay is known as a filibuster and in most instances can be brought to an end if three-fifths of the Senate agree. Treaties made by the president with other governments must be ratified by a two-thirds vote of the Senate. 79
Courts. The Judicial Branch of the Government
The judicial branch of the federal government is headed by the U.S. Supreme Court, which interprets the meaning of the Constitution and of federal laws. It consists of nine justices (including the chief justice) appointed for life by the president with the consent of the Senate. It has appellate jurisdiction for the lower federal courts and from state courts of last resort if a federal question is involved. The court has original jurisdiction over cases involving foreign ambassadors, ministers, consuls and cases to which a state is a party. Three types of cases commonly reach the Supreme Court: cases involving litigants of different states, cases involving the interpretation of federal law and cases involving the interpretation of the Constitution. The court can take official action with as few as six judges joining in deliberation, and a majority vote of the entire court is decisive; a tie vote sustains a lower-court decision. Often the minority judges write a dissenting report. The Supreme Court has often been criticised for its decisions. In the 1930s, for example, a conservative court overturned much of President Franklin D. Roosevelt's New Deal legislation. In the area of civil rights it has received criticism from various groups at different times. After a 1954 ruling against school segregation, Southern political leaders attacked it harshly. Later, they were joined by Northern conservatives. A number of decisions involving the pre-trial rights of prisoners also came under attack on the ground that the court had made it difficult to convict criminals. Below the Supreme Court are the U.S. courts of appeals. Special courts handle property and contract damage suits against the United States (U.S. Claims Court), review customs rulings (U.S. Court of International Trade), and apply the Uniform Code of Military Justice (U.S. Court of Military Appeals). Each state has at least one federal district court and at least one federal judge. District judges are appointed for life by the president with Senate consent. Appeals from district-court decisions are carried to the courts of appeals.
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Administration. State and Municipal Governments
The governments of the 50 states have structures closely paralleling those of the federal government. Each state has a governor, a legislature and a judiciary. Each state has its own constitution. All state legislatures but one have two houses, Nebraska's being unicameral. Traditionally, state legislatures have been dominated by rural representatives who may not always be sympathetic to the needs of growing urban areas. Most state judicial systems are based upon elected justices of the peace (although in many states this term is not used), above whom come major trial courts, often called district courts, and appellate courts. In addition, there are probate courts concerned with wills, estates and guardianships. Most state judges are elected. State governments have a wide array of functions, encompassing agriculture and conservation, highway and motor vehicle supervision, public safety and corrections, professional licensing, regulation of intrastate business and industry, and certain aspects of education, public health and welfare. These activities require a large administrative organisation, headed by the governor. In most states there is also a lieutenant governor, not always of the same party as the governor, who serves as the presiding officer of the Senate. Other elected officials commonly include a secretary of state, state treasurer, state auditor and attorney general. Municipal governments are more diverse in structure than state governments. There are three basic types: mayor-council governments, commission governments and council-manager governments. In the first type, the mayor and the council are elected; although the council is nominally responsible for formulating city ordinances, which the mayor enforces, the mayor often controls the actions of the council. Boston, New York City, Philadelphia, Chicago, and Seattle, Wash., are among those cities having the mayor-council type of government. In the commission type, voters elect a number of commissioners, each of whom serves as head of a city department; the presiding commissioner is generally the mayor. Tulsa, Okla., and Salt Lake City, Utah, are included among the cities with commission governments. In the council-manager type, an elected council hires a city manager to administer the city departments. The mayor, elected by the council, simply chairs it and officiates at important functions. Des Moines, Iowa, and Cincinnati, Ohio, have council-manager governments. 81
Cities and Towns of the USA
There are very many large cities in the USA. Washington, the capital of the United States of America, is situated on the Potomac River. In comparison with such ancient historical cities as, for example, Rome, London, Moscow or Paris, Washington is quite young. The capital owes much to the first President of the USA — George Washington. It was G. Washington, who chose the place for the capital and laid in 1790 the corner-stone of the Capitol, where Congress sits. Washington has many historical places. The largest and tallest among the buildings is the Capitol with its great House of Representatives and the Senate chamber. There are no sky-scrapers in Washington because no other building must be taller than the Capitol. New York is the largest city in the USA and the biggest sea-port. It is situated in the mouth of the Hudson River. New York was founded by the Dutch. It is interesting to know that Manhattan Island — the central part of New York — was bought from the local Indians by the Dutch for 24 dollars. That was the most profitable commercial deal in the US history. Today Manhattan is the heart of business and commercial life of the country. New York is the city of sky-scrapers. There are many other places of interest in New York: Central Park, Times Square, Rockefeller Centre, the shopping districts and the United Nations Building. In Manhattan at Broadway there is Columbia University, one of the biggest universities of the USA. Another large city of the USA is Boston, one of the first cities which were built on the Atlantic coast of America. It is an important port and a financial and cultural centre. It has three universities. Chicago is one of the biggest industrial cities in the USA and the second largest after New York. Los Angeles, in California, is the centre of modern industries. Not far from Los Angeles there is Hollywood, the centre of the US film business. Philadelphia, near the east coast, produces agricultural machines and locomotives. Light industry is highly developed here. Philadelphia is an important cultural centre with many fine buildings and a university. Sacramento is the capital of the state California, which is called the "golden State" as it has gold mines on its territory. Gold-rush days made the state famous. 82
Sights of the USA
One should start sightseeing in America from Washington. There are many beautiful parks and gardens in Washington. It is interesting to see the famous cherry trees, the gift from Japan. They were brought to America in 1912. The NASA museum presents the US achievements in the exploration of space. Capitol Hill is the highest place in the city. There is a law that forbids building houses higher than the Capitol on Capitol Hill. Pennsylvania Avenue runs from the Capitol to the White House. It is used for all processions and parades. The White House, the residence of the president is the oldest public structure in the capital and one of the most beautiful. It was built in 1799. It is a twostoreyed white building. It is said that in 1812 when England was at war with America the British entered the city and some of the buildings, including the Capitol and the house of the president were set on fire. Two years later in order to hide the marks of the fire, the brown stone walls of the president's home were painted white and it has been the White House ever since. The Lincoln memorial and Washington monument are the most famous ones in Washington. The Washington monument is one of the most impressive sights in the city. It is situated in Potomac Park. It was erected in the memory of the first president, of the USA in 1888. It is called "the Pencil", one of the tallest stone constructions in the world and the tallest in the USA. The Lincoln memorial is in the west of the Washington monument. It is designed like a Greek temple. The dominant figure is the realistic figure of Abraham Lincoln seated in the centre of the open temple. There are a lot of sights in Philadelphia, for example, the Independence National Historical Park. You can also see the Liberty Bell, which is a symbol of freedom. The sound of this Bell told the people about the first public reading of the Declaration of Independence in July 1776. You can also visit the Philadelphia Museum of Art — one of the greatest art museums of the world. One should also visit New York, the city of skyscrapers with the statue of Liberty. A new American Immigration Museum has been opened at the base of the statue. The Metropolitan Opera House, the Madison Square Garden, the Modern Arts Museum are popular among the tourists. One can also visit Lyndon B. Johnson Space Centre near Houston in Texas or go to Florida or California to enjoy the Atlantic or Pacific Ocean beaches. I would like to see them all myself. 83
Outstanding People of America
The fates of many famous people of America have very much in common. Thus, one of the most well-known statesmen of the USA, Abraham Lincoln, was born in 1809. His father was a poor farmer and the boy had to work much on their small farm. But he read a lot, too. When he grew older he showed a strong interest for law. He became a lawyer and he always tried to use the law to defend people. In 1846 he was elected to Congress. There he said he was against slavery. In 1860 he became the President of the USA. In 1864 Abraham Lincoln was elected the President again, but a year later he was killed by his enemies in a theatre in Washington. The American inventor, Thomas Alva Edison, was born in Ohio in 1847. His family was not rich and the boy's education was limited to three months in the public school. When he was 12 he started to work. Several years later Edison learned telegraphy and became a telegraph operator. He wanted to improve the telegraph system and worked at it very hard. After a few months of work he built a transmitter of a new kind. This was his first important invention. The other two of Edison's greatest inventions were the gramophone and the electric lamp. Edison believed that only work could bring success. So did many of the famous American writers. O'Henry, for instance, a wellknown short-story writer had to earn his living from the age of fifteen and he educated himself with the help of friends. He wrote about the life of ordinary people in New York City. Typical for O'Henry's stories is a twist of plot which turns on an ironic or coincidental circumstance. Another famous American novelist, Theodore Dreiser had to leave school and work at a factory when he was still a boy. Later he became a newspaper correspondent and then he began to write books. He wrote such popular novels as "Sister Carrie", "Financier" and "Titan". Noah Webster is famous for his dictionary. It took Webster 20 years to write his dictionary. Part of this time he spent visiting scholars in England and France. The first edition of the dictionary was published in 1828 and the second in 1840. The first edition contained 12,000 words and between 30,000 and 40,000 definitions that had never been in a dictionary before. Webster's dictionary is still being printed by the millions. Of course, changes in it have been made since Webster's time. Words that Webster never heard or even dreamed of have been added. A "Webster's New International Dictionary" of today has more than 600,000 words.
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O'Henry
O'Henry is a famous American short-story writer, a master of surprise endings. He wrote about the life of ordinary people in New York City. Typical for O'Henry's stories is a twist of plot which turns on an ironic or coincidental circumstance. The public loved his work. William Sidney Porter (O'Henry) was born in Greenboro, North Carolina. His father, Algernon Sidney Porter, was a physician. When William was three, his mother died, and he was raised by his paternal grandmother and a paternal aunt. William was an avid reader, but at the age of fifteen he left the school, and then worked in a drug store and on a Texas ranch. He continued to Houston, where he had a number of jobs, including that of bank clerk. After moving to Austin, Texas, in 1882, he married. In 1884 Porter started a humorous weekly "The Rolling Stone". It was at this time that he began the heavy drinking. When the weekly failed, he joined the "Houston Post" as a reporter and columnist. In 1894 cash was found to have gone missing from the bank and O'Henry fled to Honduras. He returned to Austin the next year because his wife was dying. In 1897 he was convicted of embezzling bank fund, although there has been much debate over his actual guilt. In 1898 he entered a penitentiary at Columbus, Ohio. While in prison O'Henry started to write short stories to earn money to support his daughter Margaret. His first work, "Whistling Dick's Christmas Stocking" (1899), appeared in "McClure's Magazine". The stories of adventure in the U. S. Southwest and in Central America gained an immediately success among readers. After doing three years of the five years sentence, Porter emerged from the prison in 1901 and changed his name to O'Henry. According to some sources, he acquired the pseudonym from a warder called Orrin Henry. O'Henry moved to New York City in 1902 and from December 1903 to January 1906 he wrote a story a week for the New York "World", also publishing in other magazines. O'Henry's first collection, "Cabbages and Kings", appeared in 1904. The second, "The Four Million", was published two years later and included his well-known stories "The Gift of the Magi" and "The Furnished Room." "The Trimmed Lamp" (1907) explored the lives of New Yorkers and included "The Last Leaf". "Heart Of the West" (1907) presented tales of the Texas range. O'Henry published 10 collections and over 600 short stories during his life time. O'Henry's last years were shadowed by alcoholism, ill health, and financial problems. He married in 1907 Sara Lindsay Coleman, but the marriage was not happy, and they separated a year later. O'Henry died of cirrhosis of the liver on June 5, 1910, in New York. 85
Bill Gates
William (Bill) H. Gates is chairman and chief software architect of Microsoft Corporation. Microsoft employs more than 39,000 people in 60 countries. Born on October 28, 1955, Gates and his two sisters grew up in Seattle. Their father, William H. Gates II, is a Seattle attorney. Their late mother, Mary Gates, was a schoolteacher, University of Washington regent and chairwoman of United Way International. At school Gates discovered his interest in software and began programming computers at age 13. In 1973, Gates entered Harvard University. While at Harvard, Gates developed a version of the programming language BASIC for the first microcomputer. In his junior year, Gates left Harvard to devote his energies to Microsoft, a company he had begun in 1975 with his childhood friend Paul Allen. Guided by a belief that the computer would be a valuable tool on every office desktop and in every home, they began developing software for personal computers. Gates' foresight and his vision for personal computing have been central to the success of Microsoft and the software industry. Under Gates' leadership, Microsoft's mission has been to continually advance and improve software technology, and to make it easier, more cost-effective and more enjoyable for people to use computers. The company is committed to a longterm view, reflected in its large investment on research and development. In 1999, Gates wrote "Business @ the Speed of Thought", a book that shows how computer technology can solve business problems in fundamentally new ways. The book was published in 25 languages and is available in more than 60 countries. "Business @ the Speed of Thought" has received wide critical acclaim, and was listed on the best-seller lists of the "New York Times", "USA Today", the "Wall Street Journal and Amazon.com". Gates has donated the proceeds of his book to non-profit organizations that support the use of technology in education and skills development. In addition to his love of computers and software, Gates is interested in biotechnology. He is an investor in a number of biotechnology companies. Gates is an avid reader, and enjoys playing golf and bridge. 86
Edgar Allan Poe
Best known for his poems and short fiction, Edgar Allan Poe deserves more credit than any other writer for the transformation of the short story from anecdote to art. He virtually created the detective story and perfected the psychological thriller. He also produced some of the most influential literary criticism of his time — important theoretical statements on poetry and the short story — and has had a worldwide influence on literature. Poe's parents were touring actors; both died before he was 3 years old, and he was taken into the home of John Allan, a prosperous merchant in Richmond, Va., and baptized Edgar Allan Poe. His childhood was uneventful, although he studied (1815-20) for 5 years in England. In 1826 he entered the University of Virginia but stayed for only a year. Although a good student, he ran up large gambling debts that Allan refused to pay. Allan prevented his return to the university and broke off Poe's engagement to Sarah Elmira Royster, his Richmond sweetheart. Lacking any means of support, Poe enlisted in the army. He had, however, already written and printed (at his own expense) his first book, "Tamerlane and Other Poems" (1827), verses written in the manner of Byron. His fellow cadets contributed the funds for the publication of "Poems by Edgar A. Poe "Second Edition" (1831), actually a third edition — after "Tamerlane and Al Aaraaf, Tamerlane, and Minor Poems"(1829). This volume contained the famous "To Helen" and "Israfel", poems that show the restraint and the calculated musical effects of language that were to characterize his poetry. Poe next took up residence in Baltimore with his widowed aunt, Maria Clemm, and her daughter, Virginia, and turned to fiction as a way to support himself. In 1832, the Philadelphia Saturday Courier published five of his stories — all comic or satiric and in 1833, "MS. Found in a Bottle" won a $ 50 prize given by the Baltimore Saturday Visitor. Poe, his aunt, and Virginia moved to Richmond in 1835, and he became editor of the Southern Literary Messenger and married Virginia, who was not yet 14 years old. Poe published fiction, notably his most horrifying tale, "Berenice", in the "Messenger", but most of his contributions were serious, analytical, and critical reviews that earned him respect as a critic. 87
He praised the young Dickens and a few other contemporaries but devoted most of his attention to devastating reviews of popular contemporary authors. His contributions undoubtedly increased the magazine's circulation, but they offended its owner, who also took exception to Poe's drinking. The January 1837 issue of the Messenger announced Poe's withdrawal as editor but also included the first installment of his long prose tale, "The Narrative of Arthur Gordon Pym", five of his reviews and two of his poems. This was to be the paradoxical pattern for Poe's career: success as an artist and editor but failure to satisfy his employers and to secure a livelihood. First in New York City (1837), then in Philadelphia (1838-44), and again in New York (1844-49), Poe sought to establish himself as a force in literary journalism, but with only moderate success. He did succeed, however, in formulating influential literary theories and in demonstrating mastery of the forms he favored highly musical poems and short prose narratives. Among Poe's poetic output, about a dozen poems are remarkable for their flawless literary construction and for their haunting themes and meters. In "The Raven" (1845), for example, the narrator is overwhelmed by melancholy and omens of death. Poe's extraordinary manipulation of rhythm and sound is particularly evident in "The Bells" (1849), a poem that seems to echo with the chiming of metallic instruments, and "The Sleeper" (1831), which reproduces the state of drowsiness. "Lenore" (1831) and "Annabel Lee" (1849) are verse lamentations on the death of a beautiful young woman. Virginia's death in January 1847 was a heavy blow, but Poe continued to write. In the summer of 1849 he revisited Richmond and was accepted anew by the fiancĂŠe he had lost in 1826. After his return north he was found unconscious on a Baltimore street. In a brief obituary the "Baltimore Clipper" reported that Poe had died of congestion of the brain.
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Martin Luther King Michael Luther King Jr., later renamed Martin, was born to schoolteacher Alberta King and Baptist minister Michael Luther King on January 15, 1929. His boyhood passed in Sweet Auburn district. In 1948 King graduated from Morehouse College in Atlanta, Ga. In 1951 King graduated from Crozer Theological Seminary in Chester, Pa. King married Coretta Scott in Marion, Ala. in 1953. They had four children: Yolanda Denise (b. 1955), Martin Luther King III (b. 1957), Dexter (b. 1961), Bernice Albertine (b. 1963). In 1954 King moved to Montgomery, Ala. to preach at Dexter Avenue Baptist Church. There he became famous as a leader of the Montgomery boycott. Black and white people were not treated at the same manner on the buses. Black people had to give up their seats to white people. Everyone paid the same fare, but black people had to go to the back of the bus. The black community decided to boycott the bus company until the rules were changed. The Montgomery boycott continued for almost a year. Black people refused to ride buses, they walked long distances to work, to church, to see friends, etc. In 1956 the Supreme Court ruled that bus segregation in Montgomery was illegal. The Montgomery boycott proved that nonviolent actions could bring about real changes in the laws of the United States. In 1957, black ministers formed what became known as the Southern Christian Leadership Conference. King was named first president. In this typical year of demonstrations King travelled 780,000 miles and made 208 speeches. In 1958, King published his first book, "Stride Toward Freedom" (Harper), his recollections of the Montgomery bus boycott. King visited India in 1959. He had a lifelong admiration for Mohandas K. Gandhi, and credited Gandhi's passive resistance techniques for his civil-rights successes. Nonviolent actions became the basic rule of the Civil Rights movement. King leaved for Atlanta in 1960 to pastor his father's church. In 1962, King met with President John F. Kennedy to urge support for civil rights. In 1963 King led protests in Birmingham for desegregated department store facilities, and fair hiring. King was arrested after demonstrating in defiance of a court order. Then King wrote "Letter From Birmingham Jail." This eloquent letter, later widely circulated, became a classic of the civil-rights movement. On August 28, 1963, 250,000 civil-rights supporters attended the March on Washington. At the Lincoln Memorial, King delivered the famous "I have a dream" speech. In 1964 King published his book "Why We Can't Wait" . On December 10, 1964, Martin Luther King received the Nobel Peace Prize. It was a great day for all progressive Americans. Martin Luther King was assassinated in Memphis, Tenn., on April 4, 1968, by James Earl Ray. On January 20, 1986 was the first national celebration of King's birthday as a holiday. 89
American Customs and Traditions
Every nation has different customs and traditions, its own way of life. In Europe there are people who have lived in the same house and been in the same job for twenty, thirty or more years. That's not the American way of life. They love change, they call it the spirit of adventure, a spirit that they think is more characteristic of America than of Europe. They like to move away, to change homes and jobs. While the Englishman thinks it is ill mannered to ask private questions, the American doesn't feel that at all. He will tell you all about himself, his wife and family, and ask where you have come from, what your job is, how you like America and how long you are staying. An American prefers sociability. In his home he doesn't object to being seen by everyone — he actually likes it. With this sociability goes overwhelming hospitality. A national Thanksgiving Day is perhaps the only holiday spent by the Americans at home. Table decorations follow a traditional pattern — a harvest of Indian corn, apples, oranges, walnuts and grapes. Flowers also bring the fall scene indoors. The centrepiece is the traditional roast turkey. Still another American tradition concerns Halloween. Its origin dates back hundreds of years to the Druid festival. The Druid New Year began on November 1, marking the beginning of winter and the reign of the Lord of Death. The custom of telling ghost stories on Halloween comes from the Druids. On this occasion children usually wear ghost costumes or false faces. They also carve out rounded eyes in pumpkins and put burning candles inside them to make them visible from far away. In Texas, where the West begins, the biggest annual festival — the Fat Stock Show — is held. Its rodeo, held together with the stock show, is the biggest indoor rodeo on the earth. And, of course, no nation can exist without humour. As they themselves say, the American must have one wife, two cars, three children, four pets, five suits, six acres, seven credit cards — and is lucky to have eight cents in his pocket.
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Holidays in the USA
There are a lot of holidays in the USA. Many of them are associated with the history of the nation. There are also some holidays that have come from the old colonial days. The main holidays of the USA are New Year's Day, Easter, Memorial Day, Independence Day, Thanksgiving Day and Christmas. Christmas is the most important religious holiday for Christians. Gift-giving is very common at Christmas. American children look forward to Christmas morning, when they find gifts brought by Santa Claus. The New Year's Eve is a time for merriment. Most Americans spend this night with friends at home or in restaurants. Thousands of people gather in New York in Times Square to see the New Year in. The Tournament of Roses takes place in Pasadena, California, on January 1 each year. Prizes are given to the cities with the most unusual floral compositions. At Easter there is a tradition for people to buy new clothes. After church services many people take walks along the streets of their towns, wearing their new Easter hats and suits. This is usually called the "Easter Parade". Memorial Day comes on May 30. It is dedicated to the memory of those who died for America in different wars. The national flags are put on the graves of soldiers on this day. The fourth of July, an Independence Day, is the biggest national holiday of the USA. On this day in 1776 a document, known as the Declaration of Independence, was adopted. During this holiday American cities have parades; people shoot off fire-works in parks and fields. Thanksgiving Day comes on the fourth Tuesday in November. When the first settlers landed in America, their first year was very hard and 50 of 100 people died. But the Indians taught people how to plant corn and wild vegetables and in autumn they got a large harvest. Thanksgiving Day was their holiday, the day of giving thanks to God for his blessings. It is a family holiday and families get together for a traditional dinner which includes roast turkey and pumpkin pie. There are also some holidays which are not celebrated nation-wide, but only by each state separately.
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National Celebrations in the USA January: the 1st of January — New Year's Day the 15th January — Martin Luther King Day February: the third Monday — President's Day the 14th of February — St Valentine's Day May: the fourth Monday — Memorial Day July: the 4th of July — Independence Day September: the first Monday — Labor Day October: the 12th of October — Columbus Day the 31st of October — Halloween November: the 11th of November — Veterans Day the fourth Thursday — Thanksgiving Day December: the 25th of December — Christmas Americans share three national holidays with many countries: Easter Sunday, Christmas Day, and New Year's Day. Easter, which falls on a spring Sunday that varies from year to year, celebrates the Christian belief in the resurrection of Jesus Christ. For Christians, Easter is a day of religious services and the gathering of family. Many Americans follow old traditions of colouring hard-boiled eggs and giving children baskets of candies. On the next day, Easter Monday, the president of the United States holds an annual Easter egg hunt in White House lawn for young children. Christmas day, December 25, is another Christian holiday; it marks the birth of the Christ Child. Decorating houses and yards with lights, putting up Christmas trees, giving gifts, and sending greeting cards have become traditions even for many non-Christian Americans. New Year's Day, of course, is in January. The celebration of this holiday begins the night before, when Americans gather to wish each other a happy and prosperous coming year. 92
Boxing day is a day when one visits friends, goes for long walks or just sits resting from too much food — everything to eat is cold. In Great Britain there are usually Boxing Day Meets (fox-hunting). In the cities tradition on that day demands a visit to the pantomime, where once again one is entertained by the story of Cinderella, Puss in Boots or something like that. This holiday takes place on December 26th. Halloween means "holy evening" and takes place on October 31st. It is celebrated by many people in the United Kingdom. It is connected with witches and ghosts. At parties people dress up in strange costumes and pretend they are witches. They cut horrible faces in pumpkins and put a candle inside, which shines through their eyes. People play different games such as trying to eat an apple from a bucket of water without using their hands. In recent years children dressed in white sheets knock at doors at Halloween and ask if you would like a "trick" or "treat". If you give them something nice, a "treat", they go away. If you don't, they play a "trick" on you, such as making a lot of noise near your house. July 4th - Independence Day - On July, 4, 1776, a group of Americans representting the thirteen British colonies on the Atlantic coast of North America signed a document stating that these colonies had the right to be free and independent. This document is known as the Declaration of Independence. July 4 is celebrated by Americans as a national holiday— Independence Day. There is a building in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, which is called independence Hall. Here the Declaration was signed. On the building there is the famous Liberty Bell which rang to tell people in the streets that a new country had been born. But Britain did not recognise this fact until 1783, when the American colonists were victorious in the war of Independence with Britain. June, 14 is Flag Day in the USA. On that day in 1777, the Americans adopted their own flag. No one really knows who sewed the American flag but many Americans believe that it was made by Betsy Ross in her own home. You can see Betsy Ross sewing the flag on an American stamp. The Fourth of July is the biggest national holiday of the USA. It is celebrated as the birthday of the country. On July 4, 1776, when the American colonies were fighting against Britain, the legislative assembly of the colonists, the continental Congress, adopted a resolution which has come to be known as the Declaration of Independence. The resolution was drafted by Thomas Jefferson (1743-1826). The Declaration of Independence was a letter from the Continental Congress to the King of Great Britain. Thomas Jefferson wrote to the King that the people in America did not want to pay taxes if they were not allowed to decide how to spend the taxes. But the Declaration was just a letter, it did not make the American people independent of Britain, the people had to fight for their independence. Though the Declaration of Independence had been adopted on July 4, it was not signed by the members of the Congress until August 2, 1776. The Congress held its meetings in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. When the people of Philadelphia heard that the Congress had voted to send the Declaration of Independence to the King, they rang a big bell in the tower of Independence Hall and celebrated their first "Fourth of July". It has become a tradition to celebrate the Fourth of July with speeches about the "American democracy", the "American system", the "American way of life". 93
Thanksgiving Day For most Americans, two of these stand out above the others as occasions to cherish national origins: Thanksgiving Day and the 4th of July. Thanksgiving Day is the fourth Thursday in November, but many Americans take a day of vacation on the following Friday to make a four-day weekend, during which they may travel long distances to visit family and friends. The holiday dates back to 1621, the year after the Puritans arrived in Massachusetts, determined to practise their dissenting religion without interference. After a rough winter, in which about half of them died, they turned for help to neighbouring Indians, who taught them how to plant corn and other crops. The next fall’s bountiful harvest inspired the Pilgrims to give thanks by holding a feast. The Thanksgiving feast became a national tradition — not only because so many other Americans have found prosperity but also because the Pilgrims' sacrifices for their freedom still captivate the imagination. To this day, Thanksgiving dinner almost always includes some of the foods served at the first feast: roast turkey, cranberry sauce, potatoes and pumpkin pie. Before the meal begins, families or friends usually pause to give thanks for their blessings, including the joy of being united for the occasion. Mother's Day comes on the second Sunday in May. It is a day when Americans honour their mothers. It is not a national holiday. Mother's Day is an American national observance in honour of motherhood. The holiday, suggested by Anna Jarvis of Philadelphia, was set by an act of Congress in 1914 for annual celebration. It is also observed in England and Germany. In 1907, the day was celebrated in a church in Philadelphia, Pensylvania. A member of that church planned the Sunday morning service to honour her own mother. More and more churches in cities and states set aside the day to honour mothers. Since 1914, the whole country has observed Mother's day. Most mothers like to celebrate the day with family reunions. Many people send their mothers a card or a gift. Some people take their mothers to a restaurant for dinner. It is a custom to wear a red or pink flower if one's mother is living. It is the custom to wear a white flower if one's mother is dead. Father's Day comes on the third Sunday in June. It is not a national holiday. Americans honour their fathers. Many people send their fathers a card or a gift. Americans are great letter-writers. Whatever happens in a family, they congratulate all the members. They congratulate people on Easter, Christmas and Whitsun. They do not have to possess great literary talent themselves, because one can find printed texts for all possible occasions. One may select and check any of these suggested texts: "Here's to Father: always loved, respected, and admired". "Warmest wishes for your hapiness on Father's Day and ever after". About 1909, the churches of Spokane, Washington, set aside the day to honour fathers. The custom soon spread throughout the United States and Canada. During the autumn, some colleges celebrate Dad's Day. On Dad's Day, they honour the fathers among the members and friends of the college. 94
Memorial Day Celebrated on the fourth Monday of May, Memorial Day honours the dead. Although it originated in the aftermath of the Civil War, it has become a day on which the dead of all wars, and the dead generally, are remembered in special programs held in cemeteries, churches, and other public meeting places. Labour Day The first Monday of September is the national holiday that honours national working people, typically with parades. For most Americans it means the end of the summer vacation season, and for many students it is the beginning of academic year. Columbus Day On October 12, 1492, Italian navigator Christopher Columbus landed in the New World. Although most other nations of the Americans observe this holiday on October 12, in the United States it takes place on the second Monday of October. Veterans Day Veterans Day is originally called Armistice Day. This holiday was established to honour Americans who had died in World War I. It falls on November 11, the day when that war ended in 1918, but it now honours veterans of all wars in which the United States has fought. Veterans' organizations hold parades, and the president customarily places a wreath on the Tomb of the Unknowns at Arlington, National Cemetery, across the Potomac River in Washington, D. C. Presidents' Day Until the mid — 1970s, the February 22, the birthday of George Washington, the hero of the Revolutionary War and the first president of the United States, was a national holiday. In addition, the February 12, the birthday of Abraham Lincoln, the president during the Civil War, was a holiday in most states. The two days have been joined, and the holiday has been expanded to honour all former presidents. It is celebrated on the third Monday in February. Martin Luther King Day The Reverend Martin Luther King, Jr., an African-American clergyman, is considered a great American because of his tireless efforts to win civil rights for all people through nonviolent means. Since his assassination in 1968, memorial services have marked his birthday on the 15th of January. In 1986, that day was replaced by the third Monday of January, which was declared a national holiday.
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Ethnic Holidays in the USA
Various ethnic groups in America celebrate days with special meaning to them even though these are not national holidays. Jews, for example, observe their holy days in September. Irish Americans celebrate St Patrick on the 17th of March. Many Americans wear green clothing in honour of the "Emerald Isle". The celebration of Mardi Gras is an occasion in New Orleans, Louisiana, where parades take place. Mardi Gras means "Fat Tuesday", the last day before the season of Lent. The tradition goes back to the city's settlement by French immigrants. There are many other such ethnic celebrations, and New York City is particularly rich in them.
Education in the United States
The interplay of local, state, and national programs and policies is particularly evident in the field of education. Historically, education has been considered the province of the state and local governments. Of the more than 3,000 colleges and universities, the academies of the armed services are among the few federal institutions. (The federal government also administers, among others, the College of the Virgin Islands.) For years, however, the federal government has been involved in education at all levels, beginning in 1862 with the grant of public lands to the states for the purpose of establishing colleges of agricultural and mechanical arts, called land-grant colleges. Additionally, the federal government supports school lunch programs, administers Indian education, makes research grants to universities, underwrites loans to college students, and finances education for veterans. Although responsibility for elementary education stfll rests primarily with local government, it is increasingly affected by state and national policies. The 1964 Civil Rights Act, for example, required federal agencies to discontinue financial aid to school districts that are not racially integrated. Trends in education have been toward being more responsive to the needs of a complex society: preschool programs; classes in the community; summer and night schools; and increased facilities for exceptional children. Such programs, however, have been only partially successful.
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Transportation The economic and social complexion of life in the United States mirrors the nation's extraordinary mobility. A pervasive transportation network has helped bring together in the vast geographic expanse of the country a surprisingly homogeneous and close-knit social and economic environment. This freedom to move explains in large measure the dynamism of the U.S. economy. Mobility has made possible vast metropolises, spreading suburbs, a lengthening radius of commuter travel, dispersal of business and industry, and the growing millions of nonfarm rural residents who constitute a new kind of urbanization without a strong centre. Mobility has also had destructive effects. It has accelerated the decay of older urban areas, multiplied traffic congestion, intensified pollution of the environment, and helped to undermine public transportation systems. Nearly 90 per cent of all households own at least one automobile or truck, and many own two or more. While most trips in metropolitan areas are made by automobile, public transit and rail commuter lines play an important role in the most populous cities. The majority of home-to-work travel in the rush hours is by public carrier in such large centres as New York City, Chicago, Philadelphia, and Boston. At the same time, most city transit systems have undergone a sharp decline: bus and subway riders have generally decreased despite a large increase in the urban population of some areas. Although railroads once dominated both freight and passenger traffic in the United States, government regulation and increased competition from trucking substantially reduced their role in transportation. Railroads now move about one-third of the nation's intercity freight traffic, the most important items carried being coal, grain, chemicals, and motor vehicles. Many rail companies had given up passenger service by 1970, in which year Congress created the National Railroad Passenger Corporation (known as Amtrak) to take over passenger service. Amtrak operates a 24,000-mile system serving nearly 500 stations across the country. Navigable waterways are extensive and centre upon the Mississippi River system in the country's interior, the Great Lakes-St. Lawrence Seaway system in the north, and the Gulf Coast waterways along the Gulf of Mexico. Barges carry more than two-thirds of domestic waterborne traffic, the major products moved being petroleum products, coal and coke, and grain. The country's largest ports in tonnage handled are New York City; New Orleans, La.; Valdez, Alaska; and Houston, Texas. Airplane traffic has experienced spectacular growth in the United States since the mid-20th century. From 1970 to 1985, for example, passenger traffic on certified air carriers increased 126 per cent. There are nearly 500 public airports, the busiest being Chicago and Atlanta. 97
Plant Life The dominant features of the vegetation are indicated by the terms forest, grassland, desert, and alpine tundra. A coniferous forest of white and red pine, hemlock, spruce, and balsam fir extends interruptedly in a narrow strip near the Canadian border from Maine to Minnesota and southward along the Appalachian Mountains. There may be found smaller stands of tamarack, spruce, paper birch, willow, alder, and aspen or poplar. Southward, a transition zone of mixed conifers and deciduous trees gives way to a hardwood forest of broad-leaved trees. This forest, with varying mixtures of maple, oak, ash, locust, linden, walnut, hickory, sycamore, beech, once extended uninterruptedly from New England to Missouri and eastern Texas. Pines, palmettos, and live oaks are replaced at the southern tip of Florida by the more tropical palms, figs, satinwood, and mangrove. The alpine tundra, located in the conterminous United States only in the mountains above the limit of trees, consists principally of small plants that bloom brilliantly for a short season. Sagebrush is the most common plant of the arid basins and semi deserts west of the Rocky Mountains, but juniper, nut pine, and mountain mahogany are often found on the slopes. The desert, extending from south-eastern California to Texas, is noted for the many species of cactus, some of which grow to the height of trees, and for the Joshua tree and other yuccas, creosote bush, and acacias. The United States is rich in the variety of its native forest trees, some of which, as the species of sequoia, are the most massive known. More than 1,000 species and varieties have been described, of which almost 200 are of economic value. Animal Life The animal geography of the United States, however, is far from a natural pattern, for European settlement produced a series of environmental changes that grossly altered the distribution of animal communities. First, many species were hunted to extinction or near extinction, most conspicuously, perhaps, the American bison, which ranged by the millions nearly from coast to coast but now rarely lives outside of zoos and wildlife preserves. Second, habitats were destroyed throughout most of the country — forests cut, grasslands ploughed and overgrazed, and migration paths interrupted by fences, railroads, and highways. Third, certain introduced species found hospitable niches and, like the English sparrow, spread over huge areas, often preempting the habitats of native animals. Fourth, though their effects are not fully understood, chemicals such as DDT were used for so long and in such volume that they are believed at least partly responsible for catastrophic mortality rates among large mammals and birds. Fifth, there has been a gradual northward migration of certain tropical and subtropical insects, birds, and mammals, perhaps encouraged by gradual climatic warming. In consequence, many native animals have been reduced to tiny fractions of their former ranges or exterminated completely, while other animals, both native and introduced, have found the new anthropocentric environment well suited to their needs, with explosive effects on their populations. The coyote, opossum, armadillo, and several species of deer are among the animals that now occupy much larger ranges than they once did. 98
The Supercities
The unprecedented outward sprawl of American urban settlement has created some novel settlement forms, for the quantitative change has been so great as to induce qualitative transformation. The conurbation — a territorial coalescence of two or more sizeable cities whose peripheral zones have grown together — may have first appeared in early 19th century Europe. There are major examples in Great Britain and Germany, as well as in Japan. Nothing elsewhere, however, rivals in size and complexity the aptly named megalopolis, that supercity stretching along the Atlantic from Portland, Maine, past Richmond. Other large conurbations include, in the Great Lakes region, one centred on Chicago and containing large slices of Illinois, Wisconsin and Indiana; another based in Detroit, embracing large parts of Michigan and Ohio and reaching into Canada; and a third stretching from Buffalo through Cleveland and back to Pittsburgh. All three are reaching toward one another and may form another megalopolis that, in turn, may soon be grafted onto the seaboard megalopolis by a corridor through central New York state. Another example of a growing megalopolis is the huge southern California conurbation reaching from Santa Barbara, through a dominating Los Angeles, to the Mexican border. Quite exceptional in form is the slender linear multicity occupying Florida's Atlantic coastline, from Jacksonville to Miami, and the loose swarm of medium-sized cities clustering along the Southern Piedmont, from southcentral Virginia to Birmingham. Also of note are the Texas cities of Dallas — Fort Worth, Houston and San Antonio, which have formed a rapidly growing — though discontinuous — urbanised triangle. One of the few predictions that seem safe in so dynamic and innovative a land as the United States is that, unless severe and painful controls are placed on land use, the shape of the urban environment will be increasingly megalopolitan: a small set of great constellations of polycentric urban zones, each complexly interlocked socially and physically with its neighbours.
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The Motion Picture
In some respects the motion picture is the American art form par excellence, and no area of art has undergone a more dramatic revision in critical appraisal since the 1970s. Throughout most of the 1940s and '50s, serious critics, with a few honourable exceptions, even those who considered the .motion picture seriously as a potential artistic medium, took it for granted that the Hollywood movie was, judged as art, hopelessly compromised by commerce. In the 1950s in France, however, a generation of critics associated with the magazine Cahiers du Cinema (most of whom later would become well-known filmmakers themselves, including Francois Truffaut and Jean-Luc Godard) argued that the American film, precisely because its need to please a mass audience had helped it break out of the limiting gentility of the European cinema, had a vitality and a set of masters without equal in the world. New studies and appreciation of such Hollywood filmmakers as John Ford, Howard Hawks and William Wyler resulted, and, eventually, this new evaluation worked its way back into the United States itself: another demonstration that one country's low art can become another country's high. Imported back to the United States, this reevaluation of Hollywood motion pictures changed and amended preconceptions that had hardened into prejudices. The new appreciation of the individual vision of the Hollywood film was to inspire a generation of young American filmmakers, including Francis Ford Coppola, Martin Scorsese, and George Lucas, to use the commercial film as at once a form of personal expression and a means of empire building, with results that were, predictably, mixed.
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The American Movies
Movies, or the cinema, have been an integral part of American culture throughout the 20th century. The 1920s was the great era of the silent film with stars like Rudolph Valentino, Greta Garbo, Clara Bow, Charlie Chaplin, and the Marx Brothers. Some famous movies of the 20's were "The Gold Rush", "City Lights". With the production of Al Jolson's "The Jazz Singer", the era of talking pictures arrived. The period from the 1930's to the beginning of World War II has been called the "golden era" of American cinema. It was the era of the John Ford western "Stagecoach", of the historical movie — Paul Muni in "Juarez", Clark Gable in "San Francisco"; of the gangster movie with Jimmy Cagney or Humphrey Bogart. In 1941 came the production of Orson Welles' "Citizen Kane". The most important figure in the 1950's cinema was James Dean with his movies like "Rebel without a Cause" which explored the alienation of youth. The movie industry of the late 50's and early 60s concentrated on the multimillion dollar spectacular: "Ben Hur", "Cleopatra", "West-Side Story", "My Fair Lady", and "The Sound of Music". After a decline in the early 1960's the American motion picture industry has recently made a comeback. Films are much more explicit about sex. Examples of recent cinema: "Easy Rider", "Midnight Cowboy", "Little Big Man", "Woodstock". America still likes its romance and its "blood and guts". Old movies have been sold to television, beginning in the 1950's with the "Late Show". The Academy Awards ("Oscars") are awarded each year for excellence in acting, directing, and technical achievement in motion pictures. During the 1920s and 30's entrepreneurs formed in Hollywood large film companies: "Twentieth-Century-Fox", "Metro-Goldwyn Mayer", "Paramount". The studios worked on a star system and a contract system. Major American writers like F. Scott Fitzgerald and William Faulkner did screen plays. During its golden age Hollywood was responsible for some great pictures .
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More on American Literature While one can describe general tendencies of American fiction the individual authors are more difficult to characterize. For instance, Ralph Ellison and James Baldwin are clearly black writers; but their knowledge of the dominant literary tradition has certainly influenced their style. Ellison's "Invisible Man" has many stylistic connections with "Moby Dick" and "Huckleberry Finn" two classic 19th century novels. And Baldwin's "Another Country" is more concerned with black-white relationships than with the direct image of black life in America. Another example is that of Flannery O'Connor, who has been called a Southern writer and has been grouped with other socalled Southern writers like Truman Capote and Eudora Welty. Yet Flannery O'Connor's style is so unlike that of the other Southern writers that it is harder to see the similarities than the differences. Our short review of contemporary American fiction has completely ignored a number of other writers who deserve to be mentioned. Many of these writers tend to write from an ironic or satiric point of view. At one extreme we find the writers of "black" comedy: writers devoted to showing the ugliest aspects of human personality for the purposes of provoking a mixture of laughter and disgust. Two leading stylists of this genre are Kurt Vonnegut, Jr., and J. P. Donleavy. Each has created characters who are neither admirable nor heroic and who constantly go from one problem to another. In Vonnegut’s "Slaughterhouse Five" a style that approaches fantasy and science fiction combines with a bitter commentary on the immorality of war. In "The Ginger Man" Donleavy's hero is an alcoholic who takes advantage of other people and then moves on to his next misadventure. This ironic style is also used to create grotesque characters, people who are outsiders and whose fate is to remain isolated from the rest of the human community. There seems to be a common feeling among most of these writers that American life has no subject suitable to epic writing. Heroism seems to have disappeared as a legitimate possibility for contemporary man. This has produced a pessimistic body of fiction whose optimism has appeared only in terms of humor or existential skepticism. The movement toward a fiction of minority groups is a logical development given the skeptical outlook of most of these writers. By exploring the different aspects of minority group life in America many writers seem to be searching for the positive characteristics of American life that have become hard to find since the end of the Second World War. Contemporary fiction reflects the fact that the pressure to conform in America has made the average American uninteresting and easy to mock. But the members of minority groups remain outside the framework and thus become, without necessarily wanting to, social outcasts. The future of American fiction is difficult to predict, but if the influence of daily events continues to affect what writers choose to write about, we may see develop a stronger movement towards what Norman Mailer and James Baldwin have attempted: the joining of fiction and non-fiction in a style that takes advantage of the imaginative possibilities of the novel and the critical possibilities of the essay. 102
NATURE AND ENVIRONMENT ПРИРОДА ТА ОХОРОНА НАВКОЛИШНЬОГО СЕРЕДОВИЩА Seasons and Weather
Everyone knows that there are four seasons in the year: winter, spring, summer and autumn. Each of them lasts three months. In Ukraine winter is usually the coldest season. It often snows, the rivers are frozen. The most unpleasant thing about winter is that the sun sets early and rises late — especially in December and January. The days are short, the sky is often grey and nature is sleeping. But everything looks so pretty covered by snow. Children like winter. They can ski, skate, sledge, and play snowballs with their friends. Winter is a hard time for birds and animals. They are cold and hungry in winter. Children help them, giving them bread, corn and fruit. But at the end of March the weather gets gradually milder. The sun shines more brightly. The days become longer and the nights become shorter. The snow begins melting. Spring comes and nature awakens after a long sleep of winter. All kinds of plants and flowers come out. The birds return from the South and build their nests. The farmers begin the sowing campaign. Everything around is full of life and joy. Spring is followed by summer. The weather gets still warmer and sometimes it is very hot. The sky is blue and cloudless. But sometimes there are storms with thunder and lightning. The gardens are beautiful with flowers all summer months. In summer people spend much time in the open air. They find time to go to the forest, to swim in the river and to sunbathe. Autumn comes in September. Early autumn is still the harvest time, the time when fruit and vegetables ripe. It is also a very beautiful time of the year, when the weather is still warm and the leaves change their colour from green to yellow. But towards the end of October the weather gets colder and colder. There's much rain and fog. Leaves fall from trees and cover the ground. Birds fly away to warm countries. Low and heavy clouds hang in the sky. The landscape becomes rather dull. Nature slowly falls asleep for winter. In fact, every season has its fine days and is pleasant in its own way. And it is not difficult to see this beauty.
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Pollution in Ukraine Pollution is the contamination of the environment, including air, water, and land, with undesirable amounts of material or energy. Such contamination originates from human activities that create waste products. An industrial and intensively farmed country, Ukraine contains some of the most polluted landscapes in Eastern Europe. Pollution became evident in Ukraine with industrial development in the 19th century. Air pollution is especially severe in many of the heavily industrialized cities and towns of southeastern Ukraine, notably in Kharkiv, Luhansk, Donetsk, Dnipropetrovsk and Zaporizhia. Coal-using industries, such as metallurgical coke-chemical plants, steel mills, and thermal power plants are major sources of high levels of uncontrolled emissions of sulphur dioxide, dust, unburned hydrocarbons, and other harmful substances. Other Ukrainian cities with major chronic air pollution problems include Kyiv, Komunarsk, Makiivka and Odesa. Over one-third of the emissions into the atmosphere originate from automobile transport. That source, which attains overwhelming proportions in cities with little industry, such as Uzhhorod, Yalta, Poltava and Khmelnytskyi, is aggravated by the use of leaded gasoline and inefficient engines as well as a lack of catalytic converters. Almost all surface waters of Ukraine belong to the Black Sea and the Sea of Azov basins. The high population density, heavy industrial development, and relatively low freshwater endowment of those basins, and the low governmental priority placed upon environmental protection until very recently, have given rise to chronic and serious levels of water pollution throughout Ukraine. The Dnister and the Danube are included among the most polluted bodies of water in the territory of the former Soviet Union. Hundreds of small rivers supply water for three-quarters of the villages and half of Ukraine's cities. Widespread fear is growing in Ukraine that a substantial fraction of those water arteries are so polluted as to pose fatal health risks to the people who depend on them. About half of the chemical fertilizers, herbicides and pesticides applied in the fields are washed off into rivers. Moreover, surface runoff from industrial territories is highly contaminated. One of the areas suffering most from serious and chronic coastal water pollution is the Sea of Azov. That shallow and previously biologically rich and commercially productive body of water has experienced serious problems of industrial and municipal wastewater contamination and increased levels of salinity since the early 1970s. A primary cause of the sea's ecological deterioration has been the diversion for purposes of irrigation (up to 80 per cent) of fresh, but not necessarily pure, water inflow from the Don and the Kuban rivers. As a result the sea's salinity has increased by more than 40 percent since the 1950s. Despite repeated warnings and special government antipollution resolutions, the conditions in the Sea of Azov continue to deteriorate.
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Environmental Protection in Ukraine
The protection of nature has become one of the most burning problems of the 20th century. The earth provides people with mineral resources, rivers, forests, fields — everything that makes the foundation of industrial and agricultural production. The development of industry has had a bad influence on the nature of the whole world. People often do things which pollute land and waters greatly. It is very dangerous because it damages health of the people. Protection of the environment in Ukraine is much attended. The worsening of the ecological situation has been closely linked to the Chernobyl explosion. On April 26, 1986, a fire went out of control and released radioactive materials. The disaster killed 31 persons immediately and caused the hospitalization of about 500 others. It has caused widespread illnesses and made the land in the area unusable. A radioactive cloud spread from the plant over most of Europe. Radiation even spread so far as to appear in Asia and in North America. Another issue of concern in Ukraine is the question of where to put nuclear waste. This waste is largely the spent fuel of reactors. It is radioactive, and some of its components remain so forever. The waste is held at temporary sites until a solution of the problem can be found. At present the most promising solution of the problem of waste storage is recycling. Another environmental problem is air pollution. One of its results is acid rain. It is caused by smoke from factories and transport. Nowadays the emission of smoke is strictly controlled by special governmental agencies. The activity of various environmental organizations helps to improve the situation. Among the leading environmental organizations in Ukraine are the Greenpeace and the Green Party. They are very popular with the youth in Ukraine.
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SCIENTIFIC PROGRESS НАУКОВО-ТЕХНІЧНИЙ ПРОГРЕС Scientific Progress
Science is often distinguished from other domains of human culture by its progressive nature: in contrast to art, religion, philosophy, morality, and politics, there exist clear standards or normative criteria for identifying improvements and advances in science. For example, the historian of science George Sarton argued that "the acquisition and systematization of positive knowledge are the only human activities which are truly cumulative and progressive," and "progress has no definite and unquestionable meaning in other fields than the field of science" (Sarton 1936). However, the traditional cumulative view of scientific knowledge was effectively challenged by many philosophers of science in the 1960s and the 1970s, and thereby the notion of progress was also questioned in the field of science. Science is a multi-layered complex system involving a community of scientists engaged in research using scientific methods in order to produce new knowledge. Thus, the notion of science may refer to a social institution, the researchers, the research process, the method of inquiry, and scientific knowledge. The concept of progress can be defined relative to each of these aspects of science. Hence, different types of progress can be distinguished relative to science: economical (the increased funding of scientific research), professional (the rising status of the scientists and their academic institutions in the society), educational (the increased skill and expertise of the scientists), methodical (the invention of new methods of research, the refinement of scientific instruments), and cognitive (increase or advancement of scientific knowledge). These types of progress have to be conceptually distinguished from advances in other human activities, even though it may turn out that scientific progress has at least some factual connections with technological progress (increased effectiveness of tools and techniques) and social progress (economic prosperity, quality of life, justice in society). All of these aspects of scientific progress may involve different considerations, so that there is no single concept that would cover all of them.
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JOBS AND PROFESSIONS СУЧАСНИЙ СВІТ ПРОФЕСІЙ My Future Profession
Finishing school is the beginning of independent life for millions of school leavers. But it is not an easy thing to choose a profession out of more than 2,000 existing in the world because many factors must be taken into consideration. Some pupils follow the advice of their parents, others can't decide even after leaving school. As for me I made my choice long ago. I want to have an interesting job. I would like my work to be connected with foreign languages, different countries and people. I want to communicate with people and gain more knowledge about these countries, their customs and traditions. More and more people realize that every educated person should know a foreign language. Learning foreign languages is especially important nowadays. Some people learn foreign languages because they need them in their work, others travel abroad, for the third learning foreign languages is a hobby. I always remember the famous words of the great German writer Goethe: "He, who doesn't know a foreign language, doesn't know his own language". So I understand the importance learning foreign languages. I want to become an interpreter. This profession is very useful because it helps people to understand each other. My choice of this occupation didn't come as a sudden flash. During all school years English has been my favourite subject. I have read a lot of books by British and American writers. I understand that reading books helps people in self-education and in solving different life problems. My parents are also interpreters and I know that interpreting is a very specific and difficult job. It's a great responsibility. It's not as easy as it may seem at first. But I think that command of foreign languages combined with different skills, which I'll get at University, will be enough to succeed in my work. I want to apply to the Faculty of Foreign Languages and I hope my dream will come true sooner or later.
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MASS MEDIA ЗАСОБИ МАСОВОЇ ІНФОРМАЦІЇ ТА ІНФОРМАЦІЙНІ ТЕХНОЛОГІЇ В СУЧАСНОМУ СВІТІ
Mass Media Mass media play a very important role in our everyday life. "Mass media" is a comprehensive term embracing television, radio, motion pictures, newspapers and magazine. They serve to inform people, of different events that take place or may happen. They also entertain people or even help make their lives better. But the most important thing that newspapers, radio or TV bring to people is information. Nowadays it is very important to get it complete and accurate. Those TV and radio programs and newspapers that provide reliable information are always very popular. There are 5 major fields of journalism: newspapers, news services, periodicals, radio and television. Radio and television perform information very briefly but quickly. Newspapers include full reports on different topics. News agencies provide them with the latest information. Sensational events such as crimes, natural disasters or unusual events are also of great interest. That is why many newspapers and TV programs combine them with serious information. Usually daily mass media spread some international, state and local news. They also include some other topics like health care, arts and so on. A lot of newspapers have advice columns, review of books, comics, crossword puzzles, etc. Most of them have different pictures, photographs and illustrations. Mass media also focus public attention on the most urgent problems of the society. Those may be problems in health care, education, transportation or even corruption in government. Advertising is also paid much attention to in mass media. It helps people to get orientated in the variety of firms and shops that offer their goods and services. All in all, mass media help us to form our opinion on different events, provide us with the information of what takes place in the world, and also lay on entertainment. It is difficult to say what TV programmes I like most of all. From the informational and political programmes I prefer "Night News", because in my opinion, they discuss different important events of our country and abroad. Many people like such musical programmes as "Melorama", "Chance", and some others because music helps them to get through difficult times or to get over bad mood. New programmes, such as "Dancing with the Stars" and "The First Million" are enjoyable and entertaining ones. Schoolchildren can learn better geography, zoology, and biology by watching regular TV programmes such as "The Travellers Club" and "The World of Animals". Programmes such as "What? Where? When?" attract the attention of many people, too. It is rich in many facts taken from everyday life, history of the country, literature and science. 108
Mass Media in Ukraine
The media in Ukraine today is a single public structure providing society with up-to-date detailed information concerning sociopolitical, economic, cultural aspects, etc. It is designed to positively influence the general public, from their progressive views, aspirations and ideals.
At present, Ukraine numbers 4,000 editions varying in forms of ownership, genre, type, and periodicity. Periodicals are independent and censorship free.
The national radio-and-television network of Ukraine is made up of government-run and nongovernment radio and TV companies. Ukraine is a member of the International Telecommunication Union and an active participant in the Intervision network. Besides State channel "UT-1" there have appeared several nongovernment TV and radio companies: "1+1", "Inter", "STB" and others.
Among Ukraine's information agencies special popularity have the UKRINFORM (Ukrainian National Information Agency), UNIAR (Ukrainian Independent Information Agency Respublica), and several others. These agencies have correspondents and reporters throughout "the country and abroad and disseminate information both within and outside Ukraine.
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Information Technology and Globalization
Information and communication technologies (ICTs) have been implicated in the structuring and restructuring of human social relations since the days of cave paintings and fire signals. The development of the electrical telegraph and the telephone in the late 1800s marked a qualitative shift in the scope and power of ICTs, however. The new electrical communication systems brought disparate regions and peoples into an unprecedented, increasingly synchronous global network of information, trade, finance, and culture. In the 20th century, the emerging global telecommunication infrastructure was extended and its uses expanded by the development of radio transmission, satellite communications, and terrestrial broadband networks. More recently, digital encoding, storage, and transmission have allowed for data compression and the convergence of multiple formats into a common digital stream, further accelerating the speed and volume of global information and communication flows. At the same time, the diffusion of inexpensive personal computers, the development of the graphical user interface, and the establishment of common data exchange protocols have given users around the world direct access to an increasing mass of data, text, and multimedia documents-as well as the power to create and distribute such documents themselves. The integration and interdependence of global media and information systems have created new challenges and new opportunities. Globalization has facilitated positive forms of cross-cultural exchange, creating, for many, an unprecedented historical opportunity to learn about and benefit from the cultural diversity of the human species, but it has also smoothed the progress of cultural domination, threatening regional and national cultural self-determination and increasing the risk of global cultural homogenization and commercialization. It has greased the wheels of transnational investment, production, and trade in both goods and services, opening new markets and permitting new levels of economic productivity and efficiency, but the expansion and integration of the global economy has also deepened economic inequalities, both internationally and within nations. The development of the Internet and the diffusion of the personal computer have broadened access to information, giving rise to visions of the democratization of knowledge, education, and economic opportunity on a global scale. But the new technologies require new literacies, access to high-quality equipment, and a reliable, high-speed network connection. These remain sharply stratified, strongly determined by access to older technologies such as the telephone and to older forms of literacy such as typing and English. Because the ability to participate in the new networks depends on cultural competencies and forms of access associated with the old networks, the development of new global information and communication technologies may actually exacerbate educational and economic inequalities . 110
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