Bioplastics - Opportunity for the Future by plasticeproject

This project is implemented through the CENTRAL EUROPE Programme co-financed by the ERDF 1

This document has been prepared within the PLASTiCE project and is a part of the WP4窶認ramework conditions for stimulating market demand, WP4.2 Transnational Advisory Scheme

Table of contents:

Preface

Introduction

Polymer materials - Basics

Plastics

3.1.

Plastics classification

3.2.

Classic petrochemical plastics

3.3.

Biodegradable plastics

3.3.1. Biodegradable plastics from renewable resources

3.3.2. Biodegradable plastics from fossil resources

3.3.3. Oxo-degradable plastics

3.4

Plastics from renewable resources

3.5.

Bioplastics manufacturing capabilities

Products in accordance with sustainable development policy and evaluation criteria

4.1.

Sustainable development policy evaluation model for plastics

4.2

Assessment criteria of environmental aspects

4.3.

Assessment criteria of social aspects

4.4.

Assessment criteria of economic aspects

Evaluation system for selected criteria of plastics

5.1.

Compostable plastics certification

5.2.

Biobased content certification

5.3.

Summary of the certification chapter

5.4.

Carbon Footprint - Confirmation of greenhouse gases emission reduction

Conclusion

Appendixes: Appendix A: List of the applications of bioplastics already used

Appendix B: Transnational R&D Scheme

FOREWORD

It is hard to imagine that the world one century ago contained almost no plastics whereas a mere 100 years later they have infiltrated nearly all aspects of our lives from food packaging and medical uses to car parts and toys. Plastics make our food stay fresh longer and be transported longer distances, they keep our medical supplies sterile through the packaging of needles, blood and saline among other things, they make our cars lighter and more fuel efficient, and they delight children whether in the form of Legos or Barbies – to name but a few of plastic’s uses today. This is particularly impressive since plastics are the only major group of materials that are entirely man made.

However, the great success of plastics in bringing major benefits to our lives has a darker side. The kind of plastics we use and how we dispose of them have serious implications for human health and the environment. For example, BPA used in food and beverage containers has been found to act as an endocrine disruptor thereby contributing to developmental abnormalities and cancers and the “North Pacific Garbage Patch” was found to contain huge quantities of plastic waste floating freely in the ocean. Both cases have raised major concerns among the public about plastics . Books such as “Plastic – A toxic love story” (S. Freinkel), “Plastic Free – How I Kicked the Plastic Habit and How You Can Too” (B. Terry), or “ Plastic Ocean: How a Sea Captain's Chance Discovery Launched a Determined Quest to Save the Oceans” (C. Moore and C. Phillips) highlight these concerns and question our use - and abuse - of plastics today.

The transition to plastics that are neither harmful to human and animal health nor to the environment while still fulfilling our needs is the key issue. Science and industry, as well as public policy, have to work towards the introduction of policy guidelines and materials that can do this. Our life and our health, as well as that of the environment we inhabit may depend on it.

The PLASTiCE project represents a step in this direction. Its main concern is creating acceptance of new plastics with lower environmental burdens. To this end, PLASTiCE works with a number of partners ranging from industries, NGOs, and governmental agencies to users, retailers, and scientists. Our experience is that all of these groups are interested in participating in the search for an economically feasible and environmentally benign future for plastics. The question is how to bring their varying interests together in a productive way. Interestingly, what all sides seem to desire is clear, unbiased information and reliable contacts to turn to with their questions about plastics.

This handbook was prepared in the hopes of fulfilling some of these needs and to overcome the current roadblocks that prevent us from using plastics that offer new functionalities with fewer negative environmental and health effects.

doc. dr. Andrej Kržan, PLASTiCE coordinator

1. Introduction Dear Reader, The purpose of this guide is to collect a comprehensive and objective suite of information that will hopefully give you better understanding about sustainable plastics, no matter from which part of plastics industry value chain you are from. Authors of this guide â&#x20AC;&#x201C; partners of Central Europe project PLASTiCE have a substantial experience with sustainable plastics and are approached by companies from whole plastics value chain daily. Based on that experience we generated a list of 10 most frequently asked questions in this field.

The Questions

1. What products can be produced from bioplastics? 2. Is it feasible to produce bioplastic based products from the economic point of view? 3. Is it technologically feasible to produce bioplastic products? 4. Does my company have the right competences? 5. Does my company have the right equipment and processes in place? 6. Why certify bioplastic products? 7. How to convince clients to buy bioplastic products? 8. Where does my company find the right resource materials (polymers, pigments, etc)? 9. Where to look for partners? 10. How do I start? This guide is designed in a way to give answers to all of them. Below you will find short answer to all of them along with references where in the guide you will be able to discover more.

The Answers 1.

What products can be produced from bioplastics?

Bioplastics, just like traditional plastics have multitude of uses and applications and offer many functional properties such as easy printability, gas, water vapour and fats permeability that can be tailored to specific applications. More details on properties can be found in chapter 3. Currently bioplastics are most commonly used in packaging and food sector, with products such as shopping bags, food trays, yogurt cups, cutlery etc. One can observe an increasing popularity of bioplastics in medical applications, agriculture, consumer electronics, sports and even automotive applications. It is important to notice that the bioplastics sector is in the process of development and is expected to grow very quickly within the next couple of years, and so the number of possible applications will expand. Appendix 1 lists most common applications of bioplastics. 2. Is it feasible to produce bioplastic based products from the economic point of view? Although bioplastics are generally more expensive than traditional alternatives, in recent years the market of bioplastics has developed substantially in terms of costs competition and legislative support

from authorities (existence of standards, certification and in some national cases even bans on usage of traditional plastics in some applications – like shopping bags). Demand on bioplastics is mostly observed in the following sectors: packaging, automotive, toys and consumer electronics. Many global corporations have made bioplastics a substantial part of their long term growth and innovation strategies. Advancement of bioplastics is multidimensional. On one hand material producers develop new materials and additives and end products manufacturers observed a huge potential to innovate and diversify their offer previously based on traditional plastics. More on this topic can be found in chapter 3 and chapter 4 where different sustainability assessment criteria are listed.

3. Is it technologically feasible to produce bioplastic products? Bioplastics that already exist in the market can be used for a wide spectrum of applications. Bioplastics can undergo the same processing as traditional plastics - thermoforming, extrusion, blow moulding etc. Differences in processing of bioplastics in comparison with traditional plastics lie in different parameters that have to be chosen on plastic processing machines. Those parameters are listed in bioplastics specification sheets available from all producers. In general, from the point of view of technological complexity, bioplastics are not much more difficult to process than traditional plastics. More on this in chapter 3.

4. Does my company have the right competencies? Competencies refer to capabilities, abilities, skills, proficiencies, expertise and experience. There are two types of competences – technical and non-technical. From the full life cycle view of processing, industrial use, consumer use and waste management, the competences necessary for handling bioplastics are mostly technical and very similar to those needed for traditional plastics. Bioplastics can be processed on the same machinery than traditional plastics, their industrial and consumer use is determined by bioplastics properties which can be found in data sheets for particular materials and ever growing literature. Waste management issue of biobased plastics is equal to the waste management of their conventional plastics analogues and in the case of biodegradable plastics the waste management is different. Compostable bioplastics can be composted with organic waste – the so called organic recycling route. All bioplastics also offer great possibilities of marketing and PR – these though have to be handled with care and tailored to specific materials and applications. This guide is designed in a way to facilitate the identification of competences needed to handle bioplastics and train in those areas where certain non-technical competences may be lacking.

5. Does my company have the right equipment and processes in place? As in the case of any material it is imperative that properties of bioplastics are tailored to the specific application of the product that a company wants to manufacture. Some bioplastics (especially so called green traditional plastics from renewable resources) offer identical properties as their fossil resources analogues (for example PE and Green-PE). Other bioplastics can offer totally different properties which can be exploited creatively. As already answered in question 3, bioplastics can be processed on the same machinery as traditional plastics.

6. Why certify bioplastic products? It is impossible to imagine the modern world without plastics. However these versatile materials are often seen to be in conflict with an increasing focus on environmentally friendly lifestyles leading to a search for more acceptable alternative materials. One of the most visible and promising solutions are bioplastics. As bioplastics are not readily distinguishable from regular plastics, it is necessary to provide a mechanism ensuring their quality and labelling. This is done through standardization and certification systems. Even though certification is entirely voluntary, there are various benefits to certification of products and materials. A certificate distinguishes bioplastics from traditional plastics and proves that a material conforms to standard requirements. This is a clear advantage over other products that do not have the certificate. Products that bear certification logos give consumers a beyond-doubt proof of product/material properties. The certification logo for compostable plastics enables simpler sorting of waste and correct handling and it provides a guarantee about the product's quality. Very detailed and specific information about different forms of standardization of bioplastics can be found in chapter 5.

7. How to convince clients to buy bioplastic products? Bioplastics are new and innovative materials that can be used to manufacture a wide range of products, and are a substitute for traditional plastics. Even though, in the same application most of bioplastics look virtually the same as their traditional plastics counterparts, they can be promoted differently using variety of marketing, Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) and PR practices. Most bioplastics are made from renewable resources and have number of advantages that can be marketed very easily and clearly to all target markets. Bioplastics exclusive properties such as biodegradation can also offer a competitive advantage if used properly. Generally speaking bioplastics are very successful in niche markets such as organic food and luxury items, most often in form of packaging. Producers can also take advantage of the constantly increasing market of environmentally conscious people. Bioplastics can fit very well into the concept of sustainability. Chapter 4 is entirely dedicated to sustainable development and more specifically into various measures and method that can help to assess the sustainability of the bioplastic product and in turn can be used in marketing, PR and CSR.

8. Where does my company find the right resource materials (polymers, pigments, etc.)?

Both appendices of this guide include a comprehensive list of bioplastics application possibilities and the R&D scheme with the list of institutions that can be contacted when help with information about bioplastics is needed. The R&D Scheme is one of the PLASTiCE projects core outputs. The list of applications of bioplastics was prepared to help you find an idea how to use bioplastics in your company and to show you that the use of bioplastics is much wider than just bio-waste bags as most of the users think. The products are separated in different groups and accompanied with the short description of possible use and with an explanation of the advantages of the use of bioplastics. Appendix two â&#x20AC;&#x201C; the R&D Scheme is a product of cooperation between seven R&D institutions from four Central Europe countries, all of them partners of the project. The joint R&D scheme offers tailor-made solutions for the companies in Central Europe that are involved in bringing new biodegradable polymer applications to market. In the scheme you will find contact details to your local institutions that will be able to help you with different issues on bioplastics.

9. Where to look for partners? Industrial use of bioplastics is full of many different market participants â&#x20AC;&#x201C; especially in the material research and testing sectors. Therefore any company that is willing to start its venture with bioplastics should have a number of specific contacts and partners. The R&D scheme in appendix 2 is a document that will help you find specific companies and institutes that can assist you in your particular queries concerning bioplastics and offer their help and expertise in tailoring your product to its intended application.

10. How do I start? Implementation process of new products always begins from an idea that has to address the target market. Bioplastics offer new and innovative possibilities for both new and existing products. From the point of view of external issues, increased need for sustainable and environmental friendly applications promote the opportunity to use bioplastics. Bioplastics â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Opportunity for the Future is a publication designed to inform you about bioplastics in a comprehensible way and assist you in making the first necessary steps to start the adventure with those new materials.

2. Polymer materials - Basics Before moving on to the definition and classifications of plastics, we have to understand the building blocks of plastics. Those are called polymers. In short polymers are large molecules made of repetitive units called “monomers”. They could have linear, branched or cross-linked structure. Linear polymers are often thermoplastic, that is to say they are fusible in certain temperatures and also soluble in some solvents. Cross-linked polymers are infusible and insoluble. Polymers are widespread in nature. They are building material for plant and animal organisms. Starch, cellulose, proteins and chitin are all polymers. Other large group of polymers are synthetically made from petrochemical sources, natural gas and coal. All polymer groups are used in many industrial branches. We can classify the polymers alone by many criteria – listed below are some of them: Classification by physicochemical properties: 

Thermoplasts – materials that become soft when heated, and become hard after a decrease of temperature. E.g. acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene – ABS, polycarbonate – PC, polyethylene – PE, polyethylene terephthalate – PET, polyvinyl chloride – PVC, poly(methyl methacrylate) – PMMA, polypropylene – PP, polystyrene – PS, extruded polystyrene foam – EPS.



Thermoset (duroplasts) – after being formed they stay hard, they do not become soft with the influence of temperature. E.g. polyepoxide – EP, phenol formaldehyde resins – PF.



Elastomers – materials, which can be stretched and squeezed and are able to reshape back to their original form when the applied stretching and squeezing force is removed.

Classification by origin: 

Synthetic polymers – originate from polycondensation, copolymerization)



Natural polymers – produced and degraded in nature e.g. cellulose, proteins, nucleic acids



Modified natural polymers – those are natural polymers, chemically changed to receive new functional properties e.g. cellulose acetate, modified protein, modified starch

chemical

synthesis

(addition

polymerization,

Classification by origin of raw materials, which polymers are made of: 

Renewable sources (plant and animal sources)



Non-renewable/Fossil sources (oil, natural gas, coal)

Classification by usage of polymers: 

Packaging



Building and Construction



Automotive



Electrical and electronic applications



Medical

Addition polymerisation – process of chain integration of monomers with no by-products. Polycondensation – integration process with by-products. Copolymerization – polymerization of at least two different monomers, product obtained: copolymers.

Classification by susceptibility to microorganism / enzymatic attack: 

Biodegradable (polylactide – PLA, polyhydroxyalkanoates – PHA, regenerated cellulose, starch, linear polyesters)



Non-biodegradable (polyethylene – PE, polypropylene – PP, polystyrene - PS)

There are, of course, many more types of classifications of polymers available; however it is important to know that in industrial applications polymers alone are often not enough. Most plastics contain other organic or inorganic compounds blended in. Those are called additives and they can provide new properties to plastics. Therefore:

Plastics = Polymer + Additives The amount of additives ranges from very small percentages for polymers used to wrap foods to more than 50 % for certain applications. Such polymers with additives in technical and industrial usage are called plastics. Some examples of additives include: plasticizers oily compounds that confer improved rheology, fillers that improve overall performance and reduce production costs, stabilizers that inhibit certain chemical reactions such as fire retardants - additives decreasing flammability, antistatic agents, colouring agents, sliding agents and many more. The world of plastics is immense, given the broad range of different polymers and additives that can be compounded. This in turn gives a wide range of possibilities to transform and process plastics. Most basic techniques in plastics processing are: extrusion, blow extrusion, injection, compaction/ compression, pressing, board/slab forming, rolling and calendaring, and die-casting.

3. Plastics 3.1 Plastics classification History of plastics and shift towards sustainability First plastics were produced in the end of 19th and beginning of 20th century. Celluloid and cellophane were first ones and they were natural source based - biobased. After 2nd World War plastics became very popular. From ’60s till ’90s they have mainly been produced from petrochemical resources. In ’80s plastics production was larger than steel production. In ’90s environment protection policies and the notion of sustainability became more important on both sociocultural and political scale. New technologies were invented and put into practice such as producing plastics based on renewable resources and production of biodegradable materials. Research of new materials and their production technologies was and still is closely linked to: 

Knowledge development in environment protection issues – especially with regards to the life cycle thinking of a system – i.e. looking at production, usage and end-of-life processes, material inputs and outputs (the so called – emissions).



Improving evaluation methods of plastics influence on environment, especially through the use of LCA – Life Cycle Assessment – a tool that takes a cradle to grave approach on a particular product.



Development of sustainable development policies, which in manufacturing and trading practice mean that environmental, social and economic issues linked to plastics are taken into account

Plastics produced with such new technologies and issues in mind are collectively called bioplastics. This term was coined by the European Bioplastics Association and their definition can be seen in a box below.

Bioplastics - according to European Bioplastics The term bioplastics encompasses a whole family of materials which are bio-based, biodegradable, or both. Biobased means that the material or product is (partly) derived from biomass (plants). Biomass used for bioplastics stems from e.g. corn, sugarcane, or cellulose. The term biodegradable depicts a chemical process during which micro-organisms that are available in the environment convert materials into natural substances such as water, carbon dioxide and compost (artificial additives are not needed). The process of biodegradation depends on the surrounding environmental conditions (e.g. location or temperature), on the material and on the application. Source: en.european-bioplastics.org

To illustrate this distinction European Bioplastics has provided a simple two-axis model that encompasses all plastic types and possible combinations. It can be seen on Figure 1 on the next page.

Figure 1. Plastics classification by European Bioplastics (EuBp) As can be seen in figure 1, plastics have been divided into four characteristics groups. The horizontal axis shows the biodegradability of plastic, whereas the vertical axis shows whether the material is derived from petrochemical raw materials or renewable materials. This gives possibility for four groups: 1.

Plastics which are not biodegradable and are made from petrochemical resources – this category encompasses what is known as classical or traditional plastics (Although classical petrochemical plastics represent only one group of plastics, they make up in total more than 90 % of plastics production worldwide.)

2. Biodegradable plastics from renewable resources – plastics which are made from biomass feedstock material and show the property of biodegradation 3. Biodegradable plastics from fossil resources – plastics which can biodegrade but are produced from fossil resources 4. Non-biodegradable plastics from renewable resources – plastics produced from biomass but without the biodegradation property. This guide will discuss all four categories in turn.

3.2. Classical petrochemical plastics Classical plastics produced from fossil resources find use in multitude areas of life. Primary property of products made from plastics is their light weight in comparison to other materials. That is because plastics have relatively low density. Moreover plastics show excellent thermo-insulating and electro-insulating properties. Plastics are also resistant to corrosion. Many plastics are transparent, and can therefore have many uses in optical devices. Plastics can be formed in different shapes, and they can be mixed with other materials. Furthermore their properties can be easily altered and tailored by adding: strengthening fillers, pigments, foaming agents and plasticizers. Due to plastics universality, they are used in almost every area of life. Most widespread uses include packaging, constructions, transport, electric and electronic industry, agriculture, medicine and sport. The fact that their usage possibilities are virtually unlimited and that their properties could be adapted to any requirements, is an easy answer to a question as to why plastics are the source of innovations in all life areas. All this is possible thanks to many different types of plastics available on the market. The “big six” plastics in the market are: 

Polyethylene (PE)



Polypropylene (PP)



Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)



Polystyrene (solid – PS and expanded/foamed – EPS)



Polyethylene terephthalate (PET)



Polyurethane (PUR)

Figure 2. European plastics demand by resin type

Source: Plastics – The Facts 2012

Combined they make up about 80 % of demand for plastics in Europe. Top three plastic groups in market are: polyethylene (29 %), polypropylene (19 %) and polyvinyl chloride (12 %). (Source Plastics Europe – The Facts 2012) as can be seen from Figure 2. Other types of plastics with significant demand include: 

Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS)



Polycarbonate (PC)



Polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA)



Epoxide resins (EP)



Phenolformaldehyde resins (PF)



Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE)

In 2011 global production of plastics has reached 280 million tons. Production is experiencing a steady increase average of about 9 % per year from 1950s. In 2011 plastics production in Europe reached 58 million tons (which in turn makes up a 21 % of global production). The biggest worldwide producer (China) reached 23 % of global production. In the long term, it is forecasted that 4 % growth of consumption per capita is going to take effect. Despite high consumption in Asia and by the new members of EU, the level of consumption in these countries is still much lower than in well developed countries (Source: PLASTICS EUROPE—The Facts 2012) Figures 3-6 compare progress of plastics production. Figure 3 shows plastics growth rate since 1950 to 2011 on the world and in Europe. Plastic industry has been growing continuously for 50 years. Global production has grown from 1,7 million tons in 1950 to 280 million tons in 2011, while in Europe from 0,35 million tons to 58 million tons. Currently one can observe that the plastic production is rapidly shifting to Asia.

Figure 3. Global plastic production from 1950 to 2011

Source: Plastics – The Facts 2012

Figure 4 shows demand of plastic in European countries, with the highest level in Germany, Italy and France.

Figure 4. European Plastics Demand by Country (k tonne/year)

Source Plastics â&#x20AC;&#x201C; The Facts 2012 Figure 5 shows plastic consumption in Europe in 2010-2011. Consumption has risen from 46,4 million tons in 2010 to 47 million tons in 2011. In 2010 the biggest branch was packaging with 39 % in all consumption, followed by constructions (20,6 %), automotive (7,5 %), electrical and electronic (5,6 %). Other smaller branches are: sport, recreation, agriculture and machine production. In 2011 the biggest branch was also packaging (39,4 %), a slight increase from the year before. Second biggest branch in 2011 was constructions (20,5 %), automotive (8,3 %), followed by electric and electrical industry (5,4 %). Other smaller branches were: sport, health and safety, entertainment and relaxation, agriculture, machines industry, households appliances and furniture industry.

Figure 5. Plastics consumption in Europe by branches in 2010 (left) and 2011 (right) Source: Plastics â&#x20AC;&#x201C;

The Facts 2012 Figure 6 shows plastic consumption with specified polymer type and branch.

Figure 6. Plastic consumption by type and branch in 2010

Source: Plastics â&#x20AC;&#x201C; The Facts 2012 Additional information about the classical plastics industry can be found on the website of Plastics Europe Association: http://www.plasticseurope.org/plastics-industry/market-and-economics.aspx

3.3. Biodegradable plastics When searching for a definition of biodegradable plastics one can find few contradictory definitions. The easiest and the most accurate explanation of biodegradable plastics says that biodegradable plastics are susceptible to biodegradation. Biodegradation process is based on the fact that microorganisms available in the environment, i.e. bacteria, fungi and algae recognize biodegradable plastics as a source of nutrients and consume and digest it (artificial additives are NOT needed). Biodegradation includes different parallel or subsequent abiotic and biotic steps and MUST include the step of biological mineralization. The first step of biodegradation is fragmentation which is followed by mineralization. Mineralization is conversion of the organic carbon into the inorganic carbon. Figure 7 describes the difference between degradation and biodegradation. If only fragmentation occurs this means material has degraded and if as the next step mineralization occurs the material is biodegradable.

Fragmentation

Mineralisation

Figure 7: The difference between degradation and biodegradation As we can see in the figure 7 biodegradation is complete microbial assimilation of the fragmented material as a food source by the microorganisms. To be completely accurate we have to say that the term biodegradability does not give any specific answer about the process, it only says that the complete assimilation of the organic carbon occurs. If we take the infinitive timeframe everything is biodegradable. More accurate term is compostability, meaning biodegradation in the composting environment and in the timeframe of a composting cycle. As we said before biodegradation can occur in an aerobic or in an anaerobic environment. Products of the biodegradation under aerobic conditions are carbon dioxide, water and biomass and the products of anaerobic biodegradation are methane, water and biomass, which is simplified described in the figure below.

Figure 8: Products of the biodegradation process under aerobic and anaerobic conditions

Among the different biodegradation processes, composting is an organic recycling procedure, a manner of controlled organic waste treatment carried out under aerobic conditions (presence of oxygen) where the organic material is converted by naturally occurring microorganisms. Compostability is complete assimilation of biodegradable plastics within 180 days in a composting environment. During industrial composting the temperature in the composting heap can reach temperatures up to 70 °C. Composting is done in moist conditions. Compostable plastics are defined by a series of national and international standards e.g. EN 13432, ASTM D6400 and other, more information about the standards can be found in the chapter 5 ‘Evaluation systems for selected criteria of plastics’. The susceptibility of a polymer or a plastic material to biodegradation depends exclusively on the chemical structure of the polymer. For this reason, whether the polymer is made of renewable resources (biomass) or non-renewable (fossil) resources is irrelevant to biodegradability. What matters is the final structure. Biodegradable polymers can therefore be made of renewable or non-renewable resources.

3.3.1. Biodegradable plastics from renewable resources Knowledge development in environmental protection, sustainability and depletion of world fossil resources influenced scientists to find alternative energy sources. One of the trends involved research of biodegradable polymers from renewable resources. Those plastics could replace ordinary petrochemical plastics, and have similar properties. First small manufacture production of biodegradable plastics from renewable resources started in 1995. Nowadays its usage and range of adaptations is much wider. In 2009 global biodegradable plastics production amounted to 226 thousand tons. In 2011 it reached for about 486 thousand tons (doubling of the production in two years). Main types of biodegradable polymers produced from renewable resources (including those produced by chemical synthesis of bio-based monomers and those made by microorganisms or modified bacteria) are the following: 

Poly(lactic acid) (PLA);



Thermoplastic starch (TPS), starch mixed with aliphatic polyesters and co-polyesters; starch esters, starch mixed with natural materials;



Polyesters with microbiological origin – poly(hydroxyalkanoates); PHAs, including copolymers of butyric acid, valeric acid and hexanoic acid PHBV, PHBH;



Cellulose esters, regenerated cellulose;



Wood and other natural materials. Figure 9. Examples of biodegradable packaging on the market Source: EuBp

There are many different biodegradable plastics on the market. Those which deserve most attention are: polylactides – PLAs, polymer-starch composites, polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs) and new generation cellulose films. They have good overall properties comparable with traditional plastics, their production capabilities are increasing substantially and prices are comparable to the prices of conventional plastics. Figure 9 shows examples of biodegradable plastics.

Polylactic Acid - PLA PLA – polylactide – aliphatic polyester produced by poly-condensation of lactic acid (produced from corn starch by bacterial fermentation method). PLA can be used to produce: 

Flexible packaging (biaxial oriented films, multilayer films with sealable layer)



Extruded durable and thermoformed film



Injection moulded packaging



Laminated paper extrusion

Polymer-starch composite materials A significant progress is also observed in the field of composites of biodegradable polymers with starch. Those compositions are used for thermoformed flexible and durable films. They are used for trays, containers, foamed fillers in transport packaging, durable packaging formed by injection moulding, and coating of paper and cardboard. Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA) PHAs are a large family of copolymers with properties ranging from hard solids to soft materials, depending on composition. PHAs can be blended with other biodegradable polymers to form biodegradable blends. PHAs can be processed into calendered sheets and injection moulded items. New generation of cellulose films New generation of compostable cellulose films are also becoming more and more widespread. Most important properties of these materials are: 

Excellent optic properties



High barrier for oxygen and aromas



Adjustable barrier for water vapour



Thermo-resistance, fat-resistance, chemical-resistance



Natural antistatic properties

3.3.2 Biodegradable plastics from fossil resources With regards to the origin of building blocks of biodegradable plastics one can distinguish two major groups: 

Polymers produced from renewable resources – those were described in the chapter above



Polyesters made from fossil resources

The difference between those materials lies only in the origin of the feedstock material. As they are both biodegradable, it may be possible to compost them – offering an alternative end-of-life option. However it is important to note that the origin classification is just theoretical because many producers use polymers mixtures – i.e. mixtures of biodegradable polymers which originate from both renewable and fossil resources. Examples of biodegradable polymers originating from fossil resources are the following: 

Synthetic aliphatic polyesters – polycaprolactone (PCL), polybutylene succinate (PBS)



Synthetic aliphatic-aromatic copolymers such as polyethylene terephthalate/succinate (PETS)



Poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVOH) a biodegradable water-soluble polymer

3.3.3. Oxo-degradable plastics One of the materials very often being aggressively promoted as biodegradable are oxo-degradable plastics. Those materials are available on the market and often improperly labelled as environment friendly biodegradable materials. To produce oxo-degradable plastics the producers add specific degradable additives to the conventional non-biodegradable plastics. Those materials then fragment into small pieces and become undetectable in the environment with the naked eye. But this only proves the first step of degradation, the second necessary step for materials being called biodegradable, MINERALIZATION, is not proven. More information on the oxo-degradable plastics can be found on the following webpages: 

The Society of the Plastics Industry, Bioplastics Council - Position paper on degradable additives (http://goo.gl/MoqGJ)



European Bioplastics - Position paper on British standard for oxo-degradable plastics (http://goo.gl/GJXJO)



European Bioplastics - Position paper on Oxo degradable plastics (http://goo.gl/RvPgi)



European Bioplastics – Position paper European Bioplastics on the study Life Cycle assessment of oxo-biodegradable, compostable and conventional bags (http://goo.gl/tpwyN)

1 3

Figure 10. Comparison of compostable materials (sample 1 and 2) and oxo-degradable material (sample 3 and 4) after disintegration testing in labolatory scale after 3 months. Note that oxo-degradable material did not disintegrate

Source: COBRO

3.4. Plastics from renewable resources So far the guide has listed bioplastics which demonstrate the property of biodegradation. The second group of bioplastics which gains more and more popularity and publicity are non-biodegradable plastic materials which are produced by using renewable feedstock material, as opposed to the fossil fuels. Those materials are identical in their properties with traditional plastic materials from fossil resources. Great example of such bioplastics is the so called “green polyethylene” – where ethylene is polymerized from ethanol, which is produced by fermentation of organic material. There are several varieties of “green” ethylene being produced – of both high and low density (HDPE, LDPE). Figure 11 shows the manufacturing process utilised.

Figure 11. „Green polyethylene” production process Another example of renewable resources usage are PET bottles – called Plant Bottle. Those bottles are composed of PET, produced from terephthalic acid (70 % of mass) and ethylene glycol (30 % of mass). Terephthalic acid comes from oil, whereas glycol is produced from ethanol (deriving from fermentation of vegetable feedstock). Such bottles can be easily recycled, and they can be collected with other (classical) PET bottles. This partially bio-based PET saves global fossil resources and also reduces CO 2 emissions. Plant Bottle is 20 % biobased (20 % of the carbon present in the material comes from renewable resources) and 30 % bio-massed (30 % of the mass of the material comes from renewable resources) and a simple scheme on figure 12 shows how the Plant Bottle is made.

Figure 12. PET bottles with part of renewable resources production process Currently developments are made to introduce 100 % biomass PET bottle. 100 % Bio-PET bottles will be made of organic materials such as: grass, bark and corn which are not used in food producing processes. In future also agricultural by-products (like potato peelings) and other bio-waste will be used. To make 100 % biomass bottle it is necessary to produce terephthalic acid from renewable resources. There are some chemical pathways to produce terephthalic acid from p-xylene but at the moment no 100 % PET is jet present at the market. Alternative to fully bio-based PET, very much interest is currently addressed to polyethylenfuranoate (PEF), a polyester totally bio-based for the same applications as PET but with even better properties for food packaging. Furthermore as a consequence of fast technological progress some petrochemical polymers in the near future could be manufactured from renewable resources.

3.5. Bioplastics manufacturing capabilities In 2011 global bioplastics producing ability amounted to about 1,161 million tons. It is much less than global classic plastics production (265 million tons) but forecast for 2016 shows that bioplastics production will reach almost 6 million tons per year. Figure 13 shows these data with biodegradable and non-biodegradable plastics separately.

Figure 13. Global bioplastics production ability and forecast for 2016 Source EuBp Figure 14 on the other hand presents bioplastics production capability in 2011 and forecast for 2016 for different regions. In 2011 the biggest production ability was in Asia (34,6 %), South America (32,8 %), Europe (18,5 %) and North America (13,7 %). In 2016 forecast shows that the largest production will occur in both Asia (46,3 %) and South America (45,1 %), followed by Europe (4,9 %) and North America (3,5 %).

Figure 14. Bioplastics production ability in 2011 and forecast for 2016 by regions Source EuBp Figure 15 presents bioplastics production capacity by type and Figure 16 shows the same forecast for 2016. The most crucial and noticeable difference lies in the prediction of BIO-PET usage. European Bioplastics has predicted that in 2016 more than 80 % of bioplastics market share by type will be taken by the production BIO-PET. This prediction is based on the press releases of several industry leaders in beverage production, stating their intention to exchange traditional PET bottles into their bioplastic equivalent (BIO-PET and PEF).

Figure 15. Global bioplastics production ability in 2011 by bioplastics type Source EuBP

Figure 16. Global bioplastics production ability forecast for 2016 by plastics type Source EuBp 25

4. Products in accordance with sustainable development policy and evaluation criteria 4.1. Sustainable development policy evaluation model for plastics Sustainable development definition according to the current understanding of European Union is a development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. Sustainable development thus comprises three elements economic, social and environmental - which have to be considered in equal measure at the political level. The strategy for sustainable development, adopted in 2001 and amended in 2005, is complemented inter alia (among other things) by the principle of integrating environmental concerns with European policies which impact on the environment. For business concept this definition consists of taking into consideration widely understood economic, environmental and social issues in the daily and long term operations of a company. In plastic industrial practice that means being responsible for the introduction of new products on a plastics market from the perspective of those three issues. This means that new products should be evaluated with regards to environmental, social and economic impacts they generate. This evaluation, which gives equal rank to all three elements, should be performed in whole product life cycle stages (designing, manufacturing, using, recycling). Figure 17 shows sustainable development scheme.

Figure 17. Sustainable development area source: Wikipedia This fulfilment has to be present in all product life cycle stages, starting from production process, delivery chain, demand for sources, processing methods, packaging, distribution, usage and waste management including transport. At the same time companies should try to match up or exceed their competition by offering better functional and quality properties of their products, fulfil environmental protection standards and also better contribute to waste management system. In the example of sustainability of plastics it is very important to note that all plastics are already fulfilling environmental, economic and social criteria with higher standards than analogous conventional materials like glass, metal or even paper. Bioplastics can be therefore viewed as

materials competing with classical plastics in exceeding those standards. Due to the fact that plastics are used in many industry branches it is hard to set equal standards and specifically define sustainable development policy for all of them. That is why basic standards should be set for all polymer products and specific sustainability standards should be set for different groups of specific uses. Sections below present a list of different assessment criteria and concepts that can be used to test sustainability within its three main pillars â&#x20AC;&#x201C; environment, sociology and economy. Each criteria and/or sets of criteria may be applicable to different plastic products. In order to evaluate sustainability as objective as possible it is important to choose as many fitting criteria as possible

4.2 Assessment Criteria of Environmental Aspects Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) LCA is a method that can be used to rate and compare a product with another product of similar functionality, in terms of its environmental impact throughout its life cycle. LCA method consists of different criteria of evaluation in all life cycle stages of a selected product. LCA study can present full view on specific products influence on the environment starting from mining of resources, ending on recycling or waste treatment. Potential environmental influence of every life cycle process of a chosen product is quantitatively recorded in categories such as: health, ecosystem quality and resources consumption. Potential impacts that a given product can have on an environment are: carcinogenic factors, organic and inorganic compounds emission, climate changes, radiation, ozone layer damage, ecotoxicity, acidifications/eutrophication, terrain usage, natural resources and fossil fuel consumption. Figures 18 and 19 below portray the simplest representation of what is taken into account in Life Cycle Assessment, and an example of processes and steps in a life cycle of packaging with boundaries taken into account in a study.

Figure 18. Steps of LCA Source: COBRO

Figure 19. Simplified process tree of a packaging, with examples of environmental threats that can occur throughout the life cycle Source: COBRO Responsible resources usage in manufacturing Current extensive exploitation of non-renewable resources (coal, oil, natural gas) will one day result in their final depletion. This in turn could have a catastrophic effect for future generations. That is why, according to the sustainable development policy it is recommended to try to utilise less materials in product applications and use renewable resources whenever possible. With regards to the responsible usage of resources another important issue is the greenhouse effect and greenhouse gases emission from production. An indicator called “Carbon Footprint” shows total greenhouse gases emission produced directly and indirectly in all life cycle stages of a given product. Usually the indicator is given in tons or kilograms of carbon dioxide equivalent gases. In opinion of Professor R. Narayan from Michigan State University when considering ‘carbon footprint’ it is very advisable to use plant origin renewable materials, including biodegradable polymer such as polylactide (PLA). This is because plants during photosynthesis absorb CO2. In this case many scientists assume zero or below zero “carbon footprint” rate for manufacturing process of such material. More on this can be found in

chapter 5. Meeting of higher requirements than set by current law, including non-obligatory environmental protection certification There are many non-obligatory environmental certifications systems in existence in EU. For example: 

certification of products derived from renewable sources



certification of compostable products



greenhouse gases emission reduction confirmation

Those systems are marked with special symbols and are described in detail in chapter 5.

4.3. Assessment Criteria of Social aspects Waste collection system existence and recycling availability When introducing new products on a market one should consider waste collection systems and recycling methods availability in the region. A product can be sustainable from the point of view of environment, but when it turns into waste it can become a problem if end-of-life treatment is not supported in the region. Compostable plastic waste, for example, which is not collected with organic waste, but is being deposited on a landfill, will have a negative social environmental impact. Figure 20 presents organisational and technological spheres that a working recycling system should have. When introducing a new product on a market it is worthwhile to study this model and identify how each circle is represented in a target market.

Figure 20. Recycling system model Source: COBRO

Customers knowledge and education level Approval of new technical and technological solutions by society requires high level of customers awareness which depends on capital and education expenditure. This factor depends on knowledge level and awareness of society and can be influenced by marketing/PR actions and educational schemes on different levels (school/university modules, seminars, conferences etc.)

Fulfilling customersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; expectations According to current marketing trends products should offer attractive look, high usage comfort, ergonomic shape, durability, etc. In other words the race for sustainability should not reduce aspects that are appealing from the point of view of end consumers. In order to support this step, various types of market research can be used.

Social effects evaluation – hidden costs of end-of-life Decisions made in microeconomic scale by producers and customers may cause an occurrence called “the external effect” or “the social effect”. Depending if an action causes an advantage or a disadvantage we identify: 

positive social effect (social advantage)



negative social effect (social cost)

Positive social effect happens when producers or customers actions cause advantages for society as a whole. For those advantages producers and customers are not directly recompensed for. Negative social effect occurs when a producer or customer creates extra costs for the society as a result of their decisions, and at the same time they do not bear any cost himself. Those costs are called “social costs”.

4.4. Assessment Criteria of Economic aspects Demand of polymer materials Launching a new product on a market, and determining its price should be of course based on the total costs of manufacturing, including polymer material costs. This however should be based on the market analysis of potential consumers on specific output market. For example according to COBRO’s survey of Polish packaging industry the most important factor affecting manufacturing decisions is price, polymer properties and availability. For 52 % producers are willing to pay the same price for sustainable polymers as they pay for classic polymer materials. Only 22 % are in a position to bear 100-150 % higher costs. Graph below shows a typical economic supply and demand curve which shows the areas of shortage and surplus – i.e. when more products are demanded that are supplied, and where more products are put on the market than demanded. When there is either a surplus or a shortage of supply and demand, the market is considered to be out of equilibrium and therefore unsustainable. In order to reach the equilibrium, the price of the product needs to increase or decrease. This simple concept is very important in determining the pricing strategy of plastic products.

Figure 21. Typical economic supply and demand curve with surplus and shortage areas highlighted

Economically supported polymer choice Polymer sources can be chosen by performing: ď&#x201A;ˇ

market analysis

ď&#x201A;ˇ

risk analysis (feasibility study)

ď&#x201A;ˇ

producers and suppliers portfolio analysis (competition analysis)

Life cycle costs evaluation (LCC). Processes costs in all life cycle Processes costs evaluation in all life cycle stages could be analysed by LCA method taking into consideration the costs of processes. This step would include a full environmental LCA study, with additional information about the cost of each particular process. With this approach to LCA separate processes contribution could be analysed and managerial decisions can be fashioned on the basis of costs.

5. Evaluation system for selected criteria of plastics 5.1. Compostable plastics certification Due to the fact that there is a lot of misleading information about “green plastics” standardization organizations developed standards for the field of bioplastics. In the middle of 1990 European Commission ordered CEN (European Committee for Standardization) to develop standards for compostable packaging. The result of this work is the standard specification EN 13432:2000 which is harmonized with the Directive 34/62/EC concerning packaging. Standards are a set of requirements which a product or service has to fulfil. There are two main groups of standards: 

Standard specification, a set of requirements, pass/fail values which a product must comply with to be assigned with a certain label. An example of standard specification for compostable plastics is EN 13432. The basis of EN 13432 requirements was then broadened to plastics with standard specification EN 14995. There are also other standard specification e.g. ASTM D6400, ISO 17088 and others; and



Test methods, evaluations, determinations or practices. Test methods describe how to perform tests and how to validate them. To test specific characteristic of the compostable product there is a reference in a standard specification to the relevant test method according to which testing should be carried out.

Standard specifications are most often the basis for a certification system/scheme – but not always (the certification scheme for bio-based plastics). Certificate is a confirmation that a product/service is in compliance with the specific request. The verification and testing of a product are based on test methods. Specification for compostable plastics The most known specification for compostability is previously mentioned EN 13432. According to this standard specification the following requirements for compostable products apply: 

Content of heavy metals and other elements below the limits mentioned in the Annex A of the standard;



Disintegration analysis during biological treatment. 3 months (12 weeks) analysis in industrial or half industrial composting conditions should present sufficient disintegration level (not more than 10 % of dry matter may stay above 2 mm sieve);



Biodegradation analysis - at least 90 % of the organic carbon MUST be converted into carbon dioxide within 180 days (mineralization);



Eco toxicity analysis assessing that biological treatment is not decreasing the level of compost quality – this is determined by a plant growth test.

Composting, also called organic recycling, basically signifies oxygen processing capability of waste. This process is conducted in strict controlled conditions by microorganisms, which turn organic carbon into carbon dioxide. Product of this process is organic matter called compost. Confirmation of positive compostability can be put into practice in a form of a certificate that can be awarded for final products. It is also possible to obtain a registration of the raw materials (polymers), intermediates and additives. Producers of materials cannot use the certification as producers of products can, but once their material is registered according to the EN 13432, producers of final products that would like to have their product certified can use this registration to avoid the testing procedure for that material, which is both expensive and time consuming (with the respect to registered thickness and the thickness of the material).

Germany was one of the first countries which started the certification of biodegradable plastics. Basics for certification criteria were prepared by Biodegradable Materials Interest Community Association (Interessengemeinschaft Biologisch Abbaubare Werkstoffe – IBAW), which in 2006 changed to European Bioplastics Association. Figure 22 shows European certification systems and different composting marks.

Figure 22. Certification system for biodegradable plastics in Europe (source: PLASTiCE) In Europe main certification bodies that introduced a certification system are operated by DIN CERTCO (member of German Institute for Standardization DIN) and Vinçotte. DIN CERTCO’s system has national partners operating in Germany, Switzerland, Netherlands, Great Britain and Poland, and Vinçotte system is available internationally through its Belgium and Italian office. Italy has its own certification body for compostable plastics called CIC (Italian Composting Association (CIC) together with Certiquality). Both DIN CERTCO and Vinçotte’s successful certification means that a producer can place a mark that is called the “seedling logo”. The ‘Seedling’ logo is owned by European Bioplastics Association and it signifies to the final consumer that a product is to be collected with other compostable organic waste. In addition to that both DIN CERTCO and Vinçotte have their own composting symbols which can be also placed on the products, based on which certification body was used for determining the compostability. CIC only awards compostable products with their own compostability label. Figure 23 shows composting marks which are given to certificated products by DIN CERTCO, Vinçotte and CIC.

Figure 23. “SeedlingTM logo” alongside with specific DIN CERTCO ‘Geprüft’, Vinçottes OK COMPOST and CIC compostable logos Source: webpage of certification bodies DIN CERTCO,

Vinçotte and CIC

Composting capability confirmation is given under the following conditions: 

All materials included in a product have to be compostable – unless they can be separated easily – as in the case of a yogurt cup and a lid.



Packaging material thickness has to be lower or the same as the maximum thickness in which it has biodegraded – the registration was awarded.



Packaging must not have any dangerous additives for the environment. Its intended use should be described in details. Certificate is not given when the product has any additives which could decrease compost quality.

In addition to the industrial compostability certifications DIN CERTCO and Vinçotte also offer additional Certification Scheme for Home Composting. Certification marks for HOME composting are shown on Figure 24. Owing to the comparatively smaller volume of waste involved, the temperature in a garden compost heap is much lower and less constant than in an industrial composting environment. This proves ‘garden’ composting to be a more difficult, slower-paced process. OK HOME compost certification schemes guarantee complete biodegradability in garden compost heap.

Figure 24. Certification logos for products intended to be composted at home

Source: webpage of certification bodies DIN CERTCO and Vinçotte Vinçotte also awards products that are biodegradable in soil and in water with a certification mark (symbols are shown on Figure 25). Similarly the Soil and Water Biodegradation certification systems guarantee that products will completely biodegrade in the soil and fresh water without adversely affecting the environment. Note that the Water Biodegradability certification does not guarantee that products will biodegrade in marine environment (salt water).

Figure 25. Certification marks for products that are biodegradable in soil or in water

Source: webpage of certification body Vinçotte In the USA certification is based on ASTM D6400. Figure 26 shows composting mark given by US Composting Council and Biodegradable Products Institute.

Figure 26. Biodegradability and compostability by US Composting Council and Biodegradable Products Institute Source: webpage of certification body Biodegradable Products Institute

5.2. Bio-based content certification Determination of the bio-based content is based on the principle of measuring the activity of the 14C isotope. Materials - both those based on fossil resources as well as those based on renewable resources - are mainly composed of carbon that can be found in three isotopes in the nature: 12C, 13C, and 14C. The 14C isotope is unstable, decays slowly and is naturally present in all living organisms. The content of 14C in all living organisms is very stable since it is related to the concentration of 14C in the environment which is close to constant. When the organism is deceased, it stops absorbing the 14C isotope from the environment. From that moment onward the 14C concentration starts to decrease due to natural decay of the isotope. The half-life of 14C is known to be around 5 700 years. This is not noticeable in the range of a human life, but within 50,000 years the content of 14C decreases to a level that cannot be measured. This means that the concentration of 14C in fossil resources is negligible. ASTM D6866 standard using the above principle is the basis for certifying materials, intermediate products, additives and products based on renewable resources. Both Vinçotte and DIN CERTCO introduced an evaluation system for the content of the renewable resources in a plastic material or product. In essence such certification system evaluates the proportional content of “old” (fossil) and “new” (renewable/biogenic) carbon. Figure 27 shows the difference between the “old” and “new” carbon. “Carbon age” signifies a time needed to get carbon for manufacturing a product. Classical/conventional plastics are manufactured from fossil resources containing carbon produced for millions years. On the other hand, plastics manufactured from renewable crops (corn, sugarcane, potatoes also farm and food production waste) contain carbon which circulates in nature for maximum a few years. For wooden products “carbon age” is about several dozen years old.

Figure 27. Carbon cycle In EU first plastics containing renewable resources certification system was introduced in Belgium by AIB-VINÇOTTE International S.A. Bio-based content certificate is available for products that contain at least 20 % of renewable source carbon and is divided into four groups: 

20 – 40 % carbon form renewable resources



40 – 60 % carbon form renewable resources



60 – 80 % carbon form renewable resources



over 80 % carbon form renewable resources

This system could be used for many products completely or partly manufactured from natural origin materials/polymers/resources (except solid, liquid and gaseous fuel). Evaluation criteria that are a base for this certification are publicly available. Criteria include basic specifications. To apply for

certification product has to contain at least 30 % organic carbon calculated in dry matter and at least 20 % organic carbon from renewable resources. Analysis is based on the ASTM D6866 standard, method B or C. The certification applies only to materials which are non-toxic and are not used in medicine. Number of the stars on the symbol signifies the percentage of renewable resources in a certain product. Figure 28 shows symbol which confirms that product is made from renewable resources and gives an explanation of the meaning of a certain part of the certification label.

Figure 28. AIB-Vinçotte certification symbol for products from renewable resources Source: webpage of certification body Vinçotte DIN CERTCO bio-based polymer certification applies for many branches and products (except of medical, petrochemical and toxic products). Passing the certification procedure permits the producer to put special symbol with the percentage of the renewable resources content on a product. Certification scale has three grades: 

From 20 % to 50 %



From 50 % to 85 %



Over 85 % of carbon form renewable resources

Figure 29 displays certification marks which show the percentage of the content of the renewable resources.

Figure 29. Certification logos for products from renewable resources by DIN CERTCO

Source: webpage of certification body DIN CERTCO

When a product is consisted from more than one element then the company applying for the certificate needs to certify each element of the product separately. On the other hand it is possible to certify a group of products, provided that they are made from the same material and have similar shape and the size is the only differentiating factor.

5.3. Summary of the certification chapter

Figure 30. Standardization and certification of bioplastics Figure 30 shows how standardization and certification of bioplastics is consisted. Bioplastics are bio-based, biodegradable or both (definition of European Bioplastics). Certification schemes are separated. For bio-based plastics (plastics made from renewable resources) only test methods exist, there is no standard specification because the necessary result for certification scheme is the proportion of renewable carbon in comparison with old carbon and is a result of the measurement. Based on the result of the determination of the bio-based content the product/material is awarded with a certificate. Biodegradable plastics are divided into: 

plastics biodegradable in water, both standard specification and test methods exist, also certification scheme is developed.



plastics biodegradable in soil, only test methods are developed and no standard specification, certification scheme is developed.



anaerobically biodegradable plastics, only test methods are developed, there is no standard specification and no certification scheme.



and compostable plastics which are then divided to:  plastics suitable for industrial composting, for this field we have the most standard specifications, standard test methods and certification schemes and  plastics suitable for home composting, standard specification was published in 2010, developed are standard test methods and also certification schemes.



as the last group of biodegradable plastics we can find oxo-degradable plastics, but this group does NOT actually belong to bioplastics because at this moment there is still lack of evidences that in the process the digestion occurs (involvement of microorganisms). For oxo-degradable plastics we have some test methods, but at the moment there is no standard specification and also no certification scheme.

The field of standardization and certification of bioplastics is very broad, complex and fast changing. For more specific information contact the above mentioned certification bodies.

5.4. Confirmation of greenhouse gases emission reduction Legislative restrictions on emissions of greenhouse gases influenced many evaluation methods of those emissions, counting methods that can be applied to products including packaging. Most popular method is called the “carbon footprint” or “carbon profile”. For a plastic product a “carbon footprint” amounts to overall directly and indirectly emitted CO2 (and other greenhouse gases) throughout its whole life cycle. In Europe most popular “carbon footprint” calculation is currently based on PAS 2050:2011 published by BSI (British Standards Institution). Figure 31 shows five steps of calculation procedure. Figure 32 on the other hand shows life cycle stages and data needed to complete a “carbon footprint” evaluation.

Figure 31. “Carbon footprint” rate evaluation scheme by PAS 2050:2011

Figure 32. Life cycle stages taken into consideration while evaluating “carbon footprint” and other data needed In 2007 Carbon Trust (organization financed by British government) introduced a new mark called “carbon reduction label”. The current version of the symbol is shown on Figure 33. “Carbon reduction label” shows overall CO2 and other greenhouse gases emission calculated as CO2 equivalent in all life cycle stages (production, transport, distribution, removal and recycling). Base for evaluation is PAS 2050:2011. “Carbon reduction label” informs consumers about greenhouse gases emission level and helps them to make deliberated decisions that are beneficial for the environment.

Figure 33. Current example of mark confirming co-operation with Carbon Trust

Producers cooperating with Carbon Trust analyse process maps related to life cycle of their specific products. With understanding of the greenhouse gas emissions of their processes companies are able to change technical and logistical solutions which can then reduce this emission. Producers of the following products took part in the pilot testing of this scheme: orange juice, potato flakes, detergents, light bulbs, clothes. Figure 34 show examples of “carbon reduction label” on a product from a supermarket retail chain.

Figure 34. “Carbon reduction label” on a milk bottle – notice that the result includes all process of milk production – along with plastic bottle, cap and label production and printing

Source: http://www.german-retailblog.com/2012/04/19/tescos-carbon-footprint/

A major global beverage producer is another notable example of cooperation with Carbon Trust. Figure 35 shows process tree of beverages life cycle and figure 36 shows the breakdown of carbon footprint per production processes. As one can see for a glass bottle “carbon footprint” attributed to the packaging amounts to 68.5 % of total CO2 emissions. For a 0.33 L metal can this value is 56.4 %, a PET bottle (0.5 L) has a share of 43.2 % and for a large PET bottle (2 L) amounts to 32.9 % of total carbon.

Figure 35. Processes scheme for beverages

Figure 36. “Carbon footprint” proportion for different packaging Comparing “carbon footprint” for several beverages the highest value is for ordinary version of the beverage (1071 g CO2 per litre) in a glass bottle (0.33 L). The smallest result is for a diet version of the beverage in 2 L PET bottle (192 g CO2 per litre). Higher values of normal version of the beverage in comparison with the diet edition of the beverage are attributed to higher sugar content, which in turn leads to increased total emissions.

Figure 37. “Carbon footprint” for different beverages

6. Conclusion Dear Reader, This guide was prepared with the intention to present you unbiased information about bioplastics and to help you to better understand sustainable plastics. We have tried to cover the complete value chain of sustainable plastics, from the basics of plastics and bioplastics and manufacturing capabilities of bioplastics, to the sustainability of bioplastics where we have presented all three pillars of sustainable development, to different evaluation systems for sustainable plastics, where we are providing you information how to unbiased verify the added value of the bioplastic product. Hopefully this guide encompasses all the bioplastics topics that are of your interest. You can find some practical information about bioplastics also in the subsequent appendixes, where we have presented some examples of the possible uses of bioplastics and the list of analyses and other services related to bioplastics offered by our consortium. Hopefully this guide has filled your expectations. Some additional technical information you can also find on our YouTube channel (www.youtube.com/user/plasticeproject) where we publish our video presentations, lectures and lectures of other experts during our events.

Appendix A Dear reader, This list of applications of bioplastics was prepared to help you find an idea how to use bioplastics in your company and to show you that the use of bioplastics is much wider than just bio-waste bags as most of the users think. The products are separated in different groups and accompanied with the short description of possible use and with an explanation of the advantages of the use of bioplastics. Through the whole guide that you probably read to this point we have tried to avoid all the company names and were more or less successful but at this point we need to include some company names. Not with the purpose of promotion but solely with the purpose to show you all the possible applications of bioplastics. The images are mostly borrowed from European Bioplastics (tab Press/ Press pictures) and images borrowed from another source are mentioned below the picture. This list of applications of bioplastics was prepared in July 2013 and presents the current overview of the bioplastics applications. To the time you are reading this guide we are sure that few new bioplastics applications are already developed since the field of bioplastics is fast developing.

We wish you majority of successful ideas of how to use bioplastics.

Films, bags Foils made from bioplastics can be used to produce bio-waste bags, compostable bags, bags made from renewable resources, food wrapping and shrink films to pack beverages and also for other applications. The main advantages of the use of bioplastics are environmental aspects, higher consumer acceptance, increased shelf life of the products and composting as an end of life treatment of compostable products.

Compostable shopping bag Author: Aldi/BASF

Bio PE shopping bag Author: Lidl Austria GmbH

Compostable shopping bag Author: Novamont

Compostable transparent flower wrap Author: FKuR

Compostable film for fruit and vegetables Author: Alesco

Compostable shrink film for beverages Author: Alesco

Compostable bag for cosmetic products Author: FKuR

Compostable soap wrapping Author: FKuR, Umbria Olli International

Food packaging Bioplastics food packaging can be used to pack different types of food, from bread and bakery, to fruit and vegetables, sweets, different types of spices and teas to different types of soft drinks. Different types of bioplastic packaging are already available on the market. The main advantages of the use of bioplastics are environmental aspects, higher consumer acceptance, increased shelf life of the packaged food and composting as an end of life treatment of compostable products.

Cellulose based biodegradable bag for organic pasta. Author: Birkel

Compostable fruit net bag Author: FKuR

Water soluble and compostable starch based chocolate tray Author: Marks and Spencer

Compostable PLA container for fruit and vegetables, Source of the photo Plastice

Compostable cellulose based packaging for herbs and spices Author: Innovia Films

Compostable bags for fruits and vegetables, Author: Wentus

Compostable cellulose based packaging Author: Innovia Films

Beverage bottles made from renewable resources Author: Blue Lake Citrus Products

Beverage bottles made from renewable resources Author: Santâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;Anna â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Fonti di Vinadio

Compostable cellulose based packaging Author: Innovia Films

Beverage bottles made 30 mass % from renewable resources Author: Coca Cola

Beverage bottles made 30 mass % from renewable resources Author: Heinz

Disposable drinking cups, cutlery and plates Disposable items are often used at picnics, open-air events, as single use food containers, at catering and in airplanes. They produce a huge amount of waste and are hard to recycle because are contaminated with food. One of the main benefits is that such products can be disposed together with food leftovers and in composting plants they can be turned into compost.

Compostable cup for hot beverages, paper laminated with bioplastics. Author: Huhtamaki

Compostable cup for cold drinks Author: Huhtamaki

Bowls and hollow ware made from bio-based plastics Author: Koser/Tecnaro

Biodegradable forks Author: Novamont

Biodegradable straws Author: PLASTiCE

Agriculture and horticulture products Biodegradable plant pots, mulch films, expanded PLA trays for horticultural applications Biodegradable plant pots are used to plant the seedlings together with the pot. This way the roots of the plant do not get damages and additionally the pot is then turned into compost and fertilizes the soil. Mulch films are used to suppress weeds and conserve water and mostly are used for vegetables and crops. After the crops are harvested the film can be ploughed in and used as a fertilizer. Ploughing-in of mulching films after use instead of collecting them from the field, cleaning off the soil and returning them for recycling, is practical and improves the economics of the operation. The trays from expanded PLA can be used as conventional EPS trays but are compostable.

Biodegradable plant pot Author: Limagrain

Compostable, biodegradable mulch films to be ploughed into the ground. Author: BASF

Expanded PLA trays Author: FKuR & Synbra

Consumer electronics As we all already know we live in an electronic era. Today casings of computers, mobile phones, data storages and all the small electronic accessories are made from plastics to ensure that the appliances are light and mobile whilst being tough and, where necessary, durable. First bioplastic products in the fast-moving consumer electronics sector are keyboard elements, mobile casings, vacuum cleaners or a mouse for your laptop, and with the time passing by bioplastics are more and more present in electronic devices.

Biodegradable mouse Author: Fujitsu

Keyboard made from biobased plastics Author: Fujitsu

Biodegradable in-ear headphones, made from biobased plastics Author: Michael Young Designer

40 % of the telephone casing made from bioplastics Author: Samsung

Biodegradable and/or biobased phone casings Ventev InnovationsTM

Biodegradable phone casings Author: Api Spa â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Biomood Srl

Clothing Bioplastics in clothing sector are replacing conventional plastics or natural materials and are used for footwear and synthetic coated material. One can find bioplastics as a fabric for wedding dress, a jacket or an alternative to leather. The alternative to leather is often used to produce biodegradable shoes. The added value of those products is versatile use also for the most advances high-quality footwear.

Jacket made partially from biobased plastics Author: Du Pont

Biodegradable wedding dress Author: Gattinoni

Biodegradable shoes Source of the image: ecouterre.com-Gucci

Sanitary and cosmetic products Sanitary and cosmetic products are a source of an unthinkable amount of plastic waste and so the demand to use more sustainable materials is very clear. Some producers use biodegradable materials opposite to some that have replaced the conventional fossil based plastic packaging with more sustainable materials derived from biomass. The disposal of those materials is very simple.

Biodegradable cosmetic packaging Author: Sidaplax

Biodegradable cosmetic packaging Author: FKuR

Biodegradable cosmetic packaging Author: Cargo Cosmetics

Compostable toothbrush, bristles are not compostable! Author: World Centric

Biodegradable hair & body care packaging Author: Sidaplax

Biodegradable hair & body care packaging Author: Eudermic/Natureworks

Biobased hair & body care packaging Author: Procter&Gamble

Textiles â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Home and Automotive Bioplastics can be used in a broad range of applications as you were able to see to this point. One of the possible uses of bioplastics is the production of textiles. Different types of plastics can be used to produce those textiles, but the PR messages are promoting their content of the renewable resources, although some of them are also biodegradable. Products made from those textiles have the performance and quality similar to traditional carpets.

Bioplastics carpet Author: DuPont

Bioplastics sofa fabric Author: Tango Biofabric. Tejin

Bioplastics textiles in the luggage compartment Bio PET, Toyota. Source of the image: http://goo.gl/V4mIJ

Bioplastics sofa fabric pillow fill. Author: Paradies GmbH

Car seat fabric made 100 % from heat resistant bioplastics Author: Mazda Motor Corporation, Teijin

Automotive application As said above bioplastics are used for interior of cars, but bioplastics are present also in other automotive applications. Those applications have very specific requirements (as a fuel line made from renewable resources - nylon).

Fuel line made from nylon from renewable resources â&#x20AC;&#x201C; resistant to chemically aggressive biofuels, temperature extremes and mechanical stress Autor: DuPont

Air bag cover made from biobased plastics Author: DuPont

Sport Plastics make sports lighter and more affordable. Most of the sport gadgets are made from plastics and a lot of sport clothes are made from plastics. Also bioplastics are slowly entering this field. Below are listed some sport gadgets made from bioplastics.

Biodegradable airsoft pellets Source: Wikimedia Commons

Biodegradable golf tees Source: EcoGolf

Ski boot made from renewable resources. Author: Salomon

Ski boot made from 80 % of renewable resources. Author: Atomic

Seats at stadium ArenA, made from biobased PE Source: Wikimedia Commons

Other Here are listed some applications of bioplastics which we were not able to list in any different product group.

Biodegradable pencil Author: Telles, Metabolix

Travel luggage made 100 % from renewable resources Author: Arkema

Biobased and biodegradable toys Author: ÂŠ BioFactur

Biobased and biodegradable toys Author: Metabolix Zoe b

Biodegradable liquid wood hanger Author: Benetton Group

Fisher UX made from renewable plastics Author: fischerwerke, Waldachtal

Sunglass frames made from renewable resources. Author: Tanaka Foresight Inc., Teijin

Sunglass frames made from renewable resources. Author: Arkema

Appendix B

Innovative value chain development for sustainable plastics in Central Europe Work Package 3 Developing a roadmap for action â&#x20AC;&#x201C; from science to innovation in the value chain

JOINT (TRANSNATIONAL) R&D SCHEME FOR ENVIRONMENTAL BIODEGRADABLE POLYMERS

Introduction Over the past few years, the PLASTiCE Consortium has been involved in basic and applied research at the different stages of the environmental biodegradable plastics value chain. While each R&D institution is theoretically capable of delivering most research services, in practice, each institution is specialised in specific R&D activities. To better meet the needs of the biodegradable polymer and plastics producers in Central Europe and to enhance the development of new market applications, the PLASTiCE Consortium developed a joint (transnational) R&D scheme for environmental biodegradable polymer materials. Thanks to the cooperation between seven R&D institutions from four countries, the joint R&D scheme offers tailor-made solutions for the companies in Central Europe that are involved in bringing new environmentally biodegradable polymer applications to market. For further information on cooperating with the PLASTiCE Consortium, please contact your local R&D institution.

Contacts For Italy, Austria

University of Bologna, Department of Chemistry ‘G. Ciamician’ (PP8) Mariastella Scandola, Professor, head of the Polymer Science Group Tel./Fax: +39 0512099577/+39 0512099456 E-mail: mariastella.scandola@unibo.it

For Czech Republic, Slovak Republic

Polymer Institute of the Slovak Academy of Sciences (PP5) Ivan Chodak, Senior scientist, Professor Tel./Fax: +421 2 3229 4340 / +421 2 5477 5923 E-mail: upolchiv@savba.sk Slovak University of Technology in Bratislava (PP6) Dušan Bakoš, Professor Tel./Fax: +421 903 238191, +421 2 59325439, fax +421 2 52495381 E-mail: dusan.bakos@stuba.sk

For Slovenia, Balkan States

National Institute of Chemistry (LP) Laboratory for Polymer Chemistry and Technology Andrej Kržan, Senior research associate Tel./Fax: +386 1 47 60 296 E-mail: andrej.krzan@ki.si Center of Excellence Polymer Materials and Technologies (PP11) Urska Kropf, Researcher Tel./Fax: +386 3 42 58 400 E-mail: urska.kropf@polieko.si

For Poland, Baltic States

Polish Academy of Sciences, Centre of Polymer and Carbon Materials (PP12) Marek Kowalczuk, Head of the Biodegradable Materials Department Tel./Fax: +48 32 271 60 77/+48 32 271 29 69 E-mail: cchpmk@poczta.ck.gliwice.pl Polish Packaging Research and Development Centre (PP13) Hanna Żakowska, Deputy Director for Research Tel./Fax: +48 22 842 20 11 ext. 18 E-mail: ekopack@cobro.org.pl

Complementarity The PLASTiCE Consortium offers R&D services related to the polymer materials PLA and PHA as well as starch-based materials, etc., according to the specific needs of the industry. The following table gives an overview of the specialisation areas of the consortium partners. PLA PHA Starch-based materials

Other materials

PP5, PP6, PP12

PP8, PP5, PP6, PP11

PP8, PP5, PP11

PP5, PP11, PP12

PP5, PP11,PP12

PP11, PP12

PP5, PP6, PP11

PP5, PP6, PP11, PP12

PP5, PP6, PP11

Rheology, processing parameters

PP5, PP6, PP11

Homogenisation (using internal mixers, single screw extruder, twin screw extruder)

PP5, PP6, PP11

films

PP6, PP11*, PP12

rigid packing

PP6, PP11*, PP12

flexible packaging

PP6, PP12

mulch films

PP6, PP12

foamed materials

PP5

coated materials

PP11*, PP12

LP, PP5, PP12, PP13

Area of research Characterisation of polymers on the market, including:

 

Composition and molecular structure

Solid-state properties Modification of polymer properties using chemical routes, including:

 

Modification (with polymer modifiers) Functional polymers

Modification of polymer properties using physical routes, including: Modification with additives Polymer blends Polymer composites, including nanocomposites Processing, including:

Industrial production, including:

     

Application properties of polymer products, including:

  

aging properties of polymer materials

PP5, PP12, PP13

PP5, PP6, PP8, PP11, PP12, PP13

barrier properties of polymer materials (gas permeation) thermo-mechanical properties of polymer materials



durability and shelf-life properties (food contact, according PP13 to the European Directive EX 2002/72) Biodegradation and compostability testing (according to EN, ASTM and ISO), including:



Under laboratory conditions



At municipal and industrial aerobic composting facilities

PP13

PP6*, PP11, PP12, PP13

PP12

*: In cooperation with partners

The joint R&D scheme for environmental biodegradable plastics Area of research services

Characterisation of polymers on the market Solid-state physical properties (thermal, mechanical, structural, morphological) Analysis of the thermal stability (degradation temperature) of single- or multicomponent materials (by thermogravimetric analysis, from RT to 900°C in an inert atmosphere or air)

Analysis of the thermal stability and mass spectrometry of volatiles (by TGA-MS, from RT to 900°C in an inert atmosphere) Description of the research activities

Area of research services

Description of the research activities

Product the client receives

3 working days (single sample) 1-2 weeks (up to 10 samples) 3 working days (single sample) 1-2 weeks (up to 10 samples)

Analysis of thermal transitions (glass transition, crystallisation and melting, with determination of the transition temperatures and of the respective specific heat increments, crystallisation and melting enthalpies, by differential scanning calorimetry, T-range of -100°C-250°C, cooling with liquid Nitrogen), 2 scans per sample

2-4 weeks (depending on the number of samples)

Evaluation of mechanical properties at room temperature (elastic modulus, stress and strain at yield and break, by tensile testing with statistical analysis of the results for a minimum of 8 specimens)

2-5 weeks (depending on the number of samples)

Determination of the viscoelastic relaxations (by dynamic mechanical analysis in single- or multi-frequency mode, T-range of -150°C-250°C ) Structural analysis of the crystal phase (by wide angle X-ray powder diffraction) Product the client receives

Estimated service delivery time

3-4 weeks 2 weeks

Report on the physical properties of the analysed polymers

Characterisation of polymers on the market Composition and molecular structure

Estimated service delivery time

Determination of the solid-state properties using infrared spectroscopy (FTIR, Fourier Transform Infrared spectrometer)

1-2 weeks

Characterisation of the material solubility and determination of the polymer percentage in the plastic (chemical analysis)

1-3 weeks

Characterisation of the polymer in the plastic by NMR (nuclear magnetic resonance) spectroscopy

1-3 weeks

Evaluation of the polymer molecular weight using the GPC technique (gel permeation chromatography)

1-3 weeks

Analysis of the additives using the mass spectrometer LCMS-IT-TOF (hybrid mass spectrometer with the ability of an ion trap and with the resolution and mass accuracy of a tandem mass spectrometer)

1-3 weeks

Characterisation of biodegradable copolyesters (PHA) using sequencing and the tandem mass spectrometer ESI-MSn (electrospray “soft” ionisation with multistep mass spectrometry)

1-3 weeks

Report on the polymer molecular structure and characterisation of the additives in plastics

Area of research services

Description of the research activities

Product the client receives

Area of research services

Description of the research activities

Modification of polymer properties using chemical routes, including: Modification (with polymer modifiers) Functional polymers Synthesis of chemical modifiers

1 month-2 years

Determination of the physical properties of polymeric materials

3 days-2 weeks

Modification of polymers to achieve specific properties: crosslinking of polymers for better solvent resistance Modification of polymers to achieve specific properties: increased polymer surface polarity for better printability or adhesion, increased thermal and oxidation stability

Area of research services Description of the research activities Product the client receives Area of research services

Description of the research activities

1 month-2 years

Modification of polymer properties using physical routes, including: Modification with additives Polymer blends

Estimated service delivery time

Polymer composites including nanocomposites Modification of the properties of a particular polymer by adding low-molecular additives, e.g., plasticisers, chain extenders, stabilisers, or by blending with small quantities of another polymer to achieve the desired properties Blending two polymers over their full concentration range, desired properties are achieved by modification of the interface and compatibilisation of the components

1 month-2 years (or longer) 1 month -2 years (or longer) 1 month-2 years (or longer)

Report on alternatives for the compatibilisation of various biodegradable polymer blends

Processing, including: Rheology, processing parameters Homogenisation (internal mixers, single screw extruders, twin screw extruders) Selection of the most promising blends of BDPs for application purposes, proposals for areas of application Determination of the processing parameters of the materials

Estimated service delivery time 1 day-3 months 1-4 weeks

Report on the processing parameters of selected biodegradable polymers, recommended general processing methods, including processing equipment and typical processing parameters Industrial production (research on the industrial processing properties), including production of: films, rigid packing, flexible packaging, mulch films, foamed materials and coated materials Laboratory scale production of films: research on processing and blending, production of master batches (mini twin screw extruder (MiniLab II) combined with the injection moulding machine (Mini Jet II) HAAKE, using the force feeder, continuous extrusion with very small volumes, mini-injection moulding machine enables production of specimens for material testing, the rheological properties can simultaneously be recorded)

Estimated service delivery time

1-2 weeks

Laboratory scale production of flexible packaging

1-2 weeks

Support of pilot production on-site

1 day-6 weeks

Controlling the mechanical properties of the product during the production process: mechanical property measurements, Instron model 4204 tensile tester Controlling the molecular properties of the product during the production process Product the client receives

1 month-2 years

Standard commercial polymers possessing certain properties

Preparation of composites based on a polymeric matrix with tailored properties via modification of the interface Product the client receives

Estimated service delivery time

Report on the polymer stability with respect to the packaging content

1-2 weeks 1-3 weeks

Area of research services

Testing of the application properties of polymer products (packaging materials and packaging), including: Aging, barrier and thermoâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;mechanical properties of polymer materials, Durability properties testing of packaging for food contact (food contact, according to the European Directive E10/2011)

Estimated service delivery time

Xenotest method used to determine the material behavior in natural conditions Determination of total organic carbon and biobased content in polymer materials

Description of the research activities

4 months* 1 month*

Testing the permeability of water vapor, oxygen and carbon dioxide

2 weeks*

Determination of tensile properties (stress at break, elongation at break, modulus of elasticity, etc.)

2 weeks*

Determination of tear resistance

2 weeks*

Determination of impact resistance using the free-falling dart method

2 weeks*

Sealing properties (max load at break, sealing resistance, etc.)

2 weeks*

Hot-tack seal testing

2 weeks*

DSC (differential scanning calorimetry) and FTIR (infrared spectroscopy) Sensory analysis

1-1.5 months*

Overall and specific migration testing of low-molecular substances from foodstuffs Testing of the monomer contents in plastic materials and of the emission of volatile substances Product the client receives

1 week*

2 months* 1 month*

Investigation of bioplastic (biodegradable/biobased) materials to determine their properties. Report and analysis on the properties of the polymer materials useful for packaging applications.

*Average delivery time, including preparation, testing and reporting can vary based on the actual laboratory queue Area of research services

Description of the research activities

Product the client receives

Biodegradation and compostability testing (according to standards) under laboratory conditions and at municipal and industrial aerobic composting facilities

Estimated service delivery time

Degradation and compostability testing under laboratory conditions: preliminary tests of biodegradation on the packaging material using simulated composting conditions in a laboratory-scale test according to EN 14806: 2010

4 months

Degradation and compostability testing under laboratory conditions: hydrolytic degradation test in water or a buffer solution (degradation tests of biodegradable polymers in simple aging media to predict the behavior of the polymers)

From a few weeks to 6 months, depending on the type of materials and the standard

Degradation and compostability testing under laboratory conditions: laboratory degradation in compost using a respirometry test (Respirometer MicroOxymax S/N 110315 Columbus Instruments for measuring CO2 in laboratory conditions according to PN-EN ISO 14855-1:2009 - Determination of the ultimate aerobic biodegradability of plastic materials under controlled composting conditions - Method by analysis of evolved carbon dioxide - Part 2: Gravimetric measurement of carbon dioxide evolved in a laboratory-scale test)

From a few weeks to 6 months, depending on the type of materials and the standard

(Bio)degradation and compostability testing at composting facilities (tests of biodegradable material in an industrial composting pile or a KNEER container composting system)

From a few weeks to 6 months, depending on the type of materials and the standard

Certification of compostable goods associated with possibly marking the packaging "compostable" (in cooperation with DIN CERTCO, Germany)

2-4 months

Report on the behavior of the new polymeric materials during the (bio)degradation tests

Sources:  European Bioplastics en.european-bioplastics.org  PLASTICS EUROPE – The Facts 2012 - http://www.plasticseurope.org/cust/ documentrequest.aspx?DocID=54693  Widdecke H, Otten A.: Bio-Plastics Processing Parameter and Technical Characterisation. A Worldwide Overview, IFR, 2006/2007.  Morschbacker A.: Biobased PE – A Re-newable Plastic Family, Braskem S.A., European Bioplastics Conference Hand-book, 21-22, Paris, November 2007.  Cees van Dongen, Dvorak R., Kosior E.: Design Guide for PET Botle Recyclability, UNESDA&EFBW, 2011.  Word’s First 100% Plant-Bassed PET Bottle, Bioplastics Magazine No. 2/2011, p.25.  Wikipedia  Narayan R.: LCAL How to report on the carbon and environmental footpront of PLA, 1st PLA World Congress, Munich 9-10.09.2008.  DIN CERTCO  Vinçotte  CIC  Biodegradable Products Institute  PAS 2050:2011, Specification for the assessment of the life cycle greenhouse gas emission of goods and services.  Guide to PAS 2050. How to assess the carbon footprint of goods and services, BSI, 2008.  Tkaczyk L.: Narzędzia zarządzania emisją gazów cieplarnianych, ABC jakości nr 3-4, 2010.  http://www.bbc.co.uk  http://www.german-retail-blog.com/2012/04/19/tescos-carbon-footprint/  Sapiro U.: Carbon foot printing and packaging, Seminar EUROPEN Beyond compliance Packaging in the Sustainability Agenda, Brussels, 26th May 2009.