Poorvi Maheshwari : Undergraduate Research Paper | Relevance of courtyards by Poorvi Maheshwari

DISSERTATION

RELEVANCE OF COURTYARDS

Submitted as a part of the requirement for the award of degree of BACHELOR OF ARCHITECTURE SESSION 2014-19

SUBMITTED BY: POORVI MAHESHWARI FOURTH YEAR â&#x20AC;&#x201C; A ENROLMENT NO. 04817601614

UNDER THE GUIDANCE OF PROF. MANJU SAFAYA

VASTU KALA ACADEMY COLLEGE OF ARCHITECTURE 9/1, QUTUB INSTITUTIONAL AREA GURU GOBIND SINGH INDRAPRASTHA UNIVERSITY NEW DELHI

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the research work embodied in this dissertation entitled â&#x20AC;&#x153;Relevance of Courtyardsâ&#x20AC;? is an original work undertaken by Ms. Poorvi Maheshwari, B. Arch student of Vastu Kala Academy College Of Architecture, session 2014-19 under the guidance of Prof. Manju Safaya. The report or parts of it has not been submitted or published earlier in any form, either to the University or elsewhere for the fulfilment of the requirement of any course.

(Signature of Guide) Prof. Manju Safaya

(Signature of Coordinator) Prof. R. K. Safaya

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I wish to express my sincere gratitude to my guide Prof. Manju Safaya for her constant support and guidance without which this research paper would not have been possible. She patiently solved all of my doubts and encouraged me along the way. I want to thank my senior faculty members who were in charge of taking our dissertations forward, Mr. R.K. Safaya, Mr. V.P. Raori and Mr. A.K. Maitra, for their support during this research. Nobody has been more important to me than the members of my family. I would like to thank my parents whose love and guidance are with me in whatever I pursue. Most importantly, I wish to thank my friends Akarshan, Manas, Radhika, Anant, Stuti and Deepak who provide unending inspiration and support.

Poorvi Maheshwari

LIST OF FIGURES

1. Fig1: Panchbhuta 2. Fig 2: (A-D) Different types of courtyard form in Africa 3. Fig 3: Plan of House at Ur, Mesopotamia 4. Fig 4: (A-B)Typical layout of Chinese dwelling and courtyard houses 5. Fig 5: Typical layout of Japanese traditional house 6. Fig 6: Typical courtyard dwellings prevalent during Classical Civilization 7. Fig 7: Courtyard houses in Morocco, typical during middle ages 8. Fig 8: Comparison between Spanish and Mexican courtyard 9. Fig 9: The landscape typologies and characteristics of traditional Malay kampong in Malaysia. 10. Fig 10: The concept of the Malay community gardens in different zones. 11. Fig 11: Terrace house in Los Angles designed in 1956 12. Fig 12: Sunken courtyard in American Institute of Indian studies at Gurgaon. 13. Fig 13: Use of courtyard in public building: Amer fort, Rajasthan 14. Fig 14: Circular courtyard of palace of Charles V 15. Fig 15: Air movement in hot humid climate 16. Fig 16: Courtyard in Arab culture 17. Fig 17: Courtyard concept as per Vastu Purush Mandala 18. Fig 18: Home office concept through U Shape courtyard 19. Fig 19: Use of water in courtyard of Islamic architecture 20. Fig 20: D/H combination of courtyard 21. Fig 21: The layout of Indian courtyard house 22. Fig 22: A Courtyard House in the Indus Valley Civilization 23. Fig 23: Sri Chakra 24. Fig 24: Courtyard within a Nalukettu 25. Fig 25: Individual Terrace gardens in Jeevan Bima Nagar, Borivili 26. Fig 26 COURTYARD – Pine Drive Residence, Gurgaon 27. Fig 27 PLAN - Pine Drive Residence, Gurgaon 28. Fig 28 SECTION - Pine Drive Residence, Gurgaon 29. Fig 29 Image of the pond behind the greens - Pine Drive Residence, Gurgaon 30. Fig 30 Courtyard B - Pine Drive Residence, Gurgaon 31. Fig 31 VIEW OF THE COURTYARD - B-99 House, Gurgaon 32. Fig 32 PLAN - B-99 House, Gurgaon 33. Fig 33 View from the living into the Courtyard (Ground Floor) - B-99 House, Gurgaon 34. Fig 34 View into the Courtyard below (First Floor) - B-99 House, Gurgaon 35. Fig 35 Vertical flow of Courtyards in the Residence - B-99 House, Gurgaon 36. Fig 36 Residence in Mohali- Charged Voids 37. Fig 37 Rishikesh House by Rajiv Saini and Associates 38. Fig 38 Twin Courtyard House -Charged Voids 39. Fig 39 GROUND FLOOR PLAN – Courtyard House by SAKKAR, Lucknow 40. Fig 40 VIEW OF THE COURTYARD – Courtyard House by SAKKAR, Lucknow

41. Fig 41 Shading and ventilation in courtyard – Courtyard House by SAKKAR, Lucknow 42. Fig 42 GROUND FLOOR PLAN – A Courtyard House by Sanjay Puri, Rajasthan 43. Fig 43 FIRST FLOOR PLAN – A Courtyard House by Sanjay Puri, Rajasthan 44. Fig 44 VIEW OF THE COURTYARD – A Courtyard House by Sanjay Puri, Rajasthan 45. Fig 45 PLAN – A Courtyard House by Hiren Patel, Ahmedabad 46. Fig 46 VIEW OF SMALLER COURTYARD WITH POOL – A Courtyard House by Hiren Patel, Ahmedabad 47. Fig 47 SITE PLAN – India House, Pune 48. Fig 48 COURTYARD - India House, Pune 49. Fig 49 Courtyard – House in Bengaluru by Charles Correa 50. Fig 50 Section – House in Bengaluru by Charles Correa

LIST OF TABLES 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

TABLE 1 Characteristics of a Courtyard in Indus Valley Civilization TABLE 2 Characteristics of a Rajasthani Courtyard TABLE 3 Characteristics of a Nalukettu TABLE 4 Characteristics of Sheikh Sarai Housing TABLE 5 Comparison between Past and Present need for Courtyards

ABSTRACT A courtyard traditionally served as a place for family gathering and living, a comfortable and cool place for sleeping during the hot summers, a safe area for the children to play, a source of day light and natural ventilation for the surrounding rooms and a circulation core of the house linking all the spaces in a controlled manner. The research paper aims to understand the â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;courtyard typologyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;, its conception, perception and execution; briefly discussing its social, cultural, religious and climatic implications; and its significant change as a function in contemporary times. It takes one through the evolution of courtyards and ends with explaining contemporary courtyards, how they have evolved, changed and perceived today. It discusses their disappearance and reasons for the same. The paper tries to achieve this possible conclusion by understanding the evolution and supporting it with case studies.

CONTENTS

1. CHAPTER 1……………………………………………………..…………………………………………………………….1 1.1.Aim 1.2.Objective 1.3.Scope of study 1.4.Limitations 1.5.Research Methodology

2. CHAPTER 2………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..2 2.1. Introduction 2.2. Courtyard (meaning and symbolism) 2.2.1. Cosmos 2.2.2. Religion and culture

2.3. Historical evolution of courtyard form 2.3.1. 2.3.2. 2.3.3. 2.3.4.

Ancient civilizations Classical civilizations The middle age and renaissance civilizations Modern civilizations

3. CHAPTER 3………………………………………………………………………………………….…………………..11 3.1. Types of courtyard 3.1.1. Based on levels 3.1.2. Based on functions of buildings 3.1.3. Based on shape

3.2. Climatic aspects of courtyard 3.2.1. Sunlight 3.2.2. Ventilation

3.3 Socio-cultural aspects of courtyard 3.3.1 3.3.2 3.3.3 3.3.4 3.3.5 3.3.6 3.3.7 3.3.8

Social interactive space Size and proportion Street level interaction Cultural space Religious, mythological beliefs Flexibility and adaptability to different lifestyle Action radius Affordability

3.4 Functional and aesthetic aspects of courtyard 3.4.1 3.4.2 3.4.3 3.4.4 3.4.5 3.4.6

Accessibility and circulation Use of water Acoustics Dust control Landscaping Proportion for the feeling of enclosure

4. CHAPTER 4………………………………………………………………………………………………………………18 4.1 Climate of India 4.1.1. 4.1.2. 4.1.3. 4.1.4. 4.1.5.

Composite Region Hot and Dry Region Warm and Humid Region Moderate Region Cold and Cloudy Region

4.2. Climatic Implications 4.2.1. Thermal comfort analysis of courtyard 4.2.2. Thermal performance

5. CHAPTER 5………………………………………………………………………………………………………………25 5.1 Indian courtyard houses 5.1.1. 5.1.2. 5.1.3. 5.1.4. 5.1.5. 5.1.6. 5.1.7.

Havelis Wooden Havelis Wada Rajbari Badas Manduva logili Nalukettu

5.2. Indus Valley Civilization 5.3. Courtyards in the Indian Context 5.4. Nadumuttam: Courtyard in a Nalukettu 5.5. Current scenario of Open to Sky Spaces in India

6. CHAPTER 6………………………………………………………………………………………………………………32 6.1. Live Case Study : A courtyard house at Meerut Contemporary courtyard houses: Case Studies

6.2 Composite climate 6.2.1 Pine drive residence, Gurgaon 6.2.2 B-99 house, Gurgaon 6.2.3 Courtyard house by SAKKAR, Lucknow

6.3 Hot-arid climate 6.3.1 A courtyard house by sanjay puri, Rajasthan 6.3.2 A courtyard house by hiren patel, Ahmedabad

6.4 Warm-humid climate 6.4.1 India house, Pune 6.4.2 A courtyard house by Charles Correa, Bengaluru

7. CHAPTER 7……………………………………………………………………………………………………………..49 Conclusion Reasons for disappearance

8. CHAPTER 8……………………………………………………………………………………………………………..51 Policy guidelines Creating a new courtyard typology

BIBLIOGRAPHY

CHAPTER 1 1.1 AIM This research aims at showing the importance of courtyard socially and culturally. The aim of the central courtyard is to provide a space which promotes diversity, social inclusion, business and community engagement, sport, health and fitness. Socially, courtyards tend to be the main focus of communal or family life because  

They are usually far larger than any other space in the house, and Such a space is neutral ground.

1.2 OBJECTIVE To prove the importance of courtyards by taking examples from history and establishing its relevance in contemporary times and concluding that the courtyard remains an appropriate built form, not only for the climatic conditions but also for Indian culture. It could still fulfil the requirements of contemporary lifestyles, if redefined and considered in the light of technological and socio-economic changes.

1.3 SCOPE OF STUDY Courtyards, all across India, are a generic element found in dwelling forms with subtle variations of its geographical contexts. A courtyard serves the climate and social life brilliantly in India and in the whole world and is the basic important element of house forms today. The evolution of courtyards will be studied through various examples chosen from the various books, periodicals and the information on the internet, with emphasis given to the structures existed/existing all over India and studying the social interaction and the activity in the houses of India along with the building designs, formal landscape and other utilities etc.

1.4 LIMITATIONS For the study of history/evolution of courtyards and climatic zones other than composite only articles, books and trusted web sources will be referred to. Social interaction and the activity pattern of the place can be different depending on the type of people using it.

1.5 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY       

Study the historical background and relevance of courtyard in traditional Indian architecture. Study the courtyard typologies and climatic aspects, socio- cultural aspects, functional and aesthetic aspects. Human behaviour towards courtyard. Indian courtyard houses Climate study Case studies : traditional and contemporary Conclusion on how courtyard can be used in present day context.

CHAPTER 2 2.1 INTRODUCTION The ‘Courtyard’ typology has existed for thousands of years in our country and can be traced back to the Indus valley civilization. Traditionally used as a central space between houses/rooms owned by individual families, courtyards served as the focal point of a settlement and strengthened interior relationships while keeping the outside separate; it served as a protective barrier against the climate, enemies, animals and so encouraged social interactions and became an important interface for all communal activities. As one of the most primeval typology in architecture, courtyards have been seen in all types of buildings, be it commercial, residential, institutional, recreational or industrial; however, they have been most prominent in residential dwellings. They serve as source of air flow, illumination and provide thermal comfort to a residence by acting as a heat radiator in summers and absorber in winters. The various aspect of courtyard design could be divided into three main categories namely climatic aspects, socio- cultural aspects, functional and aesthetic aspects. The climatic aspects will include the use of sun light, ventilation as well use of water etc. The socio – culture aspects will include the social interaction within courtyard and interaction to street, cultural use, religious or mythological belief, different life style, action radius and affordability of courtyards etc. The functional aspects will include all functions of courtyard except the climate such as acoustics, circulation, landscaping etc and aesthic aspects will be including the feeling of enclosures, use of crafts, façade treatment of enclosures etc This paper will discuss all above aspects in brief only to understand the overview of parameters of design of courtyards in general.

2.2 COURTYARD (MEANING AND SYMBOLISM) 2.2.1 COSMOS The cosmic significance and symbolism of the courtyard is relevant in all the different cultures and religions which have adopted the universal form of the courtyard. The courtyard form and architecture can be described using the cardinal principles of five elements, or Panchbhuta in Hindu philosophy. However, it may be said that these phenomenological discussions on the five elements namely – earth, fire, water, air and space are equally relevant to the ideologies of divine order in Islam. In all cultures, perhaps the courtyard dwelling symbolizes stability and defensibility based on the universal square form.

Fig 1: Panchbhuta

The courtyard provides a private, protected space, symbolizing the inner life of the individual. In practice it supplies light and cool air to the rooms that from it. Even the simplest courtyard often contains a potted aromatic or flowering plant. Fountain, pool, shade and occasional tree are also a symbolic reflection of paradise. The courtyard and its landscape integrate the earth and sky at once, bringing in the unpredictability of nature within the predictable form. The earth below and the sky above form the floor and ceiling of this outdoor room, while staring the walls of the surrounding rooms and arcades. The texture of the floor surface guides the life-activity within the courtyard. While soft textures with use of grass and plants may lead to its use as a kind of garden space, the hard texture of brick, mosaic or other building materials allow the different functions of the surrounding rooms to spill into the courtyard. Most of the courtyards in the Indian houses are below the level of the floor of the arcades. Different paving materials used for the courtyard floor may lead to a slight temperature difference. Water plays an important role in creating the impression of richness and life in the courtyard whether in the form of rain, watering the surface to keep it clean or by the inclusion of water elements. Many houses include water in the in the form of wells or water storage tanks in the courtyard. Later under Mughal influence, water features started being more easily included in the courtyards across the country. The Muslims believe that water is rich in symbolism and represent at city level both economy and spiritual force, while at the personal level it symbolizes purity and fluidity of soul. This encouraged the inclusion of water features post Mughal influence. Fire in the court may be directly related to sun- offering heat and light to the space. The concept of fire is therefore integral to the universal form. The residents spend time in the outdoors enjoying the sun or the filtered light through appropriate shading devices.

2.2.2 RELIGION AND CULTURE The courtyard is both symbolically and religiously significant. This open-to-sky yet enclosed space within the surrounding walls of a house has been considered the central focus of interest in the house. The courtyard may symbolize many things: the central focus of interest in the house; a concentration of light, wind, sand and water; a private, safe and life sustaining refuge. Use of more than one courtyard found in many cases. This is usually to segregate the public and private spaces within the house. The public is mainly for guest and generally used by male (especially in Islamic countries). The inner court is more restricted to the family used as an outdoor area for activity and used by female.

2.3 HISTORIC EVOLUTION OF COURTYARD FORM Courtyard housing is known as the oldest form of residence. The historical evolution of courtyard form a cross the world showed in ancient civilization from excavated at Kahun in Egypt, which back to 5000 years old to the Chaldean City of Ur before 2000 B.C. (Oliver, 2003). The characteristics of courtyard housing depend on the environment and culture of a group of the specific region; for example, courtyards may use as an inner garden, or there may function as the focal point in the house. Through thousands of yearâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s different courtyard housing, planning demonstrated, Sumer and Pharaonic Egypt recorded as the oldest culture of the Middle East, which hold the oldest example of the courtyard. Later on, this type of building was seen in western cultures such as Greek and Rome.

In Italy at 700 B.C, a new courtyard design which refer as atrium house, developed from the old form, the purpose of this type is to provide private outdoor space, atrium house met up with the Greek pre-style which has a different design, the design showed small courtyard enclosed by columns. In the Middle East courtyard houses an architecture tool, hat are common in hot and dry climatic and endure in many ancient cities and attempts to generate private area for introversion.

2.3.1 ANCIENT CIVILIZATIONS A troglodyte village in Matmatas of Southern Tunisia is the most primeval and homogeneous society to build courtyard houses, according to Schoenauer and Seeman â&#x20AC;&#x153;Each dwelling-unit is built around a carter open to the sky with slope wall and flat bottomâ&#x20AC;? (Schoenauer & Seeman, 1962). Douars in North Africa, encampment of nomadic tribes in West Africa, the Kraals of Bechunaland in South of Africa and the first rectangular dwellings in Morocco introduced the first prototype of courtyard (Das, 2006). Figure-1 shows different types of courtyard plans in Africa.

Fig 2 (A-D) Different types of courtyard form in Africa

Another example that reveals in archeological survey found at Ur on the Euphrates River in Mesopotamia in 2000 B.C Figure-2. The plan showed a square courtyard that surrounded by rooms in Ground floor, and the second floor of the house open to courtyard, the building material in that era mainly from fired brick (Blaser, 1985). In China, primary houses have significant influenced by religion and the philosophy of Yin and Yan (Schoenauer & Seeman, 1962), the purpose was different the courtyard used for privacy and meditation. Even the form has another attribute from the first example at Ur. Instead of surrounded by rooms, the Chinese courtyard surrounded by individual houses, which belong to different people. Garden and water features were two signs for the courtyard, thus it used as a cooling tool in warm climate in Southern area Figure-3 illustrates typical layout of Chinese dwelling and courtyard houses.

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ENTRANCE STAIRCASE WASHROOM KITCHEN STORE-ROOM COURTYARD

Fig 3 Plan of House at Ur, Mesopotamia

Fig 4 (A-B)Typical layout of Chinese dwelling and courtyard houses

Fig 5 Typical layout of Japanese traditional house

2.3.2 CLASSICAL CIVILIZATIONS The developer of courtyard takes another kind of design at 700 B.C; in Italy. The atrium house design has had a small courtyard surrounded by rooms, with a container in the center of the courtyard to gathering the rainwater to drink. The main purpose of this design, which is an open to the sky is to provide a private outdoor space. Around 275 B.C., Roman architecture became mix features inherited from the Etruscans and the Greek, after occupied of Southern Italy by Romans. The atrium house met up with Greek prestyle (court enclosed to columns), when people started to build a big house contained two styles (atrium pre-style), any one of these styles has had their location in design, atrium near to street and pre-style in the back of the house.

ROMAN ATRIUM HOUSES

GREEK COURTYARD HOUSES Fig 6 Typical courtyard dwellings prevalent during Classical Civilization

2.3.3 MIDDLE AGES AND RENAISSANCE CIVILIZATION After the fall of Roman Empire by A.D. 476, the courtyard type dwelling suffered relapses, and found in Italian Cortile and monastic cloisters. During Christian architecture era, the atrium became common in early Christian churches as the main entrance; it was used as a meeting place in the center of the colonnaded open court there was a fountain or well used by worshiper to wash their hand before entering the church. In some Islamic countries North Africa and Middle East, the courtyard in the Dar follows the philosophy “privacy and seclusion with a minimal display of the occupant’s social status to the outside world”. Private courtyard offers isolated space for women to relax with sheltered courtyard tress, a pool and outdoor furniture. Another element in the design of the courtyard (serdab) appeared in Mesopotamian region, this room used as a re-treat cool air to the house Figure-6 shows courtyard house design in Morocco at that era (Das, 2006). According to Das, there are two Courtyards in northern area around the Mediterranean Sea, particularly in Spain that influenced by the Roman atrium, the courtyard design in the north of Spain more solid than the Southern, which used the court for more outdoor activities that help in evolution of the courtyard dwellingtype. Lately, patio design method entered to Latin America by Spanish colonists Figure-7 presents dwelling house in Spain and the entered one in Mexico. In Asia, particularly in Malaysia, the traditional Malay house serves citizen in rural area of Peninsular. The house design provided Malay needs, culture and environment. Many attributes appear in the old Malay house design, such as fully shaded vegetation as buffer zone. The history of the beginning of the use of the plants in landscape design in South Asia does return to 14th century (Majapahit kingdom). In addition, courtyard in Malaysia goes back to the era of indigenous design of traditional Malay house, the influence of traditional Chinese house, with inner courtyard integrated to Malay house, the courtyard design at that period similar to the Chinese traditional. While Figures-9 shows the concept of the Malay community gardens in different zones.

However, whatever the geographical distribution zone in Peninsular there is a similarity in the use of plant species in Malay community, there are variant types of plant normally found in Malay house such as Cananga, Coconut, Kesidang, Jasmine, Areca nut, Lemongrass, Galangal, Ginger, Henna and Turmeric (Ahmadi, 2004). The arrangement of Malay courtyard plants depends on the area compound, the old Malay house divided into three areas, which are front compound, side compound, and rear compound (Hussain & Byrd, 2012) Figure-8 revealed the landscape typologies and characteristics of traditional Malay kampong in Malaysia.

Fig 7 Courtyard houses in Morocco, typical during middle ages

TYPICAL SPANISH PATIO

TYPICAL MEXICAN PATIO

Fig 8 Comparison between Spanish and Mexican courtyard

Fig 9 The landscape typologies and characteristics of traditional Malay kampong in Malaysia

Fig 10 The concept of the Malay community gardens in different zones.

2.3.4 MODERN CIVILIZATION In the modern era, the courtyard first entered to the West Coast of North America, and revealed in the Southern California due to the influence of Spanish colonial. Whereas another opinion mentioned that, the reason of the different buildingâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s style of Los Angles influence by the movie set and film industry. Stefanos et al. (1996), observed the regained of tourists to settle down in California between 1880 and 1930 created need to high accommodation that, changed the form of courtyard houses in that region. Lately, the courtyard type transferred across the United State to the East Coast when the idea of use courtyard to separate between the sleeping area from living area spread by Marcel Breuer (Das, 2006), Duncan, 1973, cited that in 1956 the binuclear patio had converted to the long, narrow terrace house in the country. Figure-10 shows a sample of terrace house in Los Angles designed in 1956 by the architect Richard.J.Neutra. In Europe, single storey courtyard houses became widespread, according to (Duncan, 1973), that type of courtyard is requested by low-income class. In addition, he cited that the first courtyard built in the South by Hugo Haring in 1928, his design modification later into L shape plan, which became popular in England and Germany during 1960s.

Fig 11 Terrace house in Los Angles designed in 1956

CHAPTER 3 3.1 TYPES OF COURTYARD 3.1.1 BASED ON LEVELS There are different types of courtyard on the basis of their location on vertical plane i.e. ground level, sunken courtyard and elevated courtyard. It will depend on the site, climate and other factors to determine the type of courtyard to be chosen and accordingly their size and proportion should be worked out.

Fig 12 Sunken courtyard in American Institute of Indian studies at Gurgaon.

3.1.2 BASED ON FUNCTIONS OF BUILDINGS The courtyard form is initially used in residential buildings but later on the realizing its merit the different civilization used this concept in public buildings too. The courtyards of public buildings are always monumental scale while the residential buildings are always human scale. The residential courtyards are very functional in respect of climate while the courtyard of public buildings aims to have other utilities like public gathering spaces etc too.

Fig 13 Use of courtyard in public building: Amer fort, Rajasthan

3.1.3 BASED ON SHAPE The circular, polygons, rectangular, square as well organic forms have been used through historical evolution of courtyards. The most popular among masses were rectangular or square form due to functionality of the building, limitation of structure innovation and less plasticity of material, due to economical in nature. In China, the Tulou buildings were having circular courtyard and these buildings were built by mud. The colonial architecture has also many example of the circular courtyard in their palaces and public buildings due to aesthetic reasons. The technological advancement and material innovations have finished the limitation of structure and all types of shapes are possible in 21st century depending on need.

Fig 14 Circular courtyard of palace of Charles V

3.2 CLIMATIC ASPECTS OF COURTYARD 3.2.1 SUN LIGHT There is no established rule for deciding size and the proportions of courtyards. However these may be worked out on the basis of geographical, cultural, regional and climatic differences. The climate plays important role in determine the size, proportion and orientation of courtyard so as to allow the desired sunlight for creating comfort condition within house .. The size of courtyard for natural daylight will depend on latitude place .The nearer one gets to the equator the smaller the width requirement due to sun attains higher orbit. Conversely the width of courtyard is more required towards the poles of earth to enter the natural day light due to low orbit of sun. The height of courtyard is required more for equator and height may be progressively reduced towards poles. The concept of multi-storeyed housing is suitable to equator to get shading in courtyard and low rise housing is required towards poles.

3.2.2 VENTILATION In hot arid regions where the temperature difference between day and night is large, the courtyards are very effective solution to create comfort conditions. In day time, due to high temperature of outside ,the air gets warm and become lighter but the temperature inside the courtyard remain less, so air become denser and cool as compared to outside air. This cooler air get inside rooms through courtyard and warm air get outside through rooms. In night time, the outside air become cool due to less temperature and dense, the building is still warm so courtyard air becomes lighter. The outside air gets inside through rooms and get exhausted from the courtyard, so this movement of air creates comfort condition. In hot humid conditions the the heavy air outside enter from rooms and get out from the courtyard in day as

well night. The movement of air in hot humid conditions is very effective for human comfort conditions because it reduces moisture content of the air.

Fig 15 Air movement in hot humid climate

3.3 SOCIOâ&#x20AC;&#x201C;CULTURAL ASPECTS OF COURTYARD 3.3.1 SOCIAL INTERACTIVE SPACE Courtyard works as an extension of the kitchen during the morning and as living room during the evening to entertain the guests. A space for interaction for all family members, and encourage the family to act as a group. Sleeping area during the night when the climate is conducive to outdoor activity.

3.3.2 SIZE AND PROPORTION The Psychological factors also are also determinant for size and proportion of courtyards, different socio cultural have different feeling of enclosures thus having different the degree of introvert-ness. The Arab culture are having lesser width D/H=1/2 or less sometimes due to introvert-ness in nature while the Canadian courtyards are sometimes having D/H=3 or more having less introvert-ness.

Fig 16 Courtyard in Arab culture

3.3.3 STREET LEVEL INTERACTION The courtyard houses in India are designed to have street interaction, most of houses were having platform next to entrance door and before entering to outer courtyard, people used to have sitting on this platform. Inner courtyard use to have less perforation because these are mainly for female of the house, only vendors selling products related to female are allowed in inner courtyard. Jugglers, acrobats, snake charmers, musicians and theatre groups are allowed to perform their shows for females as well but females are allowed to see through curtain or first floor.

3.3.4 CULTURAL SPACE Use of more than one courtyard found in many cases. This is usually to segregate the public and private spaces within the house. The public is mainly for guest and generally used by male (especially in Islamic countries). The inner court is more restricted to the family used as an outdoor area for activity and used by female.

3.3.5 RELIGIOUS, MYTHOLOGICAL BELIEFS Courtyard concept has also related to many religious beliefs or mythological beliefs for different part of world. In Chinese the courtyard are used to work out of the principles of Feng-Shui, it is believed that application of these principles will bring harmonization with their environment as well bring prosperity to the people. Feng-shui principles describe all design elements such as yards, rooms, walls, doors, steps, draining, orientation, positions, plants etc.

Fig 17 Courtyard concept as per Vastu Purush Mandala

The Indian courtyard system is based on Vastupurush Mandala; it is considered the house should be divided into grid of 9 square and the center square should be left open. The center portion is given a place of Brahma and it is lungs and heart of house. This place should be free from obstructing elements such pillars, walls or mechanical services. The courtyard should be almost cooled and shaded, so it can act various activities of household.

3.3.6 FLEXIBILITY AND ADAPTABILITY TO DIFFERENT LIFE STYLE The courtyard retains the freedom of individual expression as opposed by suburban detached house. The detached houses are having many norms to follow such as maintaining the green, washing of front lawns, hedges, fences etc. as per neighbourhood style and taste while the courtyard house are free from these norms being introvert and individual can express own identity . There is major change in life style of people in past few decades all over world. There are more possibility of different groups such as nuclear family, single parent families, old age couples, and young couple of same sex or different sex .The detached house may be appropriate for nuclear families but other type of groups need more privacy and courtyard house is able to cater the needs of all groups even nuclear families . There is concept of home office happening in most part of world, the courtyard can be very effectively act as private space of house and the office can be situated outside without disturbing the house activities or U shape courtyard may be planned to have private activity in one wing and semi-public activities in another wing.

Fig 18 Home office concept through U Shape courtyard

3.3.7 ACTION RADIUS The high rise housing is not ideally good for families having childrenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s of different age group while courtyard housing is very effective for children of different age group for safety purposes. The action radius can be defined as travel distance from the identifiable physical entity located inside the house. The toddlers and old age persons are having less action radius, the adult and older children have large action radius. The toddler and old age persons can be very well accommodate inside the courtyard house and adults, older childrenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s can use neighbourhood parks .

3.3.8 AFFORDABILITY The concept of affordability is prevalent all over world but the fact remains that affordable housing still not practically reaching to the poor people. The main reason behind is that developerâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s profit, contractorâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s profit and labor contribute to 50% of the cost of house. The courtyard houses have been built by poor people in all developing countries by themselves; there is no need of architect or developer. So the cost of house could be reduced to half and it can be affordable to large no of people living in the slums etc.

3.4 FUNCTIONAL AND AESTHETIC ASPECTS OF COURTYARD 3.4.1 ACCESSIBILITY AND CIRCULATION The courtyard minimizes the circulation area of house and make house more compact. The unnecessary corridors may be avoided by the use of courtyard.

3.4.2 USE OF WATER IN COURTYARD Water is the element used in courtyard of hot arid climates especially the Middle East countries and this influence could also be seen in India .In hot arid regions the moisture content in the air is less, so use of water adds more moisture to create comfort condition within house. Water is used in stagnated as well dynamic flowing water bodies, used in the form of fountains, cascade etc.

Fig 19 Use of water in courtyard of Islamic architecture

3.4.3 ACOUSTICS The acoustics of courtyard may be worked out depending on the location and culture of place; few cultures tolerate more noise while others are not able to tolerate even slightest noise. The courtyard wall should not face another courtyard wall but it preferable that blank wall of other house should face the courtyard wall, if the distance between the two courtyards houses increased; there is less possibility of noise. The length and width of courtyard at least should be preferably twice or more then max height for acoustically viable noise control device.

3.4.4 DUST CONTROL The courtyards can act as dust controller in desert climate. The opening of rooms of house could be open in courtyard so as to avoid dust storm outside. The paving materials of courtyard could collect the dust and regular cleaning should be done .The jail on the walls of courtyard is also used in the desert climate to avoid dust.

3.4.5 LANDSCAPING The Islamic and Japanese architecture were using the landscaping as major component for courtyard design throughout centuries. The landscape was not only ornamental or theological function but was used to create microclimate in these regions. The landscaping elements may include the trees, shrubs, hedges, flower bed etc. The trees are also creating shades on walls as well ground to create microclimate conditions.

3.4.6 PROPORTION FOR THE FEELING OF ENCLOSURE Feeling of enclosure is determined by relationship of viewing distance to height as seen by frontal view. When D/H=1 the angle formed is 45 degree, it is termed as full enclosure. If D/H =2 the angle formed is 30 degree, it is termed as threshold enclosure and if D/H =3 the angle formed is 18 degree, it is termed as minimum enclosure and if D/H=4, the angle formed is 14 degree, it is termed as loss of enclosure. Different locations, cultures and situations require different D/H ratios and the above mentioned proportions should be considered as mere guidelines. The enclosures are weakened by gap between walls, abrupt changes in the cornices height and drastic variation in faรงade levels. In Arab courtyard D/H=1/2 or less is appropriate while Canadian courtyard D/H=3 or 4 is suitable.

Fig 20 D/H combination of courtyard

CHAPTER 4 4.1 CLIMATE OF INDIA India experiences variety of climates ranging from tropical in the south to temperate and alpine in the Himalayan north. The elevated areas receive sustained snowfall during winters. The Himalayas and the Thar Desert strongly influence the climate of the country. The Himalayas work as a barrier to the frigid katabatic winds, which blow down from Central Asia. The Tropic of Cancer passes through the middle of the country and this makes its climate more tropical. India is a big tropical country and is famous for its diverse climatic features. The Bureau of Energy Efficiency (Ministry of Power) and Ministry of New and Renewable Energy Sources have divided India into the following five climatic zones: composite region, hot and dry region, warm and humid region, moderate region, and cold and cloudy region (cold and sunny region). Each region has been given guidelines to design buildings to suit climate of that particular zone. Each zone is discussed below:

4.1.1 COMPOSITE REGION Characteristics of the composite region are very hot and dry summer, followed by a humid season with monsoon rains. There are certain design considerations for composite region buildings which should resist heat gain in summer and resist heat loss in winter. Orient the buildings with longer axes in the east-west direction. Ensure adequate shading on the south side to cut off direct solar radiation during summers and permit winter sun. Avoid externally reflected light from ground and other surfaces. Prefer internally reflected light using light shelves or windows at a high level. Roof insulation, wall insulation and cavity walls must be opted for. Promote heat loss in summer monsoon: Courtyards, wind towers and arrangement of openings; trees and water ponds for evaporative cooling; light outer colour and glazed china mosaic tiles on rooftop are the best approaches. Design considerations for day-lighting in composite region: Area of the openings should be determined by the duration of the predominant season in this climate. Compact internal planning in the form of courtyard type (with large projecting eaves and wide verandahs) is preferable for this climate type. Highlevel windows (with the sill above eye level) or light shelves that would admit reflected light towards the ceiling are preferable. Low level window openings towards the verandahs or courtyard are acceptable. Light-coloured reflective ceiling either spectral or mirrored for well diffused interior lighting is preferred. Fenestrations are planned to ensure good cross-ventilation which helps in reducing the load on the cooling devices in summer. The cool air that enters from the lower windows becomes warm and exits from top, maintaining airflow. Windows are deeply recessed in the walls to provide adequate shading from direct sunlight. Natural light is provided to all spaces as far as possible. Interiors are plastered and painted white to get better reflectivity. Energy-efficient lighting equipment is provided to minimise energy consumption.

4.1.2 HOT AND DRY REGION Very high daytime temperatures, with very little precipitation and a short and mild winter are the characteristics of this region. Design considerations for hot and dry region: The main aim is to resist heat gain — proper orientation decreases exposed surface area. Increase shading by overhangs, projections and surface reflectivity by providing light-coloured finish. Increase thermal capacity (time lag) by cavity walls and thermal resistance by insulating the building envelope. Increase buffer spaces. Decrease air exchange rate (ventilation during day-time) by scheduling air changes. Promote heat loss: Provide ventilation by windows and exhausts. Increase air exchange rate (ventilation during night-time) by courtyards, wind towers and arrangement of windows. Increase humidity levels by trees, water bodies and evaporative cooling. Design considerations for day-lighting in hot and dry region: Smaller openings that are efficiently shaded. Building with compact internal planning having courtyard, with dense grouping so that the east and west walls are mutually shaded. High-level windows (with a sill above the eye level) or light shelves, which would admit reflected light to the interior. Low-level windows are acceptable if they open towards a shaded and planted courtyard. Vertical strip windows at the corner of the room to avoid excessive brightness and provide a light ‘wash’ on the walls.

4.1.3 WARM AND HUMID REGION High humidity, strong sun, and glare from the sky and horizon characterise this climate. Design considerations for warm and humid region: Resist heat gain. Decrease exposed surface area by proper orientation and shape of the building; increase thermal resistance by roof and wall insulation; increase buffer spaces by providing balconies and verandahs; increase shading of walls and glazing by overhangs, fins etc. Increase surface reflectivity by light coloured surfaces and broken china mosaic tiles on rooftop. Promote heat loss: Proper ventilation through windows and exhausts is essential. Increase air exchange rate (during the day) by ventilated roof construction, courtyards, wind towers and arrangement of openings. Design considerations for day-lighting for warm and humid region: Larger openings facilitate ventilation with large overhangs, wide overhanging eaves, or other shading devices by cutting off solar radiation. Specially-designed louver systems permit view of the sky and ground near the horizon only. Elongated plan with windows opening towards verandahs or galleries. High-level windows (with sill above eye level) light shelves that would admit reflected light to the interior. Low-level windows are acceptable, as shading of all vertical surfaces is beneficial provided they are well shaded with broad overhanging eaves or open towards verandahs. Window sill should be reflective.

4.1.4 MODERATE REGION The characteristic weather of this region is generally comfortable, neither too hot nor too cold. Design considerations for moderate region: To resist heat gain, decrease exposed surface area by orientation and shape of the building. Increase thermal resistance by providing roof insulation and east and west wall insulation. Increase shading on east and west walls by overhangs, fins and trees. Increase surface reflectivity by using light-coloured textures. Promote heat loss: Encourage ventilation by locating windows properly. Increase air exchange rate with the help of courtyards and arrangement of openings.

4.1.5 COLD AND CLOUDY REGION The characteristics of this region are low precipitation and variation in temperatures between day and night and also from summer to winter. Design considerations for cold and cloudy region: In order to resist heat loss, exposed surface areas are reduced by careful orientation and shape of building. Increase thermal resistance by wall and roof insulation and double glazing and thermal capacity (time lag) by providing thicker walls. Increase buffer spaces by providing air locks and lobbies. Decrease air exchange rate. Increase surface heat absorption by providing darker colours inside as well as outside. Promote heat gain: Reduce shading on walls and glazed portions. Utilise heat from appliances and provide thermal storage mass like trombe wall, mass wall etc. Design considerations for day-lighting in cold and cloudy region: Ensure openings to admit solar light and retain it. Integrate active and passive solar strategies such as sunspace and solarium with day-lighting strategies. Top lighting strategies such as skylightsâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;domed or pyramid shapedâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;with baffles to control glare are more efficient. Glazing area should be 3 to 9 per cent of the floor area to provide adequate lighting levels. Light wells or atria with light-coloured walls and other specifications as discussed in the respective sections on them.

CONCLUSION Climatically, India is devided into five different types of zones. Each zone has its own guidelines for designing buildings in that particular region. Practical approach to design has been discussed in this article. Since buildings consume a major share of energy in their construction, use and maintenance, it is the foremost duty of all architects to design their projects to save energy. It will help us in saving our environment and thereby mother earth for future generations.

4.2 CLIMATIC IMPLICATIONS Courtyards have been generally referred to as a microclimate modifier in the house due to their ability to mitigate high temperatures, channel breezes and adjust the degree of humidity. The properties of selfshading and thermal lag are used to reduce heat gain in courtyard houses by using the right proportions and building materials. Not only courtyards serve the purpose of social family gathering spaces, they are also a source of air flow and thermal comfort to the residence. The courtyard floor and surrounding walls are usually a good radiator of heat depending on the material used. Thus, the courtyard acts like a cool air reservoir especially in hot-arid climates where clear sky conditions favor the heat radiation property of surface materials. This helps in maintaining lower temperatures in the court and especially ground floor rooms. Use of light-colored highly reflective surface materials in courts help to bring more daylight into surrounding rooms. Using plants and water elements in courtyards helps to add moisture to the air and enhance comfort conditions in hot-dry climates. The courtyard is a space in the house that is less affected by the annual, seasonal and diurnal weather changes. When the conditions inside the room become uncomfortable and stuffy, then the activities of the rooms spill out in the courtyard. In general favourable outdoor conditions can be attained in the courtyard at least at one part of the day or the year. The right proportions and orientation of courtyard may block higher summer sun angles while allowing lower winter sun angles. The courtyard functions as a convective thermostat and gives protection from extremes of weather. The courtyard moderates the extreme effects of the hot summers and freezing winters of the Indian sub-continent, and averages out the large diurnal temperature differences. The size and orientation of the courtyard, the height of the surrounding structures play an important role in moderating the climate. They help in climate control by preventing the entry of summer sun while allowing the entry of the winter sun in hot arid climate. Air in Courtyards circulates, reducing the dampness inside during the monsoon and other periods of high humidity. In some arid regions the courtyards also functioned as rainwater collectors.

4.2.1 THERMAL COMFORT ANALYSIS OF COURTYARD Thermal comfort is defined by ASHRAE Standard 55-2004 as “the condition of mind that expresses satisfaction with the thermal environment.” The thermal environment is those characteristics of the environment which affect a person's heat loss or gain. According to Fanger , the following variables affect the thermal comfort most: • • • • • •

Activity level (heat produced in the body) Thermal resistance of the clothing (clo-value) Air temperature Mean radiant temperature Relative air velocity Water vapor pressure in the ambient air

Vitruvius in his Book VI of “Ten Books on Architecture” explains the fundamental relationships among climate, comfort, and architecture using the ‘tri-partite model of environment’ .He states that the comfort, climate, and architecture are all closely linked to each other and architecture can create comfortable spaces in uncomfortable climatic conditions. “Strategies that work with the climate rather than against it, have always existed in vernacular buildings.” These passive design strategies vary from the region to region. These strategies keep the building warm in cold regions, cold in hot seasons.

4.2.2 THERMAL PERFORMANCE The courtyard shape, proportions, size, orientation, finishing materials, landscape, as well as the design of windows opening onto it, internal spaces enveloping it, and the housing cluster around it integrate to constitute the thermal performance of the courtyard house.

4.2.2.1 Courtyard Geometry: Geometry of courtyard, the enclosure around it, and the orientation affects the thermal performance of the courtyard. Orientation of the courtyard (or it’s thermal performance) is determined by the solar orientation, Annual and Seasonal Thermal Variation.

4.2.2.2. Aspect Ratio: Aspect Ratio (AR) is defined as “the degree of openness to sky”. Therefore, the greater the aspect ratio, the more exposed the courtyard is to the sky. This factor is considered for the daylight, and is calculated as. Aspect ratio =

area of the courtyard floor

(average height of the surrounding walls)2 If the courtyard is wide and shallow (high aspect ratio), it performs as sun collector. On the other hand, the narrow and deep courtyard (low aspect ratio) performs as a sun protector, in which orientation has a weak effect on the house.

4.2.2.3 Surface Area to Volume Ratio: Surface Area to Volume Ratio is an indication of the rate at which the building heats up during the day and cools down at night. This ratio is obtained by dividing the total surface of the building including facades and roofs by their volume. Surface Area to Volume Ratio= Total Surface Area of Building Volume of Building

A higher ratio leads to a higher heat gain during the summer and heat loss during the winter. Additionally, a high ratio provides an increase in the potential ventilation and day lighting, which may offset the disadvantage of the larger surface area. 4.2.2.4 Solar Access and Shading: The solar performance of courtyard depends upon solar access and shading achieved in the courtyard. A shady courtyard in winter may turn up to an open courtyard in summer due to change in altitude angle of sun.

4.2.2.5 The Solar Shadow Index: The Solar Shadow Index (SSI) is another factor described by Reynolds (2002) which deals with winter sun exposure. The greater the solar shadow index, the deeper the wall formed by the courtyard and thus the less winter sun reaches the floor or the south wall. Solar Shadow Index = (South wall height)/(North-South floor width)

4.2.2.6 Natural Ventilation: The ventilation and air movement through courtyard is determined by prevailing wind direction, average wind velocity and position and size of fenestrations. Air circulation within this confined space relies largely on the proportions of the surrounding walls and positioning of window openings in the surrounding rooms. The proper proportioning of the building in relation to the courtyard allows a cool breeze within the courtyard. Breeze and shading in the courtyard help in creating comfortable living conditions during day and sleeping conditions during night. Courtyard can control temperature, daylight and air movement in the rooms around it. Orientation, depth, height all are critical attributes to achieve the same. The air movement into a building affects the thermal comfort of occupants and influences heat gain or loss through its envelope. Airflow and natural ventilation through buildings can be achieved in two ways: Temperature-generated pressure differences (stack effect): Based on the fact that hot air rises and exits through the top opening, and cool air replaces it. Wind-generated pressure differences (cross ventilation): where air travels from the openings across the space. During the day, the courtyard heats up quickly, which enhances the stack effect due to high air temperature differences. However, this happens when outside temperature is cooler than inside.

4.2.2.7 Thermal Mass: Thermal mass is a concept in building design which describes how the mass of the building provides "inertia" against temperature fluctuations, sometimes known as the thermal flywheel effect. When outside temperatures are fluctuating throughout the day, a large thermal mass of a house can serve to "flatten out" the daily temperature fluctuations.Thermal admittance: Thermal admittance quantifies a material's ability to absorb and release heat from a space as the indoor temperature changes through a period of time. Admittance values can be a useful tool in assessing heat flows into and out of thermal storage.

Admittance is measured in W/(m2K). So that h = ∆Q / A x ∆T Where: h = heat transfer coefficient, W/(m2K) ∆Q = heat input or heat lost, W A = heat transfer surface, m2 ∆T = difference in temperature between the solid surface and the adjacent air space. Higher admittance values indicate higher thermal mass.

CHAPTER 5 5.1 INDIAN COURTYARD HOUSES Ever since the growth of industrialization and modernization, all facets of life have been affected including architecture. It has almost led to the demise of traditional architecture (Samadi, 2013). There is a need to revive and understand traditional architecture and the elements involved. One such element is the courtyard. A courtyard can be defined as an open to sky enclosure which is surrounded by walls. The idea of courtyard housing was conceived during a period when indigenous techniques were the only way to make a house climate responsive. But nowadays, due to globalization, modernization and various other factors, there is a decline in the usage of this traditional element. History bears evidence to the fact that the relationship between humans and nature is important. The future is in living and working with nature rather than against it (Vyas, 2005)

Fig 21 The layout of Indian courtyard house (source: http://image.slidesharecdn.com/courtyards-140507125826-phpapp01/95/courtyards-22-638.jpg?cb=1399473096)

5.1.1. HAVELIS Havelis, for example, which are mostly found in Gujarat, Rajasthan and Punjab, refer to town houses or mansions of the merchant class. Some were fortified too. Their courtyards could be surrounded by a single or double-storeyed structure with beautifully carved arched columns. Many were influenced by Mughal architecture with vaulted gateways, arched windows, pillars and lattice windows. In regions where women were under purdah, it was the only open air space available to them. It was a different way of life as Geeta finds in her new household in Rama.

5.1.2. WOODEN HAVELIS A unique feature of the havelis of Gujarat is that they are made of wood. With a chowk or a central open court from which many rooms open, the typical Gujarati haveli has richly carved brackets and facades. With filigreed struts and doorways carrying ornamentation, they were once a symbol of the family prestige and power. The Ahmedabad Heritage Walk gives guided tours of the pols – residential areas in the old city connected by narrow lanes – where many of the wooden havelis continue to stand. Mangaldas ni Haveli is one such haveli open for tourists. The Bohra havelis of Sidhpur on the other hand display European influence. These have clear separations within, ensuring privacy to its women – an entrance platform, an arrival space, a courtyard and other rooms, with the upper floors housing the bedrooms. They are three to four-storeyed and are built along broad avenues, enclosing a mohalla, sometimes bringing colour to the street with a multi-coloured facade. Adopting the Gujarati tradition, these havelis display intricate wood work too.

5.1.3. WADA Wadas, popularised by the Marathas, are more common in Maharashtra. They are large multi-storeyed buildings with groups of rooms arranged around a single courtyard. There are primarily two types of wadas – the first, which is more or less like an apartment building or a chawl meant for the middle class families and the second, which is meant for only one family often owned by the peshwas or traders or their relatives. Most of the rooms around such wadas were ventilated by the courtyard and some courtyards – often when a wada had multiple courtyards – even consisted of wells or places to tie horses.

5.1.4. RAJBARI Rajbaris are a characteristic feature of Bengal and although influenced by western architecture, their inner courtyards are quite traditional. They are large in size, sometimes with a garden in the centre, and are surrounded by multiple-storeyed buildings with arched columns. The Shobhabazar Rajbari, built in 1700 by Raja Nabakrishna Deb, son of the dewan of the Nawab of Cuttack, is a reminder of the zamindari era. Today, many of Kolkata’s Rajbaris are rented out for weddings which helps pay for their restoration and maintenance. Some are available for stay too. The thakurdalans, that is, the open courtyards are a place for Durga puja.

5.1.5. BADAS Badas on the other hand can be found in Chattisgarh and can be rectangular or circular in shape with cement flooring. The courtyard was mainly used for cooking and also served as a seating area for family members. Badas often had a rear courtyard meant for gardening and agricultural purposes.

5.1.6. MANDUVA LOGILI Manduva Logili of Andhra Pradesh means courtyard house. The roof is generally supported by logs of rosewood or teakwood and the roof itself is covered with red tiles. The centre is usually left uncovered and rainwater is collected in a pit and is channelled out of the house through a drain. Manduva houses with closed tops have a pipe which channels rain water into a small pit. During dry days, it is a place for pickle-making, papad-drying and oil-bathing children too.

5.1.7 NALUKETTU Keralaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Nalukettus are compact courtyards surrounded by four halls joined together with a sloping tiled roof on all sides overhead. While Nalukettu had one courtyard, Ettukettu had two and Pathinarukettu had four courtyards. Simple-structured columns hold the roof up around the courtyard. The courtyard is called Nadumuttam and generally consists of a tulsi plant in the centre. These houses are simple yet large and can house a large number or people. Many generations of matrilineal family lived within.

5.2 INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION The design of the cities Harappa and Mohenjodaro shows the efficiency of the strategies used while planning. A lot of thought has been put in every minute detail while planning these cities. A typical Harappan house adapts to the local conditions and intuitively produced architecture eminently suited to the climate. The house was planned as a series of rooms opening into a central courtyard. It served several purposes like lighting the rooms, acting as a heat absorber in the summer and radiator in the winter. It also provided an open space inside for community activities. Activities like cooking and weaving took place during summer. The courtyard remained inconspicuous when seen from the main entrance. Lack of openings towards the main street guaranteed the privacy and oneness of the residents. In fact, the only openings in the houses are quite small â&#x20AC;&#x201C; this was done to prevent the hot summer sun from heating the insides of the houses. So the prevalence of courtyard dwellings within these cities, in the absence of technology again provides ample evidence in terms of its versatility and longevity (Nangia, 2000). The courtyard house served as an urban as well as rural prototype which went on to be mimicked and spread to other regions.

Fig 22 : A Courtyard House in the Indus Valley Civilization

TABLE 1 Characteristics of a Courtyard in Indus Valley Civilization

5.3 COURTYARDS IN THE INDIAN CONTEXT In India, courtyards act as central transitional spaces around which most day to day activities revolve. Its prominence as an architectural style is negligible over here. It is the heart of a house which unites the residents and brings a sense of oneness. This wellformed void is known by various names when it crosses the border of different states- Havelis in Rajasthan, Wada in Maharashtra, Nalukettu in Kerala and Chettinadu in Tamil Nadu. As per Hindu beliefs, Sri Chakra is considered to be a sphere of thought, a consecrated ground, an arena for play and thoughts and an instrument that inspires feelings and forces inside and outside It is employed to stimulate thoughts, activate energy, harmonize feelings and synchronize inner and outer forces. In a metaphorical sense, a courtyard also aspires to do the same.

Fig 23: Sri Chakra (Source: http://tap3x.net/EMBTI/j4selfcc.html)

TABLE 2 Characteristics of a Rajasthani Courtyard

5.4 NADUMUTTAM: COURTYARD IN A NALUKETTU A courtyard house in Kerala is referred to as Nalukettu. In the olden days, Nalukettus were constructed only by Brahmins, landlords and the royal family who possessed surplus land. So the construction of courtyard houses was confined within the wealthy people and not commoners. There is variation in the morphology of courtyards in North Kerala and South Kerala. Variations can be noticed in terms of spatial organization, size and usage. In North and Central Kerala, concentric arrangements are followed unlike South Kerala. In South Kerala spatial division is not done on the basis of strict concentric arrangements. In South Kerala, the nalukettu comprises of an extensive single hall with a courtyard-like opening in the interior whereas the North Kerala nalukettu has a concentric sala(hall) which is multiplied, encircling the courtyard. In terms of size, in North and Central Kerala, the courtyard is wide and is used for various activities, but in South Kerala, the courtyard is smaller in comparison and works better as a water cistern. The activities in South Keralaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s nalukettu are usually in the open hall in the courtyard to encourage openness and circulation. In North and Central Kerala, the spaces around the courtyard work as a pathway that leads to the four-hall rooms. Several functions take place in a typical North and Central Kerala courtyard. The central space acts as a multipurpose space such as a place for drying rice, garden, or childrenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s playground. On the other hand, in South Kerala, these spaces around the courtyard act as living spaces (Susilo).

Fig 24 Courtyard within a Nalukettu (Source: Susilo, I (n.d), The Living Culture and Typo-Morphology of Vernacular-Traditional Houses in Kerala)

The court is the heart of the house, where different functions can take place during different parts of the day. This â&#x20AC;&#x153;outdoor roomâ&#x20AC;? can be used as an extension of the kitchen during mornings or as an extension of the living room during evenings to entertain guests (Sthapak and Bandyopadhyay, 2014). In most houses, courtyard serves as means of interaction among the family members. It is a place where several activities are held. It not only acts as a small interactive space to a family, but also caters to functions where a large number of people are involved. This central void is a source of connectivity onto which family activities spill out, but there is no invasion of privacy from the outside world. There are no restrictions regarding the number of courtyards that can be used in a house. When there are two courtyards within a dwelling, then it is called an ettukettu and a nalukettu with four courtyards is called patinyarukettu. The courtyard planning decreases interior-exterior connections but increases interior connections; they maximized interior relationships and openness while keeping the outside separate. Courtyards help to create an interior space while respecting privacy values of the culture by having no exterior or street view from the courtyard itself (Sthapak and Bandyopadhyay, 2014).

TABLE 3 Characteristics of a Nalukettu

5.5 CURRENT SCENARIO OF OPEN TO SKY SPACES IN INDIA Nowadays, most people prefer to stay in apartments than individual houses. Open to sky spaces add life to a house and make it less claustrophobic, especially for people who belong to the lower income group (Charles Correa, 1996). So in order to bring a similar kind of milieu, architects incorporate courtyards within apartment premises. They are either in the form of clusters which share a courtyard or individual terraces in a residential building. Example: Jeevan Bima Nagar Bangalore (Figure 7). An example of the former would be Sheikh Sarai Housing in Delhi, which is designed by Architect Raj Rewal. The architect has tried to create a balance between open and closed spaces. The scale of the courtyards is adjusted to serve various community functions. By integrating courtyards, the architect has included traditional elements which create a sense of belonging to the residents staying over there. In this case, every dwelling is a private domain but the nature of privacy varies since the courtyard is being shared by several clusters (Rapoport, 2007)

Fig 25: Individual Terrace gardens in Jeevan Bima Nagar, Borivili (Source: Rajendran, S 2012, A place in the shade, http://terrainseeker.blogspot.in/2012/09/a-place-in-shade.html)

TABLE 4 Characteristics of Sheikh Sarai Housing

Conclusion With the increase in land value, it becomes difficult to afford such vast spaces which are required for a courtyard house. So implementing terrace gardens or individual gardens in apartments is one such replacement for courtyards. Earlier, when the system of joint family prevailed, most gatherings took place in the courtyard. It was an interactive space which united people. Nowadays, with the emergence of nuclear families such vast spaces are not utilized to a great extent. People opt to interact at convention centers or auditoriums during functions. In todayâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s fast paced world, it becomes difficult to maintain such huge spaces. But for the charm and privacy that a courtyard offers, one could consider bringing back courtyards as a part of housing or implementing open light wells which can be maintained easily.

CHAPTER 6 6.1 LIVE CASE STUDY: COURTYARD HOUSE AT MEERUT

GROUND FLOOR PLAN

FIRST FLOOR PLAN

Characteristic features • • • • • • •

The house is 100-150 years old with 1.5 brick thick wall and iron rod windows. The building is covered from 3 sides. The ground floor is 3-4 degrees cooler than terrace floor because of the constant air flow through courtyard. Air conditioning is not at all required on ground floor even when the outside temperature goes as high as 45 degrees. First floor is also comparatively cooler than what we experience in houses with no courtyards. The courtyard is used for family gathering and play area for children. To cover the central open area and for safety purposes there has been provided a jaal on both the floors.

CONTEMPORARY COURTYARD HOUSING The previous chapters describe the courtyard typology as an outdoor living space, favoured by local climatic conditions and family life, the various advantages of having a courtyard in a residence have been summarized below:      

an appropriate place for family gathering as a living and dining area a comfortable and calm place for sleeping during the hot summer nights a safe area for children to play under their mother’s supervision a source for daylight and natural ventilation for the surrounding rooms an internal environment with a pleasant microclimate The circulation hub of the house linking all the spaces in a controlled fashion.

However, despite all the advantages, the courtyard house has been neglected and ignored in the development of contemporary housing projects in the Indian Sub-Continent. The contemporary home for most Indian families is an apartment in a high-rise building or, for the wealthy, a detached villa. In both cases the environment is mainly controlled by mechanical means (air-conditioning, etc.) with the inevitable consequence of isolating the interior world from the exterior. This is what is called the ‘exclusive’ model because the form of the building and the nature of the envelope encourage isolation. These buildings are self-contained blocks surrounded by free space. In such buildings, people are isolated from their surroundings, becoming physically and socially separate. This chapter will focus on studying the problems and reasons of not having courtyard houses today.

CASE STUDIES 6.2 COMPOSITE CLIMATE 6.2.1 PINE DRIVE RESIDENCE, GURGAON Location: Gurgaon, Haryana | Area: 336m2 | Owner: Mrs Uma Ramanathan

Fig 26 COURTYARD

Fig 27 PLAN

The 62 PineDrive residence is a house centred around a courtyard with water features and greens as its focal point. The courtyard is central in plan, where every room faces onto the courtyard and thus gets a good amount of light and vegetation. A driveway and secondary gate separates the main entrance from the courtyard for privacy reasons. It creates a continuity between both green spaces (Front and Backyard). The bedrooms are located on the upper floor and they overlook the courtyard.

Fig 28 SECTION

The house was built as a replica to the ownerâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s former house in Old Delhi, but with a larger courtyard and in a modern style villa. The courtyard incorporates a small pond and greens to make the space more interactive and climatically viable. The Ramanathan family is socially very active and have guest parties every fortnight, it is then when this courtyard is used to serve as an extended open space to the living room and accommodate for food and barbeques. The original role of the courtyard as a thermal modifier inside the house is questionable in this design. Due to the large span of the courtyard, the enclosing buildings do not shade the space during the harsh summers; leaving it exposed to the sun and making it an uncomfortable space throughout the afternoons in the months from April-October. However, due to the pond present in the premises, it functions as a climate modifier by cooling and humidifying the air before it reaches the surrounding spaces. Therefore making the evenings are cooler and less humid. The winters make this a comfortable space to relax and enjoy the warm sun while the children play sports like cricket and basketball. Emphasis has been focused on the visual relationship between the different spaces/rooms around the courtyard in order to give a sense of spatial connectivity and openness. In this way, the collective family can move from one space to another according to climate or other circumstances, with the benefits of contemporary amenities and the advantages of the traditional courtyard way of life.

Fig 29 Image of the pond behind the greens

Fig 30 Courtyard B

6.2.2 B-99 HOUSE, GURGAON Location:Gurgaon,Haryana |Area: 350m2|Architect: DADA Partners|Owner: Mr.Sumit Arora Main design idea for this suburban house was to serve as an archetype of fusion between traditional and modern architecture. The house is organized around a central courtyard that acts as the ‘Brahmastan’ (sacred centre) and allows for indoor spaces to engage and enjoy the diurnal as well as seasonal rituals of sun and wind. [17] The architects have used this idea and organized the functions around the central courtyard on both floors (ground and first). The house incorporates hierarchy of zones with formal living spaces in front and private areas at the back. The courtyard that forms centre of the house faces south and is overlooked by living and bedroom areas on the ground and first floor respectively. On the ground and first floors, rooms at front and rear are connected by ‘bridge-like’ spaces that run along the courtyard.

Fig 31 VIEW OF THE COURTYARD

Fig 32 PLAN

The architects have had a vision green, and have built a sustainable home, creating interconnected courtyards which are favourable to natural ventilation and result in cooler areas. Except for these courtyards, there are also a series of smaller courts/ voids scattered on all levels bringing in light and ventilation to the spaces and serving as lungs of the house while simultaneously providing views out from every room.

Fig 33 View from the living into the Courtyard (Ground Floor)

Fig 34 View into the Courtyard below (First Floor)

The courtyard is covered during the harsh summers and so, allows diffused light to enter and keeps it relatively cooler than the outside. The winters offer a comfortable space to sit and enjoy the warm sun. As the courtyard is well connected to all the living spaces on the ground and first floor, it successfully serves its purpose of illumination and ventilation. Further, the courtyard is landscaped with a champa tree and soft grass pavements, which give it an element of nature and makes the space more inviting and comfortable. From the functional point of view, the courtyard of the B-99 House is utilized on all three levels. First, it functions as the reception area for the studio in the basement, with waterfalls and the abundant source of natural light. Second, the courtyard on the ground floor acts as an extended outdoor living space and the focal point for the house when viewed from the first floor. And third, it acts as a transition/open space for circulation on the first floor.

In this project, the architect has attempted to integrate the concept of the courtyard typology into a Western-oriented design where the spaces are arranged in an open and free plan layout. Such a house organization will be perceived by some people as an ideal model for the combination of the ‘indian’ and the ‘western’. Indian for preserving the concept of a courtyard where as western for adopting the open plan approach and modern building materials such as steel and glass. To conclude, the residence is an example to show how courtyards can be used in contemporary homes giving it a character different from the traditional courtyards discussed above, yet serving the social and climatic purposes.

Fig 35 Vertical flow of Courtyards in the Residence While the above studies embrace the courtyard typology in contemporary homes – spaces designed around and opening into the courtyard; some designs incorporate landscaped courtyards to enhance aesthetics within homes. Such courtyards are enclosed in glass boxes so that they do not disturb the indoor air-conditioned microclimate.

Fig 36 Residence in Mohali- Charged Voids

Fig 37 Rishikesh House by Rajiv Saini and Associates

Fig 38 Twin Courtyard House -Charged Voids The above images show courtyards that are enclosed in glass boxes. The proportions of these courtyards make it difficult for family activities â&#x20AC;&#x201C; social, cultural or religious. The courtyards incorporated in these residences serve as landscaped light wells and question of the definition of courtyards as discussed in the previous chapters.

6.2.3 COURTYARD HOUSE BY SAKKAR, LUCKNOW

Fig 39 GROUND FLOOR PLAN

Fig 40 VIEW OF THE COURTYARD This house is being designed for computer professional who needs workspace and residence in the same plot, has small family of working wife and single child. There are slum settlements in front of this house. The view of outside is not preferable. The design of house evolved through courtyard and the courtyard is acting as buffer between office area and residential area, the office area has been screened on the wall towards courtyard. This will create privacy of courtyard but will allow light and ventilation in office area.

The blocking of residence is done in such a fashion to create green terraces and gardens very effectively in small courtyard space. It can be concluded that courtyard is not only effective in bigger plots but can be used in smaller plot very effectively for social interactive space as well moderator of climate. This type of situation mostly available in most part of cities with many constraints, and it seems courtyard can be very effective solution.

Fig 41 Shading and ventilation in courtyard

6.3 HOT-ARID CLIMATE 6.3.1 A COURTYARD HOUSE BY SANJAY PURI, RAJASTHAN This house is situated in Rajasthan, India and the architect has tried to design this house based on courtyard concept responding to hot arid climate. This region also witness strong dust winds so courtyard system will be very effective. There are series of courtyard in this house but there are two main courts, one is used for guest house and one for family. The two courts are linked by open corridor. Sanjay Puri has said “The layout of the Courtyard House is similar to the traditional “bhungi” houses of the Rajasthan villages where each room is an entity by itself.”The volumes of all functions are radiating from the courtyard and every volume creates its own identity as traditional “bhungi” house. These breaks are recessed for creating shadow effect and cool down the living spaces considerably in the extreme heat of summers.

Fig 42 GROUND FLOOR PLAN

Fig 43 FIRST FLOOR PLAN Sanjay Puri has said â&#x20AC;&#x153;The sculptural quality of the house as perceived internally as well as externally is the most satisfying aspect of the design of this house.â&#x20AC;? For achieving this sculptor quality, he has chose concrete as building materials which cannot be considered very well in this climate zone because concrete has less thermal resistance. He has justified the use of concrete because cement plant is very close of site but that does not justify the choice of material. But the use of courtyard, landscaping, use of water etc will create microclimate within and around the building to create comfort. The all opening are recesses and shelter by mass of another block and each room, balconies are oriented in such as way to link to outer landscape courts. It can be concluded that courtyard system this house is inspired by traditional courtyards but taking care of context and requirement of client, architect has given new identity to courtyard system. The shapes of courtyards are completely different than traditional rectangular courts, and architect has fragmented his blocking in such a fashion that outdoor spaces are also forming different courtyards. We cannot expect to imitate indigenous courtyard system in present context, the new ideas are also needed so that courtyards are not only fulfilling the functional need but can also act as to exhibit luxurious living style.

Fig 44 VIEW OF THE COURTYARD

6.3.2 A COURTYARD HOUSE BY HIREN PATEL, AHMEDABAD The building byelaws play very important aspect in modern residences. Normally the minimum front and rear set back are prescribed by municipal authorities or development authorities. In this house architect has given rear set back more than minimum and utilized this space as rear courtyard but the same time one more courtyard is being carved out within built-up zone. The next thing is the integration of this enclosed courtyard with rear courtyard, it is just extension of smaller courtyard to bigger courtyard.

Fig 45 PLAN

Fig 46 VIEW OF SMALLER COURTYARD WITH POOL The living, dining, bed room, corridors etc are either viewing towards smaller enclosed courtyard or rear courtyard. The corridor is having direct axis to the statue of Buddha installed on the back wall of rear courtyard. In the smaller courtyard , the pool and plants , deck are so well integrated that while sitting on deck one experience slight cozy space . The water body and vegetation in the courtyard can act as moderator of climate. The details of elements in courtyard i.e. furniture, sculptor, lighting elements are really worked out well. It can be concluded in given restriction of building byelaws, the solution of creating smaller courtyard within built-up and extending it to larger courtyard in rear set back has worked so well. The views from within building have been visualized so well that almost all important areas of house are focusing toward courtyard.

6.4 WARM-HUMID CLIMATE 6.4.1 INDIA HOUSE, PUNE BY CHRISTOPHER CHARLES BENNINGER India House is being design based on the inspiration of “Wada” or Haveli of Maharashtra. There are three major function in this house studio, guest house and art gallery. The three equal size volumes are taken and the middle volume left open as atrium courtyard for sun light and breeze. This atrium courtyard also acts as communication, interaction space between the activities of the two blocks. The atrium courtyard is covered on the top with screen like traditional “Jalli” and this jail is also used on the two walls of courtyard. Jalli is allowing sunlight, breeze but acting as privacy element too. The courtyard is also designed keep the orientation so that summer sun could be avoided in summers.

Fig 47 SITE PLAN

Fig 48 COURTYARD It is concluded that India House exhibits different type of concept for courtyard i.e. atrium courtyard. The site of project was not so big but courtyard system worked out so well, this gives hope that in future also corporate offices having smaller sites could use this atrium concept of courtyard.

6.4.2 HOUSE IN KORAMANGALA, BENGALURU DESIGNED BY CHARLES CORREA

Fig 49 – courtyard The adaptation of the traditional South Indian house to Modern Times is demonstrated in the house at Koramangala Bengaluru designed by Charles Correa; the house was constructed in the mid 1987 as an Office /Studio/home for his children. While the site layout is similar to the British bungalow (with a front garden and backyard), the single storeyed dwelling is conceptually very different. The house is asymmetrical and designed with the entrance off centre and a yin-yang concept. The courtyard acts as a centre with the studio and home aligned diagonally to it. The path of movement leads one from the front door on the main façade, and then moving along a shifting axis to arrive at the Courtyard of which the other rooms open. The interior is flooded with light and cool breeze from the Courtyard which is located in the symbolic as well as the geometric centre of the house and contains an ornamental Champa tree. It is a reminder of the past and a statement of the house’s location India. In such houses, the traditional Courtyard, if used at all, serves an aesthetic and symbolic function if not a climatic or activity one. Correa was criticizing the British Colonialist Bungalow style houses as well as the stereotypical ‘vernacular’ Indian Architecture to create this more modern take on post- independence Indian Architecture. He successfully achieved cultural identity by starting from the premise of local or regional architecture, in this case, the traditional courtyard houses of South India and transforming it into something more symbolic and modern.

Fig 50 Section

CHAPTER 7 CONCLUSION The journey of the architectural explorations for a sustainable way of livings might be the first priority of the architecture and urban design. This entails the wise integration of the wisdom gained through the centuries by the evolution of the built environments, into the emerging state of the art technologies and the search for new ways of thinking and of course of living. The core of the investigations should be the human itself. The human topography is expected to be blended with the built topographies, leading to merging of the immaterial with material and the built environment with its surrounding the weather environments. Contemporary living with its rapid advancements needs to follow innovative sustainable ways, where the conventional presence of the buildings seize to be mere objects but are merged with the human activities and cultures. This approach may start the triggering of the mechanism for the emergence of sustainable unprecedented living and urban conditions. REASONS FOR DISAPPEARANCE OF COURTYARDS Today, people are more concerned about the image of the house than the integration of spaces within it. It is the medium by which they appear on the public sight: the very thing that the traditional common houses with their blind walls and doors rejected. There is a strong psychological concern in this matter, people prefer their house to express their status and, as a medium of relation with others. The reorientation of the house to the street has caused a shift in the focus from the central space to the front facade. In this way the courtyard becomes less useful as a symbol of status and acts as an unwanted and waste space. In addition, the individualization of rooms (as a modern way of living) weakens the need for an internal space for a collective family life. Due to the change from joint to nuclear families, the new space for ‘family living’ shifts to the bedrooms or in some cases the living room. The housing policies have imposed small plots where the introduction of the courtyard is difficult and cuts out space from other functional spaces valued more today. In terms of comfort, people refuse to cross the open space (the courtyard) in order to move from one place to another, preferring shorter, sheltered, airconditioned transition spaces of the modern houses. Construction has moved from horizontal development (plotted neighbourhoods) to vertical development (high rise apartments) due to the inadequate availability of land. These high rise buildings limit the introduction of courtyards due to the area available per flat and high per square feet land rates. Below are the summarized reasons for the disappearance of the courtyard house; Table 1 describes the difference between the past and present homes with respect to the need of courtyards –    

The Housing policy has imposed small plots, making the introduction of courtyard space a difficult task. The reorientation of the house to the street has created a social need to expose the inhabitants’ social status to the wider world. Urban planning regulations have encouraged this effect. The individualization of rooms has undermined the collective life of the family and made the need for a shared internal space largely unnecessary. Shift from horizontal to vertical land development makes it difficult to incorporate courtyards on each level/flat.

PAST

PRESENT

Protection against animals & enemies

New ways of construction and technology ensure safety

The need for privacy for women and children

No longer need for privacy of women

Climate was moderate and adjustable; the concept of ‘air-conditioning was unknown

Global warming has caused a drastic rise and fall in temperatures for both summers and winters. High dependence on air-conditioning

Joint families: Need for a large common space for interaction and family activities

Nuclear families: Living room/Bedroom become the new space for family interaction

Religious implication of worshiping tulsi plant

Less inclination on religious activities, separate puja rooms with tulsi plants placed in balconies or gardens

Insufficient play areas for children of the house, hence the courtyard served as an indoor safe play area

Abundant number of parks and play grounds for children in high rises and neighbourhood homes

Horizontal development of land- courtyards could be incorporated

Vertical development with high rise apartmentsdifficult to accommodate courtyards in all houses

TABLE 5 Comparison between Past and Present need for Courtyards

Observing construction and residential design today, one can see how exterior spaces in residences have been reduced to small verandas/gardens and balconies that are seldom used because they offer neither privacy (exposed to public spaces) nor functional space (dimensions and relationship with other spaces are frequently inadequate). Thus, their role is to express modernity, or façade modulation rather than use. Due to the plot and construction constraints these are the only private ‘open spaces’ provided in homes today.[15] Moreover studying the daily routine in one’s life today, people do not have the time to go and sit in a garden or an open space, all free time is spent in other indoor activities, in such cases it is beneficial to have a courtyard house as it keeps one in constant touch with the open, and in some cases green, thereby promoting a healthier lifestyle.

CHAPTER 8 POLICY GUIDELINES Although some designs attempt to re-interpret the courtyard principle in housing using backyards and gardens, the results are often unsatisfactory for many reasons. The exterior space created is pushed to either the corner or rear of the house plot and does not constitute the centre of the plan. Moreover, its poor spatial quality and inefficient relationship to other spaces makes it a deserted and a useless space for the inhabitants. Hence, it lacks the courtyard characteristics of the traditional house and is neither a functional nor a symbolic space. Certain contemporary houses offer an extension to the living or bedroom which is semi covered and landscaped with trees and water bodies. Here, this space does not have genuine courtyard characteristics because there is no sense of enclosure. Its character is that of a modern garden rather than that of a traditional courtyard CREATING A NEW COURTYARD TYPOLOGY Unfortunately those responsible for construction in India have abandoned the courtyard dwelling in favour of the typical North American suburban scheme that is characterized by a free-standing house located in the centre of the building plot. This chapter addresses how the courtyard can be considered within a broader theoretical framework that locates the role of tradition in relation to contemporary building understanding today. The courtyard house remains an appropriate built form, not only for the climatic conditions of hot-arid regions but also for Indian Culture. It could still fulfil the requirements of contemporary lifestyles, if redefined and considered in the light of technological and socio-economic changes. The reproduction of traditional models, however, has failed to convince most clients. One needs to stop idealising the past, accept the reality of today and seek to build a better future. Thus the way they solve local problems can also contribute to the wider architectural and social discourse in India. What is required is a contemporary revival of the courtyard typology based upon a fusion of past and present values. The courtyard, by its enclosure, has two principal roles—to create a microclimate and to provide a private outdoor space exclusive to the residents. However, air-conditioning undermines the first and modernizing values of the second. Reviving the principles of the traditional house for contemporary life should involve more than reusing the same spatial configuration or repeating the same architectural elements and decoration. Enclosure, as achieved in the traditional house, presents a paradoxical situation: certainly privacy and microclimate are well concretized; however, a sensation of being ‘closed up’ is present. Furthermore, the inner envelope of the courtyard, which is usually handled with certain inflexibility, deprives the house of its spatial diversity and richness. Architects could usefully redefine aspects of the courtyard, such as the degree of enclosure, spatial configuration, façade proportions, architectural details, materials and so on, in order to modernize the typology. Instead of simple symmetry and the closed form, the traditional house courtyard could become a dynamic, asymmetrical balance of interacting walls and spaces. Landscaping could play a major role in improving the aesthetic and spatial quality of the courtyard. Greenery and water do not just enhance the microclimate created by the courtyard but also create healthier and more enjoyable environments. Thus the courtyard could fulfil its real function as a family space in contact with nature: an exterior living room, since the weather is conducive to exterior life. These qualities are achievable only by a symbiotic composition of architectural, artistic and landscaping elements.[20] Vegetation and water, if manipulated in a modern way, could enliven the space and make it more dynamic while still meeting the contemporary needs of Indian families.

Emphasis should be focused on the visual relationship between the different spaces around the courtyard in order to give the sense of spatial connectivity and openness. In this way, the collective family could move from one space to another according to climate or other circumstances, with the benefits of contemporary amenities and the advantages of the traditional courtyard way of life.

It is recognized that apartments in high-rise structures, large houses and other types will continue to be built, and there is no single solution for housing form or policy. However, a major thrust should be focused on a residential neighbourhood approach which recognizes the merit of the courtyard concept at both the building and urban design level. This means low-rise, high-density neighbourhoods with offstreet parking and houses designed to fully utilize the climate for warming in winter and cooling in summer. It is difficult, though possible, to insert the traditional features of the courtyard house, such as the compact courtyard and garden, in a multi-level apartment structure. Features such as automobile parking, solar orientation, ventilation, environmental quality and human health, in general present difficulties for the high-rise apartment typology. The apartment structure is also energy intensive and generally dependent upon air-conditioning. These features must be considered in the long-term development policies for any region for a time when energy will no longer be cheap. An energy efficient urban infrastructure should be put in place now, rather than burden the future society with a costly energy inefficient habitat infrastructure. A review of current patterns of contemporary housing shows three types in and around cities in the Indian region: o apartment houses; o informal settlements; o Traditional houses for extended families, generally of a modified courtyard house type. These trends appear to be prevalent in provincial areas and larger cities to different degrees. However, as the typology proves to be useful and appreciated, certain measures must be taken to revive it in the present construction framework. To summarize the above stated points, such measures can be taken to revive the courtyard typology in contemporary times,     



develop housing types which respond to local residential needs evolve urban concepts that suit modern needs but incorporate courtyard housing as the primary element define a set of generic design principles and indicators to guide developers (public and private) re-engage modern development with the traditions of Indian architecture and urban form The courtyard plays a vital compositional and amenity role for each dwelling. It provides residents with the opportunity to enjoy a private open space with green elements for a period of more than 6 months per year in any Indian city. The role of the courtyard is not limited to decorative and recreational purposes: it is essential to the supply of lighting and ventilation of the house, thereby reducing energy consumption over non-courtyard typologies.

BIBLIOGRAPHY The following bibliography lists all the unpublished and published sources that have been studied and referred to in the course of this dissertation.

1. Unpublished dissertations   

Shant Bhardwaj: Relevance of courtyard in traditional houses of India, Vastu kala Academy, New Delhi Chetan Garg: Social and visual aspects of open spaces in housing, SPA , New Delhi Nibedita Das: Courtyard in Institutional Buildings, Vastu kala Academy, New Delhi

2. Books  

T. S. Randhawa : Indian Courtyard Houses Brian Edwards: Courtyard Housing: Past, Present and Future

3. Websites 

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https://shuchimishra.wordpress.com/2016/01/09/understanding-the-change-in-character-ofcourtyards/ https://www.academia.edu/6711608/Energy_Performance_of_Courtyard_and_Atrium_in_Differe nt_Climates https://www.researchgate.net/publication/316417455_Revival_of_Indigenous_Courtyard_System _in_the_works_of_Contemporary_Indian_Architects https://www.scribd.com/presentation/177385557/Role-of-Courtyard-in-Buildings

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http://www.arch.mcgill.ca/prof/sijpkes/arch374/winter2002/psbijith/phs/PRESENTATION...WROTEUPS.doc https://miles2smile.wordpress.com/2014/08/30/pune/ http://www.ummah.co.ke/blog/2014/06/islamic-architecture Date of accessed: 20/04/2016

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https://www.researchgate.net/publication/304579145_Towards_Sustainable_Future_Typologies_and_Par ameters_of_Courtyard_Design

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http://www.slideshare.net/khushboosood/courtyards http://www.theindiapost.com/articles/climatic-zones-and-their-characteristics/ http://www.projectsmonitor.com/guest-articles/climate-responsive-design-conforming-withnature/ file:///C:/Users/asus/Desktop/1168-Article%20Text-1403-1-10-20151030%20(1).pdf http://www.srmuniv.ac.in/sites/default/files/downloads/climateresponsivearch.pdf https://www.slideshare.net/swapnika15/passive-coolingtechniques http://www.inive.org/members_area/medias/pdf/Inive%5Cpalenc%5C2005%5CPadmavathi.pdf https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2095263517300249 https://www.gounesco.com/courtyards-influence-of-the-indian-traditional-architectural-elementon-community-interactions/ https://www.researchgate.net/publication/297650711_Contextual_Comparison_of_Courtyard_H ouses_in_Tamil_Nadu

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4. Articles    

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Amadouni Zareh S., Courtyard Housing: A Typological Analysis, M.Arch thesis, School of Architecture McGill University Montreal November 1994. Sthapak Swasti, Bandyopadhyay Abir, Courtyard houses: An overview, Recent Research in Science and Technology Beijing Courtyard Houses, Journal of Architectural and Planning Research, 15:4 (Winter, 1998). Dili A. S., Naseer M. A., Zacharia Varghese T. The influence of internal courtyard of Kerala traditional residential buildings in providing a comfortable indoor environment, International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 03, No. 01, February Attia Shady, The role of landscape design in improving the microclimate in traditional courtyard-buildings in hot arid climates, PLEA2006 - The 23rd Conference on Passive and Low Energy Architecture, Geneva, Switzerland, 6-8 September 2006. Abass Fatma, Hakim Ismail Lokman and Solla Mohmed, A Review of Courtyard House: History Evolution Forms and Functions, ARPN Journal of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Vol. 11, No. 4, February 2016.