Research 2008: Adapting to climate change in Umkhanyakude district, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa by The Power Is In People

Research

Adapting to climate change in Umkhanyakude district, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa Report written by Dr Alison Misselhorn on behalf of Oxfam Australia

2008

Contents Acknowledgements

1. Summary

Oxfam Australia acknowledges the

2. Background

input of partners and community members

3. An overview of what adaptation to climate change means

4 Vulnerability to climate change in Umkhanyakude

from the Umkhanyakude Partnership Program who participated in an earlier research process that informed the development of this publication.

5. Supporting adaptation to climate change in Umkhanyakude 10

Thanks also go to Oxfam Australia staff

5.1 Introduction

in Melbourne and South Africa as well as

5.2 Agricultural risk reduction and better natural resource management

5.3 B uilding resilience through livelihood diversification and flexibility

5.4 Understanding local needs and resource constraints to build capacity

5.5 Strengthening community social capital resources and institutions

5.6 Engaging with planning and implementation processes across sectors and scales

editor Cathy Moloney for her contribution.

6. Summary of considerations for supporting climate change adaptation in Umkhanyakude

7. Conclusion

8. Glossary of technical terms

9. References

10. Contact details

Front cover: Nthombifuthi Mbhele helps to look after the gardens. She has been taught how to farm basic crops like corn, beans, potatoes and tomatoes. The ground is not rich in nutrients so much care needs to be taken with watering and spreading manure to help the crops grow. Photo: Matthew Willman/OxfamAUS. Left: Children playing at a local trading store in Umkhanyakude district. Photo: Matthew Willman/OxfamAUS.

Contents Acknowledgements

1. Summary

Oxfam Australia acknowledges the

2. Background

input of partners and community members

3. An overview of what adaptation to climate change means

4 Vulnerability to climate change in Umkhanyakude

from the Umkhanyakude Partnership Program who participated in an earlier research process that informed the development of this publication.

5. Supporting adaptation to climate change in Umkhanyakude 10

Thanks also go to Oxfam Australia staff

5.1 Introduction

in Melbourne and South Africa as well as

5.2 Agricultural risk reduction and better natural resource management

5.3 B uilding resilience through livelihood diversification and flexibility

5.4 Understanding local needs and resource constraints to build capacity

5.5 Strengthening community social capital resources and institutions

5.6 Engaging with planning and implementation processes across sectors and scales

editor Cathy Moloney for her contribution.

6. Summary of considerations for supporting climate change adaptation in Umkhanyakude

7. Conclusion

8. Glossary of technical terms

9. References

10. Contact details

1. Summary 1. Summary Adaptation to climate change describes the adjustments people make in response to, or in anticipation of, a changing climate.

1. Reducing agricultural risk and

programs and policies across sectors

management.

and scales that relate to climate

2. Building livelihood diversification.

This includes changes to the things they do,

This refers to increasing the variety of

the way they do them, or to the organisational

ways people can make a living.

or physical elements of their environment. Climate change is only one of the many stressors that affect resource-constrained communities such as those living in Umkhanyakude. It is about addressing the multiple development shortfalls of the district that prevent people from being able to adapt, and make them more vulnerable, to climate change. This is fundamentally what building adaptive capacity is about. In KwaZulu-Natal, there has been very little research that has specifically looked at community strategies to adapt to climate change. In this document, support for adaptation in Umkhanyakude is discussed under five themes.

5. Looking more broadly to support

improving natural resource

3. Working at the local level to

change adaptation. A critical component of this is facilitating community access to relevant (and timely) information and services that will increase peopleâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s knowledge and choices, as well as

understand adaptation needs through

link them with planning and policy

participatory processes. Peopleâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s

processes to convey lessons learned

resources and their vulnerability and

in Umkhanyakude for better policy

adaptive capacity vary enormously

development and institutional support.

between communities and even between households. Locally specific coping and adaptation strategies, as well as farmersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; knowledge about adapting to climate variability, are therefore an indispensable part of the adaptation picture. 4. Strengthening social capital resources in communities. The importance of social capital resources such as community institutions is too well documented to ignore in programming. This will require close work with stakeholders across the district to develop an understanding of local political issues and power dynamics between individuals and groups.

This document presents a range of adaptation and program support strategies that have been employed in communities in KwaZulu-Natal and elsewhere in South Africa and Africa, discusses these as considerations for programming, and offers recommendations. Successful adaptation is not easy to identify or assess, particularly given that measures that appear effective in the short term might carry long-term negative consequences that are not immediately evident. Adaptation responses also need to be flexible enough to cope with uncertainty, and with meeting different needs that might rapidly change with time.

Left: Joseph Bongi is the Chair of the Ubombo Community Care Centre. He regularly attends community meetings and sees to the basic running of the feeding schemes in the greater Nsinde Tribal Authority (Josini and surrounding areas). Photo: Matthew Willman/OxfamAUS.

1. Summary 1. Summary Adaptation to climate change describes the adjustments people make in response to, or in anticipation of, a changing climate.

1. Reducing agricultural risk and

programs and policies across sectors

management.

and scales that relate to climate

2. Building livelihood diversification.

This includes changes to the things they do,

This refers to increasing the variety of

the way they do them, or to the organisational

ways people can make a living.

5. Looking more broadly to support

improving natural resource

3. Working at the local level to

understand adaptation needs through

link them with planning and policy

participatory processes. Peopleâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s

processes to convey lessons learned

resources and their vulnerability and

in Umkhanyakude for better policy

adaptive capacity vary enormously

development and institutional support.

2. Background 2. Background In 2005, Oxfam Australia initiated a food security program in the Umkhanyakude

Multiple stressors were also seen to constrain response options, including population growth, the demands on household and government resources

3. An overview of what adaptation to climate change means Adaptation to climate change describes

rather on first addressing vulnerability through “climate-aware” development — including issues of governance.5

the adjustment people make in response

In Umkhanyakude, the adaptation

to, or in anticipation of, a changing climate.

options and strategies will, for example,

This includes changes to the things

be shaped by agricultural policies and

they do, the way they do them, or to the

the extent to which vulnerable groups

poverty, underdevelopment and high levels

Water supply was re-emphasised as a

organisational or physical elements of their

are able to negotiate the impacts of such

of unemployment, Umkhanyakude is the

key vulnerability during Oxfam Australia’s

environment. Adaptation can be the actions

policies. In the context of development,

poorest district within Kwa-Zulu Natal. The

second Partner Platform Meeting for

people take or choices they make that are

it is useful to recognise two forms of

district has a large number of orphans and

Umkhanyakude, held in June 2007. The

unplanned (or reactive), and they often take

adaptation. The first involves changing the

households run by young children, a direct

need for stronger emergency relief skills

place independently of policy support.

biophysical environment; the development

result of the high rate of HIV and AIDS.

and strategies, and the challenges of

Water is scarce in the area and more than

climate change were also included among

half of households lack clean water and

the key issues identified. These issues are

sanitation, which often results in cholera

of particular concern in the face of future

outbreaks. Umkhanyakude also has the

climate change impacts, which are likely to

highest incidence of malaria in South

include decreased rainfall and deteriorating

Africa. The Umkhanyakude Partnership

water and sanitation access. An increased

Program aims to build capacity and develop

incidence of natural disasters, such as

strategies among local communities to

drought and flood, appear possible if not

strengthen food security responses, as

likely from the broader climate change

well as ensuring safety nets are in place

literature. Should this occur, the capacity

for those who are unable to cope.

to reduce disaster-related vulnerabilities

district of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, with the aim of strengthening food and nutrition security within the context of HIV and AIDS. Suffering from extreme

In 2006, Oxfam Australia conducted participatory research on community perceptions of climate change in six

already placed by HIV and AIDS and the pressing need for improved water access and sanitation throughout the district.1

will become as important as developmentbased strategies to adapt to climate change in the long term.

Climate change is only one of the many stressors that affect resource-constrained communities such as those living in Umkhanyakude. The capacity to adapt, particularly in developing countries, is thus known to be defined by the potential or ability of a system, region, or community to adapt to the effects or impacts of climate change within the

of technology or infrastructural changes that allow for the maintenance of livelihoods. The second involves adjustments in human behaviour that might be needed to adapt livelihoods to new climatic conditions.6 Despite all the complexities and uncertainties, there are urgent reasons to immediately seek ways to support adaptation to climate change.

context of multiple stresses.3 Adaptation research has broadened from a focus on future climate impacts to consider a wide variety of economic, social, political and environmental circumstances that affect the ability to adapt.4 Successful adaptation

communities of the district. This research

In line with the development needs in

thus hinges not on discerning appropriate

indicated a perceived absence of long-term

Umkhanyakude, together with climate

responses to climate change per se, but

successful adaptation strategies to cope

change threats, Oxfam Australia

with climate variability and change. This

commissioned this report to determine

was attributed to the need for addressing

adaptation strategies in the area, evaluate

immediate short-term needs with

their sustainability, and review options to

limited livelihood resources.

support adaptation to climate change.

1 Sterrett (2007).

3. Overview

Left: Elias Mabuza helps to run a community garden that provides vegetables such as beetroot, spinach and carrots for his fellow community members . Photo: Paul Weinberg/OxfamAUS.

2 Schipper (2007).

5 O’Brien et al (2006).

3 Kelkar (2005).

6 Schipper (2007).

4 Ibid.

2. Background 2. Background In 2005, Oxfam Australia initiated a food security program in the Umkhanyakude

Multiple stressors were also seen to constrain response options, including population growth, the demands on household and government resources

3. An overview of what adaptation to climate change means Adaptation to climate change describes

rather on first addressing vulnerability through “climate-aware” development — including issues of governance.5

the adjustment people make in response

In Umkhanyakude, the adaptation

to, or in anticipation of, a changing climate.

options and strategies will, for example,

This includes changes to the things

be shaped by agricultural policies and

they do, the way they do them, or to the

the extent to which vulnerable groups

poverty, underdevelopment and high levels

Water supply was re-emphasised as a

organisational or physical elements of their

are able to negotiate the impacts of such

of unemployment, Umkhanyakude is the

key vulnerability during Oxfam Australia’s

environment. Adaptation can be the actions

policies. In the context of development,

poorest district within Kwa-Zulu Natal. The

second Partner Platform Meeting for

people take or choices they make that are

it is useful to recognise two forms of

district has a large number of orphans and

Umkhanyakude, held in June 2007. The

unplanned (or reactive), and they often take

adaptation. The first involves changing the

households run by young children, a direct

need for stronger emergency relief skills

place independently of policy support.

biophysical environment; the development

result of the high rate of HIV and AIDS.

and strategies, and the challenges of

Water is scarce in the area and more than

climate change were also included among

half of households lack clean water and

the key issues identified. These issues are

sanitation, which often results in cholera

of particular concern in the face of future

outbreaks. Umkhanyakude also has the

climate change impacts, which are likely to

highest incidence of malaria in South

include decreased rainfall and deteriorating

Africa. The Umkhanyakude Partnership

water and sanitation access. An increased

Program aims to build capacity and develop

incidence of natural disasters, such as

strategies among local communities to

drought and flood, appear possible if not

strengthen food security responses, as

likely from the broader climate change

well as ensuring safety nets are in place

literature. Should this occur, the capacity

for those who are unable to cope.

to reduce disaster-related vulnerabilities

district of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, with the aim of strengthening food and nutrition security within the context of HIV and AIDS. Suffering from extreme

In 2006, Oxfam Australia conducted participatory research on community perceptions of climate change in six

already placed by HIV and AIDS and the pressing need for improved water access and sanitation throughout the district.1

will become as important as developmentbased strategies to adapt to climate change in the long term.

communities of the district. This research

In line with the development needs in

thus hinges not on discerning appropriate

indicated a perceived absence of long-term

Umkhanyakude, together with climate

responses to climate change per se, but

successful adaptation strategies to cope

change threats, Oxfam Australia

with climate variability and change. This

commissioned this report to determine

was attributed to the need for addressing

adaptation strategies in the area, evaluate

immediate short-term needs with

their sustainability, and review options to

limited livelihood resources.

support adaptation to climate change.

1 Sterrett (2007).

3. Overview

Left: Elias Mabuza helps to run a community garden that provides vegetables such as beetroot, spinach and carrots for his fellow community members . Photo: Paul Weinberg/OxfamAUS.

2 Schipper (2007).

5 O’Brien et al (2006).

3 Kelkar (2005).

6 Schipper (2007).

4 Ibid.

4. Vulnerability 4. Vulnerability to climate change in Umkhanyakude7 A report on vulnerability to climate change in Umkhanyakude was developed concurrently with the adaptation review

profound environmental changes expected

Further, despite less water availability

with climate change. Of further importance,

overall, the climate is likely to become

however, is that climate changes can vary

more suitable for malaria. This is because

within just a few kilometres, producing

mosquito larva development, mosquito

highly localised patterns of response.

ranges, and malarial transmission rates

presented in this document. From this

Key environmental responses to these

report it is clear that interventions aimed

changes are likely to include a decrease

at enhancing food security be developed

in crop production potential locally,

with the awareness that food security is

which will affect subsistence agriculture,

determined by multiple factors in addition

local market availability, and household

to agricultural production. These factors

incomes from food sales. National or

include food availability (eg food markets);

regional reductions in crop production

food access (such as being able to afford to

have additional implications for people’s

buy food); consistency of food supply; and

vulnerability, particularly with regard to

food utilisation and safety factors, which are

food pricing. Rangelands may be affected,

affected by health and sanitation. Thus the

and thus livestock grazing potential may

impact of climate change on food security is

also be reduced. Losses may also occur in

highly complex and extends beyond direct

biodiversity, including threats to indigenous

environmental impacts.

forests and conservation areas, which will

In terms of exposure to future climaterelated risks, a number of vulnerabilities in Umkhanyakude stand out: average annual rainfall is likely to decrease; temperatures are likely to increase; rainfall is likely to become less predictable, with higher risk

including rainfall variability, humidity, standing water, extreme rainfall, rainfall timing, and extreme temperatures. This means that malaria management and control measures will have to be closely monitored and maintained. Although poorly researched, a number of other health risks are associated with climate change including risks such as the impact of heat stress on maternal health.

affect wild food availability and grazing and have negative impacts on tourism. Further, conflicts of interest may arise between the need to conserve biodiversity in conservation areas and needs such as crops, grazing and habitation.

of extreme rainfall and low rainfall years/

There is a strong two-way relationship

droughts; less water is likely to be available

between human health and food insecurity.

for crops, livestock, drinking and sanitation;

There is a likelihood of less water being

and sea-levels are likely to rise, possibly

available for drinking and sanitation,

threatening some fresh water resources.

and thus a greater risk of water-borne

Overall, changes in water resources and the

disease. Water is also necessary for food

hydrological system are arguably the most

preparation and protecting against disease.

7 There are considerable overlaps between ‘vulnerability’ and ‘adaptation’. The report on vulnerability that was prepared in parallel with this report offers additional programming considerations. These two reports should be read together.

are affected by a number of climatic factors

Right: For the world’s poorest people, climate change is a matter of life and death. It is threatening their food, their families, their homes and their health. Photo: Matthew Willman/OxfamAUS.

4. Vulnerability 4. Vulnerability to climate change in Umkhanyakude7 A report on vulnerability to climate change in Umkhanyakude was developed concurrently with the adaptation review

profound environmental changes expected

Further, despite less water availability

with climate change. Of further importance,

overall, the climate is likely to become

however, is that climate changes can vary

more suitable for malaria. This is because

within just a few kilometres, producing

mosquito larva development, mosquito

highly localised patterns of response.

ranges, and malarial transmission rates

presented in this document. From this

Key environmental responses to these

report it is clear that interventions aimed

changes are likely to include a decrease

at enhancing food security be developed

in crop production potential locally,

with the awareness that food security is

which will affect subsistence agriculture,

determined by multiple factors in addition

local market availability, and household

to agricultural production. These factors

incomes from food sales. National or

include food availability (eg food markets);

regional reductions in crop production

food access (such as being able to afford to

have additional implications for people’s

buy food); consistency of food supply; and

vulnerability, particularly with regard to

food utilisation and safety factors, which are

food pricing. Rangelands may be affected,

affected by health and sanitation. Thus the

and thus livestock grazing potential may

impact of climate change on food security is

also be reduced. Losses may also occur in

highly complex and extends beyond direct

biodiversity, including threats to indigenous

environmental impacts.

forests and conservation areas, which will

of extreme rainfall and low rainfall years/

There is a strong two-way relationship

droughts; less water is likely to be available

between human health and food insecurity.

for crops, livestock, drinking and sanitation;

There is a likelihood of less water being

and sea-levels are likely to rise, possibly

available for drinking and sanitation,

threatening some fresh water resources.

and thus a greater risk of water-borne

Overall, changes in water resources and the

disease. Water is also necessary for food

hydrological system are arguably the most

preparation and protecting against disease.

are affected by a number of climatic factors

Right: For the world’s poorest people, climate change is a matter of life and death. It is threatening their food, their families, their homes and their health. Photo: Matthew Willman/OxfamAUS.

5. Support 5. Supporting adaptation to climate change in Umkhanyakude 5.1 Introduction In principle, the following broad factors are considered critical to successful adaptation: technological advances, changed institutional arrangements, financing availability, and information exchange.8 All of these factors are linked to broader development concerns. In Africa, key adaptation practices that have been observed include the diversification of livelihood activities (or strategies); changes in institutional architecture (including rules and norms of governance); adjustments in farming operations; income-generation

3. difficulties in accessing water and land; 4. low incomes (diversification of incomegenerating activities would arguably raise

Adapting farming strategies to drought

resilience to financial stress);

and rainfall variability

5. institutional problems such as poor water

as intra-seasonal (or within one season)

transport availability and cost; difficulties

factors, are important elements of climate

with access to markets and water and

variability in relation to crop production.

sanitation; poor inter-farmer collaboration;

Climate factors affect what is planted and

conflicts of interest between crop and

when. Farming strategies that reduce

livestock owners; lack of faith in the

risk are commonplace among resource-

Department of Agriculture; lack of

constrained farmers, and the variety of

communication between the Department

strategies used is enormous. Strategies

of Agriculture, farmers and the local chief;

might include changes in planting methods,

and poor water governance;

changes to crop inputs (such as fertiliser),

6. problems with extension services which theoretically provide commercial farmers

to earn an income); and the move towards

with relevant climate and agricultural

off- or non-farm livelihood incomes.9

information; and 7. the inability of smaller- and medium-scale

KwaZulu-Natal on community strategies to

farmers to access social networks and

adapt to climate change. What is known is

farmer support groups.

that multiple stresses act together to shape vulnerability and hinder adaptive capacity. From a Sustainable Livelihoods Framework perspective, the ability of farmers to adapt

Drought and extreme rainfall, as well

pipes maintenance; difficulties with

projects and selling of labour (eg migrating

There has been very little research in

5.2 Agricultural risk reduction and better natural resource management

Table one: Potential impact of climatic variation on household assets and strategies. Source: Ziervogel and Calder (2003). Source of livelihood (assets and strategies)

Prolonged drought

Delayed onset of rains

Normal rains

Above-normal rains

Economic

Crop failure, livestock death, deterioration of dwellings (due to diminished thatch grass), erosion of savings, depletion of seed resources in granaries, trees cut down for income generation, wealth and productive resources liquidated, reduced animal feed

Shortage of water resources, delayed planting leads to short maturing and lower yielding crop varieties and less sales, animals get weak and sick, vegetation suffers, resources not as plentiful for crafts such as weaving or thatching, wealth resources liquidated

Potential good harvest improves food security and excess for sale, good grazing conditions, adequate water supplies, housing can be repaired, nearby sources of firewood, animals strengthen

Water logging and increased pests destroy crops, increased diseases affect humans and livestock, water damages housing and grain stores, increased pests in grain stores, small animals drown or washed away, disrupted transport reduces sale of goods

Human

Increased labour migration, malnutrition, under nutrition, disease epidemics (cholera, dysentery, AIDS) due to poor sanitary conditions and increased unsafe sex as income-generation activity, morbidity and mortality of income earners

Malnutrition, Under-nutrition, education suffers as children canâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t concentrate and sometimes have to stop school until money is acquired to pay school fees

Disease epidemics, schools and clinics might be structurally damaged or closed because of restricted access

Natural

Firewood depleted, poor pastures, limited water supply, dry soils, increased erosion, gathering of wild food

More firewood available, improved pastures, moist soils, increased pests

Abundant pastures, areas of flooding and water logging, increased pests

Social

Kinship networks weakened as resources depleted (claims not met) and increased migration, exploitation of common property resources, increased conflict

Temporary exploitation of communal resources, minor claims not met

Kinship networks able to support poorest households, personal resources used so communal resources can improve, increased competition as many households try to sell goods

Kinship networks weaken as resources are depleted (claims not being met), increased conflict, safety nets destroyed, employment opportunities decrease, increased migration for work

and planting a combination of crops. 11 Many farmers also diversify to include livelihood activities other than farming. Unfortunately, some strategies are unsustainable or might involve significant loss (see table one).

Many of the above findings are typical of research findings on wider development issues elsewhere in KwaZulu-Natal.10

to climate stress is shaped by: 1. the impacts of HIV and AIDS; 2. education (schooling and adult education);

8 Kelkar (2005).

10 Misselhorn (in prep.).

9 Boko, et al (2007).

11 Jarvis et al (2006).

3. difficulties in accessing water and land; 4. low incomes (diversification of incomegenerating activities would arguably raise

Adapting farming strategies to drought

resilience to financial stress);

and rainfall variability

5. institutional problems such as poor water

as intra-seasonal (or within one season)

transport availability and cost; difficulties

factors, are important elements of climate

with access to markets and water and

variability in relation to crop production.

sanitation; poor inter-farmer collaboration;

Climate factors affect what is planted and

conflicts of interest between crop and

when. Farming strategies that reduce

livestock owners; lack of faith in the

risk are commonplace among resource-

Department of Agriculture; lack of

constrained farmers, and the variety of

communication between the Department

strategies used is enormous. Strategies

of Agriculture, farmers and the local chief;

might include changes in planting methods,

and poor water governance;

changes to crop inputs (such as fertiliser),

6. problems with extension services which theoretically provide commercial farmers

to earn an income); and the move towards

with relevant climate and agricultural

off- or non-farm livelihood incomes.9

information; and 7. the inability of smaller- and medium-scale

KwaZulu-Natal on community strategies to

farmers to access social networks and

adapt to climate change. What is known is

farmer support groups.

that multiple stresses act together to shape vulnerability and hinder adaptive capacity. From a Sustainable Livelihoods Framework perspective, the ability of farmers to adapt

Drought and extreme rainfall, as well

pipes maintenance; difficulties with

projects and selling of labour (eg migrating

There has been very little research in

5.2 Agricultural risk reduction and better natural resource management

Table one: Potential impact of climatic variation on household assets and strategies. Source: Ziervogel and Calder (2003). Source of livelihood (assets and strategies)

Prolonged drought

Delayed onset of rains

Normal rains

Above-normal rains

Economic

Potential good harvest improves food security and excess for sale, good grazing conditions, adequate water supplies, housing can be repaired, nearby sources of firewood, animals strengthen

Human

Malnutrition, Under-nutrition, education suffers as children canâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t concentrate and sometimes have to stop school until money is acquired to pay school fees

Disease epidemics, schools and clinics might be structurally damaged or closed because of restricted access

Natural

Firewood depleted, poor pastures, limited water supply, dry soils, increased erosion, gathering of wild food

More firewood available, improved pastures, moist soils, increased pests

Abundant pastures, areas of flooding and water logging, increased pests

Social

Kinship networks weakened as resources depleted (claims not met) and increased migration, exploitation of common property resources, increased conflict

Temporary exploitation of communal resources, minor claims not met

Kinship networks able to support poorest households, personal resources used so communal resources can improve, increased competition as many households try to sell goods

Kinship networks weaken as resources are depleted (claims not being met), increased conflict, safety nets destroyed, employment opportunities decrease, increased migration for work

Many of the above findings are typical of research findings on wider development issues elsewhere in KwaZulu-Natal.10

to climate stress is shaped by: 1. the impacts of HIV and AIDS; 2. education (schooling and adult education);

8 Kelkar (2005).

10 Misselhorn (in prep.).

9 Boko, et al (2007).

11 Jarvis et al (2006).

Farmers have become accustomed to changes in the region and have begun to

Enhancing capacity to adapt to flood risks through early warning in Mozambique

take action. They are increasing planting

“From Mozambique, Moisés Benessene of the National Institute for Meteorology presented lessons learnt in flood related disaster management. Mozambique is vulnerable to flooding due to its location as well as the vulnerability of much of the country’s population (60 per cent of whom live below the poverty line). In 2000, more than 700 fatalities occurred due to flooding that occurred as a result of Cyclone Eline; in 2007, floods of greater magnitude resulted in less than 20 deaths. This decline in fatalities is largely due to changes introduced after 2000, when it was recognised that Mozambique had limited capacity to respond to disasters. GTZ and INGC (National Institute for Disaster Management) undertook a disaster risk reduction project that sought to increase the coping capacity of local communities by, in part, introducing a peoplecentred early-warning system (SIDPABB) in the region of the Buzi river basin. This system enables communication of weather information to and from the local level, and ensures that communities are ready to use this information. The SIDPABB warning system alerted communities to danger in February of 2007. This warning was heard and taken seriously, and those at risk reacted appropriately. This system, accompanied with the downscaling of weather information and strengthening coordination between government and civil defence, reduced the loss of life in 2007.”

distances of crops; introducing shortmaturing varieties of maize and other crops; building stone bunds to reduce soil erosion; accessing newly available land beyond the village; and taking collective action (eg maize cooperatives and community horticulture projects).12 In devising strategies, farmers consider total rainfall changes and the timing and nature of rain, soil condition and moisture, and other factors such as irrigation availability or reliability.13 Social networks and other forms of social capital, including farmer extension services, have also played a key role in making information available that enhances adaptation. Making use of seasonal forecasting Farmers’ actions in response to seasonal forecast information are one kind of adaptation to seasonal climate variability.

Forecast information is extremely useful not only for farmers; it has, for example, been successfully used in Mozambique to reduce fatalities in the event of flooding (see text box one).15 The South African Weather Services is the institution formally responsible for forecasting and dissemination.

Once seasonal weather forecasts are

Weather forecast information is a critical

available for dissemination, their uptake

aspect of enhancing adaptation to climate

and use have been influenced by factors

change. Its questionable availability needs

such as the extent of dependence on

to be addressed and the most suitable

production for income; perceived credibility

dissemination methods for different user

of the forecast; access to credit; access to

groups in Umkhanyakude district need

land; and their method of dissemination.16

to be investigated.

Methods used to access weather information include internet, word-of-mouth

Technological and scientific innovations

Source: The Adaptation Workshop Report, Plenary Session One (IISD, 2007:8)

NB: Deutsche Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ). GmbH is an international cooperation enterprise for sustainable development with worldwide operations. It is a federally owned organisation that supports the German Government in achieving its development-policy objectives.

resource management need to: 1. identify through participatory research what farming strategies are being used to cope with climate variability; 2. examine the potential for introducing new farming methods (eg conservation agricultural techniques); 3. identify the role and value of agricultural extension services — are they weak or strong in the most vulnerable communities? Is there room for programming to support Department of Agriculture initiatives? 4. determine what seasonal forecasting information farmers need: • What information are they receiving (if any) and from what sources (for example agricultural extension)?

collected from roofs or ground surfaces

rainwater harvesting techniques in

(rainwater harvesting) as well as from

the Thukela Basin of KwaZulu-Natal.

seasonal streams (flood water harvesting).

droughts be disseminated in areas

Techniques have included concentrating,

The Thukela Basin research indicates

that are not receiving these?

storing and collecting surface run-off

these techniques hold much promise

in different mediums for domestic or

in reducing run-off and increasing

agricultural use. Run-off can be

agricultural potential.18

• How can warnings about floods and

Community needs and resources,

heads of households (this method is not

together with the specific climate risks

so efficient), and through radio and SMS

they face, might call for specific scientific

contact. An SMS notification system was

information or technology. The design of

piloted during 2004/2005 in a joint initiative

adaptation work therefore includes scoping

by the South African Sugar Association

for adaptation measures that require

and the KwaZulu-Natal Department of

further research and information, or even

disseminated — SMS notification,

Agriculture, which has been billed as a

technologies that are new or untested.

radio, extension services?

16 Archer (2003).

Bivane irrigation project in KwaZulu-Natal

13 Ibid.

17 South African Sugar Cane Journal (2005).

received weekly irrigation advice by SMS

15 IISD (2007).

agricultural risk reduction and natural

An example from KwaZulu-Natal is

success. Several sugar cane growers in the

Organisations working to support

through extension, regional officers and

12 Thomas et al (2005). 14 Ziervogel et al (2006b).

Recommendations

on their cell phones.

• Who needs the information in the community? • How should the information be

5. identify the potential for supporting Above: Strengthening community awareness and social capital institutions through community meetings and forums. Photo: Matthew Willman/OxfamAUS.

the development of rainwater harvesting techniques. 18 Kongo et al (2006)

Farmers have become accustomed to changes in the region and have begun to

Enhancing capacity to adapt to flood risks through early warning in Mozambique

take action. They are increasing planting

Once seasonal weather forecasts are

Weather forecast information is a critical

available for dissemination, their uptake

aspect of enhancing adaptation to climate

and use have been influenced by factors

change. Its questionable availability needs

such as the extent of dependence on

to be addressed and the most suitable

production for income; perceived credibility

dissemination methods for different user

of the forecast; access to credit; access to

groups in Umkhanyakude district need

land; and their method of dissemination.16

to be investigated.

Methods used to access weather information include internet, word-of-mouth

Technological and scientific innovations

Source: The Adaptation Workshop Report, Plenary Session One (IISD, 2007:8)

collected from roofs or ground surfaces

rainwater harvesting techniques in

(rainwater harvesting) as well as from

the Thukela Basin of KwaZulu-Natal.

seasonal streams (flood water harvesting).

droughts be disseminated in areas

Techniques have included concentrating,

The Thukela Basin research indicates

that are not receiving these?

storing and collecting surface run-off

these techniques hold much promise

in different mediums for domestic or

in reducing run-off and increasing

agricultural use. Run-off can be

agricultural potential.18

• How can warnings about floods and

Community needs and resources,

heads of households (this method is not

together with the specific climate risks

so efficient), and through radio and SMS

they face, might call for specific scientific

contact. An SMS notification system was

information or technology. The design of

piloted during 2004/2005 in a joint initiative

adaptation work therefore includes scoping

by the South African Sugar Association

for adaptation measures that require

and the KwaZulu-Natal Department of

further research and information, or even

disseminated — SMS notification,

Agriculture, which has been billed as a

technologies that are new or untested.

radio, extension services?

16 Archer (2003).

Bivane irrigation project in KwaZulu-Natal

13 Ibid.

17 South African Sugar Cane Journal (2005).

received weekly irrigation advice by SMS

15 IISD (2007).

agricultural risk reduction and natural

An example from KwaZulu-Natal is

success. Several sugar cane growers in the

Organisations working to support

through extension, regional officers and

12 Thomas et al (2005). 14 Ziervogel et al (2006b).

Recommendations

on their cell phones.

• Who needs the information in the community? • How should the information be

5. identify the potential for supporting Above: Strengthening community awareness and social capital institutions through community meetings and forums. Photo: Matthew Willman/OxfamAUS.

the development of rainwater harvesting techniques. 18 Kongo et al (2006)

5.3 Building resilience through livelihood diversification and flexibility Diversifying livelihoods into non-farm activities is a common adaptation practice

Recommendations Organisations working to diversify livelihoods need to: 1. identify and support successful

5.4 Understanding local needs and resource constraints to build capacity dimensions and livelihood dynamics, such

livelihood diversification strategies

as resource constraints and opportunities,

and other environmental stresses.19

in Umkhanyakude;

which vary between communities and

constrained. Obstacles include a lack of access to information and technology, or to employment opportunities which are highly dependent on education and other household resources. 20

2. gather and document community and household-specific knowledge to support potential of alternative diversification strategies; 3. identify the constraints and opportunities for people to access markets; 4. provide, or support the provision of, technical knowledge and skills; and 5. explore options for enhancing finance or credit access.

by a panel of food security practitioners in KwaZulu-Natal.

local needs, resource constraints and

TOP CRITICAL SUCCESS FACTORS

opportunities need to: 1

Participation of community members in needs analysis and project development — project beneficiaries identified project themselves and were thus 100% committed

Human capacity building is a critical part of any project development

Long-standing relationship with community

Beneficiaries have existing entrepreneurial interests and skills

Working with community initiatives/resources, and where there is passion among community members for change

1. continue to work closely in and with communities and with partners working in Umkhanyakude to understand the district’s

between households. Ongoing work at the local level is required to investigate what strategies might work best, identify

specific vulnerabilities and opportunities; 2. identify the human capacity strengths and weaknesses in communities such as

alternatives that may not apply elsewhere, and identify specific community needs such as information requirements.

Recommendations Organisations working to understand

Climate stressors have highly localised

for rural families in the face of climate Attempts to diversify are, however, often

Table two: Factors cited as critical to the success of interventions/projects reviewed

skills gaps that hinder income generation or employability. Schooling and education levels are low across the district and

Research in KwaZulu-Natal elicited

Table three: Interventions with high potential value for non-government bodies

inputs from a panel of 35 food security

initiatives need to be developed urgently to

to enhance food security, as rated by food security practitioners in KwaZulu-Natal.

support basic adult education and literacy;

practitioners experienced in addressing food insecurity in the province. Among the findings emphasised were those related to in-depth, participatory work in communities including: 1. the importance of community participation in developing solutions; 2. building skills and capacity in

Most valuable food security interventions or change in project or development approach if used by non-government bodies

Index of Value

Making better use of networking between non-government organisations, government, and community-based organisations to avoid duplication of efforts and work towards more integrated and effective development.

Developing people’s skills, capacity and knowledge, thus facilitating people to find their own solutions and opportunities and to manage these for long-term sustainable development.

to build on in communities. (See tables two and three.)

already seeking ways to generate income; 4. facilitate community and household access to information on: • agricultural and non-agricultural market opportunities; • employment opportunities; • skills and education to initiate

communities; and 3. seeking the energies and opportunities

3. support groups or individuals who are

Projects that address community needs holistically; taking into consideration short-term “crisis” needs, without neglecting the long-term livelihood, physical, spiritual and capacity building needs of communities.

True community participation in project development and implementation, so that ways of meeting needs are identified by the community rather than the agent of change.

income-generating activities. 5. help to identify constraints to water and sanitation access and reliability, and work with communities to identify solutions or lobby for better service delivery.

19 Reid & Vogel (2006).

20 Soini, (2005).

Building good relationships with beneficiaries through long-term involvement in the community — a minimum of three to five years.

Adopting an opportunity-focused approach by asking “what are people getting right? Where is their positive energy?”, thus building on strengths and resources in communities rather than focusing on fixing problems with pre-determined solutions.

5.3 Building resilience through livelihood diversification and flexibility Diversifying livelihoods into non-farm activities is a common adaptation practice

Recommendations Organisations working to diversify livelihoods need to: 1. identify and support successful

5.4 Understanding local needs and resource constraints to build capacity dimensions and livelihood dynamics, such

livelihood diversification strategies

as resource constraints and opportunities,

and other environmental stresses.19

in Umkhanyakude;

which vary between communities and

constrained. Obstacles include a lack of access to information and technology, or to employment opportunities which are highly dependent on education and other household resources. 20

by a panel of food security practitioners in KwaZulu-Natal.

local needs, resource constraints and

TOP CRITICAL SUCCESS FACTORS

opportunities need to: 1

Participation of community members in needs analysis and project development — project beneficiaries identified project themselves and were thus 100% committed

Human capacity building is a critical part of any project development

Long-standing relationship with community

Beneficiaries have existing entrepreneurial interests and skills

Working with community initiatives/resources, and where there is passion among community members for change

1. continue to work closely in and with communities and with partners working in Umkhanyakude to understand the district’s

between households. Ongoing work at the local level is required to investigate what strategies might work best, identify

specific vulnerabilities and opportunities; 2. identify the human capacity strengths and weaknesses in communities such as

alternatives that may not apply elsewhere, and identify specific community needs such as information requirements.

Recommendations Organisations working to understand

Climate stressors have highly localised

for rural families in the face of climate Attempts to diversify are, however, often

Table two: Factors cited as critical to the success of interventions/projects reviewed

skills gaps that hinder income generation or employability. Schooling and education levels are low across the district and

Research in KwaZulu-Natal elicited

Table three: Interventions with high potential value for non-government bodies

inputs from a panel of 35 food security

initiatives need to be developed urgently to

to enhance food security, as rated by food security practitioners in KwaZulu-Natal.

support basic adult education and literacy;

Most valuable food security interventions or change in project or development approach if used by non-government bodies

Index of Value

Developing people’s skills, capacity and knowledge, thus facilitating people to find their own solutions and opportunities and to manage these for long-term sustainable development.

to build on in communities. (See tables two and three.)

communities; and 3. seeking the energies and opportunities

3. support groups or individuals who are

True community participation in project development and implementation, so that ways of meeting needs are identified by the community rather than the agent of change.

income-generating activities. 5. help to identify constraints to water and sanitation access and reliability, and work with communities to identify solutions or lobby for better service delivery.

19 Reid & Vogel (2006).

20 Soini, (2005).

Building good relationships with beneficiaries through long-term involvement in the community — a minimum of three to five years.

5.5 Strengthening community social capital resources and institutions

versus elected), poor access to the ward councillor, and changes in cultural

Recommendations

norms. All of these breakdowns hinder

Organisations working to strengthen

the ability to access or exploit resources

social capital and increase the capacity

and opportunities within and beyond

of communities in Umkhanyakude to

The ability to be part of or engage with

the community (such as government

adapt to climate change need to:

institutions to achieve collective action

resources), including the ability to

and decision making describes one

act collectively and lobby for

aspect of an individual’s, household’s or

community interests.

Social capital resources enhance livelihoods

community’s social capital. Social capital includes trust, reciprocity and exchange, common rules, norms and sanctions, social

(such as stokvels or savings clubs, leadership groups, the role of

Focusing on social capital to support

traditional leaders versus ward

adaptation is not straightforward

councillors) that communities use to understand how they access,

National adaptation strategies The structure and nature of climate change institutions across scales is a significant issue in supporting climate change

collaboration. A wider consideration of

having other resource constraints, can lead to exclusion from accessing social

together with the participation of vulnerable

capital resources. The interactions between

that other stakeholders have about

is considered the most vital stage of

people in developing food security

household resources are highly complex

institutions in the communities

the Adaptation Policy Framework (APF)

initiatives, has been found to be critical to

and vary from household to household.

where they work. This will yield

process developed by the UNDP to guide

strengthening food security interventions

Human relationships, conflict and power

an understanding of household or

the process of adaptation policy-making,

and enhancing livelihoods.22 Strong,

dynamics, property rights, as well as the

community livelihood strategies and

with the overall aim of supporting wellbeing

community-sanctioned institutions ensure

wider political context, all affect access

the role of social capital; and

in the face of climate change. 26 (Refer to

people are able to lay claim to shared

to and use of social capital in the pursuit

resources and engage in collective action. 23

of food security. 25

Social capital shortfalls in KwaZulu-Natal

found a number of “breakdowns” in social capital associated with food insecurity. These included the increasing dissolution of nuclear families, disagreements between religious groups in the community, weak as well as ambiguous leadership (traditional

21 Adger (2003).

24 Misselhorn (in prep.)

22 Misselhorn (2006).

25 Maluccio et al (1999).

23 Meinzen-Dick & Di Gregorio (2004).

2. Adaptation policy and measures are assessed in a developmental context.

4. Both the strategy and the process by which adaptation is implemented are equally important.

structures to find opportunities for better

strengthening community social capital,

3. through the above, develop a better

1. Adaptation to short-term climate variability and extreme events is included as a basis for reducing vulnerability to longer-term climate change.

3. Adaptation occurs at different levels in society, including the local level.

institutions and groups. 21 In KwaZulu-Natal,

2. work with and elicit the knowledge

The APF was developed with the key aim of integrating adaptation into key policy and planning processes, and is structured around four major principles:

how programming can engage with these

Unfortunately, the fact of being poor, or

or fail to access, social capital;

The Adaptation Policy Framework (APF) Source: Kelkar (2005); UNDP (2004).

adaptation. It is important to consider

connectedness, and social networks and

In KwaZulu-Natal, case study research has

1. investigate the social resources

5.6 Engaging with planning and implementation processes across sectors and scales

the municipal, provincial and national policy planning and development process is critical in supporting adaptation. This

text box two.)

understanding of how women can

Successful adaptation to climate change

While the concept of social capital is

overcome the constraints they face

will depend on greater coordination

abstract, and focusing on it in programming

to accessing social capital. This often

between institutions at all levels, including

is not straightforward, its important role is

results from women’s disadvantaged

civil society. 27 Organisations working

too clearly documented for it to be ignored

property rights.

in South Africa to help vulnerable

in developing programming that will support

communities adapt to climate change

adaptation in Umkhanyakude.

have a particular role to play in sharing

Placing a strong emphasis on the broad engagement of stakeholders, the APF is comprised of the following five components: 1. Scoping and designing an adaptation project involves ensuring that a project is well integrated into the national policy-planning and development process. This is the most vital stage of the APF process. The purpose is to put in place an effective project plan so that adaptation strategies, policies and measures can be implemented. 2. Assessing current vulnerability involves responding to questions such as: Where does a society stand today with respect to vulnerability to climate risks? What factors determine a society’s current vulnerability? How successful are the efforts to adapt to current climate risks? 3. Assessing future climate risks focuses on the development of scenarios of future climate, vulnerability, and socio-economic scenarios. 4. Formulating an adaptation strategy in response to current vulnerability and future climate risks involves the identification and selection of a set of adaptation policy options and measures, and the formulation of these options into a cohesive, integrated strategy. 5. Continuing the adaptation process involves implementing, monitoring, evaluating, improving, and sustaining the initiatives launched by the adaptation project.

information, lessons learned, and adaptation strategies.

26 UNDP (2004).

27 Naess et al (2005).

5.5 Strengthening community social capital resources and institutions

versus elected), poor access to the ward councillor, and changes in cultural

Recommendations

norms. All of these breakdowns hinder

Organisations working to strengthen

the ability to access or exploit resources

social capital and increase the capacity

and opportunities within and beyond

of communities in Umkhanyakude to

The ability to be part of or engage with

the community (such as government

adapt to climate change need to:

institutions to achieve collective action

resources), including the ability to

and decision making describes one

act collectively and lobby for

aspect of an individual’s, household’s or

community interests.

Social capital resources enhance livelihoods

community’s social capital. Social capital includes trust, reciprocity and exchange, common rules, norms and sanctions, social

(such as stokvels or savings clubs, leadership groups, the role of

Focusing on social capital to support

traditional leaders versus ward

adaptation is not straightforward

councillors) that communities use to understand how they access,

National adaptation strategies The structure and nature of climate change institutions across scales is a significant issue in supporting climate change

collaboration. A wider consideration of

having other resource constraints, can lead to exclusion from accessing social

together with the participation of vulnerable

capital resources. The interactions between

that other stakeholders have about

is considered the most vital stage of

people in developing food security

household resources are highly complex

institutions in the communities

the Adaptation Policy Framework (APF)

initiatives, has been found to be critical to

and vary from household to household.

where they work. This will yield

process developed by the UNDP to guide

strengthening food security interventions

Human relationships, conflict and power

an understanding of household or

the process of adaptation policy-making,

and enhancing livelihoods.22 Strong,

dynamics, property rights, as well as the

community livelihood strategies and

with the overall aim of supporting wellbeing

community-sanctioned institutions ensure

wider political context, all affect access

the role of social capital; and

in the face of climate change. 26 (Refer to

people are able to lay claim to shared

to and use of social capital in the pursuit

resources and engage in collective action. 23

of food security. 25

Social capital shortfalls in KwaZulu-Natal

21 Adger (2003).

24 Misselhorn (in prep.)

22 Misselhorn (2006).

25 Maluccio et al (1999).

23 Meinzen-Dick & Di Gregorio (2004).

2. Adaptation policy and measures are assessed in a developmental context.

4. Both the strategy and the process by which adaptation is implemented are equally important.

structures to find opportunities for better

strengthening community social capital,

3. through the above, develop a better

1. Adaptation to short-term climate variability and extreme events is included as a basis for reducing vulnerability to longer-term climate change.

3. Adaptation occurs at different levels in society, including the local level.

institutions and groups. 21 In KwaZulu-Natal,

2. work with and elicit the knowledge

The APF was developed with the key aim of integrating adaptation into key policy and planning processes, and is structured around four major principles:

how programming can engage with these

Unfortunately, the fact of being poor, or

or fail to access, social capital;

The Adaptation Policy Framework (APF) Source: Kelkar (2005); UNDP (2004).

adaptation. It is important to consider

connectedness, and social networks and

In KwaZulu-Natal, case study research has

1. investigate the social resources

5.6 Engaging with planning and implementation processes across sectors and scales

the municipal, provincial and national policy planning and development process is critical in supporting adaptation. This

text box two.)

understanding of how women can

Successful adaptation to climate change

While the concept of social capital is

overcome the constraints they face

will depend on greater coordination

abstract, and focusing on it in programming

to accessing social capital. This often

between institutions at all levels, including

is not straightforward, its important role is

results from women’s disadvantaged

civil society. 27 Organisations working

too clearly documented for it to be ignored

property rights.

in South Africa to help vulnerable

in developing programming that will support

communities adapt to climate change

adaptation in Umkhanyakude.

have a particular role to play in sharing

information, lessons learned, and adaptation strategies.

26 UNDP (2004).

27 Naess et al (2005).

Disaster risk reduction Recommendations

An increase in disasters and hazards is predicted with climate change.

Organisations working to the programs

Hazards can be broadly grouped into

and policies across sectors and scales

natural hazards, technological hazards

related to climate change adaptation

(for example infrastructural failures),

need to:

and complex emergencies (for example

1. investigate creating a forum to share

drought coupled with HIV and AIDS and

lessons on adaptation in South Africa;

socio-economic stresses). Extensive experience shows that the negative impacts

2. identify ways to link community needs,

of these disasters are far greater among

lessons learned and knowledge gathered

communities that are already poor and

to decision makers at provincial and

vulnerable. The main adaptation measure

national levels; and

employed in planning for such hazards is

3. support close control, management

risk assessment and risk reduction. 28

and treatment of malaria:

Human health

• This is particularly important as malaria in South Africa is marginal, which

An increase in the incidence of malaria

means that the population is mostly not

in communities would place an increased

immune and therefore susceptible to

burden on social and human capacity

complications and death.

beyond that already being experienced

• The use of insecticide-treated nets/bed

due to HIV and AIDS. It would also place

nets have been found to be effective

a greater burden on already stretched

and should be encouraged.

health services. However, experts in

• Continued surveillance is needed

South Africa believe that unless there is Above: Alpheus Malatji working in his small garden to ensure he has sufficient, nutritious food. Photo: Gcina Ndwalane/OxfamAUS. Right: Ingwavuma Orphan Care – rainfall has become more erratic over the last few decades, occurring less frequently and for shorter periods, which puts further stress on rain-fed agriculture. Photo: Matthew Willman/OxfamAUS.

to monitor malaria, which includes

a general breakdown in health systems it is unlikely that climate change will result in an increase in malaria in Umkhanyakude.

Nevertheless, organisations working to

the sharing of information between researchers, control/healthcare staff and policy makers.

enhance adaptation to climate-related risks need to support the close monitoring of malaria incidence as well as control measures.30

28 O’Brien et al (2006). 29 GIS Coordinator and Principle Investigator, National Malaria Research Programme, South African Medical Research Council. 30 Craig et al (2000).

Disaster risk reduction Recommendations

An increase in disasters and hazards is predicted with climate change.

Organisations working to the programs

Hazards can be broadly grouped into

and policies across sectors and scales

natural hazards, technological hazards

related to climate change adaptation

(for example infrastructural failures),

need to:

and complex emergencies (for example

1. investigate creating a forum to share

drought coupled with HIV and AIDS and

lessons on adaptation in South Africa;

socio-economic stresses). Extensive experience shows that the negative impacts

2. identify ways to link community needs,

of these disasters are far greater among

lessons learned and knowledge gathered

communities that are already poor and

to decision makers at provincial and

vulnerable. The main adaptation measure

national levels; and

employed in planning for such hazards is

3. support close control, management

risk assessment and risk reduction. 28

and treatment of malaria:

Human health

• This is particularly important as malaria in South Africa is marginal, which

An increase in the incidence of malaria

means that the population is mostly not

in communities would place an increased

immune and therefore susceptible to

burden on social and human capacity

complications and death.

beyond that already being experienced

• The use of insecticide-treated nets/bed

due to HIV and AIDS. It would also place

nets have been found to be effective

a greater burden on already stretched

and should be encouraged.

health services. However, experts in

• Continued surveillance is needed

to monitor malaria, which includes

a general breakdown in health systems it is unlikely that climate change will result in an increase in malaria in Umkhanyakude.

Nevertheless, organisations working to

the sharing of information between researchers, control/healthcare staff and policy makers.

enhance adaptation to climate-related risks need to support the close monitoring of malaria incidence as well as control measures.30

28 O’Brien et al (2006). 29 GIS Coordinator and Principle Investigator, National Malaria Research Programme, South African Medical Research Council. 30 Craig et al (2000).

6. Considerations 6. Summary of considerations for supporting climate change adaptation in Umkhanyakude

The above discussions have highlighted

Table four provides a summary of key

some of the issues relating to future

adaptation and program support strategies

adaptation to climate change in

that have been employed across the region.

Umkhanyakude. Table four: Summary of adaptation support strategies evident in the literature that are relevant to resource-constrained communities in Umkhanyakude Themes

Strategy

Agricultural risk reduction and better natural resource management

Development of agricultural risk reduction and/or opportunity exploitation strategies: • short-maturing varieties of maize and other crops; • shadow crops — broad leaves offer shade to understory crops — as well as inclusion of trees or canopy where possible; • soil enrichment such as green manuring; • mulching; • staggering crop planting dates; • changes in crop spacing; • use of indigenous crop varieties; • control and removal of alien or invasive vegetation; • technical research has shown how crop–livestock integration, on-farm tree planting and aquaculture can add value to rain-fed farming systems.31 Promotion of improved rainfall analysis and seasonal weather forecasts (including drought forecasting and early warning). This is particularly important given current limits on forecast availability and slowness in delivery of information to resource-constrained farmers in South Africa, including Umkhanyakude.

Table four cont Themes

Strategy

Understanding local needs and resource constraints to build capacity and access to information and services

Working to understand household and community dynamics by: • determining user needs to support better access to information and services; • identifying community perceptions and knowledge of climate change issues to develop “home grown” adaptation options; • identifying opportunities within the community, working with existing strengths and energies;38 • supporting and/or lobbying for improvements to infrastructure and services, such as improved road access, healthcare; • researching and/or supporting the channels for micro-credit and non-exploitative money lending.39

Strengthening community social capital resources and institutions

Supporting, strengthening and engaging with institutions, social networks and other forms of social capital This might include: • promoting improved access to information through engaging with farmer extension services and understanding extension limitations and constraints; • supporting collective action (where appropriate) such as crop cooperatives and community horticulture projects.

Engaging with planning and implementation processes across sectors and scales

Developing and promoting participatory, evidence-based lessons for planning and policy processes • here is enormous diversity in climate risk, livelihood strategies and adaptation options between communities, and even between households. Understanding local dynamics is indispensable to effectively supporting adaptation. • The perception of agricultural risk plays an important role in actions, emphasising the importance of reciprocal learning and information sharing between farmers and other institutions.40 • Ongoing work with communities across Umkhanyakude, as well as with organisations working in communities, will help to yield an understanding of household or community livelihood strategies. It will also be necessary to understand how institutions within communities connect with external institutions (such as government extension, ward councillors).

Research and the development of locally-adapted technologies, including: • rainwater harvesting systems — research in the Thukela Basin, KwaZulu-Natal, indicates these hold much promise in reducing run-off and increasing agricultural potential; 32 • dam building; • water conservation practices such as mulching; • addition of drip-irrigation;33 • aquaculture which has been used among farmers with river access in Maangani in Limpopo.34

Paying heed to integrated catchment management, and integration of climate change knowledge into water planning at all scales, including better partnerships between the climate science and development planning actors, government, non-government organisations, and civil society. Adaptation strategies need to:41 • increase water supply, through, for example, modified catchment vegetation (such as removing alien vegetation), construction of reservoirs and dams, reduction of evaporation, development of groundwater resources and the use of inter-basin transfers; • reduce water demand/demand side management, eg recycle water; and • better manage supply and demand through, for example, using crop substitution, conjunctive use of ground and surface water, and application of climate forecasts in the agricultural sector.

Seeking out and researching the potential of technologies not yet documented in South Africa, for example: • small-scale hydroelectric production in Sri Lanka which offers a synergy between mitigation and adaptation;35 • rehabilitating freshwater wells and surveying for alternative freshwater sources in coastal communities affected by sea level rises in Tanzania.36

Supporting and/or lobbying for including climate change planning in integrated conservation strategies across South Africa to preserve biodiversity and conservation areas.42 This will have numerous impacts on adaptation capacities and livelihoods through direct and indirect mechanisms — for example employment in the conservation and tourism sectors. The preservation of biodiversity has been noted as one of the most important strategies in adapting to climate change.43

Supporting the management decisions of small-scale, asset-poor farmers by researching local livelihood strategies through participatory means.37 Building resilience through (where appropriate) livelihood diversification and flexibility

Supporting increased diversity and flexibility in livelihood strategies, including non-farm income generation activities (where appropriate) within and beyond the natural resource sector. This means the inclusion of a variety of activities in their livelihood portfolios, as well as possible crop diversification. This might, for example, ensure that they have resources to draw on when shocks affect one part of their livelihood portfolio. Frequently, diversification involves migration of one or more family members which may mean remittance income on the one hand, but bring increased family risks on the other.

Supporting healthcare, health systems, and information systems to control, manage and monitor increased health risks, particularly malaria. For malaria control, the use of insecticide-treated nets/bed nets should be encouraged.

31 Mortimore & Manvell (2006).

35 Blanco (2006).

39 Mortimore & Manvell (2006).

32 Kongo & Jewitt (2006).

36 IISD (2007).

33 Matondo et al (2005).

37 Mortimore & Manvell (2006).

40 Grothmann & Patt (2005); Reid & Vogel (2006); Koch et al (2007).

34 Vincent (2007).

38 Misselhorn (2006).

41 Mukheibir & Sparks (2003).

42 (Hannah et al, 2002; Fairbanks & Benn, 2000; Cowling et al, 2002). 43 Schulze (2003).

6. Considerations 6. Summary of considerations for supporting climate change adaptation in Umkhanyakude

The above discussions have highlighted

Table four provides a summary of key

some of the issues relating to future

adaptation and program support strategies

adaptation to climate change in

that have been employed across the region.

Umkhanyakude. Table four: Summary of adaptation support strategies evident in the literature that are relevant to resource-constrained communities in Umkhanyakude Themes

Strategy

Agricultural risk reduction and better natural resource management

Table four cont Themes

Strategy

Understanding local needs and resource constraints to build capacity and access to information and services

Strengthening community social capital resources and institutions

Engaging with planning and implementation processes across sectors and scales

31 Mortimore & Manvell (2006).

35 Blanco (2006).

39 Mortimore & Manvell (2006).

32 Kongo & Jewitt (2006).

36 IISD (2007).

33 Matondo et al (2005).

37 Mortimore & Manvell (2006).

40 Grothmann & Patt (2005); Reid & Vogel (2006); Koch et al (2007).

34 Vincent (2007).

38 Misselhorn (2006).

41 Mukheibir & Sparks (2003).

42 (Hannah et al, 2002; Fairbanks & Benn, 2000; Cowling et al, 2002). 43 Schulze (2003).

7. Conclusion 7. Conclusion Supporting adaptation in Umkhanyakude is not a simple â&#x20AC;&#x153;one size fits allâ&#x20AC;? process. Supporting adaptation is about continuing to address the multiple development shortfalls of the district that prevent people from being able to adapt, and make them more vulnerable, to climate change. This is fundamentally what building adaptive capacity is about.

This report has presented a range of adaptation and program support strategies that have been used by communities in KwaZulu-Natal and elsewhere in South Africa and Africa. An approach is required that understands some of the options and likely challenges from broader experience, but that is grounded in local knowledge and participatory work. A critical component is to facilitate community access to relevant and timely information and services that

Successful adaptation is not easy to identify

will increase peopleâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s knowledge and

or assess, particularly given that measures

choices, and convey lessons learned

that appear effective in the short term might

in Umkhanyakude for better policy

carry long-term negative consequences

development and institutional support.

that are not immediately evident.44 Adaptation responses need to be flexible enough to cope with uncertainty, and with meeting different needs that might rapidly change with time.

44 Adger et al (2005).

Right: Ensuring that there is a sustainable avenue for food production and access to food for the community can help to combat some vulnerabilities to climate change that are experienced in the region. Photo: Matthew Willman/OxfamAUS.

Successful adaptation is not easy to identify

will increase peopleâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s knowledge and

or assess, particularly given that measures

choices, and convey lessons learned

that appear effective in the short term might

in Umkhanyakude for better policy

carry long-term negative consequences

development and institutional support.

that are not immediately evident.44 Adaptation responses need to be flexible enough to cope with uncertainty, and with meeting different needs that might rapidly change with time.

44 Adger et al (2005).

8. Glossary 8. Glossary of terms Adaptation: Adaptation to climate change describes the adjustment people make to the things they do, the way they do them, or to the organisational or physical elements of their environment in response to, or in anticipation of, a changing climate. Adaptation is generally understood to describe the strategies that are sustainable in the long term. Biodiversity: Describes the “natural variety” of an environment, including the habitat variety, the number of species, the interactions between species, and the genetic variation among individuals within a species. Climate change: In the context of this report, this refers to changes in variability and/or changes in the average state of climatic conditions over time, caused by human activities. Climate change mitigation: Refers to attempts to reduce and control greenhouse gas emissions so that the impacts of human activities on climate are reduced. Climate variability: In the context of this report, this refers to “natural” changes in climate conditions over time, as opposed to those that are caused by human activities. This variability may occur from year to year or in cycles over decades.

9. References Coping strategies: A distinction is often made between coping and adaptation strategies. Coping strategies are considered to be involuntary or forced response to a shock, and may also frequently involve a livelihood cost. For example, the sale of assets is a commonly used coping strategy in times of severe stress. But in Africa such strategies have been found to be slowly undermining the asset bases of vulnerable households and thus to be further compromising people’s long-term resilience and food security. Food security: The physical or economic access of all people at all times to sufficient, safe and nutritious food to meet their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life. Human capital: The capability of individuals residing in their knowledge, health and skills. Hydrological cycle: The continuous movement, as well as conservation, of water throughout the earth’s system, including rainfall, run-off, condensation, evaporation from water surfaces, plant transpiration, and infiltration into the soil. Institutions: Organisations founded formally or informally for a particular body of work, as well as social rules, customs, precedents or constant practices that characterise society. Livelihood diversification: This refers to the process of people increasing their variety of livelihood activities. For example rural households may, in addition to farming, make handcrafts to sell for income.

Livelihood strategies: The way people use the resources available to them in pursuit of livelihood goals. These may include agricultural intensification or diversification, livelihood diversification, or migration. Malnutrition: Defined as deficiencies and imbalances in either the macro- or micro- nutrient dietary content, which may lead to abnormalities and disease. Natural capital: All goods and services offered by the natural environment. Physical capital: Human-made material resources. Social capital: Features of social organisation such as networks, norms and trust; the sum of resources, actual and virtual, that accrue to an individual or a group by virtue of possessing a durable network; and/or less institutionalised relationships of mutual acquaintance and recognition. Vulnerability: Reflects the extent to which a system (or community) reacts adversely to a crisis or hazardous event. Vulnerability denotes the likelihood of exposure and sensitivity to livelihood shocks, thus having an external component (the shocks or stresses to which a household or community are subjected), and an internal component (the negative response of a system or inadequate capacity to cope).

9. References Adger, N. (2003) Social Capital, Collective Action, and Adaptation to Climate Change. Economic Geography, 79, 387–404. Archer, E. R. M. (2003) Identifying Underserved End-User Groups in the Provision of Climate Information. Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society, 84, 1525–1532. Blanco, A. V. R. (2006) Local initiatives and adaptation to climate change. Disasters, 30, 140–147. Boko, M., Niang, I., Nyong, A., Vogel, C., Githeko, A., Medany, M., Osman-Elasha, B., Tabo, R. & Yanda, P. (2007) Africa. In Parry, M. L., Canziani, O. F., Palutikof, J. P., van der Linden, P. J. & Hanson, C. E. (Eds.) Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability to Climate Change. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press. Cowling, R. M., Pressey, R. L., Rouget, M. & A.T., L. (2002) A conservation plan for a global biodiversity hotspot — the Cape Floristic Region, South Africa. Biological Conservation, 112, 191–216. Craig, M. H. & Sharp, B. L. (2000) Vulnerability and Adaptation Assessment. Health Section. Part One: Malaria. The South African Country Studies Report. National Malaria Research Programme, Medical Research Council. Fairbanks, D. H. K. & Benn, G. A. (2000) Identifying regional landscapes for conservation planning: a case study from KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. Landscape and Urban Planning 50, 237–257. Grothmann, T. & Patt, A. (2005) Adaptive capacity and human cognition: The process of individual adaptation to climate change. Global Environmental Change Part A, 15, 199–213.

Hannah, L., Midgley, G. F. & Millar, D. (2002) Climate change-integrated conservation strategies. Global Ecology & Biogeography, 11, 485. IISD (2007) Early Lessons from Implementation of Climate Change Adaptation Projects in South-Eastern Africa. Regional Workshop in Maputo, Mozambique, April 24 and 25, 2007, International Institute for Sustainable Development. Jarvis, A., Fisher, M., P., J., Cook, S. & Guarino, L. (2006) Agriculture, Risk and Climate Change. http://www.cgiar.org/ pdf/2006_Jarvis%20and%20othersAg_Risk_ClimateChange_2006_FINAL. pdf, Consultative Group in International Agricultural Research. Kelkar, U. (2005) The palimpsest of adaptation research: an overview of concepts and frameworks. Discussion paper under the World Bank project Addressing vulnerability to climate variability and change through assessment of adaptation issues and options, on the occasion of the 11th Conference of Parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, 28 November – 9 December 2005, Montreal, Canada. Centre for Global Environment Research, T E R I. Kongo, V. M. & Jewitt, G. P. W. (2006) Preliminary investigation of catchment hydrology in response to agricultural water use innovations: A case study of the Potshini catchment, South Africa. Physics & Chemistry of the Earth – Parts A/B/C, 31, 976–987. Maluccio, J., Haddad, L. & May, J. (1999) Social Capital and Income Generation in South Africa, 1993-1997. International Food Policy Research Institute FCND Discussion Paper, 48.

Matondo, J. I., Peter, G. & Msibi, K. M. (2005) Managing water under climate change for peace and prosperity in Swaziland. Physics & Chemistry of the Earth – Parts A/B/C, 30, 943–949. Meinzen-Dick, R. & Di Gregorio, M. (2004) Collective Action and Property Rights for Sustainable Development. 2020 Focus 11. International Food Policy Research Institute. Misselhorn, A. A. (2006) Food Insecurity in Southern Africa: Causes and emerging response options from evidence at regional, provincial and local scales: Unpublished Doctoral Thesis. University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg. Misselhorn, A. A. (in prep.) Is a Focus on Social Capital Useful in Considering Food Security Interventions? Insights from KwaZulu-Natal. In preparation for resubmission to Development Southern Africa. Mortimore, M. & Manvell, A. (2006) Climate change: enhancing adaptive capacity. NRSP Brief. Based on NRSP Project R8496 Synthesis of RNRRS knowledge on adaptive capacity to climate change. Natural Resources Systems Programme, Department for International Development. Mukheibir, P. & Sparks, D. (2003) Water resource management and climate change in South Africa: Visions, driving factors and sustainable development indicators: Report for Phase I of the Sustainable Development and Climate Change project. Energy and Development Research Centre, University of Cape Town. Naess, L. O., Bang, G., Eriksen, S. & Vevatne, J. (2005) Institutional adaptation to climate change: Flood responses at the municipal level in Norway. Global Environmental Change Part A, 15, 125–138. O’Brien, G., O’Keefe, P., Rose, J. & Wisner, B. (2006) Climate change and disaster management. Disasters, 30, 64 80. 25

9. References

Contact details

Reid, P. & Vogel, C. (2006) Living and responding to multiple stressors in South Africa ––Glimpses from KwaZulu-Natal. Global Environmental Change, 16, 195–206. Schipper, E. L. F. (2007) Climate Change Adaptation and Development: Exploring the Linkages. Tyndall Centre Working Paper No.107. Norwich, Tyndall Centre for Climate Change Research. Schulze, R. E. (2005) Chapter TwentySeven: Adapting to Climate Change in the Water Resources Sector in South Africa. In Schulze, R. E. (Ed.) Climate Change and Water Resources in Southern Africa: Studies on Scenarios, Impacts, Vulnerabilities and Adaptation. Pretoria, Water Research Commission. Soini, E. (2005) Land use change patterns and livelihood dynamics on the slopes of Mt. Kilimanjaro, Tanzania. Agricultural Systems, 85, 306–323. Sterrett, C. (2007) Where has all the water gone? Understanding climate change from a community perspective Northern KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. Oxfam Australia. UNDP (2004) Adaptation Policy Frameworks for Climate Change: Developing Strategies, Policies and Measures, Cambridge University Press. Vincent, K. (2007) Gendered vulnerability to climate change in Limpopo Province, South Africa. Unpublished Doctoral Thesis. Tyndall Centre for Climate Change Research School of Environmental Sciences. University of East Anglia. Ziervogel, G., Taylor, A., Thomalla, F., Takama, T. & Quinn, C. (2006) Adapting to climate, water and health stresses: insights from Sekhukhune, South Africa. For the Poverty and Vulnerability Programme, Stockholm Environment Institute.

ZIMBABWE LIMPOPO BOTSWANA

NORTH WEST

Johannesburg

Klerksdorp

Upington

MPUMALANGA

GAUTENG

FREE STATE

Kimberley Bloemfontein

NORTHERN CAPE

Hoedspruit

Nelspruit

Pretoria

Mafikeng

NAMIBIA

Polokwane

LESOTHO

SWAZILAND

KWAZULU Hluhluwe NATAL Pietermaritzburg Durban

Umtata

ATLANTIC OCEAN

INDIAN OCEAN

EASTERN CAPE East London

WESTERN CAPE Cape Town Mossel Bay

Port Elizabeth

Right: Gugu Khumalo holds some of the fruits of her labour. Women want to learn how to adapt to the changes in climate in the longer term. Now they are simply trying to deal with the prolonged drought as best they can, doing what they have always done but on a reduced scale. They make their gardens smaller, grow different types of crops and walk further to collect water — shortterm coping mechanisms, not long-term solutions. Photo: Matthew Willman/OxfamAUS. Back cover: Sibambisene – working on food security for the local community. Photo: Matthew Willman/Oxfam.

Oxfam Australia 132 Leicester Street, Carlton, Victoria, Australia 3053 Telephone +61 3 9289 9444 www.oxfam.org.au ABN 18 055 208 636 For more information on Oxfam Australia’s work in South Africa visit Oxfam KIC at http://hivaids.oxfamkic.org and click on the “Communities: Oxfam in South Africa” link.

9. References

Contact details

ZIMBABWE LIMPOPO BOTSWANA

NORTH WEST

Johannesburg

Klerksdorp

Upington

MPUMALANGA

GAUTENG

FREE STATE

Kimberley Bloemfontein

NORTHERN CAPE

Hoedspruit

Nelspruit

Pretoria

Mafikeng

NAMIBIA

Polokwane

LESOTHO

SWAZILAND

KWAZULU Hluhluwe NATAL Pietermaritzburg Durban

Umtata

ATLANTIC OCEAN

INDIAN OCEAN

EASTERN CAPE East London

WESTERN CAPE Cape Town Mossel Bay

Port Elizabeth

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