DEDICATED TO MY LOVED ONES.
CONTEMPORARY ARCHITECTURE & FURNITURE A BOOK BY PAM TAMAYO
TA B L E
of
CONTENTS
2
industrial revolution
58
california school
6
english victorian
62
art deco
68
1930’s
76
postwar scandinavia
80
postwar usa
84
postwar italy
88
postwar worldwide
10
english arts
14
american victorian
18
beaux arts
22
chicago school
26
american arts
30
prairie school
94
late modern architecture
34
frank lloyd wright
100
late modern furniture
38
art nouveau
(belgium,
104
post modern
42
art nouveau
(scotland,
104
memphis style
46
protest movements
104
deconstructive movement
50
bauhaus movement
104
bibliography
54
international style
&
&
crafts and aesthetic movement
gilded age
&
crafts
france and spain) finland and america)
EIFFEL TOWER, PARIS, FRANCE
1889
INDUSTRIAL RESOLUTION
IRON BRIDGE, UK,1779
I R O N B R I D G E The world’s first Iron Bridge was cast in Coalbrook-
the bridge was the developing industries that were
ential in the designs and earliest plans of the bridge.
dale by the local ironmaster Abraham Darby and
beginning to emerge. Coalbrookdale is known as
Pritchard first approached John Wilkinson about his
erected across the River Severn in 1779. An impor-
the birthplace of the Industrial Revolution. Thomas
designs for the development of the bridge.
tant aspect that gave rise to great incentive to build
Farnolls Pritchard was the architect who was influ-
84
I NDU ST R IA L R E VOLUTION
I N D U S T R IA L R EV O L U T IO N
95
CHAIR NO. 14
C H A I R 1 4 The potential of technology in this period was seen
furniture in the middle of the nineteenth century.
chairs. It was popular in Europe and America and it
by a few forward-thinking designers, one of the most
After much experimenting, Thonet perfected a steam
was accepted by everyone. (Stimpson 10)
important being the Austrian Michael Thonet. He
process still used today where he would bend wood.
produced what is considered to be the first modern
Chair No. 14 (1855) was one of Thonet’s famous
6
I NDU ST R IA L R E VOLUTION
T R I P O L I N A C H A I R The popular Tripolina Chair was named and manufactured in Italy during the 1930s, but the inventor, Joseph Beverly Fenby, who designed it around 1855, patented it in 1877. In the United States it was produced by the Gold Medal Company from the late nineteenth century, and both Thomas Edison and Theodore Roosevelt were known to have used it. It is made of wood and a canvas sling and folds compactly. This chair was the prototype of other chairs, like the Butterfly Chair designed by Hardoy, Bonet, and Kurchan. (Stimpson 15)
TRIPOLINA CHAIR
I N D U S T R IA L R EV O L U T IO N
7
F O R T U N Y L A M P The Fortuny Lamp (1907) was designed by Mariano Fortuny who was born in 1871 and was well known, not only for designing this lamp but also for being a fashion designer in the early 1900s. He became very interested in the theater and was a lighting engineer. One of the things that he brought to the theater was a special type of dome lamp that was basically designed to re-create the look of indoor lighting on the stage, now called the Fortuny Lamp. This lamp was patented in 1903. (“Fortuny Lamp,� par. 5)
Fortuny Lamp, 1907. Designed by Mariano Fortuny ( y Madrazo)
FORTUNY LAMP DETAILS
I N D U S T R IA L R EV O L U T IO N
9
NEW PALACE OF WESTMINSTER, LONDON (1836-1860)
1830
ENGLISHVICTORIAN 1830- 1901
N E W P A L A C E W E S T M I N S T E R Gothic Revival was the most important architectural style for this period; New Palace of Westminster in London is an excellent example of the Gothic Revival style. The fire of 1834, which destroyed much but not all of the old palace of Westminster, provided an opportunity to put into place some of the long existing hopes and plans for a purpose-built Parliament. After a controversial competition, and amid seemingly interminable wrangling, the project was entrusted to the architect Charles Barry (1795-1860), who collaborated with the artist and designer Augustus Welby Northmore Pugin (1812-52). The interiors of this Palace are Pugin’s most notable work.
New Palace of Westminster (House of Parliament) London, 1836-68 Sir Charles Barry, architect; AWN Pugin, assistant
BRITISH MUSEUM, LONDON, 1852)
B R I T I S H M U S E U M Classical Revival was the second most important ar-
today’s building was designed by the architect Sir
it included galleries for classical sculpture and Assyr-
chitectural style in this time period. Classical Revival
Robert Smirke (1780–1867) in 1823. It was a quad-
ian antiquities as well as residences for staff.
was mainly used for museums and monuments; an
rangle with four wings: the north, east, south and
example of this is the British Museum. The core of
west wings. The building was completed in 1852 and
E NG L IS H EN V IC GL TO ISRHIAVNIC T O R IA N 13 17
BALLOON CHAIR
B A L L O O N C H A I R The combinations of many historical styles was a
of the most common items of antique English furniture
part of the back support, rather uncomfortable for
characteristic of the English Victorian period, Rococo
found in modern times. Named for its distinctive back
a sitter of today, was designed to accommodate the
Revival was among the styles that were combined
support, balloon-backs are today thought of as being
voluminous skirts of a Victorian lady.
during this time period. The balloon-back chair is one
the standard Victorian dining chair. The narrow lower
14
ENGLISH VICTORIAN
R E N A I S S A N C E R E V I V A L The English Victorian’s furniture emphasized on rich and elaborate carving, plain surfaces were disliked. Some regularly used colors were reds, greens, and pinks. A few characteristics of the period’s furniture are lack of craftsmanship (due to machine-made), the proportions were massive and heavy, they mainly used woods like black walnut, mahogany, oak, rosewood and ebony. Like said before, this period combined different historical styles, the picture found to the right is an example of Renaissance Revival style, another style used among others during the English Victorian period.
RENAISSANCE REVIVAL
EN G L IS H V IC T O R IA N
15
RANDOLPH CALDECOTT, CHILDREN’S BOOK ILLUSTRATOR (1846-86)
1859
ENGLISH ARTS & CRAFTS AND AESTHETIC MOVEMENT 1859-1910
AND
1870-1900
Red House. Kent, 1859
A R T S
&
C R A F T S
In 1859 Webb started to work independently. His
the construction and within. The designing process
ensuing mass-production of cheap decorative art
first job was to build a house for his friend William
followed the ideas of Morris and Webb about
and the felt loss in taste.
Morris. The Red House is seen as the first building
domestic architecture and decoration which were
incorporating the Arts and Crafts style completely, in
strongly influenced by the Industrial Revolution, the
22 18
ARTS AESTHETIC E NENGLISH GLIS H AR TS &&CRAFTS C R A F TAND S AN D A EST H MOVEMENT ET I C M O V E M E N T
Strawberry Thief Pattern
The Strawberry Thief Pattern is one of
first pattern specifically for fabric print-
Morris best-known designs. He based
ing. As in so many other areas that in-
the pattern and name on the thrushes
terested him, Morris chose to work with
which frequently stole the strawberries
the ancient technique of hand wood-
in the kitchen garden of his countryside
block printing in preference to the roller
home. Morris was producing repeating
printing which had almost completely
patterns for wallpaper as early as 1862,
replaced it for commercial uses.
and some six years later he designed his
E NG LI S H AR T S & CR AF T S ENGLI ANDSHARTS A ES T HETAND ICAESTHETI MOV EM EN T 19 &CRAFTS CMOVEMENT 23
Morris Chair, 1865. Designed by Philip Webb
20
E N GLIS H AR TS & C R A F T S A N D A EST H ET I C M O V E M E N T
Side Chair, 1885. Designed by Edward Godwin
A E S T H E T I C M O V E M E N T The Morris chair designed by Philip Webb was simple, honest in construction and it is recognized as a symbol of the Arts and Crafts Movement. The various Morris chairs were probably designed by Philip Webb, based on an idea he got from a carpenter in Sussex. The chair has an adjustable solid wood frame and loose cushions for seat and back. It was widely copied, with many variations. (Stimpson 18)
This ebonized oak side chair, with legs like chair legs shown on ancient Greek vases, was typical of Godwin’s continued concern with simplicity, lightness, and superb proportions. By 1970, Godwin was a leading member of the Aesthetic Movement in England, which promoted lighter, less ornamental design, and yet he was wellgrounded in the structural details of medieval furniture. Influenced by Charles Eastlake, Godwin designed houses, carpets, textiles, wallpapers, and furniture. His designs were highly adaptable for factory production and were widely imitated. (Stimpson 19)
E NG LI S H AR T S & CR AF T S AND A ES T HET IC M O V EM EN T
21
ARMOUR-STINER (CARMER OCTAGON) HOUSE, IRVINGTON, NY, 1860
1830
AMERICANVICTORIAN 1830-1901
28
ENGLISH ARTS & CRAFTS AND AESTHETIC MOVEMENT
I T A L I A N A T E ( B R A C K E T E D ) A great example of an Italianate house is the Magnolia Manor (1872) located in Clairo Illinois. It is a 14 room red brick house which features double walls intended to keep out the city’s famous dampness with their ten inch airspaces. In this architecture style we can find low-pitched or low hipped overhanging roof supported with large decorative brackets. Also, a very strong characteristics of this style is a series of asymmetrical squares and vertical forms with attached towers, or cupolas.
Magnolia Manor. Cairo IL, 1872
AMER IC A N V IC T O R IA N
25
Q U E E N A N N E Pink Lady is a classic Queen Anne residence designed by the prestigious Newsom Brothers of San Francisco. It was completed in 1889 for William Carson, a pioneer lumber baron of northern California, who had it built as a wedding gift for his son Milton Carson. The most distinctive feature in this style is a circular or square tower extending from ground level to all floors, topped with a cone-shaped roof. This style is also known to be asymmetrical and have a multitude of decorative wood and plaster details, including: gingerbread, festoons, spindles, brackets, vergeboards, belt courses and patterned shingles.
30
ENGLISH ARTS & CRAFTS AND AESTHETIC MOVEMENT
Pink Lady. Eureka ca, 1889. Samuel and Joseph Newsom
Belter Chair
B E L T E R
Eastlake style chair
&
E A S L A K E
Belter was the leading cabinetmaker of the
In 1872 Charles Eastlake published Hints on
American Victorian period. Furniture pieces
Household Taste in the US. He however did
were constructed of three to eighteen layers
not design any furniture, but such a demand
of highly polished laminated rosewood from
developed from his book that manufactur-
Brazil. The backs, knees, and seat rails of the
ers designed an “Eastlake style� of furniture.
chairs were elaborately and deeply carved
Eastlake pieces were angular and made of oak
and the backs were pierced. The furniture
or black walnut. They had little ornamenta-
had cabriole legs with whorl feet.
tion except simple incising.
A M ER IC A N V IC T O R IA N
27
BILTMORE HOUSE, ASHEVILLE NC, 1895. RICHARD HUNT
1881
BEAUX ARTS & GILDED AGE 1881-1945
& 1865-1901
Trinity Church, Boston MA, 1877. H.H. Richardson
Interior of Trinity Church
“The Resurrection” (1883) John La Farge
T R I N I T Y C H U R C H H.H. Richardson’s most acclaimed early work is
church in the United States and the only build-
window glass. Some of his contributions to stained
Trinity Church. The building’s plan is a modified
ing in Boston that has been honored as one of
glass technique included plating and the layering
Greek cross with four arms extending outwards
the “Ten Most Significant Buildings in the United
of glass pieces directly on top of each other to
from the central tower. The style of Trinity Church
States”. The Resurrection, a stained glass window
achieve detailed depth and the development and
is one that Richardson popularized, known as Rich-
located in the Trinity Church, was designed and
use of opalescent glass. The results established La
ardsonian Romanesque. Trinity Church is the only
executed by John La Farge. La Farge revolutionized
Farge’s reputation.
30
beaux arts & gilded age
C A T H E D R A C H A I R Many great architects during the past century have created furniture to complement their buildings. Henry Hobson Richardson, one of the first architects to do so, was inspired in his work by the massive Gothic and Romanesque cathedrals of Europe. The Cathedra chair, designed for a church interior and the first piece of many that Richardson designed for his own buildings, is an excellent example of his Gothic/ Romanesque style. Reacting against the look of machine=made pieces, he created handcrafted furniture in full harmony with the ideals of the Arts and Crafts Movement in England. (Stimpson 24)
Cathedra Chair, 1869. H.H. Richardson
beaux arts & gilded age 31
36
beaux arts & gilded age
Palace of Fine Arts. San Francisco CA, 1915. Bernard Maybeck
P A L A C E O F F I N E A R T S The Palace of Fine Arts was originally built for the Panama-Pacific International Exhibition which was held in San Francisco in the year of 1915. The purpose of the exhibition was partly to celebrate the completion of the Panama Canal as well as the city’s recovery from the 1906 earthquake and fires. The Palace was designed by a well-known local architect, Bernard who studied architecture at the Paris Ecole des Beaux Arts. This structure was widely considered the most beautiful structure and the star attraction of the exhibition and was allowed to remain, however the maintenance cost were too high which caused it to close and then decay. It was renovated thanks to the donations of mainly Walter Johnson, who is now called “the patron who rebuilt the Palace of Fine Arts”.
The Roycrofter Cabinet, 1910. Elbert Hubbard
beaux arts & gilded age
33
INTERIOR OF THE ROOKERY, CHICAGO IL. BURNHAM AND ROOT (RESTORED BY FRANK LLOYD WRIGHT
1870
CHICAGO SCHOOL 1870 s-1890s
T H E R O O K E R Y In 1871, the Great Fire ravaged Chicago. While devastating, it launched a building boom that pushed architectural experimentation and advancement that put Chicago at the forefront of progress. The Rookery was one of the resulting masterpieces of commercial architecture. Daniel Hudson Burnham and John Wellborn Root both were commissioned to work on this project. In 1905 Frank Lloyd Wright was commissioned to remodel the building, the light court’s elaborate ironwork and ornament had gone out of fashion. To strike a balance, Wright removed much of the iron and terra cotta detailing on the central staircase, balconies, and walls, replacing it with strong geometric patterns based on the railings of Root’s oriel stairs.
40
chicago school
The Rookery, Chicago IL, 1887-88. Burnham and Root
Home Insurance Company Building, Chicago IL, 1883-85 (demolished 1931) William LeBaron Jenny
H O M E
I N S U R A N C E
Marshal Field Wholesale Store, Chicago, 1885-87 (demolished 1930) H.H. Richardson
&
M A R S H A L
F I E L D
W H O L E S A L E
The Home Insurance Building, built in 1885 and
masonry construction. The Home Insurance Build-
giving the appearance of an Italian Renaissance
located in Chicago, Illinois, went down in history
ing stood until 1931, when it was demolished
palazzo. Marshall closed the building in 1930 after
as the world’s first modern skyscraper. It originally
to make way for another skyscraper, the Field
the opening of the Merchandise Mart, then the
had 10 stories and stretched 138 feet in the air.
Building.(“Home,” par. 3) The Marshall Field
world’s largest building, which consolidated all
Designed by engineer William LeBaron Jenney, the
Wholesale Store was designed by and completed
company wholesale business under a single roof.
building was supported by a revolutionary steel
after H.H. Richardson’s death. The building is sup-
The wholesale store was torn down shortly there-
frame, which allowed for much greater height and
ported by an interior framing of wood and iron,
after. (“Marshall,” par.2)
stability without the greater weight of traditional
and is clad in a rusticated exterior of stonework chicago school
37
42
chicago school
G L E S S N E R H O U S E John and Frances Glessner commissioned Henry Hobson Richardson to design for them a house that would reflect their ideas about home, family and society. Richardson responded to this request with a structure that was a brilliant and, for a time, revolutionary expression of the urban townhouse mansion. The house is also quintessentially Richardsonian: monumental, fortress-like, designed with the site in mind, featuring massive rusticated stone blocks, round arches and design elements derived from French and Spanish Romanesque architecture. The house’s fortified appearance is boosted by a foundation constructed of Illinois dolomite, with walls of Braggville pink granite. (“Glessner,” par. 2)
Glessner House, servant’s entrance. Chicago, 1885-87
chicago school
39
GREENE & GREENE INTERIOR
1900
AMERICAN ARTS & CRAFTS 1900-1929
Gamble House, Pasadena CA, 1908. Greene & Greene
G A M B L E H O U S E The essential nature of architecture by Greene &
tions of classical European buildings, the influence
stain glass windows, details carved and formed with
Greene begins with intense attention to detail and
for many mansions at the time. The brothers were
wood, joinery and joint pieces traditional to archi-
craftsmanship, as their bungalows mark the height
inspired by the concept of total design, or gesa-
tecture in Japan. The strong ties to the outdoors are
of the American Arts and Crafts style. The Gamble
mtkunstwerk. The developed style of Greene and
brought to the interior as well, through flowers and
House represented an American-style which sat
Greene is very distinguishable in the design world,
trees which are engraved in the windows, doors and
amidst an abundance of imitations and interpreta-
as their Japanese inspirations are incorporated into
lanterns. (“Gamble,� par. 5)
42
AM E R IC A N A RTS & CRAFTS
AME R I C A N A R T S & C R A F T S
43
R O Y C R O F T E R C A B I N E T S Elbert Hubbard was a writer who retired with a fortune from his Larkin Soap Company to found the Roycrofters, a group of craftsmen, in East Aurora, New York. They produced metalwork, leatherwork, and heavy oak furniture-often with brass studs and leather seats-somewhat similar to Stickley’s and also called Mission Style. Hubbard and his group adhered to the principles of William Morris and the Arts and Crafts Movement. This Roycrofter magazine stand is an excellent example of Hubbard’s simplicity of design and fine craftsmanship. (Stimpson 29)
The Roycrofter Cabinet, 1910. Elbert Hubbard
“Morris” Armchair, 1907. Gustav Stickley
S T I C K L E Y
&
Armchair, 1903. Harvey Ellis
E L L I S
Gustav Stickley is considered the Father of American Arts
beautiful design. Harvey Ellis’s work was the link between
and Crafts. His industrious nature led him and his broth-
that of Henry Hobson Richardson and Frank Lloyd Wright.
ers Charles and Albert to form Stickley Brothers & Com-
After working as a draftsman for Richardson in Albany,
pany in 1883 Stickley’s furniture reflected his ideals of
New York, he returned to Rochester, where he was born,
simplicity, honesty in construction, and truth to materials.
to practice architecture with his brother. He believed that
Unadorned, plain surfaces were enlivened by the careful
“simple, structural plans, with an absence of applied or-
application of colorants so as not to obscure the grain of
nament, are required for the construction of things made
the wood and mortise and tenon joinery was exposed to
by hands.” This armchair is beautifully executed in white
emphasize the structural qualities of the works. The Mor-
quartersawn oak and is inlaid with copper, pewter, and
ris Chair is an excellent example of Stickley’s simple yet
secondary woods. (“Harvey,” par. 4) AME R IC A N A R T S & C R A F T S
45
PLEASANT HOME (JOHN FARSON HOUSE) OAK PARK, IL, 1898. GEORGE W. MAHER
1890
PRAIRIE SCHOOL 1890 s-1915
Purcell-Cutts House, Minneapolis, MN, 1913.
P U R C E L L C U T T S The Purcell-Cutts House is one of the most outstand-
built in 1913. Purcell and Elmslie followed architect
should reflect the structure’s place and time in his-
ing examples of Prairie School architecture in the
Louis Sullivan’s principles of organic architecture to
tory, as well as be compatible to its site and natural
country. Architects William Gray Purcell and George
create an original and beautiful home that would be
surroundings. Each structure should have a “system
Grant Elmslie designed the house for Purcell, his
a strong contrast to the revival-style houses popular
of ornament” that was consistent throughout, unify-
wife, Edna, and the first of their two children; it was
at the time. Sullivan believed the design of a building
ing the building. (“Purcell,” par. 1)
48
Prairie School
Thistle Window, 1901
T H I S T L E W I N D O W George W. Maher (1864-1926) was an architect who was an influential contributor to the Prairie School movement and to American Arts and Crafts design. Maher’s work was bold, original, idiosyncratic and occasionally controversial. Like Louis Sullivan, Maher used ornamentation based on native plants and geometry. Using a native plant, often in combination with a geometric shape, the motif would be repeated as a decorative element throughout the design. The thistle was selected as the motif for the Patten house.
Prairie S chool
49
Side Chair, 1909
50
Prairie School
Library Table, 1905
S I D E C H A I R & L I B R A R Y T A B L E George Grant Elmslie was a Scot who came to America in the 1880s. He began to work in the Chicago firm of Joseph Lyman Silsbee, where he met both Frank Lloyd Wright and George Washington Maher. Later he joined Louis Sullivan’s firm, staying for 20 years, until he joined Purcell. Most of their work was residential, and Elmslie designed furniture fabrics and even landscapes for his homes, believing strongly in the need for total unity design. This oak side chair was designed for the Charles A. Purcell House in Illinois. ( Stimpson 29) At age thirteen, George Washington Maher, the designer of the Library Table, began to learn architecture in the Chicago firm where Frank Lloyd Wright and George Grand Elmslie worked. In 1888, Maher opened his own office in Chicago. For many residential commissions he used what he called the motif rhythm theorydrawing inspiration from the patron’s interests for a linking design motif to achieve visual unity. Later, the Prairie School founded by Maher, Wright, and Elmslie in the 1890s used hones geometric shape to achieve total unity of design. (Stimpson 28)
Prairie S chool
51
TALIESIN WEST INTERIOR LOCATED NEAR PHOENIX AZ,1938-59
1867
FRANK LLOYD WRIGHT 1867-1959
58
Prairie School
F A L L I N G W A T E R Introduced to Wirght by his sons, Edgar jr., who had studied with Wright at Taliesin, Edgar Kaufmann, Sr. was intrigued by the vision of the aging genius. The Kaufmann family’s love for Bear Run’s rushing waterfalls inspired the architect to envision a residence placed not across the stream from the falls, as the Kaufmanns expected, but directly over the falls where one would not simply view nature, but actually live within it. Perhaps unknowingly, Wright gave the Kaufmanns the best of his art, tempered by experience and stimulated by the opportunity to unite man with nature-one of his core beliefs. The Kaufmann’s openness to new ideas and advocacy for good design gave Wright a respectable, yet challenging client to please. The harmonic convergence of this architect/client relationship was unique, and thus so is Fallingwater. (“Fallingwater,” par. 2-4)
Fallingwater in Bear Run, PA, 1936
P rairie S chool
55
G U G G E N H E I M M U S E U M The Solomon R. Guggenheim Foundation was founded in 1937, and it opened the Museum of Non-Objective Painting in 1939, its first New York–based venue for the display of art. The need for a permanent building to house Solomon Guggenheim’s art collection was evident in the early 1940s; by this time, an elderly Solomon had amassed a vast number of avantgarde paintings. Hilla Rebay has been credited as giving the commission for the museum building to Frank Lloyd Wright in 1943. Over the next twelve years Wright would create seven designs for the museum that opened on October 21, 1959, several months after Wright’s death and ten years after Solomon’s. (“Guggenheim,” par. 1,3)
Guggenheim Museum, New York City NY, 1943-59
Imperial Hotel Chair, 1950. Frank Lloyd Wright
I M P E R I A L
H O T E L
Barrel Chair,1937. Frank Lloyd Wright
&
B A R R E L
C H A I R
Frank Lloyd Wright was commissioned by the em-
was boldy geometric and classically palatial at
The Barrel Chair, which was designed for Wing-
peror of Japan to design the Imperial Hotel in To-
the same time. This chair with an upholstered
spread, Herbert Johnson’s Wisconsin house, is
kyo in 1914-1922. The Imperial Hotel sent shock
seat and back was designed to harmonize with
similar to an earlier design for the Martin House
waves through the whole world of architecture.
the interior and exterior design. (Stimpson 81)
(1904). Made of solid cherrywood, this barrel
When there was a major earthquake in Tokyo
Frank Lloyd Wright never abandoned his fascina-
chair uses a spindle-back design with a curved
the Imperial withstood it, not without shaking,
tion with natural materials and never radically
back. Wright felt that designing furniture for the
but without any damage. Aztec motifs combined
changed his aesthetic, despite his development
houses he built was integral to designing the
with Oriental themes informed the design, which
toward furnishings more easily mass-produced.
houses themselves. (Stimpson 94)
P rairie S chool
57
METRO ENTRANCE BY HECTOR GUILMARD (1867-1942)
1867
ART NOUVEAU BELGIUM ,
FRANCE
1880-1910
&
SP A I N
64
Art Nouveau: Belgium, France & Spain
Casa Mila
C A S A
Casa Mila
M I L A
Casa Mila, also known as La Pedrera
the expansion of the city. Gaudí
because of its rough outer appear-
understood architecture as a total art,
ance, reminiscent of an open quarry,
as we can see from the attention he
Casa Milà was commissioned by the
paid to each of the elements that go
industrialist Pere Milà i Camps and
to make up his work, from the railings
his wife, Rosario Segimon i Artells.
of the balconies to the handles on
The idea was to erect a family home,
the doors. Among his outstanding
but also with apartments for rent, at
works, apart from La Pedrera, are Casa
a time when the Barcelona Eixample
Vicens, Parc Güell, Casa Batlló or La
had become the driving force behind
Sagrada Família. (“Casa,” par. 5)
Casa MIla in Barcelona, Spain, 1905-1910 by Antoni Gaudi
Art Nouveau : Belgium, F rance & S pain
61
M A I S O N T A S S E L The Hôtel Tassel can be considered the founding work of Art Nouveau. Commissioned by Professor Emile Tassel in 1893, it was the first work in which Victor Horta was able to realize his original conception of architecture, with all the characteristic features that he developed in his other town houses. The house was finished in 1894, but Horta continued designing the furniture for some years, as well as making some minor changes requested by the client. When completed, the Hôtel Tassel raised mixed reactions, but it was soon considered a key building in the development of modern architecture. (“Major,” par. 6)
Maison Tassel (Tassel House) Brussels, Belgium, 1882 by Victor Horta
Side Chair, 1902 by Emile Galle
G A L L E
&
Calvet Armchair, 1901-1902 by Antoni Gaudi
G A U D I
Galle was an extraordinary French glassmaker who
This chair is one of this finest pieces. (Stimpson 35) Gaudi
founded the prestigious School of Nancy in France. He
was labeled the wildest and most imaginative of all the Art
became one of the leaders of the Art Nouveau style,
Nouveau designers. He was an architect whose uninhib-
creating furniture of curving organic forms, with struc-
ited, asymmetric furniture was meant for the buildings he
tural elements deriving from specific plant or animal
designed. He had a penchant for scrolls, but his approach
themes. Some details are carved in bas-relief with inlays
combined impulses of Gothic, Moorish, and other artistic
of mother-of-pearl. Galle was responsible for the revival of
traditions. This armchair was designed for the Casa Calvet
marquetry. He had a pictorial style using colors and grains
in Barcelona. It is now made by B.D. Ediciones de Dise単o of
of many different fruitwoods, incorporating inscriptions
American oak carved with a hand gouge, finished with acid
from Symbolist poetry as well as from flowers and insects.
dying, and varnished with polyurethane. (Stimpson 36) Art Nouveau : Belgium, F rance & S pain
63
HELSINKI RAILWAY STATION STATUES
1867
ART NOUVEAU S COTLAND,
FINLAND 1880-1910
&
AM E R I CA
Helsinki Railway Station in Helsinki, Finland by Eliel Saarinen
H E L S I N K I
R A I L R O A D
S T A T I O N
Helsinki Central railway station is a widely recog-
plans were drawn by the Swedish architect Carl
cist design, which sparked off a vigorous debate
nised landmark in central Helsinki, Finland, and
Albert Edelfelt. However, as the popularity of rail-
about the architecture of major public buildings,
the focal point of public transport in the Greater
ways grew, the station turned out to be too small,
with demands for a modern, rational style. This
Helsinki area. The station is mostly clad in Finnish
and a contest was organised in 1904 with the
building can be seen as the start point of modern
granite with copper roof and its distinguishing
intention of producing plans for a new station.
architecture. (“Helsinki,” par. 3)
features are its clock tower and the two pairs of
The contest received 21 entries, and was won
statues holding the spherical lamps. The station’s
by Eliel Saarinen, with a pure national romanti-
66
art nouveau: scotland, finland & america
S U L L I V A N C E N T E R Sullivan Center was designed by renowned Chicago architect Louis Henri Sullivan and is considered to be one of the most important structures of early modern architecture in the nation. The building was constructed in 1899, designated a national and city historic landmark in 1970 .To the onlooker, attention is immediately drawn to the aspects which give the building its Landmark status: the cast iron ornamentation which adorns the first two floors; the horizontal effect, created by the alignment of the large “Chicago windows”; and
Sulivan Center (formerly Carson, Pirie, Scott) in Chicago by Louis Sullivan
the cylindrical main entry rotunda which rounds the corner of State and Madison Streets. The ironwork represents some of the most famous art of its kind in the world and best illustrates Sullivan’s ability to transform iron into lace. (“ Sullivan,” par. 1)
Sullivan Center entry
Sullivan Center column detail
art nouveau : scotland , finland & america
67
Hill House Chair, 1903 by Charles Mackintosh
68
art nouveau: scotland, finland & america
Argyle Chair, 1897 by Charles Mackintosh
C H A R L E S M A C K I N T O S H Scottish architect and designer Charles Rennie Mackintosh was one of the most important Art Nouveau designers. In this perpendicular style, he regarded the space around and within his furniture to be as essential to the design as the upholstery or wood. This stained oal Argyle Chair, the first of many highback chairs, has a stylized flying swallow cutout and a seat that narrows towards the back. It was created for Miss Cranston’s Argyle Street Tea Room in Glasgow-Miss Cranston was his foremost patron-and was also used for dining in his own home. (Stimpson 38)Mackintosh, with his inorganic use of wood, felt that design was mosre important than craftmanship. This chair was designed for the white bedroom of Hill House. The original chair, which was painted white, was decorative an not meant to be sat upon. Another Hill House Chair was designed in 1904, this chair was meant to be used with a wrting desk and its seat is upholstered in white linene. (Stimpson 39)
art nouveau : scotland , finland & america
69
SECESSION GALLER IN VIENNA, 1898 BY JOSEPH MARIA OLBRICH
1890
PROTEST MOVEMENTS 1890’ s
76
art nouveau: scotland, finland & america
A T E L I E R
E L V I R A
Atelier Elvira (now destroyed) was a small two-story building housing the studio of a photographer. The facade was penetrated by a doorway and a few small windows placed asymmetrically. Overwhelmingly powerful decoration-a great bas-relief of curving form, abstract, yet suggestive of waved or sea creatures-dominated the blank upper wall surface. Window mullions were curved irregularly, as if they were made from stems of vines. The entrance hall and stairway made use of related fantastic decorative motifs. Endell was the designer of several less spectacular buildings and some furniture, but his reputation rests on the Atelier Elvira. (“History of Interior Design,� par. 12)
Atelier Elvira in Munich, 1989 by August Endell (Destroyed in 1944)
P rotest movements
73
P A L A I S S T O C L E T When banker and art collector Adolphe Stoclet commissioned this house from one of the leading architects of the Vienna Secession movement, Josef Hoffmann, in 1905, he imposed neither aesthetic nor financial restrictions on the project. The house and garden were completed in 1911 and their austere geometry marked a turning point in Art Nouveau, foreshadowing Art Deco and the Modern Movement in architecture. Stoclet House is one of the most accomplished and homogenous buildings of the Vienna Secession, and features works by Koloman Moser and Gustav Klimt, embodying the aspiration of creating a ‘total work of art’ (Gesamtkunstwerk). Bearing testimony to artistic renewal in European architecture, the house retains a high level of integrity, both externally and internally as it retains most of its original fixtures and furnishings. (“Stoclet,” par. 1)
78
Protest movements
Palais Stoclet statues in Brussels by Josef Hoffmann
Palais Stoclet in Brussels by Josef Hoffmann
The Tree of Life, 1909 by Gustav Klimt in the Palais Stoclet
P rotest movements
75
Side Chair, 1899 by Richard Riemerschmid
80
Protest movements
Postal Savings Bank Chair, 1905-06 by Otto Wagner
R I E M E R S C H M I D & W A G N E R In addition to his affiliation with the Munich Secession group, architect Richard Riemerschmid was instrumental in establishing the Deutscher Werbund in 1907, a design group that advocated good design for machine production. Riemerschmid was one of the first to make modern furniture for the masses in factories. This oak side chair with a leather seat displays Riemerschmid’s elegance and simplicity of form, foreshadowing the Danish designs of Hans Wegner. It was designed for the Dresden Exhibition of 1899. (Stimpson 42) Wagner was a founding member of the Vienna Secession. He taught at the Vienna Academy from 1894, where among his pupils were Josef Olbrich, Josef Hoffmann, Adolf Loss, and Kiloman Moser. He was an architect who believed in staunch functionalism and the primacy of structure. For his Postal Savings Bank he designed furniture that not only related to the exterior-both had aluminum detailing-but which also indicated, by the amount of metal, the rank of the user. This beechwood stained armchair has a plywood seat and aluminum or brass shoes, It was formerly produced by Thonet industries. (Stimpson 46)
P rotest movements
77
BAUHAUS POSTER
1919
BAUHAUS MOVEMENT 1919-1933
B A U H A U S The Bauhaus was founded in 1919 in the city of Weimar by German architect Walter Gropius (1883–1969). Its core objective was a radical concept: to reimagine the material world to reflect the unity of all the arts. Gropius explained this vision for a union of art and design in the Proclamation of the Bauhaus (1919), which described a utopian craft guild combining architecture, sculpture, and painting into a single creative expression. The Bauhaus combined elements of both fine arts and design education. (“Bauhaus,” par. 1)
84
bauhaus movement
Bauhaus in Dessau, Germany, 1926 by Walter Gropius
Spoleto Chair, 1928 by Marcel Breuer
S P O L E T O
&
Wassily Chair, 1925 by Marcel Breuer
W A S S I L Y
Breuer was not the first one to use tubular steel for indoor funiture. It
arrangement of planed. It was named for the German Expression-
had been used for children’s beds and rocking chairs in the nineteenth
ist painter Wassily Kandinsky. The Spoleto Chair was designed while
century, although Breuer got the idea from his bicycle handlebars.
Marcel Breuer was associated with the Bauhaus in dessau. germany.
The original Wassily Chair was bolted together, rather than welded
This canilevered chair has a frame of tubular steel finished in polished
as today, precluding total machine production. An ingenious use of
chrome. a remarkably similar design to Mart Stam’s Chair S33 de-
Eisengarn fabric (now cowhide) for seat, back, and arms prevent
signed in 1926, the Spoleto Chair is distinctive because of the exposed
the sitter from coming into contact with cold metal. Originally nickel
lacings on the back and underside of the seat. These coverings are
plated with capped and polihed ends, the chair is a boxy but complex
made of double-faced cowhide or reinforced canvas. (Stimpson 63)
bauhaus movement
81
86
bauhaus movement
U N E S C O
H E A D Q U A R T E R S
Located on the Place de Fontenoy, in Paris, the main building which houses the Headquarters of UNESCO was inaugurated on 3 November 1958. The Y-shaped design was jointly designed by Marcel Breuer of the United States, Pier Luigi Nervi of Italy and Bernard Zehrfuss of France direction of an international committee. Nicknamed the ‘three-pointed star’, the entire edifice stands on seventy-two columns of concrete piling. It is world famous, not only because it is the home of a well-known organization but also because of its outstanding architectural qualities. (“UNESCO,” par. 12)
bauhaus movement UNESCO Interior in Paris, France by Marcel Breuer, PIer Luigi Nervi, and Bernard Zehrfuss
83
INTERIOR OF FARNSWORTH HOUSE IN PLANO, IL, 1945 BY LUDWIG MIES VAN DER ROHE
1920
INTERNATIONAL STYLE 19 20s-50s
Farnsworth House in Plano, IL, 1945 by Ludwig Mies van der Rohe
F A R N S W O R T H
H O U S E
The Farnsworth House is one of the most sig-
mittent partitions of the interior work together
der Rohe’s minimalist expression of structure and
nificant of Mies van der Rohe’s works, equal in
dialectically, shifting the viewer’s awareness
space. (“Farnsworth,” par. 5)
importance to such canonical monuments as
between the thrill of exposure to the raw elements
theBarcelona Pavilion, built for the 1929 Interna-
of nature and the comforting stability of archi-
tional Exposition and the 1954-58Seagram Building
tectonic enclosure. The architecture of the house
in New York. The exterior glazing and the inter-
represents the ultimate refinement of Mies van
90
International Style
I nternational S tyle
87
92
International Style
N O T R E D A M E D U H A U T The Chapel of Notre Dame du Haut, designed by Le Corbusier, is located in Ronchamp. The Chapelle Notre-Dame-du-Haut, a shrine for the Catholic Church at Ronchamp was built for a reformist Church looking to continue its relevancy. Warning against decadence, reformers within the Church looked to renew its spirit by embracing modern art and architecture as representative concepts. Father Couturier, who would also sponsor Le Corbusier for the La Tourette commission, steered the unorthodox project to completion in 1954.This work, like several others in Le Corbusier’s late oeuvre, departs from his principles of standardization and the machine aesthetic outlined in Vers une architecture. (“Notre Dame Du Haut,� par. 12)
Notre Dame du Haut in Ronchamp, France, 1950 by Le Corbusier
I nternational S tyle
89
Barcelona Chair, 1929 by Ludwig Mies van der Rohe
94
International Style
Br
B R N O & B A R C E L O N A The Brno Chair was created for a dining table in the Tugendhat House in Brno, Czechoslovakia. The frame is made of chrome-plated flat bar steel--an innovative material that required a bit of hand finishing. The frame, with some structural changes, is now also available in tubular steel. The original was upholsteredin leather, but fabrics are now available as well. (Stimpson 66) Mies created the Barcelona Chair and stool for the German Pavilion at the Barcelona Exhibition of 1929. Originally made of chromed flat bar steel (now polished stainles steel), the bases of both use cyma recta curves-the chair has one;the stool, two-following the base shape of an ancient stool called sella circulis. Surely Mies’s finest furniture design, the pair required careful craftmanship. The cushions are supported with leather straps, and the cuchions themselves are each made of 20 separate pieces of leather which are sewn together with welting, biscuit-tufted, and buttoned. (Stimpson 68)
I nternational S tyle
91
INTERIOR OF KAUFMANN HOUSE IN PALM SPRINGS CA, 1946 BY RICHARD NEUTRA (LATER RESTORED BY MARMOL RADZINER)
1916
CALIFORNIASCHOOL 1916-1946
Dodge House (demolished 1970) Pasadena CA, 1916 by Irving Gill
D O D G E
H O U S E
Dodge House by Irving Gill has long been consid-
heart of West Hollywood. Dodge House’s form
arches, the ahead-of-its-time mahogany panel-
ered a landmark of residential design -- to some,
-- horizontal boxes lacking roof overhangs, surface
ing, the stunningly beautiful sense of simplicity.
one of the most important American houses of the
detail or other ornament -- was a revolutionary
(“Dodge,” par. 3)
20th century. It was demolished in 1970, cleared
departure from the pitched roof and symmetrical
to make way for apartments, now condos, in the
facades that once were so common. The graceful
98
California School
E I N S T E I N T O W E R & L O V E L “ H E A L T H ” H O U S E The Einstein Tower, designed by Erich Mendelsohn, is both an astrophysical observatory and a masterpiece of the history of modern architecture in Germany. The impulse for financing a German solar observatory arose from the spectacular result of the English eclipse expedition, which confirmed Einstein’s general theory of relativity. It was constructed between 1920 and 1922, but owing to a lack of modern construction materials after World War I, the tower had to be built with bricks instead of reinforced concrete. As a protection against the wind and heating, a wooden structure was added on the inside of the tower, and this supports the objective lens. (“Einstein,” par. 4)
Einstein Tower in Potsdam, Germany, 1919-21 by Eric Mendelsohn
The Lovell “Health” House was designed by architect Richard Neutra in the Los Feliz neighborhood of Los Angeles. It is recognized as one of the most architecturally significant houses of the 20th century as it was the first house to be comprised of steel in the United States. The Lovell Health House was commissioned by Philip and Lea Lovell, who, only a few years prior, commissioned R. M. Schindler to build the Lovell Beach House in Newport Beach. This made the Lovell’s significant patrons of modern architecture, but became a source of contention between the two architect friends who lived together in Schindler’s Kings Road House. (“Lovell,” par. 7)
Lovell “Health” House in LA, CA, 1929 by Richard Neutra
California S chool
95
100
California School
Interior of the Kaufmann House
K A U F M A N N
Interior of the Kaufmann House
H O U S E
One of the most important architects of
the northeast. The design of the house
the 20th Century, yet often overlooked,
is quite simplistic; at the center of the
Richard Neutra has been on the fore-
house is the living room and the dining
front of modern residential architecture.
room that is the heart of the house and
One of Neutra’s several iconic projects
the family activity. The rest of the house
is the Kaufmann House in Palm Springs,
branches out like a pinwheel in each of
California. Completed between 1946-
the cardinal directions. (“Kaufmann,”
1947, the Kaufmann House was a vaca-
par. 2)
tion home for Edgar J. Kaufmann Sr. and his family to escape the harsh winters of
Kaufmann House in Palm Springs CA, 1946 by Richard Neutra (Restoration by Marmol Radziner, 1995)
California S chool
97
ART DECO PATTERN
1910
ARTDECO 1910-1940
E M P I R E S T A T E The Empire State Building is an iconic office building known as “the Most Famous Skyscraper in the World.” Construction began in 1930, and the grand opening was held on May 1, 1931. It was the world’s tallest free-standing structure until 1967 and the world’s tallest skyscraper for over 40 years. It was displaced in 1972 by the construction of the World Trade Center towers. The construction itself was a model of efficiency as well, based on the emerging principles of industrialism, assembly lines and division of labor. To maintain the strict schedule, pieces like steel beams and stonework were prepared off-site, then delivered ready to be inserted into place by workers.
104
California School
Empire State Building in NYC, NY by Shreve, Lamb, and Harmon
Chrysler Building in NYC by William Van Alen
C H R Y S L E R
Chrysler Building eagle statue.
B U I L D I N G
The Chrysler Building is an example of a building caught
Chrysler automobile and the machine age of the 1920s.
up in the quest to become the tallest in the world, which
Gargoyles and eagles ornamented the building like the
it obtained briefly for 11 months before it was surpassed
hood ornaments of the Plymouth automobile. A classic
by the Empire State Building. The project for the Chrys-
example of Art Deco architecture, the Chrysler Building
ler Building began as a collaboration between architect
would be one of the first to extensively use stainless
William Van Alen and contractor William H. Reynolds.
steel over an exposed building surface. (“Chrysler,� par.
The building also shifted its aesthetic to represent the
4)
A rt D eco
103
Side Chair by Eliel Saarinen
106
Art Deco
Blue Collection by Eliel Saarinen
E L I E L S A A R I N E N Cranbrook Academy has recently licensed production of some of Eliel Saarinene’s furniture design for his own home in Michigan. (ICF also distributes some pieces.) The elegant Saarinen side chairs-only 13 of them were ever made-were designed to accompany an ornately inlaid round table. Arkitektura reproduces both table and chairs. The scalloped back of the maple chair was hand carved, with ebony and ocher enamel stripes. (Stimpson 82)
In 1924, after winning second prize in the Chicago Tribune Tower competition in 1922, Eliel Saarinen and his family moved from Finland to Bloomfield Hills, Michigan, where he became the director of the Cranbrook Academy of Art. Saarinen directed the school through its golden age-when many innovative designers taught or trained there. He designed the Blue Collection for his wife Loja Gessellius’s studio. Art Deco in style, the frames are made of beechwood lacquered blue gray and highlighted with gold leaf. (Stimpson 82)
Art D eco
105
DETAIL OF THE LANDI STACKING CHAIR, 1939 BY HAND CORAY
1930
1930s
L A N D I S T A C K I N G C H A I R Hans Coray developed the Landi Stacking Chair at a time when steelhard tempered aluminum alloys were only beginning to be available. The innovative seat shell is formed of a single sheet of aluminum stamped by a press and punched with circular holes. An alkaline solution used to whiten the aluminum gives a distinctive crystalline appearance to the finish. Shown at the Swiss National Exhibition in 1938 as a chair suitable for outdoor use, the Landi has inspired a number of similar designs, including the Omkstack sheet metal chair by Rodney Kinsman, made by Bieffeplast. (Stimpson 95)
110
Art Deco
Landi Stacking Chair, 1939 by Hans Coray
Viipuri Stool, 1932-33 by Alvar Aalto
V I I P U R I
Detail showing the stackability of the stools.
Top of of the Viipuri Stool
S T O O L
In his early years Aalto was inspired by Michael Thonet. He
free rein,” and that his experiments would lead to “useful
invented a way of making a structural support of laminated
forms.” (Stimpson 91)
wood without a closed form. Aalto patented the technique, used first for the Viipuri Stool, which was used in Aalto’s Viiputi Library. His tables and stools evolved over a long period and his later stools are fanned at the join of the leg to seat, unlike these. Aalto felt that “man’s imagination must be given
1930s
109
G O T E B O R G I Gunnar Asplund’s Goteberg chairs demonstrates his clean, functional style in furniture-a Scandinavian version of the International Style, made warmer by the use of wood. Both chairs have natural wood frames of walnut or ash. Goteborg I has an ABS seat and a self-supporting steel frame back upholstered with leather or fabric over polyurethane foam. This chair is produced under license from the Asplund estate, as indicated by a signature and serial number found on each piece. (Stimpson 93)
112
1930s
Goteborg I, 1934-37 by Erik Gunnar Asplund
Grandstand at Zarzuela Race Track, 1935 by Eduardo Torroja
G R A N D S T A N D
A T
Detail of the fluted, cantilevered roof.
Z A R Z U E L A
R A C E
T R A C K
Spanish architect and engineer notable as a pioneer in the design of con-
In 1951 he formed the Technical Institute of Construction and Cement, and he
crete-shell structures. Torroja graduated as an engineer in 1923 and began
served as its director until his death.
working with a contractor. His first concrete-shell structure, a covered market in Algeciras, was followed two years later by two of his most admired shell structures, both in Madrid: the Grandstand At The Zarzuela Racecourse and the sports hall. The shell roof of the racecourse cantilevers out some 43 feet (13 metres). Double cylindrical shells characterize the sports hall.
1930s
111
DETAIL OF “THE” CHAIR, 1949 BY HANS WEGNER
1940
POSTWARSCANDINAVIA 1940-1970
A R N E J A C O B S E N The Ant Chair is the first Danish Chair to be designed for mass production. Arne Jacobsen, the versatile architect who designed it, used nine layers of wood-seven of beech, as well as teak and oak or mample-which were steamed and molded and glued together. The cutouts, which make the chair ant-shaped, increase the flexibility of the back. Rubber dampers connect the seat to satin chrome-plated tubular steel (originally wood) legs. It can be stacked.
Jacobsen, is also one of the few people even to create a truly new chair idea. The Swan Chair sent Scandinavian design spinning in a different direction from the wood sculptures of Wegner. Created for the lobby of the SAS hotel in Copenhagen, Swan and Egg were made of molded fiberglass shells with latex foam padding glued on. The chair are difficult to produce because the fabric, vinyl, or leather upholstered must be exactly. (Stimpson 102)
116
1930s
Ant Chair, 1955 by Arne Jacobsen
Swan Chair, 1958 by Arne Jacobsen
P ostwar S candinavia
115
Wishbone Chair, 1950 by Hans Wegner
W I S H B O N E
C H A I R
The beautifully sculpted “Wishbone” Chair, as it
beech, with a paper string seat. For a lounge chair
of Wegner’s popular designs, Wishbone Chair is
is sometimes called because of its prominent “Y”
it is lightweight and comfortable; the proportions
now available in a wide variety of finishes, includ-
split back, is made of oil-finished smoked oak or
are perfect with a curved rail and split back. One
ing nine lacquered colors. (Stimpson 101)
118
Postwar Scandinavia
P K 1 1 Poul KjĂŚrholm was a trained carpenter and continued his studies at the Danish School of Arts and Crafts. He had a particular interest in different construction materials; especially steel which he considered a natural material with the same artistic fineness as other natural materials. This chaming three-legged armchair, winner of the Milan Triennale Grand Prize in 1957, takes up very little space. PK 11 has chrome-plated steel frame-Kjaerholm liked metal frames-with arms made of ash or oak formed in a graceful curve. The seat is made of parchment, oxhide, or canvas. (Stimpson 104)
PK11, 1957 by Poul Kjaerholm
P ostwar S candinavia
119
DKR (BIKINI) CHAIR, 1951 BY CHARLES EEAMES
1907
POSTWARUSA 1907-1930
Glass House in New Canaan, Connecticut, 1949 by Philip Johnson
G L A S S
H O U S E
Following his graduation from Harvard’s Graduate
son was the founding Director of the Department
the surrounding landscape. Since its completion
School of Design in 1943, Johnson designed some
of Architecture at The Museum of Modern Art
in 1949, the building and decor have not strayed
of America’s greatest modern architectural land-
(MoMA) in New York. His landmark 1932 exhibi-
from their original design. Most of the furniture
marks. Most notable is his private residence, the
tion, The International Style, introduced modern
came from Johnson’s New York apartment de-
Glass House, a 47-acre property in New Canaan,
architecture to the American public. The Glass
signed in 1930 by Mies Van der Rohe. (“The Glass
Connecticut. Before practicing architecture, John-
house is best understood as a pavilion for viewing
House,” par. 2)
122
POSTWAR USA
postwar U S A
121
Tulip Pedestal Group, 1957 by Eero Saarinen
T U L I P
P E D E S T A L
Saarinen joined his friends the Knolls at Knoll Inter-
of legs� under the table. The chair were made in
by zippers. The form is organically unified. Tulip is
national in 1943. Soon he was making models of
three parts: a plastic-coated cast aluminum base, a
available now in two colors, gray-beige and white.
one-leg designs that were to revolutionize the fur-
molded plastic shell reinforced with fiberglass, and
(Stimpson 118)
niture industry. His goal was to clear up the “slum
a latex foam pad, covered with upholstery held on
124
postwar USA
LCM (Potatoe Chip) Chair, 1946
E A M E S
&
Coconut Chair, 1956 By George Nelson
N E L S O N
Charles Eames and his wife Ray experimented
shock mounts. The complex curve of the wood and
man Miller in 1946. He designed this chair, inspired
with molded plywood for chairs while they were
the rubber mounts made upholstery unnecessary.
by the shape of a cracked coconut, in 1956. It has a
both at the Cranbrook Academy. Originally made
Eames protected the tips of the legs with tubber
low brakeformed welded sheet-steel shell mounted
in two heights-for lounging or dining-of ash, birch,
caps. This chair is one of Eames’s most popular and
on a steel rod base. The shell is padded and up-
or walnut, the seat and back were attached to
most beautiful designs. (Stimpson 114) George
holstered. Produced from 1956 until 1978, it has
the frame of chome-plated steel rods with rubber
Nelson became the first director of design at Her-
become a popular collectible. (Stimpson 122)
postwar U S A
123
DONDOLO ROCKING CHAIR, 1969 BY CESARE LEONARDI AND FRANCA STAGI
1955
POSTWARITALY 1955-1970
Ball and chain Chair from the Series Up, 1969 by Geatano Pesce
S E R I E S
U P
The Farnsworth House is one of the most sig-
mittent partitions of the interior work together
der Rohe’s minimalist expression of structure and
nificant of Mies van der Rohe’s works, equal in
dialectically, shifting the viewer’s awareness
space. (“Farnsworth,” par. 5)
importance to such canonical monuments as
between the thrill of exposure to the raw elements
theBarcelona Pavilion, built for the 1929 Interna-
of nature and the comforting stability of archi-
tional Exposition and the 1954-58Seagram Building
tectonic enclosure. The architecture of the house
in New York. The exterior glazing and the inter-
represents the ultimate refinement of Mies van
128
POSTWAR ITALY
Mezzadro Tractor Seat, 1955 by Achille and Pier Giacomo Castiglioni
M E Z Z A D R O
T R A C T O R
Detail of the Tractor Seat
S E A T
The Farnsworth House is one of the most
and the intermittent partitions of the interior
of Mies van der Rohe’s minimalist expression of
significant of Mies van der Rohe’s works, equal
work together dialectically, shifting the viewer’s
structure and space. (“Farnsworth,” par. 5)
in importance to such canonical monuments
awareness between the thrill of exposure to the
as theBarcelona Pavilion, built for the 1929
raw elements of nature and the comforting sta-
International Exposition and the 1954-58Sea-
bility of architectonic enclosure. The architecture
gram Building in New York. The exterior glazing
of the house represents the ultimate refinement P ostwar Italy
127
S P A G H E T T I C H A I R Giandomenico Belotti studied sculpture and became an architect. He also designed furniture. This chair was originally called Odessa. it is innovative in combining tubular steel with plyvinylchloride “spaghetti� string in excellent proportions. It comes in red, blach, and white. (Stimpson 131)
130
Postwar Italy
Spaghetti Chair, 1960 by Giandomenico Belotti
Sports Palace (Palazetto dello Sport) in Rome, Italy, 1958 by Pier Luigi Nervi
S P O R T S
Detail of the ceiling
P A L A C E
Built for the 1960 Olympics, the palazzetto is a modest sports stadium in
ribbon of window the whole way around the circular stadium, beneath the
an innovative concrete dome. Designed by Pier Luigi Nervi it hosted boxing
elegantly ribbed, white-painted concrete ceiling. The Y chaped strctures on
among other sports during the Olympic Games. The innovative dome is made
the outside of the building are what support the building. (“Palazetto,� par. 1)
of ribbed reinforced concrete. The lower half of the dome has continuous
P ostwar Italy
129
CONGRESS BUILDING AT BRASILIA, BRAZIL, 1962 BY OSCAR NIEMEYER
1954
POSTWARWORLDWIDE 1954-1965
134
Postwar Worldwide
S Y D N E Y O P E R A H O U S E The architect of Sydney Opera House, Jørn Utzon was a relatively unknown 38 year old Dane until January 29, 1957 when his entry, scheme number 218, was announced winner of the ‘International competition for a national opera house at Bennelong Point, Sydney’. With his vision the City of Sydney was to become an international city. Although Utzon had spectacular plans for the interior of the completed shells he was unable to realise how the exterior would be constructed. The design solution and construction of the shell structure took eight years to complete and the development of the special ceramic tiles for the shells took over three years. However, before it was completed, the Minster of Works Davis Hughes began questioning Utzon’s designs, schedules and cost estimates and eventually was forced to withdraw as chief architect in February 1966.
Following Utzon’s letter of resignation there were protests and marches through the streets of Sydney led by Australian architect Harry Seidler, author Patrick White and others, demanding Utzon be reinstated as architect. The NSW government did not offer him this role, Jørn Utzon left the country at the end of April 1966 with his family, never to return to see his masterpiece again. (“Sydney,” par. 3,8)
Sydney Opera House at Sydney, Australia, 1963-1973 by Jorn Utzon
P ostwar W orldwide
133
S H R I N E O F
T H E
B O O K The Shrine of the Book was built in 1965 to the designs of US architects, Frederick Kiesler and Armand Phillip Bartos. It was meant to house, exhibit, and, most uniquely, symbolically represent in architectural terms the Dead Sea Scrolls. A collection of approximately 900 manuscripts and manuscript fragments found in caves at Wadi Qumran between 1947 and 1956. The Shrine of the Book was designed to reflect its contents and their history. The white ceramictile dome, sometimes referred to as a “Chinese pagoda” or even “breast-like,” is shaped like the lids of the jars in which the scrolls were found. Much has been made of the contrast between the white dome and the black basalt monolith beside it, and the overt symbolic weight of this contrast; the white represents the “Sons of Light,” a prominent allegory in the scrolls, and the black the “Sons of Darkness.” (“Shrine,” par. 2,4)
136
Postwar Worldwide
From top to bottom: Shrine of the Book at Jerusalem, Israel by Frederick Kiesler. Interior of the Museum displaying the scroll of Isaiah.
Ribbon Chair, 1966. France-PIerre Paulin
R I B B O N
&
H A N D
Hand Chair, 1963. Italy/Mexico-Pedro Friedeberg
C H A I R
One of France’s outstanding living designers, Pierre Paulin has
Italian-born designer and sculptor Pedro Freideberg migrated to
created a number of classic pieces. Chair 300 also known as
Mexico. He created the Hand Chair, a piece of Pop Art sculp-
Ribbon Chair, in the Post International Style, is comfortable and
ture that also functioned as a chair. It is handmade of wood and
handsome. Made of fiberglass shell with removable jersey-cov-
offered in gold leaf, natural, or lacquer finishes. This chair is
ered latex foam upholstery, it is available in three shell colors.
relatively inexpensive. (Stimpson 145)
The Ribbon Chair was first shown at the Utrecht Furniture Exhibition in 1967.
P ostwar W orldwide
135
GLASS PYRAMID IN PARID, FRANCE BY I.M. PEI
1917
LATEMODERN ARCHITECTURE 1917-2010
Alamillo Bridge in Seville, Spain, 1992 by Santiago Calatrava
A L A M I L L O
B R I D G E
When Spain chose to host Expo ‘92 on a large but
It is a road bridge at the north end of La Cartuja
supports the 200m span with thirteen pairs of
deserted island in the Guadalquivir River in Seville,
island on which the Expo was held, with a 142m
cables. The weight of the concrete and steel pylon
building new bridges to the island became a big
high pylon that has become a landmark visible
provides a counterbalance for the bridge deck.
part of the Expo preparations. Four new bridges
from Seville’s old town. the Alamillo bridge’s strik-
(“Alamillo,” par. 2-5)
were built, of which Calatrava designed two.
ing feature is its forcefully asymmetric design.
The Alamillo bridge is on by far the largest scale.
Its single pylon inclines away from the river, and
140
LATE MODERN ARCHITECTURE
Thorncrown Chapel in Eureka Springs, AK, 1980 by Fay Jones
J O N E S
&
Crystal Cathedral in Garden Grove California, 1976 by Philip Johnson
J O H N S O N
Thorncrown Chapel was designed by world
Fay decided that no structural element could be
be open to the “sky and the surrounding world.”
renowned architect E. Fay Jones. Fay was born in
larger than what two men could carry through
In a nod to Los Angeles car culture, the parking
Pine Bluff, Arkansas in 1921. He was mentored by
the woods. (“Thorncrown Chapel,” par. 3) The
lot was designed for a drive-in congregation to
Frank Lloyd Wright at the Taliesin Fellowship. The
Crystal Cathedral was designed as a religious
listen to the sermon via car stereo. 90-foot-high
inspiration for Thorncrown Chapel was Sainte
theater. It was commissioned by Robert Schul-
doors beside the chancel open onto the parking
Chappelle, Paris’ light filled gothic chapel. In
ler. Philip Johnson devised the glass enclosure in
lot, providing ventilation and a visual connection
order to preserve Thorncrown’s natural setting,
response to Schuller’s request that the church
between attendees. (“The Crystal,” par. 4) LAT E MODE RN A R C HIT EC T U R E
139
Glass Pyramid in Paris, France, 1989 by I.M. Pei
G L A S S
P Y R A M I D
One of the most advantageous of those projects
work on the Louvre museum.Completed in 1989,
which provided focal point for the cyclical process
was the renovation and reorganization of the Lou-
I.M. Pei’s renovation redesigned Cour Napoleon,
of one’s experience through the museum. Pei’s
vre. In 1983 after touring Europe and the United
the main court of the Louvre, in order to alleviate
design of the Louvre addition implemented a large
States, President Mitterrand commissioned the
the congestion from the thousands of daily visi-
glass and steel pyramid that is surrounded by three
Chinese American architect, I.M. Pei. It was the
tors. A new grand entrance provided a convenient,
smaller triangles that provide light to the space be-
first time that a foreign architect was enlisted to
central lobby space separate from the galleries,
low Cour Napoleon. For Pei, the glass pyramid
142
LATE MODERN ARCHITECTURE
provided a symbolic entry that had historical and figural importance that reinforced the main entry. (“Le Grande Louvre,� par 2-3)
LAT E MODE RN A R C HIT EC T U R E
141
WIGGLE SIDE CHAIR BY FRANK GEHRY
1917
LATEMODERN FURNITURE 1917-2010
W I G G L E S I D E C H A I R Canadian-born Frank has been practicing architecture out of his California office since the early 1970s. He used corrugated fiberboard laminated with epoxy for this sculptural furniture. It was originally produced by Cheru Enterprises, a Swiss firm. There are plans to reintroduce it. This beautiful Wiggle Side Chair is made out of cardboard. (Stimpson 157)
146
Late Modern Architecture
Wiggle Side Chair, 1972 by Frank Gehry
Cab Side Chair by Mario Bellini
C A B
S I D E
C H A I R
Mario Bellini’s Cab Chair has a frame of enamelled steel with saddle-stiched
The Museum of Modern Art in New York City. (Stimpson 157)
upholstery that zips into place over the frame. An armchair and settee made the same way are also available. Although Bellini is an architect, much of his work has been in industrial design. He has won the Compasso d’Oro five times, and several of his designs are included in the Permanent Collection of
LAT E M O D ER N F U R N IT U R E
145
A P P O G G I O S T O O L The unique slender Appoggio Stool was made for sitting down while in a standing position. Perfect for use in kitchens, or for cashiering, clerking, and so on, Appoggio has a graceful metal support base that can be adjusted to suit the sitter. The height adjustment feature is important because unlike a chair the success of the Appoggio depends on its ability to match the length of a person’s legs, the dimension of the human body which varies most from person to person. The height adjustment consists of a screw which tightens into a groove in the sliding rod. (Stimpson, 153)
Late Modern Architecture
Appogio Stool, 1970 by Caludio Salocchi
Soft-Tech Collection Side Chair, 1979 by David Rowland
D A V I D
R O W L A N D
The Soft-Tech Collection won the 1979 IBD Gold Metal Award for Spe-
in diameter in six colors, brass plating, or polished chrome plating. Also
cial Seating. Made of the patented Soflex material, a network of coated
available are a counter-height chair and an interlocking system for link-
springs, the seats and backs allow air to circulate around the body while
ing chairs together. (Stimpson, 170)
providing the comfort of support that moves with the sitter. Both arm and side chairs can be stacked. The frame is made of tubular steel 7/8�
LAT E M O D ER N F U R N IT U R E
147
TEAM DISNEY BUILDING IN LAKE BUENA VISTA, FL, 1990 BY ARATA ISOZAKI
1978
POST MODERN 1978-2004
152
Post Modern Furniture
I O N I C ( C A P I T E L L O ) The Studio 65 design team is located in Turin, Italy. This seat called Capitello in Italian, is really a Pop Art sculpture as well as a chair. It is based on the Ionic column of ancient Greece. Its form is like a rolled scroll topped with curved ram’s horns. It is made of soft polyurethane foam. Some designers feel that no more than one ionic piece should be used in a design. (Stimpson 156)
Ionic by Studio 65, Paolini and Teodoro
PO S T M O D ER N
151
L O U I S G H O S T Reinventing the classic Louis XVI armchair for Kartell, the playful Louis Ghost Armchair (2002) is a postmodern triumph of technical innovation and historical style. Translating the varied lines and formal geometry of its predecessor into a single form of translucent injection-molded polycarbonate, the Louis Ghost is a robust chair with a medallion backrest for leisurely comfort. When interviewed about the collection by the Dallas Morning News, Starck commented that it “has a mix of materials and styles based on our shared memories. We all own this piece in a way. (“Louis Ghost,” par.3)
Louis Ghost, 2004 by Philippe Starck
154
POST MODERN
Portland Public Service Building in Portland, OR, 1982 ny Michael Graves
G R A V E S
&
San Francisco Museum of Modern Art (SFMOMA) by Mario Botta
B O T T A
The Portland Building, by architect and product designer Michael
Mario Botta’s 1995 SFMOMA building is an iconic presence within
Graves, is considered the first major built work of Postmodern-
the cityscape of San Francisco. The turret is finished in alternat-
ist architecture. The design stands in purposeful contrast to the
ing bands of black and white stone and topped with a radial
functional Modernist architecture that was dominant at the time.
pattern of the same material.Reflecting the influence of architect
he building attempts to create a continuum between past and
Louis I. Kahn, the interior is flooded with natural light and offers
present: it’s a symmetrical block with four off-white, stucco-
generous open spaces. The full-height central atrium court is
covered rectangular facades featuring reinterpreted Classical ele-
illuminated by the enormous circular skylight of the turret. (“SF-
ments, such as over-scaled keystones, pilasters and belvederes.
MOMA,” par. 3)
(“Portland,” par. 5) PO S T M O D ER N
153
LIDO SOFA BY MICHELE DE LUCCHI
1981
MEMPHIS STYLE 1981-1988
158
Memphis Style
C A R L T O N The name Memphis was taken from the Bob Dylan song, “Stuck Outside of Mobile with the Memphis Blues Again,� by a design group that caused a sensation when they first exhibited at the 1981 Milan Furniture Fair. Austrian-born Ettore Sottsass Jr., is the founder and father of this group of 20 who create furnishings from odd, brilliant colors and shapes with humor and style. The Carlton is a room divider with bookshelves incorporating slabs, boxes, two drawers, and projecting members. Each wood component is covered with plastic laminate in red, purple, green, yellow, gray, white, black, or brown. (Stimpson 182)
Carlton by Ettore Sottsass
M emphis S tyle
157
P R I S M A S H E L V I N G U N I T “Furniture that is too obviously designed,” said Milo Baughman, “is very interesting, but too often belongs only in museums.” In Baughman’s distinguished body of work, his vast creativity never interfered with functionality, instead he struck an ideal modernist balance. The shelving unit here was designed by Milo Baughman and is entitled Prisma Shelving Unit. The array of colors and angles dazzles the eyes as it was originally intended to do. (“Milo,” par.3)
160
Memphis Style
Prisma Shelving Unit by Milo Baughman
L U C C H I &
P A S Q U I E R Michele De Lucchi studied architecture at Padua and Florence until 1975. From 1975 to 1977 he was an academic assistant in the architecture department at Florence University. From 1980 Michele De Lucchi was a member of the Memphis group, designing Lido Sofa, a colorful sofa in 1982 and the first chair in 1983 for Memphis. The Memphis style was not all about functionalism, they put more emphasis on
Lido Sofa, 1982 by Michele de Lucchi
aesthetics and amking it look fun, this the reason of why this sofa is said to be so uncomfortable yet so fun to look at. (“Michelle,� par. 4)
One of the most universally admired pieces to come out of the Memphis group is the Royal Chaise by the French textile designer Nathalie du Pasquier. The Royal Chaise has a plastic laminated frame and cotton cushions. Cushions and frame are printed with three compatible but contrasting abstract patterns in red, green, purple, and blue. (Stimpson 182) Royal, 1983 by Nathalie de Pasquier
M emphis S tyle
159
GLASS PYRAMID IN PARID, FRANCE BY I.M. PEI
1988
DECONSTRUCTIVIST MOVEMENT 1988-PRES ENT
H A D I D &
G E H R Y Designed by world-famous architect Zaha Hadid, the CAC was the first U.S. museum designed by a woman. It was hailed by the New York Times as “the most important American building to be completed since the cold war.” The Rosenthal Center for Contemporary Art in Cincinnati, Ohio was a chance to try out her ideas on a large scale. Cincinnati silenced all those who said Zaha Hadid’s architecture was impossible to build.Crucially, Cincinnati gave Hadid the confidence to win a stream of commissions. (“Rosenthal,” par.4)
Well before the Guggenheim Museum Bilbao opened its doors to the public on October 19, 1997, the new museum was making news. Located on the Bay of Biscay, Bilbao is the fourth largest city in Spain, one of the country’s most important ports. An architectural competition led to the selection of California-based architect Gehry, known for his use of unorthodox materials and inventive forms, and his sensitivity to the urban environment. Gehry’s proposal for the site on the Nervion River ultimately included features that embrace both the identity of the Guggenheim Museum and its new home in the
164
Deconstructivist Movement
(LEFT) Rosenthal Center for Contemporary Arts in Cincinnati, OH by Zaha Hadid (RIGHT) Guggenheim Museum Bilbao in Bilbao, Spain by Frank Gehry
Deconstructivist Movement 165
V O R E T E X X C H A N D E L I E R The Vortex Chandelier is in line with the series of furniture pieces, which is also a collaboration of Designers Zaha Hadid, Patrik Schumacher. The Chandelier’s Opaque surface etches two transparent acrylic light spirals and a recessed LED light strip provides animated and programmable light sensations. Its complex curvilinearity follows a double helix connecting its beginning to its end and therefore forming an endless ribbon of light. In plan the object resembles a star with its protrusions pointing outwards from the center, emphasizing an imaginary centrifugal force. (“VorteXX,� par. 1)
166
Deconstructivist Movement
VorteXX Chandelier, 2005 by Zaha Hadid and Patrick Schumacher
Aqua Table, 2005 by Zaha Hadid
A Q U A
T A B L E
The enigmatic liquid form of the Aqua table
to form a continuous surface. Through surface
awakens one’s curiosity. The three blisters bulg-
mutations at three local points, the table’s legs
ing out to form legs below the table surface
emerge to form a singular, unbroken surface,
register as indentations at the top surface.
elevating the tabletop and stabililzing the be-
The Aqua table is an organic body flowing within
neath. The translucent silicon gel of the tabletop
space. Rather than being static, it implies mo-
surface has a smooth top with 3 deformities on
tion by adopting the dynamic gestures of liquid
its lower side. (“Zaha,” par. 2)
Deconstructivist M ovement
165
T H E
E N D
T H E
B I B L I O G R A P H Y
"Alamillo Bridge by Santiago Calatrava." Alamillo Bridge by Santiago Calatrava. N.p., May-June 2009. Web. 02 Apr. 2014. "Aqua Table." Archello.com. N.p., n.d. Web. 02 Apr. 2014. "Bauhaus." The Bauhaus, 1919–1933. Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History, n.d. Web. 01 Apr. 2014. "Casa Mila." Casa Mila. La Pedrera, 2014. Web. 15 Feb. 2014. "Chapel Du Notre Dame Du Haut, Le Corbusier, Ronchamp, France, 1954  The Organic Architecture Guild." The Organic Architecture Guild RSS. The Organic Architecture Guild RSS, 2002. Web. 02 Mar. 2014. "Chrysler Building." History and Photography of the Chrysler Building. James Maher, Dec. 2001. Web. 12 Mar. 2014. "Dodge House." Irving Gill's Dodge House, a Landmark in Memory. Los Angeles Times, 2012. Web. 5 Mar. 2014. "Fallingwater." Fallingwater. Fallingwater, 2014. Web. 10 Feb. 2014. "Farnsworth House." Farnsworth House. Farnsworth House, 2011. Web. 02 Mar. 2014. "Fortuny Lamp." Design Within Reach. Design Within Reach, 2014. Web. 10 Jan. 2014. "Gamble House." ArchDaily. ArchDaily, 4 Nov. 2010. Web. 20 Feb. 2014. "Glessner House." Glessner House Museum. Glessner House Museum, n.d. Web. 15 Jan. 2014. "Guggenheim Bilboa." History. Geggenheim, Oct. 2013. Web. 02 Apr. 2014. "Guggenheim Museum." Guggenheim Museum. Guggenheim Museum, 2014. Web. 02 Apr. 2014. "Helsinki Central Railway Station Change This." Helsinki Central Railway Station. Architectuul, 2014. Web. 24 Feb. 2014. "History of Interior Design." Google Books. Google Books, 2000. Web. 02 Apr. 2014. "Home Insurance Building." History. A&E Television Networks, n.d. Web. 15 Jan. 2014. "Kaufmann House." ArchDaily. ArchDaily, 11 Jan. 2011. Web. 02 Apr. 2014. "Le Grande Louvre / I.M. Pei." ArchDaily. ArchDaily, 8 Nov. 2010. Web. 02 Apr. 2014.
"Louis Ghost Chair - Design Within Reach." Design Within Reach. Design Within Reach, n.d. Web. 02 Apr. 2014. "Lovell Health House." Los Angeles Architecture. Los Angeles Architecture, Nov. 2001. Web. 15 Mar. 2014. "Major Town Houses of the Architect Victor Horta (Brussels)." UNESCO. UNESCO, 2014. Web. 02 Apr. 2014. "Marshall Field Store." GreatBuildings. GreatBuildings, 2014. Web. 15 Jan. 2014. "Michele De Lucchi." Biography. Ketterer Kunst, Jan.-Feb. 2012. Web. 02 Apr. 2014. "Milo Baughman." AreaCon Furniture Designers: Milo Baughman. AreaCon Furniture Designers, May-June 2010. Web. 02 Apr. 2014. "Palazzetto Dello Sport." Mimoa. Mimoa, 2012. Web. 02 Apr. 2014. "Purcell Cutts House." Minneapolis Institute of Arts. Minneapolis Institute of Arts, 20 Feb. 2014. Web. 02 Apr. 2014. "Rosenthal Center for Contemporary Art Architecture." Contemporary Arts Center. Contemporary Art Center, Mar. 2012. Web. 02 Apr. 2014. "SFMOMA Architecture and Building Information." San Francisco Museum of Modern Art. MoMA, July-Aug. 2009. Web. 02 Apr. 2014. "Shrine of the Book." Shrine of the Book. International Committee for the Documentation and Conservation of Buildings, n.d. Web. 28 Mar. 2014. stimpson, miriam. modern furniture classics. new york: whitney library of design,
1987. print.
"Stoclet House." UNESCO. UNESCO, Jan.-Feb. 2000. Web. 26 Feb. 2014 "Sydney Opera House." Sydney Opera House. Sydney Opera House, 2014. Web. 01 Apr. 2014. "The Crystal Cathedral / Philip Johnson." ArchDaily. ArchDaily, 6 Nov. 2013. Web. 31 Mar. 2014. "The Einstein Tower." UNESCO Astronomy and World Heritage Webportal. International Astronomical Union, Jan.-Feb. 2000. Web. 02 Apr. 2014. "The Glass House." The Glass House. The Glass House, n.d. Web. 19 Mar. 2014. "The Portland Building." ArchDaily. ArchDaily, July-Aug. 2013. Web. 02 Apr. 2014. "Thorncrown Chapel." The Architecture of Thorncrown Chapel. N.p., Nov. 2000. Web. 01 Apr. 2014. "UNESCO Headquarters | United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization." UNESCO Headquarters | United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, 2000. Web. 02 Apr. 2014. "VorteXX Chandelier." Arch2Ocom VorteXX Chandelier Zaha Hadid and Patrik Schumacher Comments. N.p., n.d. Web. 02 Apr. 2014. ***The information without citation has been taken from the Contemporary Architecture and Furniture notes and manual.