A CHAPTER ON ECOLOGICAL URBANISM Edited by Preetal Shah with Meredith Chavez & Kevin Giuseppetti
The twentieth century will be chiefly remembered by future generations not as an era of political conflicts or technical inventions, but as an age in which human society dared to think of the welfare of the whole human race as a practical objective. -Arnold J. Toynbee, English Historian
Limerick City Biodiversity
As the world’s population continues to grow, more people are moving from the rural into urbanized areas. With nearly half of the world’s population living in cities, density is becoming the standard way of living.1 A benefit of density is the ability to preserve and sustain landscape territories and ecosystems beyond the urban realm; however, as cities continue to expand and grow larger, natural ecologies and landscapes absorb the negative side affects of rapid urbanization. Ecological Urbanism seeks to apply environmental and ecological concepts to the contemporary city, rethinking traditional urban conditions. By incorporating specific data through an ecological, economic, and a social understanding, new discussions arise on the issue of sustainability in the urban realm.2 Ecological Urbanism offers a proactive design approach to rethinking urban futures by using the environment as a catalyst to bridge the gap between nature and man-made urbanization.
1 Bruce Mau, Massive Change (New York: Phaidon Press Limited, 2004): 30. 2 Charles Waldheim, “Weak Work: Andrea Branzi’s ‘Weak Metropolis’ and the Projective Potential of an ‘Ecological Urbanism’,” Ecological Urbanism (Germany: Lars Müller Publishers, 2010): 115.
The Pre-History of Ecological Urbanism Meredith Chavez
Ecological Urbanism emerges from the Landscape Urbanism movement, which proposes landscape as a building block for rethinking urban design. Landscape Urbanism, a term coined by Charles Waldheim, suggests that the landscape becomes the primary lens through which urban fabric is represented and constructed.3 Landscape Urbanism provides a compelling new methodology for the critique and analysis of natural environments, public infrastructure, and post-industrial sites. Through this rise of an ecological awareness, the concepts of ecology and landscape suggest a promising and creative form of design practice.4 The dynamic ecological systems involved within a site are often complex—but ecological concepts provide a flexible field of operation for dealing with that complexity, producing incremental and cumulative effects that gradually change the shape of the environment over time. Ecological design proposes an approach that goes beyond formalism, by examining the landscape’s evolution over time.5 These lessons learned from ecological awareness aim to show how all life on earth is deeply bound into special dynamic relationships.
TYPES OF ECOLOGICAL
SIZE OF PROJECT
MATRIX
An Analysis of Scope and Scale in Ecological Urbanism
URBANISM
INFRASTRUCTURE
ADAPTIVE REUSE
ECO-HABITATS
LAND PLANNING
Infrastructural projects organizational systems of the city framework, including water, transportation, and space.
Adaptive reuse projects invlove the rejuvination of landscapes contaminated by industrial waste (brownfields), or projects rethinking wasted space (drosscapes).
Eco- habitat projects allow for ecological life (flora and fauna) to flourish over a period of time. The parameters derive from the natural conitions of landscape.
Land planning projects integrate the landscape into existing urban fabric, creating an overall design strategy that accomodates the landscape, architecture, and public space.
entail overall roads, public
THE HIGH LINE DS+R / JAMES CORNER -Public space.
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-Flora + fauna wildlife. -Park -Reusing abandoned railroad. -Tourist attraction.
FRESH KILLS PARK JAMES CORNER -Park.
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-Flora + fauna wildlife. -Water integration. -Reusing landfill. -Recreational space.
ATER ECONOMIES LATERAL OFFICE -Public space.
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Graphic by Meredith Chavez
3 Bruce Mau, Massive Change (New York: Phaidon Press Limited, 2004): 30. 4 James Corner, “Terra Fluxus,” The Landscape Urbanism Reader (New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 2006): 28. 5 Corner 29.
-Eco pods. -Water integration. -Manufacturing salt from lake.
PARC DE LA VILLETTE OMA - Park.
XL
- Integration of land within the city.
Felix Guattari, a French philosopher and political activist, proposes an interesting strategy towards a reconstruction of social and individual practices of human life in his essay titled, The Three Ecologies. Guattari presents a problem of “ecological disequilibrium,” where life on earth is threatened by the deterioration of both individual and collective modes, affecting the relationship between human life and nature. Guattari makes clear that “nature has become inseparable from culture; and if we are to understand the interactions between ecosystems, the mechanosphere, and the social and individual universes of reference, we have to learn to think ‘transversally’.”6 Felix Guattari breaks down his argument into three ecologies, which are the social ecology, mental ecology, and environmental ecology. Social ecology “should never lose sight of the fact that capitalist power has become de-localized, deterritorialized, both in extension – by extending its grasp over the whole social, economic, and cultural life of the planet – and in ‘intension’ – by infiltrating the most unconscious levels of subjectivity.”7 Mental ecology “demands rather that we face up to the logic of the ambivalence of desire wherever it is found (in culture, everyday life, work, sport, etc.); that we re-evaluate the ultimate goal of work and human activities in terms of criteria other than those of profit and productivity; that we acknowledge the need to mobilize individuals and social segments in ways that are always diverse and different.”8 Environmental ecology “states that everything is possible – the worse catastrophes or the smoothest developments. Increasingly in future, the maintenance of natural equilibria will be dependent upon human intervention; the time will come, for example. When massive programmes will have to be set in train to regulate the relationship between oxygen, ozone, and carbon dioxide in the earth’s atmosphere.”9 Guattari’s expresses the common principle between the three ecologies: “each of the existential territories with which they confront us exists, not in and of itself, but as precarious, finite, finitized entity for itself.”10 Guattari’s aim is not to propose a utopian model for the future society, but “simply that we should use our expanded understanding of the whole range of ecological components to set in place new systems of value.”11 The breakdown of Felix Guattari’s three ecologies provides a sense of structure to Ecological Urbanism design; however, Ecological Urbanism design derives from various views between cities and the natural world. Image: From The “Doers and Makers workshop”, designed to stimulate interactions between a diverse range of artistic practices, ‘hacktivist’ research and ecological systems. The understanding of “ecological” here is taken from Felix Guattari’s The Three Ecologies, which emphasizes the interactions between the environment, social networks and individual psychologies of subjectification.
6 Felix Guattari, “The Three Ecologies,” (1989): 135. 7 Guattari 138. 8 Guattari 142. 9 Guattari 146. 10 Guattari 140. 11 Guattari 145.
The Dryland Transcoder for CoVolutions: New Cartographies for Transversal Ecologies
Ian McHarg, a Landscape Architect, wrote extensively on the topic of nature in the city. In the early 1960s, McHarg’s interest toward nature and the physical environment grew. In McHarg’s essay, The Place of Nature in the City of Man, McHarg describes proclaims, “An understanding of natural processes should be reflected in the attribution of value to the constituents of these natural processes. Such an understanding, reflected in city building, will provide a major structure for urban and metropolitan form, an environment capable of supporting physiological man, and the basis for an art of city building, which will enhance life and reflect meaning, order, and purpose.”12 Ian McHarg believed any place on earth could only be understood through its physical evolution, and describes how “man must adapt through both biological and cultural innovation, but these adaptations occur within a context of natural, nonhuman processes.”13 By comparing man’s role in the environment to an organism’s role in environment, similarities exemplify how all life is bound to one another: “Simple organisms utilize inert materials to create physical environments which sustain life.Man also confronts this necessity. Man, too, is natural in that he responds to the same laws as do all physical and biological systems…The operation of these non-human physical and biological processes is essential for human survival.”14 Since the world can neither be fully artificial nor completely natural, Ecological Urbanism acts as a viable approach on how to view and imagine the growth of cities in the future. 12 Ian McHarg, The Essential Ian McHarg Writings on Design and Nature (London: Island Press, 2006): 16. 13 McHarg 21. 14 McHarg 21. 15 Anne Whiston Spirn, “Ecological Urbanism: A Framework for the Design of Resilient Cities,” Resilience in Ecology (New York: Springer Verlag, 2011): 15. 16 Reed 325.
An important aspect of Ian McHarg’s practice to the field of Ecological Urbanism is how an in depth analysis of natural resources can provide helpful information of the best places to develop land for human occupation. Ian McHarg was involved in the planning process of The Woodlands, a city located thirty-two miles north of Houston, Texas. His vision of the Woodlands was to create a hometown within a natural forest, balancing human development with nature. Ian McHarg integrated his ecological theories to the design team, such as allowing the ecology of the land to determine what development should take place. Through an analytical study of the land, the hydraulic systems, such as lakes and bayous, and existing woodlands needed the most preservation. McHarg helped the developer understand how the construction of the new city would impact the environment and also the existing region of Houston.15 A natural drainage system was adapted, which would help reduce storm water runoff while recharging aquifers. As for the woodlands, the goal was to reduce soil erosion from the construction to help preserve the biodiversity of the flora and fauna. Building upon Ian McHarg’s urban analysis research, ecological urbanism strives to recognize the dynamics of living nature and ecosystems; thus, moving beyond the physical aspects of the urban form. How to achieve a particular condition in a state of change, how to adapt to dramatic environmental influx, climate change, and resources are all important issues in order to achieve a successful ecological urbanism. Often, the most successful ecological urbanism systems are adaptable and flexible since the environmental ecosystem is constantly responding and changing over time.16 Projecting evolution, or allowing for complexity and adaptability over time, is critical in ecologically conscious design.
Aerial View of The Woodlands, Texas
Alan Berger, an influential figure in the critique and analysis of the American landscape, addresses the topic of deindustrialization, and its effects on the relationship between landscape and urbanization. Berger coined the term “Drosscape,” which he defines as ‘waste landscapes’ that are “created by the deindustrialization of older city areas (the city core) and the rapid urbanization of newer city areas (the periphery), which are both catalyzed by the drastic decrease in transportation costs.”17 One of twenty-first century’s greatest infrastructural design challenges is the way in which these Drosscapes are adaptively reused.18 Brownfield sites have received the bulk of the attention recently from the federal government, providing seventy three million dollars in grants among thirty-seven states “to promote the redevelopment of contaminated landscapes.”19 Interestingly, ecologists found that contaminated sites offer more bio-diversity than the surrounding native landscape.20 Brownfields act as perfect sites for Ecological Urbanist approaches because their post-industrial context lends itself to new thinking about decontamination and remediation. These sites offer potentials of various ways in which to clean the contaminated site while providing opportunities for public interaction with the reclaimed landscape. The goal of Drosscape is to rejuvenate wasted landscape with new human intentions and the potential for new interactions. By rethinking the use of Brownfield sites, the designer “works in a bottom-up
manner, conducting fieldwork while collecting and interpreting large-scale trends, data, and phenomena in search of waste. Once waste landscapes are identified, the designer proposes a strategy to productively integrate them.”21 In essence, the designer acts as a strategist while designing, keeping the big picture and vision of the project in mind at all times. Through Alan Berger’s writing, it remains evident that multiple factors and professions must come together in order to be successful at rethinking uses for wasted landscape, “the composition is part design, part economics, part science, part speculation.”22 Most importantly, Berger reminds us that Drosscape will never go away, but he does not regard that as a bad thing: “Dross will always accompany growth, and responsible design protocols will always flag such dross as the expanding margin of the design environment. The energy that goes into rapid growth, after populations and civilization reach temporary limits, can then be used to refashion and organize the stagnant in-between realm, thus going back like an artist to touch up the rough parts of an otherwise elegant production.”23 The future of Ecological Urbanism is bright, and will flourish as long as humans expand our understanding of the vast range of ecological processes to coexist with urbanization in order to generate a new system of values.
Car Salvage and Junkyard, Massachusetts
17 Alan Berger, Drosscape. (New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 2006): 200. 18 Berger 119. 19 Berger 206. 20 Berger 209. 21 Berger 210. 22 Berger 214. 23 Berger 214.
Analysis of Manufacturing Establishments, Chicago
How Ecological Urbanism Differs From New Urbanism Preetal Shah
Field Operations
Dover Kohl & Partners
Theories and philosophies on new urbanism and landscape urbanism analyze approaches to rethinking, designing, and developing our cities. Both offer differing views on creating a successful urban environment. An advocate of New Urbanism, Ellen Dunham-Jones states, “while new urbanists like to plan through good design, ecological urbanists don’t. They prefer to set something in motion and see what happens. Kind of more ecology in the city, but it also seems to be more lower density suburbia where, although surrounded by hills and other natural landscapes, most people would still have to drive everywhere.”24 Jones attempts to interpret ecological urbanism without addressing actual theories of ecological urbanism. Instead, she equates ecological urbanism with a new methodology for an ecologically oriented sprawl. Waldheim has admitted, “Landscape Urbanism was specifically meant to provide an intellectual and practical alternative to the hegemony of the New Urbanism.”25 Very much in the ideals of landscape urbanism, ecological urbanism is a reaction to neo-traditional urban form as an end, not a means. Sprawl is certainly not a goal of landscape or ecological urbanism. According to new urbanist ideology, every detail must be planned, leaving nothing to chance, based on sound principles from reliable precedents. 24 Dunham-Jones 100. 25 Waldheim 56.
A state of flux would therefore be antithetical to such deterministic design. However, the very flux the new urbanists seem to oppose is actually the essence of many of the historical precedents they draw upon in reinforcing their design principles. Such principles accreted over time and experimentation, through the reworking and change of cities over millennia. The heavyhanded approach to these existing principles by the new urbanists has proven problematic in such developments as Seaside, Celebration and Kissimmee, Florida. Masdar, a city in Abu Dhabi is planned to be a completely carbon neutral city. Although the goals of Masdar are very commendable and contemporary, the general master planning of the development was executed with a strong new urbanist approach. As a theoretical position, urbanistic determinism may seem ideal. But the scale and complexities of cities makes the application of determinacy virtually impossible. While planners layout wide ranging, relativistic and somewhat spatial frameworks, designers are pre-disposed to want to control all aspects of every system, component, assembly, and material, along with the final form. Landscape architects appear to fall in the middle, controlling specific aspects of design with the necessity for letting things evolve due to the nature of their primary material being plants.
Masdar Proposal
Development of Masdar
Pruitt-Igoe Collapse
In her book titled Retrofitting Suburbia, Ellen Dunham-Jones speaks of ‘incremental metropolitanism’ with a very new urbanist approach. Here research and case studies should have led her to realize ecological urbanism is not about dispersed suburbia, but rather a rejection of hyper-determinism. Suburbia will not be retrofitted at once, due to economical factors and slowness of change. Retrofitting will occur through strategic insertions and manipulations that will have ripple effects of new housing and commercial uses. As a result, this is a variation of the ‘set in motion’ ideology, but in a much more strategic sense that focuses on catalysts versus entire elements of reformulation. The concept is not just new urbanism versus ecological or landscape urbanism. By admitting that not all the answers are laid out initially, an evolution can occur from planning with a deterministic stance (designing every aspect of cities), to one that allows for a more process oriented approach (designing frameworks for cities to evolve and adjusting them periodically).
An urban scale intervention of deterministic new urbanism is bound to fail, due to the massive number of variables at play. While many variables may be controlled in an urban development, the designer must account for the complexity of a truly diverse city relative to his/ her own capacity, and avoid being overcome with the task. Conversely, just setting things in motion and ‘seeing what happens’ is bound to fail as well if just left to it’s own devices. A good indication of this result is suburban sprawl (particularly in areas with softer planning regulations) or mishmash urban redevelopment. Letting the market choose (with minimal direction or governmental intervention) the most suitable approach for development has led to a vast dispersion of cities and significant environmental degradation. It has also led to successful developments of density, safe and walkable communities, mixeduse and income cities, and a range of inventive cases of ecological restoration. For example, the Port Lands Estuary proposal is a new type of neighborhood for Toronto designed to interact with the river and the lake in a dynamic and balanced relationship, or an ‘urban estuary’. The proposal uses an integrated approach to reclaiming 280 acres of abandoned port lands in the heart of the city, utilizing landscape architecture and urban design with innovative scientific approaches to PORT LANDS ESTUARY, TORONTO natural reclamation at the scale of the city and the region.
Portlands Urban Estuary
While removing a degree of hyperdeterminism from the process requires some leap of faith, the scenario certainly isn’t all or nothing. There is a need for confidence in the designers’ ability to set positive frameworks, evaluate, and adjust urban developments accordingly. Cities are not buildings, and therefore should not be approached with the same principles of determinism. While no designer would leave basic foundational structures to chance, there has been more willingness to embrace change, evolution of materials, adaptability of floor plans, varied uses, which can react to changing economic and usage characteristics (such as saving a building from not just having to be torn down when times change). The Fresh Kills project by James Corner is great example in providing a framework that allows for flexible indeterministic phased development.
Pop-Up City Pop-Up City
Urban Ecotones
Fresh Kills Park
26 Bargmann, J., “Just Ground: A Social Infrastructure for Urban Landscape Regeneration”, Resilience in Ecology and Urban Design: Synergies for Practice and Theory in the Urban Century (New York: Springer, 2012).
Ecological urbanism is not prescriptive of any type of city, or a need for more open space. Instead, it addresses the city as a collection of organisms and processes performing in a fluid, heterogeneous matter. The urbanist can take ecologists’ cues, such as looking at the structure of an ecosystem, and determining approaches to adjusting and modifying systems, and apply them holistically in thinking towards cities. For instance, the field of community ecologies such as Wikipedia, looks at “…distribution, abundance, demography, and interactions between coexisting populations.”26 This approach would be completely viable to a theory of urbanism. The Urban Ecotones competition focused on integrating habitats, combining various developments (natural & man-made) and setting a new ‘tone’ in an urban environment. These micro-scale proposals provided a foundation for macro-scale interventions. Such an approach is fundamental to ecological urbanism.
Tenets of an Ecological Urbanism Preetal Shah
A conference and exhibit on international planning and design titled ‘Ecological Urbanism: Alternative and Sustainable Cities of the Future’ at Harvard University aimed to “project alternative, humanistic, and sustainable forms of urbanism, landscapes and future cities.”27 Exploration of such forms should occur through examining some key issues. First, what are the issues of ecological urbanism at the human level and how will they be organized? Second, how can design and planning in urbanism and landscape play a vital role in the development of an ecological urbanism? Thirdly, beyond the environmental aspects of ecological urbanism, what are its societal, political, and cultural implications? Fourth, how can ecological urbanism respond to current problematic global conditions such the decline of biodiversity, climate change, urbanization, public health and disease, social inequality? Also, such advantageous global issues as ease of transport, technological advancement, social freedoms, and political knowledge from a biological standpoint are becoming increasingly important regarding the planning of new ecologically urbanistic developments. Built environments and landscape spaces should be combined, not contrasted or separated as urban and rural. Buildings should not “be merely visual, but would deal with the human body, with health, with a world that is lived in, an environment that we breathe, smell, that encourages social interaction, participation and even disagreement.”28 The current trend of sustainable buildings and low impact architecture do not necessarily involve the city as a whole. Ecological urbanism aims to tackle the subjects of productive urban landscapes, and the design of critical resources including water, air, mobility, and scale. An ecological solution to regenerate the existing urban fabric, or developing new cities, is desperately needed for today’s urban environments.
27 Dr. Niall G. Kirkwood, “Ecologic Urbanism as a means to consider the New City, The Older City and the Shrinking City,” (2010): 1. 28 UN World Commision Global Report 58.
object
envelope
wind & solar power + rainwater collection
water storage + shading
water runoff + vegetation
Graphic by Kevin Giuseppetti
Archizoom
Below: As a phased progression, an urban framework may allow for the development of various programmatic and sustainable elements based on necessity, density, and natural ecologies.
Urbanism Graphic by Kevin Giuseppetti
29 UN World Commision Global Report 67. 30 Spirn 6.
The current trend of sustainable buildings and low impact architecture do not necessarily involve the city as a whole. Ecological urbanism aims to tackle the subjects of productive urban landscapes, and the design of critical resources including water, air, mobility, and scale. An ecological solution to regenerate the existing urban fabric, or developing new cities, is desperately needed for today’s urban environments. An ideal ecological urbanist development would interweave heterogeneous green spaces and built space. Interestingly, the aspects that ecological urbanism attempt to combine are simultaneously local and global. The energy used in a house, the products bought and consumed, or the water we drink all have an origin, and carry tremendous implications at both the global and local scale. Currently, more than half of the world’s population lives in cities. However, some cities are steadily declining in population, while other cities face serious issues related to health, climate change, traffic, air pollution, and dependable access to energy and water.29 Such crises are a great opportunity for the principles of ecological urbanism to be applied. What are the guiding principles of a successful ecological urbanism? To begin, the main concepts of ecological urbanism should be recognized. Anne Whiston Spirn states: “Cities are a part of the natural world; cities are habitats; cities are ecosystems; urban ecosystems are dynamic and interconnected; every city has a deep enduring context; urban design is a tool of human adaptation.”30
Through Time
Nature
Only recently has the natural environment been recognized as a critically important factor in the development of urban environments. Human activities and natural processes are interactive, which creates an urban setting that may vary from city to city, depending on climate and geography. The need for water, food, shelter, energy, and security, all require natural resources, and should more directly involve the local natural settings of hydrology, plants, and local access to energy and materials. A push towards the localizing can do much to mitigate the existing notions of the city being from nature. Buildings, and open spaces should be designed as a part of a collective whole that embraces the ecological context. If nature were to be thought of as more of a concept or process and not a tree, river, mountain, etc., a more cohesive approach to combining city and nature in an urban environment can be established. In OMA’s competition entry for Parc De La Villette, Rem Koolhaas applies nature as a concept, exploiting the idea of park by proposing a programmatically indeterminist plan. Programmatic elements such as a dense forest, or a garden, are placed along horizontal strips, which act as an underlying framework for the eventual activity of spaces. The city as a habitat involves very apparent needs for the life that resides there. Proper settings for growth, movement, communication, education, work, and play. Nevertheless, so many cities are heavily polluted, ill-prepared for natural forces, and cause a level of discomfort and inconvenience. Aside from humans, many other species exist in the urban setting, and creating new developments should strive to increase bio-diversity instead of the current trend of reducing it. Enhancing biodiversity is not only beneficial for plants and animals, but humans as well.31 Kevin Lynch discusses enhancing the quality of the urban habitat for humans and other species. Measuring good city form (vitality), by how clearly it is perceived in space and time (sense), how well environment and behavior ‘fit’ and by whether these standards are provided in a manner that provides ‘access’, ‘control’, ‘efficiency’, and ‘justice.’32 31 L.W. Vandruff, “Urban Ecology as the Basis of Urban Planning,” (New York: The Hague: SPB Publishing, 1995): 10. 32 Kevin Lynch, “Environmental Adaptability,” Journal of the American Institute of Planners (240: 16-24) 1958): 21.
Parc De La Villette by OMA
Lynch writes, “the mental sense of connection with nature is a basic human satisfaction, the most profound aspect of sensibility…The movement of sun and tides, the cycles of weeds and insects and men, can also be celebrated along the city pavement.”33 Wilson’s hypothesis on biophilia argues that humans have an innate attraction to life and life’s processes, and urban design that fosters and intensifies the experience of the natural processes that sustains life fulfills this need.34 Buildings, roads, sewers, as well as water, soil, and plants encompass a physical environment that consists of organisms (including humans) that dwell within it.35 This is an urban ecosystem in which energy, material, information flow through is as resources are imported, transformed, and consumed, then exported as wastes and goods.36 Additionally, the urban ecosystem encompasses all the processes that flow within and through the city: cultural processes as well as natural process, flows of capital, people, and goods, as well as flows of water, air, nutrients, and pollutants.37 The city is an eco system consisting of smaller ecosystems.
Space-Intelligence-Agency
33 Lynch 257. 34 Wilson 44. 35 S.T.A. Pickett, M.L. Catanasso and J.M. Grove, “Resilient Cities: Meaning, Modes, and Metaphor for Integrating the Ecological, Socio-Economic, and Realms,” Landscape and Urban Planning (2004): 268. 36 P.H. Brunner, “Reshaping Urban Metabolism,” Journal Industrial Economy (2007): 31. 37 Picket and Grove 7.
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