Primary Teachers' Perception and Practice of Continuing Professional Development in Nepal by purna Shrestha

PRIMARY TEACHERSâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; PERCEPTION AND PRACTICE OF CONTINUING PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT

Purna Kumar Shrestha

A Dissertation Submitted to School of Education

In partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Philosophy in Education

Kathmandu University Dhulikhel, Nepal

December, 2011

AN ABSTRACT OF THE DISSERTATION OF

Purna Kumar Shrestha for the degree of Master of Philosophy in Education presented on 14 December 2011. Title: Primary Teachers' Perception and Practice of Continuing Professional Development Abstract Approved: ___________________________________ Prof. Mahesh Nath Parajuli, PhD Dissertation Supervisor Primary teachers are often left alone with little support and professional development opportunities to explore new roles, develop teaching techniques, refine their practice and exchange ideas with teachers from other schools. The purpose of this mixed methods study was to explore how primary teachers acquire the beliefs, values and attitudes of their professional culture and how they perceive and practise CPD. By using both qualitative and quantitative research methods, primary data was collected from 419 primary teachers in Bhaktapur, Sindhupalchok and Parsa district. Different data collection methods e.g. survey, focus group, classroom observations were used to collect the data. Open-ended interviews with nine teachers were analysed from socio-cultural perspectives. The analysis of the data showed that most primary teachers perceived themselves "very effective", however, their classroom practices did not correspond with their perception. The respondents considered "follow up support, feedback, and demonstration lesson from Resource Persons and the Head teacher" as the most beneficial CPD activity. __________________________________ Purna Kumar Shrestha, Degree Candidate

DEDICATION

To my parents Padam Bahadur Shrestha and Padam Kumari Shrestha, the two most special persons in my life. You not only gave me life but also fill in with the love and affection that one can wish for. You raised me to be the person as I am today by encouraging to study and instilling in me the confidence that I am capable of doing anything I put my mind to. I hope that this achievement will complete the dream that you had for me all those many years when you chose to give me the best education opportunity you could. I wish I could share you my happiness in person. Thank you so much!

DECLARATION

I hereby declare that "Primary Teachers' Perception and Practice of Continuing Professional Development" is my own work and this dissertation has not been submitted for candidature for any other degree. _________________________________ Purna Kumar Shrestha, Degree Candidate

Date: December 14, 2011

Master of Philosophy in Education Dissertation of Purna Kumar Shrestha presented on December 14, 2011 APPROVED __________________________

Date: December 14, 2011

Prof. Mahesh Nath Parajuli, Ph.D. Dissertation Guide __________________________ Prof. Tanka Nath Sharma, Ph.D.

Date: December 14, 2011

Member, Research Committee __________________________

Date: December 14, 2011

Prof. Shreeram Prasad Lamichhane, Ph.D. Member, Research Committee __________________________

Date: December 14, 2011

Asst. Prof. Bal Chandra Luitel, Ph.D. Member, Research Committee __________________________

Date: December 14, 2011

Prof. Mana Prasad Wagley, Ph.D Dean, School of Education

I understand that my dissertation will become part of the permanent collection of Kathmandu University Library. My signature below authorizes release of my dissertation to any reader upon request.

__________________________________ Purna Kumar Shrestha, Degree Candidate

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I thank the research participants for giving so generously of their time and for sharing their experiences, thoughts, and insights with me. I am thankful to Tracey Martin, former Country Director of VSO Nepal for providing financial support for this course. I am grateful to many people who have played incredible roles in collecting data in the field- Mr. Ratna Upreti, Mr. Yam Bahadur Basnet,Mr. Abindra Neupane, Mr. Bishnu Kayestha, Mr. Saroj Datta, Mr. Prem Gopal Karmcharya, Mr. Sabitri Sharma in Bhaktapur ; Ms. Meera Shrestha, in Parsa. Dr. Mary Mckenna from the USA deserves my sincere gratitude for her critical feedback on my work. I would like to thank Prof. Dr. Man Prasad Wagley, the Dean of the School of Education, Prof. Dr. Tanka Nath Sharma both of whose support, encouragement, and insights have been invaluable. I thank my supervisor, Professor Mahesh Nath Parajuli for his support, insights, advice, and guidance throughout this entire thesis journey and for believing in my abilities. I have learned so much, and without you, this would not have been possible. Thank you so much for great experience. I am grateful to Associate. Prof. Mr. Laxman Gnawali for his advice on APA formatting and Asst. Prof. Mr. Kashiraj Pandey for language editing of the thesis. I thank my family and friends for their support. Pratistha deserves my special thanks for her help with data collection. Finally, I thank my best friend and wife Sweesa for her help in field research, data processing and the most importantly, for her encouragement and gentle prodding. Thank you for your continual love, support, and patience as I went through this journey. I could not have been made it through without you by my side. Purna Kumar Shrestha , Degree Candidate

TABLE OF CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ............................................................................... I TABLE OF CONTENTS ............................................................................... II LIST OF TABLES ........................................................................................ IX LIST OF FIGURES ........................................................................................ X ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS ..................................................... XI GLOSSARY OF TERMS .......................................................................... XIII CHAPTER -I .................................................................................................... 1 INTRODUCTION............................................................................................ 1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY ......................................................................... 1 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM ........................................................................ 3 PURPOSE OF THE RESEARCH............................................................................ 4 RESEARCH QUESTIONS.................................................................................... 4 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY.......................................................................... 5 DELIMITATIONS .............................................................................................. 6 STRUCTURE OF THE STUDY ............................................................................. 6 CHAPTER -II ................................................................................................... 8 LITERATURE REVIEW ............................................................................... 8 CONTINUING PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT (CPD) ....................................... 8 FACTORS CONTRIBUTING TO EFFECTIVE CPD .............................................. 11 Self-Directed CPD ................................................................................... 14

iii

Adult Learning Theory ............................................................................. 15 Collaborative Learning and Community of Practice ............................... 16 Reflective Practice ................................................................................... 17 CPD FROM SOCIO-CULTURAL PERSPECTIVE ................................................. 18 NATIONAL POLICIES ON PRIMARY TEACHERS’ CPD IN NEPAL ..................... 20 EMPIRICAL STUDIES ON CPD IN NEPAL ........................................................ 22 DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION ..................................................................... 25 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK: SOCIO-CULTURAL THEORY ............................. 27 Activity Theory ......................................................................................... 27 Situated Learning Theory......................................................................... 33 KNOWLEDGE GAPS IN THE LITERATURE ....................................................... 38 CHAPTER -III ............................................................................................... 40 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY AND DESIGN OF THE STUDY ......... 40 PHILOSOPHICAL CONSIDERATION ................................................................. 40 Ontology ................................................................................................... 40 Epistemology ............................................................................................ 41 RESEARCH PARADIGM: MIXED METHODS RESEARCH................................... 41 PHILOSOPHICAL CONSIDERATION IN RESEARCH DESIGN .............................. 44 POPULATION AND SAMPLING ........................................................................ 45 METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION ................................................................. 47 Survey Questionnaire ............................................................................... 47 Semi-Structured Interviews ...................................................................... 47 Open-ended Interviews ............................................................................ 48 Self-Reflection Form ................................................................................ 48 Class Observation .................................................................................... 49

Focus Group Discussion .......................................................................... 50 Document Analysis and Journal Review .................................................. 50 DATA ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION........................................................ 51 DATA MANAGING ......................................................................................... 52 RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY ......................................................................... 52 RESEARCH TRIANGULATION ......................................................................... 54 ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS ........................................................................... 56 CHAPTER -IV ............................................................................................... 57 OPPORTUNITIES, BARRIERS AND SOLUTIONS FOR EFFECTIVE CPD ............................................................................................................................. 57 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................. 57 REASONS FOR BECOMING A TEACHER .......................................................... 57 PRE-SERVICE TRAINING OPPORTUNITIES FOR PRIMARY TEACHERS IN NEPAL .................................................................................................................................. 60 TEACHER INDUCTION .................................................................................... 61 PRIMARY TEACHERS’ SELF-PERCEIVED EFFECTIVENESS .............................. 63 SELF-DIRECTED PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT ACTIVITIES IN LAST FIVE YEARS ....................................................................................................................... 65 ACCESS TO INFORMATION ABOUT CPD ........................................................ 71 PARTICIPATION IN PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT ACTIVITIES IN THE PREVIOUS FIVE YEARS.............................................................................................. 73 TYPES, DURATION AND ORGANISERS OF SHORT-TERM CPD ACTIVITIES...... 77 ONE-OFF CPD .............................................................................................. 79 Organisation of one-off CPD by year ...................................................... 80 DRIVING FACTORS FOR CPD......................................................................... 80

PRIMARY TEACHERS’ BELIEFS ON INFLUENCING FACTORS FOR EFFECTIVE CPD .......................................................................................................................... 84 ENABLING FACTORS FOR CPD ...................................................................... 87 HINDERING FACTORS FOR CPD .................................................................... 90 SOLUTIONS TO PRIMARY TEACHERS’ BARRIERS TO EFFECTIVE CPD ........... 93 MOST BENEFICIAL CPD ................................................................................ 97 PERCEIVED RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN TEACHERS’ CPD AND STUDENTS’ LEARNING ............................................................................................................... 101 PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT OPPORTUNITIES IN SCHOOLS ..................... 103 CHARACTERISTICS OF EFFECTIVE CPD ....................................................... 106 SUGGESTED ACTIVITIES FOR FUTURE CPD INTERVENTIONS....................... 109 APPROACH TO CPD DELIVERY ................................................................... 112 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN PERCEPTION AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING PRACTICE ................................................................................................................................ 114 CHAPTER- V ............................................................................................... 117 PRIMARY TEACHERS' SOCIO-CULTURAL PERSPECTIVE ON CPD .................................................................................................................................... 117 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................... 117 OVERVIEW OF CASE STUDY TEACHERS ...................................................... 118 Sarala ..................................................................................................... 118 Luniva .................................................................................................... 118 Bhojraj ................................................................................................... 119 Brish ....................................................................................................... 119 Mina ....................................................................................................... 120 Janakdev ................................................................................................ 120

Ramlakhan ............................................................................................. 121 Narendra ................................................................................................ 121 Sunita ..................................................................................................... 122 VALUE OF TEACHING PROFESSION .............................................................. 128 ACCOUNTABILITY ....................................................................................... 131 POLITICAL INTERFERENCE IN EDUCATION .................................................. 133 GEOGRAPHICAL LOCATIONS ....................................................................... 134 PEACEFUL SCHOOL ENVIRONMENT ............................................................. 138 REWARDS.................................................................................................... 139 SCHOOL CULTURE....................................................................................... 141 THE ROLE OF HEAD TEACHER ..................................................................... 142 TEACHERS' OWNERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION IN CPD PLANNING ............... 143 SUPPORT OF SCHOOL MANAGEMENT COMMITTEE AND PARENTS ............... 144 TRANSPARENT PLAN AND BUDGET FOR CPD ............................................. 145 RECOGNITION OF TEACHERS' AGE AND CAREER STAGE ............................. 145 TEACHER SOCIALISATION ........................................................................... 148 ROLE OF PROFESSIONAL TEACHERS' ASSOCIATIONS ................................... 149 COLLABORATIVE LEARNING AND SHARING ................................................ 150 COLLEAGUES .............................................................................................. 153 FEEDBACK, FOLLOW UP SUPPORT AND LINK WITH ANNUAL APPRAISAL .... 154 TEACHER'S PERSONAL BELIEFS................................................................... 155 CHAPTER- VI ............................................................................................. 158 DISCUSSION, SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSION AND POLICY IMPLICATIONS ..................................................................................... 158 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................... 158

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EDUCATION REFORM AND PRIMARY TEACHERS' PERCEPTION OF THEIR EFFECTIVENESS AND CPD ....................................................................................... 158

CPD JOURNEY OF PRIMARY TEACHERS: SITUATED LEARNING ................... 173 FINDINGS .................................................................................................... 178 CONCLUSION ............................................................................................... 181 POLICY AND RESEARCH IMPLICATIONS ....................................................... 182 REFERENCES ............................................................................................. 184 APPENDICES .............................................................................................. 198 APPENDIX 1: TEACHER SURVEY QUESTIONNAIRE ...................................... 198 APPENDIX 2: OPEN-ENDED INTERVIEW QUESTIONS FOR TEACHERS ........... 203 APPENDIX 3: CLASS OBSERVATION/ SELF-REFLECTION FORM FOR TEACHERS ................................................................................................................................ 204 APPENDIX 4: SEMI-STRUCTURED QUESTIONS FOR THE INTERVIEW WITH HEAD TEACHER ................................................................................................................. 208

APPENDIX 5: TEACHER FOCUS GROUP DISCUSSION QUESTIONS ................. 210 APPENDIX 6: PROFILE ANALYSIS OF PARTICIPATING TEACHERS ................ 211 APPENDIX 7: PERSONAL PROFILE OF TEACHERS WHOSE CLASSES WERE OBSERVED .............................................................................................................. 213 APPENDIX 8: DESCRIPTIVE ANALYSIS AND ANOVA OF SELF-PERCEPTION OF EFFECTIVENESS BY AGE.......................................................................................... 215 APPENDIX 9: DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS OF ENABLING FACTORS FOR CPD.. 216 APPENDIX 10: ENABLING FACTORS FOR EFFECTIVE CPD BY TYPE ............ 217 APPENDIX 11: HINDERING FACTORS OF EFFECTIVE CPD............................ 218 APPENDIX 12: HINDERING FACTORS OF EFFECTIVE CPD BY CATEGORY ... 219

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APPENDIX 13: DESCRIPTIVE ANALYSIS AND ANOVA OF SELF-PERCEPTION OF EFFECTIVENESS BY DISTRICT

....................................................................... 220

APPENDIX 14: CROSS TABULATION OF SELF-INITIATED PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT BY GENDER .................................................................................... 220

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: Population and Sample of Teachers by District

Table 2: Demographic Profile of In-depth Interview Participants

Table 3: Reasons for Choosing Teaching as a Career by Percent

Table 4: Participation in Pre-service Teacher Training by Type

Table 5: Chi-square Tests of Access to Information about CPD by Variables

Table 6: Chi-square Test of Participation in CPD by Variables in the Last Five Years 74 Table 7: Types of CPD Participated by Teachers in the Last Five Years

Table 8: Chi-square Test of the Types of CPD Participation in the Last Five Years by Variables

Table 9: Descriptive Statistics of Influential Driving Factors for CPD

Table 10: Significant Test Results of Influential Factors for CPD by Variable

Table 11: Primary Teachers' Beliefs about Influencing Factors over Effective CPD 85 Table 12: Solutions to Primary Teachers’ Barriers to Effective CPD

Table 13: Frequency and Percent of Most Beneficial CPD

Table 14: Teachers' Perceived Contribution of CPD to Students’ Participation and Learning Outcomes

102

Table 15: CPD Opportunities in Schools by Percent

104

Table 16: Characteristics of Effective CPD by Percent

106

Table 17: Suggested Activities for Future CPD Interventions by Percent

109

Table 18: Approach to CPD Delivery

112

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1: Factors That Contribute To Effective CPD

Figure 2: The First Generation Activity Theory

Figure 3: The Three Hierarchical Conception Of Activity

Figure 4: Activity Systems

Figure 5: Situated Learning: Legitimate Peripheral Participation

Figure 6: Zone of Proximal Development

Figure 7: Conceptual Framework: Primary Teachers' Perception and Practice of CPD from Socio-cultural Perspectives

Figure 8: Philosophical Consideration in Research Design

Figure 9: Primary Teachers' Self-perceived Effectiveness

Figure 10: Percent of Teachers Involved in Self-directed CPD

Figure 11: Types of Short CPD Participated in the Last Five Years

Figure 12: Percent of Short CPD by Year

Figure 13: Types of One-off CPD Participated by Teachers in the Last Five Years 79 Figure 14: Organisation of One-off CPD by year

Figure 15: Activity System of Policy Reforms to Improve Primary Teachers' CPD162 Figure 16: Two Interactive Activity Systems

172

Figure 17: Situated Learning Theory and Practice

175

ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS B.Ed

Bachelor of Education

BPEP

Basic and Primary Education Project

CBO

Community Based Organisations

CDC

Curriculum Development Centre

CERID

Centre for Educational Research, Innovation and Development

CPD

Continuing Professional Development

DDC

District Development Committee

DEO

District Education Office

DoE

Department of Education

EFA

Education for All

EMIS

Education Management Information System

I .Ed

Intermediate of Education

ICT

Information and Communication Technology

INGO

International Non-government Organisation

JICA

Japan International Cooperation Agency

L/RC

Lead/ Resource Centre

MoE

Ministry of Education

NCED

National Centre for Educational Development

NELTA

Nepal English Language Teachersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; Association

NGO

Non-governmental Organisation

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NORAD

Norwegian Agency for Development Cooperation

PTA

Parent Teacher Association

Resource Person

SIP

School Improvement Plan

SMC

School Management Committee

School Supervisor

SSR

School Sector Reform Plan

TLMs

Teaching Learning Materials

VDC

Village Development Committee

VSO

Voluntary Service Overseas

ZPD

Zone of Proximal Development

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GLOSSARY OF TERMS

Community

Schools that are funded by the Ministry of Education. They may

School

or may not be managed by the community. The government usually pays the salaries of teachers (who are appointed on approved government quota), provides scholarship and grants for infrastructure development of the schools.

Nijisrot

Teachers who are appointed by the schools' with own resource.

Teachers

Nijiswrot teachers often receive less salary than permanent teachers do. Their salaries may differ from school to school depending on the schools' internal income. Their service years are not counted if they are appointed in permanent positions.

Permanent

Permanent teachers receive salaries from the government; their

Teachers

terms and conditions are according to the government education rules. Permanent teachers enjoy pension, study leave and promotion.

Private

Private schools do not receive any funding from the government.

Schools

Private schools are run by individuals or institutions. For this research, all schools (whether they are for or not for profit making) are considered private schools as long as they do not get funding from the government.

Raahat

Teachers who were appointed by the school on relief quota

Teachers

(raahat) as a temporary measure to address the teacher gap because of unprecedented surge in enrolment. Relief quota teachers' salaries are much less than of permanent teachers.

Temporary

Temporary teachers were appointed by the Ministry of Education.

Teachers

Their terms and conditions are similar to permanent teachers but they may not have facilities of pension or gratuity. They do not have job security.

CHAPTER -I

INTRODUCTION

Background of the Study Teachers play a key role in making education reform efforts successful in improving children's learning outcomes. However, teachers can only be effective in their job if they get opportunities to update their knowledge and skills that are essential to implement the reform objectives, which stimulate, sustain and develop teachers' professional thinking. It has been more than three decades since Nepal started educational reforms to increase the quality of education. Teacher training constitutes one of several strategies adopted by the Government of Nepal to improve the quality of education in public education. Ministry of Education (MoE) has invested a big segment of primary education budget in teacher training. For instance, the MoE has spent more than $ 150 million including external assistance on teacher training since 1972(National Centre for Educational Development, [NCED], 2009). According to NCED (2009), 98.2% of primary teachers employed in approved positions have received a tenmonth teacher-training course and most teachers have received some kinds of recurrent and one-off training. While the government might have met its target to increase the number of trained primary teachers, a pertinent question is whether the government interventions have actually been successful in increasing teachersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; knowledge and understanding of

new instructional techniques and changing teachersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; attitude and classroom teaching practices in order to enhance pupilsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; learning outcomes. Several studies have pointed out shortcomings related to the governmentâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s teacher professional development policies and have argued that the government's policies are fragmented and scattered in different policy documents. NCED (2003) and Centre for Educational Research, Innovation and Development [CERID], (2003) highlighted multi-documentation concept as a contributing factor to poor consistency and confused implementation process of teacher professional development policies. Norwegian Agency for Development Cooperation [NORAD], (2009) asserted that teachers did not get professional supports after the training and they did not get opportunities to share their experience with other trainee teachers, hence, "teachers don't use critical reflection to improve their classroom teaching" (Hoevan, 2008, p. 1). The effort required to change classroom processes has seemingly been underestimated (NORAD, 2009). Continuing Professional Development (CPD) can be any activity that increases teachers' knowledge or understanding and their effectiveness in schools (McNamara, 2008). CPD includes both formal experiences (e.g. attending workshops, seminars, and professional meetings etc.) and informal experiences (e.g. reading professional publications and watching television programmes related to an academic discipline etc.) (Gancer, 2002 as cited in Villegas-Reimers, 2003). CPD provides "opportunities for teachers to explore new roles, develop new instructional techniques, refine their practice and broaden themselves both as educators and as individuals" (Komba, 2005). CPD is an on-going process of education, training, learning and support activities, which take place in either external or work-based settings and engage

qualified educational professionals. CPD is aimed mainly at promoting learning and development of teacher professional knowledge, skills and values. The review of literature found that contents of teacher professional development were developed by central agencies e.g. NCED and the Department of Education (DoE) and cascaded down to district and resource centre levels. The government adopted a deficit model of professional development in which teachers are assumed to be deficient and need outside experts to teach them new modes of working with students. Moreover, international literature emphasises that teachers' professional development should be relevant to teachers' socio-cultural contexts in which they work because social interactions, social observations, cultural values and school culture play a key role in teachers' professional development (Nasir, 2006 p. 156). Teachers' professional development needs and their professional identity evolves over career stages and can be shaped by school, reform and political contexts (Lasky, 2005 p. 168). Based on the literature review, it can be argued that one of the reasons for low professional capacity among primary teachers in Nepal is that CPD interventions have ignored Nepal's diverse and complex socio-cultural contexts. Statement of the Problem Teacher training is one of the highly recognised and financed programmes of the Ministry of Education (MoE). Besides the MoE, development partners and international/national non-government organisations (I/NGOs) have invested a large amount of financial and human resources in teacher training to improve teachers' teaching skills over the last three decades. Yet, several recent studies report little change in primary teachers' teaching practices in the classroom (NCED, 2003; CERID,2003; NORAD, 2009).

Why do most teachers not improve their teaching skills in spite of huge investment in teacher training? Is it a problem of policy implementation or having right policies? Who are responsible for this situation? Some argue that the education sector has been politicised and lack of political will. Others argue that education policies are influenced by donors' agenda; they are not relevant to local contexts. When teachers are criticised for their low performance, it is important to learn how teachers themselves perceive about their performance and professional development. Are teachers being lazy to improve their teaching skills or is it the socio-cultural environments in which they work are to be blamed for their classroom practices? Are teacher professional development interventions appropriate and relevant to their contexts? How much have social, political cultures contributed to teachers' professional development perception and practice? Purpose of the Research The purpose of this two-phase, sequential mixed methods study was to explore how primary teachers' acquire the beliefs, values and attitudes of their professional culture and how they perceive and practice CPD. Specifically, the study aimed to identify the relationship between personal and school characteristics, and teachers' perception of CPD and to explore personal, social and cultural factors that might have contributed to the teachers' perception and practice of CPD. Research Questions 1. How do primary teachers' perceive of instructional practices and continuing professional development (CPD)? What role does socio-cultural context play in teachers' perception? 2. What professional development activities are teachers most engaged in?

2.1. What professional development opportunities are available for primary teachers and how do teachersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; sex and employment terms and condition matter here? 2.2. What self-directed professional activities have primary teachers participated within the period of last five years? 2.3. What professional development activities have primary teachers attended within the period of last five years? 2.4. What factors hinder and enable teachers' CPD? 3. What types of teacher professional development activities do teachers report as being the most beneficial? How does teachers' age matter here? 4. What kind of professional development activities do primary teachers expect from CPD interventions? How does geographical contexts (e.g. rural and urban) influence teachers' preference to CPD? Significance of the Study School Sector Reform Plan of the MoE (2009) has emphasised the need for teacher professional development to improve the quality of education and students' achievements. The policy states, â&#x20AC;&#x153;professional support to teachers will be provided by head teachers, supervisors, master teachers, resource persons, etc. Additional support for professional development will be available through various schemes such as: in-service training, on-line courses, literature on subject matter or teaching process, etcâ&#x20AC;? (MoE, 2009, p. 30). The policy has suggested linking the teacher professional development to career development. Teacher development opportunities will be both long and short-term. Education for All (EFA) Mid Term Review (MTR) noted that "there is an urgent need to put in place a teacher development strategy for

recruitment and deployment that pulls the various strands and interventions into a coordinated and coherent strategy"(MoE, 2007, p. 77). If teachers' perspectives are not in line with the ideas underlying a policy reform, the changes suggested will probably not be put in practice ( Pajares, 1992 as cited in Oolbekkink-Marchand, 2006; CERID, 2003). The findings of this study could contribute to policy dialogue on effective CPD for primary teachers as it provides us with insightful information about primary teachers' needs and their perception of effective CPD. The MoE, policy makers, donors, teacher education institutions, non-government organisations could use the findings to review their teacher development plans and policies. Delimitations For this study, CPD is defined as an on-going process that builds upon initial teacher training and it includes induction and professional development opportunities throughout the teaching career until teachers are retired. At different times and stages one or other may be given priority but the totality can referred to as CPD. Therefore, CPD framework includes pre-service, induction and in-service professional development activities. Pre-service (initial) teacher education is considered as the first step of a longer process of CPD. Structure of the Study This study has been organised in six chapters. The first chapter introduces the intention and context of the study. This chapter provides the introduction, statement of problems, the purpose and significance of the study. The second chapter provides an overview of relevant literature related to teacher CPD. The third chapter gives the information on research paradigm, philosophical consideration in research design, population and sampling, method of

data collection and research triangulation. This fourth chapter includes the data analysis and interpretation of quantitative data collected from survey questionnaire and classroom observation forms. Teachers' perception and practice of CPD, CPD opportunities, barriers and approach to CPD delivery are some of the topics discussed in this chapter. The fifth chapter illustrates the analysis of qualitative data collected from open-ended interviews with nine teachers, class observations, focus group discussions, and semi-focused interviews with secondary and tertiary stakeholders. Finally, the sixth chapter presents the discussion, summary of findings, conclusion and implications for teacher policies and future research.

CHAPTER -II

LITERATURE REVIEW

This chapter reviews national and international literature relevant to the subject area of this research into teachers' perception and practice of CPD. First, the literature on the concept of CPD is reviewed with a critical investigation of the different aspects of CPD commonly interpreted. Second, in order to focus on research questions of the study, an attempt was made to review the literature on characteristics of effective CPD with special focus on socio-cultural perspectives. Furthermore, this chapter reviews the literature relevant to what socio-cultural environments best promote teachers' professional development and which CPD model is considered by teachers most effective in influencing their classroom practice. The literature review contributed to the research question formation and data analysis of this study. Continuing Professional Development (CPD) CPD is necessary for all teachers throughout their career in order to keep pace with change and to review and renew their own knowledge, skills and vision for good teaching. There is an extensive and diverse literature on CPD. Research into teacher professional development has shifted significantly over the recent years, as the concept of teaching and learning has moved from process-product perspectives that focus on teaching as a technical transmission activity to conceptions of teaching as requiring conceptualized decision-making (Eisner, 2002, as cited in Schnellert, 2007). Much of the early literature focuses on methods of staff development that follow a "training paradigm" (Little, 1993) in which three main domains of human

development, namely knowledge, skills and attitudes were highlighted (p 175). For example, the definitions provided by Criag (1987) and Harris (1989), clearly indicate the focus on the three domains as a means of improving the teaching-learning process so that children's learning could be enhanced ( as cited in Lalitha, 2005, p. 34). Craig (1987) described professional development as, "the process by which individuals increase their understanding and knowledge and improve their skills and abilities to perform better in their current position or to prepare themselves for a position to which they can realistically aspire in the near future" (as cited in Lalitha, 2005, p. 37).Harris (1989) defines professional development as a process that improves the job-related knowledge, skills, or attitudes of employees (as cited in Lalitha, 2005, p. 35). Both Craig's and Harris's definition assumed that professional development would lead to the outcomes of the job well done. Furthermore, they emphasised the need for incorporating various principles, approaches, methods and human and physical resources to achieve the intended outcomes of CPD. Expectation from the teacher development was on operational improvement in individual teachers rather than on children's learning outcomes. Day's (1999) definition of CPD draws on elements that are relevant to this study: CPD consists of all natural learning experiences and those conscious and planned activities which are intended to be of direct or indirect benefit to the individual, group or school and which contribute through these to the quality of education in the classroom. It is the process by which, alone and with others, teachers review, renew and extend their commitment as change agents to the moral purpose of teaching; and by which they acquire and develop critically the knowledge, skills and emotional intelligence essential to good

professional thinking, planning and practice with children, young people and colleagues through each phase of their teaching lives (Day 1999, p. 4). Day ( 1997) emphasised the importance of conceptualising CPD as "multidimensional, a dynamic interplay between teachers' stages of biographical and situated experience, environmental factors, career, life and lifelong learning phases (as cited in Day & Sachs, 2004, p. 53). Day argued that teachers learn naturally over the course of a career. However, it can be argued that learning from experience alone, will ultimately limit teachers' professional development. In Day's (1999) views, the provision of time and opportunity as well as the dispositions and abilities of teachers to learn from colleagues within the workplace and from others outside the school are key factors in CPD (p. 20). Similarly, Grant's (1996) argues that CPD ... goes beyond the term 'training' with its implications of learning skills, and encompasses a definition that includes formal and informal means of helping teachers not only learn new skills but also develop new insights into pedagogy and their own practice, and explore new or advanced understandings of content and resources ( p. 174). With the new conception of teachers as professionals, and of their preparation as being a lifelong learning process, teachers are no more considered passive participants but they are actively involved in their own growth and development as teachers (Villegas-Reimers, 2003, p. 53). Therefore, "the concept of teacher 'training', whether pre-service or in-service, is no longer fitting" (VillegasReimers, 2003, p. 65). In recent literature, CPD has been considered as an ongoing, intentional and systemic process, which contributes and responds to the demands of teachers' social change and socio-cultural contexts in which they work.

According Villegas-Reimers (2003), the most effective teacher professional development is the one, which is based in school and is related to the daily activities of teachers and students and conceived as a collaborative process. For instance, peer study groups, peer observation, action research and many others. The most effective professional development occurs when there are meaningful interactions not only among teachers themselves but also between teachers, administrators, students and community members. Building on VillegasReimers' (2003) conclusion, Wong and Tsui (2007) noted that teacher professional development should be situated in an environment where teachers teach; in other words, in the daily practice of teachers. Easton (2008) went one-step further and argued that "training", "development" and "learning" suggest different concepts. According to Easton (2008) "training" somehow indicates the factory model of education, whereas, the word "development" may be an improvement, but just a small one. Easton (2008) argues that professional development is not enough and professional learning is required, teachers must know enough in order to change. They must become learners, and they must be self-developing. As one of the objectives of this study is to find out what types of factors contribute to teachers effective CPD, the following section presents the literature on contributing factors to effective CPD. Factors Contributing to Effective CPD Day(1999) suggested teachers' personal factors( life history, career phase), professional learning culture of school, external influences (e.g. government policies , media's positive or negative position towards teachers' professional identities ), support from the school management and leadership as well as support of and

relationship with colleagues determines the effectiveness of CPD. The following figure presents Day's (1999) conceptual framework for the factors that contribute to teachers' effective professional development. Figure 1: Factors that Contribute to Effective CPD Life history

Professional learning

Career phase

biography of individual teacher

Professional

Learning attitudes,

External influences;

learning culture of

values, preferences,

government agencies,

school

teaching practices

media

Support from school

Quality of

leader, colleagues, and

professional learning

other agencies

activities

Effectiveness of learning

Source: Adapted from (Day, 1999, p. 4) Day (1999) stressed that CPD must motivate teachers to learn, both collectively and individually. Strengthening teachers' responsibility in professional development and sense of efficacy, in order that they become more confident in, and more committed to, their own learning because that is the best way to develop those qualities in pupils.

CPD that focuses on academic subject matter (content), gives teachers opportunities for â&#x20AC;&#x153;hands-onâ&#x20AC;? work (active learning), and is integrated into the daily life of the school (coherence), is more likely to produce enhanced knowledge and skills (Garet et al., 2001, p. 935). Garet et al (2001) argued that sustained and intensive CPD is more likely to have an impact than shorter professional development. According to them, the following structural features significantly affect teacher learning: (a) the form of the activity (e.g. workshop vs. study group); (b) collective participation of teachers from the same school, grade, or subject and (c) the duration of the activity (p. 918). The shift has led to a focus on how teachers' knowledge and beliefs mediate their behaviour in classroom. Schnellert et al. (2007) contented that teachers could make situated changes that foster students achievement when they engage in the construction and implementation of situated assessment practices; set, tailor, and monitor context-specific goals for students and themselves; have opportunities to work collaboratively and are engaged as partner. "Trainees" participation was missing before and after the training, which hindered transfer of training in the classroom (Full Bright, 2003). When most teachers are excluded from the development process of new reforms and they are trained in new knowledge and skills, Hargreaves (1995) argued "they often resist or reject the new knowledge and skills. They sometimes select the bits that suit them or delay acceptance of new reforms until other innovations supersede them" ( As cited in Bantwini, 2009) The key factors that have featured in the literature are -opportunities for teachers work collaboratively, context specific CPD interventions and opportunities for teachers to experiment new ideas. The following section presents the literature

review on self-directed CPD, which contributed to this study to look into the primary teachers' practice of self-directed CPD. Self-Directed CPD Self-initiated CPD activities are defined as experiences that teachers initiated and participated in that, in their perceptions, resulted in the development of their professional knowledge and skills. In this type of CPD activities, teachers themselves identify a goal that they consider to be of importance to them- either individually or in small groups. Teachers themselves take full responsibility for their own professional development. The role of head teachers and administrators is to facilitate, guide and support the teachers' initiatives. Lohaman and Woolf (2001) have classified self-initiated CPD into three types - knowledge exchanging, experimenting and environmental scanning. Participation in these activities is influenced by the availability of resources, physical layout and level of centralisation in their schools. Professional learning experiences for teachers that explicitly foster self-regulating processes can result in enhanced awareness of links between instructional practices and students' learning outcomes (Butler, 2005, cited in Schnellert et al. 2007, p. 3). Van Eekelen, Vermunt and Boshuizen (2006) noted that ‘‘a will to learn’’ must be present before teachers engage in actual learning activities. They proposed three different manifestations of "the will to learn" to characterize teachers' willingness to learn: those who do not see the need to learn; those who wonder how to learn; and those who are eager to learn. Gaible et al. (2005) argued that self-directed activities are "most effective with teachers who are self-motivated and who have already developed teaching skills and subject mastery". Self-directed activities are effective when they are part of an

overall professional development programme that includes standardized or site-based teacher professional development. Van Ekelen et al. (2006) and Gaible et al. (2005) have raised a critical question about self-directed CPD which suggest that teachers would not change their teaching practices just by participating in self-directed CPD that was part of bureaucratic requirements ( e.g. to meet certain grades). Terehoff (2000) stressed those teachers as adult learners discover that they are capable of self-direction in learning, as they are in other activities in their life, they often experience a remarkable increase of motivation to learn and strong desire to continue the learning process. In order to understand the teachers' perception and practices, it is important to acknowledge that teachers are adult learners who learn differently than pupils. Their learning is influenced by different external factors as well. Adult learning theory was frequently mentioned in the literature of CPD. The following section discusses the literature on adult learning theory and their significance in effective CPD. Adult Learning Theory According to adult learning theory, adults will be committed to learn when they find CPD activities are related to their daily activities and relevant. Adult learners will commit to learning when the goals and objectives are realistic and important to them. Adult learners need direct and concrete experiences in which they can apply the learning in real work (Speck, 1996). Adult learning have ego involved. Therefore, professional development must be structured to provide support from peers and to reduce the fear of judgement during learning. Besides, adult learners want to know how they are progressing and the results of their efforts, therefore, any professional activities that they are involved without a provision of feedback on their performance are likely not have any impact

on their teaching skills and practice Speck (1996).Teachers want to have structured, regular and useful feedback from experts and head teachers. As adult learners, teachers are encouraged to identify their own individual professional development needs and take steps to address them so that they become effective and sustainable (Loxley, 2007 p. 68). Adult learners come to learning with pre-occupied knowledge and their interest in learning is influenced by their experience (positive or negative), therefore, professional development activities should be developed on the base of their previous experience, knowledge, interests and competencies. The most importantly, adult learner may enjoy learning but they do not implement the learning automatically, they need reinforcement and must be facilitated. Therefore, coaching and other kinds of follow up support are necessary to help adult learners transfer learning into their daily practice so that they are sustained. Collaborative learning and community of practice have been highlighted as one of the most effective CPD activities, which empower teachers to take responsibility for their own learning and address context specific challenges. Collaborative Learning and Community of Practice In a good teacher professional development, teachers are enabled to learn from each other. In a number of the top systems, â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;particularly those in Japan and Finland teachers work together, plan their lessons jointly, observe each other's lessons and help each other improveâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; (Barber & Mourshed, 2007, p. 30). There is a culture of collaborative learning; peer coaching is a norm of school life. In Bertrand's (2006) study, vertical team initiative was viewed as a collaborative effort to improve student achievement. Teachers reported that they were able to discuss a uniform manner of instruction that led to more uniform assessments

of student achievement (p. 5). Teachers stated that they were able to build on each other's strengths as they shared ideas and strategies they were using in the classrooms. In the Netherlands, Meirink, Meijer and Verloop (2007) looked at activities that teachers undertook in collaborative settings and examined how these learning activities related to change in behaviour and teaching practice. They concluded that in collaboration, people could generate or create things, which could not have been generated or created by one individual. Reflective Practice Reflective practice involves thoughtfully considering one's own experiences in applying knowledge to practice while being coached by professionals in the discipline (Schon, 1987 cited in Ferraro, 2000). Reflective practice has also been defined in terms of action research. Kettle and Sellars (1996) studied the development of third-year teaching students and they found that the use of peer reflective groups encouraged students teachers to challenge existing theories and their own preconceived views of teaching while modelling for them a collaborative style of professional development that would be useful throughout their teaching careers (as cited in Ferraro, 2000). Woods (2002) carried out a study that investigated the processes by which primary teachers in the early years of teaching (two years of teaching experience) interpreted their situations. The findings revealed that teachers who change their practice progressively increased in their depth of reflection on their teaching; moreover, they appropriately interpreted their studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; intentions and mathematical thinking. Six primary school teachers in their early years were involved in a professional development approach in which they were learning to create mathematics classrooms similar to those envisioned in the reform effort.

Effective reflection is a highly constructivist approach to reflection which focuses on issues of concern that are relevant to the practitioner (Loughran, 2002, as cited in Eick & Dias, 2005). Therefore, Zeichner and Liston (1996) argue that effective reflection practice acts as a bridge between teachers' immediate problems and more critical reflection that broadens their understanding of ways to enhance their teaching and learning practice (Eick & Dias, 2005, p. 130). Lohman and Woolf (2001) talk about different types of learning â&#x20AC;&#x201C; non-learning, non-reflective learning and reflective learning which are hierarchical, with reflective learning representing a higher level of learning than the other two. Non-learning occurs in a situation where a person responds in a routine way, is too preoccupied to consider a response, or rejects the opportunity to learn. And non reflective learning occurs when individuals unconsciously internalise something, repeatedly practise a new skill, or memorise information. Reflective learning occurs when individuals consider, reflectively think about and review their actions or actively experiment. (Lohman, 2001, p. 59). CPD from Socio-Cultural Perspective How we learn, how we talk, what we believe and what we value are all both unique to us and to each occasion but also usually somehow typical of people who have led lives like ours: people of our time, place, gender, class, linguistic, ethnic groups, and all the cultures of communities in which we have lived. Our individual ways of making meaning are different according to not only how we presented ourselves but also how we were seen and treated by others. Because communities also organise themselves through conflict as well as through cooperation, we are often prevented from learning to see the world as some other members of our community see it.

Learman (2001) argued that the interaction between the individual and the real world is regulated and transformed by the use of symbolic materials, cultural tools. Therefore, while studying teachers' perception and practice of professional development, we need to examine how social factors and different dimensions of identity (ethnicity, gender, age etc.) affect. People are positioned in practices as powerful or powerless according to the structure of the discourse and the personal histories of the participants. â&#x20AC;&#x153;Cultural traditions and social practices regulate, express and transform the human psycheâ&#x20AC;? (Lerman, 2001, p. 160). Bourdieu (1977) introduced the concept of cultural capital and symbolic capital. According to Bourdieu, cultural capital is knowledge, internalised codes (schema), or cognitive components (resources) equipping social agents to interpret cultural artefacts and relations accumulated through a long process. Symbolic capital refers to the degree of honour that one might accumulate based on the dialectic between knowledge and negotiation. Bourdieu interpreted a field as a site at which resources and cultural schema exist dialectically with cultural and social structures: a site at which culture is enacted. Milne, Scantlebury and Otieno (2006) did a study on a science disciplinebased professional education programme on an understanding of teacher change in terms of an agency and structure dialectic from socio-cultural perspective. They examined the role of "cultural schema" and resources in the enactment of new pedagogical structures. They argued that if a professional development programme allows teachers a chance to examine new resources and schema, which are not part of teachers' dispositions, then "these experiences may widen teachers' content knowledge and provide alternatives for action, hence, altering teachers' agency and advocating teacher change" (p. 328).

National Policies on Primary Teachers’ CPD in Nepal This section reviews the government policies on teacher’s professional development with its brief history. Education reform projects such as Education for Rural Development, also known as SETI project, Primary Education Project [PEP] in 1980s and Basic and Primary Education Project [BPEP], initiated in 1992 emphasized on improving primary teachers’ academic qualification and pedagogic knowledge. Subsequently , the Education for All national implementation plan (2004-2009) aimed at increasing percentage of fully trained primary teachers employed on approved positions in community schools to 99% by 2009 (NCED, 2009). NCED claims that 98.2% of primary teachers employed in approved teacher positions have received 10-month inservice teacher (NCED, 2009). The MoE has acknowledged the issue of effectiveness of teacher professional development programmes, and has prioritised the plan to increase teachers’ teaching skills in the School Sector Reform Plan [SSRP], 2009-2015. For instance, the SSRP has set I.Ed. or a higher secondary education certificate with a relevant teacher preparation course as a minimum qualification for a primary teacher. If serving teachers have a qualification of SLC or below, they will have to choose one of the following options: a) teaching lower grades (1-3 grades) until retirement, or b) upgrading qualification to the minimum level in five years in which case NCED will work with the academic institutions to offer courses to upgrade teacher’s minimum qualification, or c) opt for voluntary retirement in which case the DoE will develop a voluntary retirement package’ (MoE, 2009, p. 17). According to the new teachers professional development handbook (NCED, 2009), all serving teachers will receive CPD courses of 30 days delivered in three

modules within the next 5 years. CPD courses for teachers will be delivered through 1053 Resource Centres (NCED, 2009). NCED has proposed a new Teacher Professional Development (TPD) strategy to be on-the-job/school â&#x20AC;&#x201C;based and cluster-based teacher development model that will be co-ordinated at school and cluster level. According to the NCED, the policy aims at involving teachers in identifying their professional learning needs and increasing teachersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; professional accountability (2009). The policy is ambitious in many ways, for example, it proposes to have school-based professional development activities and expect RPs to organise a formal school visit at least for two days and expect school management committee, students, head teachers and teachers to involve in planning teachers' professional development. Moreover, it proposes that CPD contents, curriculum, teaching materials are developed by the TPD hubs. The policy has tried to include good practices and learning from international literature but challenge is how to implement the policy. For example, the policy relies heavily on head teachers and resource persons to implement the plan but most head teachers have themselves not received any training. Resource centres are not resourceful; resource persons have not had training skills. Changing the policy alone will not bring about changes in teachers' attitude and practice. The head teacher's involvement in school based professional development and his or her capacity to engage staff members in CPD is crucial. For this, head teachers should be capable of creating favourable learning and sharing environment at school level (Penuel et al, 2007; Terehoff, 2000).

Empirical Studies on CPD in Nepal The researcher reviewed research reports and theses, which are related to the topic of this study. There was limited literature on CPD in academic research, particularly on primary teachers. Gnawali (2001) studied teacher development for the secondary school teachers of English and presented his findings from two perspectives: a. the learners; b. current teacher training and classroom practices. In terms of teacher training and classroom practices, he noted that teaching was highly influenced by traditional methods, use of prescribed textbooks only and teacher training was focused on methodology with no follow-up, no training on self development and classroom research as a missing agenda. He highlighted that there was absence of reflective practice and collaborative culture to encourage teacher development and proposed a teacher development programme incorporating in-service training and classroom based follow-up with special reference to classroom observation and action research. Bhatta (2009) in his research on "Classroom observation and feedback for teacher professional development" concluded that very few of the secondary level EFL teachers in Nepal were involved in classroom observation and feedback for their professional development. He found that teachers were eager to adapt peer observation if the government changed its policy and made it mandatory; teachers were pre-occupied with the evaluative nature of classroom observation due to which it was not a regular practice among EFL teachers in Nepal. He criticised the government and schools administration for not being serious about encouraging teachers to get involved in classroom observation and feedback. Similarly, in a study on "Primary English language teacher's professional development", Bhattarai (2011) aimed at exploring different strategies of professional

development adopted by primary English language teachers in Lalitpur district. He noted that teachers were aware and positive for their professional development and tried to adopt varieties of assisted and self-assisted professional development strategies. He found that primary teachers reported update their professional skills by attending training workshops/ trainings, undergoing formal courses at the university and peer observation, informal discussions, individual reading, using the library, reading newspapers, journals, maintaining teaching portfolios, individual writing, involving in school and societal activities. However, he concluded that professional development was not teachers' regular practice. Biswa (2010) argued in his thesis that there was a paradoxical line between perceptions and practice of teacher development amongst EFL teachers. They perceived teacher development and tools of teacher professional development as very useful concepts but contrastingly the practice side was almost void. Some of the reasons for teachers not being involved in professional development included "lack of time", "lack of knowledge" and "lack of direction and facilitation from the school administrations". Thapa's (2007) study on "Transfer of teacher training skills in the classroom situation" concluded that teacher training failed to convince the trainee-teachers that planning and creating conducive learning environment were teachers' responsibilities. His findings showed that planning for teaching and preparation of instructional materials for lessons was non-existent in all the sample schools. Poor physical facilities of the schools, lack of instructional materials, and little fund for purchasing them, lack of collaborative culture among teachers were identified as the factors that hindered transfer of training skills in the actual classroom. This study was limited to three districts: Tanahun, Kathmandu and Bhaktapur.

While all studies except Bhattrai (2011) were focused on secondary teachers and English language teachers. Interestingly, the most recent studies have highlighted similar challenges in bringing changes in teachers' classroom practices. For instance, Gnawali (2001) highlighted lack of follow up and reflective practices yet Bishwa (2010) and Bhattrai (2011) reported no change in classroom practices, which question if any teacher professional development interventions over the years were developed on teachers' needs. From socio-cultural perspectives, the researcher expected similar results in terms of primary teachers' perception and practice of CPD because they share the same socio-cultural contexts. Wagley and Panta (2003) studied on teacher development of secondary teachers. They concluded that there were not many teacher development opportunities available for teachers. They did not find any tendency of peer observations and exchanging of ideas among teachers. Monthly meetings held in some schools were concentrated on administrative affairs rather than teacher development issues. The teachers did not have access to any reference materials other than the textbooks. METCON (2004) carried out a study to establish an integrated teacher support system to enhance the quality of education by meeting teachers' needs for their professional, personal, and academic advancement and growth. This study mainly focused on the issues around teachers' needs, demands, and expectations, actual support available to teachers, teacher support institutions. The research concluded that induction training at the time of entry into the teaching, management of physical facilities and creation of learning environment, availability of teaching materials, appropriate class size and work load for teachers would help teachers' professional development. In relation to their professional development, teachers

expected support in acquisition and consolidation of pedagogical skills, refresher training prior to beginning of academic sessions, classroom based supervision and demonstration lesson, regular meetings of teachers and interaction programmes of selected schools, teacher exchange programme and identification and utilization of expertise locally available (METCON, 2004, p. 14). This study looked at supply side of professional development and did not study what teachers themselves do to enhance their professional skills. Teachers seem to be engaged in "single loop learning" (Argyris and Schon, 1974 cited in Day, 1999), which attempts to respond to new situations and improve quality without changing their framework of assumptions. Discussion and Conclusion In spite of government's investment and priority to increase primary teachersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; teaching skills to improve the quality of education and studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; learning outcomes over the decades, little changes have been observed in classroom practice. Based on the literature, it can be argued that government's teacher professional development plans were often led by policy targets (e.g. all primary teachers being trained by 2010). The policies were based on a deficit model of teacher professional development, whereby teachers were considered as passive recipients and they had little say about the contents of the programme. There is consensus among researchers in the literature that CPD is a long-term process that includes regular opportunities (formal and informal) and experiences planned systematically to promote growth and development of teachersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; professional skills. In good CPD, teachers are enabled to learn from each other (Barber, 2007 p. 94). When teachers are excluded from the development process of new reforms and they are trained in new knowledge and skills, "they often resist or reject the new

knowledge and skills. They sometimes select the bits that suit them or delay acceptance of new reforms until other innovations supersede them"(Hargreaves, 1995, as cited in Bantwini, 2009). Success of CPD is more likely where "people act rather than are always reacting, are empowered, involved in decision-making through transparent, facilitative and supportive structures and are trusted, respected, encouraged and valued"( Mulford 2003, cited in Harrison, 2004, p. 10). CPD must be structured to provide support from peers and to reduce the fear of judgement during learning. Good CPD provides opportunities for teachers to explore new roles, develop new instructional techniques, refine their practice and broaden themselves both as educators and as individuals" (Komba, 2005). Teachers as adult learners want to know how they are progressing and the results of their efforts, therefore, any professional development activities that they are involved without a provision of feedback on their performance are likely not have little impact on their teaching skills and practice. Most importantly, teachers' perception and practice of CPD are influenced by socio-cultural contexts in which they work. Therefore, this study is based on socioculture theories, particularly activity theory, situated learning and Zone of Proximal Development ( ZPD) and the following section discusses then in details.

Theoretical Framework: Socio-cultural Theory Socio-cultural theory stems from the early work of Russian psychologist, Lev Vygotsky (1978). The major theme of Vygotsky's theoretical framework is that social interaction plays a fundamental role in the development of cognition. Socio-cultural theorists recognise the essential and inseparable roles of cultural tools, social activities, and individual efforts in learning. Socio-cultural theory is based on the notion that learning and knowledge are situated within the context in which they occur. According to Vygotsky (1978), people's intellectual development cannot be understood without taking account of their environment and the interaction that occur within the environment (Rogoff, 1990, as cited in Caudle, 2010, p. 10). Two socio-cultural theories viz. activity theory and situated learning theory, which are particularly relevant to this study, are discussed below. Activity Theory Vygotsky's argument that discourse and other tools mediate activities was expanded even further by his students, Leont'ev and Luria, and the collection of their ideas contributed to what is now known as an activity theory. Activity theory is a philosophical and cross-disciplinary theory offering a framework for studying different forms of human practices as development process, with both individual and social levels interlinked at the same time. According to Engerstrรถm (2000) ,activity theory provides a set of perspectives from linking social and individual planes, and therefore, it can over come aged dichotomies between micro and macro, quantitative and qualitative, observations and interventions (as cited in Ng, 2009, p. 27 ).

Activity theory argues that activities are goal-oriented and occurs within collective, social systems that comprised of interrelated components ( Engesttrom, 2000, as cited in Caudle, 2010, p. 12). Activity theory has evolved through three generations of research (Engesttrom, 2000). The first generation drew heavily on Vygotsky's (1978) conception of mediation. The idea was crystallised in Vygotsky's famous triangular model in which the conditioned direct connection between stimulus (S) and responses (R) was transcended by a complex mediated act. Vygotsky considered that “higher mental functions are, by definition, culturally mediated.” Social processes give rise to individual processes and both are essentially mediated by artefacts (Atwell, 2009). Furthermore, Vygotsky held that “environment cannot be regarded as a static entity and one which is peripheral in relation to development, but must be seen as changeable and dynamic.” The first generation of activity theory took Vygotsky's idea of artefact-mediated and object-oriented action and reformulated it as follows: Figure 2: The First Generation Activity Theory Tool

Subject

Object

Transformation

Outcome

process In the 1st generation activity theory, an activity is composed of a subject, and an object, mediated by a tool. A subject is a person or a group engaged in an activity. An object is held by the subject and motivates activity, giving it a specific goal. The mediation can occur through many different types of tools, material tools as well as metal tools, including culture, ways of thinking and language. As opposed to

cognitive psychology, which focuses on the study of the individual as a separate entity, in activity theory the unit of analysis is an activity. The limitation of the first generation was that the unit of analysis remained individually focused; there was no recognition of the part played by other human beings and social relations in the triangular model of action. This was overcome by the second generation, based on Leont'ev's work (1978). Leont'ev extended the theory by adding several features based on the need to separate individual action from collective. The figure 3 presents the three hierarchical conception of activity proposed by Lenot'ev. Figure 3: The Three Hierarchical Conception Of Activity

Source: Lave and Wenger, 1991; Ng and Renshaw, 2009, p.27. Leont've (1978) distinguished between operation, action and activity, as three different levels of human practices. Operations are routine or automatized acts and practices that we enact without paying much conscious attention. Actions are goal directed tasks that we engage in more consciously and intentionally. An activity is a broader socio-cultural frame within which actions and operations are nested (Lave & Wenger, 1991; Ng & Renshaw, 2009, p.27). In other words, an activity does not just exist in the abstract. It is concretely realised by actions; actions are oriented toward the goals of the acting (individual, collective) subject of activity. Roth( 2011) argues

that there is constitutive relation between activity and actions. Activities are oriented toward explicit (conscious) object/motives and actions toward equally explicit goals. In relation to Leont'ev, Engestrรถm (1999) advocates the study of tools or artefacts as integral and inseparable components of human functioning. He argues that the focus of the study of mediation should be on its relationship with the other components of an activity system. The third generation of activity theory takes joint activity or practice (rather than individual activity or practice) as the unit of analysis for activity theory. The initial theory was reconfigured by the addition of rules, community and the division of labour and renamed as the activity system. As activity system is a way of visualising the total configuration of an activity as follows: Figure 4: Activity Systems

Triangular representation of the tool mediated relationship between a subject, and an object, is situated in a system that contains 'rules', 'community' and 'division of labour'. Rules are principles, values, norms that govern the structure of interactions and mediation. Community refers to the collection of participants who share a

common interest on the same object or are involved in the subject-tool-object relationship. The relationship between subject and the community is mediated by rules. Rules cover both implicit and explicit norms, conventions and social relations within a community as related to the transformation process of the object into an outcome. The relationship between object and community is mediated by the division of labour: how the activity is distributed among the members of the community. That is, the role each individual in the community plays in the activity, the power each yields and the tasks each is held responsible for. Each of the mediating terms is historically formed and opens to further development ( Kuutti, 1996). The contextual systemic contradictions and the nature of each individual component in an activity system can create tensions within a system. Systemic contradictions exist beyond the instance of a single activity; but they also exist within the context of the activity. Tensions can affect the subject's ability to attain the object by taking a role of an obstacle, making it difficult for the subject to attain the object, or by taking a role as an enabling influence for the subject to attain the object. (Cheng, Mok & Tusi, 2001). Kaptelinin (1996) presented a set of principles of activity theory that constitutes a general conceptual system. The most fundamental principle of activity theory is that of the unity of consciousness and activity. "Consciousness" in this expression means the human mind as a whole, and "activity" means human interaction with the objective reality. This principle, therefore, states that the human mind emerges and exists as a special component of human interaction with the environment.

The principle of "object-orient Lave and Wenger, 1991; Ng and Renshaw, 2009, p.27. edness" states that human beings live in a reality that is objective in a broad sense: the things that constitute this reality have not only the properties that are considered objective according to natural sciences but socially/culturally defined properties as well. The third basis principle of activity theory is the hierarchical structure of activity. The unit of analysis is an activity directed at an object, which motivates activity, giving it a specific direction. Activities are composed of goal-directed actions that must be undertaken to fulfil the object. Actions are conscious, and different actions may be undertaken to meet the same goal. An individual can and usually does participate in several activities simultaneously. The fourth principle of activity theory is that of internalizationexternalization. It emphasizes internal activities cannot be understood if they are analyzed separately from external activities, because they transform into each other. Internalization is the transformation of external activities into internal ones. Internalization provides a means for people to try potential interactions with reality without performing actual manipulation with real objects The fifth principle is mediation. Activity theory emphasizes that human activity is mediated by tools in a broad sense. Tools are created and transformed during the development of the activity itself and carry with them a particular culture historical remains from their development. Therefore, the use of tools is an accumulation and transmission of social knowledge. Tool use influences the nature of external behaviour and the mental functioning of individuals. The last principle is the principle of development. According to activity theory, to understand a phenomenon means to know how it developed into its existing

form. The principle of development is an opportunity to conduct thorough, scientific analysis of complex phenomenon while avoiding mechanistic over simplifications. Activity theory is useful for understanding the process of learning to teach, particularly in illuminating how teachers update their knowledge and skills and how they decide pedagogical tools to inform and conduct their teaching. This framework focuses attention on the predominant value systems and social practices that characterise the settings in which teachers teach (Grossman et al, 1999, as cited in Cochran-Smith, Feiman-Nemser, McIntyre, & Demers, 2008, p. 1027). Situated Learning Theory Learning through a socio-cultural perspective can best be understood through the analysis of three interconnected planes: personal, interpersonal, and community. By engaging in cultural activities within a community, individuals can transform their thinking and responsibilities through an ongoing process known as "participatory appropriation" (Rogoff, 1995). Lave and Wenger's ( 1991) situated learning theory reflects the principles of socio-cultural theory that are the foundation of learning and claims learning and knowing are social, situated, shared, distributed ( Putnam & Borko, 2000). Lave and Wenger (1991) argue that learning is situated; that is, as it normally occurs, learning is embedded within activity, context and culture. It is also usually unintentional rather than deliberate. They called this process "legitimate peripheral participation" (Lave & Wenger, 1991, p. 29). Knowledge needs to be presented in authentic contexts- settings and situations that would normally involve the knowledge. Social interaction and collaboration are essential components of situated learning- learners become involved in a "community of practice" which embodies certain beliefs and behaviour to be

acquired. As the beginner or novice moves from the periphery of a community to its centre, he or she becomes more active and engaged within the culture eventually assumes the role of expert. Situated learning is related to Vygotsky notion of learning through social development. Figure 5: Situated Learning: Legitimate Peripheral Participation

The key components of the situated learning model are stories, reflection, cognitive apprenticeship, collaboration, coaching, multiple practices, articulation of learning skills and technology (McLellan, 1996, p. 7). Stories. Stories are very important for situated learning and for the social construction of knowledge. Narratives play a vital role in the transfer of information and discoveries and stories help people keep track of their discoveries. Reflective. Reflective is a vitally important component of situated learning. Some conscious thoughtful time to stand apart from the work itself- is an essential activity that must take place at key points throughout the work. The activity evokes insights and nurtures revisions in our plans (McLellan, 1996). The proper social interaction with other players and teachers to ensure that there is guidance and

feedback, so that the activity is a true learning, coaching, training activity- so that it is educational. Cognitive apprenticeship. Brown, Collins and Duguid ( 1989) proposed the notion of cognitive apprenticeship which tries to acculturate students into authentic practices through activity and social interaction in a way similar to that evident and evidently successful. Collaboration. Collaborative learning is also a vital aspect of situated learning. Brown, Collins and Duguid (1989) suggested the following strategies for promoting collaborative learning: 1) Collective problem solving; 2) displaying multiple roles; 3) comforting ineffective strategies and misconceptions; and 4) providing collaborative work skills. Coaching. Coaching is central to situated learning. This consists of observing teachers while they carry out a task, providing a "guide on the side" who intervenes and provides scaffolding for learning to progress when necessary, but otherwise fades into the background, providing teachers with opportunities for initiative and selfdirected problem solving. Multiple practices. Skills are polished through practice, rather than teachers teaching what they already know how to do, all must be led to continually into new work and unfamiliar territory. Repeated practice serves to test, refine, and extend skills into a web of increasing expertise in a social context of collaboration and reflection. Articulation of learning skills. Articulation includes two aspects. First, it refers to the concept of articulating or separating out different component skills in order to learn them more effectively. Second, by articulating thinking and problem-

solving processes, teachers come to a better understanding of their thinking processes and they are better able to explain things to themselves and to others. Technology. Technology is another central consideration in the situated learning model because technology expands the power and flexibility of the resources that can be deployed to support the various components of situated learning. For example, video recorders, computers can be utilised to replay, teachers' classroom practice for purposes of reflection and coaching (Leonard, 2002). Similarly, Vygotsky introduced the concept of zone of proximal development (ZPD), a dynamic region of sensitivity to learning the skills of culture, in which individuals develop through participation in problem solving with more experienced members of the culture (Rogoff, 199, as cited in Caudle, 2010, p. 10). Figure 6: Zone of Proximal Development

The ZPD can be broadly defined as "a space within which individuals collaborate on activities which they cannot successfully complete alone, it is uniquely created in the course of each specific activity or setting through tool-mediated

interactions between participants in the activity and involves transformations of understanding, behaviour and identity" ( Sainsbury and Walker, 2011, p. 271). In other words, the zone of proximal development presupposes an interaction between a more competent person and a less competent person on a task, such that the less competent person becomes independently proficient at what was initially a jointly-accomplished task"(Chaiklin, 2003, p. 2).There are four stages of the ZPD. These include (1) where performance is assisted by more capable others, (2) where performance is assisted by the self, (3) where performance is developed, automatised, and "fossilized", and (4) where de-automatisation of performance leads to recursion back through the ZPD. Chaiklin (2003) highlighted three main aspects of the zone of proximal development- generality assumption (i.e., applicable to learning all kinds of subject matter), assistance assumption (learning is dependent on interventions by a more competent other), and potential assumption (property of learner, which enables best and easiest learning) (p. 2). If we replace the position of a child with a teacher, the generality assumption focuses on the idea that as a professional, a teacher is able to perform a certain number of tasks alone while in collaboration, it is possible to perform a greater number of tasks. The second aspect assistance assumption emphasizes how a more competent teacher should interact with a teacher who is less skilful. The third aspect potential assumption focuses on "properties of the learner", including notions of a teacher's potential and/or readiness to learn. Valsiner (1997) describes two additional zones: the Zone of Free Movement ( ZFM) and Zone of Promoted Action ( ZPA). The ZFM structures an individual's access to different areas of the environment, the availability of different objects within

an accessible area, and the ways the individual is permitted or enabled to act with accessible objects in accessible areas. The ZPA represents the efforts of a more experienced or knowledgeable person to promote the development of new skills. For learning to be possible, the ZPA must be consistent with the individuals' potential (ZPD) and must promote actions that are feasible within a given ZFM. (Ng & Renshaw, 2009, p.46). Knowledge Gaps in the Literature During the literature review, the researcher came across a few studies on teacher professional development; however, they were mostly focused on secondary level teachers. For example, Biswa (2010), Gnawali( 2001), Bhatta (2009) have studied on the teacher professional development on secondary English teachers. Some studies by the government agencies (e.g. NCED, the Department of Education) and the CERID have conducted research on teacher training and transfer of teacher training into the classroom. None of the previous studies had focused on primary teachers' perception and practice of CPD. The researcher identified knowledge gaps in the literature regarding primary teachers' perception and practice of CPD. How do primary teachers update their teaching skills? What do they do if they face any problems with their lessons? What are their professional needs? How do socio-cultural contexts that they work influence their professional effectiveness? Why are the barriers for them to engage in CPD? The literature did not have much information about these questions. It was hoped that this study would respond to a few of the questions raised in this section.

Teacher's biography

Geographical locations

Career phase

Age

External influences (e.g. government)

Support from the head teacher, and SMC

Socio-cultural contexts Political influence

Ethnicity

Terms and conditions

Gender

School level

School culture

Teachersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; perception and practice of effective teaching and CPD

Pupils' positive learning

Family and informal peer groups

Change in teachersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; beliefs, perceptions and improved knowledge and skills

Transforming CPD into classroom practices

Figure 7: Conceptual Framework: Primary Teachers' Perception and Practice of CPD from Socio-cultural Perspective

CHAPTER -III

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY AND DESIGN OF THE STUDY

This chapter presents the information about the researcher's philosophical position, research methodologies and the research design applied in this study. Philosophical Consideration Philosophical consideration enabled the researcher to develop a better understanding about what constitutes knowledge claims. Ontology Blaikie (2000, p.8) has described ontology as "claims and assumptions that are made about the nature of social reality, claims about what exists, what it looks like, what units make it up and how these units interact with each other." In short, ontological assumptions are concerned with what we believe constitutes social reality (Creswell, 2007, p.180). As a pragmatist, in the continuum of paradigmatic perspective based on ontology, the researcher locates himself in the middle of the continuum. The researcher sees the value of both relativisms (i.e. multiple differing realities based on individual constructions, each reality is equally true. The researcher believes that "truth is what works at the time; it is not based on a strict dualism between the mind and a reality completely independent of the mind" because the research always occurs in social, political, cultural and other contexts (Creswell, 2003, p. 128). We need to stop asking questions about reality and the laws of nature and start solving problems. The researcher acknowledges that

"there are diverse viewpoints regarding social realities" (Schoen, 2011, p. 21) and he chooses best explanations within personal value systems. Epistemology Blaikie (2000) describes epistemology, as "the possible ways of gaining knowledge of social reality, whatever it is understood to be" (p. 8). In brief, claims about how what is assumed to exist can be known. As a pragmatist, the researcher has used mixed methods designs that employ both qualitative and qualitative research data in "an effort to incorporate multiple indices of the social and cultural environment to better understand the dynamics" (Schoen, 2011, p. 25) impacting teachers' CPD and learning in a given context. The researcher values both qualitative observations and quantitative metrics, believing that each one has its place and makes important contributions. The researcher believes that research questions dictate methods, data sources and data types of a particular inquiry and both subjective and objective points of views are respected and valued and the researcher focused on "practicality" (Creswell, 2007, p. 180) by asking questions such as " what can I/others do with this information? (Schoen, 2011, p. 26). The researcher has looked for general principles and has described circumstances under which he believes general principles will hold true. Research Paradigm: Mixed Methods Research Tashakkori and Creswell (2007, p. 4) describe mixed methods as "research in which the investigator collects and analyses data, integrates the findings and draws inferences using both qualitative and quantitative approaches or methods in a single study or programme of inquiry". The Mixed Methods Research approach has emerged to the point where it is "increasingly articulated, attached to research practice, and

recognized as the third major research approach or research paradigm" (Johnson et al., 2007, p. 112). As a research paradigm, the Mixed Methods approach incorporates a distinct set of ideas and practices that separate the approach from the other main research paradigms. When investigating human behaviour and attitudes, it is most fruitful to use a variety of data collection methods. A multi-method approach to research design can increase both the validity and reliability of the study. Therefore, the data was collected by using different sources and methods at various points in the data collection process so that the researcher could build on the strengths of each type of research approach and minimize the weaknesses of any single approach. Mixed methods research poses some challenges for the researcher. For examples, time for data collections, field visit, focus group discussions, interviews and classroom observation etc. The researcher should also have enough resources to be able to analyse both qualitative and quantitative data and be familiar with both quantitative and qualitative forms of research. The challenges for collecting data on time were addressed by hiring research assistants. The researcher received support from the DEOs, RPs and teacher union representatives who encouraged teachers to participate in the study. They also helped the researcher to identify a suitable venue for focus group discussions. The researcher was accompanied by a research assistant during field visits to take notes of focus group discussions and class observations. The researcher conducted focus group discussions by using a participatory facilitation technique i.e. think-pair-share. In other words, participants initially had a chance to "think" about the research questions on their own and record their responses in post-itnotes. Then, they discussed with their "pair" and finally shared their views with rest of

the group. Flip charts and post-it-notes were used to record the discussion of focus groups, which helped the researcher to code the data systematically, take single participant's statements, and compare them across all groups. Moreover, discussions were video taped with prior consent of respondents so that the researcher could refer back to the discussion while analysing the data and writing the findings. Finally, the researcher observed "the challenges of representation and writing - particularly combining or using quite different communication traditions that incorporate different technical criteria an norms, as well as different rhetorical and aesthetic criteria and norms" ( Sandelowski , 2003 as cited in Greene, 2008, p. 16). The following figure summarises' the researcher's philosophical beliefs and research design.

Philosophical Consideration in Research Design Figure 8: Philosophical Consideration in Research Design Ontology Truth is what works at the time

Epistemology The Researcher values both objective and subjective points of view depending on stage of research cycle

Theoretical lens Socio-cultural theory

Methodological approach Mixed methods research

Methods of data collection Mixed methods research

Quantitative Survey questionnaire

Qualitative Focus groups, class observation, in-depth interviews, case studies, literature review

Data analysis and interpretation Primary teachers' perception and practice of CPD from sociocultural perspectives (activity theory and situated learning theory)

The researcher followed sequential mixed research procedures in which "the researcher seeks to elaborate on or expand the findings of one method with another method"(Creswell, 2003, p. 128). The study began with a survey (quantitative method) which provided numeric description of trends, attitudes and opinions of a population (i.e. primary teachers). The quantitative method was followed by qualitative research methods that focused on collecting data of respondentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; perception and experience of CPD and the way they make sense of the teaching profession. The researcher collected data in two phases (sequentially)-quantitative data collection was followed by qualitative data. Integration of two types of data took place at two stages in the process of research viz. data collection and data interpretation. For example, in addition to questions for quantitative data, the researcher included open-ended questions in the survey questionnaire, which generated qualitative data. The researcher finally mixed qualitative and quantitative data for interpreting the entire analysis. Population and Sampling At the time of data collection in 2008, the total number of primary teachers in community schools of Bhaktapur, Parsa and Sindhuplachok district was 3526. This was the total population of the study. The sample size of this study was 419. The researcher aimed at maintaining the confidence interval and confidence level for this study 4 and 95% respectively, which would require the sample size of 513. Therefore, the researcher distributed the survey questionnaire to 550. However, only 419 respondents responded to the survey questionnaire, consequently, the confidence level of the study remains the same i.e. 95% but the confidence interval of this study is 4.5 instead of 4.0.

The following table presents the population and same size by district. Table 1: Population and Sample of Teachers by District

District

Parsa Bhaktapur Sindupalchok Total

Population of primary teachers Frequency Percent 1261 35.8 900 25.5 1365 38.7 3526 100

Sample of primary teachers Frequency Percent 152 36.3 105 25 162 38.7 419 100

Two sampling techniques viz. simple random sampling and stratified random sampling methods were used in the study in order to select teacher respondents. Stratified random sampling was used to ensure sufficient points to support a separate analysis of subgroups based on districts. First, the researcher divided the population of sample districts into homogeneous subgroups and distributed the survey questionnaire proportionately. Second, the researcher further divided the sample population into different subgroups to ensure representation of different ethnic groups. Once the geographical locations were selected, random sampling methods were used within the district to increase reliability of the study. Out of 75 districts in Nepal, three districts- Sindhupalchok, Bhaktapur and Parsa were sampled this study which represent three ecological zones- mountain, hill and Terai respectively. All the three sample districts were chosen from the central region because of accessibility. These districts represent diverse socio cultural, linguistic contexts. For example, a majority of teachers who took part in this study in Bhaktapur were Newar; in Sindhupalchok, Tamang and hill Bahun and Chhetri and in Parsa they were Madhesi.

Methods of Data Collection Primary data for this study was collected by using different data collection methods. The following sections illustrate the data collection methods in details. Survey Questionnaire The survey questionnaire consisted of scaled response (Likert, frequency, importance, quality etc.) and open-ended questions. In scaled response questions, the respondents were allowed to choose from either a pre-existing set of dichotomous answers. For example, in order to measure the respondents' attitudes and perception of the research topic, the questionnaire had a number of statements to which respondents had to indicate degree of agreement or disagreement (From strongly agree to strongly disagree). Similarly, the questionnaire had frequency-response scale questions, which enabled the researcher to collect the data of respondents' frequency of particular behaviour. Semi-Structured Interviews Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 15 teachers, 10 head teachers, 12 Resource Persons, 4 school supervisors, 5 teacher trainers, 4 trainee teachers, 2 district education officers, 2 officers from NCED and 1 officer from the Department of Education (DoE). Most interviews with teachers and head teachers were organised after the class observations. Teachers were asked about particular aspects of teaching practice, noted during the lesson observations and they were asked to reflect whether their teaching practice was influenced by any CPD activities they participated in. Interviews with teachers were intended to find out their socio-cultural background, school culture, and their perception of teaching practice and CPD. The researcher conducted interviews with secondary and tertiary stakeholders to clarify

meaning of responses emerging from primary data collections and validate the findings. Open-ended Interviews

Sarala

B.Com B.Ed*

Level of school

Job District

Ethnicity

Appointment

Teaching Yrs.

Gender

Age

Qualifications

Location

Pseudonym

Table 2: Demographic Profile Of Open-Ended Interview Participants

BKT

1-12

Luniva U 24 F 3 N NW BKT 1-8 Bhojraj R SLC 54 M 27 P HB BKT 1-5 SLC Brish R 23 M 10 T MB PRS 1-10 Mina U SLC 42 F 20 P MJ PRS 1-5 Janakdev R B.Ed * 22 M 2 R MD PRS 1-10 Ramlakhan U SLC 48 M 26 P MJ SPC 1-5 Narendra R SLC 36 M 10 P HB SPC 1-12 Sunita U B.Ed.* 25 F 5 T HB SPC 1-5 Note: U= Urban , R = Rural , F= Female, M=Male, P= Permanent, N=Nijiswrot, T= Temporary, R= Raahat, NW= Newar, HB= Hill Bahun/Chhetri, MB= Madeshi Bahun/Chhetri, MJ= Madeshi Janajati, MD= Madeshi Dalit, BKT= Bhaktapur, PRS= Prasa, SPC= Sindhupalchok B.Ed*= Studying in B.Ed. Nine teachers (three teachers from each district) were interviewed. Teachers were selected by using purposeful sampling methods i.e. ensuring that respondents represent diversity of teachers in terms of gender, location, employment type, age, teaching experience and ethnicity. All the teachers selected for the interview had rated themselves 5 on a five point Likert scale where 5 equal “the most effective”. Self-Reflection Form Out of 88 teachers who rated ‘most effective’ in the survey questionnaire and who voluntarily invited the researcher to observe their lessons, thirty teachers (ten from each district) were randomly selected to complete the self-reflection form (Appendix

3). The self-reflection form consists of 60 statements, which were developed based on the literature review on inclusive and child-friendly teaching practice. It was assumed that data collected through self-reflection forms would assist in explaining the relationship between primary teachers’ perception of their own effectiveness and classroom practices. The respondents were asked to self-reflect on their performance and classroom practice on a four-point likert scale where 1 equals “not at all” and 4 equals “very much”. Class Observation The researcher observed the lessons of 30 teachers and recorded in the self-reflection form (Appendix 1). The teachers also filled in the same form, to find the relationship between teachers’ perceived teaching effectiveness and their teaching practice. The teachers were not informed of the date for classroom observation in advance to increase the reliability of classroom observation data by observing as typical lessons as possible. The researcher used the class observation form, which had the same statements as in the self-reflection form. During the class observation, a research assistant video recorded the class of those respondents who were happy to be filmed. Half of the teachers, however, wished not be filmed and the researcher respected their choice. After the class observation, the researcher shared the scoring of class observation with the respondents. He shared video clips from the class observation to confirm the researcher’s observation reflects teachers’ teaching practice and attitudes in the classroom accurately. Teachers’ comments, reflection on the observed lessons were noted. In addition to teachers’ classroom observations, the researcher also observed a few classes of 10- month in-service teacher-training courses organised by Education

Training Centres (ETCs) and education pedagogy classes in five higher secondary schools during the data collection. Focus Group Discussion Twelve focus group discussions were held to collect views of teachers on CPD. In total 120 of teachers participated in the focus group discussions of which 65 were male and 55 female. Five focus group discussions were held in rural areas and the rest of the discussions were held in urban areas. The number of participants in focus group meetings varied from 5 to 10 depending on the locations. In one particular case in Bhaktapur, a focus group discussion was held with the teachers who were participating in the last batch of 10 month in-service training where the number focus groups 30. The researcher addressed the issue of large group by dividing into two groups based on the years of teaching and with support from a research assistant, the discussion was held simultaneously. Where possible, groups were divided by gender, types of employment status and career stages. The focus group discussions included three structured activities followed by group discussion. Document Analysis and Journal Review The researcher reviewed national and international journal articles, formative research reports and government’s policies on primary teachers’ CPD. Good practice and policies related to teachers’ CPD in other countries, findings of other international research relevant to this study, were referenced and critically reviewed to substantiate the findings.

Data Analysis and Interpretation The primary data was complied, coded and analysed by using appropriate data analysis tools. For instance, quantitative data was analysed using statistical tests such as analysis of variance, Chi-square test, one-way ANOVA, Kruskal Wallis, Wilcoxon Mann Whitney test and correlated t-tests. The researcher noted CPD activities that teachers identified as meaningful and looked for conditions that supported or undermined teachers' participation in such CPD activities during focus groups and open-ended interviews. Analysis of quantitative data took place at two levels: first, aggregate tables were prepared for all items in the questionnaire; secondly, cross-tables were developed for major variables viz. age, sex, location, district, ethnic and social cultural background etc. When analysing the qualitative data, the researcher referred to the class observation notes, video and audio recording of the focus group discussions and one to one interviews. While interpreting the qualitative data, the information from the focus group discussions, one-to-one interviews, class observations as well as informal conversations with the respondents were considered to gain deeper understanding of primary teachersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; perception and practice of CPD. The analysis of survey questionnaire, focus group discussions, in depth interviews and class observations provided generic findings and themes for this study. In this phase, the researcher tried to explore linkages and relationships between teachersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; beliefs about their CPD, and their teaching practice. As a rule, comparative findings of quantitative data are presented only when they are statistically significant (p<00.05).

Data Managing The researcher adopted a number of measures to maintain the data quality right from the beginning. The data from the questionnaire was coded. The researcher trained research assistants to code and manage the data systematically. For qualitative data, the researcher used various information management techniques. One-to-one in depth interviews and focus group discussions were either audio or video recorded. The researcher maintained daily write ups of the focus groups to capture what was said on that particular day and the researcherâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s own perception was also recorded. All completed questionnaires were thoroughly verified for their usability. Before analysing, the data was cleaned to make sure that there were not any entry errors. Open-ended questions were post-coded and grouped under various themes. Data was then entered into the computer and analysed using the statistical package of Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS). Reliability and Validity The researcher used different types of data collection methods to increase the reliability of responses. In order to increase external validity of the study, the sample size of this study was determined at a confidence level of 95% that means the researcher is 95% confidence about the findings of the study that are conditionally qualified in a particular socio-cultural context. For this, data collection tools such as questionnaire, interview questions for teachers and head teachers were piloted prior to their administration to clarify any confusion in the questionnaire and reduce the impact of misinterpretation, as this can lead to inaccuracies in the data analysis. The questionnaire was translated in Nepali language, which enabled respondents to

express their views clearly. The research assistants were given an orientation on administrating questionnaire with respondents to maintain uniformity by providing structured guidelines. In order to increase the internal validity, the researcher reviewed relevant literature to gain knowledge of how to execute quantitative and qualitative approach to the research. Questions for focus group discussions and interviews were based on the literature review. Content validity assesses how good fit is obtained between nominal and operational definitions. In order to increase the content validity, the researcher did careful selection of which items to include in the survey, and classroom observations. The researcher consulted the guide and professional experts to review the items and their feedback was incorporated into the final research tools, which covered intended content areas of CPD. Construct validity is concerned with the extent to which test performance can be interpreted in terms of certain psychological constructs or concepts. The researcher provided a clear definition of CPD and divided the questions into different components of CPD to establish construct validity. Measures of the study were developed by rooting a wide literature search, which teases out the meaning of CPD, and child-friendly teaching practice. The study utilised different methods of triangulation to assure the trustworthiness of qualitative data. The research applied methods triangulation in which data collected from open-ended questions in survey and data generated by interviews and focus group discussions were compared to identify convergence and divergence.

The researcher has followed ethical considerations while collecting data and presenting the findings in this study. For example, the survey questionnaire was translated in Nepali language and the respondents were described the purpose of the study and likely benefits of the study was explained during the data collection. Prior permission was sought before interview and observing classes and respondents were double-checked if they would feel comfortable to be quoted if their identity was protected. The researcher has used pseudonyms. The researcher has avoided using language and words that are biased against persons because of gender, ethnicity, age and linguistic backgrounds. The data was analysed from socio-cultural perspective, which also ensures its internal validity. Research Triangulation Triangulation is typically a strategy for improving the validity and reliability of the research by engaging multiple research methods, e.g. observation, interviews etc. (Golafshani, 2003 p. 110). Denzin (1989) distinguishes four types of research triangulation viz. data triangulation, investigator triangulation, methodological triangulation and theory triangulation (as cited in Flick, 2006, p. 389-390). Data triangulation refers to the collection of data from multiple sources to include interviews, observations and document analysis. Denzin (1989) further elaborates "subtypes of data triangulation" by making distinction between time, space, and persons and suggests studying phenomenon at different dates and places and from different persons (Flick, 2006 p. 129). "Theory triangulation" refers to data collection with multiple perspectives. As a forth type of triangulation Denzin mentions "methodological triangulation" which refers to triangulation "within-method and between-methods".

This study adopted two types of triangulations -methodological triangulation and data triangulation. For methodological triangulation, the researcher combined qualitative and quantitative methods and it was conceived as the "complementary compensation" of the weaknesses of each research methods (Flick, 2006 p, 129). The researcher surveyed a large number of respondents (quantitative approach) then followed up with a few of them to obtain their specific views on the study topic by organising focus group discussions, interviews and classroom observations (qualitative approach). This helped the researcher to understand the research problem at deeper level. The researcher compared the findings from quantitative and qualitative research methods in order to triangulate the findings. Qualitative data collected from focus group discussions and interviews, classrooms were transcribed. The researcher grouped the respondents' opinions into different themes developed based on the literature review. Different types of research questions e.g. open -ended, closed questions, ranking and rating questions were included in the questionnaire survey. The researcher compared the data collected from different types of questions by using the SPSS software. Moreover, the researcher collected data from secondary and tertiary stakeholders (Head teachers, RPs and School Supervisors etc) to triangulate the findings from data sources. The researcher noted unique cases as well as disaggregation. This helped the researcher to â&#x20AC;&#x153;confirm or converge findings from different data sourcesâ&#x20AC;? (Creswell, 2003). When the qualitative and quantitative data did not confirm, the researcher tried to present different views of the respondents.

Ethical Considerations While specifying the research problem statement and research questions, the researcher did a pilot test with 10 primary teachers in Bhaktapur. The feedback received by the participants from the pilot study was incorporated in the final research tools. For example, the participants suggested not asking respondents to disclose their identity so that they could freely express their views. The researcher followed the following ethical issues in collecting data. 

The purpose of the study was described at the beginning of questionnaire so that individuals understand the nature of the research and its likely impact on them. The questionnaire was translated in Nepali so that respondents understand the research questions accurately.



The procedures and benefits of the study was explained during the data collection e.g. focus group discussions, so that "individuals can reasonably expect what to anticipate in the research" (Creswell, 2003 )



The researcher obtained the permission of individuals in authority to provide access to study respondents at research sites. For example, the permission of the Head teacher, District Education Officer etc were obtained.



In order to protect the privacy of the research participants and to convey this protection to all individuals involved in the study, the researcher has used pseudonyms for individuals, name of schools and places.



While writing this thesis, the researcher has avoided using language and words that are biased against persons because of gender, sexual orientation, ethnicity, age, religion etc.

CHAPTER -IV

OPPORTUNITIES, BARRIERS AND SOLUTIONS FOR EFFECTIVE CPD

Introduction This chapter presents the data analysis and interpretation of quantitative data collected from survey questionnaire and classroom observation forms. The data was analysed by using the Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS). Descriptive and inferential statistics such as frequencies, tables, percentages, and correlation tests were used in the data analysis and summaries. Relationship between variable were identified by using frequencies, Chi square, t-test, Spearman's correlations and measurement analysis of variance (ANOVA) tests. Reasons for Becoming a Teacher This section seeks answers to the question why teachers decided to choose teaching as a profession. In response to the question, respondents gave more than two reasons on average. It was assumed that teachers would be motivated by different intrinsic aspects of teaching and their motivational factors would be influenced by individual characteristics such as age, ethnicity, gender, years of teaching experience, types of appointments, and school characteristics such as location, district and school level. Moreover, the study has compared the findings with previous studies. For example, financial considerations were the strongest motivating factor for joining the teaching profession in Bista (2006). In his study other frequently mentioned factors were â&#x20AC;&#x153;way

of making living”, “the idea of social service and working with children” “short working hours” “long and many holidays”, “job security” “close to home” etc. Two thirds of primary teachers (66.1 %) reported that they entered into teaching profession because of social utility values (desire to contribute to shape future of the children, enhancing social equity and social influence of the family and friends). 48.4 % of teachers were motivated by personal utility values. Only 2.9% of teachers reported their ability to teach as a reason of choosing teaching as a profession (Table 3). Table 3: Reasons for Choosing Teaching as a Career by Percent

Reasons for Choosing Teaching as a Career Social utility Personal utility Like working with children Career Value Prior teaching and learning experience Fallback careers Teaching is a career that is suited to my abilities Accidental

Frequency 277 203 127 108 46 30 12 5

% of Respondents 66.1 48.4 30.3 25.8 11 7.2 2.9 1.2

It is important to note that the majority of primary teachers did not enter into teaching profession by accident. These findings are consistent with Bista (2006). Gender is one of the demographic variables that yielded statistically significant results. The majority of female teachers (52.5%) joined teaching for personal utility values compared to male teachers (45.3% ) Female teachers cited “easy to give more time for family” “teaching has more holidays” “secured job” “short working hours”, “ideal for women” and “opportunity to show that women are equally capable” as reasons for personal utilities values.

Female teachers chose teaching career because of career value two times more than male teachers (34.4% vs. 19.1%). In other words, in deciding to become a teacher, males place significantly less emphasis than females on its career values and they are less influenced by prior experience of teaching and learning. Males place significantly more emphasis than females on the importance of social utility (70.3% vs. 60.7%). Female teachers were three times more likely to be influenced by prior teaching and learning experience than male teachers (18% vs. 5.5%) were. A majority of female teachers shared how they were inspired to join teaching profession because of some female role models in the society. Teachers in rural areas than teachers in urban areas put more emphasis on personal utility t (55.4% vs. 39.9%). Facts that teaching profession has lengthy holidays, more time for families, school working hours fitting in with family commitments and teaching as a secure job were some personal utility factors that were reported more by teachers working in rural areas. Teachers working in urban areas were three times more influenced by their prior teaching and learning experience than their counterparts in rural areas were. Four in ten teachers working in urban areas cited ‘liking to work with children’ as one of the reasons for joining teaching profession compared to two in ten teachers in rural areas. For primary teachers in Sindhuplachok and Bhaktapur, the most important factor was ‘social utility’ values of the teaching profession whereas for teachers in Parsa, it was ‘personal utility’ values. Teachers in Bhaktapur gave the highest importance for career values (45.7%), only one thirds of teachers in Parsa (30.9%)

and less than 10% of teachers in Sindhupalchok indicated it as a motivating factor for considering the teaching profession. There were significant differences by ethnicity in two factors viz. personal utility values, and influence of prior teaching and learning experience. The impact of prior teaching and learning experience was reported by a higher percent of Hill Dalit than other ethnic groups (e.g. 20% of Newar, less than 10% of hill Bahun/Chhetri, Madhesi Bahun/Chhetri and Madhesi Janajati). However, caution must be urged in interpreting the findings because some ethnic groups were represented by a small number of participants. Pre-service teacher training is an important component of effective CPD. The following section presents the findings about pre-service teacher training opportunities for primary teachers in Nepal. Pre-Service Training Opportunities for Primary Teachers in Nepal Pre-service teacher training (also known as initial training) is an essential part of CPD. Livingston and Robertson (2001) considered initial teacher education as the first stage of professional development and foundation on which all further professional development is built. Initial teacher training is crucial to teachersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; morale and motivation (UNESCO, 2010). Table 4: Participation in Pre-service Teacher Training by Type

Pre-service training Ten Month pre-service training 10+2 in Education or I.Ed. Short term training Bachelor's degree in Education and above Total

Frequency 34 70 32 10 146

Percent 8.1 16.7 7.6 2.4 34.8

A second level of analysis was carried out with a view to identify if there were any significant differences in responses in terms of their demographic and employment conditions e.g. location, age, gender, appointment types, district, ethnicity etc. The test results were significant different by years of teaching experience, appointment types, job districts and school levels. The following section presents findings related to the teacher induction policy in Nepal, which is another important component of the continuum of CPD. Teacher Induction Only 2% teachers reported that they had induction and it was not structured and organised. The majority of teachers shared the view that they faced enormous challenges to manage and organise their teaching in the first and second year of teaching without any induction for their job. This justifies why high performing countries such as Australia, France, Japan, Korea, New Zealand and Switzerland have good induction programmes in place for new teachers. The New Zealand Ministry of Education fund 20% release time for new teachers and 10% release time for second year teachers and schools are required to develop local programmes to improve the new teachersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; skills. New teachers in each district meet in reflective practice groups twice a month with an experienced teacher who is trained to facilitate their discussion of common problems (Britton, 2006; Stansbury & Zimmerman, 2000, cited in Wei, 2009). Berry, Hopkins-Thompson, and Hoke (2002) argue for sound induction programmes for new teachers in which they are both assessed and supported as they grow toward becoming expert classroom leaders. They further content that without such support, many novice teachers resort to practical strategies in their classroom,

which will ultimately have negative impact on pupils learning. Quality induction programme for teachers also provides novice teachers with a network of new and experienced teachers, with whom they can share concerns, discuss issues and explore solutions. Experienced teachers can also grow professionally by serving in mentor roles. Based on the content, focus and quality of induction programme, Berry et al. (2002) rates induction programmesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; effectiveness from the weakest to the strongest programmes. For example, the weakest induction programmes simply orient new teachers to their schools, providing little in-depth assessment and ongoing support. Some might offer help from a colleague while others have trained mentors and their performance are not measured against clear standards and expectations. In the best induction programmes, new teachers are not only assessed but also provided support through observations. They also include orientations on the new teaching methods, orientation on curriculum, testing, and the assignment of mentors, professional development and assessment specifically tailored to the expectation of novice teachers (Berry, 2002, p. 8). They are expected to reflect and review their teaching methods and develop portfolios. New teachers are often supported by their experienced counterparts during early years. For example, in Japan induction for new teachers lasts for one year and includes weekly training both in and out of school. In order to lighten new teachersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; workloads and accommodate their heavy training schedule, and allow release time for extensive mentoring, the programme appoints one part time experienced teacher to each new teacher (Wei, 2009). Other studies have suggested that teachers are on the steepest points of their professional learning curves in their first few years of practice â&#x20AC;&#x201C; they are mostly

excited to learn new ideas develop new skills, habits and beliefs that determine whether they are likely to become expert professionals. Primary Teachers’ Self-Perceived Effectiveness The research literature shows that CPD is successful in changing teachers’ attitude and teaching practice only when teachers recognise that there are skill gaps between what they are expected to do and what they are capable of doing. Kosko and Wilkins (2009) content that teachers’ beliefs about what they are capable of and what their abilities are help them determine their actions in the classroom. Therefore, this study investigated into teachers’ self-perceived effectiveness in inclusive and child-friendly teaching. The teachers rated their level of effectiveness using a Likert scale (1 = least effective; 2= little effective; 3= neither effective nor ineffective; 4= somewhat effective; 5= very effective). The findings of teachers’ perceptions are presented and analysed below. Figure 9: Primary Teachers' Self-perceived Effectiveness.

The above figure 4 illustrates the overall teachers’ perception about their own effectiveness. Twenty-one percentages of teachers considered themselves as ‘very effective’ teachers. A majority of the teachers (55%) rated as ‘somewhat effective’. If

we combine the percent for “somewhat effective” and “very effective”, 76% teachers fall into the category of effective teachers. It is important to note that only 2.1% teachers considered themselves ‘little effective’. Further analysis was carried out to find out if other variables such as gender, location, ethnicity/castes, level of schools, teaching experience and career stages influenced their perception of effectiveness. In terms of appointment types, there were significant differences between teachers' perceived effectiveness. The percent of permanent primary teachers who perceived ‘little effective’ was only 1.1%. More permanent and temporary teachers (25.7% and 19.7%) perceived themselves as ‘very effective’ teachers than Raahat and Nijisrwot teachers (3.8% and 3.1 %.). These findings indicate that teachers’ terms and conditions positively influence teachers’ perceived effectiveness. It shows the better the terms and conditions, the higher the perceived effectiveness. It is important to note that teachers who are appointed in permanent and temporary positions reported receiving more CPD opportunities than Raahat and Nijisrwot teachers did; therefore, it can be argued that access to CPD also affects teachers’ perceived effectiveness. In terms of ethnicity, the highest percent of Hill Bahun and Chhetri teachers (42%) ranked themselves as ‘very effective’ followed by Newar teachers (29.1%). The percent of teachers from other ethnic minority groups, Dalit and Janajati was less than that of Bahun/Chhetri and Newar teachers. Parsa district had the highest percent of teachers (36.8%) and Bhaktapur had the lowest percent of teachers ranking ‘very effective’ (10.5%). In Sindhupalchok, 13% of teachers ranked themselves ‘very effective’.

A one-way ANOVA test for self-perception differences of means of primary teachers from three districts yielded statistically significant results (F (2,416) = 23.854, p=.000). The above findings show that there is a significant negative correlation between teachersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; self-perceived effectiveness and their job districts (r (419) = -0.241, p= 0.000). In summary, analysis of the findings shows that variables such as gender, and location do not influence primary teachersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; self-perceived effectiveness significantly; however, the variables such as age, teaching experience, appointment types, and ethnicity and job district significantly affect self-perceived effectiveness. Self-Directed Professional Development Activities in Last Five Years CPD encompasses three types of activities viz. self-directed learning experiences, formal professional development programmes and organisational development strategies (Caffarella, 1999, p. 58). Self-directed learning experiences are activities we plan, implement and evaluate primarily on our own. In self-directed CPD, teachers are asked to identify their own learning needs and determine their professional learning goals. Teachers select activities that will help them attain these goals (Gaible, 2005 p. 67). Self-directed CPD places all responsibility on the teacher and requires little of the school. In many cases, â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;school leadership directs a teacher to develop expertise in a certain area without providing resources or guidance, (Gaible, 2005 . 67). Teachers may be challenged to make use of the resources that they find on their own. The following figure answers the research question 2.2, which is related to teachers' participation in self-directed CPD activities in the last five years.

Figure 10: Percent of Teachers who Involved in Self-directed Professional Development Activities in Previous Five Years

The type of self-directed professional development most often mentioned was ‘discussions and sharing with other teachers’ with 86.4% of teachers reporting this activity during the survey. This finding is consistent with the OECD’s Teaching and Learning International Survey (TALIS, 2009) in which 24 countries participated. In the OCED’s study, 93% of teachers on average reported ‘informal dialogue to improve teaching’ (OECD, 2009, p. 57).

Over three quarters of teachers reported “use of teachers’ guide” (77.8%), “updating knowledge from peer teachers” (77.6%), “use of curriculum to develop lesson plans” (71.6%). Other professional development activities that were cited by more than half of the respondents include “planning and review of lessons”(64.4%) and “using teaching tips from magazines and books” (57.5%), and team teaching with other teachers (52.5%). Forty three percent of teachers reported that they listened to the radio, whereas more than one thirds of the teachers studied self-study materials (37.2%). Among the teachers who studied self-study materials, nearly 6 in ten teachers (58.3%) studied subject and content related materials, more than 2 in ten teachers (23.7%) studied pedagogy related materials and nearly 2 in 10 teachers (18%) studied books on cotemporary subjects. 35.8% of teachers attended distance teacher training. “Joining professional organisations” was the least popular professional activity as only 3.1% of teachers stated that they joined teacher professional organisations in the last 5 years. Within the teachers who joined professional teachers’ organisations, a majority of teachers (50%) were members of Mathematics Council, (particularly found active in Parsa district), 40% teachers were NELTA members and 10% teachers were members of other local professional teachers’ networks. Male teachers preferred to seek professional advice from their peer teachers, attend distance training, study self-study materials, listen to radio programme, subscribe professional magazines, and join teacher professional organisations. Female teachers on the other hand, preferred to further study, watch teaching programmes on TV, and use teachers’ guides. Both male and female teachers equally liked discussing and sharing with other colleagues, taking teaching ideas from magazines and

newspapers, using the curriculum, team teaching and lesson planning. For instance, 25.7% of female teachers watched TV compared to 17% of male teachers; more male teachers reported studying self-study materials and subscribing professional magazines than female teachers (42.7% and 16.5% vs. 31.8% and 11.5%). In terms of location, the most popular professional activities included such as “discussing and sharing with other peer teachers”, “using teachers’ guide”, “referring curriculum while planning lessons”, “attending distance courses”, “team teaching” were the same for the teachers working in both urban and rural locations. However, teachers working in rural areas reported inviting experts to demonstrate model classes, using curriculum for planning lessons, studying self- study materials, listening to radio programmes and watching teacher programmes on TV more than their counterparts working in urban location. Similarly, teachers working in urban locations preferred to continue further studies, subscribe professional magazines and membership of professional organisations, to use teaching methods from professional magazines and discuss with teachers from other schools. The data clearly suggests that the teachers’ age influences their choice of self-initiated professional development activities. For example, teachers in their twenties are more likely than their counter parts in forties and fifties to be interested in further study. Similarly, young teachers prefer to use curriculum to plan lessons, use teaching tips from magazines, discuss and share with other teachers, continue further study and use internet to improve their teaching skills. The analysis shows that younger teachers prefer to continue further study, subscribe professional magazines, join libraries, use tips and ideas from the magazines, use internet, make and review lesson plans and use teachers’ guides and

use teachers’ guide. Older teachers prefer to invite experts to demonstrate lessons, listen to radio, and watch teacher-training programmes on televisions, buy reference materials, join distance courses and study self-study materials. For instance, only 7.7% of teachers below 20 years reported studying self-materials compared to more than 36% of all teachers above 20 years but 45.8% of 21-30 years age group of teachers did further study compared to 15.7%. Of the 51-60 years age groups. Younger teachers outnumbered older and more experienced teachers by three to one in using internet (Appendix 15 for further details).These findings confirm that younger teachers are more interested in the professional activities that are independent and older teachers are more interested in learning from other teachers, experts and colleagues. Teachers’ career stage influences their preference to professional development activities, as their needs are different according to their career stages. Reviewing different policy trends in OECD countries, Duthileul (2005) asserts that for professional development activities to be effective they need to be ongoing, and provide opportunities for reflection, practice and feedback among peers. Therefore, it is necessary that professional development activities recognise different stages in a teacher’s career, provide enough opportunities, and support for the development of the different competencies needed over time. Teachers at the beginning of their teacher career preferred to further study, subscribed professional magazines whereas teachers at mid and end of their career preferred to watch teacher training programme on TV, attend distance courses and interact with other teachers. The findings suggest that teachers’ ethnicity determines their professional development practice. Newar and Hill Bahun/Chhetri and Madhesi

Bahun/Chhetri teachers seem to participate in all eighteen types of self-initiated professional development activities whereas significant ethnic disparity was observed in the use of internet, being members of the library, joining teachers’ professional organisations and buying reference materials. Teachers working in small schools than their counterparts in big schools, involved more in professional activities such as subscription of professional magazines, listening to the radio, studying self-study materials, attending distance courses. Teachers working in big schools were more likely to continue further study, join professional organisations, use internet, interact and exchange ideas with colleagues, invite experts to demonstrate lessons and subscribe membership of the library. The findings demonstrate that teachers update their knowledge from different professional activities depending on the situations of the schools’ facilities and local contexts. Finally, it should be noted that even though the respondents reported ‘the use of curriculum to plan lessons’, ‘planning lessons’, ‘ using teachers’ guides regularly’, there were significant differences between their perceived behaviours and the real practices in the classroom. For example, only 15% of teachers could refer the objectives of the lesson to the curriculum regardless of their personal and school characteristics during the class observation. The teachers did not refer to the curriculum objectives when planning their lessons- nearly 80% of teachers were found starting the lessons directly reading the instructions in the textbooks. Some experienced teachers argued that they were familiar to the curriculum objectives; however, their lessons did not reflect their clear understanding of curriculum. The findings above indicate that teachers’ self-directed professional activities were

influenced by their gender, age, teaching experience, locality, and level of schools they work in. Compared to the findings in the literature, teachersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; participation in selfdirected professional development was not satisfactory. Teachers were found not having clear ideas of self-directed professional development. The majority of respondents could not distinguish between teacher professional development and teacher training. Only a small number of young teachers referred to teachersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; responsibility for updating teaching skills while the majority teachers did not take their responsibility for learning. The next section presents the findings on access to information about CPD. Access to Information about CPD Several studies in the literature considered lack of access to a range of CPD opportunities as a barrier of teachersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; professional development. Therefore, this study asked primary teachers whether they had access to the information about CPD opportunities. Only 22.2% of teachers reported positively. 17.2% of the teachers said that they had information of teacher training and workshops organised by the Resource Centres (RCs), 2% of teachers reported having access to information about in-house teacher training. Only 2% of teachers responded positively about external professional development opportunities. The following table presents the results of Chi-square test by variables.

.230

.358

.001*

School level

.460

Job district

.678

Ethnicity

Gender .928

Appoint ment type

.086

Teaching Years

Access to information of CPD

Age

Location

Table 5: Chi-square Tests of Access to Information about CPD by Variables

.259

*Significant at the 0.005 level. The chi-square test results indicate that there are no statistically significant relationships between the access to information about CPD and variables such as location, age, gender, and years of teaching experience, appointment types, ethnicity and school level except job districts. In terms of district, significant differences were recorded between Sindhupalchok and other two districts viz. Parsa and Bhaktapur. For instance, the percent of teachers reporting to have access to the information of CPD in Sindhuplachok was two times less than of Parsa and Bhaktapur (13% vs. 28.3% and 27.6%). Even though no statistical significant relationship was recorded between rural and urban area, teachers working in rural areas in the focus group discussions noted that opportunities for professional development were concentrated in urban areas, enabling urban teachers to access information on CPD opportunities more readily. Teachers working in small schools complained of not getting information about CPD opportunities, their argument has been substantiated by the fact that none of the teachers teaching in schools (1-3 grades) reported having access to information about the professional development while one thirds of teachers working in secondary schools reported having access to the information of CPD.

Participation in Professional Development Activities in the Previous Five Years This section presents the findings about formal professional development programmes that teachers participated in the last five years. Formal professional development programmes (Caffarella, 1999, p. 58) includes academic courses, workshops and training courses, class observations etc., which are organised based on some guidelines. Fifty two percent of teachers participated in professional development activities in the last five years. More teachers working in urban areas than their counterparts working in rural areas participated in CPD activities (55.9% vs. 49.4%). Male teachers had more participation in CPD activities than female teachers (55.7% vs. 49.3%) did. Younger teachers had less participation in CPD activities than older teachers did. For instance, nearly one thirds of teachers below 20 years participated in CPD activities, compared to more than half of teachers from the 31-40 and 41-50 years age groups. Even though chi-square test results indicate that these differences by gender, locations and age are not statistically significant, the above findings are sustained by the qualitative data gathered from focus group discussions and interviews. Therefore, these factors will be further analysed and discussed in discussion section of this study. The following table presents the chi-square test results of the participation in CPD activities by variables in the last five years.

Age

Gender

Teaching Years

Appointment type

Ethnicity

Job district

School level

CPD in the last five years

Location

Table 6: Chi-square Test of Participation in CPD by Variables in the Last Five Years

.185

.273

.210

.281

.997

.132

.000*

.343

*Significant at the 0.005 level. According to table 15, there was a significant relationship between the two variables, job districts and teachersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; participation in CPD activities (p = 000). For instance, more than two thirds (69.5%) of teachers in Bhaktapur participated in professional development activities whereas slightly more than half of teachers in Parsa (55.5%) and nearly four in ten teachers in Sindhupalchok (38.5%) reported participating in CPD activities in the last five years. Another level of analysis was carried out to find out if there were any relationship between the variables and types of CPD activities. Teachers might have participated in CPD activities in the last five years but participating in one off CPD activities and long term CPD is not the same. Various studies have found that nonlinear, and often long term nature of professional development activities are effective and sustainable (Poulson, 2003; Garet, 2001; Hurd, 2007). Teachers who do participate in longer-term professional development do change one or more aspects of their teaching practice (Hurd, 2007, p. 8). CPD activities were grouped into four categories viz. long term, short term, one- off and regular based on their durations and occurrence. In this study, all CPD activities that were longer than ten months in duration were considered as long term CPD. Short terms CPD activities were those activities, which were longer than one

week but shorter than ten months in duration. One-off CPD activities were the activities that were organised for only one time and they were not repeated. Regular CPD activities were activities, which were organised on regular basis. The following table presents the CPD activities by types that the teachers participated in the last five years. Table 7: Types of CPD Participated by Teachers in the Last Five Years

Types of CPD Long term ( More than 10 months) Short term One off Regular

Frequency

Percent 24 100 160 11

5.70% 23.90% 38.20% 2.60%

In case of teachers who participated in more than one type of CPD activities, frequencies were counted in all CPD activities they participated in the period of last five years. Therefore, the percent of total teachers who participated in the CPD activities and the total frequency of types of CPD do not match. The most teachers (38.2%) participated in one-off CPD events. 23.9% of teachers participated in short-term CPD activities. It is important to note that significant low participation of teachers was found in long-term CPD activities (5.7%) and regular CPD activities (2.6%).

Table 8: Chi-square Test of the Types of CPD Participation in the Last Five Years by

Ethnicity

Job district

School level

.230

.136

.800

.314

.880

.279

.229

.061

.007 * .742

.591

.221

.257

.739

.579

.639

.852

.017 * .000 * .718

.209

.040*

.004 * .023 * .003 *

Short CPD One off events

.039 * .513

.506 .010* Regular events *Significant at the 0.005 level

Appoint ment type

Age

.455

Gender

Location Long term CPD ( Longer than 10 months)

Teaching Years

Variables

.118 .169

In terms of location, more teachers in urban areas participated in short term CPD (28.2% vs. 20.3%), one-off CPD activities (43.6% vs. 33.8%) and regular CPD (3.2% vs. 2.2%) than in rural areas but the a significant relationship was only found between location and one off CPD events and regular CPD events ( p=.039). In terms of age, the relationship between short-term CPD activities and age yielded a significant difference. For example, while none of below 20 years group and only 14% of teachers from 21-30 years group participated in short CPD, the highest participation was from 31-40 years group (32.3%). In case of rest of other age groups, more than 20% of teachers participated in the short CPD activities. There was gender disparity in teachersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; participation in CPD. More male teachers (57.5%) took part in CPD activities in the last five years than their female counterparts (49.6%). Male teachers had higher participation than female counterparts did in all CPD activities except in one-off CPD (43.7% vs. 33.9 %). Gender disparity in one- off CPD and regular CPD was statistically significant (p = 0.04 and p = 0.01, respectively). There were no statistically significant relationship

between the types of CPD activities and years of teaching experience groups and teachersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; appointment types. Ethnicity disparities were not statistically significant in teachersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; participation in CPD activities. However, significant relationships were found within three CPD types viz. short term CPD, one off CPD and regular CPD (p = 0.04, p = 0.023, and p = 0.003 ,respectively). For instance, while 100% of other ethnic minority teachers, 50% of Hill Dalit and 40% of Hill Janajati participated in short CPD activities, only 27.3% of Madhesi Dalit and 11.5% of Madhesi Janajati and 31% of Newar teachers participated in short term CPD activities. The percent of teachers in Bhaktapur who participated in CPD activities in the last five years was nearly two times more than of Sindhupalchok ( 69.% vs. 38.3%) and nearly 14% more than of Parsa district (55.3%). There were statistical significant differences particularly in two types of CPD activities viz. one-off CPD events and regular events (p = 0.017, and p = 0.000). For instance, the highest percent of teachers in Bhaktapur participated in short and one-off CPD (60% and 24.1%). Short CPD activities and one-off CPD activities were the most frequently mentioned CPD that respondents attended in the last five years, a further analysis was carried out to find their types, duration and organiser. The following section presents the findings of the analysis on short-term CPD activities. Types, Duration and Organisers of Short-term CPD Activities Most of the short CPD were teacher training (82%). Only 6% short CPD activities was on curriculum orientation and 7% of short CPD activities was teacher workshop. Five percent of short CPD was not related directly to teaching methods but on different topics, e.g. health, immunisation, human right etc.

Figure 11: Types of Short CPD Participated in the Last Five Years

The duration of most short CPD activities were less than a week (62%) and 35% of the short CPD activities were between one and two weeks. Only 3 % of short CPD activities were of more than two weeks. Figure 12: Percent of Short CPD by Year

In terms of the year of short term CPD, the above bars shows that, most teachers participated in short CPD in the 3rd year i.e. 2005. After 2005, the percent of teachers attending short CPD activities has gone down to 11%. One-Off CPD One-off CPD activities are organised occasionally and are often short. These types of CPD activities are not followed up and linked to other CPD activities. In this study, respondents reported different types of one-off CPD activities which have been grouped into five board categories viz. training organised by Resource Centres, training on life skills, training organised by NGOs/INGOs, subject specific training and school improvement planning workshop. The following chart shows the one-off CPD activities by types. Figure 13: Types of One-off CPD Participated by Teachers in the Last Five Years

Figure 13 shows that the most one-off CPD activities were training organised by RCs (69%), followed by training on relevant issues and skills. While many

respondents highlighted the need for subject wise teacher training particularly teaching English, Maths and Science, only 8 % of teachers had training on subject specific one-off CPD activities. Organisation of one-off CPD by year The following bar chart shows that frequency of one-off CPD attended by teachers. The chart shows an upward trend until the 4th year but in the fifth year, the number of teachers attending one-off CPD declined. Figure 14: Organisation of One-off CPD by year

The following section will present the findings on the factors that drive teachers towards CPD. Driving Factors for CPD This section presents the respondentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; perception and beliefs about the factors that drive teachers to CPD. The list of factors was based on the literature review. The respondents were asked to rank eight factors on a scale of 1 to 8 with eight being the most influential and one being the least influential factor.

Table 9: Descriptive Statistics of Influential Driving Factors for CPD Driving factors Prize and reward Head teacher's leadership Gap in subject knowledge Extra allowance Personal interests /Will to learn Academic development Promotion and career development Government policy

N 333 341 334 354 344 355 368 382

Mean 5.46 5.30 4.89 4.64 4.13 3.69 3.29 3.07

Std. Deviation 2.413 2.095 2.171 1.954 2.340 1.726 1.683 2.198

Teachers placed the highest importance for ‘prize and reward’ with 5.46 mean values. Lohaman & Woolf (2001) assert that reward systems need to provide teachers with meaningful incentives for participation in CPD activities to promote the dissemination of teacher expertise through the school system. Head teachers’ leadership was considered as the second most influential factor. This finding is consistent with the literature. For example, several studies have pointed that the head teacher plays a key role in creating CPD opportunities for teachers (Caffarella, 1999; Gaible, 2005; Loxley, 2007). Gap in subject knowledge was the third most influential driving factor ranked by the respondents. When teachers are invited to any professional teacher development activities such as teacher training or workshops, teachers receive extra allowance on top of their salary, often travel and day allowance. Critics argue that extra allowance sometimes outweigh the importance and relevance of the CPD programme as teachers focus on per diem than the skills they benefit from. A second level analysis was carried out to find out whether teachers’ perceptions of influential factors to CPD vary significantly by school and teachers’

individual characteristics. The following table presents the results of Man Whitney test for gender and location and Krusal Wallist tests for the rest of other variables.

Teaching Years

Appointment type

Ethnicity

Job district

School level

Kruska l Wallis Test Asymp . Sig. (2tailed) 0.658

Kruska l Wallis Test Asymp . Sig. (2tailed) 0.711

Kruska l Wallis Test Asymp . Sig. (2tailed) 0.124

Kruska l Wallis Test Asymp . Sig. (2tailed) 0.599

Kruska l Wallis Test Asymp . Sig. (2tailed) 0.652

Gender

Kruska l Wallis Test Asymp . Sig. (2tailed) 0.463 0.048

Location Government policy Promotion and career development Academic development Extra allowance Gap in subject knowledge Personal interests /Will to learn Head teachersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; leadership

Age

Table 10: Significant Test Results of Influential Factors for CPD by Variables

MannWhitne y Test Asymp . Sig. (2tailed) 0.193

MannWhitne y Test Asymp. Sig. (2tailed)

0.455

.007*

0.296

.018*

0.632

0.258

0.821

0.182

0.874

0.138

.024*

0.276

0.518

0.373

0.613

0.299

.001*

0.909

0.223

0.858

0.855

0.151

0.382

.000*

0.93

0.059

0.861

0.781

0.731

.008*

.000*

0.521

.004*

.193*

.001*

.006*

.002*

.045*

.001*

.000*

0.922

0.974

0.994

0.719

0.394

0.363

.032*

0.61

Prize and 0.366 0.887 reward *Significant at the 0.05 level

0.305

0.213

0.62

0.108

.018*

0.651

The table 10 shows that teachersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; perception of personal interest and willingness to learn varied across all eight variables whereas their perception of

government policy was not influenced by any variables. Regardless of teachers’ personal characteristics except the district they worked in, statistically significant differences were not observed in respondents’ perception of prize and rewards as an influential driving factor. The school level generated the most significant differences in teachers’ perception of promotion and career development, academic development, extra allowance, and willingness to learn. For example, teachers working in smaller schools were more likely to be influenced by ‘willingness to learn’ factor than of their counterparts teaching in bigger schools. The teachers of the schools with grades 1-10 had the lowest rank mean for this factor. With regard to districts, teachers in Sindhupalchok considered “gap in subject knowledge” as the most influential factor with mean rank, 198.6 compared to the mean rank of Parsa, 154.4 and Bhaktapur, 147.1. Teachers in Bhaktapur perceived ‘willingness to learn’ as the most influential driving factor (mean rank, 195.25). Teachers working in rural areas perceived “willingness to learn” as the most influential driving factor whereas their counterparts working in urban areas considered this factor as the least influential driving factor. Teachers working in urban areas were more likely to rank “academic development” higher than their counterparts working in rural areas (mean ranks, 192 vs. 166.39) In terms of ethnicity, significant differences were found in the perceptions of ‘gap in subject knowledge’ and ‘willingness to learn’. For example, Hill Bahun/Chhetri, hill Janajati, Hill Dalit teachers ranked ‘ gap in subject knowledge’ much higher than Newar, Madhesi Bahun/Chhetri teachers.

The analysis above confirms that teachers are driven by various factors to CPD. Teachers’ belief and perceptions about CPD affect their actions. Therefore, Richard (1996) argued that teachers’ beliefs should be a focus for change during CPD (as cited in Malm, 2009). In other words, teachers’ perceptions should be considered while developing and organising CPD activities. For instance, if teachers rank ‘gap in subject knowledge’, the CPD activities designed for them must address their gaps in subject knowledge. In this section, we discussed what factors drive teachers towards CPD, the following section presents teachers’ belief about influencing factors for effective CPD. Primary Teachers’ Beliefs on Influencing Factors for Effective CPD Effective professional development models should respect and address teachers ‘existing beliefs. According to Walker (2007), teacher’s misconceptions can interfere with their ability to use new teaching methods effectively. Teachers’ prior knowledge, experience and expertise are important for teachers’ professional development because these factors may relate to their attitudes, beliefs and values that contribute to teachers’ professional identity and play an important part in developing teachers confidence (Fraser, 2007, p. 72). In their views, effective professional development activities should provide opportunities for active involvement of teachers and follow up support by the trainers/mentors with the provision of adequate resources to implement the new ideas in classrooms. This section presents findings of teachers’ beliefs on influencing factors for effective professional development. The respondents expressed their beliefs on a scale

of 1 to 5 with 1 being the least influential and 5 being the most influential. The table 11 is related to the research question no. 2.4. Table 11: Primary Teachers' Beliefs about Influencing Factors over Effective CPD Influencing factors over effective CPD Willingness to learn Learning environment in school Evaluation of performance Family environment Class observations and feedback from RPs and SS Class observations and feedbacks from HT Parents Colleagues Head teacher Economic matters SMC and PTA Monitory Benefit Learning culture of social groups Geographical locations Communication equipments Information Communication Technology I/NGOs

N 399 387 384 391 376 378 384 378 384 378 374 374 380 373 378 375 377

Mean 4.20 3.96 3.85 3.70 3.64 3.61 3.54 3.52 3.50 3.50 3.45 3.40 3.30 3.26 3.24 3.20 3.10

Std. Deviation 1.311 1.133 1.124 1.190 1.324 1.219 1.286 1.270 1.287 1.249 1.292 1.363 1.242 1.289 1.304 1.371 1.331

Teachersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; willingness to learn and update their knowledge and skills was found to be the most influencing factor in teacher CPD. Some teachers, particularly young, were happy to give up a day or two of their holidays each year to attend CPD courses. This finding is consistent with other literature (Gray, 2005; Norad, 2009; Malm, 2009). Malm (2009) argues that while teachers do articulate a commitment to external centres they also make significant links to personal passions, which include ideology, values and beliefs. "A will to learn" must be present before teachers engage in actual learning activities. (Van Eekelan et al., 2006, p. 112). Van Eekelan et al. (2006) suggested that teachers who have "will to learn" have the ambition to discover new practice.

Learning environment in school was considered as the second most influencing factor for effective CPD. School environment plays a pivotal role for effective CPD. CPD activities that work well in one school may not work so well in another school because every alternative context, time and people are different which generate different school learning environment (Loxley, 2007, p. 68). For example, learning needs of teachers working in rural schools may be different from the needs of teachers working in urban schools. Classroom observations of teaching, both in schools and elsewhere is considered to be the most effective form of professional development by teachers (Dymoke, 2006, p. 85).Class observations enable teachers to reflect on their own development and to grow in confidence about their classroom management skills. The respondents’ suggestions for evaluation of performance, class observations by RPs, school supervisors, and head teachers were also considered influencing factors for effective CPD is consistent with the findings of other studies. The findings suggest that I/NGOs also have some influence on effective CPD; however, their influence on teacher professional development in Nepal was found being limited. Man Whitney test for gender and location and Kruskal Wallis test for rest of other six variables were used to find out whether there were any statistically significant relationships between these variables and teachers’ beliefs on influencing factors. Among the eight variables, the most significant differences were found between the teachers’ beliefs and job districts. In other words, teachers from three districts had significant different views on ten out of eighteen factors listed in this study.

Teachers in Bhaktapur had the highest rank mean values for all ten factors. For example, rank mean value for class observations and support visit by RPs and SSs was 4.04, compared to rank mean value in Parsa (3.97) and Sindhupalchok (3.59). In terms of location, significant differences in the mean values were observed between location and five factors. Variables such as gender, age, and school level generated significant differences in relationship with at least one of eighteen factors. In terms of ethnicity, teachers had significantly different views on the role of ‘SMC and PTA’, ‘class observations by RPs, SS,’ ‘ICT’ and ‘communication equipments’. In summary, we could conclude that teachers’ beliefs of different influencing factors for effective CPD varied significantly by variables such as district, location, and their ethnicity. Teachers’ perceptions on these factors have significant implications on the planning and implementation of any CPD policy. In the following section, enabling factors for effective CPD are discussed. Enabling Factors for CPD In the last section, we discussed teacher’s belief on different factors’ influence on effective CPD. This section presents a further analysis of teachers’ perception on enabling factors for effective CPD. Enabling factors such as ‘peaceful school environment’, ‘refresher training and teacher support programmes’, ‘fair performance and evaluation based on CPD achievements’, ‘class observations, model lessons and feedback on teachers' performance’, ‘regular monitoring and encouragement by the authority’, and ‘opportunities for sharing good practices’ were suggested by more than half of the respondents. The respondents’ suggestions reflect the international research evidence

that suggests certain types of professional development activities are more likely to offer sustained learning opportunities for teachers. For example, ‘reform types of CPD activities’ (Boyle, 2005, p. 12) with sufficient time and duration, necessary content knowledge, opportunities for reflections and collaborative interactions with teachers within in the schools and in other schools are likely to bring about meaningful changes in the classroom practice. The factors such as ‘regularity’, ‘participation of teachers in decision making process’ and ‘professional development linked with career developments’ are characteristics of effective CPD activities widely mentioned in the literature review. A second level of analysis was carried out with a view to identify if there were any significant differences in responses in terms of their demographic and employment conditions e.g. location, age, gender, appointment types, district, ethnicity etc. There were significant differences between five situational factors suggested by the teachers working in rural and urban areas. Differences on the perceptions of two-government policy related factors were statistically significant as well. However, there were not any significant differences in teachers’ perception of personal factors and approach to CPD factors between rural and urban areas. For instance, more teachers working in urban areas perceived “Class observations, model lessons and feedback on teachers' performance”, “Prize and Rewards”, "Fair performance and evaluation based on CPD achievements", and “Opportunities for further study” than their counterparts in rural areas ( 59.9% vs. 45.6%, 42.9% vs. 26.3%, 62% vs. 42.6%, and 9.6% vs. 3.6% respectively).

Significant relationship between gender and enabling factors for CPD were found in one personal CPD, two approaches to CPD and one government policy related factor. Years of teaching experience and enabling factors had significant relationships in two personal factors, one social factor, and two approaches to CPD. For instance, none of the teachers from 26-30 years group reported ‘ethnic learning culture’ whereas one thirds of teachers with more than 30 years’ teaching experience reported it as an enabling factor. In terms of appointment, there were no differences in the teachers’ perception of situational factors and personal factors across appointment types. Differences were, however, pertinent in approaches to CPD and CPD related government policies. For example, 68% of Raahat teachers reported “participation of teachers in decision making process” as an enabling factor. It was almost double of other appointment types (33.3%, 36.4% and 38.2% of Nijisrwot, permanent and temporary teachers). Job district variable yielded the highest number of significant variances in the perceptions of enabling factors for CPD. Out of 33 factors suggested by the respondents, significant relationships between the districts and teachers’ responses were observed in 20 factors which include five personal, eight situational, three approaches to CPD and four government policy related factors. In summary, there was much agreement about what factors enable teachers’ professional development in this study and the literature. For example, for effective CPD NORAD (2009) argued for enabling environment in the school that is constituted by improved leadership, provision of follow up support and adequate teaching facilities. Head teachers and school management committees need to be

oriented properly on the need of teacher professional development for the improvement of schools. Andrée, et al. (2009) highlighted that high performing countries involve teachers in decision about curriculum, instructions, assessment and professional development. In the next section, we look at what factors hinder teachers’ CPD in detail. Hindering Factors for CPD One of the research objectives was to explore factors that hinder primary teachers’ CPD. Respondents were asked to respond to an open- ended question: what factors hinder teachers’ CPD? Respondents supplied 30 hindering factors. Each respondent had suggested six factors on average: a minimum of three factors and a maximum of eight factors (Appendix 11). Hindering factors that respondents suggested were further grouped into four broad categories viz. personal, situational, and professional and policy related factors (Appendix 12). The most frequently suggested hindering factor was ‘lack of encouragement of School Management Committee’ (57.8%) and the least frequently cited factor was ‘teachers’ illness’ (3.2%). Nearly half of the respondents (48.1%) mentioned ‘political interference in school and general strike’ as a hindering factor. Frequent educational strikes called by different political parties and student unions have toiled school days. Respondents reported that political interference in the selection of the head teacher, and the election of school management committee (SMC) members had negative impacts on teachers’ morale and motivation. Some teachers argued that the head teacher or SMC discriminated them on the ground of political ideology by not giving equal opportunities for professional development.

More than four in ten respondents stated that ‘unclear government teacher professional development policies’, ‘performance not being linked to promotion and reward’, ‘lack of physical facilities’ ‘lack of teaching and learning materials’ hindered their professional development (46.2%, 44.2%, 42.9% and 41.4% respectively). More than one thirds of respondents felt that ‘financial factors’(39.4%), ‘no provision of feedback and follow up supports after training(38.7%)’, ‘poor financial conditions of the school (35.7%), ‘instable government policies’(34.5%) hindered their professional development. Two in ten teachers suggested ‘low salary’ (21.3%), ‘lack of communication and information about CPD opportunities’ (19.4%), ‘inappropriate time and venue of the training’ (19.1%) ‘Colleagues’ ridicule attitudes on professional development activities’ (18.6%), as hindering factors for their professional development. The comments on low salary came from teachers who are serving on temporary terms and conditions other than permanent positions. The issue of inappropriate time and venues of the training was raised by female teachers and teachers in rural areas. For a small percent of respondents ‘remote locations’ (15.4%), ‘no professional development programmes specific to meet experienced teachers’ needs’(15.4%), ‘insecure job’ (12.2%), ‘lack of open/distance CPD courses for teachers’( 10.2%), ‘high teacher student ratio’(7.9%), ‘language of instruction’(6.7%) were hindering factors for their CPD. ‘Teachers absenteeism’, ‘age’ and ‘teachers’ health’ were mentioned by less than five percent of respondents (3.5%, 3.5% and 3.2% respectively). The perceptions of two thirds of factors (20 out of 30) were significantly different between districts. The perceptions of teachers working in rural and urban

areas were significantly different in five factors. For example, more teachers working in rural areas reported of ‘high teacher pupil ratio’ than their counterparts in urban areas (10.5% vs. 4.6%).More teachers working in urban areas mentioned ‘poor financial conditions of school’, ‘lack of teaching materials’ than their counterparts working in rural areas ( 41.1% vs. 31.6%, 45.7 % vs. 33.3 respectively). Significant differences were observed in the perception of ‘corruption’ as a hindering factor between age groups. 44.6% of 21-30 years group felt that ‘corruption’ in education system hindered their CPD. This percent was almost two times higher than of below 20 years and 41-50 years group’s response (23.1% and 23.8%). Teachers’ gender and years of teaching experience did not yield significant differences in their perception of hindering factors. Significant differences were observed in five factors across teachers’ appointment types viz. fifty-six percent Nijisrwot teachers mentioned ‘instable government policy’ compared to 35.3% of permanent teachers, 26.4% of temporary and 32% of Raahat teachers. Fifty six percent of raahat teachers mentioned ‘corruption’ as a hindering factor for effective CPD. Respondents in Bhaktapur reporting ‘poor financial conditions of school’ were double than Parsa and Sindhupalchok (56.4% vs. 37.5% and 20%). In addition, similar percent of respondents of Bhaktapur reported of ‘lack of teaching materials’ as a hindering factor (52.5%). Only 29.6% of respondents in Parsa and 46% of respondents in Sindhupalchok mentioned this factor. In focus group discussions, teachers in Bhaktapur district more frequently than their counterparts in other two districts compared their facilities with private schools. Because of school’s poor

financial conditions, they argued that teachers could not implement new skills they were suggested in teacher training. Teachers in Parsa and Sindhupalchok had similar perception of ‘corruption’. In both districts, one thirds of respondents mentioned ‘corruption’ as a hindering factor whereas three times less respondents in Bhaktapur mentioned about this factor. Some of the issues related to ‘corruption’ included not running the training full time as required, hiring near and dear ones as trainers instead of qualified and professional trainers. The teachers in Parsa also mentioned that they did not receive enough resources and learning materials during the training and often the training activities were held in rush towards the end of a fiscal year. In terms of ethnicity, disparities in perception were significant in one fifths of hindering factors (20%). They include ‘financial factors’, ‘lack of encouragement of SMC’, ‘lack of teaching materials’, ‘no programmes for experienced teachers’, ‘lack of communication and information about CPD’ and ‘corruption’. In summary, hindering factors are context specific and teachers' perception of factors that hinder their professional development were determined by their terms and conditions, social and geographical contexts, therefore, if CPD is to be successful in changing teachers' classroom practice, one-size-fit-all solutions will not work. The respondents have shared their views and ideas on addressing the hindering factors in the next section. Solutions to Primary Teachers’ Barriers to Effective CPD Respondents were asked to suggest solutions to address hindering factors. The responses were grouped in thirteen categories, which are presented in the following table:

Table 12: Solutions to Primary Teachers’ Barriers to Effective CPD

Solutions to address hindering factors Creating conducive learning environment

Frequency 265

Percent 66.1

Keep school free from politics Planned and regular CPD opportunities throughout the teaching career Make SMC and HT accountable for include CPD in school improvement plan Provision of TLMs and curriculum on time Linking CPD with teachers annual appraisal Promotion and permanent appointment Feedback, mentoring and follow up support Transparent and enough budget and resources Flexibility of time, duration and diversity of CPD activities Provision of learning visits and secondment Provision of appropriate teacher student ratio Use of ICT and media communication

227

56.6

210

52.2

199 191 190 186 185 120 76 46 40 35

49.6 47.6 47.4 46.4 46.1 29.9 18.9 11.4 10.0 8.7

Two thirds of respondents (66.1%) suggested ‘creating conducive teaching and learning environment’ and more than half of respondents (56%) noted that ‘schools must be free from politics’. The third mostly cited solution was ‘planned and regular CPD opportunities throughout a teaching career’ (52.2%). The respondents indicated that CPD for teachers were not linked with their career progression. More importantly, they argued that the current CPD provisions were both inadequate and irrelevant to their needs. Half of the respondents (49.6%) stated that making ‘school management committee and head teachers accountable for including teachers’ CPD in the school improvement plans’. They argued that the school improvement plans did not include resources and time for teachers’ CPD. Nearly half of the respondents indicated ‘provision of TLMs and curriculum on time’, ‘linking CPD with teachers’ annual

appraisal and salary’, ‘promotion and permanent appointments’, and ‘feedback, coaching, mentoring and follow up supports’ (47.6 %, 47.4%, 46.4% and 46.1% respectively). Three in ten respondents suggested ‘transparent and enough resources for CPD and two in ten respondents indicated ‘flexibility of time, duration and diversity of CPD activities’ would help them improve their teaching skills and increase their participation and interest in CPD. Significant differences in responses were recorded between districts, locations, ethnicities, school levels, age groups, appointment types, districts. Teachers’ years of teaching experience did not yield any significant differences. For example, larger percent of respondents from urban areas suggested ‘flexibility of time, duration and diversity of CPD activities (24.2% vs. 14.7%)’, ‘creating conducive learning environment (74.2% vs. 59.6%)’, and ‘promotion and permanent appointment’ (55.1% vs. 39.5%) than their counterparts working in rural areas. Younger teachers were more likely to suggest ‘feedback, coaching, mentoring and follow up support’ compared to older teachers. For example, 61.5% of below 20 years and 60.6% of 21-30 years age groups suggested ‘feedback, coaching, mentoring and follow up support’ compared to 39% of 31-40 years age group and 47% of 51-60 age group). Younger teachers did not see the value of learning visit and secondments in bigger schools as much as their counterparts in thirties and fifties do. Female teachers were more likely to suggest ‘flexibility of time, duration and diversity of CPD activities (25.6% vs. 13.9%), ‘planned and regular CPD opportunities throughout the teaching career (58.1% vs. 47.8 %)’, ‘feedback, coaching, mentoring and follow up support (53.5% vs. 40.6%)’ and ‘promotion and permanent appointment (55.8% vs. 39.3% )’.

Teachers’ terms of appointments had significant different views on ‘creating conducive learning environment. Eight in ten Nijisrwot teachers and seven in ten Raahat teachers compared to five in ten temporary and six in ten permanent teachers stated ‘creating conducive learning environment’. The most significant differences were recorded between districts. There were marked differences in respondents’ views between Bhaktapur and other two districts. For instance, more than half of respondents in Bhaktapur indicated ‘flexibility of time, duration and diversity of CPD activities’ whereas only 10% of respondents in Parsa and 4% of respondents in Sindupalchok reported for the same factor. Similarly, 20.2% of respondents in Bhaktapur believed that ‘learning visits and secondments’ would be a solution to make CPD experience more relevant to their real classroom context. However, only 4% of respondents in Sindhupalchok and 13% of respondents in Parsa reported this view. Almost two thirds of respondents (64%) in Parsa noted that ‘making school management committee and head teachers accountable for including budgets for teachers CPD in school improvement plans’, while half of respondents in Bhaktapur and one thirds of respondents in Sindhupalchok referred to this solution. Respondents’ views on ‘feedback, coaching, mentoring and follow up support’ were significantly varied across the school levels. For example, none of the respondents teaching in 1-3 grades schools suggested this action. Nearly six in ten respondents teaching in the schools with 1-8 grades, half of respondents from the school with 1-10 grades and more than four in ten teachers working in schools with 15 grades and 1-12 grades said that ‘feedback, coaching, mentoring and follow support’ was necessary for effective CPD.

With regards to ‘linking CPD with teachers’ annual appraisal and salary’, respondents from the schools with 1-3 grades group proposed this action the least (22. 2%), the responses from the schools with 1-10 grades were the highest (62.6%). The following section will present the respondents' views on CPD activities that teachers considered to be the most beneficial. Most Beneficial CPD CPD is much more than training, though training may be one part of CPD. CPD includes ongoing workshops; follow up, study, reflections, observations and assessment (Gaible, et al., 2005). CPD accommodates teachers as learners and recognises the long-term nature of learning to improve their practice as professionals. Most of respondents reported that they did not find CPD activities currently available relevant. Teachers’ views must be respected if we were to develop an effective CPD policy. Therefore, respondents were asked to suggest the most useful professional development activity (Research question no. 3). The table presents the frequency and percent of the most beneficial CPD activities suggested by the respondents.

Table 13: Frequency and Percent of Most Beneficial CPD

Most beneficial CPD activities Frequency Percent Follow up support, feedback and demonstration lessons by 134 32.0 Resource Persons, Head teachers and School Supervisors Refresher training and planning before the academic session 85 20.3 Mentoring and coaching 25 6.0 Class observation & demonstration lessons by experts 22 5.3 Teaching materials development and demonstration of good 22 5.3 practices Teacher training on TV and radio 14 3.3 Learning network with neighbouring schools 9 2.1 Subject wise training 9 2.1 Orientation on new curriculum 8 1.9 Participation of teachers in CPD planning and implementation 8 1.9 Opportunities for further academic courses 6 1.4 Single workshops 3 .7 Friday learning workshop with RPs and other teachers 1 .2 Secondment to bigger and better schools 1 .2 No response or Missing 72 17.2 Total 419 100.0 The table 13 presents a range of CPD activities that respondents suggested as the most beneficial CPD activities for primary teachers. 17.2% of respondents did not respond to this question. ‘Follow up support, feedback and demonstration lessons by Resource Persons, Head teachers and School Supervisors’ was the most frequently mentioned as ‘ most beneficial CPD activity’ for primary teachers (32%). The second most frequently cited CPD activity was ‘refresher training and planning before the academic session starts, (20.3%). Making time for teachers to plan, implement, and assimilate change is critical to the success of reform agendas (Loxley, 2007, p. 68). Other activities such as ‘mentoring and coaching’, ‘class observation and demonstration lessons by experts’ and ‘teaching materials development and demonstration of good practices’ (6%, 5.3% and 5.3% respectively) are similar to

‘follow up support, feedback and demonstration lessons by Resource Persons, head teachers and School Supervisors’. Therefore, if we add up the responses for all these four activities together, the percent of respondents will be 48.6%. The key message of respondents is that CPD should provide teachers with opportunities to share their challenges with experts and seek hands on practical tips to address their problems. They also want encouragements and recognition of their efforts. Experienced teachers expressed strong desire to exchange knowledge and experiences with other teachers within the school and teachers from other schools. In focus group discussions, both in rural and urban areas, a majority of teachers reported that knowledge exchanging was an important way in which they could develop their professional knowledge and skills. Knowledge exchanging includes activities such as sharing teachers’ experience with others and reflecting on their practice and experience. Sharing and reflecting occur when teachers talk, collaborate, observe and share resources with others (Lohman, 2001, p. 59). Secondary and tertiary stakeholders also agreed with the respondents that lack of follow up supports after training, feedback on their teaching skills and demonstration of good lessons, primary teachers have not been able to implement fully what they usually learn in teacher training and other professional development activities. Teachers were found to have more positive experience of CPD where RPs, head teachers or SSs had visited schools, observed teachers’ classes and provided feedback on teachers’ teaching skills,. RPs are responsible for visiting schools, providing professional feedback and organising demonstration classes for primary teachers, however, teachers argued that they were more engaged in administrative

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works. For example, collecting education data and compiling administration information rather than spending time on providing professional supports. The majority of resource persons who were consulted in this study acknowledged the importance of regular follow up visits and feedback on teachers’ teaching skills, but argued that they did not have resources and time to provide supports to teachers. RPs themselves did not have most up-to-date knowledge and information about curriculum and they did not get travel costs to visit schools regularly. RPs argued that they had been assigned too many schools; therefore, practically they cannot spend a lot of time in the school to provide professional supports to teachers. Respondents argued that most of RPs did not have relevant and recent teaching experience, therefore, even they received feedback from RPs occasionally, and it was mostly theoretical. Their arguments were that most of the RPs were secondary teachers and did not have any experience of teaching at primary level. Their arguments were confirmed by the findings that two thirds of RPs who were consulted (75%) had never taught at primary level. While there were no significant differences across locations, age, gender, types of appointment, years of teaching experience, and ethnicities, significant differences were found across districts and school levels. A higher percent of teachers in Parsa reported three CPD activities than in Bhaktapur and Sindhupalchok. For instance, ‘follow up support, feedback and demonstration lessons by Resource Persons, Head teachers and School Supervisors’(42.1% vs. 23% and 28.4%),‘Refresher training and planning before the academic session starts’( 42.1% vs. 23% and 28.4%) and ‘ subject specific training’(25.7% vs. 13.3% and 19.8%). Similarly, the percent of teachers in

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Bhaktapur reporting ‘classroom observations and demonstration classes’, ‘learning networking with neighbouring schools,’ ‘teaching materials development and demonstration of good practices’ ‘mentoring and coaching’ and ‘participation of teachers in CPD planning and implementation’ were significantly higher than in Parsa and Sindhupalchok. For instance, 10.5% teachers in Bhaktapur suggested ‘class observation & demonstration lessons by experts’ while only 2% of teachers in Sindhupalchok and 5% of teachers in Parsa suggested this activity. Regardless of school levels, the most frequently mentioned beneficial CPD activities were, ‘follow up support and feedback by RP, HT and SS’ and followed by ‘refresher training and planning before the session starts’. More teachers working in schools with 1-3 grades suggested ‘class observations and demonstration classes’ than teachers teaching in bigger schools (9.1% vs. 1.8% of respondents from schools with 1-10 grades and 5.7% of respondents from the schools with 1-12 grades). The analysis indicates that majority of respondents preferred more reformoriented CPD activities to one-off CPD initiatives that would address their needs and allow them to interact with teachers from other schools. It indicates an emerging paradigm shift in CPD “ moving professional development away from the practice of attending courses and training days to the concept of lifelong or continuing learning”(Fraser, 2007, p. 72). Perceived Relationship between Teachers’ CPD and Students’ Learning Instructional practices depend on what teachers bring to the classroom. Professional competence is believed to be a key factor in classroom and school practice (Baumert & Kunter, 2006 cited in OECD, 2009). Teachers’ professional knowledge and actual practice may differ; however, it is important to examine how teachers relate their

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professional development activities to their instructional practices and students’ learning outcomes. Table 14: Teachers' Perceived Contribution Of CPD To Students’ Participation And Learning Outcomes Heading Students freely participate and ask questions

Frequency

Percent

219 164

59.8 44.7

8.4

Positive students achievement outcomes Students’ critical thinking increased

Six in ten teachers reported that because of professional development activities they encouraged students’ active participation in the class. Nearly 45% of teachers reported that pupils’ learning outcomes improved because of inclusive and children centred education. However, only 8.4% teachers stated that their professional development activities helped to increase students’ critical thinking. More teachers working in urban than in rural areas stated increased student participation (62.7% vs. 57.7%), students better learning outcomes (51% vs. 40.2%), and ‘increased students’ critical thinking (11.8% vs. 6.1%). Age, gender, years of teaching experience, types of appointment, school levels did not have any significant influence on teachers’ responses. There were ethnic disparities in terms of perception of ‘pupils’ increased critical thinking’ as a CPD outcome. For instance, none of hill Janajati, Madhesi Dalit, and other ethnic minorities reported this outcome. Interestingly, 50% of hill Dalit teachers but only 6% of hill Bahun/Chhetri and 3% of Madhesi Bahun/Chhetri said that their students’ critical thinking increased as a result of their professional

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development inputs. 16.8% of Newar teachers reported an increase in their student critical thinking. There were marked district disparities in the perception of CPD’s contribution to pupils learning outcomes. For example, Bhaktapur had the highest percent of teachers reporting ‘students freely participate and ask questions’, positive students achievement outcomes’, and ‘students critical thinking increased’ (64.1%, 48.9% and 21.7%, respectively). The differences across districts were so significant that the percent of teachers reporting ‘increase in students’ critical thinking’ in Bhaktapur was nearly 16 times higher than in Sindhupalchok (1.6%) and three times higher than in Parsa (6.1%). Nearly half of respondents felt that their professional development activities had positive impact on pupils’ participation in the classrooms and to some extent on pupils’ learning outcomes but not much on building pupils’ critical thinking. The following section presents findings about professional development opportunities in schools. Professional Development Opportunities in Schools The research literature shows that effectiveness of teachers’ CPD is largely influenced by their working environment. External CPD courses will have less impact on teachers in absence of provisions in schools, which would reinforce teachers’ new skills. Therefore, the study asked if the teachers had anything in place at their schools, which would encourage them to develop their professional skills. Nearly one-thirds (32%) of respondents suggested that they had something in place in the schools which would encourage them to develop their professional skills.

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Cross sectional analysis shows that there were no differences in responses across age, gender, and years of teaching experience, type of appointment, ethnicities and school levels. However, significant differences were found across locations and districts. For example, more teachers working in urban areas than in rural areas reported as having some professional development opportunities in the school (41.7% vs. 24%). Similarly, the percent of teachers having professional development opportunities in schools in Bhaktapur (55.8%) was nearly three times more than in Sindhupalchok (17.6%) and two times more than in Parsa (30.9%). Table 15: CPD Opportunities in Schools by Percent CPD opportunities in schools Teachers guides and reference books Opportunities for sharing experience and teaching ideas In house training and workshops Observation and feedback by Resource Persons Staff meetings to discuss teaching and learning activities Opportunities to involve in subject committees Collaborative learning Action research

Percent 19.0 18.1 17.0 14.7 14.0 12.5 10.7 1.8

Nearly two in ten teachers said that they had teachers’ guides and reference materials in the school that would help them to develop professional skills. Eighteen percent of teachers said that they had opportunities to share their experience and teaching ideas with other colleagues in the school and 17% of respondents said that they had in-house training and workshops. Other CPD activities that were reported by less than 15% of teachers include ‘class observations and feedback by RPs’ (14.6%), ‘staff meetings (14.2%), ‘Opportunities to be part of subject committees’ (12%) ,‘collaborative learning’(10.7%). ‘Action research’ was mentioned by only 2% of teachers. Significant differences in responses were found across locations, years of teaching

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experience, ethnicities and districts. Individual characteristics such as age, and gender did not have any influence on teachers’ responses. Teachers working in rural locations were three times less likely to have opportunities for class observations and feedback by resource persons than those of working in urban areas (8.8% and 22%). Twenty one percent teachers in urban areas had staff meetings to discuss teaching and learning compared to 8.3% of teachers working areas in rural areas. These examples corroborate marked location inequalities in professional development opportunities for teachers. In terms of years of teaching experience, significant differences were found in ‘observation and feedback by RPs’, ‘ training and workshops’, ‘opportunities to be part of subject committees’ and ‘collaborative learning’. In terms of ethnicity, significant differences were found in ‘observations and feedback by RPs’, ‘teachers guides and reference books’, ‘training and workshop’, ‘opportunities to involve in subject committees’ and ‘collaborative learning’. More than two thirds of teachers from other ethnic minorities, half of hill Madhesi, nearly one thirds of Newar teachers said that they had teachers' guides and reference books compared to 9% of Madhesi Dalit and 12% Madhesi Janajati teachers. Teachers in Bhaktapur were likely to have seven times more chances to be observed and received feedback by Resource persons than in Parsa and Sindhupalchok ( 40.2% vs. 6.7% and 6.1%, respectively). 46.4% of teachers in Bhaktapur said that they had teacher guides and reference materials whereas only 3% of teachers in Sindhupalchok and 17% of teachers in Parsa had provisions of teachers' guides and reference materials. It was found that more staff meetings were held in Bhaktapur than in Parsa and Sindhupalchok to discuss teaching and learning (32.3%

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vs. 6% and 9.5%, respectively). Teachers in Bhaktapur were three times more likely to have’ training and workshop’ opportunities compared to Parsa and double than in Sindhupalchok (21.9% vs. 7.4% and 11.5%, respectively). None of teachers in Sindhupalchok mentioned ‘action research’ while less than 1% of teachers in Parsa and 6.3% of teachers in Bhaktapur mentioned of ‘action research’. The following section presents what respondents considered characteristics of effective CPD. Characteristics of Effective CPD CPD activities should contribute to personal as well as professional growth. Those who participate in CPD should feel that they have ‘moved on’, have been inspired to increase their knowledge further or to use the skills and understanding they have gained to impact favourably on their own teaching practice and students’ learning outcomes. CPD planning and implementation process should be transparent, fair and equitable and should be facilitated by experienced and professional persons with a deep understanding of the subject. Teachers suggested the following characteristics of effective CPD. Table 16: Characteristics of Effective CPD by Percent Characteristics of effective CPD Percent CPD provides teachers with opportunities to learn new content 70.6 knowledge and pedagogy skills Follow up supports are provided by trainers 43.6 Teachers are involved in planning and implementation of CPD 42.3 CPD is linked with performance appraisal and pay 40.4 CPD addresses teachers’ and students’ real problems 29.8 CPD is integral to school improvement plans 27.6 CPD is long term, ongoing, sequential and cumulative 21.1 CPD uses ICT 9.4 The most frequently cited characteristic of effective CPD was ‘CPD provides teachers with opportunities to learn new content knowledge and pedagogy skills’

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(70.6%). 43.6% of teachers indicated that effective CPD has follow up supports by trainers and 42.3% of teachers considered ‘involvement of teachers in planning and implementation of CPD as an important characteristic of effective CPD. 40.4% of teachers suggested that effective CPD should be ‘linked with performance appraisal and pay’ . Three in ten teachers stated that effective CPD should address teachers and students’ real problems. 27.6% of teachers felt that effective CPD should be an integral part to school improvement plans and other 21.1% of teachers suggested that effective CPD should be long term, ongoing, sequential and cumulative. Nearly 10% of teachers suggested the use of ICT for CPD. Teachers’ perceptions of characteristics of effective CPD were not significantly varied across age groups, years of teaching experience, types of appointment, and school levels. However, perceptions of most characteristics were significantly varied across districts followed by gender, locations, and ethnicities. In seven out of eight characteristics presented in table 16, the highest percent of teachers suggesting them were from Bhaktapur. The highest percent of teachers in Bhaktapur (66.6%) highlighted that ‘follow up supports and feedback by trainers’ as the most important characteristic of effective CPD. More than half of teachers in Bhaktapur stated that effective CPD should address teachers' and students’ real problems, while only 17.7% of teachers in Sindhupalchok and 26.7% of teachers in Parsa suggested this characteristic. ‘Being long term, ongoing, sequential and cumulative’ was suggested by half of teachers in Bhaktapur, while 10% of teachers in Sindhupalchok and 13% of teachers in Parsa. There were some statistically significant gender differences about teachers’ perceptions of effective CPD characteristics. For example, a half of female teachers

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suggested that effective CPD should ‘involve teachers in planning and implementation of CPD’, and ‘follow up and support by trainers, coaches or colleagues’ compared to 35.5% and 37.4% of male teachers, respectively. Respondents’ views are consistent with the literature. For example, Penuel, Fishman, Yamaguchi and Gallaher (2007) suggested a new theoretical framework which includes seven constructs- the focus of CPD (on subject content, teaching strategies or a mix of these); the scope for teachers’ active learning; the programme coherence (the perceived alignment of CPD activities and teachers’ own goals); its duration or time span; the role of colleagues (expanding the notion of collective participation); reform versus traditional CPD; and local support/barriers (resources and hindrances in the school). Kazemi and Hubbard (2008) content that ‘professional development is a career-long, context specific, continuous endeavour that is guided by standards, grounded in the teachers’ own work, focused on student learning and tailored to the teachers’ stage of career development’. They argued that CPD is more than a series of training workshops, meetings and in-service days. It is a process of learning how to put knowledge into practice through engagement in practice within a community of practitioners. CPD should be a structured part of whole school planning but should not adopt a ‘one size fits all’ approach. The individual needs of staff should be linked to the collective needs and priorities of the school through performance management. Building on the discussion of characteristics of CPD, teachers were asked to suggest the types of CPD activities they wanted to see in the future CPD interventions. The following section presents CPD interventions suggested by respondents.

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Suggested Activities for Future CPD Interventions One of the research questions was related to future CPD interventions- what kinds of professional development activities do primary teachers expect from CPD interventions in the future. Table 17: Suggested Activities for Future CPD Interventions by Percent CPD Activities English language training Demonstration classes and feedback by experts and head teachers Interaction with parents and students Learning visits to good schools and collaborative learning Workshops and training Provision of self-learning materials

Percent 57.3 45.1 38.4 25.8 21.5 13.4

In terms of future CPD interventions, the most frequently mentioned CPD activity was’ English language training’ (57.3%). ‘Demonstration classes and feedback by experts and head teachers’ was the second most frequently cited CPD activity (45.1%). Nearly four in ten teachers indicated ‘interaction with parents and students’. One fourths of teachers suggested ‘learning visits to good schools and collaborative learning’. ‘Workshops and training’ was suggested by 21.5% of total teachers. 13.4% of teachers demanded for self-learning materials. Teachers working in urban areas were more likely to suggest ‘learning visits to good schools and collaborative learning’ than their counterparts working in rural areas (33.7% vs. 24.3%). A higher percent of older teachers than younger teachers suggested ‘workshops and training’. For instance, only 7.7% of below 20 years group and 8.1% of 21-30 years group suggested ‘workshops and training’ compared to more than 25% of older groups (25% of 31-40 years group, 26.8% of 41-50 years and 37% of 51-60 years group). Younger teachers’ preference was ‘visiting successful schools and

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collaborative learning’. For example, 46.2% of teachers below 20 years and 30.6% of teachers of 21-30 years group suggested ‘visiting successful schools and collaborative learning’ compared to 7.7% and 8.1% of teachers of below 31-40 years and 41-50 years groups, respectively suggesting ‘workshops and teacher training.’ Female teachers were more likely to suggest ‘demonstration class and feedback by experts and head teachers’ than male teachers (56.2% vs. 44.3%). Female teachers were more than two times as likely to suggest ‘learning visits to good schools and collaborative learning’ and ‘provision of self-learning materials’ than male teachers (40.2% vs. 18.9% and 20.2% vs. 10.4%, respectively). The years of teaching experience had significant effect for teachers’ perception of ‘provision of self-learning materials’ and ‘workshops and training’. The data analysis shows that teachers’ demand for self-learning materials was influenced by teachers’ career stages. Teachers from older age groups suggested ‘workshops and training’ more than their counterparts from younger age groups. For instance, 42.1% of teachers with more than 30 years group and one thirds of 26-30 years group suggested ‘workshops and training’ compared to 12.5% of 1-5 years groups and 9.5% of 6-10 years group and more than one forth of teachers within 11-25 years group. In terms of ethnicity, four suggested CPD activities viz. learning visits to good schools and collaborative learning, provision of self-learning materials, workshops and training, and language training had significant differences by ethnicity. The highest percent of Newar teachers (44.6%) suggested learning visits to good schools and collaborative learning followed by hill Janajati teachers (44%). While 29.2% of Madhesi Dalit suggested this activity, none of hill Dalit did. The

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percentages of Madhesi Bahun/Chhetri and hill Bahun/Chhetri were also significantly low (4.4% and 10%). Because of parents’ perceptions regarding the English medium education in private schools, teachers in urban areas were under pressure from the community to deliver their lessons in English. The school management committees in a few cases decided to adapt English as a medium of instruction for which teachers did not feel confident. If they would not teach in English, they would lose students in the school; particularly in Bhaktapur, this issue was pertinent in urban areas. Majority of teachers said that they themselves did not feel competent in English but had to teach the subject as the parents desired. Teachers’ perceptions of future CPD activities were significantly varied across districts. For instance, teachers in Bhaktapur were two times more likely as suggesting ‘demonstration class and feedback by experts and/or head teachers’ than their counterparts in Sindhupalchok and 15% more than in Parsa (69% vs. 30.6% and 54%, respectively). The percent of teachers who suggested ‘learning visits to good schools and collaborative learning’ was significantly higher in Bhaktapur (51%) compared to Parsa (25.3%) and Sindhupalchok (15%). While more than one thirds of teachers in Bhaktapur indicated ‘provision of self-learning materials’ (37.5%), significantly a much smaller percent of teachers in Sindhupalchok (3%) and in Parsa (10.7%) indicated this activity. Similarly, the percent of teachers suggesting ‘workshops and training’, in Bhaktapur were much higher than of Parsa and Sindhupalchok (37.1% vs. 28% and 9%). Teachers teaching in smaller schools, particularly in primary schools were less likely suggesting ‘English language training’ than of their counterparts working

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in bigger schools. For instance, the percent of teachers working in schools with 1-10 grades and 1-12 grades who suggested â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;English language trainingâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; as a future CPD activity was higher than of teachers teaching in smaller schools (77.3% and 71.4% vs. 50% and 55.1% of teachers in the schools with 1-3 grades and 1-5 grades). The following section presents the respondents' suggestion for approach to CPD delivery. Approach to CPD Delivery Nearly half of teachers in the study indicated school based CPD. Similarly, 41.3% of teachers felt that CPD should be delivered through resource centres. One thirds of teachers stated that the head teachers must be made accountable to deliver CPD programmes for teachers. They argued that if head teachers were held accountable, teachers would be more likely to have CPD opportunities. The head teachers should ensure that the budget has been allocated for teacher professional development. Only 15% of teachers suggested that distance CPD should be delivered by using ICT in distance mode. Table 18: Approach to CPD Delivery Approach to CPD delivery School based Through resource centre Making head teachers accountable Distance mode of CPD using ICT

Frequency

Percent 182 157 124 57

48.0 41.3 32.7 15.0

There were no differences in suggestions across age and years of teaching experience of respondents. Significant differences in suggestions for CPD delivery approaches were recorded across locations, gender, and types of appointment, ethnicity and school level.

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More than half teachers in Bhaktapur (55.1%) suggested that CPD activities should be delivered through resource centres, whereas only 25% of teachers in Sindhuplachok and 47% of teachers in Parsa suggested this approach to CPD. Comparatively, teachers reported having more positive experience of resource persons in Bhaktapur than in other two districts. In terms of location, more teachers working in urban areas than in rural areas suggested school based CPD (56.6% vs. 41.3%). In terms of gender, male and female teachers had significant different views on distance CPD by using ICT. Female teachers were two times more likely than male preferring distance CPD programmes by using ICT (20.7% vs. 10.4%). Views were varied in ‘school based CPD’ across types of appointment. More than half of permanent teachers suggested CPD programmes be school based, compared with one thirds of Raahat and temporary teachers and 44% of Nijisrwot teachers. In terms of ethnicity, 100% of hill Dalit and more than half of Newar teachers (54%) indicated that head teachers should be made accountable to run CPDs, compared with one forth of hill Bahun/Chhetri and Madhesi Dalit , one fifths of Madhesi Bahun/Chhetri (20.9%), 16.7% of Madhesi Janajati and 10% of Madhesi Janajati . Significant differences were recorded in all suggested CPD approaches across districts. Bhaktapur recorded the highest percent of teachers suggesting all four CPD approaches in three districts. A suggestion for implementing CPD activities through Resource Centres was mentioned almost double in Bhaktapur than in Sindhupalchok (55.1% vs. 24.8%). Similarly, in case of holding head teachers accountable for teachers’ CPD, the percent of teachers in Bhaktapur was three times

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more than in Sindhupalchok and double than in Parsa ( 63.9% vs. 18% and 25.5%, respectively). The following section examines the differences between teachers' perceived and actual classroom practice. Difference between Perception and Practice of Teaching Practice It is important to validate self-reported data on instrumental practice against direct observations or some other independent measures of practice. In order to examine primary teachers’ belief in their own effectiveness and their teaching practice, the respondents were asked to indicate how effective primary teachers they were. The measure was based on a five point Likert scale where 1 equals least effective and 5 equals extremely effective. Respondents, who indicated 5 in the survey questionnaire (i.e. extremely effective teacher), were further asked to fill in a self-reflection form. The self-reflection form consists of 60 rubrics, which were developed based on the literature review on inclusive and child-friendly teaching practice. The rubrics were grouped into six inclusive teaching activity categories – i.e. relationship with students, teaching materials development and lessons planning, inclusive and learner centred teaching practice, classroom management, lesson presentation and delivery, and evaluation & review. In each category, 10 rubrics were developed, the respondents were asked to express their teaching practice on a fourpoint Likert scale where 1 equals “not at all” and 4 equals “very much”. Seventy-two respondents (17.2 % of n= 419) perceived that they were extremely effective primary teachers. Out of 72 respondents, the researcher observed classes of 30 respondents. Class observations were done within a period of one day to two months period since the respondents filled the form. The respondents were not informed prior to class

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observations in order to increase the validity and reliability of observation data. After observing the classes, some respondents requested the researcher for feedback on their classes. The researcher shared the observation data with the respondents and asked if they agreed on the researcher’s judgement. A paired-sample t-test was conducted to compare the mean of respondents’ perceived and observed teaching practices. Out of 60 teaching and learning variables of inclusive and child friendly teaching practice, there were significant differences in the scores for 48 (80%) perceived and observed teaching practice. Under the relationship with students category , there was not a significant difference in the mean score for perceived ( M= 3.03, SD= .691)and observed greeting in friendly way ( M= 2.93, SD=.583); t(29)=.941,p= .354. This means that respondents greeted in friendly way at the beginning of the class. There were other nine variables under this category : showing interest in students’ live, knowing and using students’ name, giving extra attentions to weak students, treating all students with equal respect, students actively listening to teachers, active participation of students without fear of making mistakes, encouraging girls to participate in teaching learning activities, giving verbal encouragement. Significant differences were observed between mean scores for respondents’ perceived and observed showing interest in students’ lives data [(M=3.17, SD=.834) and (M=2.53, SD=.860); t (29) =2.993, p=.006]; perceived and observed data of 'treat all students with equal respect' [(M= 3.57, SD=.568) (M= 2.17, SD=.531); t (29)= 8.968,p=.000]. Similarly differences were observed between the perceived and observed data for extra attention to weak students (M= 2.97, SD=.1.098) and (M= 2.13, SD=.629); t (29) =4.631,p=.000. Majority of teachers were found not showing interest in students’

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lives, the lesson often started with an instruction to open a particular page of the books, instead of asking how the students were doing, if they had anything to share with the class etc. Based on the above findings, it can be concluded that primary teachers, who perceive themselves effective teachers, do not demonstrate inclusive and childfriendly teaching methods in the classroom.

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CHAPTER- V

PRIMARY TEACHERS' SOCIO-CULTURAL PERSPECTIVE ON CPD

Introduction What individuals believe, and how individuals think and act is always shaped by cultural, historical and social structures. Teachers cannot be an exceptional to this. Teachers' perception about their profession, classroom practice and CPD is influenced by their participation in socio-cultural practices. Therefore, taking a socio-cultural approach to this study, the researcher has aimed to illuminate the relationship between teacher teaching practice and CPD on the one hand, and the cultural, institutional, social and historical situations in which teachers' interactions occur, on the other. The analysis and interpretation of the qualitative data presented in this chapter was collected from open-ended interviews with nine teachers, class observations, focus group discussions, and semi-focused interviews with secondary and tertiary stakeholders on a range of situational, personal, social and cultural variables that affect teachers' perception of their teaching practice and CPD. When conducting open-ended interview with the sample teachers, the researcher used guided questions (Appendix 2). The aim of the open-ended interview was to get the interviewees to tell stories about the things that were important to them. The nine respondents were selected for open-ended interviews in order to ensure the adequate comparative analysis of representative socio-cultural and geographical diversities (Table 2). Pseudonyms were used to protect anonymity. Each of the case studies

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includes qualitative data of open-ended questions in the survey; lesson observation, self- evaluation form, and the open-ended interview. Overview of Case Study Teachers Sarala Sarala is a Newar woman in early forties from Bhaktapur. She is a primary teacher in one of the oldest community schools in Bhaktapur. She has been teaching in this school for 15 years. However, she has worked as a primary teacher only for seven years because she taught as a secondary account teacher for eight years until the school started losing its students. The school used to have more than 1500 students five years ago, the number of students has declined to roughly 300. Consequently, she was returned to her original appointment as a primary teacher. Before she started teaching in this school, she used to teach in a local private school. She has a Bachelor degree in Commerce. Her father was also a teacher in the same school. He was a respected teacher at his time. She was inspired to become a teacher because of her father. The demography of students has also changed significantly in her school recently. Most of pupils in the school were Newar from local communities until five years ago whereas most of children now are not from local communities; they are mostly children of migrant workers or poor families who could not afford private schools. Luniva Luniva is a Newar teacher from the local community in Bhaktapur. She is doing her B.Ed with specialisation in English language. She went to a private school in Bhaktapur. After completing her school study, she started to teach in a private school. She did not have any training. She has taught in private schools for three years. She

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was specially hired to teach in English medium at primary level, which was a part of school's strategy to attract and retain students in the school, who would otherwise go to private schools. Luniva's sister is also a primary teacher in a private school in Bhaktapur. Bhojraj Bhojraj is a Hill Bahun in early fifties. He has worked as a primary teacher for twenty-seven years. When he started teaching, he was the only SLC graduate in his remote village. He had not planned to become a teacher. Community leaders and family members approached him to help them establish a primary school in the community by agreeing to teach in the school. The first three years, he was the only teacher in the school; later the government provided two teachers. He did not have any pre-service teacher training. He was the head teacher of the school for fifteen years. When he was the head teacher, he encouraged his teachers to participate in the training instead of attending himself. The government revised the minimum academic qualification for primary teachers in 2008. According to the new policy, all primary teachers must have a degree of higher secondary education. Bhojraj is well respected by the students, teachers and the community for his contribution to the school. He was one of the participants in the last batch of NCED's ten moth primary in-service teacher training in Bhaktapur. Brish Brish is a Madhesi Bahun primary teacher teacher in a rural part of Parsa where the most children are from Madhesi Dalit community. Brish is not from this community. He lives in Birgunj and travels to the school every day. Brish is on temporary

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contract. He has been teaching for ten years. The school is the only secondary school in the community, therefore; many parents prefer to send their children to this school from the primary level so that their children can get admission in the secondary level easily. The community is quite poor and there are not any private schools near by. He did not have any pre-service training. He has had ten month in-service training. In his family, his father is a secondary science teacher. He joined the teaching profession because of social and personal values for example, once you are permanent, you can start doing other business side by side. Mina Mina is a Madhesi Janajati primary teacher. She did her B- level education [under SLC, primary teacher training programme. The programme continued until the MoE made a decision to terminate "under-SLC" teachers unless they pass SLC within a specified time period in early nineties (Awasthi, 2003 p173)]. She also had a tenmonth in-service training. She teaches in a small primary school in Birgunj where most of her students are ethnic Janajati. She used to teach in a remote school. She was transferred to this school five years ago. Most of her students are children of poor families or migrant workers who have come to the headquarters for living and cannot afford private schools. Janakdev Janakdev is Madeshi Dalit. He has been teaching as a primary teacher for two years in a rural secondary school in Prasa. He is the first teacher from the Dalit community. He has passed the higher secondary education. He has not received any teacher training beside 10+2 in education. He is doing B.Ed in health.

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The school faced an unprecedented surge in the enrolment three years ago. He was appointed on relief quota; therefore, his salary is not as much as of permanent counterparts. One challenge that he faces every day is of teacher absenteeism. Out of six teachers, hardly three teachers are present in the school at any time. Except him, the head teacher and other teachers come from neighbouring villages. Ramlakhan Ramlakhan is a Madhesi Janajati teacher in late forties in Sindhupalchok. He has been teaching for twenty-six years as a primary teacher. He is originally from Sarlahi district. He lives in Sindhupalchok on his own and his family members are in Sarlahi. He has taught in three schools in Sindhupalchok. The first two schools were in remote areas of Sindhupalchok. He was able to get him transferred to the present school three years ago. Ramlakhan has only passed SLC. He asked for a transfer to the headquarters so that he could start studying again. Ramlakhan has three brothers and all of them are teachers in different hill districts. He was not trained when he became a primary teacher. His mother tongue is Maithali but he can speak Tamang language fluently. He had to learn Tamang language because previous schools where he taught, pupils could not understand Nepali language and they were mostly Tamang children. Narendra Narendra is a Hill Chhetri teacher in late thirties. He has been teaching for ten years. He started teaching in a rural primary school and he was transferred to the present school three years ago. It is a higher secondary school with primary classes. It is the only higher secondary school in this community. Narendra has passed SLC. Even though he has been teaching in a higher secondary school, he did not think of further

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study until the government introduced the new teacher policy, which upgraded the minimum qualification for primary teachers to higher secondary education. He was one of the participants of the last batch of ten-month teacher training in Sindhupalchok. No one in Narenda's family is in the teaching profession. Sunita Sunita is a hill Bahun primary teacher in Sindhupalchok. She has been teaching as a temporary teacher in a primary school in an urban area for five years. She is also a student of B.Ed . When she started teaching, she had passed Grade 12 with specialisation in education. She has not had teacher professional development opportunities. Sunita decided to become a teacher when she heard that the government's affirmative policies to increase the number of female teachers. She wants to be a secondary English teacher. There are four private schools in her community therefore; children from economically sound background go to private schools. The students who come to her school are mainly from poor families who cannot afford sending their children to private schools. Most of young men from the community have gone for foreign employment and they prefer to send their children to private schools. All six teachers considered themselves "effective teachers" but they have their own perceptions of being an effective teacher, which reflect their social and cultural contexts where they teach. Our socio-culture focuses on exam results as an indicator of the quality education. Parents want to see their children scoring high marks and worry less whether their children have learned any numeracy, literacy and most importantly life skills from their education. This was reflected in the respondents' perception of being effective.

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More experienced and older teachers considered the students' exam result as an indicator of their effective teaching. I have been teaching for 27 years. The students I taught have become doctors, engineers and ministers. Many of them have been successful in their career. Isn't that an indicator of my effectiveness? Bhojraj Bhojraj referred to his students' success and argued that conservative teaching methods (that encourage rote memorisation) are better than the child-centred teaching methods. He was not convinced that new active teaching methods could help children learn. Narendra reported using teachers' guides and instructions in the textbooks but his perception was determined by the exam result of his students. I feel I am experienced in understanding children's needs. I use teachers' guides and follow the instruction of textbooks. My students have topped resource centre level exam. Narendra Narendra has been teaching for ten years but he has not had any teacher training. During the class observations, he read out the instructions in the textbooks and asked to answer orally in chorus. Then he started writing answers on the blackboard and asked students to copy the lesson. When he was asked whether the lesson's objectives were met- he was happy with his lesson because he was able to write answers to all questions on the blackboard and his students could copy them. For Narendra, children's learning outcomes are \best judged by the exam result. Sarala who is also an experienced teacher has a different perception of an effective teacher. Having worked in private schools and participated in different teacher training workshops, her perception of an effective teacher was more progressive than of Narendra and Bhojraj. Both Narendra and Bhojraj teach in rural

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isolated settings and they rarely get to see how other teachers teach whereas Sarala has had more exposure to child-centred curriculum and pedagogy. It was noted that more teachers working in rural schools considered more effective than their counterparts in urban schools did. Being a primary teacher in an urban school, Sarala faces a distinct challenge most of her pupils are either working children or migrants. Even though most of my pupils come from economically deprived families, they do well in the exam at the end. They enjoy my lesson because of my child-friendly teaching methods. Sarala Luniva was hired by the school to teach in English medium as an attempt to retain children who would go to private schools otherwise. Parents, if they can afford, prefer to send their children to private schools. The respondents perceived that parents' preference to private schools was because of the medium of instruction. I use teaching materials and involve all of my pupils in learning activities. I teach in English medium by using learner-centred teaching methods. ...as a result parents who used to send their children to private schools, have sent their children to our school. Luniva When Luniva class was observed, she was indeed fluent in English and found very motivated in her job and passionate about teaching. She said parents valued her more than they valued her colleagues because of her competency in English and had higher status in the community. There were more experienced teachers than Luniva in the school but she reported that she had higher status in the school in spite of being a young and new teacher, because of her "cultural capital"- her linguistic competency in English language. Ramlakhan also reported a similar story to Luniva but in a

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different social context. Ramlakhan's mother tongue is Maithali. When he moved from his native district to Sindhupalchok, he was challenged by different linguistic and social contexts because he could not speak the language of students. In order to be effective in his role, he had to gain a "cultural capital" i.e. learning the language of pupils. He explained: When I first arrived in a remote village of Sindhupalchok ten years ago, I did not understand a single word what students were saying as I did not speak their first language. None of my students would speak Nepali. After spending twenty-six years in this district, I can now speak more than two local languages. Local teachers are often absent but I am from outside and live in the community. Ramlakhan Most of my students are Janajati students and they do not understand Nepali. Having worked in a remote school and being myself a Janajati woman, I can now speak three local languages. It has proved to be very useful to explain my lessons to children. Other teachers struggle... Mina The above views of Luniva, Ramlakhan and Mina illustrate how sociocultural contexts where teachers teach affect their perception of professional effectiveness and professional development needs. It shows that having competency of students' mother tongue is a pre-requisite for primary teachers' effectiveness if they teach in communities where the majority of pupils do not speak Nepali as a mother tongue and come from ethnic linguistic groups. Generally, teachers' perception of their effectiveness is determined by their level of competency in English language because of emerging social and culture values of English language. It is important to note that English is not an official language of instruction in community schools

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therefore; when serving primary teachers were hired, it was not a requirement for primary teacher. Nevertheless, as Bourdieu argues that the school reproduces the cultural values of dominant groups of the society, teachers working in urban schools would face greater pressure to improve their English language skills if they want to convince the parents to send their children to community schools and retain their deteriorating social status. The respondents who represent traditionally under-represented groups in teaching profession, e.g. Dalit, ethnic Janajati often reported one of the indicators of being effective in their job was that they would act as role models for the children from their groups. Janakdev argued that interaction between teachers and pupils is dominated by their social and cultural backgrounds of the teacher and pupils. He said: I am Dalit myself and have experienced exclusion as a student. I make sure that all children in my class are treated inclusively. Teachers from higher castes still do not treat Dalit children properly. I am from local community and I know how important education is for my community. I'm present in the school where most of other teachers are absent. Janakdev Moreover, Janakdev gave another reason for considering him as an effective teacher that he was regular in the school. It can be argued that all teachers are expected to be regular as a professional value. However, Janakdev's argument makes sense when we relate to the social context in which he works, where teachers' absenteeism is so pervasive that within a distance of 5 kilometres of the headquarters, two out of seven schools were closed at midday and nearly 30% of teachers were reported absent on the day the researcher went to collect primary data.

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Even though Sarala considered herself as an effective teacher, she highlighted that her perception of effectiveness was affected by sociocultural contexts. While she acknowledged community schools were struggling for their existence in current sociocultural contexts in which parents had lost their faith in community schools, she highlighted a challenge about the language of instruction that she faces every day, which contradicts with the school management's policy of using English as a medium of instruction. When I started teaching in this school ten years ago, all students were from local Newar communities. It was easy to teach them because I could communicate them in their mother tongue. Over the last few years, children from local Newar communities have gone to private schools and the children who have come to our schools are migrant children whose parents have recently moved to Bhaktapur. Most of these children hardly understand Nepali language but the school management wants us teach in English medium so that we can attract local parents. Sarala Above examples have highlighted how social contexts influence primary teachers' effectiveness and their professional needs. For example, for teachers' teaching in remote schools, being able to speak pupils' language is important whereas for teachers in urban schools, being proficiency in English and having awareness and skills to provide inclusive classroom environment for migrant children is key. The following section presents how the value of teaching profession affects teachers' perception and practice of CPD.

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Value of Teaching Profession Values are carried by people but they can change, can be extended and elaborated on through life experience. Czerniawaski (2011) argues that the formation of teachers' values takes place in contexts in which there may be multiple dimensions in the nature of the interaction. As the teachers progress in their career stages, the values that they hold may come into tension or conflict with the values that circulate within the schools in which people work. Becoming a teacher may have different meanings for different people. The contextual specificity of what it means to be a teacher in terms of socio-cultural practices varies from one context to another. What it means to 'be a teacher' cannot be pinned down in terms of professional identity. Teachers may exhibit a wide range of values and behaviours in the context to which they engage with the activities. The teachers who joined the teaching profession twenty years ago and the teachers who have joined the profession in recent years highlighted different values about teaching profession based on their exposure to information about teaching. For example, from a cultural transmission perspective, younger and older generations of teachers had different perspectives on teaching. Most experienced teachers who have been teaching for more than fifteen years viewed "the pupils as passive recipients of transmitted knowledge with the role of the teacher as the transmitter of knowledge" (Czerniawski, 2011) whereas teachers who studied education as a major subject were in favour of active teaching methodologies, at least in theories. Teachers did not share similar values about teaching and classroom control and pedagogy.

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I must finish the lesson in the textbooks, as the final exam is not set by the school itself. The exam papers are set by the resource centre examination committee so you I must finish the book (lessons). Mina Many teachers were found in crises, conflicts and dilemmas about their teaching values and classroom practices- "a mismatch between teachers' personal values and expectations of being a teacher and the reality encountered in the classrooms" (Czerniawski, 2011, p. 66). Mina thinks that she has to finish the lessons of the book, as the expectation of the school is that she completes her lessons in a given time. She also noted that she could not follow her plan because of frequent strikes called by different political parties. In her opinion, once she completes the lessons, she can repeat before the examination so that her students could do better in the exam. While her personal values included ensuring pupils learn joyfully and objectives of the lessons met, in the classroom practice, she promoted the values of exam results. Bhojraj substantiated Mina's arguments for emphasising on completing the lessons by adding: At the end of the day, what matters is not what methods you use in classroom but whether your pupils have learnt or not. For all those twenty-seven years, my teaching methods were considered relevant and effective and suddenly the government thinks that we (teachers who do not have appropriate academic qualification) are not qualified to teach unless we upgrade our academic qualification. Bhojraj Ekelen, Vermunt and Boshuizen (2006) classified teachers into three groups: those who do not see the need to learn; those who wonder how to learn; and those

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who are eager to learn. Ekelen et al. (2006) concluded that ‘‘a will to learn’’ must be present before teachers engage in actual learning activities. Clearly, in case studies, Sunita and Janakdev fall into the third category of teachers whereas Mina, Bhojraj represent the first group of teachers, who do not see the need to learn. They feel that it is too late for them to learn how to teach effectively and change their teaching practice. They did not have an ambition to grow in the career therefore less interested in discovering new practices, being open to new ideas. To spend money on training programme for teachers who are going to be retired in couple of months is a waste of money. I do no think that I am going to change my teaching techniques because of the government's training. Bhojaraj Teaching is comparatively low-paid profession and the fact that different teachers are working on different terms and conditions is a major issue. Primary teachers often have lower social status than of their secondary counterparts because not only they earn less salary but also the school management committee and society do not recognise the roles primary teachers play on building a strong foundation for pupils. Narendra argues: While allocating resources or developing a school improvement plan, teacher professional development rarely gets on priority of the school management or the government. Narendra Teachers who work in secondary schools in particular, complained that the head teacher's attention would be how to bring better result of SLC as it is the only indicator of school's fame for its quality.

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If the school bring good result in SLC (School Leaving Certificate), the school will receive some cash incentive and will be recognized for its good performance. Therefore, the school management often prefers to invest on secondary teachers or teaching learning teaching materials for secondary level. Sarala The respondents reported that they were blamed for not being effective but the teaching profession as a whole received less attention from the policy makers. Jankadev compares the teaching professionals with health professional and comments: In health sector, health professionals get many opportunities for professional development. If teachers also receive similar opportunities, teachers will also be professionally motivated and feel that their profession is recognized. Janakdev In conclusion, how teachers are valued by the society affects teachers' selfperception of teaching profession and their perception about CPD. Teachers' socialisation, age, career stage and location directly influence their perception and CPD practice. In spite of teacher training , in the classroom observations most teachers placed greater value on a more didactic set of teaching skills and the ability to control the class and feed the knowledge they possesses into the minds of the students being taught by using traditional teacher centre methods. Accountability The respondents uniformly reported that the government's efforts to improve primary teachers' professional development were not effective in meeting their professional needs. One the one hand, the government spent many resources on "one-off" special ten-month teacher-training programme for in-service untrained teachers but most

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respondents criticised this as a "donor driven" than of "teachers need-based" initiative. On the other hand, head teachers reported that they could not discipline teachers effectively for unacceptable behaviours such as absenteeism, lateness, poor teaching because it is very difficult to dismiss them, and pay and promotion are largely unrelated to actual performance. It should be noted that critical to determining how teachers respond to policy changes depends on how their development as professionals is shaped and moulded to meet their professional needs and capacity building opportunities presented by the system. While most respondents complained of inadequate CPD opportunities for their professional development, only a few reported what they themselves did for improving their professional skills in the last five years. It was found that attitudes to CPD were shaped by complex interrelationship between local, social and cultural factors and teachers' career stage, age and terms and conditions of their jobs. Head teachers frequently cited lack of budget, follow up support by trainers, resource persons and school supervisors as one of the problems but only a few head teachers reported observing teachers' class and providing feedback on their performance and allocating resources to buy materials and teaching materials and facilitating opportunities for teachers to learn from colleagues. The knowledge and approach of head teachers, resource persons and trainers to CPD could radically affect either positively or negatively, teachers' attitude towards and understanding of CPD. For instance, in Luniva's school, the head teacher had a CPD strategy and budget. There were opportunities for peer observations and monthly sharing meetings in which teachers who have recently been to any teacher professional development course would share their experience with colleagues.

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The respondents frequently linked the issue of accountability with political instability in the country, which is discussed in details in the next section. Political Interference in Education Nearly half of the respondents (48.1%) mentioned â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;political interference in school and general strikeâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; as a hindering factor for their professional development. In all districts, teachers reported being victims of political parties. Brish shared how political inference affected his professional development opportunities: Political parties want to hold the power in the school management committee so that they can (miss) use the budget in their political interest. Whenever there is a vacancy for a teacher position, they often select the one who bribe them more amounts to get the job. More teachers in Parsa and Sindhupalchok noted political interference and corruption in appointing teachers, particularly on relief quota than in Bhaktapur. Some teachers argued that the head teacher or SMC discriminated them on the ground of political ideology and did not give equal opportunities for CPD. Teachers on temporary contract reported not having equal access to teacher training and often discriminated by their political affiliation. Brish believes that his affiliation to a political party is important for his job security. He is confident to secure a permanent position if his party continues to be in power. My job will be more secured if I am associated with a politically affiliated teacher' union or a political party. Brish.

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Teachers are accountable to political parties than to the children and school. Being a member of a political party is seen more valuable than being a member of a teacher professional organisation. Our school did not have the head teachers for one year because of political interference. Every party wanted to appoint their follower as the head teacher so that they can use the head teacher in their political interest- may it be recruitment of teachers or promotion and transfer. Narendra Narendra explained that not having the head teacher in the school for one year, Narendra missed a chance to participate in the last batch of teacher training. He complained that teachers' promotion and evaluation was done based on teachers' affiliation to political parties than based on the ability of candidates. As long as political interference in education remains, teachers' professional values will be dominated by political interest that undermines teaching as a profession. In this context, teachers will not be motivated to improve their professional skills. The following section presents different views based on geographical locations. Geographical Locations Teachers working in rural areas had less access to CPD opportunities than the teachers working in urban areas did, however, they are more likely to consider "effective teachers" than their urban counterparts. Sarala illustrates how exposure to good practice influences teachersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; perception of effectiveness: I have been teaching for 15 years as a primary and secondary teacher. I used to think that I was a very effective teacher because I always tried to teach my students in my best ways. My students had good result in the exam.

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Sarala holds a Bachelor's degree and she has experience as a secondary teacher for eight years. Therefore, her perception of effectiveness was based on social values of being a secondary teacher. She changed her perception gradually and sifted her beliefs as she started to interact with teachers from other schools, receive feedback from resource persons and volunteers. She was part of a community of practice for primary teachers initiated by VSO and District Education Office. Sarala's self-perception of effectiveness was determined by "the level of exposure to new teaching methodologies, interaction with other colleagues and school culture" (Czerniawski, 2011). She becomes more reflective and notes: I realise there are many things I still need to learn. ... the more I learn, the more I feel that I need to learn a lot to be considered as a very effective teacher but I am sure I am a reflective teacher.” A majority of teachers who had opportunities to work with volunteers from JICA and VSO in Bhaktapur shared the above views. During the data collection, two VSO volunteers and six JICA volunteers were working with primary teachers in some resource centres in Bhaktapur. Many respondents reported their professional teaching skills were enhanced by school-based coaching and regular follow up by RPs, JICA and VSO volunteers. Similarly, teachers in Sindhupalchok who had attended ‘childfriendly teacher training’ of Save the Children, teachers in Parsa whose classes were regularly observed by RPs and VSO volunteers and other NGOs had similar views as the teachers from Bhaktapur. While it should be noted with caution that the reach of VSO, JICA, and other INGOs were limited to urban and semi-urban areas of the sample districts, this finding does confirm the evidence from the literature that school-based teacher development programmes are more effective to change teachers’

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teaching practice in the classroom. One thing common in these examples was that they all had regular follow up and supports by experts to help them to reflect on their pedagogical beliefs and teaching practice. While Sarala had a positive experience of CPD, Bhojraj who is a teacher in a rural school in Bhaktapur portraits the experience of primary teachers working in isolated rural schools and their perception about CPD. In his twenty-seven years of teaching career, a resource person has observed his class once. Even though, I am teaching in a district of the Kathmandu valley, my class has been observed by a resource person once in twenty-seven years. I have taught the way my teacher used to teach me. Bhojraj Teachers who could speak ethnic languages reported being more effective and argued that teachers' preparation, selection and deployment should be based on candidates' competency in local languages. For example, the teachers in remote areas of Parsa would find Bhojpuri useful to teach children whose mother tongue is Bhojpuri and they do not understand Nepali, similarly, if the teacher is teaching in remote Sindhupalchok, she should be able to understand and speak Tamang language. Not only in remote areas but also in urban areas where most of students do not speak Nepali as their mother tongue, teachers would be more effective in their class if they could speak the pupils' mother tongue. For example, Mina teaches in an urban school in Birgunj but all students speak Bhojpuri as their mother tongue ,therefore, Mina finds it easy to explain difficult concepts in students' mother tongue. Teachers find it very difficult to handle a class of mixed linguistic groups, particularly in urban areas where a majority of students are migrant children from different geographical locations. For example, in Sarala's class, there were 15 students in Grade

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1. None of them would speak Nepali as their mother tongue and half of them have just arrived in Kathmandu from remote villages who would not understand Nepali at all. This change in student demography has brought new challenges for teachers like Sarala. Her school management has decided to use English as a medium of instruction. In some cases, the community schools were found to start two types of education, one in Nepali medium and another in English medium, often in the later case, teachers were hired by the schools' internal resources. Among the six case study teachers, Sarala received the most professional development opportunities, yet she felt that her professional development needs were not addressed. For instance, she often faces tensions when dealing with the values that the school has encouraged to take up (i.e. using English medium in order to attract students) and the reality of classroom practice. Tensions also exist between the societal values centered around what it meant to be a teacher ( cultural capital of a teacher who could teach in English ), the personal beliefs and values of a teacher about the nature of "effective teaching" (Arthur et al. 2005, cited in Czerniawski,2011, p. 60). If a primary teacher wants to be effective in urban areas, for example, it is not enough being good at content and pedagogy. She should have skills to work with vulnerable children. If she were a teacher in the same classroom ten years ago, she would need to be proficient in Newari language to be effective in teaching because most of students were Newar at that time. Therefore, the respondents argued that the present teacher professional development interventions should be tailored with the socio-cultural contexts in which teachers work and the teaching workforce should represent the society's social and cultural diversity.

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Peaceful School Environment While teachers' access to CPD is important, teachers can only implement their skills if the school environment they work is peaceful. As the nation is recovering from tenyear long internal conflict, a significant number of teachers reported on-going threats of violence, extortion, and kidnapping which they have been subjected to in recent years. Particularly teachers working in Parsa reported several cases in which teachers had been subjected to extortion by different unidentified groups. As ethnic politics is becoming increasingly central to Nepali politics, many teachers not belonging to local ethnic communities feel insecure and are prone to discrimination based on ethnicity in the school. Resource persons and school supervisors who were interviewed for this study also shared similar views. Another factor related to peaceful environment of the school was teacher absenteeism, which has contributed to teachers' negative social image. Narendra reported that some teachers, who are politically well connected, were engaged in real state and other business. In recent year some teachers, who are politically well connected, give less times in their job and involve in real state brokering and side business. Criminal groups and political parties target these teachers as a source for extortion. They demand a certain percentage of salary as a donation. Narendra Many teachers who may not be effective in their job but they are committed to the teaching profession because of their belief that education can transform the society. Such hard working teachers struggle to make their living, more so if they are on contract terms. The society has become so materialistic that the teachers who are

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absent from the classroom and engage in "real state business" get more social status and are valued. When they donate to the school and community projects, society often talks about the donation they have made but not holding them accountable for their role as teachers. In some instances in Sindhupalchok and Parsa, the respondents reported that these teachers often hire someone to substitute their job in the school while they are away. This culture was frequently referred as "khetalaa" culture, a term used for a paid agriculture worker in Nepali language. The school management committee, head teachers, RPs and school supervisors were powerless to challenge "khetalaa teachers" culture because these teachers often have well connections with political leaders. The social and culture values make teachers feel that having material objects are more important than working hard in the classrooms and worry about children's learning outcomes can get them further in life. It may not be true but they continue to believe it until strong government is in place and teachers are valued for what they do in the classroom than of their political connection and their materialistic life. Teachers made a clear statement that they could not think of professional values and professional development when their working environment is not peaceful. Frequently mentioned hindering factors included frequent general strikes by different political parties to get their demands met, use of schools' premises for political meetings and extortion. Rewards Respondents' ranked 'reward' as the most influencing factor that drives them to participate in CPD. There was a consensus among stakeholders that teachers' performance should be assessed, and good performing teachers must be rewarded.

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Until there is a strong system that rewards teachers for their good performance and punish for under performance, the investment on teacher professional development will not make a real impact in the classroom. None of six teachers in the case studies had been rewarded for their performance. The government does give education awards for teachers based on District Education Offices' nomination. The respondents indicated corruption and nepotism in the process of nomination. Ramlakhan and Mina represent the sentiment of respondents: Teachers are rewarded on education day. However, most teachers who receive awards are the ones who have political affiliations not for their professional performance. Ramlakhan The following view from a focus group discussion in Sindupalchok suggests that there was lack of accountability The head teacher should have authority to reward good teachers or discipline those who do not perform well. ... unfortunately, if you do not belong to the political party that your head teacher supports, it is very unlikely that you will be nominated for promotion and reward. Focus group discussion, Sindhupalchok It was clear from focus group and interview data analysis that teachers wanted to be appreciated and rewarded for their work. Some experienced respondents expressed their interest to take more leadership or mentoring roles but lack of clear criteria, they could not consider their career path.

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Teachers feel that the system of promotion is not clear and transparent and they emphasised the use of praise and rewards as a way of encouraging teachers to update their professional skills and motivate them. School Culture Teachers teach in the way they do, not just because of the skills they have or have not learned. The ways they teach are also grounded in the school culture, which is often influenced by socio-cultural, political contexts. The importance of school's social capital resources -for promoting a learning culture in which teachers trust one another to share problems, identify solutions, plan together and network as part of their CPD. In our school, if I have a problem with my teaching, I usually turn to colleagues for help. My colleagues suggest ideas or approaches to try in class and when I find some thing interesting, I share with my colleagues. We also use informal opportunities to discuss how our pupils are learning. Luniva Luniva's school is an example of the school, which promotes learning culture among teachers. The head teacher and school management committees are working hard to regain school's social capital by introducing child-friendly teaching. The school encourages teachers to participate in professional development activities and supports to implement new skills when they return. Luniva's school culture was an exceptional case where the school management and leadership promoted teachers' CPD. When beginning teachers try to make their work match their personal vision of how it should be, whilst at the same time being subjected to powerful socialising forces of the school culture, their professional values are influenced by the school culture (Day, 1999). The case study teachers stated that their school culture rarely

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supports collaboration and learning among teachers. While the most teachers indicated "informal discussion with colleagues" as preferred CPD activity in the survey, only a few teachers interviewed confirmed discussing teaching ideas and approaches with their colleagues. School culture had a considerable degree of influence on teachers' perception and experience of CPD and assess to CPD. The following section explores the role of head teacher in creating a school culture that promotes teachers' CPD in details. The Role of Head teacher Head teachersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; leadership was considered as the second most influential factor. Head teachers can provide internal support by setting expectations for teachers, establishing a school culture where learning and sharing are encouraged. They could play a key role to ensure that the time and resources for teachers to practise what they have learnt in CPD activities are available by demonstrating effective leadership (Caffarella, 1999; Gaible, 2005; Loxley, 2007). Most teachers in small primary schools and rural areas had negative experience of the role of head teacher in providing and supporting CPD opportunities for teachers. The head teachers nominating themselves to participate in the training was frequently mentioned by the respondents. Whenever there is a training opportunity and participants receive allowance, my head teacher attends the training not a teacher. He argues that if he goes to the training, he could also get school business done in the District Education Office. Sunita Head teacher plays a vital role in encouraging teachers to transfer knowledge, skill and attitude from training centre to a school. However, most of the respondents

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in this study did not have positive experience of the head teachers encouraging them to use new skills in the classroom. Most of the head teachers spoken stated that they needed additional skills to those of classroom teachers. Except the head teachers from a few secondary and higher secondary schools, they had not received proper head teacher training. The school head teachers occupy a critical and influential role in creating a school culture that can foster or restrict change per se (Loxley, 2007 p. 68). The implementation of CPD activities are most successful when school leaders believe professional development for teachers is essential for implementing change. Head teachers who are qualified and capable can bring about changes in the school. The teachers had positive CPD experience and culture of sharing good practices among colleagues in the schools where the head teachers were selected based on their leadership, management and academic skills. Teachers' Ownership and Participation in CPD Planning When teachers are motivated in professional development activities by the needs they perceive, they relate new knowledge to their experience in context, which motivates them to use new skills in the classroom (Henning, 2000 p. 171). The teachers in this study did not own the professional development opportunities because they were not consulted in planning. The respondents accused the government of adopting a "bureaucratic-managerial approach" (Vonk, 1991, cited in Livingston & Robertson, 2001) which considered teachers as "a technician" responsible for implementing a curriculum whose parameters are defined by an external body. Teachers had a little say in the composition of professional development activities.

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Respondents considered "participant-involved planning, collaborative effort in which emphasis is placed on self-determining teachers who have a key role in decision making" is more effective (Vonk, 1991, cited in Livingston & Robertson, 2001). They argued that teachers should be seen as innovative leaders who could identify their own CPD needs. CPD should be decided in partnership between all the stakeholders concerned and that it should leave the teacher feeling empowered by the process. (Livingston, 2001, p. 61). Teachers in this study, however, did not feel being empowered because they were not consulted in planning and implementation of CPD. Support of School Management Committee and Parents Support of school management committee and parents is central to create a school culture where teachers' professional development is valued and included in school improvement plans. When parents and the school management committee are supportive of teachers' professional development, teachers will be motivated and interested in improving their professional skills. The respondents, secondary and tertiary respondents had a consensus view on the school management committees that politicisation of the school management committees promoted corruptions, nepotism and made teacher recruitment political. Teachers reported being discriminated based on their political beliefs and the SMC did not prioritise teachers' professional development activities in budget allocation. The SMC makes recommendations for promotion to their supporters not the teachers who are sincere and work hard. Janakdev The representative view of Jankadev indicates how the politicisation of SMC affects teachers' access to CPD and their motivation.

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Transparent Plan and Budget for CPD At school level, all schools are required to develop school improvement plans (SIP) to access the government budget. However, the respondents reported that the SIP did not include the plans and budget for teachers' CPD. The head teachers consulted for this study stated that they had limited resources, therefore, budget for teachers' CPD did not come as a priority. School Improvement Plan (SIP), Village Education Plan ( VEP) and District Education Plan ( DEP) talk about improving the quality of education but do not clearly allocate budget to address the capacity building of the teachers through CPD at the local level. The government runs teacher training but does not allocate budget for buy materials and resources in the classroom to implement new skills, no budget for refresher training and follow up support. Sarala The respondents criticised the government policy that focused on quantity but not quality. They argued that each school should have particular budget to support teachers' collaborative learning and individual needs every year. Recognition of Teachers' Age and Career Stage Teachers tend to engage with CPD in different ways at different points in their careers. For example, younger teachers preferred to continue further study, subscribe professional magazines, join libraries, update their skills on computer and interested in ICT, whereas, older teachers preferred to engage in distance study, invite experts for class observations, study self-study materials and interact with other colleagues. In terms of career stages, teachers at mid career wanted to take more challenging roles than teaching.

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I have both academic qualifications and teaching experience, I would like to be a teacher trainer and mentor, which would be more challenging than teaching 10 students...it is not fulfilling.

Sarala

Sarala is looking for a new role in her career other than teaching. However, the respondents felt that government teacher policies did not provide any opportunities for experienced teachers to develop their professional skills further. When experienced teachers participate in CPD activities, they come with their experience as well as ego and they fear of being judged. I felt uncomfortable to ask questions and interact with other teachers because half of them including the trainer herself were my students to whom I taught English. Bhojraj Bhojraj would feel comfortable to learn if he was with teachers from same age groups and the trainer was not his student. For many years, Bhojraj was the only person who could teach English. He still teaches English but he admitted that speaking English was difficult. I am good at grammar and I can write English but new curriculum expects teachers to sing English songs, and teaching is focus on spoken English ...which I am weak at. Bhojraj clearly wanted to remain effective teacher and retain social respect that he has earned but at the same time, he was struggling to learn with the group of teachers who used to be his students. This example illustrates that CPD must consider cognitive, emotional and social factors of teachers according to their career stages and age.

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Beginning teachers were concerned about the government's teacher development policy that focused only on in-service teachers and did not give proper attention to beginning teachers. Several countries have introduced mentoring or induction programmes to help new teachers continue to learn on the job with support (Killeavy, 2006, p. 7). Induction programmes assist new teachers in transferring the acquired knowledge skills, beliefs and attitudes needed to improve student learning. The first few years of teaching career are a critical period for teachers when effective practices begin to form and be refined. In this period, beginning teachers are on the steepest points of their professional learning curves. Early on, "teachers develop skills, habits, and beliefs that determine whether they are likely to become expert professionals" (Berry, 2002; Zyngier, 2007). On the one hand, young and beginning teachers were interested in CPD but they did not have access to CPD. On the other hand, older teachers comparatively had more access to CPD but most of them were not convinced that their professional needs were addressed by CPD. Most teachers, who have been teaching for a long time, felt that the government training did not help them improve their teaching skills instead, they were furious about the new government policy that made them attend the training course. Experienced teachers strongly felt that their experience was not valued and needs were not taken into account. Knowles (1980) cited in Terehoff, 2000 asserted that "if adultsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; experience is not being used, or its worth is minimised, it is not just experience that is being rejected-adults feel rejected as personsâ&#x20AC;?( p. 67). For examples, by creating an environment for teachers to share and reflect on their experiences, all participants will

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have the opportunity to act as rich resources for learning. New experiences become more meaningful when they are intertwined and linked with past and current experiences (Terehoff, 2000, p. 68). Teacher Socialisation Teachers engage in various social practices, which are the fundamental process by which they learn and gain a sense of identity- in this case, professional identity. Teachers are not anymore only source for knowledge and education because of latest development in information and technology. No matter how good pre-service training for teachers is, it is not possible to prepare teachers for all the challenges they will face throughout their careers. The following paragraphs present different socialisation factors that teachers mentioned in this study. Teachers construct and negotiate their identity in relation to various people they meet and the communities they live in. Ulriksen(1995) sees teacher identities as "social identities in that they are a fusion of both the individual identity of the teacher (i.e., the image of the teacher's own academic qualifications, characteristics, and values) and a collective identity (i.e. the experience of being an integrated part of group)" (Ulriksen, 1995 cited in Czerniawski, 2011, p. 50). I am doing B.Ed. I am the only teacher in my school who is studying. I feel that I have my own individual identity. Parents see me as a role model for their daughters. When I complete my B.Ed, my aim is to be a secondary English teacher. Sunita Identities are often fashioned under conditions of oppression. Janakev, who represented disadvantaged groups (i.e. ethnicity and gender), he was motivated to continue his study because he was considered role models by the community. He was

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on temporary contract and has recently joined the teaching profession. Teacher identities are shaped and stretched by interactions with a range of other stakeholders e.g. students, parents, colleagues, government education policies and all of which may vary depending on the particular cultural and social context and institutional setting in which the teacher is located. Teacher identity shifts with time and context. Czerniawski (2011) argues that inter-sectionality of class, gender, ethnicity, ability, terms and conditions influence teacher identities. For instance, Janakdev reported being happy to be a primary teacher for time being but he noted that the society gives more values for secondary teachers because of the difference between primary and secondary teachers' salaries. On the one hand, most teachers with higher academic qualifications did not want to continue working as primary teachers and on the other hand, the teachers who have been teaching for many years but do not meet the new standard of academic qualifications felt that their professional identity process was affected by the government's policy. It was observed that teachers' professional identity was weaker than their political and social identity. Role of Professional Teachers' Associations When teachers with different ideas, experience, beliefs and opinion come together to discuss on common issues, they not only become aware of their â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;own (tacit) beliefs and understandingâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; (Meirink, 2007, p. 60) but also new knowledge can be created or existing knowledge and skills can be extended. Professional teachers associations can play a key role in creating collaborative learning opportunities for teachers to improve their own teaching practice or to adjust, supplement their own belief.

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There are a couple of subject specific teacher professional associations active in creating professional development opportunities for their members. For example, NELTA for English language teachers and Mathematics Council for Maths teachers. While all teachers interviewed reported being a member of politically affiliated teachers' unions, only three per cent of teachers in the study reported being a member of teacher professional associations. When teachers participate in the teacher-training programmes organised by the government, they often receive per-diem allowance whereas teachers have to pay for membership subscription of professional teacher associations. The respondents stated that their self-initiated professional development activities e.g. joining the professional teacher association and language classes are not credited for appraisal and promotion. While research has shown that teachers who are members of professional associations are more successful in bringing about changes in the classroom teaching (Guskey, 2003; Levin & Rock, 2003; Boyle, 2005), the teachers in this study, did not prioritise joining professional teacher associations as a CPD tool. Collaborative Learning and Sharing Strong professional community can foster teacher learning. When collaborative interactions occur and groups of teachers work together to examine and improve their practice, they contribute to instructional improvement (Borko, 2004, p. 86). Meirink, et al. (2007) has classified collaborative learning into seven configurations viz. ‘experimenting with other teaching methods’, ‘becoming aware of forgotten own plans’, ‘becoming aware of own shortcomings in teaching methods’, ‘valuing colleagues’ teaching methods’, ‘confirmation of own teaching method’,

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â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;getting/obtaining new insightsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; and reflecting on and valuing collaboration in study group and own experiment. The teachers, who participated in the Friday workshops during Basic Primary Education Project (BPEP), repeatedly referred it as a useful CPD activity to share ideas and collaborate with teachers from other schools. Friday workshops discontinued since the project ended. Some teachers mentioned of resource centrelevel subject committees in Sindhupalchok and Bhaktapur but they were not structured and regular. Teachers who get involved in collaborative type of CPD can become more reflective, critical and analytical when they think of their teaching style in the classroom (Levin & Rock, 2003 (Boyle, 2005, p. 12). However, this study found that there were no school policies to facilitate teachers to observe classes of experienced teachers. Sarala and Luniva were members of a collaborative teachers group initiated by the resource centre with VSO volunteers' technical support. From each member schools, two primary teachers who teach in Grade 1 and 2 joined the learning group voluntarily. The head teachers, and school management committees agreed to release participating teachers from the schools to visit other schools. Once a month, member teachers visited participating schools in turn; the host teacher demonstrated lessons and shared classroom experience with other teachers. Resource persons and VSO volunteers facilitated the group to agree on some learning objectives based on the classroom observations and feedback. Members hared good practice and did demonstrate lessons for other members. Based on teachers' needs, facilitators ran thematic workshops in which teachers they involved teachers to plan, implement and

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monitor CPD objectives. It was an empowering approach to CPD because each member took responsibilities for their professional development. Guskey (2003) warns that for collaboration to bring its intended benefits it needs to be structured and purposeful with efforts guided by clear goals for improving pupil learning and importantly aligned with reform initiatives. These school based CPD activities in Bhaktapur not only provided a platform for teachers to learn new knowledge through various channels, but also were able to â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;construct a supportive working environment for teachers to work withinâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; (Wong & Tsui (2007). Reflecting on the effectiveness of the community of practice, a focus group discussion in Bhaktapur suggested the government to mainstream the practice of collaborative learning in CPD policy: Such community of practice can be developed with a rich selection of formal and informal opportunities for teachers. Teacher educators (from local colleges), teacher trainers (ETC and other NGOs), head teachers and teachers can work together and collaborative professional development activities (e.g peer coaching, peer observations, visiting other schools, collaborative workshops) facilitate teachers to learn from other professionals.

Focus

group discussion, Bhaktapur Collaborative experiences occur when teachers work with other experienced teachers who have worked teach in the same grade levels or subject areas. While many teachers felt that they could learn from peers teaching, they reported lack of school culture that promotes peer observation as a tool of teacher professional development.

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Colleagues For nine in ten respondents, 'discussion and sharing with other teachers' was the most frequently used CPD activity. Teachers noted that through their conversations with their colleagues- mostly informal, they acquired information and insights that helped them handle instructional and student problems and concern. These informal talked were unplanned, which included â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;chance encountersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; (Lohman, 2001, p. 59). The quantitative data analysis showed that beginning teachers tend to focus on their own task whereas experienced teachers rely more on peers who are on similar career stage and age groups. Numerous teachers explained that they learn about teaching by exchanging ideas with colleagues in an informal way. Whenever I have any problems, I first ask my fellow teachers in the school. We do not have structured meetings but we informally talk about challenges and issues. Ramlakhan Both male and female teachers equally valued "discussing and sharing with other colleagues" however, female teachers in some cultural contexts faced problems to interact with male teachers particularly if there was only one female teacher in the school. These exchanges are useful in order to overcome professional difficulties (Grangeat & Gray, 2007). Professional interaction appears to be a useful support to teaching enhancement. However, teachers identify several school level issues, which from their point of view impede professional interaction. Most young and beginning teachers shared the view that older and veteran teachers considered them a threat for their identity when young teachers try to teach in child-friendly way. Veteran teachers were concerned that they would need to change

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their teaching styles because of younger teachers. However, in some cases, the researcher observed older teachers equally enthusiastic about learning new skills and implementing child-friendly teaching methods in the classroom. As teachers spend most of their time with colleagues, colleagues could influence teachers' perception and practice of CPD- both positively as well as negatively ways. Feedback, Follow up Support and Link with Annual Appraisal Government policy should be relevant to the national and local context, the coordination teachers, parents and students. Respondents expressed their concerns over the frequent changes in the government education policies. In all three districts, respondents frequently complained that the training allowance was inadequate. Some older teachers said they did not have much expectation from the training course that they would learn new skills. They said: We are in the training because we were told we must have this training to meet the government's new training requirement for primary teachers. A focus group, teachers with more than 15 years of teaching experience. The government has given training for teachers; however, I do not think that it is enough to see outcomes in the classroom. The teachers should receive refresher training, at resource centre level. Mina To help teachers improve and grow in their profession, they should receive helpful feedback on their current performance, good opportunities for learning on and about their job , and ongoing support for improvement (Levin, 2008 p93). "The feedback itself supports learning and helps teachers to move forward in their thinking" (Stefani, 2002 p63).

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I am not sure, if my teaching is effective or not because my head teachers or resource persons have not supervised me for last eighteen years. I have neither received any positive feedback on my teaching or suggestions for improvement. Bhojraj Resource persons are supposed to provide professional development support to teachers but in reality, most teachers said they rarely visited the schools in remote areas. When they did visit the schools, they did not observe lessons and provided feedback to teachers. Often they were engaged in administrative work with head teachers. Resource Persons are responsible for monitoring primary teachers' classrooms and providing professional supports but most of the teachers questioned about resource persons' abilities to offer professional feedback on their teaching because most RPs did not themselves have teaching experience in primary level. Supervision and monitoring of teaching and learning was almost non-existence. Wei, AndrĂŠe, and Darling-Hammond (2009) have found that "high-achieving nations provide sustained and extensive opportunities to develop practice that go well beyond the traditional one shot workshop". Teacher's Personal Beliefs The classroom observation and open-ended interview data analysis showed that teachers' belief systems do influence classroom behaviours. Teachers' conceptions of teaching subject matter are strongly influenced by the way, in which they themselves learned this subject content. (Stofflett & Stoddart , 1994, as cited in (Korthagen, 1999, p. 125). Therefore, it is important that teachers should be made aware of this

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relationship and they should be given the opportunity to identity, examine their beliefs, and practice through critical reflection. New teaching skills cannot simply be transmitted to teachers by merely organising ad-hoc training and workshops and expect to improve their actions in the class. We often try to keep the personal side of our lives private from professional activities. The reality, however, is that personal issues have substantial effect on both our personal development and ultimate career success. Class observation of Luniva and Sunita demonstrated a strong influence of their experience as a student on their beliefs and classroom practices. For example, Luniva was a private school graduate. In her class, she marked students' works and praised them for their work. She drew stars in the exercise books. She gave additional attentions to weaker students and finally she gave homework. Even though she was doing her B.Ed, she said her teaching practices were influenced by her experience as a teacher. What she did in the classroom was a reflection of what she experienced as a student in private schools where homework and individual cares emphasised. On contrary, Sunita tried to use child-centred teaching methods in the classroom. She asked a couple of questions on the lesson topic. Most of the time, she asked questions to the whole class and students responded her in chorus. It was English lesson. She wrote the meanings of words from the lesson in Nepali language on the board. She was certainly working hard to demonstrate some child-friendly teaching techniques but she would immediately translate the story in Nepali language. At times, it was difficult to understand if she was teaching Nepali or English lesson. After the lesson, she admitted that her class did not reflect what she studied in B.Ed course because she was never exposed to real class in which child-centred teaching

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was implemented. Her tutors delivered courses on child-friendly teaching techniques by lecture methods. In class observations, teachers who themselves experienced learning in an active way were more inclined to plan lessons that facilitated students' active knowledge construction. There was a strong relationship between "teachers' preferred way of teaching and the way they themselves are used to learning "( Huibregtse, Korthagen and Wubbels, 1994 ). Lack of emphasis on practical lessons demonstration in teacher education and role modelling, teachers' past educational experiences rather than teacher education programmes dominated teachers' behaviour (Eick, 2005, p. 130). Teachersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; existing knowledge and beliefs play a crucial role in how they envision their professional role (Malm, 2009, p. 20). Therefore, teachers who have been teaching for substantial years are resistant to change in instructional methods because of their beliefs about teaching and learning, which have accumulated over years of school and life experiences (Korthagen, 1993 as cited in Malm, 2009, p. 20 ). While the trainer in teacher training course may put more values on progressive childfriendly and student centred teaching, experienced teachers in the school including the head teacher might value more traditional pedagogic practices. If "knowledge and beliefs affect teachers" decisions and actions, their interactions with students, and their satisfaction with their profession, then beliefs should be a focus for change during CPD (Richardson ,1996, as cited in Malm, 2009). In summary, this chapter illustrated how socio-cultural contexts influence teachers' perception and practice of CPD. In the next chapter, the researcher discusses the findings with reference to two socio-cultural theories: activity theory and zone of proximal development.

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CHAPTER- VI

DISCUSSION, SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSION AND POLICY IMPLICATIONS

Introduction This chapter is divided into four sections. The first section presents a discussion of primary teachers' perception and practice of CPD with reference to education reforms as an activity system by using activity theory (Engestrรถm, 1987) which provides a unifying framework for analysing elements of human activity and Vygotsky's (1978) concept of Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) to explore social-cultural contexts that affect teachers' professional learning. Then, key findings and conclusions of this study will be presented. Finally, some implications on future research are discussed. Education Reform and Primary Teachers' Perception of their effectiveness and CPD Nepal's education system has been reformed several times over the decades with a significant investment on teachers, particularly, to increase the number of qualified teachers. However, it still faces many challenges - with a large proportion of teachers being trained through a variety of different training models and teachers working under different conditions of service (teachers as civil servants, contract teaches, nijiswrot etc.). Notably, the minimum academic qualifications and standard for the training of primary teachers has changed repeatedly over the years, in accordance with changing political and social conditions and needs of the country. Most recently, the government has revised the minimum academic qualification requirement for primary

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teachers; according to which all teachers who currently do not to have a higher secondary education or intermediate degree need to upgrade their education qualification. In spite of the government's policy reforms and investment on teacher training, several studies (e.g. CERID, 2003, NORAD, 2009) found little changes in primary teachers' attitudes, practice and teaching skills. While two-thirds of respondents in this study indicated being somewhat or very effective in their job, the study found that teachers' perceived effectiveness was not reflected in their classroom practice. There was a pronounced gap between what the educational reformers intended to achieve and how it was perceived and understood by teachers. Therefore, it is important to discuss why most teachers do not change their beliefs, values and teaching methods in spite of the training and what factors influence their perception of professional values and effectiveness. In this regard, Little ( 2001) succinctly highlighted the paradoxes of reform: " reform both stimulates teacher enthusiasm and results in burnout, expands some learning opportunities and erodes others, intensifies professional bonds and stimulates professional conflicts" ( as cited in Li, Shiu & Lee, 2008, p. 11). The researcher argues that the processes and aspects of education reforms have been overlooked by adopting linear cause-effect models of education improvement and trying to explore the conceptual linkages between the reforms and change in classroom practices and pupils' learning outcomes. From socio-cultural perspectives, education reforms are no longer merely understood as policy initiatives designed by policy makers and subsequently carried out by education administrators. Instead, they are characterised as interactive and uncertain venture between participants whose

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actions are mediated according to rules, norms, roles, tools and artefacts made available to them within the immediate community (Ng & Renshaw, 2009). Conceptual and analytical tools of activity theory can be applied to foreground linkages between educational reforms and teachers' perceptions and practices of CPD because they offer a framework for studying different forms of human practices as development process, with both individual and social levels interlinked at the same time ( Engerstrรถm, 2000). The basic unit of analysis in activity theory is human activity. Human activities are driven by certain needs where people wish to achieve certain purposes. An important representation in activity theory is built out of meditational triangles. The triangles are formed by bi-directional arrows representing interactions; bidirectional arrows between components of the activity system indicate mutual influence, and triangles formed by three elements indicate meditational relationship. The triangular representation of activity theory shows that an activity is undertaken by a subject using tools to achieve an object (objective) thus transforming the object into an outcome requires various tools. Tools, rules, community and division of labour are different focal points that mediate the relation between different subjects and objects. Consequently the activity system is the ' minimal meaningful context' for understanding human actions and development (Kuutti, 1996, p . 28). Rules are principles, values, norms that govern the structure of interactions and mediation. Community refers to the collection of participants who share a common interest on the same object or are involved in the subject-tool-object relationship. Division of labour refers to how different roles, tasks and actions are being shared among members within an activity system.

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The following triangular figure illustrates the activity system of policy reforms to improve primary teachers' knowledge and professional skills in Nepal.

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Figure 15: Activity System of Policy Reforms to Improve Primary Teachers' CPD

Figure 15 illustrates a complex activity system for primary teachers' CPD, which consists of multiple subjects (actors); tools, object, rules, community and

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division of labour. Relationship between subject and community is mediated by rules, and the relationship between object and community is mediated by the division of labour. There is a direct reciprocal relationship between community and tools. Activity theory takes into account of the changing historic socio-cultural context that gives meaning to individual or collective reformative actions, to the construction of outcomes or the definition of new object and to the development and appropriation of new tools that mediate the actions and collaborative processes among individual members. From socio-cultural perspective, the policy reform process itself is described in terms such as the introduction of new cultural tools and artefacts (e.g. making lesson plans, use of teaching materials, curriculum etc.); the establishment of new rules and norms (e.g. minimum academic qualification, requirement of teaching license); the inclusion of new members in the relevant communities; changes in participants' roles (roles of head teachers, teachers etc.), and most importantly, the complex dynamic interaction of these components within an activity system and its neighbouring systems. Examining the reform by using activity theory will lead us to consider a reformative action in light of: 1) the mediated action between subject and object;. 2) constraints originated from the rules, communities and division of labour; 3) contradiction aroused from the redefinition of object between interacting activity systems 4) constraints- the rules and norms governing the notion of effective learning and teaching in different places (Ng & Renshaw, 2009). Artefacts play a mediating role between elements of an activity, for example, an artefact (follow up support and classroom observations) mediates between RP (an actor) and the objective (to improve teachers' knowledge and professional skills); the object is seen and manipulated not "as such" but within the limitations set by the

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artefact. For example, teachers working in rural locations are three times less likely to have opportunities for class observations and feedback by the RP than those of working in urban areas (8.8% and 22%). My head teachers or resource persons have not supervised me for last eighteen years. RP has visited this school once in the last five years. Ramlakhan Resource persons are supposed to provide professional development support to teachers but in reality, most teachers said that they rarely visited the schools in remote areas. When they did visit the schools, they did not observe lessons and did not provide feedback to teachers. Often they were engaged in administrative business with head teachers. This was also confirmed by DoE's (2011) study, which found that only 16% of RPs observed the classes of teachers and demonstrated model lessons. While there are tools to achieve the object, it is important that they are accessible to all teachers. This leads our discussion to another issue in terms of constraints originated from the rules, community and division of labour. In terms of the rules, action theory argues that the introduction of a reform action that attempts to change existing practice and previous social structure that supports it, needs to be evaluated and analysed within historic development of associated tools/artefacts, norms, rules, and roles among participants. However, the study found that this principle was not adhered while developing and implementing CPD policies and interventions in Nepal. For example, the policy reforms were largely focused on upgrading the qualifications of under-qualified and un-qualified teachers rather than qualified teachers. The policy reforms did not meet professional

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development needs of experienced qualified and young primary teachers. As argued by Bhojraj: It is too late for me. The course follows 'one size fits all' approach. There are teachers who have just started a few years ago and those who have taught for many years. Our needs are different. After 27 years of service, they treat me as if I know nothing about teaching, doesn't my experience count? Bhojraj does not meet the government's new academic qualification standard but he is an experienced teacher. While the government's teacher professional development initiatives were aimed at getting all teachers trained, teachers did not feel the same. Instead, experienced teachers with necessary academic qualifications would not be considered qualified to be an RP or a teacher trainer unless they were appointed as permanent teachers and held a Bachelor's degree. It should be recognised that teacher trainers are key to all developments in teacher training. Selection of teacher trainers based on purely academic criteria does not always guarantee the most appropriate selections, and in most cases, the respondents stated that teacher trainers had little or no primary teaching experience. Commenting on the government's policy reform to upgrade primary teachers' academic qualification and get them all trained, older teachers who have taught for more than twenty years particularly had negative feelings towards CPD. Most of them felt that the donors' interest had precedence over teachers' individual needs and that too much focus on the quantity rather than quality was national priority driven. They felt that it was too late for them to change their teaching practice. They did not have an ambition to grow in the career therefore were less interested in discovering new practices, being open to new ideas. Wells (2011) argues that when an individual

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is participating in a societal valued activity system (in this case, having a higher education qualification), whether as a full or as a peripheral member, his or her motivation is likely to be closely aligned with the motive of the activity. By contrast, when an individual is required to be a participant but fails to understand the motive of the activity or does not value its object, he or she may be motivated to participate to the minimum degree necessary to avoid negative consequences or even to choose an alternative form of participation that subverts the motive of the activity. Therefore, these teachers would participate in the teacher training and might enrol for further study to upgrade their qualification to meet the minimum requirement but chances to see changes in their teaching practices and beliefs would be low. Even though the policy reform has a good motive to upgrade teachers' qualification, teachers did not take it as an opportunity because it failed to engage teachers in policy reform processes. Another constraint the study has identified in this activity system was lack of clarity of division of labour and consistency in rules of different government agencies. For example, pre-service teacher training is provided by higher secondary schools, the responsibility of designing, implementation of in-service teacher training and professional development falls under the NCED. RPs are responsible for providing professional support, classroom observation and demonstration of lessons and DEOs are responsible for implementing short term CPD activities and managing RPs, teachers and Head teachers , who are ultimately accountable to the DoE. Poor consistency and confused implementation process of teacher professional development policies were attributed to multi-documentation and inconsistency in policy implementation. (NECD, 2003; CERID, 2003; NORAD, 2009). There is

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another government agency- teacher service commission, which develops curricula for recruiting primary teachers and awards teaching license but does not have authority to monitor the quality standard of pre-service teacher training institutions. The Higher secondary education council grants approval for higher secondary schools that runs 10+2 grades and develops and revises curricula and textbooks materials, however, the council does not have special requirements for the schools which want to run a teacher training programme. It is contrary to international norms in which the institutions that run teacher-training courses must meet certain minimum standard of human resources and infrastructure to maintain the quality of newly qualified teachers. The purpose of teacher education should be to produce professional teachers who have the theoretical knowledge and understanding, combined with practical skills, competence and commitment to teach. There was consensus among teachers and stakeholders that proliferation of higher secondary schools in rural areas in recent years has increased access to pre-service teacher education, however, the question of quality is arguable. Teachers predominately use lecture method, the contents they teach take students away from the lived reality, the students hardly bother to produce and reproduce knowledge (Koirala and Acharya, 2004). As a result, even though teachers who joined the teaching profession in recent years and have had higher secondary education qualifications; the classroom observation data found very little differences in the classes taught by a new teacher with a higher education degree and an experienced teacher with a lower education degree. In both cases, traditional chalkand-talk methods were generally observed with some exceptional cases in which younger and new teachers tried to use some child-friendly teaching methods that they

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had learned in the courses failing to translate theories into practices in the classroom. This justified why a large number of experienced teachers questioned the policy reform's rationale to increase the minimum academic qualification for primary teachers. It can be concluded that while the policy reform redefined the object to improve teachers' knowledge and skills by teacher training and increasing the minimum academic qualification, contradiction aroused from the redefinition of object between interacting activities. From activity theory perspective, contradictions are a driving force for change, which should be approached in a positive manner. Contradictions could be located through dialogues, negotiations, and collaboration among participants of an activity system. Ng & Renshaw (2009) argued that through engaging with contradictions that expansive transformation is possible, or to use the notion of the zone of proximal development, it is working with contradiction that participants within an activity system can begin to fore new relationships and practices. Contrarily, education reforms in Nepal were found inherently a source of disturbance that increased contradictions and tensions, rendering instability in an activity system with little evidence of participation and engagement of teachers and collaboration among the participants of an activity system. The implementation of educational reforms is a negotiated process, mediated by various forms of tools, rules and roles among members. However, analysis of both qualitative and quantitative data indicated that there was no room for collaboration and negotiation between participants of the activity system. Teachers regarded "the relationship between policy makers, school administrators, and teachers like the operation of a factory production with policy makers being responsible wholly for the

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design process, school administrators overseeing the implementation at the operation level and teachers working faithfully at the chalk face to carry out the reform" (Ng & Renshaw, 2009, p. 29 ). The researcher argues that policy reform was treated just as isolated plans of action or policy documents for solving a particular educational problem. The respondents had a serious allegation against political parties of damaging the activity system of education. Political parties do not have formal role in school management committees (SMCs) and positions of SMCs are intended to be nonpartisan, yet positions on SMCs are often contested along (political) party lines, and are among the more frequent sources of inter-party disputes (Carter Centre, 2011). Carter Centre (2011) concluded that that SMCs are now political because of the authority they were given in the Education Rules of 2002 to control appointment of some categories of teachers (e.g. teachers on relief quota and teachers on per capita funding , PCF). The most frequently suggested two hindering factors of effective CPD were "lack of encouragement of SMC" (57.8%) and â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;political interference in school and general strike (48.9%)". One- thirds of respondents mentioned "corruption" as a hindering factor for teachers' effective CPD. For example, major donors suspended funding until convincing steps were taken to address rampant corruption in the education sector, particularly in amidst allegations of irregularities by the Education Minister in the distribution of relief quotas for teachers (Dhakal, 2010). Other issues related to "corruption" included not running the training full time as required, nepotism (e.g. giving professional development opportunities to near and dear ones).

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The SMC makes recommendations for promotion to their supporters not the teachers who are sincere and work hard. Mina Teachers felt that political interference in teachersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; selection, promotion, nomination for professional development activities had negative impacts on teachersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; morale and motivation to participate in CPD. In terms of the perception of teachers on policy reforms with special reference to CPD, respondents saw 'education reform' as a rhetorical device developed by a government to justify various agendas for changing the education system from the top. In other words, outsiders diagnosed certain aspects of the current education systems inadequate, designed better alternatives without considering the views of teachers themselves and engaging teachers to reflect their teaching practice and letting themselves to identify their professional needs. Furrer and Skinner (2003), defined engagement as "active, goal directed, flexible, constructive, persistent, focused, interactions with the social and physical environment ( as cited in Nolen, Ward & Horn, 2011, p. 110) .Socio- cultural theorists consider engagement as an aspect of participation arising through interaction and meaningful in relationship to identities, goals, and norms. As adult learners, teachers are more likely to engage if they feel that their professional needs are being met and their social identity will be enhanced by participating in the professional development activities. In seeking to understand teachers' different responses to recent policy initiatives and the significance of these differences, the issue of professional motivation is crucial. Several studies have argued that teachers are more likely to be engaged in professional development activities when they are able to exercise their agency and

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are given authority to negotiate important norms and practices. If teachers are allowed to contribute to the construction of policy reforms that affect their professional identity and personal well-being, the activity system is likely to achieve its object and ultimately bring about positive outcomes. From a sociocultural perspective, identity is itself, a contradiction; it is the social construction of qualities that are attributed to an individual. Wertsch, (1998) defined "identity" as the momentto-moment negotiation of an "individual-acting- with -mediational-means" or cultural tools and semiotic systems, in relationship with people, in social practices that both reflect and constitute social relations and institutional contexts. In order to raise social status and professional identity of primary teachers, most teachers themselves felt that the current entry requirements to teacher education should be tougher in line with those of the more prestigious professions. Because of the poor perception of the teaching career, teacher education tended to absorb the school leavers who had failed to get places in other higher education courses. A majority of teachers participated in this study reported struggling to teach English, Maths, and Science effectively because of their own poor performance in those subjects as students. Ironically, among a few teachers who entered teaching profession with good academic performance and currently hold higher education degrees preferred to teach at secondary level because of low social status and prestige associated with primary teachers. Unlike many countries, teachers' salaries in Nepal are not based on their academic qualifications and classroom performance rather on the level they are appointed to. This critical constraint generates tensions between the subject and rules of the activity system.

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Figure 16: Two Interactive Activity Systems

Based on the figure above, the researcher concludes that a single activity system will not be enough to achieve a complex object. It also needs to be recognised that primary teachers are not a homogeneous group. The policy reform, which recognises that teachers have different professional and personal needs based on their life history, career phase, gender, ethnicity, and socio-cultural contexts they work in, is likely to be successful. Therefore, the researcher proposes interactive activity systems that recognise a need to develop conceptual tools to understand dialogue, multiple perspectives and voices, and networks of interacting activity systems. In this proposal, it is assumed that teachers are considered as an active member of policy reforms and tools are developed according to the social and cultural contexts. The division of labour between participants is clear, for example, teachers as one of the subjects of the systems take full responsibilities for their performance and are accountable to the system. It is recognised that systemic contradictions and tensions exist within the context of the activity systems; however, there will be plenty of rooms for negotiation, dialogues and collaborations between individual components of activity systems.

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The following section presents a discussion on teachers' perception and practice of CPD based on situated learning theory. CPD Journey of Primary Teachers: Situated learning In situated learning, learners participate in a community of practice. As the novice gains knowledge and moves close to the community's centre, he or she becomes more actively engaged in the culture and eventually takes on the role of mentor, helping new uninitiated individuals into the community of practice (Leonard, 2002, p. 57). The model of situated learning is based upon the notion that knowledge is contextually situated and is fundamentally influenced by the activity, context and culture in which it is used. Therefore, Debe, Ketelhet, Clarke & Bowman (2004) argued that "situated learning requires authentic contexts, activities, and assessments coupled with guidance based on expert modelling, situated mentoring and legitimate peripheral participation" ( p. 4). Situated theorists believe that knowledge is formed in social interaction and broader cultural activity and learning is primarily about shared participation in the construction of knowledge in socially meaningful activity. Situated learning was further developed by Brown, Collins and Newman in their theory of cognitive apprenticeship in which learners acquire skills and knowledge within a particular environment through a process of mentoring. The teachers' learning objectives are commonly reviewed by mentors and members of the community of practice over the duration of the course. Final assessment is a portfolio that contains work samples representing the tangible achievement of the individuals participating in the learning activity (Leonard, 2002). Generally, situated learning theory emphasises on problem-based learning, collaboration and learning-by doing.

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In other words, instructions are based on real problems and situated in real contexts; and provide for learning to evolve over extended periods while solving authentic problems. If we review the findings of this study from the situated learning theory perspectives, CPD interventions were not neither based on teachers' needs and nor organised in authentic contexts. When teachers joined the teaching profession, they did not get any inductions and received supports from veteran teachers. Situated learning theorists believe that people learn by observing the behaviour of others. Observation provides teachers with information about how new behaviours are implemented. Hence, when teachers are provided opportunities to observe classes delivered by peers and experts, they will build their confidence in the realisation that change is possible. By watching others, teachers can understand how new teaching methods are performed. This principle of situated theory was reiterated by nearly half of the respondents stating that "demonstration classes and feedback by experts and head teachers" is one of the two most effective CPD activities, however, they reported that rarely had their class observed and opportunities for observing experts' or peers' lessons were not available. Situated learning theorists believe that learners with confidence in their abilities to perform certain behaviour are more likely to persist in their endeavours to learn new content and skills. Therefore, while developing CPD tools, situated learning theorists emphasize that teachers have plenty of chances to reflect their own pedagogical practice and novice teachers get opportunities to observe lessons of peers and experts teachers and join communities of practice. The idea of communities of practice emphasises that knowledge is generated, acquired and transformed through the social interaction within a community of practice (Attwell & Hughes, 2010). The

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case study from Bhaktapur in this study where a culture of community of practice was observed, teachers were found reflective of their teaching practices and had brought positive changes in their professional beliefs and classroom practice, however, generally there was little or no awareness of the concept of community of practice among the respondents. Teachers' pedagogical beliefs and previous personal experience as a student and reflection on those beliefs are important components to changes in practice. Beliefs are grounded in personal and cultural experiences; therefore, it is reasonable to purpose that CPD provides trainee teachers personal and cultural opportunities to test their pedagogical beliefs and values in real classrooms and receive constructive feedback from peers and instructors. In figure 18, the diagram on the left shows the conceptual framework of situated learning whereas the diagram on the right shows the actual situation of CPD. Situated learning theory expects that when novice teachers start teaching, they are inducted and mentored by experienced teachers; however, the study found that instead of receiving moral support, practical suggestions and encouragement from experienced teachers, new teachers were exposed to the school culture, professional values were not appreciated. Lack of role model of good teaching, encouragement of school leadership and reward and punishments, teachers' professional values were undermined by corruption, political interference. As a result, most experienced teachers did not demonstrate advanced teaching skills than novice teachers. Teachers lacked culture of collaboration and interaction with peers and a wider community of practice. They were engaged more in political than professional activities. Figure 17: Situated Learning Theory and Practice

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The study further analysed the data from Vygotsky's concept of the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD). ZPD is often defined as the gap between a learner's present capabilities and the higher level of performance that could be achieved with appropriate assistance (scaffolding) to incorporate the social setting and the goals and actions of participants. In other words, learning is not merely conveyed, but mutually created by the participants in a structured dialogue in which the more capable promotes the learning of the less able by building and progressively dismantling, a scaffold with which the learner is enabled to progress present to a higher level of ability. The ultimate aim is autonomy. Therefore, it is imperative to establish what skills teachers can implement without assistance and what competencies they are missing before the objectives of CPD programmes are determined. With effective scaffolding, understanding is co-constructed during the verbal dialogue of the ZPD. Van Lier (1996) has formulated six principles of scaffolding: ď&#x201A;ˇ

Contextual support- a safe but challenging environment: errors are expected and accepted as part of the learning process;

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

Continuity- repeated occurrences over time of a complex of actions, keeping balance between routine and variation;



Inter-subjectivity- mutual engagement and support: two minds thinking as one;

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Flow- communication between participants is not forced, but flow in a natural way.



Contingency- the scaffolded assistance depends on learners' reactions: elements can be added, changed, deleted, repeated etc.;



Handover- the ZPD closes when learner is ready to undertake similar tasks without help (Van Lier, 1996, p. 1996). None of the above principles of scaffolding existed in CPD interventions

recorded in this study. Irrespective of teachers' career stage, age, gender and socio cultural background, CPD activities were found being designed by following "one size fits all" approach with little room for adaption to local contexts. Therefore, the researcher was not surprised by dismaying outcomes of CPD in terms of changes in teachers' pedagogical beliefs and classroom practice.

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Valsiner's (1997) zone theory framework extends Vygotsky's concept of ZPD. Valsiner describes two additional zones: the Zone of Free Movement (ZFM) and Zone of Promoted Action (ZPA). The ZFM structures an individual's access to different areas of the environment, the availability of different objects within an accessible area, and the ways the individual is permitted or enabled to act with accessible objects in accessible areas. The ZPA represents the efforts of a more experienced or knowledgeable person to promote the development of new skills. For learning to be possible, the ZPA must be consistent with the individuals' potential (ZPD) and must promote actions that are feasible within a given ZFM. (Ng & Renshaw, 2009, p. 46). When we consider teachers' professional development, the ZFM can be interpreted as constraints within the school environment, such as access to resources, opportunities for CPD, teaching materials while the ZPA represents opportunities to learn from colleagues in the school setting and professional development. It can be concluded that CPD was developed on weak theoretical bases. Findings Most primary teachers considered themselves as competent and effective teachers without necessarily having a strong sense of efficacy about inclusive teaching skills. In absence of role models and exposure to good practice, teachersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; perception was largely influenced by their socio-cultural contexts, age, location, years of teaching experience and academic qualifications rather than their professional values and classroom practice. CPD programmes are unlikely to bring about changes in classroom practices, teachers' pedagogical beliefs and professional values unless the teachers themselves

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demonstrate ‘‘a will to learn’’ (Van Eekelen, Vermunt and Boshuizen , 2006) before they engage in actual learning activities. The teachers could be grouped into three categories based on their perception of CPD- those who do not see the need to learn; those who wonder how to learn; and those who are eager to learn. For example, the teachers who have been teaching for many years and about to retire did not see the value of participating in CPD whereas young teachers who have recently joined teaching profession were interested in learning new teaching methods, however, they did not get opportunities to participate in CPD. Even though new teachers who have joined the teaching profession in recent years have passed at least higher secondary education; the classroom observation data found little differences in the classes taught by new teachers with a higher education degree and experienced teachers with a lower level of education qualification. In both cases, traditional chalk-and-talk methods were generally observed; new teachers failing to translate theories into practices in the classroom. They reported that teacher education courses reproduced the culture of rote learning and focused on exam oriented education. Most teachers' perception of CPD interventions was negative. Firstly, the government's CPD interventions were mainly targeted at upgrading under or unqualified serving teachers' academic qualification and get them all trained. While most young teachers felt that CPD would help them increase their professional confidence, older teachers, pointed to how CPD undermined morale and the contribution they have made as a teacher. Secondly, the teachers who participated in CPD reported that CPD interventions did not meet their professional development needs and contents of the

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CPD programmes were not relevant to their socio-cultural contexts, career stage and age. The respondents' argument is in line with a principle of situated learning theory (e.g. Lave & Wenger, 1991; Putnam & Borko, 2000) which argues that knowledge needs to be presented in authentic contexts- settings and situations that would normally involve the knowledge. Social interaction and collaboration are essential components of situated learning, therefore, when new teachers join the teaching profession; they need to adapt certain beliefs and behaviour of a "community of practice". However, this study did not find many examples of collaborative learning and communities of practices. The respondents wanted opportunities to share their challenges with experts and seek hands-on practical tips to address their problems. They also expected encouragements and recognition of their efforts. Follow up support, feedback and demonstration lessons by experts (e.g. RPs, head teachers and school supervisors) was the most frequently mentioned CPD activity being most beneficial. Similarly, the respondents also demanded for refresher training and planning before the academic session starts. They argued that lack of role model of good teaching, encouragement of school leadership and reward and punishments, teachers' professional values were undermined by corruption, political interference. The respondents had a serious allegation against political parties of damaging the activity system of education. Teachers felt that political interference in teachersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; selection, promotion, nomination for professional development activities had negative impacts on teachersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; morale and motivation to participate in CPD. Considering primary teachers' CPD as an activity system, there was little evidence of participation and engagement of teachers in the process of policy reform. Moreover, the division of labour among the line agencies (subjects) was

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contradictory. The respondents considered the role of the head teacher and school management committee pivotal in promoting learning culture in the school. The teachers had positive CPD experience and culture of sharing good practices among colleagues in the schools where the head teachers were selected based on their leadership, management and academic skills. One-time workshops and training which are often developed at the centre and cascaded down to the school were suggested being ineffective by the respondents. Teachers were found to have more positive experience of CPD where RPs, head teachers or SSs had visited schools, observed teachersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; classes and provided feedback on teachersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; teaching skills. This finding reiterates the principle of situated learning theory which emphasises on problem-based learning, collaboration and learning-by doing. In other words, teachers are likely to change their beliefs and pedagogical practices if CPD activities are based on real problems and situated in real contexts; and provide for learning to evolve over extended periods while solving authentic problems. Based on the findings, the following section presents the conclusions of the study. Conclusion 1. Not all CPD is equally effective. Effective CPD programmes are ongoing, collaborative and collegial, highly connected to what teachers actually do in their classrooms and driven by results. 2. Teachers who participate in CPD that is sustained, based on curriculum standards and receive follow up professional supports and feedback from experts regularly, are more likely to adopt new reform-oriented teaching practices.

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CPD is most effective when it is tied closely to actual classroom practices, Teachers are likely to change their pedagogic beliefs and classroom practice when CPD activities are immediately practical and relevant and teacher trainers themselves, model high quality instructional practices as they advocate in the training. The teachers who have opportunities to participate in regular CPD activities through out their career stages, are likely to change their perception of pedagogical beliefs and classroom practices.

4. Teachers who are self-motivated and involved in self-directed CPD are more likely to improve their teaching practices. Policy and Research Implications 1. To improve the quality of learning outcomes; the quality of teaching must be improved. This may involve recruiting better-educated teachers, provision of better teacher preparation courses, inductions and CPD opportunities with effective follow up support, mentoring and supervision systems. 2. Head teachers' role in promoting learning culture and ensuring that teachers have CPD opportunities was identified as a key factor in influencing primary teachers' perception of effective teaching and CPD. Therefore, head teachers themselves have better understanding of CPD so that they could support teachers' CPD needs. 3. CPD can only be effective if teachers themselves are willing to learn and consider teaching as a profession. The teachers who involve in self-directed CPD activities are more likely to change their classroom practices than the teachers who only attend in CPD activities as their job requirements. Programmes for making teachers aware of self-directed CPD opportunities and incentives.

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4. Teachers' perception and pedagogical beliefs are shaped by the way they are trained and exposed to teaching and learning activities during their teacher education courses. However, the most respondents who had pre-service training in this study were not satisfied with the quality of teacher training institutions. Therefore, the role of teacher training institutions in influencing teachers' perception of CPD and classroom practices could be a topic for further research.

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APPENDICES

Appendix 1: Teacher Survey Questionnaire I am currently studying for an M.Phil. in Education at School of Education, Kathmandu University. I am intending to undertake research into PRIMARY TEACHERS’ PERCEPTION AND PRACTICE OF self-initiated and CONTINUING PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT. I would be grateful of you if you could take a few minutes to complete this questionnaire. There is no need to include your name, unless you would be prepared to participate in a follow up focus group discussion or class observation. Thank you for your help and co-operation. Purna Kumar Shrestha, Degree Candidate Supervisor: Prof. Mahesh Nath Parajauli General Biographical Information 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Respondent No. Age: ______ Gender: Female Male Third (Tick one) For how long have you been teaching? …….. Years Status of appointment: Niji Srwot (funded by school) Permanent Temporary Rahat Other ( Tick one) 6. Caste/Ethnicity ______ 7. Home district : ________________ 8. District where you are teaching: __________ 9. Grades offered in this school: From _____ to _____ Class. 10. Why did you decide to become a teacher? _______________________________________________________________ Pre-service 11. Have you undertaken before entering in teaching profession? Yes No 12. If yes, what professional development activities/courses have you undertaken? a. Had ten months teacher training b. Had passed 10+2 in Education or I.ED. c. Had short term teacher training

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Induction 13. Did you receive any induction when you started teaching? Yes No 14. If yes, what kind of induction did you have? _______________________________ Self-perception 15. How effective primary teacher do you consider yourself? Circle the right number where 1 = least effective ;5= Very effective 1

Self-directed Professional Development 16. What kinds of self-initiated professional activities have you engaged within the period of last five years? a. Done academic studies Please specify the subject and course _______ b. Joined a professional teacher organisation (e.g.NELTA, Mathematics Education Council ) Please specify________ c. Subscribed professional magazines Please specify______ d. Bought reference books Please specify____________ e. Watched teacher training programmes on TV Please specify__________ f. Listened to Radio programme Please specify_______ g. Studied Self learning materials Please specify___________________ h. Subscribed membership of libraries to enhance my teaching skills i. Used teaching activities/tips from magazines/books into class j. Used internet to browse teaching skills and activities k. Done team teaching with other trainers/teachers l. Developed lesson plans and reflected and revised my lessons accordingly m. Used curriculum to plan lessons n. Attended distant training Please mention the name _____ duration_____ o. Updated knowledge from other teachers regularly p. Participated in discussions and sharing with teachers and colleagues q. Used teachers guides regularly while developing lesson plans r. Invited experts to present model classes s. Other ( please specify)-------------------Continuing Professional Development 17. Do you have access to the information related to teacher Continuing Professional Development (CPD) opportunities? Yes No 18. If yes, what professional development opportunities are available for you? ______________________________________________________________ 19. Have you attended any professional development activities within the period of last five years? (Any training, workshops, learning visits, sharing of

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experience with other teachers, Resource centre workshop etc. , please write the course that you have attended lately first ) Yes No If yes, please write Professional Development Activities Long course (Longer than ten months) Short courses One off events (Organised by schools, DEOs or NGOs) Regular events (Activities that take place regularly) Other (Please specify)

Organiser

Topic

Duration Year

20. What are the factors that drive you towards continuing professional development? Rank the factors given below on a scale of 1 to 8 with 1 being the least influential and 8 being the most influential a. government policy ______________ b. career development/promotion _______________ c. academic development ____________________ d. extra allowance e. gap in subject knowledge ____________________ f. personal interests ______________ g. head teachers' leadership and school management h. prize and reward __________________ i. other ( Please mention ) ________________ 21. Please express your beliefs about how much influence the following factors have over your effective continuing professional development, tick in the appropriate box where, 1= no or little influential 5= highest influential Factors Willingness to learn Head teachersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; leadership and encouragement Family environment School learning environment Performance evaluation Monetary benefits (related salary, allowance) Economic factors (More than salary, related to your family economic responsibilities) Parents Peer teachers Social and ethnic culture of learning

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School Management Committees and Parent Teachers Association Geographical location ( Where you work or live) I/NGOs' programme Class observations by Head teachers and Feedback Class observations and follow up visits by Resource Persons/School supervisors Access to Media (newspaper, radio and television) Information and Communication Technology (ICT)(CD Rom, Mobile, internet, phone, computer etc.) Other ( Please specify)_________________

22. What factors enable teachers' continuing professional development? 23. What factors hinder teachers' continuing professional development? 24. What might help overcoming these barriers? 25. What types of professional development activities do you report as being the most beneficial?

26. Have professional development activities had an impact on your teaching and learning? Yes

If yes, go to question no. of 25. 27. What have you changed in your teaching and learning as a result of professional development activities? 28. What contribution has your professional development activities made to studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; participation, and learning outcomes?

29. Do you have anything in place at your school that encourages you to develop your professional skills? Yes No 30. If yes, what things are in place at your school, which encourage teachers to develop their professional skills? 31. Have you shared your new and innovative ideas with other teachers or schools either informally or formally? Yes No If yes, answer question no. 26 32. How have you done that?

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33. What are characteristics of good quality Continuing Professional Development? 34. What sort of professional development activities would you like to see made available? Why do you think these activities might be important? 35. How do you think Continuing Professional Development activities should be delivered? 36. How does teacher work context influence professional development? 37. If you have any feedback on the research topic that you have not mentioned earlier, please write below: 38. Do you want to be contacted by the researcher for further interviews? Yes No 39. Are you interested in attending focus group discussions? Yes No 40. Are you interested in attending focus group discussions? Yes Contact Telephone: Thank you very much for your time for filling this questionnaire.

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Appendix 2: Open-ended Interview Questions for Teachers 1. How long have you been teaching in this school? ___ Years 2. Please tell me a little bit about your family/ social background 3. Would you mind sharing your experience as a student? ( Private school/government school) 4. Why did you decide to become a teacher? 5. How do you feel about your decision to be a primary teacher? 6. Are there any teachers in your family? YES/NO. How many? ____ 7. What does continuing professional development mean to you? 8. Did you have any pre-service teacher training? YES/NO 9. If yes, what type of professional development activities have you attended? 10. How effective was the pre-service training? Very good/moderate/ bad 11. How do you update your knowledge and teaching skills? 12. Whom do you consult if you have any problems regarding teaching? 13. Did you participate in any professional development activities in the last five years? 14. Who has influenced your teaching methods the most? Why? (Teachers who taught you, trainer, or head teachers or others) 15. Have your professional development activities contributed to your studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; learning outcomes? 16. Did any external experts/trainers (RPs / School supervisors) observe your class in the last 12 months? 17. Does your head teacher observe your class? If yes, how often? 18. Do you receive feedback on your teaching? 19. Do you have annual appraisal system in your school? 20. Is your annual appraisal linked with your teaching outcomes and professional development needs? 21. How your professional needs are addressed? 22. Do you have school-based development programmes in your school? 23. Where do you prefer to have your professional development programmes/activities? 24. When is your preferable time for professional development activities? Why? 25. Do you feel that your school has good environment for teachers to learn? 26. Do you feel that you have equal opportunities for professional development? 27. Can you share any examples of professional development programme/activity that have affected your teaching practice? 28. In your views, what is the best way for primary teachers to develop their professional skills? 29. How do you most effectively learn? 30. What are effective continuing professional development programme?

204

Appendix 3: Class Observation/ Self-Reflection Form for Teachers School: ………………………………………………… Class: …. Number of students: …… Lesson:.……… Teacher: ……… Gender: …… Experience: …………… Training:…………………… I. Read the questions and tick into the appropriate box. A.

1. 2.

3. 4.

5. 6. 7.

8. 9.

10. B.

Relationship with students

Do you greet the students in a friendly way at the start of the lesson? Do you show interest in the students’ lives? (For example: ‘Did you enjoy your holiday?’) Do you know and use the students’ names? Do you give a little extra attention to weaker students compared to students who already understand the matter? Do you treat all students with equal respects? Do your students listen to what you want to say/explain? Do all students actively participate in the teaching and learning activities without being afraid of making mistakes? Do you encourage girls to actively participate in the class? Do you give your students verbal encouragements and positive feedbacks? Do you give your students non-verbal encouragements? Teaching materials and lessons

Not at all Not a lot 1 2

Quite a lot 3

A lot

Not at all A little

A lot

Very much

1 1. 2. 3. 4.

Do you produce any teaching materials for your lessons? Do you use teaching materials in the classroom? Do you use real materials /resources available locally for your lessons? Do you plan lessons before going into class?

205

5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

Do you refer curriculum to deliver lessons? Do you use your own copy of the textbooks while delivering a lesson? Are the teaching materials big enough according the size of classrooms? Are the teaching materials relevant to the lesson? Do you use teachers' guide to plan the lessons? Do you review lessons and teaching materials?

Learner-Centred Education

Do you encourage students to ask questions? Do you let the students work together, in groups or alone? 3. Do you praise students for effort not just for correct answers? 4. Do you use any extra activities related to the lesson in the classroom to make students more active? 5. Do you use students' mother tongue to give instructions or clarify the lessons? 6. Do you set tasks or activities that are suitable for students with different abilities? 7. Do you include activities that suit students with different learning styles? 8. Do you use gestures or/and visual cues to reinforce what you are saying? 9. Do you encourage/ask students to listen to each other? 10. If one of the students has a question, do you ask another child if he/she can explain? D. Classroom Management

Not at all 1

A little 2

A lot Very much 3 4

Not at all 1

A little

A lot

1. 2.

1. 2. 3. 4.

Do you arrive at the lesson on time and stay in the room throughout the lesson? Do you feel you make sufficient eye contact with your students? Do you write on the blackboard clearly and neatly? Do you feel you use and speak a language that

Very much 4

206

fits the students well? 5. Do you look at students when speaking? 6. While writing on the board, do you stand aside so that the students can see clearly what is written? 7. While writing on the board, do you turn to face the students to read what you have written? 8. Do you organise desks and benches so that students can easily get into groups? 9. Do you allow students thinking time after asking a question? 10. Do you display the students' work in the classroom? E. Lesson presentation

Not at all 1

A little 2 1

Do you make the objectives of the lesson clear to the students at the start of the lesson? 2. Do you use energizers to give students more energy when they lose their attention? 3. Do you offer reinforcement time at the beginning of the lesson (get back on yesterdayâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s topic)? 4. Do you do different activities while teaching the class? 5. Do you feel your activities are challenging and interesting for your students? 6. Are your students more active in the classroom than you are? (Students are working and you are more a facilitator?) 7. Are your students speaking more in the classroom than you are? (While working together on their assignments!) 8. Do you give students tasks to do rather than listening to the teacher for the whole lesson? 9. Does your lesson include activities that require students to think or be creative? 10. Do you give examples reflecting cultural, social and religious diversity of the community?

A lot Very 3 much 4

207

Evaluation and Review

Not at all

A little 1

A lot

4 2

Do you ask open-ended questions (that have more than one correct answer)? 2. Do you revise the lessons if students do not understand the lesson? 3. Do you ensure all students have the opportunity to answer questions? 4. Do you mark students' work? 5. Do you encourage your students to involve in critical thinking? 6. Do you encourage the participation of weak students by asking easy questions? 7. Do you let students raise their hand when they have a question? 8. Do you ask the students questions, and allow students to call out answers? 9. Do you check for understanding during the lesson either through an activity or through questioning? 10. Do you end the lesson with a recap of what has been learned?

Date of observation: ………………….

Very much 3

208

Appendix 4: Semi-Structured Questions for the Interview with Head teacher Part One: Background information District:______

Location: R___

U ____

Level of school:__

Educational and Professional qualification: ______ Experience as the head teacher: 1-5

6-10

11-15

Gender: M/F 16-20 More than 20 years

Type of the school: Part Two 1. How many primary teachers do you have in your school? 2. Are all those teachers trained? Yes __ No __ ( All __ Some ___ None ___) 3. Besides the teacher training provided by the Education Training Centre (ETC), do you have any school-based professional development opportunities for teachers in your school? 4. If yes, what opportunities are there for teachers? 5. Are you happy with primary teachersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; continuing professional development opportunities provided by the government? Why? 6. Who funds these teacher professional development activities? 7. Have you had any head teacher training? 8. Do you observe your teachersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; teaching and provide feedback?

How often?

Why? Why not? 9. What do you do as the head teacher to help teachers update their knowledge or teaching skills? 10. In your views, what are effective teacher professional development activities /programmes for primary teachers? 11. Do you send your teachers to attend any external professional development programmes? 12. Does the government authority ask you about the professional development needs of your teachers before they offer them a professional development programme? 13. When new curriculum was introduced, how were your teachers trained in implementing the new educational reform?

209

14. Which I/NGOs are working in this area? What kind of supports do they provide to your teachers? 15. What kind of teacher development activities are organised at resource centre level? 16. Do you think that teachers’ professional needs are fulfilled by the current programmes conducted by the ETC, Resource centres and other NGOs? Yes __ No __ 17. Have you seen/observed any changes in teachers’ teaching skills or practices after participating in these teacher professional development programmes? Yes __ No __ 18. Do you have a system to assess or evaluate them? Yes __ No __ 19. Do you give equal opportunities to all your teachers to participate in professional development activities? Yes __ No __ 20. Do you think that your school provides a learning environment for teachers to learn? Yes __ No __ 21. What kinds of teacher professional activities do you like to see for your teachers? 22. Where do you like to have your teachers’ development programmes/activities held - inside the school or outside the school? 23. How often should teacher professional development activities be organised? 24. When should professional development activities be organised? 25. What opportunities do you see for teachers' professional skills within the school context? 26. Have you had any opportunity for your own professional development as the head teacher of the school? 27. How often do you observe your teachers’ lessons and feed them back? Never_______ Rarely_____ Sometimes ____ Often__ Very often ____ 28. Do you carry out teachers’ annual appraisal? Yes __ No __ 29. Do you include teacher development needs in annual appraisal? Yes __ No __ 30. How do you address your teachers development needs? 31. Do you have budget for teachers’ development needs? Yes __ No __

210

Appendix 5: Teacher Focus Group Discussion Questions 1. What do you understand by Teachersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; Continuing Professional Development? 2. What kinds of professional development opportunities should be made available for teachersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; professional development? Pre-service At the start In-service 3. What professional development opportunities should be in place at the following levels? School level Resource centre level District level National level 4. What factors hinder primary teachers continuing professional development? 5. How can we remove barriers to primary teachers continuing professional development? 6. What kinds of programmes/activities are beneficial for primary teachers' professional development? 7. What are characteristics of effective continuing professional development of primary teachers?

211

Appendix 6: Profile Analysis of Participating Teachers Feature Sex

Location

Age

Teaching Year

Type of appointment

Classification Male Female Total Urban Rural Total below 20 years 21-30 years 31-40 years 41-50 years 51-60 years Total 1-5 years 6-10 years 11-15 years 16-20 Years 21-25 years 26-30 years more than 30 years Total Niji Srwot ( Appointed by School â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;s own Resources) Permanent Temporary Rahat (Relief Quota)

Others Total Bahun/Chhetri Ethnicity/Caste Newar Hill Janajati Hill Dalit Terai Bahun/Chhetri Terai Janajati Terai Dalit Other ethnic minorities Total

Frequency

Percent

236 183 419 188 231 419 13 72 136 147 51 419 74 49 94 79 73 29 21 419 32

56.3 43.7 100 44.9 55.1 100 3.1 17.2 32.5 35.1 12.2 100 17.7 11.7 22.4 18.9 17.4 6.9 5 100 7.6

265 92 26

63.2 22 6.2

4 419 176 122 10 2 69

1 100 42 29.1 2.4 0.5 16.5

26 11 3

6.2 2.6 0.7

419

100

212

Home District

School level

Parsa Bhaktapur Sindupalchok Adjoining district Third district Total 1-3 Grade 1-5 Grade 1-8 Grade 1-10 Grade 1-12 Grade Total

125 91 138 26 39 419 11 183 63 109 53 419

29.8 21.7 32.9 6.2 9.3 100 2.6 43.7 15 26 12.6 100

213

R 41-50 5

U 41-50 5

U 51-60 5

U 31-40 8

U 41-50 9

R 41-50

1-5 26 F 30 16F 20 26M 30 21M 25 11M 15 11F 15 26F 30

1 10

U 31-40

U 31-40 1

U 41-50 1

R 41-50

P P

HB NW

20 21

R 21-30

M 1-5 16M 20 21M 25 16F 20

R 21-30

M 1-5 21M 25 11M 15 11F 15

R 21-30

R 51-60

M >30

R 51-60 U 21-30

M >30 F 6-10

R 41-50 1 R 31-40 1 1

BKT BKT

BKT

1-8 1-5 1-5

BKT HJ

1-5 BKT

NW P

1-5 BKT

1-10

MB MB

PRS PRS

PRS

1-5 1-5

1-5 PRS

1-5

1-10 PRS

P T

HB MB

1-5 PRS 1-5

PRS 1-5

PRS

1-5

1-10 P

2 2

1-5

PRS

1 15

1-10 BKT

1 14

1-10

1 11

N BKT BKT

Level of school

District

U 21-30 4

Ethnicity

Appointm ent

U 31-40

1620

Age

Teaching Years

5 2

Gender

1 2

Location

No.

Appendix 7: Personal Profile of Teachers Whose Classes were Observed

PRS 1-5

P P

PRS MB HB

SPC

1-8 1-8

214

62 2 22

U 31-40 2

U 31-40 3

U 41-50 3

U 41-50

16M 20 11F 15 26M 30 16M 20

SPC

1-8 1-8 1-5 P

SPC HB

3 26

R 21-30

M 1-5

3 27

R 21-30

1-5

R 41-50

R 41-50 3

1-3 SPC

3 29

1-10 SPC

3 28

1-8 SPC

R 31-40

6-10 21M 25 11M 15

1-12 SPC

1-5 SPC

1-10

Note: R= Rural ; U= Urban; M= Male; F=Female; T= Temporary; P= Permanent; Ra= Raahat teacher; N= Nijiswrot ; NW= Newar; HJ= Hill Janajati, HB= Hill Bahun/Chhetri; MB= Madeshi Bahun/Chhetri; MD= Madeshi Dalit SPC= Sindhuplachok; PRS= Parsa; BKT= Bhaktapur

215

Appendix 8: Descriptive Analysis and ANOVA of Self-perception of Effectiveness by Age

Age N below 20 13

Mean 3.31

21-30

3.79

31-40 41-50 51-60 Total

137 147 50 419

3.95 4.07 3.96 3.95

Std. Deviation .630 Between Groups .730 Within Groups .679 Total .703 .755 .717

df 4 414 418

F 4.768

216

Appendix 9: Descriptive Statistics of Enabling Factors for CPD Enabling factors for CPD Peaceful school environment Refresher training and teacher support programmes Fair performance and evaluation based on achievements Class observations, model lessons and feedback

F 239 234 CPD 219

% of N= 419) 59.0 57.8 54.1

210

51.9

Regular monitoring and encouragement by the authority Opportunities for sharing good practices Willingness to learn Professional development linked with career path Participation of teachers in decision making process Appropriate school's infrastructure and physical facilities Regularity of CPD Positive social perception towards teachers Passionate to profession Prize and reward Financial benefit Leadership and positive attitude of Head teachers Cooperation and collaboration, respect among colleagues

208 199 171 168 155 144 142 139 138 136 110 100 97

51.4 49.1 42.2 41.5 38.3 35.6 35.1 34.3 34.1 33.6 27.2 24.7 24.0

Coordination between parents and teachers Salary & promotion Family support Politically unbiased school management Supportive SMC and PTA to invest on CPD Distribution of textbooks and curriculum on time Provision of curriculum, textbooks , teachers' guide ( TLMs) Teacher training centres near to the schools Appropriate Time and distance Teachers' teaching experience Regular attendance Teaching programmes on TV and Radio Ethnic learning culture Opportunity for further study Use of ICT and communication (TV, radio, internet etc) Teachers' good health Access to Transport and communication facilities

85 85 82 80 78 67 64 51 38 36 36 35 35 25 23 13 12

21.0 21.0 20.2 19.8 19.3 16.5 15.8 12.6 9.4 8.9 8.9 8.6 8.6 6.2 5.7 3.2 3.0

217

Appendix 10: Enabling Factors for Effective CPD by Type a. Personal 1. Willingness to learn (42.2%)

b. Situational 1. Peaceful School Environment (59%)

2. Passionate and commitment towards the profession (34.1%) 3. Financial benefit (27.2%)

2. Appropriate school's infrastructure and physical facilities (35%)

4. Familyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s support (20.2%)

5. Experience /qualification (8.9%) 6. Regular attendance (8.9%) 7. Ethnic learning culture (8.6%) 8. Teachersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; health (3.2%)

3. Positive social perception towards teachers (34.3%) 4. Leadership and Positive leadership of Head teachers (24.7%) 5. Cooperation and collaboration, respect among colleagues (24%) 6. Access to transport and communication (20.9%) 7. Politically unbiased school management (19.8%) 8. Interaction between teachers and students (20.9%) 9. Supportive School Management Committees (19.3%) 10. Geographical locations of CPD centres near to the schools (12.6%) 11. Appropriate Time and distance (9.4%)

c. CPD approach 1. Refresher training and teacher support programmes (57.8%) 2. Opportunities for sharing good practices (49.1%)

d. Government Policy 1. Fair performance and evaluation based on CPD achievements (54.1%) 2. Class observations, model lessons and feedback on teachers' performance (51.9%)

3. Professional development linked with career path (41.5%) 4. Participation of teachers in decision making process (38.3%) 5. Regularity of CPD (35.1%)

3. Regular monitoring and encouragement by the authority (51.4%)

6. Teaching programmes on TV and Radio (8.6%)

6. Distribution of textbooks and curriculum on time (16.5%)

7. Use of ICT and communication (TV, radio, internet etc) (5.7%)

7. Provision of curriculum, textbooks, teachers' guide (TLMs) (15.8%) 8. Opportunity for further study (6.2%)

4. Prize and Rewards (33.6%)

5. Salary & Promotion (21%)

218

Appendix 11: Hindering Factors of Effective CPD Hindering factors of effective CPD Lack of encouragement from SMC Political interference in education/strikes Unclear government teacher development policy Performance is not linked to promotion or reward Lack of physical facilities Lack of teaching materials Financial factors No feedback and follow up support Poor financial conditions of schools Instable government policy Training does not address real problems Nepotism and discrimination Lack of monitoring and evaluation Corruption Family commitments Parents and Community's negative attitude towards teachers Low salary Lack of communication about CPD programmes Inappropriate time and venue of the training Colleaguesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; ridicule Lack of discipline in the school Remote locations No programme for experienced teachers Insecure job Lack of open/distance learning facilities for teachers High teacher student ratio Language of instruction Teacher absenteeism Age Teacherâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s health

Frequency 233 194 186 178 173 167 159 156 144 139 129 121 117 114 107 100

Percent 57.8% 48.1% 46.2% 44.2% 42.9% 41.4% 39.4% 38.7% 35.7% 34.5% 32.0% 30.0% 29.0% 28.3% 26.5% 24.8%

86 78 77 75 66 62 62 49 41

21.3% 19.4% 19.1% 18.6% 16.4% 15.4% 15.4% 12.2% 10.2%

32 27 14 14 13

7.9% 6.7% 3.5% 3.5% 3.2%

219

Appendix 12: Hindering Factors of Effective CPD by Category Personal 1. Financial factors (39.4%) 2. Family commitments (26.5%) 3. Language of instruction (6.7%) 4. Unhealthy/ illness (3.2%)

Professional 5. Lack of teaching materials (41.4%) 6. No feedback and follow up support (38.7%) 7. Training does not address real problem (32.0%) 8. Lack of open/distance learning facilities for teachers (10.2%) 9. No programme for experienced teachers (15.4%) 10. Inappropriate time and venue of the training (19.1%)

Situational 1. Lack of encouragement from SMC (57.8%) 2. Political interference in education (48.1%) 3. Lack of physical facilities (42.9%) 4. Poor financial conditions of schools (35.7%) 5. Parents and Community's negative attitude towards teachers (24.8%) 6. Colleaguesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; ridicule (18.6%) 7. Lack of discipline in the school (16.4%) 8. Remote locations (15.4%) 9. High teacher student ratio (7.9%) 10. Teacher absenteeism (3.5%) Government policy 1. Unclear government teacher development policy (46.2%) 2. Performance is not linked to promotion or reward (44.2%) 3. Instable government policy (34.5%) 4. Nepotism and discrimination (30.0%) 5. Lack of monitoring and evaluation (29.0%) 6. Corruption (28.3%) 7. Low salary (21.3%) 8. Lack of communication and information (19.4%) 9. Insecure job (12.2%)

220

Appendix 13: Descriptive Analysis and ANOVA of Self-perception of Effectiveness by District

District Parsa

Mean Std. Deviation 152 4.24 671 N

Bhaktapur

105 3.70

.681

Sindupalchok Total

162 3.83 419 3.95

.689 .717

Between Groups Within Groups Total

df 2

F 23.854

Sig. .000

416 418

Appendix 14: Cross Tabulation of Self-Initiated Professional Development by Gender

Self-initiated Professional Development Type Further study Joined Professional teacher organisations Subscription of Professional magazines Bought reference books Watched teacher training programmes on TV Listened to Radio Programmes Studied Self study materials Subscribed library membership Used teaching tips from magazines and books into class Used internet to improve teaching methods Did team teaching with teachers Developed lesson plans and review Used curriculum to plan lessons Attended distance training Updated knowledge from other peer teachers Did discussions and sharing with other teachers Used teachers' guides regularly Invited experts for model class

Male 27.1% 4.2% 16.5%

Female 30.1% 1.6% 11.5%

Total 28.4% 3.1% 14.3%

19.5% 17.4% 44.1% 40.7% 13.6% 57.6%

20.8% 25.7% 41.5% 32.8% 15.8% 57.4%

20.0% 21.0% 43.0% 37.2% 14.6% 57.5%

6.4% 52.5% 64.4% 71.6% 39.4% 80.1% 86.0% 76.7% 22.0%

6.0% 52.5% 64.5% 71.6% 31.1% 74.3% 86.9% 79.2% 21.3%

6.2% 52.5% 64.4% 71.6% 35.8% 77.6% 86.4% 77.8% 21.7%