A Test of a Cognitive Appraisal Model | Pereira and Deemer

et al., 2020) suggesting self­compassion does moderate environmental and intrapsychic variables. It could be that the hypothesis could be supported in a different sample. Specifically, several studies of campus climate tend focus on specific groups of historically minoritized and disadvantaged students (Graham & McClain, 2019; Jensen & Deemer, 2019). Specifically, in these studies, researchers have found that students who do not favorably view university spaces they occupy are likely to feel a lack of belonging and representation, which has shown to increase feelings of impostor features (Burt at al., 2018, Graham & McClain, 2019; McGee et al., 2022). The university where students were recruited from is a predominantly White institution, which is reflected in the mostly White sample collected in this study. Impostor phenomenon has been shown to be influenced by racial discrimination in minoritized groups (Cokley et al., 2013; McGee et al., 2022; Stone et al., 2018). However, this occurrence may not be seen in a majority White sample. Subsequent research should replicate these findings with racial minorities at predominantly White institutions to determine if students from historically minoritized and disadvantaged backgrounds may perceive that they are not taken as seriously by others and what coping mechanisms they employ to prevent impostor phenomenon.

More research is needed to understand the relationship between perceptions of seriousness and selfcompassion. Specifically, it may be beneficial to identify if perceptions of seriousness from certain groups of people (e.g., peers, faculty, support staff) are more or less impactful for students and if there are differences in the moderation effect of self­compassion in these domains.

There are factors which limit the claims made in this study. However, it may be that addressing these limitations opens several directions for future research. First, these data were collected at a large predominantly White institution in a rural midwestern state. Future research should consider if differences in campus sizes, demographics (e.g., Historically Black Colleges and Universities, Hispanic Serving Institutions, women’s colleges), region type (e.g., metropolitan), or type of college (e.g., community college, trade school) affect how students perceive their campuses. It would be unwarranted to assume that these data characterize all students in all contexts. Using different identity groups and college settings could help to understand how perceptions of seriousness, impostor phenomenon, and self­compassion intersect.

Second, the study design was cross­sectional, so inferences cannot be drawn about the changes in the variables over time. Other researchers may consider a longitudinal study to measure the development of these variables over time. Some research has suggested that self­compassion and impostor phenomenon have a developmental process. Self­compassion specifically is suggested to be rooted in early attachment behaviors (Mikulincer et al., 2005; Neff & Beretvas, 2013; Pepping et al., 2015; Wei et al., 2011). A developmental model of impostor phenomenon in African American youth has been created by Bernard and Neblett (2018). They identified factors, such as academic context, parenting variables, and racial discrimination, as contributing to the development of impostor phenomenon in African American youth. Longitudinal research exploring cognitive appraisal and impostor phenomenon should consider the tenets presented in Bernard and Neblett (2018).

Next, these claims were based on mean group values, and cannot account for individual experiences. Further, the data were based off self­reported attitudes, so these data could have been subject to social desirability bias. A portion of the data was removed due to incomplete responses and answering patterns, which reflected nonserious answering techniques (e.g., answering “1” for all items). Relatedly, cases in which the surveys were opened but never started were removed. This meant that much of the data was eliminated before data analysis. Future research should consider using a social desirability scale and validity questions to help determine response seriousness. Lastly, selection bias might have been a contributing factor, wherein people who were more interested in the topic might have been more likely to participate in the study.

Research in impostor phenomenon has largely utilized survey­based research paradigms (Bravata et al., 2020; Stone­Sabali et al., 2023). A qualitative design could provide more nuance to this topic, wherein selfcompassion, impostor phenomenon, and perceptions of seriousness could be better assessed in a small group setting where the researcher(s) could probe for more detail and clarification from the participants’ experiences. Future researchers conducting impostor research should look to past examples of qualitative IP research (Campion & Glover, 2017; Chakraverty, 2019; Harris 2016; Stone et al., 2013) to determine how to include more qualitative methodologies in their work.

Since self­compassion is a skill that can be developed (Smeets et al., 2014), the hypotheses presented in this paper could be better tested in a randomized control trial. Specifically, students could be broken into treatment­waitlist groups to see if the development of selfcompassion may influence impostor phenomenon and if an interaction could be observed between perceptions of seriousness and self­compassion. Future research might employ the Mindful Self­Compassion Program (Neff & Germer, 2013), which is an eight­week workshop to teach participants how to cultivate self­compassion. This could help determine if changes in impostor features and perceptions of campus climate change after learning how to be more self­compassionate. In a randomized control trial with college students, Haukaas et al. (2018) found that the program increased posttreatment selfcompassion scores and reduced posttreatment anxiety and depression scores. The changes were maintained at a six­month follow­up.

In sum, further research is needed to better understand how the environment promotes feelings of impostor phenomenon. Research ought to consider what skills students can cultivate to protect themselves against the negative outcomes of impostor features. This study highlights the continued need for an in­depth understanding of self­compassion, perceptions of seriousness, and the degree to which they work together or independently to influence impostor phenomenon in students.

References

Abdollahi, A., Allen, K. A., & Taheri, A. (2020). Moderating the role of self-compassion in the relationship between perfectionism and depression. Journal of Rational-Emotive & Cognitive-Behavior Therapy, 38(4), 459–471. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10942-020-00346-3

Anjum, M. A., Liang, D., Durrani, D. K., & Parvez , A. (2022). Workplace mistreatment and emotional exhaustion: The interaction effects of selfcompassion. Current Psychology, 41, 1460–1471. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-020-00673-9

Babenko, O., Mosewich, A., Abraham, J., & Lai, H. (2018). Contributions of psychological needs, self-compassion, leisure-time exercise, and achievement goals to academic engagement and exhaustion of Canadian medical students. Journal of Educational Evaluation for Health Professions, 15(2) 2–2. http://dx.doi.org/10.3352/jeehp.2018.15.2

Bernard, D. L., Lige, Q. M., Willis, H. A., Sosoo, E. E., & Neblett, E. W. (2017). Impostor phenomenon and mental health: The influence of racial discrimination and gender. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 64, 155–166. https://doi.org/10.1037/cou0000197

Bernard, D., & Neblett, E. (2018). A culturally informed model of the development of the impostor phenomenon among African American youth. Adolescent Research Review, 3(3), 279–300. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40894-017-0073-0

Bravata, D. M., Watts, S. A., Keefer, A. L., Madhusudhan, D. K., Taylor, K. T., Clark, D. M., Nelson, R. S., Cokley, K. O., & Hagg, H. K. (2020). Prevalence, predictors, and treatment of impostor syndrome: A systematic review. Journal of General Internal Medicine, 35(4), 1252–1275. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11606-019-05364-1

Breines, J. G., & Chen, S. (2012). Self-compassion increases self-improvement motivation. Personality & Social Psychology Bulletin, 38(9), 1133–1143. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167212445599

Burt, B. A., Knight, A., & Robeson, J. (2018). Racializing experiences of foreignborn and ethnically diverse Black male engineering graduate students: Implications for student affairs practice, policy, and research. Journal of International Studies, 7(4), 925–943. https://doi.org/10.5281/zendo.1029487

Campion, M., & Glover, L. (2016). A qualitative exploration of responses to self-compassion in a non-clinical sample. Health & Social Care in the Community, 25(3), 1100–1108. https://doi.org/10.1111/hsc.12408

Clance, P. R., & Imes, S. A. (1978). The imposter phenomenon in high achieving women: Dynamics and therapeutic intervention. Psychotherapy: Theory, Research & Practice, 15(3), 241–247. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0086006

Cokley, K., McClain, S., Enciso, A., & Martinez, M. (2013). An examination of the impact of minority status stress and impostor feelings on the mental health of diverse ethnic minority college students. Journal of Multicultural Counseling and Development 41(2), 82–95. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.2161-1912.2013.00029.x

Ferrari, J. R., & Thompson, T. (2006). Impostor fears: Links with selfpresentational concerns and self-handicapping behaviours. Personality and Individual Differences, 40(2), 341–352.

2023 BY PSI https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2005.07.012

Graham, J., & McClain, S. (2019). A canonical correlational analysis examining the relationship between peer mentorship, belongingness, impostor feelings, and Black collegians’ academic and psychosocial outcomes. American Educational Research Journal, 56(6), 2333–2367. https://doi.org/10.3102/0002831219842571

Harris, J. (2016). Utilizing the walking interview to explore campus climate for students of color. Journal of Student Affairs Research and Practice, 53(4), 365–377. https://doi.org/10.1080/19496591.2016.1194284

Haukaas, R. B., Gjerde, I. B., Varting, G., Hallan, H. E., & Solem, S. (2018). A randomized controlled trial comparing the attention training technique and mindful self-compassion for students with symptoms of depression and anxiety. Frontiers in Psychology, 9, 1–13 https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00827

Henning, K., Ey, S., & Shaw, D. (1998). Perfectionism, the impostor phenomenon and psychological adjustment in medical, dental, nursing and pharmacy students. Medical Education, 32(5), 456–464. http://dx.doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2923.1998.00234.x

Hill, L. (2020). Black women college students, impostor phenomenon, stereotypes, and mental health: A mixed-methods approach (Doctoral dissertation, Loyola University Chicago). https://www.proquest.com/ docview/2446980060/abstract/D43336444C614903PQ/1

Jensen, L. E., & Deemer, E. D. (2019). Identity, campus climate, and burnout among undergraduate women in STEM fields. The Career Development Quarterly, 67(2), 96–109. https://dx.doi.org/10.1002/cdq.12174

Lazarus, R. S., & Folkman, S. (1984). Stress, appraisal, and coping. Springer. Matthews, G., & Clance, P. R. (1985). Treatment of the impostor phenomenon in psychotherapy clients. Psychotherapy in Private Practice, 3(1), 71–81. http://dx.doi.org/10.1300/J294v03n01_09

McGee, E. O., Botchway, P. K., Naphan-Kingery, D. E., Brockman, A. J., Houston, S., & White, D. T. (2022). Racism camouflaged as impostorism and the impact on Black STEM doctoral students. Race, Ethnicity and Education, 25(4), 487–507. https://doi.org/10.1080/13613324.2021.1924137

Mikulincer, M., Shaver, P. R., Gillath, O., & Nitzberg, R. A. (2005). Attachment, caregiving, and altruism: Boosting attachment security increases compassion and helping. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 89(5), 817–839. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.89.5.817

Morris, L. K., & Daniel, L. G. (2008). Perceptions of a chilly climate: Differences in traditional and non-traditional majors for women. Research in Higher Education, 49, 256–273. http://dx.doi.org/10.1300/J294v03n01_09

Neff, K. D. (2003). The development and validation of a scale to measure selfcompassion. Self and Identity, 2(3), 223–250. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/15298860309027

Neff, K. D., & Beretvas, S. N. (2013). The role of self-compassion in romantic relationships. Self and Identity, 12(1), 78–98. https://doi.org/10.1080/15298868.2011.639548

Neff, K. D., & Germer, C. K. (2013). A pilot study and randomized controlled trial of the mindful self-compassion program. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 69(1), 28–44. https://doi.org/10.1002/jclp.21923

Neff, K. D. (2011). Self‐compassion, self‐esteem, and well‐being. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 5(1), 1–12. https://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1751-9004.2010.00330.x

Neff, K. D., Hsieh, Y. P., & Dejitterat, K. (2005). Self-compassion, achievement goals, and coping with academic failure. Self and Identity, 4(3), 263–287. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13576500444000317

Patzak, A., Kollmayer, M., & Schober, B. (2017). Buffering impostor feelings with kindness: The mediating role of self-compassion between gender-role orientation and the impostor phenomenon. Frontiers in Psychology, 8(1289), 1–12. https://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01289

Pepping, C. A., Davis, P. J., O’Donovan, A., & Pal, J. (2015). Individual differences in self-compassion: The role of attachment and experiences of parenting in childhood. Self and Identity, 14(1), 104–117, https://doi.org/10.1080/15298868.2014.955050

Puckett, H., & Lewis, T. (2022). Do I really belong here?: EdD student perceptions of a poster gallery walk to mitigate imposter syndrome and match with a dissertation chair. International Journal of Educational Leadership Preparation, 17(1), 101–116. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ1345893

Pulliam, N., & Gonzalez, C. E. (2018). Success or fraud? Exploring the impacts of the impostor phenomenon among high achieving racial/ethnic minority and first-generation college students. Journal of Access, Retention & Inclusion, 1(1) 33–45. https://digitalcommons.wcupa.edu/jarihe/vol1/iss1/4/

199