Research Methods
Lesson 9
Introduction to Observational Methods Methods & Techniques Produced by
Key Terms Observer Bias: • This is when an observer makes their own particular interpretation of the behaviour they observe. This is subjectivity opposed to objectivity. Participant Observation: • Requires the researcher to actually join the group or take part in the situation they are studying.
Non-participant Observation: • Based on observations made from a distance or from ‘outside’ the group or situation being studied. Undisclosed Observation: • An observation in which the participants are not aware that they are being observed. This is also known as covert observation. Disclosed Observation: • Here participants are aware they are being observed. This is also known as overt observation.
Structured Observation: • Before the research begins the researcher determines precisely what behaviours are to be observed and will use a standardised checklist to record the frequency of those behaviours observed with a specified time period. Unstructured Observation: • The researcher uses direct observation to record the behaviours as they occur, there is no predetermined plan about what will be observed.
Observation Schedule: • Usually a structured form or grid that is completed in line with the researcher’s instructions or guidance by an observer. Inter-observer Reliability: • The extent to which the data collection tool used by a group of observers produce similar data.
Introduction: • Humans are constantly observing the behaviours of other people. However, these everyday observations are very different from those in psychology investigations. • Firstly, the observations in a scientific study will focus precisely on a particular event or behaviour. • Secondly, these observations would be part of a research plan that would have clear operational definitions of the behaviours being observed and a hypothesis would have been formulated to guide the research.
• When a psychology researcher decides to use observational methods to obtain research data, they will produce detailed guidelines for the people who carry out the observations. • An objective system for both observing and recording behaviours or events must be created before the research begins. • The validity of the data produced by observational methods heavily relies on the objectivity of the observers. Therefore steps need to be taken to avoid any forms of observer bias that could affect the observation.
Types of Observations
Naturalistic
Controlled
Types of Observations Naturalistic Observations: • Naturalistic observation involves the researcher observing naturally occurring behaviour. • The IV is not manipulated in anyway. Naturalistic observations can be used in Quasi or natural experiments. • One of the strengths of this approach is that it offers an alternative to artificiality of the laboratory and produces high ecological validity.
Controlled Observations: • A controlled observation is one where the researcher attempts to control certain variables. • Control of the environment can be achieved by carrying out an observation in a laboratory. • There are numerous investigations, for example in developmental psychology where children are observed in laboratory settings to observe a certain behaviour while there is control over other extraneous variables.
Types of Observations
Naturalistic
Controlled
Three Dimensions Participant
Non-participant
Disclosed
Undisclosed
Structured
Unstructured
• The dimensions of structured versus unstructured refers to how data is collected in research. • In a structured observation the data would be gathered using a pre-written data collection grid and would mainly be quantitative (numerical), see attached Appendix 1. • In an unstructured observation it is likely that the data would be gathered in a more ad-hoc (unplanned) way with the researcher noting what they believed were important behaviours or events as they occurred.
Improving Reliability of Observational Studies • Use of single blind techniques: where the person completing the research should be unaware of the hypothesis. • Clear definition of terms and concepts so that there is no ambiguity about a term (example: -kicking – pushing – shoving). • A pilot study enables the observers to practice the use of the observation schedule, to check the appropriateness of the category definitions and to check whether all observers are categorising the behaviour in the same way.
• As a result unstructured observations are more likely to produce qualitative data that is more impressionistic and descriptive rather than numerical. • The biggest problem with observations is observation bias. By this we mean events will be interpreted from a researchers perspective and this would be subjective opposed to being objective. • By subjective we mean others observing the same event may well interpret the event differently according to their understanding and experience.
• Ensure that the observation is completed by more than one observer and compare their recordings. • If quantitative data has been gathered then interobserver reliability can be measured. This is measured using correlational techniques. • If the observations are reliable (consistent) then we would expect a positive correlation between scores.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Observations • See attached Appendix 2 for this topic. • You need to know the observation type as well as two advantages and two disadvantages.
Key Points • A naturalistic observation is a type of observation where the researcher observes behaviour in the participants own environment. • A controlled observation is where the researcher exercises control over the environment. • A participant observation is one where the observer takes part. • A non-participant based observation is one where the observer does not take part or play a role in the group observed.
• A structured observation is one where there is a clear framework for data gathering. For example, a data collecting grid may be used. • Inter observer reliability can be measured using correlational techniques. It refers to the extent to which the observations completed by two observers are consistent.
Examiner’s Tip • You may be asked to identify two factors that could affect the validity of an observation. The answer is best answered by focussing on any extraneous variables that could affect the research. • One of the main threats to observational psychology is observer bias – remember you need to explain what this means. • Validity may also be affected by the sample being studied. If the sample is unrepresentative of the larger population then this is a threat to the population validity of the research.
• If a question is asked on how to improve the reliability of observational research the easiest way of answering the question is to focus on reducing observer bias and by suggesting ways in which this could be done. • You need to know and be able to explain at least two advantages and disadvantages of observational research (this is for all the observation types).